Handbook of Research on Effective Electronic Gaming in Education Set of 3

Handbook of Research on Effective Electronic Gaming in Education Richard E. Ferdig University of Florida, USA

Volume I

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Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200 Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.igi-global.com and in the United Kingdom by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 3 Henrietta Street Covent Garden London WC2E 8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Web site: http://www.eurospanbookstore.com Copyright © 2009 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Handbook of research on effective electronic gaming in education / Richard E. Ferdig, editor. p. cm. Summary: "This book presents a framework for understanding games for educational purposes while providing a broader sense of current related research. This creative and advanced title is a must-have for those interested in expanding their knowledge of this exciting field of electronic gaming"--Provided by publisher. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-59904-808-6 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-59904-811-6 (e-book) 1. Simulation games in education--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Electronic games--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Ferdig, Richard E. (Richard Eugene) LB1029.S53H36 2008 371.39'7--dc22 2007052787

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Editorial Advisory Board

Clark Aldrich SimuLearn, USA Sasha A. Barab Indiana University, USA Sara de Freitas University of Coventry, UK David Gibson CurveShift, Inc., USA Nichole Pinkard University of Chicago, USA Katie Salen Parsons The New School for Design, USA David Shaffer University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA Kurt Squire University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA Constance Steinkuehler University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA Richard VanEck University of North Dakota, USA

Dedication

To Owen Christian Ferdig

List of Contributors

Aldrich, Clark / SimuLearn, USA.................................................................................................................1333 Anderson, Craig A. / Iowa State University, USA...........................................................................................876 Ang, Chee Siang / City University, UK.........................................................................................................1372 Asgari, Mahboubeh / Simon Fraser University, Canada............................................................................. 1166 Baek, Youngkyun / Korea National University of Education, Republic of Korea........................................1025 Barab, Sasha A. / Indiana University School of Education, USA...................................................................989 Beck, Dennis / Digital Worlds Institute, University of Florida, USA..............................................................146 Becker, Katrin / University of Calgary, Canada.............................................................................................636 Belanich, James / U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, USA...................1088 BinSubaih, Ahmed / University of Sheffield, UK............................................................................................451 Black, Erik W. / University of Florida, USA...................................................................................................606 Bowers, Clint / University of Central Florida, USA........................................................................................702 Breiter, Andreas / Institute for Information Management, University of Bremen, Germany..........................163 Buraphadeja, Vasa / University of Florida, USA............................................................................................862 Cannon-Bowers, Jan / University of Central Florida, USA...........................................................................702 Carr, Diane / University of London, UK.......................................................................................................... 911 Cavanaugh, Cathy / University of Florida, USA..............................................................................................83 Champion, Erik Malcolm / Auckland School of Design, Massey University, New Zealand.........................219 Chechetka, Anton / Carnegie Mellon University, USA.................................................................................1777 Chee, Yam San / Nanyang Technological University, Singapore....................................................................808 Chu, Sauman / University of Minnesota, USA................................................................................................478 Code, Jillianne / Simon Fraser University, Canada........................................................................................738 Cole, Richard T. / Michigan State University, USA........................................................................................358 Davis, Joan M. / The University of Washington, USA...................................................................................1234 Dawson, Kara / University of Florida, USA....................................................................................................862 de Byl, Penny / University of Southern Queensland, Australia.....................................................................1068 de Freitas, Sara / University of Coventry, UK...................................................................................................51 DeMaria, Rusel / DeMaria Studio, USA.......................................................................................................1303 Devlin-Scherer, Roberta / Seton Hall University, USA................................................................................1427 DiPietro, Joseph C. / University of Florida, USA...........................................................................................606 DiPietro, Meredith / University of Florida, USA............................................................................................776 Dondlinger, Mary Jo / University of North Texas, USA................................................................................ 1183 Dubbels, Brock / University of Minnesota, USA.............................................................................................251

Durga, Shree / University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA................................................................................200 Edgerton, Erin / Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA..............................................................370 Evans, Michael A. / Virginia Tech, USA............................................................................................................96 Fanning, Elizabeth / The University of Virginia, USA..................................................................................1390 Feldmesser, Kim / University of Brighton, UK...............................................................................................422 Felicia, Patrick / University College Cork, Ireland.........................................................................................893 Ferry, Brian / University of Wollongong, Australia........................................................................................315 Fishwick, Paul A. / University of Florida, USA..............................................................................................546 Foster, Aroutis N. / Michigan State University, USA........................................................................................33 Friedman, Adam / Wake Forest University, USA............................................................................................235 Fromme, Johannes / University of Magdeburg, Germany..............................................................................757 Gaither, Diane L. / Southwest Research Institute, USA..................................................................................277 Galarneau, Lisa / University of Waikato, New Zealand................................................................................1400 Garcia-Murillo, Martha / Syracuse University, USA.....................................................................................489 Gazit, Elhanan / H.I.T.-Holon Institute of Technology, Israel........................................................................127 Gentile, Douglas A. / Iowa State University, USA...........................................................................................876 Gibson, David / CurveShift, Inc., USA............................................................................................................702 Grant, Michael M. / The University of Memphis, USA.................................................................................1234 Griffiths, Mark / Nottingham Trent University, UK..........................................................................................51 Harms, Chad M. / Iowa State University, USA.............................................................................................1318 Hartshorne, Richard / University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA.......................................................235 Heeter, Carrie / Michigan State University, USA............................................................................................826 Hobbs, Renee / Temple University, USA........................................................................................................1440 Horn, Daniel B. / U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, USA....................1088 Huang, Wenhao David / University of Illinois, USA.................................................................................... 1143 Ingram-Goble, Adam / Center for Research on Learning and Technology, USA..........................................989 James, Christopher L. / Russellville City Schools, USA................................................................................295 Jegers, Kalle / Umeå University, Sweden......................................................................................................1449 Johnson, Tristan / Florida State University, USA......................................................................................... 1143 Jones, Robert / New York University, USA......................................................................................................970 Jörissen, Benjamin / University of Magdeburg, Germany..............................................................................757 Kalyuga, Slava / University of New South Wales, Australia...........................................................................719 Kaplan Akilli, Göknur / Pennsylvania State University, USA......................................................................1354 Kaufman, David / Simon Fraser University, Canada................................................................................... 1166 Ke, Fengfeng / University of New Mexico, USA..................................................................................................1 Kervin, Lisa / University of Wollongong, Australia........................................................................................315 Kilic, Eylem / Middle East Technical University, Turkey................................................................................331 Kolo, Castulus / Macromedia University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany.........................................163 Lai, Chun / Michigan State University, USA...................................................................................................402 Lawless, Kimberly A. / University of Illinois, Chicago, USA.........................................................................791 Leonard, David J. / Washington State University, USA..................................................................................938 Lewis, Melissa L. / Michigan State University, USA.......................................................................................593 Lim, Kenneth Yang Teck / Nanyang Technological University, Singapore...................................................808 Liu, Ming / Michigan State University, USA...................................................................................................388 Luckhardt Redfield, Carol / St. Mary’s University, USA...............................................................................277 Ma, Yuxin / University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA....................................................................... 1127, 1218 MacInnes, Ian / Syracuse University, USA......................................................................................................489 Maddock, Steve / University of Sheffield, UK.................................................................................................451 Madill, Leanna / University of Victoria, Canada..................................................................................345, 1257

Magerko, Brian / Georgia Institute of Technology, USA..............................................................................1274 Martinelli, Joseph / Seton Hall University, USA...........................................................................................1427 Martinson, Barbara / University of Minnesota, USA.....................................................................................478 Matzko, Michael J. / Independent Consultant, USA.....................................................................................1234 McCreery, Michael / University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA.........................................................................791 Mishra, Punya / Michigan State University, USA.............................................................................................33 Moline, Teddy / University of Alberta, Canada...............................................................................................652 Mou, Yi / Cambridge, MA, USA.......................................................................................................................922 Notargiacomo Mustaro, Pollyana / Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil....................................525 Oliver, Martin / London Knowledge Lab, Institute of Education, UK............................................................847 Oliverio, James / Digital Worlds Institute, University of Florida, USA..........................................................146 Orvis, Karin A. / Old Dominion University, USA.........................................................................................1088 Papargyris, Anthony / Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece...........................................1204 Parisi, David / New York University, USA....................................................................................................... 111 Park, Yuna A. / University of Florida, USA....................................................................................................546 Parker, James R. / University of Calgary, Canada.........................................................................................636 Payne, Matthew Thomas / University of Texas at Austin, USA......................................................................621 Pelletier, Caroline / University of London, UK............................................................................................... 911 Peng, Wei / Michigan State University, USA...........................................................................................388, 922 Pitt, Ian / University College Cork, Ireland.....................................................................................................893 Plass, Jan L. / New York University, USA........................................................................................................719 Prejean, Louise / University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA.............................................................. 1127, 1219 Qian, Yufeng / St. Thomas University, USA.......................................................................................................67 Qiu, Wei / Michigan State University, USA...................................................................................................1041 Quilliam, Elizabeth Taylor / Michigan State University, USA.......................................................................358 Redfield, Neil M. / John Jay Science and Engineering Academy, USA...........................................................277 Reese, Debbie Denise / Center for Educational Technologies®, Wheeling Jesuit University, USA............. 1104 Richard, Charles / University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA........................................................... 1127, 1219 Rieber, Lloyd P. / The University of Georgia, Athens, USA..........................................................................1234 Romano, Daniela / University of Sheffield, UK...............................................................................................451 Rowe, Jonelle / Department of Health and Human Services, USA...............................................................1440 Sanford, Kathy / University of Victoria, Canada..................................................................................345, 1257 Sardone, Nancy B. / Seton Hall University, USA..........................................................................................1427 Scerri, Paul / Carnegie Mellon University, USA...........................................................................................1477 Schrader, P. G. / University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA................................................................................791 Schrier, Karen / MIT, USA............................................................................................................................1460 Silva, Luciano / Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil.....................................................................525 Silveira, Ismar Frango / Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil......................................................525 Smith, Peter A. / University of Central Florida, USA.....................................................................................702 Solberg, Jennifer L. / U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, USA.............1088 Squire, Kurt / University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA......................................................................200, 1289 Swain, Colleen / University of Florida, USA...................................................................................................956 Swing, Edward L. / Iowa State University, USA.............................................................................................876 Sycara, Katia / Carnegie Mellon University, USA........................................................................................1477 Taylor, Laurie N. / University of Florida, USA.............................................................................................1057 Unger, Alexander / University of Magdeburg, Germany................................................................................757 Van Eck, Richard / University of North Dakota, USA....................................................................................179 van Ryneveld, Linda / Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa.......................................................560 VanFossen, Phillip J. / Purdue University, USA.............................................................................................235

Warren, Scott J. / University of North Texas, USA....................................................................................... 1183 Weber, René / University of California Santa Barbara, USA.........................................................................593 Wiberg, Charlotte / Umeå University, Sweden.............................................................................................1449 Williams, Douglas / University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA......................................................... 1127, 1218 Williamson Shaffer, David / University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA.........................................................577 Winn, Brian M. / Michigan State University, USA.......................................................................................1010 Wright, Vivian H. / University of Alabama, USA...........................................................................................295 Xu, Chong-wei / Kennesaw State University, USA..........................................................................................508 Yildirim, Zahide / Middle East Technical University, Turkey.........................................................................331 Zaharias, Panagiotis / University of the Aegean, Greece & Athens University of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece...........................................................................................................................1204 Zap, Nick / Simon Fraser University, Canada................................................................................................738 Zaphiris, Panayiotis / City University, UK...................................................................................................1372 Zhao, Yong / Michigan State University, USA.......................................................................................402, 1041 Zibit, Melanie / Boston College, USA...........................................................................................................1400

Table of Contents

Foreword............................................................................................................................................xlvii Preface . ............................................................................................................................................ xlvix Volume I Section I A Review of Research on Educational Gaming

Chapter I A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools ................................................... 1 Fengfeng Ke, University of New Mexico, USA Chapter II Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning ................................................................................................. 33 Aroutis N. Foster, Michigan State University, USA Punya Mishra, Michigan State University, USA Chapter III Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Play Games for Learning ............................................................ 51 Sara de Freitas, University of Coventry, UK Mark Griffiths, Nottingham Trent University, UK Chapter IV An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games ...................................................................... 67 Yufeng Qian, St. Thomas University, USA Chapter V Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning......................................................... 83 Cathy Cavanaugh, University of Florida, USA Chapter VI Mobility, Games, and Education . ......................................................................................................... 96 Michael A. Evans, Virginia Tech, USA

Chapter VII Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques................................................................................................ 111 David Parisi, New York University, USA Chapter VIII A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings ............................................................ 127 Elhanan Gazit, H.I.T.-Holon Institute of Technology, Israel Chapter IX Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments......................................................................... 146 James Oliverio, Digital Worlds Institute, University of Florida, USA Dennis Beck, Digital Worlds Institute, University of Florida, USA Chapter X Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education............................................................... 163 Andreas Breiter, Institute for Information Management, University of Bremen, Germany Castulus Kolo, Macromedia University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany Section II Educational Gaming in K-12 or Teacher Education Contexts Chapter XI A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom ............................................................... 179 Richard Van Eck, University of North Dakota, USA Chapter XII Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play...................................................... 200 Shree Durga, University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA Kurt Squire, University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA Chapter XIII Game-Based Historical Learning . ...................................................................................................... 219 Erik Malcolm Champion, Auckland School of Design, Massey University, New Zealand Chapter XIV The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education......................................................................... 235 Phillip J. VanFossen, Purdue University, USA Adam Friedman, Wake Forest University, USA Richard Hartshorne, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA Chapter XV Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension . ............................................................... 251 Brock Dubbles, University of Minnesota, USA

Chapter XVI COTS Computer Game Effectiveness................................................................................................. 277 Carol Luckhardt Redfield, St. Mary’s University, USA Diane L. Gaither, Southwest Research Institute, USA Neil M. Redfield, John Jay Science and Engineering Academy, USA Chapter XVII Teacher Gamers vs. Teacher Non-Gamers........................................................................................... 295 Christopher L. James, Russellville City Schools, USA Vivan H. Wright, University of Alabama, USA Chapter XVIII Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment............................ 315 Brian Ferry, University of Wollongong, Australia Lisa Kervin, University of Wollongong, Australia Chapter XIX Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers................................................. 331 Zahide Yildirim, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Eylem Kilic, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Chapter XX Adolescents Teaching Video-Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?............................................ 345 Kathy Sanford, University of Victoria, Canada Leanna Madill, University of Victoria, Canada Section III Educational Gaming in Other Learning Contexts Chapter XXI Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children ................................................................. 358 Richard T. Cole, Michigan State University, USA Elizabeth Taylor Quilliam, Michigan State University, USA Chapter XXII Changing Health Behavior Through Games . ..................................................................................... 370 Erin Edgerton, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA Chapter XXIII An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes . ........................................................ 388 Wei Peng, Michigan State University, USA Ming Liu, Michigan State University, USA

Chapter XXIV MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education.................................................................................... 402 Yong Zhao, Michigan State University, USA Chun Lai, Michigan State University, USA Chapter XXV A Videogame, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language............................................ 422 Kim Feldmesser, University of Brighton, UK Chapter XXVI Developing a Serious Game for Police Training................................................................................. 451 Ahmed BinSubaih, University of Sheffield, UK Steve Maddock, University of Sheffield, UK Daniela Romano, University of Sheffield, UK Chapter XXVII Game-Based Learning in Design History............................................................................................ 478 Barbara Martinson, University of Minnesota, USA Sauman Chu, University of Minnesota, USA Volume II Chapter XXVIII A Policy Game in a Virtual World....................................................................................................... 489 Martha Garcia-Murillo, Syracuse University, USA Ian MacInnes, Syracuse University, USA Chapter XXIX Teaching OOP and COP Technologies via Gaming............................................................................. 508 Chong-wei Xu, Kennesaw State University, USA Chapter XXX Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics........................................................ 525 Pollyana Notargiacomo Mustaro, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Luciano Silva, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Ismar Frango Silveira, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Chapter XXXI A 3D Environment for Exploring Algebraic Structure and Behavior.................................................. 546 Paul A. Fishwick, University of Florida, USA Yuna A. Park, University of Florida, USA

Chapter XXXII Surviving the Game............................................................................................................................. 560 Linda van Ryneveld, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Section IV Educational Gaming Research Tools and Methods Chapter XXXIII Wag the Kennel: Games, Frames, and the Problem of Assessment.................................................... 577 David William Shaffer, University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA Chapter XXXIV Character Attachment in Games as Moderator for Learning .............................................................. 593 Melissa L. Lewis, Michigan State University, USA René Weber, University of California Santa Barbara, USA Chapter XXXV Visual Analysis of Avatars in Gaming Environments.......................................................................... 606 Joseph C. DiPietro, University of Florida, USA Erik W. Black, University of Florida, USA Chapter XXXVI Interpreting Game-Play Through Existential Ludology...................................................................... 621 Matthew Thomas Payne, University of Texas at Austin, USA Chapter XXXVII On Choosing Games and What Counts as a “Good” Game................................................................ 636 Katrin Becker, University of Calgary, Canada James R. Parker, University of Calgary, Canada Chapter XXXVIII Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games............................................................... 652 Teddy Moline, University of Alberta, Canada Section V The Psychological Impact of Educational Gaming (Part 1): Cognition, Learning, Play, and Identity Chapter XXXIX Designing a Computational Model of Learning.................................................................................. 671 David Gibson, CurveShift, Inc., USA

Chapter XL Social Psychology and Massively Multiplayer Online Learning Games ........................................... 702 Clint Bowers, University of Central Florida, USA Peter A. Smith, University of Central Florida, USA Jan Cannon-Bowers, University of Central Florida, USA Chapter XLI Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games.......................................................................... 719 Slava Kalyuga, University of New South Wales, Australia Jan L. Plass, New York University, USA Chapter XLII Self-Regulated Learning in Video Game Environments...................................................................... 738 Nick Zap, Simon Fraser University, Canada Jillianne Code, Simon Fraser University, Canada Chapter XLIII (Self-) Educational Effects of Computer Gaming Cultures ................................................................ 757 Johannes Fromme, University of Magdeburg, Germany Benjamin Jörissen, University of Magdeburg, Germany Alexander Unger, University of Magdeburg, Germany Chapter XLIV Experience, Cognition and video Game Play ..................................................................................... 776 Meredith DiPietro, University of Florida, USA Chapter XLV Intertextuality in Massively Multi-Player Online Games . ................................................................. 791 P. G. Schrader, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA Kimberly A. Lawless, University of Illinois, Chicago, USA Michael McCreery, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA Chapter XLVI Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning............................................................................. 808 Yam San Chee, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Kenneth Y. T. Lim, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Chapter XLVII Play Styles and Learning..................................................................................................................... 826 Carrie Heeter, Michigan State University, USA

Chapter XLVIII Playing Roles in the MMORPG Kingdom of Loathing...................................................................... 847 Martin Oliver, London Knowledge Lab, Institute of Education, UK Chapter XLIX Exploring Personal Myths from The Sims ......................................................................................... 862 Vasa Buraphadeja, University of Florida, USA Kara Dawson, University of Florida, USA Section VI The Psychological Impact of Educational Gaming (Part 2): Violence, Emotion, Race, Gender, and Culture Chapter L Learning Processes and Violent Video Games ................................................................................... 876 Edward L. Swing, Iowa State University, USA Douglas A. Gentile, Iowa State University, USA Craig A. Anderson, Iowa State University, USA . Chapter LI Harnessing the Emotional Potential of Video Games.......................................................................... 893 Patrick Felicia, University College Cork, Ireland Ian Pitt, University College Cork, Ireland . Chapter LII Gamers, Gender, and Representation................................................................................................... 911 Diane Carr, University of London, UK Caroline Pelletier, University of London, UK . Chapter LIII Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games.................................................................... 922 Yi Mou, Cambridge, MA, USA Wei Peng, Michigan State University, USA . Chapter LIV Can the Subaltern Play and Speak or Just be Played With?................................................................ 938 David J. Leonard, Washington State University, USA . Chapter LV Culturally Responsive Games and Simulations................................................................................... 956 Colleen Swain, University of Florida, USA . Chapter LVI Saving Worlds with Video Game Activism ........................................................................................ 970 Robert Jones, New York University, USA

Volume III Section VII Educational Game Design

. Chapter LVII Conceptual Play Spaces....................................................................................................................... 989 Sasha A. Barab, Indiana University School of Education, USA Adam Ingram-Goble, Center for Research on Learning and Technology, USA Scott Warren, University of North Texas, USA . Chapter LVIII The Design, Play, and Experience Framework.................................................................................. 1010 Brian M. Winn, Michigan State University, USA . Chapter LIX Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games ............................................. 1025 Youngkyun Baek, Korea National University of Education, Republic of Korea . Chapter LX Game Design as a Compelling Experience........................................................................................ 1041 Wei Qiu, Michigan State University, USA Yong Zhao, Michigan State University, USA . Chapter LXI Gaming Ethics, Rules, Etiquette, and Learning................................................................................. 1057 Laurie N. Taylor, University of Florida, USA . Chapter LXII Designing Games-Based Embedded Authentic Learning Experiences............................................. 1068 Penny de Byl, University of Southern Queensland, Australia . Chapter LXIII Bridging Game Development and Instructional Design.................................................................... 1088 James Belanich, U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, USA Karin A. Orvis, Old Dominion University, USA Daniel B. Horn, U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, USA Jennifer L. Solberg, U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, USA .

Chapter LXIV GaME Design for Intuitive Concept Knowledge............................................................................... 1104 Debbie Denise Resse, Center for Educational Technologies®, Wheeling Jesuit University, USA . Chapter LXV Leveraging the Affordances of an Electronic Game to Meet Instructional Goals............................. 1127 Yuxin Ma, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Douglas Williams, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Charles Richard, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Louise Prejean, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Chapter LXVI Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory............................................................... 1143 Wenhao David Huang, University of Illinois, USA Tristan Johnson, Florida State University, USA Chapter LXVII Motivation, Learning, and Game Design........................................................................................... 1166 Mahboubeh Asgari, Simon Fraser University, Canada David Kaufman, Simon Fraser University, Canada Chapter LXVIII Designing Games for Learning.......................................................................................................... 1183 Scott J. Warren, University of North Texas, USA Mary Jo Dondlinger, University of North Texas, USA Chapter LXIX Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design.................................................. 1204 Panagiotis Zaharias, University of the Aegean, Greece & Athens University of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece Anthony Papargyris, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece Chapter LXX Narrative Development and Instructional Design.............................................................................. 1218 Douglas Williams, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Yuxin Ma, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Charles Richard, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Louise Prejean, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA

Chapter LXXI Children as Critics of Educational Computer Games Designed by Other Children.......................... 1234 Lloyd P. Rieber, The University of Georgia, USA Joan M. Davis, The University of Washington, USA Michael J. Matzko, Independent Consultant, USA Michael M. Grant, The University of Memphis, USA Chapter LXXII Video-Game Creation as a Learning Experience for Teachers and Students.................................... 1257 Leanna Madill, University of Victoria, Canada Kathy Sanford, University of Victoria, Canada Section VIII The Future of Educational Gaming Chapter LXXIII The Future of Digital Game-Based Learning ................................................................................... 1274 Brian Magerko, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA Chapter LXXIV Artists in the Medium ....................................................................................................................... 1289 Kurt Squire, University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA Chapter LXXV The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games........................................................................... 1303 Rusel DeMaria, DeMaria Studio, USA Chapter LXXVI Education and Exploitation Off the Virtual Train to Oregon............................................................. 1318 Chad M. Harms, Iowa State University, USA Section IX Appendix: Glossary of Terms Appendix A An Overview of Gaming Terminology: Chapters I-LXXVI.............................................................. 1333 Clark Aldrich, SimuLearn, USA Joseph C. DiPietro, University of Florida, USA

Section X Appendix: Selected Readings Appendix B, Selected Readings Games and Simulations: A New Approach in Education?................................................................ 1354 Göknur Kaplan Akilli, Pennsylvania State University, USA Appendix C, Selected Readings Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools: A Computer Game Paradigm.................................................................................................................................. 1372 Chee Siang Ang, City University, UK Panayiotis Zaphiris, City University, UK Appendix D, Selected Readings Game Mods: Customizable Learning in a K16 Setting..................................................................... 1390 Elizabeth Fanning, The University of Virginia, USA Appendix E, Selected Readings Online Games for 21st Century Skills................................................................................................. 1400 Lisa Galarneau, University of Waikato, New Zealand Melanie Zibit, Boston College, USA Appendix F, Selected Readings Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom.............................................................................. 1427 Nancy Sardone, Seton Hall University, USA Roberta Devlin-Scherer, Seton Hall University, USA Joseph Martinelli, Seton Hall University, USA Appendix G, Selected Readings Creative Remixing and Digital Learning: Developing an Online Media Literacy Learning Tool for Girls...................................................................................................................... 1440 Renee Hobbs, Temple University, USA Jonelle Rowe, Department of Health and Human Services, USA Appendix H, Selected Readings Learning While Playing: Design Implications for Edutainment Games.......................................... 1449 Kalle Jegers, Umeå University, Sweden Carlotte Wiberg, Umeå University, Sweden

Appendix I, Selected Readings Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”: Designing Augmented Reality Games to Teach the Critical Thinking of History ............................................................................. 1460 Karen Schrier, MIT, USA Appendix J, Selected Readings Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games . ............................................ 1477 Katia Sycara, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Paul Scerri, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Anton Chechetka, Carnegie Mellon University, USA

Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword............................................................................................................................................xlvii Preface . ............................................................................................................................................ xlvix Volume I Section I A Review of Research on Educational Gaming Chapter I A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools ................................................... 1 Fengfeng Ke, University of New Mexico, USA Drawing on the grounded theory approach and a qualitative meta-analysis, this chapter systematically reviews and synthesizes the theories, methods, and findings of both qualitative and quantitative inquiries on computer-based instructional games. A major purpose of this literature review and metaanalysis is to inform policy and practice based on existing studies. Four major recurring themes concerning the effectiveness of computer-based instructional games emerged from a comparative analysis of 89 instructional gaming studies and are discussed with the support of exemplar research.. Chapter II Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning ................................................................................................. 33 Aroutis N. Foster, Michigan State University, USA Punya Mishra, Michigan State University, USA The authors offer a framework for conducting research on games for learning. Building on a survey of the literature on games, they suggest a categorization scheme (physiological and psychological) of the range of claims made for games. They also argue that assessment on learning from games needs to consider the specific claims of games, as they interact with genre and content knowledge. The chapter includes an introduction to an ongoing study that utilizes this approach.. Chapter III Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Play Games for Learning ............................................................ 51 Sara de Freitas, University of Coventry, UK Mark Griffiths, Nottingham Trent University, UK

This chapter explores whether massively multi-player online role-play games (MMORPGs) can be used effectively to support learning and training communities. The chapter proposes that cross-disciplinary approaches to the study of game-based learning are needed to support better synthesis of our current understanding of the effectiveness of learning with games. This chapter indicates future directions for cross-disciplinary research approaches in this field and considers how collaborative learning could best be supported through this approach. Chapter IV An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games ...................................................................... 67 Yufeng Qian, St. Thomas University, USA To reflect the preferences and meet the needs of this generation of learners, myriad of online games for educational purposes are made available—the sheer number of existing educational games is overwhelming. The purpose of this chapter was to investigate the current state of educational games on the Internet targeting K-12 learners in the United States. Major game providers and salient design features were identified, and future directions of game development for educational purposes were discussed.. Chapter V Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning......................................................... 83 Cathy Cavanaugh, University of Florida, USA Educational game developers design augmented reality games (AR) to maximize transfer of learning through close approximation of the game-scaffolded skills and the game environment to real skills and contexts. The games immerse players in electronic and actual learning situations using features that make them effective learning experiences for fostering meaningful learning. This chapter provides evidence of the strengths and areas for continued development in the application of augmented reality games for childhood and adult learning in formal and informal settings.. Chapter VI Mobility, Games, and Education . ......................................................................................................... 96 Michael A. Evans, Virginia Tech, USA This chapter proposes that the convergence of mobile devices and digital game-based learning may have profound implications for educational transformation. Key issues to be addressed in the chapter are these: (1) the pervasiveness of mobile and shared technologies; (2) contemporary accounts of learning theory in terms of mobility; (3) unique qualities of mobile learning and technologies; (4) successful applications for mobile learning; and (5) implications for future research and practice. It is critical to examine trends in mobile technology and digital game adoption and use to develop creative strategies and applications, and effective policies that lead to innovative instructional and learning environments.. Chapter VII Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques................................................................................................ 111 David Parisi, New York University, USA This chapter discusses the way that new video game interfaces are being used to invoke the whole body as a participant in the game text. As such, new video games involve more than cognitive education, by

imparting a set of body habits to the player. This chapter proposes a new vocabulary for understanding these devices, referring to them as bodily interfaces. It also discusses three aspects of bodily interfaces: mode of capture, haptics, and button remapping. Finally, it concludes by pointing to theoretical literature on the relationship between the physical and mental aspects of the learning process that may be useful in rethinking electronic games. Chapter VIII A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings ............................................................ 127 Elhanan Gazit, H.I.T.-Holon Institute of Technology, Israel This chapter presents an analysis of the dynamics of the children’s digital games interactions, which take place in their home surroundings. Since digital games have become one of the main building blocks in the children’s world, there is a need to examine the impact of the widespread use of digital games in children’s everyday life. The study’s framework served as a window for close observation of the ways young children spontaneously play digital games and interact with each other. Theoretical implications for digital game research and the pedagogical implications regarding the design and implementation of interactive learning environments are discussed.. Chapter IX Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments......................................................................... 146 James Oliverio, Digital Worlds Institute, University of Florida, USA Dennis Beck, Digital Worlds Institute, University of Florida, USA This chapter introduces the term mixed social environments as a strategic learning construct to augment student interaction when utilizing virtual world environments such as Second Life in the classroom. While an increasing number of institutions are investigating the use of virtual world environments for enhanced learning, at present there are at least three major areas that are underdeveloped: interdisciplinary research, documentation of best practices, and exploration of the use of mixed social environments. The authors present an overview of a course in hopes of helping to inform best practices, expand interdisciplinary research, and assist in the design of future mixed social environments for enhanced learning. Chapter X Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education............................................................... 163 Andreas Breiter, Institute for Information Management, University of Bremen, Germany Castulus Kolo, Macromedia University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany Electronic gaming in education remains a theoretical or at best marginal issue as long as it is not adopted in general educational settings. After introducing an analytical framework for structuring such processes of the diffusion of innovations, the authors present empirical evidence from the adoption process of electronic gaming in Germany. The results are discussed focusing on the role of several influencing factors on the scope and the speed of innovations. The chapter concludes with possible generalizations departing from the specific situation and the tradition of education in Germany.

Section II Educational Gaming in K-12 or Teacher Education Contexts Chapter XI A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom ............................................................... 179 Richard Van Eck, University of North Dakota, USA Many of the educational outcomes we seek to promote in public education, such as problem solving and critical thinking, are difficult to achieve given the constraints of the real-world classroom. Commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games make excellent tools for addressing both content-based and higher order learning outcomes, and many educators are exploring their use in the classroom. The first part of this chapter will examine the theories that underlie the successful integration of commercial games in the classroom. These theories and the model are discussed in the second part of this chapter in the context of actually designing COTS game-based learning (GBL).. Chapter XII Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play...................................................... 200 Shree Durga, University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA Kurt Squire, University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA This chapter examines the potential of video games as a learning tool given their productive capacity for content creation and dissemination. Based on the findings from a longitudinal study, this paper argues that historical model construction is a compelling way to mediate one’s understandings about history. Participants in this game-based learning program developed new identities as producers as well as consumers of historical simulations. Chapter XIII Game-Based Historical Learning . ...................................................................................................... 219 Erik Malcolm Champion, Auckland School of Design, Massey University, New Zealand Game-based historical learning aims to provide ways in which the technology, interactivity, or cultural conventions of computer gaming can help afford the cultural understanding of the self, of the past, or of others with mindsets quite different to our own. This chapter will outline the major technological, pedagogical, and evaluation issues pertinent to game-based historical learning, provide working definitions of virtual learning that may lend themselves to evaluations, and endeavor to explain how specific issues of game-based historical learning may be addressed. It will also forecast trends and suggest approaches to help focus this diverse field.. Chapter XIV The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education......................................................................... 235 Phillip J. VanFossen, Purdue University, USA Adam Friedman, Wake Forest University, USA Richard Hartshorne, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA In this chapter, the authors provide evidence for the potential of MMORPGs for social studies education by providing a detailed review of relevant literature from the fields of games studies, educational

technology, and the social networking universe. This evidence includes game scholars’ efforts to develop classroom applications of MMORPGs in the social sciences and related disciplines and also provide examples of “citizenship education” already occurring with MMORPGs. The authors also provide an overview of perceived costs and benefits associated with classroom MMORPG use, including logistical hurdles that need to be overcome. Chapter XV Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension . ............................................................... 251 Brock Dubbles, University of Minnesota, USA In this qualitative study, literacy practices of “struggling” seventh and eighth graders were recorded on videotape as they engaged in both traditional and new literacy practices in an after school video games club. These recordings were analyzed in the context of building comprehension skills with video games. Playing video games is viewed here as a literate practice, and was seen to be more engaging than traditional activities (such as reading school text, writing journals, etc.). The conclusion of this observation makes connections to current research in comprehension and provides a basis for teachers to use games to develop comprehension and learning.. Chapter XVI COTS Computer Game Effectiveness................................................................................................. 277 Carol Luckhardt Redfield, St. Mary’s University, USA Diane L. Gaither, Southwest Research Institute, USA Neil M. Redfield, John Jay Science and Engineering Academy, USA This chapter looks at effectiveness of commercially-available educational computer games. Two effectiveness studies conducted at John Jay High School and the results of the studies are presented on the educational computer game Math Blaster Algebra. One of the studies showed a positive learning increase from using Math Blaster Algebra. Both studies showed no negative impacts on scores and grades with more time playing the game. With lessons learned from game theory, intelligent computer-based training field, and these effectiveness studies, educational computer gaming can continue to grow, be effective, and be accepted into educational systems.. Chapter XVII Teacher Gamers vs. Teacher Non-Gamers........................................................................................... 295 Christopher L. James, Russellville City Schools, USA Vivan H. Wright, University of Alabama, USA The purpose of this study was to identify secondary teachers with video game play experience and determine if perceived levels of comfort in regard to completing job-related technology tasks, amounts of instructional technology usage, and amounts of participation in innovative teaching strategies are affected by experience or lack of experience with video games. Although significant differences were not found between teachers identified as gamers and those as non-gamers, researchers may choose to investigate specific areas where mean differences were found. This study can be used as a reference point for future research into teachers and video game play in regard to teaching practices and job-related tasks..

Chapter XVIII Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment............................ 315 Brian Ferry, University of Wollongong, Australia Lisa Kervin, University of Wollongong, Australia This chapter describes how an authentic learning framework was used to inform the design of an online simulation that included gaming features specifically designed to enhance learner engagement. It describes an analysis of user responses to the simulation focusing particularly on learner engagement and what they learned from using the software. The research revealed that users initially approached the software from a gaming framework, however with extended interaction with the software, moved toward treating the virtual experience as an authentic environment, even to the point of empathising with some of the virtual characters and downloading some of the support material that they might use in real classrooms.. Chapter XIX Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers................................................. 331 Zahide Yildirim, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Eylem Kilic, Middle East Technical University, Turkey This chapter explores prospective computer teachers’ perceptions of and experiences in goal-based scenario (GBS) centered 3-D educational game development process. Twenty-six pre-service computer teachers who enrolled in an undergraduate course formed the sample of this case study. The findings indicated that the pre-service teachers preferred GBS-centered educational game to traditional educational game. They declared that the most important feature of educational game was its contribution to motivation, attention, and retention. Chapter XX Adolescents Teaching Video-Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?............................................ 345 Kathy Sanford, University of Victoria, Canada Leanna Madill, University of Victoria, Canada This chapter describes a study conducted with nine adolescents hired to instruct week-long video game making camps over the course of one summer and the subsequent fall, working with younger children aged 9-12. Data was collected through participant observation, repeated interviews, and focus groups with the participant adolescent teachers. By engaging in teaching as well as playing, these youths have had greater opportunities to critically reflect on their learning, assessing the value of the technical and ideological approaches to videogames. Several themes emerged related to knowledge of content, issues of management of learning environments, and learning how to teach.. Section III Educational Gaming in Other Learning Contexts Chapter XXI Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children ................................................................. 358 Richard T. Cole, Michigan State University, USA Elizabeth Taylor Quilliam, Michigan State University, USA

As Internet marketing has evolved, customized online games created to promote specific brands or products have been embraced by food marketers. At the same time that these advergames, a hybrid of entertainment and advertising, have emerged, childhood obesity in the United States has reached what some consider epidemic proportions. Advertising to children is frequently implicated as contributing to children’s poor dietary choices and ultimately to childhood obesity and its attendant medical risks. This chapter describes the nature of advergames, considers their effectiveness as teaching tools and advertisements, and suggests public policy issues related to the continued use of advergames to promote non-nutritious foods to children. Chapter XXII Changing Health Behavior Through Games . ..................................................................................... 370 Erin Edgerton, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA This chapter discusses how proven health communication theories can be used in electronic games to affect behavior change. After discussing the need for effective health communication and reviewing the current trends in online health seeking behavior, it argues that games provide a unique opportunity for users to interact with health information, practice health behaviors, and become immersed in meaningful content. Through exploration of the elaboration likelihood model, social cognitive theory, and stages of change theory, this chapter will discuss how games can be used to change perceptions, attitudes, and actions relating to health behaviors. . Chapter XXIII An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes . ........................................................ 388 Wei Peng, Michigan State University, USA Ming Liu, Michigan State University, USA This chapter aims to provide an overall picture of the applications of electronic games for various healthrelated purposes, particularly for health education, health risk prevention, behavioral intervention, and disease self-management. It summarizes the electronic games for health that have been empirically tested by researchers in the past 20 years. Games that have not yet been evaluated but are promising and noteworthy are also included. It also synthesizes the key features of electronic games that make them promising to be used for health-related purposes. Finally, implications of using electronic games for health-related purposes and future direction for research in this area are discussed. Chapter XXIV MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education.................................................................................... 402 Yong Zhao, Michigan State University, USA Chun Lai, Michigan State University, USA This chapter provides an overview of the potential of massively multi-player role playing games (MMORPGs) for foreign language education and discusses how MMORPGs can be better designed to support foreign language education. It reviews current conceptualizations on ideal language learning environments, discusses the potentials of MMORPGs for foreign language education, and elaborates on how to design MMORPGs to facilitate foreign language learning. The authors hope that this discussion will help foreign language educators realize and capitalize on the values of MMORPGs in foreign language education, and will guide the design of MMORPGs for foreign language learning.

Chapter XXV A Videogame, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language............................................ 422 Kim Feldmesser, University of Brighton, UK Learning additional languages rapidly has been the goal of immersion schools and their approaches are effective in many respects because they make use of situated learning experiences in communities of practice. Such experiences present their own challenges however, as living in the country of the chosen language for a considerable period of time may not be possible. This chapter will outline the relevant theories for second language learning, describe how they operate in games, and present guidelines for research and development of serious games and second language acquisition.. Chapter XXVI Developing a Serious Game for Police Training................................................................................. 451 Ahmed BinSubaih, University of Sheffield, UK Steve Maddock, University of Sheffield, UK Daniela Romano, University of Sheffield, UK The design of serious games based on sound learning and instructional principles is important to ensure learning is integrated in the “gameplay”. However, the process of achieving this is not yet fully understood, and research is hampered by the lack of practical demonstrations of how effective instructional design is when used alongside game design. This chapter provides an example of a successful application of instructional design to the development process of a serious game for traffic accident investigators in the Dubai police force. Chapter XXVII Game-Based Learning in Design History............................................................................................ 478 Barbara Martinson, University of Minnesota, USA Sauman Chu, University of Minnesota, USA Games are increasingly being used to teach content in a variety of courses from elementary to graduate education. This study investigates the effectiveness of using a game to learning design history content and examines students’ preferred learning activities based on learning styles. This study does indicate that games can be used as tools to teach various types of information within a college course. Games added variety to the design history course and made learning facts more fun. The concrete nature of the game was appropriate for this particular group of students, most of whom had concrete learning styles. Finally, the recycling of a previously-designed learning object made the project affordable in terms of time and money.. Volume II Chapter XXVIII A Policy Game in a Virtual World....................................................................................................... 489 Martha Garcia-Murillo, Syracuse University, USA Ian MacInnes, Syracuse University, USA

In this chapter, we present a policy game to be used in a virtual world. The benefits of this tool are examined using Gee’s learning principles. From this analysis, we find that games in virtual worlds enable reflective exploration that helps participants to learn from their mistakes. Learning takes place from the content conveyed through the game and through the multimedia immersion that allows students to learn the nuances of these virtual contexts. Because there are no real world consequences, participants can take risks, provide or receive help from other students, and, most importantly, apply this knowledge to a real-world situation.. Chapter XXIX Teaching OOP and COP Technologies via Gaming............................................................................. 508 Chong-wei Xu, Kennesaw State University, USA This chapter introduces an innovative pedagogical method for teaching object-oriented programming (OOP) and component-oriented programming (COP) via gaming. Going through the evolution of the three-layer gaming framework, we clearly illustrate that gaming covers almost all core features of OOP and COP technologies. Teaching OOP and COP technologies via game development not only engages students efforts but also opens an opportunity for involving students with industry level projects and enhancing students’ ability to brain-storm and solve real-world problems. Furthermore, gaming may play an important role in developing other applications especially those that feature visualization and animation. Chapter XXX Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics........................................................ 525 Pollyana Notargiacomo Mustaro, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Luciano Silva, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Ismar Frango Silveira, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil This chapter discusses some possibilities of using computer games to effectively reach didactic goals in undergraduate teaching. Two case studies were conducted. One of them focuses design pattern contents in a computer science course and the other spotlights computer graphic topics in an information technology course. The results gained in these processes demonstrate the students’ involvement in the proposed activities and the capacity to apply the lessons learned in diverse situations.. Chapter XXXI A 3D Environment for Exploring Algebraic Structure and Behavior.................................................. 546 Paul A. Fishwick, University of Florida, USA Yuna A. Park, University of Florida, USA In this chapter, the authors leveraged the inherent multi-user collaborative building capabilities within Second Life to explore how simple algebra manipulations can be accomplished. Results suggest that while the current technology presents some key human interface challenges inherent to 3-D user interfaces, multi-user environments can be successfully used to construct algebraic expressions in ways not possible with prior technologies. Specifically, these environments provide real-time distance communication, the ability for multiple users to collaborate spatially toward creating and positioning algebraic components, sensory and cognitive immersion, and the possibility of personalizing representations in ways not easily accomplished with two-dimensional environments..

Chapter XXXII Surviving the Game............................................................................................................................. 560 Linda van Ryneveld, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Relatively few studies have looked at the potential of technology to support traditional face-to-face games in an online educational environment. While some traditional games such as Tic-tac-toe, Hangman, Monopoly, and Chess have been ported over to an electronic medium, relatively little thought has been given to porting games where human-to-human interaction is a central component. This chapter reports on the use of a game in an online learning module that was presented to adult learners. It sets out to explore the complexities involved in teaching and learning in an adult online learning community. Section IV Educational Gaming Research Tools and Methods Chapter XXXIII Wag the Kennel: Games, Frames, and the Problem of Assessment.................................................... 577 David William Shaffer, University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA This chapter examines the relationship between games and assessment—and more broadly at what that tells us about the relationship between educational reform and technological change. Research already shows that with their ability to provide rich, complex, and compelling virtual worlds, well-designed computer games can teach players innovative and creative ways of thinking, deep understanding of complex academic content, and valuable forms of real-world skills. But, in the end, even effective games can only take students as far as the tests will let them go. If we want to use games to prepare young people for life in a changing world, we need to change how we think about assessment first. The author examines one way to think about assessing the development of innovative and creative thinking through game play.. Chapter XXXIV Character Attachment in Games as Moderator for Learning .............................................................. 593 Melissa L. Lewis, Michigan State University, USA René Weber, University of California Santa Barbara, USA The Entertainment Education Paradigm (EEP) offers a new way to think about education by blending entertaining with educational experiences. Video games provide an excellent format for entertainment education because of both the prevalence and enjoyment of playing video games and the ways in which individuals of today learn. Role-playing games are one of the better game genres for entertainment education. They provide both high levels of entertainment and a strong connection between player and game characters (models) which lead to an increase in learning. Based on the theories of parasocial interaction, identification, and social learning, this chapter offers a measurement for character attachment and introduces this new construct as a moderator for learning in role-playing video games.. Chapter XXXV Visual Analysis of Avatars in Gaming Environments.......................................................................... 606 Joseph C. DiPietro, University of Florida, USA Erik W. Black, University of Florida, USA

A better understanding of virtual character avatars is needed in order to explore the underlying psychology that the avatar represents to the user. In addition to providing an overview and introduction to massive multi-player online role playing games (MMORPGs), this chapter provides an introduction to visual ethnographic analysis of character avatars in video game environments. The chapter details an example of mixed methodology for conducting visual analysis research specific to Linden Lab’s Second Life and details some of the methodological challenges that researchers will encounter when engaged in this type of investigation.. Chapter XXXVI Interpreting Game-Play Through Existential Ludology...................................................................... 621 Matthew Thomas Payne, University of Texas at Austin, USA This chapter introduces and operationalizes an innovative interpretive strategy called “existential ludology” to explain how the game-play mechanics of two tactical shooter video games educate gamers on how to play militarily. By employing existential ludology as an interpretive tool, we can understand these military-backed games from an experiential, player-centric perspective, while also recognizing how their seemingly innocuous game-play is located within, and linked to, larger networks of power. Moreover, existential ludology’s flexibility as an interpretive instrument encourages educators to recognize the educational affordances of popular video games so that they might adopt these popular media artifacts for their own pedagogical ends.. Chapter XXXVII On Choosing Games and What Counts as a “Good” Game................................................................ 636 Katrin Becker, University of Calgary, Canada James R. Parker, University of Calgary, Canada This chapter discusses the growing importance of applying considered rationales to which games are chosen for study, whether it be for ethnography, classroom use, or anything else. A brief overview of how games are currently chosen for study is presented through a meta analysis of studies with games that were published between 2003 and 2006 in order to demonstrate that most published games studies do not include a supported rationale for the games chosen. The chapter will then present various ways that game choices can be justified, and propose and explain a data fusion technique that can be applied to game reviews and other lists in order to facilitate representative and defensible game choices.. Chapter XXXVIII Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games............................................................... 652 Teddy Moline, University of Alberta, Canada Quality teachers and quality digital games (video and computer) are dynamic resources that experience ongoing changes based primarily on their interactions with learners. Characteristics of these resources have been, and will continue to be researched and identified in order to discover ways to improve student learning. This chapter uses the descriptors of one of these resources, quality teachers, to illustrate how the same characteristics are integral to effective digital games. By using the descriptors of quality teachers to evaluate digital games, educators will gain a better understanding of why digital games are effective learning tools.

Section V The Psychological Impact of Educational Gaming (Part 1): Cognition, Learning, Play, and Identity Chapter XXXIX Designing a Computational Model of Learning.................................................................................. 671 David Gibson, CurveShift, Inc., USA This chapter uses a four-part framework of knowledge, learner, assessment and community to discuss design considerations for building a computational model of learning. A teaching simulation—simSchool—helps illustrate selected psychological, physical, and cognitive models and how intelligence can be represented in software agents. The design discussion includes evolutionary perspectives on artificial intelligence and the role of the conceptual assessment framework for automating feedback to the simulation user. The purpose of the chapter is to integrate a number of theories into a design framework for a computational model of learning.. Chapter XL Social Psychology and Massively Multiplayer Online Learning Games ........................................... 702 Clint Bowers, University of Central Florida, USA Peter A. Smith, University of Central Florida, USA Jan Cannon-Bowers, University of Central Florida, USA The use of computer games and especially online games for educational purposes is growing in popularity. This chapter summarizes findings from the area of social psychology as a basis to form propositions, guidelines, and research questions that will help develop effective multi-player environments for learning. The authors are particularly interested in how to foster collaborative learning in multi-player environments by exploiting the naturally occurring structures and features of popular massively multi-player games. They offer examples of how these features can be used to support learning and highlight areas in need of future research.. Chapter XLI Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games.......................................................................... 719 Slava Kalyuga, University of New South Wales, Australia Jan L. Plass, New York University, USA The chapter describes different types and sources of cognitive load and the specific demands of games on cognitive resources. It outlines information presentation design methods for dealing with potential cognitive overload, and presents some techniques (subjective rating scales, dual-task techniques, and concurrent verbal protocols) that could be used for evaluating cognitive load in electronic gaming in education.. Chapter XLII Self-Regulated Learning in Video Game Environments...................................................................... 738 Nick Zap, Simon Fraser University, Canada Jillianne Code, Simon Fraser University, Canada The psychological factors that produce self-regulated learning are explored as they relate to a player’s intentionality, interest, aptitude, motivation, goal-setting, and affect while playing games. A discus-

sion of video games as authentic learning environments looks at the roles of student-initiated learning in authentic contexts and specific design strategies are outlined. Practical learning strategies that promote SRL are presented to facilitate the use of conscious self-regulatory skills that students can implement in these authentic learning environments. This chapter opens the discussion of the role of self-regulated learning in video game environments and its impact in the field of educational gaming.. Chapter XLIII (Self-) Educational Effects of Computer Gaming Cultures ................................................................ 757 Johannes Fromme, University of Magdeburg, Germany Benjamin Jörissen, University of Magdeburg, Germany Alexander Unger, University of Magdeburg, Germany The goal of this chapter is to emphasize a certain notion of self-induced education, to discuss it in the context of digital games and to provide the means for assessing digital games as well as to give hints on their educational use. In the first section, the concept of “self-education” is introduced and distinguished against less complex learning phenomena. The second section discusses and analyzes the different layers of “educational space” inherent to gaming software, providing the analytical means for the further sections. The third section presents and analyzes educational aspects of singleplayer games, while the fourth section adds the socio-cultural impacts implied in multi-player communities. In conclusion, a synopsis is given, which sums up the main educational dimensions and connects them to aspects and analytical criteria, allowing a pedagogical assessment of digital games.. Chapter XLIV Experience, Cognition and Video Game Play .................................................................................... 776 Meredith DiPietro, University of Florida, USA Drawing support from the field of expertise, the research presented in this chapter looks at and compares the processes used by video game players based on their level of experience. Results from this study add to the understanding of the relationship between experience, cognition, and learning from video game play. The results of this research also have implications for educational game design and the pedagogical techniques used to make effective learning opportunities available to all learners.. Chapter XLV Intertextuality in Massively Multi-Player Online Games . ................................................................. 791 P. G. Schrader, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA Kimberly A. Lawless, University of Illinois, Chicago, USA Michael McCreery, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA This chapter describes the manner in which gamers engage in multiple text comprehension and intertextual practices within the context of the World of Warcraft (WOW). It describes the nature of and issues associated with multiple text comprehension in a knowledge-based society, intertextuality as it relates to massively multi-player online games, and grounds this discussion in survey results from 745 WOW players. The authors hope that the chapter will provide valuable insights into the development and application of the 21st century skills and help direct the design of future games and the implementation of games in education..

Chapter XLVI Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning............................................................................. 808 Yam San Chee, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Kenneth Y. T. Lim, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore This chapter considers the use of computer games to help students construct their personal identity and develop dispositions that become active and responsible citizenship. It argues that the construction of identity requires both performative and narrative components and that these elements can be realized in a learning environment that affords students the opportunity to engage in a dialectic interplay between role playing in a game world and dialogic interaction outside of the game world. Research findings from an initial data set showing how students’ project their identities onto in-game characters are shared. The findings suggest that role playing in computer games can be effective in fostering attitudes, values, and beliefs desired of citizenship education.. Chapter XLVII Play Styles and Learning..................................................................................................................... 826 Carrie Heeter, Michigan State University, USA This chapter reviews player types found in commercial MMOs and educational games and a palette of play styles and learning is proposed from which game designers and educators can more easily imagine (or perhaps “paint”) their target audience. Two studies show how the palette might be applied. Study 1 examines the impact of different in-game reward schemas on player types. Study 2 compares classroom play with one child per computer versus paired play of the same educational game. Learning styles relevant to educational game design and classroom use are described, including intrinsic and extrinsic achievement orientation, motivation, individual traits, and competition and other social factors.. Chapter XLVIII Playing Roles in the MMORPG Kingdom of Loathing...................................................................... 847 Martin Oliver, London Knowledge Lab, Institute of Education, UK This chapter explores the roles players created, and how these structured their online relationships, in an online massively multi-player role-playing game, Kingdom of Loathing—a low-tech browser-based game with a satirical, humorous style. This exploration shows that classifications of players are an over-simplification. Instead, the classification should apply to examples of play—not least because the game itself was not “fixed” but was constantly re-designed in response to play. This has implications for research methodology, but also for the (ongoing) design of games.. Chapter XLIX Exploring Personal Myths from The Sims ......................................................................................... 862 Vasa Buraphadeja, University of Florida, USA Kara Dawson, University of Florida, USA This study hypothesized that narratives told by game players may be similar to narratives told in real life and explores 66 Sims narratives. Results suggest that most people who play The Sims do not naturally adhere to the criteria of a good myth when developing their narrative, however, over half the narratives met some of the criteria. Our results suggest that The Sims has the potential to serve as a narrative studio

for personal myth development but that some kind of intervention or scaffolding may need to be provided. The concept of psychosocial moratorium is suggested as one possible strategy professionals in multiple disciplines may use to promote The Sims as a narrative studio for myth development. Section VI The Psychological Impact of Educational Gaming (Part 2): Violence, Emotion, Race, Gender, and Culture Chapter L Learning Processes and Violent Video Games ................................................................................... 876 Edward L. Swing, Iowa State University, USA Douglas A. Gentile, Iowa State University, USA Craig A. Anderson, Iowa State University, USA Though video games can produce desirable learning outcomes, such as improved performance in school subjects, they also can produce undesirable outcomes, such as increased aggression. Some of the basic learning principles that make video games (particularly violent video games) effective at teaching are discussed in this chapter. A general learning model is presented to explain how video games can produce a variety of effects in their users. This model explains both the immediate, short-term effects and cumulative, long-term effects of video games. Implications of these principles are discussed in relation to education. The issue of addressing violent video games’ effects on aggression is also examined.. . Chapter LI Harnessing the Emotional Potential of Video Games.......................................................................... 893 Patrick Felicia, University College Cork, Ireland Ian Pitt, University College Cork, Ireland This chapter explains the importance of acknowledging users’ personalities, learning styles, and emotions in the design of educational games. It argues that the application of educational theories combined with knowledge of subjects’ personality traits and an increased emotional depth offer a substantive approach to understand and improve the nature of learning in educational games. The authors hope that understanding the underlying motivation and behaviors of learners through the use of personality profiles will not only inform researchers of a better design of educational games, but also assist in understanding the intricate relationship between game design, instructional design, and users’ personality at both cognitive and emotional levels.. . Chapter LII Gamers, Gender, and Representation................................................................................................... 911 Diane Carr, University of London, UK Caroline Pelletier, University of London, UK The issue of gender reoccurs in debates about the introduction of computer games into formal learning contexts. There is a fear that girls will be alienated rather than engaged by games in the classroom. There is also concern over sexist imagery, and thus about representational aspects of computer games. In this chapter, particular aspects of these issues are addressed in turn. The authors explore the issue of gender

and gendered game preferences, in relation to the cultural framing of the gaming audience. Attention is then directed at the issue of representation, with a consideration of the tensions between representation, meaning, and playability. These issues are considered primarily through perspectives drawn from media studies, and with reference to recent work from the emerging field of computer game studies.. . Chapter LIII Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games.................................................................... 922 Yi Mou, Cambridge, MA, USA Wei Peng, Michigan State University, USA While the violent content of video games has caused wide concern among scholars, gender and racial stereotypes in video games are still an understudied area. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a better understanding of the stereotypical phenomenon in video games. The book chapter first provides a comprehensive review of previous studies conducted upon gender-role and racial portrayals in video games. Then a small-scale content analysis on a sample of official trailers, introductory sequences, and covers of 19 most popular video games is introduced. Finally, the implications of stereotype in video games and the possible social and psychological impacts on players, especially adolescent players, are discussed.. . Chapter LIV Can the Subaltern Play and Speak or Just be Played With?................................................................ 938 David J. Leonard, Washington State University, USA This chapter examines and responds to the silencing, resistance to any intrusion of questions about race and racism, and overall erasure of race from the debates and broader discourse concerning video game culture. It not only provides insight into the nature and logics guiding claims of colorblindness, but also connects the ideologies and culture of denial to the broader racial discourse of post-civil rights America. Hoping to inspire debate and transformative knowledge sharing, this chapter additionally offers a textually-based racial analysis of Outlaw Volleyball as an example of the type of critical examination required to move beyond a culture that often reduces bodies and voices of people of color to objects of gaze, ridicule, and consumption while denying any sort of criticism and questions regarding the racial meaning and texts evident within much of today’s gaming.. . Chapter LV Culturally Responsive Games and Simulations................................................................................... 956 Colleen Swain, University of Florida, USA Electronic games and simulations are powerful learning tools for many learners; yet, the learning environments in these games and simulations frequently represent knowledge and experiences from a single dominant culture perspective—a white, middle- to upper-class perspective. This chapter introduces the reader to the connection between culture and learning and using culturally responsive teaching strategies as a method of expanding the effectiveness of electronic games and simulations to all learners. Readers are exposed to major tenets of culturally responsive instruction and how specific instructional strategies that embrace these principles can effectively be incorporated into educational games and simulations.. .

Chapter LVI Saving Worlds with Videogame Activism .......................................................................................... 970 Robert Jones, New York University, USA To demonstrate precisely how procedural rhetoric works through video game technologies, this chapter presents a definition for video game activism as well as three distinct modes: original design, engine appropriation, and machinima. Using three recent case studies, the chapter suggests some of the implications for educators and why they should take video games seriously as means of political expression when teaching students about civic duty. Volume III Section VII Educational Game Design

. Chapter LVII Conceptual Play Spaces....................................................................................................................... 989 Sasha A. Barab, Indiana University School of Education, USA Adam Ingram-Goble, Center for Research on Learning and Technology, USA Scott Warren, University of North Texas, USA This chapter provides a framework for designing play spaces to support learning academic content. The authors provide four elements that one must balance when designing a conceptual play space to support the learning of disciplinary content; more specifically, ensuring the learning of academic content and supporting legitimate participation while, concurrently ensuring interaction with gaming rules and engagement with the framing narratives through which the play takes on meaning. The goal of this work is to communicate the potential value of play spaces and to provide an illuminative set of cases for others.. . Chapter LVIII The Design, Play, and Experience Framework.................................................................................. 1010 Brian M. Winn, Michigan State University, USA This chapter introduces a framework for the design of serious games for learning, called the design, play, and experience framework. The author argues that the great potential of serious games will not be realized without a formal design approach. To that end, the author presents and thoroughly explains the design, play, and experience framework which provides a formal approach to designing the learning, storytelling, game play, user experience, and technology components of a serious game. The author concludes by detailing how the framework provides a common language to discuss serious game design, a methodology to analyze a design, and a process to design a serious game for learning. . Chapter LIX Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games ............................................. 1025 Youngkyun Baek, Korea National University of Education, Republic of Korea

This chapter examines hidden curricula and pedagogy of digital games in order to clarify their educational meaning and importance. The experiences which players get from the inherent ideology of digital games was categorized into four areas: fantasy, immersion, representation, and identification, and making sense of the game’s system or model. These hidden curricula are important for learning-game designers to consider in that they are internalized subconsciously. Also these hidden aspects of games are important for teachers to help motivate players for learning, to facilitate self-directed playing and learning, to improve gender sensitivity, and to help with the transfer of knowledge from games to real life.. . Chapter LX Game Design as a Compelling Experience........................................................................................ 1041 Wei Qiu, Michigan State University, USA Yong Zhao, Michigan State University, USA This study explored the nature and design of a compelling experience: game design. Thirty-six college juniors in the software engineering major participated in a semester-long project to design games for Chinese language learning. The project was designed to help engineering students understand educational and other issues in designing educational games. Results show that game design expanded students’ perceptive capacity; enhanced their subject-matter understanding, problem-solving skills, meta-learning ability and motivation; and facilitated students’ reflection on themselves as well as their environments. Factors are discussed to make a game design learning experience compelling.. . Chapter LXI Gaming Ethics, Rules, Etiquette, and Learning................................................................................. 1057 Laurie N. Taylor, University of Florida, USA This chapter explains the significance of informal and unwritten rules in order to show the connections among formal rules of play, formalized learning, informal and unwritten rules, and collateral learning. It argues that computer gaming’s rules of play include the formal rules by which games are played and the informal and unwritten rules within the magic circle of play where the games are played. Too often games are reduced to their formal rules of play and the collateral learning fostered by the realm of play is neglected. By examining unwritten rules, this chapter also connects to and informs other areas that rely primarily on formal rules, including educational gaming. . Chapter LXII Designing Games-Based Embedded Authentic Learning Experiences............................................. 1068 Penny de Byl, University of Southern Queensland, Australia This chapter presents the embedded authentic serious game-based learning experiences (EASLE) architecture which has been developed to assist in the definition of game-based applications. The motivation behind the design of EASLE is to keep game specifications as simple and focused as possible for educators attempting to create serious games as current available game design methodologies and templates are complex and extensive. Furthermore, it is argued that games created with EASLE reduce the amount of game development work to be done by the educator allowing for deeper collaboration between students. Towards the end of this chapter a game developed with EASLE which took two weeks to complete is presented.. .

Chapter LXIII Bridging Game Development and Instructional Design.................................................................... 1088 James Belanich, U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, USA Karin A. Orvis, Old Dominion University, USA Daniel B. Horn, U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, USA Jennifer L. Solberg, U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, USA Instructional video game development is occurring in both the commercial game development and the instructional design/development communities, but regularly in isolation from one another. This chapter elucidates the commonalities and differences in the development goals and approaches of these communities and discusses how best practices of each community should be blended for optimal instructional videogame design. This chapter also includes relevant experiences from an instructional PC-video game development project, illustrating challenges faced and new opportunities afforded via a collaborative development effort. . Chapter LXIV GaME Design for Intuitive Concept Knowledge............................................................................... 1104 Debbie Denise Resse, Center for Educational Technologies®, Wheeling Jesuit University, USA Reviewing relevant game design, cognitive science, and learning science theories, the author argues: (a) the need for GaME design; (b) that game worlds, complex concepts, and mental models are analogous systems; (c) how game-based technologies can provide a pragmatic and embodied context for making complex, introductory concepts intuitive; and (d) that the pragmatic, physical, and procedural aspects of games make them powerful learning tools that must be carefully designed. The author illustrates GaME design using Selene: A Lunar Creation GaME. Rigorous methods for design of instructional games will enhance control over learning outcomes. . Chapter LXV Leveraging the Affordances of an Electronic Game to Meet Instructional Goals............................. 1127 Yuxin Ma, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Douglas Williams, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Charles Richard, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Louise Prejean, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA This chapter is an effort to start to accumulate knowledge to guide the design of electronic educational games. The authors present a case study describing how the unique components of electronic games enabled the design of Conquest of Coastlands, a learning environment delivered as an electronic game. They describe how their team synthesized two sets of design principles from the literature on electronic games, instructional design, and intrinsic motivation and how these principles informed the design of Conquest of Coastlands. The principles and the related case study may inform the design of future electronic educational games and generate research questions to be investigated in empirical research..

Chapter LXVI Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory............................................................... 1143 Wenhao David Huang, University of Illinois, USA Tristan Johnson, Florida State University, USA This chapter introduces design guidelines to attain specific game characteristics by prioritizing the design components in 4C/ID-model. Each game characteristic consists of three levels of design emphasis: preliminary, secondary, and tertiary. The ultimate goal of this chapter is to initiate series of dialogue between cognitive learning outcome, systematic instructional design, and instructional game design thereby seeking to improve the overall game design and instructional efficiency.. Chapter LXVII Motivation, Learning, and Game Design........................................................................................... 1166 Mahboubeh Asgari, Simon Fraser University, Canada David Kaufman, Simon Fraser University, Canada While there are thousands of educational computer and video games in the market today, few are as engaging and compelling as entertainment games. Some entertainment games have also been used in classrooms and have proven to produce incidental learning (e.g., Civilization III, SimCity). The authors of this chapter argue that there are a number of elements used in entertainment games that motivate players, and using these elements in the design process for educational games based on learning objectives would create motivational and engaging educational games. This chapter outlines the elements needed to develop such games.. Chapter LXVIII Designing Games for Learning.......................................................................................................... 1183 Scott J. Warren, University of North Texas, USA Mary Jo Dondlinger, University of North Texas, USA This chapter discusses two games that were designed to target learning as well as implications for the design of future games intended for this purpose. It illustrates how the ADDIE model of instructional design can be leveraged to produce digital game spaces as well as the limitations that designers face based on the goals of the project, the chosen technology, and the audience chosen for the digital intervention. The goal of this chapter is to use real-world examples of learning game design processes in order to prepare instructional designers for the complexity of using game and instructional design principles as a means of improving student motivation, learning, and other psychological factors that prepare them for engaging meaningfully in the educational experience.. Chapter LXIX Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design.................................................. 1204 Panagiotis Zaharias, University of the Aegean, Greece & Athens University of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece Anthony Papargyris, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece E-learning is emerging as one of the fastest organizational uses of the Internet as a supplementary or alternative mode for corporate training. In this chapter it is argued that many useful lessons for e-learning designers can be

learned from game design and especially from the design of massive multi-player online games (MMOGs). A review on instructional quality of games and design elements of MMOGs is conducted under the perspective of adult learning, in order to identify, adapt, and propose design implications for e-learning design. . Chapter LXX Narrative Development and Instructional Design.............................................................................. 1218 Douglas Williams, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Yuxin Ma, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Charles Richard, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Louise Prejean, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA This chapter explores the challenge of balancing narrative development and instructional design in the creation of an electronic game-based learning environment. Narrative is a key factor in successful commercial games. The hero’s journey is explained and proposed as a model narrative structure for developing educational role-playing games and informing instructional design. Opportunities to embed various instructional strategies within the hero’s journey structure are presented.. Chapter LXXI Children as Critics of Educational Computer Games Designed by Other Children.......................... 1234 Lloyd P. Rieber, The University of Georgia, USA Joan M. Davis, The University of Washington, USA Michael J. Matzko, Independent Consultant, USA Michael M. Grant, The University of Memphis, USA The authors of this chapter gave a classroom of middle school students the opportunity to play educational games created by other middle school students. These students’ opinions of the games were studied and compared to their actual play behavior. This study also explored the reasons behind the children’s play behaviors and critiques through interviews. Important game characteristics identified by the children included the following: (1) storyline or context; (2) challenge; and (3) competitive affordances, especially those that promoted social interaction. Interestingly, two game characteristics touted in the literature were not found to be important to these children: (1) integration of a game’s storyline and educational content; and (2) a game’s production values.. Chapter LXXII Video-Game Creation as a Learning Experience for Teachers and Students.................................... 1257 Leanna Madill, University of Victoria, Canada Kathy Sanford, University of Victoria, Canada This chapter explores changing conceptions of learning brought about by technological changes and opportunities and examines more closely the understanding of video game creation as a learning experience. Based on the first year of a three-year ethnographic research study of the educative value and potential of video games within a school setting, this chapter examines the powerful learning and teaching practices in classes of information technology and programming in which video game creation has been used as entry points into learning programming skills.

Section VIII The Future of Educational Gaming Chapter LXXIII The Future of Digital Game-Based Learning ................................................................................... 1274 Brian Magerko, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA This chapter discusses the potential future of games for learning through the lens of current advantages of real-world education that are thus far lacking in educational games. It focuses on four main facets of the real-world educational experience: adapting content to an individual student, the rigorous evaluation of educational media, the ease of modification of educational games, and the application of games to new domains and teaching techniques. The chapter then suggests how we as designers and developers can make strides towards incorporating these lacking elements into how we build and use educational games. The author hopes that this discussion can be used to foster discussion about where the field could be and should be going in the near future. Chapter LXXIV Artists in the Medium ....................................................................................................................... 1289 Kurt Squire, University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA This chapter discusses emerging trends in games and learning. It argues for an approach that examines games as a new medium. With the increased attention being given to games, critiques about the instructional efficacy of games will emerge, and that educators must truly take advantage of the unique capacities of the medium, as well as keep in mind the new forms of learning supported by games. It continues to outline key trends, such as emerging game genres, new forms of productive play, and embedded game assessments. By targeting what kinds of design advances occur in contemporary entertainment games, perhaps games can be designed that will become integrated into educational systems. Chapter LXXV The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games........................................................................... 1303 Rusel DeMaria, DeMaria Studio, USA What is the future of video games? Is it more realism? More violence? Better physics? Artificially intelligent characters? More social networking games? Free to play and advertising supported? Games for non-gamers? More controversy, political scapegoating, and legal challenges? It’s probably all of the these, and more. In fact, while we may expect to see more of the same from the commercial video game industry, there is always the potential for surprises, both pleasant and not-so pleasant. One area of the future of games is less often discussed, but represents one of the most powerful and positive directions the industry could take. The author calls it the “positive impact model,” and uses this chapter to discuss what that phrase is meant to convey. Chapter LXXVI Education and Exploitation Off the Virtual Train to Oregon............................................................. 1318 Chad M. Harms, Iowa State University, USA

By retracing the tracks of the popular educational game, the Oregon Trail, this chapter presents both positive and negative realities of the incorporation of computer-based education that will necessitate students venturing away from safe closed systems to access information in the open frontier of the Internet. Information presentation is increasingly multimodal. The fidelity of that information is not always clear. Access to information, though often assumed, is not always available. Individuals’ selectivity to the variety of information can influence how it is internalized. Exposure to violent and sexual content can result in desensitization. Bias opens opportunity for fragmentation. And our connections to others, though overwhelmingly positive, also make us vulnerable to aggression and exploitation. Certain research and news stories presented here detail the most disturbing acts of humankind; those that children must be safeguarded against. Section IX Appendix: Glossary of Terms Appendix A An Overview of Gaming Terminology: Chapters I-LXXVI.............................................................. 1333 Clark Aldrich, SimuLearn, USA Joseph C. DiPietro, University of Florida, USA This appendix introduces and defines commonly used terms and phrases from the world of video gaming. It seeks to bridge the gaps between researchers, gamers, and educators so that a more thoughtful and productive conversation may be had. The authors hope that this appendix adds to the understanding of and appreciation for both consumer-based and educational video games, furthers academic research within this field, and serves as a valuable tool for anyone interested in learning more about video games and related terminology. Fifty-two entries are discussed within this appendix serving as a solid, yet not all-encompassing, foundation for future inquiry and discussion. Section X Appendix: Selected Readings Appendix B, Selected Readings Games and Simulations: A New Approach in Education?................................................................ 1354 Göknur Kaplan Akilli, Pennsylvania State University, USA Computer games and simulations are considered powerful tools for learning with an untapped potential for formal educational use. However, the lack of available well-designed research studies about their integration into teaching and learning leaves unanswered questions, despite their more than 30 years of existence in the instructional design movement. Beginning with these issues, this chapter aims to shed light on the definition of games and simulations, their educational use, and some of their effects on learning. Criticisms and new trends in the field of instructional design/development in relation to educational use of games and simulations are briefly reviewed. The chapter intends to provide a brief theoretical framework and a fresh starting point for practitioners in the field who are interested in educational use of games and simulations and their integration into learning environments.

Appendix C, Selected Readings Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools: A Computer Game Paradigm.................................................................................................................................. 1372 Chee Siang Ang, City University, UK Panayiotis Zaphiris, City University, UK This chapter attempts to examine computer game theories—ludology and narratology—that explain computer games as play activities and storytelling media. Founded on this theoretical explanation, a game model that incorporates gameplay and narratives is presented. From the model, two aspects of learning in the game environment are identified: gameplay-oriented and narrative-oriented. It is believed that playing computer games involves at least one of these types of learning; thus, this game’s nature can be used in designing engaging educational software. In addition, based on Malone’s theoretical framework on motivational heuristics, there are two methods of applying computer games in language learning: extrinsic and intrinsic, depending on the integration of game designs and learning materials. Then, two cases of language-learning games are scrutinized, using the game model, in order to demonstrate the use of computer games in language learning. Appendix D, Selected Readings Game Mods: Customizable Learning in a K16 Setting..................................................................... 1390 Elizabeth Fanning, The University of Virginia, USA A game mod describes a modification within an existing commercial, computer-based game that has been created by a user. By game modding, a user can participate in the creative process by taking the setting of their favorite game and customizing it for entertainment purposes or to convey information. For years, commercial computer-based game developers committed considerable resources towards preventing users from “hacking” into or “hijacking” their games. Now several computer-based game developers provide editors with their products to encourage users to create content, and to allow educators, for instance, to take advantage of the benefits and production quality of commercial computer games to create customized instruction. This chapter focuses on mainstream, accessible games with straightforward modding tools that can be easily integrated into a learning environment. Appendix E, Selected Readings Online Games for 21st Century Skills................................................................................................. 1400 Lisa Galarneau, University of Waikato, New Zealand Melanie Zibit, Boston College, USA 20th century visionaries foresaw that mastery of the dynamic processes underpinning the acquisition and manipulation of knowledge would be critical in the 21st century. Formal educational systems have not changed to facilitate the development of these necessary capabilities, and so people of all ages are developing them through a variety of digitally mediated mechanisms. Online games offer one area in which to examine patterns of spontaneously occurring phenomena that represent the natural development of such capabilities. This chapter reviews the character of, and need for, 21st century skills. It also illuminates existing digital domains in which these skills develop organically. Peering through the window of the present into the future, we see that envisioning change in education means taking a long look at what activity produces those skills, regardless of whether that activity is taking place in a formal setting or within entertainment-based worlds where the skills are learned incidentally through play.

Appendix F, Selected Readings Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom.............................................................................. 1427 Nancy Sardone, Seton Hall University, USA Roberta Devlin-Scherer, Seton Hall University, USA Joseph Martinelli, Seton Hall University, USA The last 20 years have brought in increase of computers into educational and home environments, generating an explosion of available educational software products. As a result, students bring a wealth of technology experiences to the college classroom. The use of games as an instructional strategy in the higher education setting is fairly new. This chapter examines the effects of game-based instruction on learning outcomes of college students studying basic computer concepts. With the growing trend toward the use of games to support learning, research is needed to examine learning outcomes. Perhaps faculty will be willing to move to more empirically tested game-based learning strategies, even though initial curriculum development time may be increased. Appendix G, Selected Readings Creative Remixing and Digital Learning: Developing an Online Media Literacy Learning Tool for Girls...................................................................................................................... 1440 Renee Hobbs, Temple University, USA Jonelle Rowe, Department of Health and Human Services, USA This chapter explores how media literacy education may continue to be responsive and relevant to the continually changing nature of popular culture through the development of innovative online multimedia educational programs. Because pre-adolescent and adolescent girls are actively involved in the consumption of popular music, competitive performance television programs like American Idol as well as online social networks, it is important to examine the constructed nature of these new types of messages and experiences. My Pop Studio (www.mypopstudio.com), a creative play experience for girls ages 9 to 14, was developed by the authors to address the need for media literacy skills among this group. We present a model for assessing the impact of the program on learning that incorporates the dimensions of pleasure, a sense of mastery, participation in the online community, media literacy skills, and other outcomes. Online games that use creative remixing techniques may promote metacognition, reflection, and critical analysis skills. Girls need opportunities to strengthen critical thinking skills about mass media and popular culture and the use of online learning environments may support the development of adolescents’ media literacy skills. Appendix H, Selected Readings Learning While Playing: Design Implications for Edutainment Games.......................................... 1449 Kalle Jegers, Umeå University, Sweden Carlotte Wiberg, Umeå University, Sweden This chapter reports on the initial results of a study conducted in the project FunTain. The main purpose was to identify general guidelines/implications for edutainment games, in order to guide designers of such games as they often lack in design guidelines. Usability evaluations were conducted on an edutainment game in order to find usability problems. These findings were analyzed and used as input in focus group meetings, held with joint teams of game designers and HCI experts. The outcome of the focus groups was a proposal of a list of ten general design guidelines. Findings indicate that users had problems in

understanding the underlying model for the game as well as identifying the knowledge related content. Experts, further, gave comments about feedback problems and different types of consistencies. Some of the implications from the findings are guidelines for earning and losing points, scoring and performance feedback and game object characteristics. Appendix I, Selected Readings Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”: Designing Augmented Reality Games to Teach the Critical Thinking of History ............................................................................. 1460 Karen Schrier, MIT, USA Students need to learn the critical thinking of history, yet they rarely have the opportunities to authentically simulate historic inquiry. Research has suggested the pedagogical potential for using augmented reality (AR) games—location-based games that use wireless handheld devices such as PDAs to provide virtual game information in a physical environment. The novel AR game, Reliving the Revolution (RtR), was created as a model for studying how AR games can engage students in interpretive, collaborative, and problem-solving activities. In this chapter, the game is introduce, and main results of the initial iterative tests are discussed, including what went wrong and how the game was redesigned to better support deeper engagement and historical thinking and learning. Appendix J, Selected Readings Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games . ............................................ 1477 Katia Sycara, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Paul Scerri, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Anton Chechetka, Carnegie Mellon University, USA This chapter explores the use of evolutionary game theory (EGT) to model the dynamics of adaptive opponent strategies for a large population of players. In particular, it explores effects of information propagation through social networks in evolutionary games. The key underlying phenomenon that the information diffusion aims to capture is that reasoning about the experiences of acquaintances can dramatically impact the dynamics of a society. Experimental results from agent-based simulations are presented that show the impact of diffusion through social networks on the player strategies of an evolutionary game and the sensitivity of the dynamics to features of the social network.

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Foreword

Considering all the different media (including books, photographs, audio recordings, film, and video) that have been used in education, it seems strange to think that there would be any resistance to using video games as an educational tool. Those who object that video games are only for play or for fun seem to presume that learning cannot be playful or fun. Or that video games cannot be mentally taxing; some games are now complicated enough to have learning curves steep enough to require a good amount of effort to learn. Other games contain puzzles and problem-solving more difficult than any school-based lesson is likely to be. In any event, the video game (which itself can contain text, audio, and video within it) is extremely well-suited for educational purposes, as the Handbook of Research on Effective Electronic Gaming in Education demonstrates. There have been other books on the subject, to be sure, but not to this extent, covering so many topics and angles, and with such a variety of views and approaches to the subject. While asking how video games can be used in education, we might also ask in what ways are teaching and learning game-like? One shared aspect of teaching and learning and video games is interaction (an advantage video games have over older media). But there are many other shared concepts: animation, simulation, speculation, repetition, variation, imitation, emulation, and integration. Video games can animate, or bring to life, subjects the way a good teacher can, making them engaging in a very literal way. Simulation put theory into action, and lets players try out a system to see how it works, and perhaps as importantly, how it does not work. Through trial and error, players use repetition, variation, and even speculation to figure out how to work with a system, whether they are running a simulated city or world civilization, or trying to make their lemonade stand more profitable. They may learn by imitation and emulation, and be forced to integrate their knowledge into larger schemata. Scoring is also present in both video games and academia, and it is interesting to note the difference in attitude the same student may have toward attaining high scores in each of them. Naturally, some educators will still want to wait until research supports the use of video games in education. And that’s another way this book is a valuable addition to the education field as well as that of video game studies. The breadth of topics and range of applications discussed should quell the qualms of the most wary educator, dispelling any doubts as to the value of video games as an educational tool, and even as a tool for researchers. With education in mind as the goal, designers of educational video games will inevitably break new ground in both education and game design, as their potential is explored. The medium of the video game is still a young medium, and even now we have yet to see all it can do. Computers have certainly spread into areas that people 40 years ago would never have expected them to go; and wherever computers go, video games can follow. And this book attempts to map out some of those possibilities. As the importance of education and the popularity of video games continue to grow, this book only increases in relevance. As more of the world moves online, and new worlds appear online, and computer-

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driven screens mediate so much of what we do, it is imperative that we reach a better understanding of the effects of these technologies, and then use that knowledge to consciously aim them toward good and useful ends. While it may sound somewhat grandiose stated in this fashion, what we think of as video games is to some degree quickly becoming the model for all mediated interactivity, and the research appearing in this book may well have even a broader application than what we can envision today. Future researchers, educators, and game designers will be able to make use of, and build upon, what is presented here. The firmer the foundation, the higher you can build upon it; and this book provides us with a very firm foundation indeed.

Mark J. P. Wolf Concordia University Wisconsin, USA May 2008

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Preface

IntroductIon It was late in the evening one November night in 1995. I was in Kraków, Poland, on a teaching assignment. My responsibilities also included setting up and maintaining their computer lab. So, naturally, I had recruited a group of students, teachers, and friends to come to the lab for an all-night Duke Nukem and Doom festival. Fast forward a few years. This time I was in a computer lab in East Lansing, Michigan, engaged in multi-player Outlaws. The time is now present, just a few weeks ago, and I am sitting at home playing Star Wars Legos with a friend on the Xbox 360. Although all three situations were unique, I had an eerily familiar conversation with a colleague after each session. Why do you waste your time playing computer games? If you ask me, it’s brain rot. There is nothing much good that can come out of such activities. The reason we have violence in the schools is because of kids playing games like that. For those of us interested in electronic gaming, we have probably been presented with that mindset our entire lives. However, there has been a foundation of research building recently that has suggested that gaming might not be so bad after all. Kafai (1998) began writing about children designing games. Gee (2003) wrote about games in relation to literacy and language learning. Squire (2006) published in ER about games as designed experiences. Schaffer (2007) and others began publishing books on how kids learn with video games. And Rosser, Lynch, Cuddihy et al. (2007) promoted the idea that video games could make better surgeons. Educators began paying attention to the idea that electronic games could be useful for teaching and learning. Conferences, public forum and initiatives (e.g., Serious Games), journals, and even open source game development tools began surfacing. A Pew Internet Study found that 70% of college students play video, computer, or online games (http://www.pewinternet.org/report_display.asp?r=93). MMOGChart (http://mmorpgchart.com/) reports over 12,000,000 active subscribers to massive-multi-player online role-playing games (MMORPG). The resulting notion is that if electronic gaming is becoming a natural and ubiquitous part of everyday life, can we and shouldn’t we investigate how it is and could be used for learning and teaching? The simple answer is yes; simple answers, however, lead into very complex questions. Although there are a handful of very good books and research articles on the subject (some aforementioned), we do not yet have a strong research foundation on the affordances or constraints of educational gaming. At the core of the matter, that is the purpose of this handbook. The first goal was to publish a collection of articles that would strengthen and build the foundation of research that exists on educational gaming.

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the need for a Stronger reSearch foundatIon I believe there are a number of reasons why such a handbook is only now emerging and why educational gaming lacks a strong research foundation. First, educational gaming is relatively new. When I told a retired academic about the research being completed in our gaming lab, he remarked: “you should review the work we did on that same subject 30 or 40 years ago.” Understandably gaming has been around for a very long time; it has quite an established history within educational discourse. More research needs to be done that examine the relationship between what we know about non-electronic and electronic educational gaming. However, the fact of the matter is that research is lacking because we are a relatively young field. Not only is electronic gaming different than non-electronic gaming, but electronic gaming itself has advanced tremendously since the creation of Pong. My guess is that in five years, a revised version of this handbook would be filled with even more empirical research. A second reason I believe educational gaming research lacks a stronger research foundation is because educational research is an arduous undertaking. Randomized, control-experimental grouping is difficult if not unethical in certain educational situations. And, educational gaming research does not make the research equation any easier. It is very difficult to monitor everything that is going on while a person is playing a game. Educational gaming research will require new methods, methodologies, and instruments to measure learning and teaching with gaming. We will get there; we just are not fully there yet. A third, and by no means final, reason I believe educational gaming research is only in its infancy is because of its interdisciplinary nature. If you took a single university, you could probably imagine multiple departments where gaming might reside. Computer science, education, journalism, English, psychology, literature, anthropology, sociology, communication, advertising, and health are just some of the many disciplines represented in this handbook. One does not necessarily need to become an expert in all of these areas in order to understand educational gaming. However, it is clear that experts from many fields are working on various parts of the same animal. There is an old story of a group of blind men who go and visit an elephant. Each touches a different part of the elephant to find out what it is like. Each leaves with a different perspective, thinking the elephant is a tree trunk, a snake, a spear, etc. Wikipedia has a short history of the tale and its debated origins (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind_Men_and_an_Elephant). There are many morals to the story; one is that none alone would be able to fully describe an elephant. Only by working together could the group begin to get a more complete picture of an elephant. The story of the elephant reminds us that this research effort will be strengthened by the degree to which we are able to interact with others. It is true that computer scientists have different interests in gaming for teaching and learning than media literacy researchers; cognitive psychologists may have a different approach than journalists. However, a continuous, cross-disciplinary conversation will provide shoulders by which to stand on, footing to further our research, practice, and policy efforts. In order to promote continued cross-discipline conversation, the call for proposals for this book defined education very broadly. Education does refer to content area learning in K-12 education. It also refers to post-secondary education. However, education also means learning and teaching writ large. Police-training, foreign language education, health education, learning violence and addiction through gaming, game design, and developing an identity can all be found in the pages of this handbook. The purpose was not to try to encapsulate everything related to gaming; the second goal of this book was to help readers see the connections between multiple disciplines and fields of study interested in gaming.

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The Organization of This Book The chapters in this book have been divided into eight key areas. A Review of Research on Educational Gaming. This first section of the book includes chapters that have attempted to provide an overview or synthesis on gaming for learning and teaching. This includes meta-analyses as well as explorations into specific types and delivery mechanisms. 2. Educational Gaming in K-12 or Teacher Education Contexts. This section of the book focuses on chapters that are directly related to teaching and learning K-12 subject matter. It also includes chapters that are focused on in-service or pre-service teacher education. 3. Educational Gaming in Other Learning Contexts. Chapters in this section also focus on content area learning, but in non-K-12 or non-teacher education areas. Those areas include other post-secondary subjects, business and training with games, and health and human performance. 4. Educational Gaming Research Tools and Methods. Chapters in this section of the book focus on research studies or syntheses that provide discussion and direction related to the methods, methodologies, and tools used to study gaming in multiple contexts. 5. The Psychological Impact of Educational Gaming (Part 1): Cognition, Learning, Play, and Identity. Chapters in this section of the book focus on the psychological studies of gaming and game use. This first of two sections on psychological aspects focuses directly on concepts like cognition, learning, play, and identity. 6. The Psychological Impact of Educational Gaming (Part 2): Violence, Emotion, Race, Gender, and Culture. Chapters in this section of the book focus on the psychological studies of gaming and game use. This second of two sections on psychological aspects focuses on issues like violence, emotion, race, gender, and culture. 7. Educational Game Design. Chapters in this largest section of the book focus on game design. Authors in this section describe research studies and theoretical inquiries into the most productive ways to design gaming or environments for successful gaming. 8. The Future of Educational Gaming. In this final section of the book, I invited four authors to directly address the question of “what’s next?” This section of the book contains insight into what might be the short-term and long-term future of educational gaming. 9. Appendix A: Glossary of Terms. Each of the chapters in this book contains 7-10 key terms that have been defined by the authors of that chapter. Those key terms help readers with new concepts or to understand how the author(s) operationally defined terms key to their research. This first appendix focuses on gaming terminology. Many of these terms have also been operationally defined throughout this book. This glossary is not meant to be all encompassing, but rather to provide a start to the shared conversation about the jargon used in educational gaming research, policy, and practice. 10. Appendix B: Selected Readings. Many handbooks of research contain a section with additional chapters related to seminal readings in the field. It is obviously difficult to provide such a section for this handbook due to the relative recency of the work in Electronic Educational Gaming. However, this section contains readings of work in electronic gaming that have been published within the last few years. The purpose in including these chapters is to document part of our autobiographical past; it is to help readers see where we have come within the last few years of research in the field. 1.

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Each of the chapters in this book contains 7-10 key terms that have been defined by the authors of that chapter. Those key terms help readers with new concepts or to understand how the author(s) operationally defined terms key to their research. The book concludes with an appendix of terminology. Many of these terms have also been operationally defined throughout this book. This final glossary is not meant to be all encompassing, but rather to provide a start to the shared conversation about the jargon used in educational gaming research, policy, and practice.

concluSIon Educational gaming research continues to be funded nationally and internationally. In addition to the interdisciplinary nature of this handbook, perhaps its strongest attribute is its international representation by reviewers and authors. Researchers who are doing work in this area will be intrigued and enlightened by the international and interdisciplinary nature of the collection. Students new to educational gaming will find research shoulders to stand on as well as questions to guide their future work. Teachers and practitioners will learn how the research can impact their classroom practice, regardless of whether classroom means K-12 or a corporate setting. Finally, policymakers and funding agencies will be able to learn more about how to help move educational gaming to the next level. Respectfully, Richard Eugene Ferdig University of Florida, USA May 2008

referenceS Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave/ St. Martin’s. Kafai, Y. (1998). Video game designs by children: Consistency and variability of gender differences. In J. Cassell & H. Jenkins (Eds.), From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and computer games. Boston, MA: MIT Press. Rosser, J. C., Lynch, P. J., Cuddihy, L., et al. (2007) The impact of video games on training surgeons in the 21st century. Archives of Surgery, 142, 181-186. Shaffer, D. W. (2007). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave. Squire, K. D. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experiences. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29.

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About the Editor

Richard E. Ferdig, PhD, is an associate professor of educational technology at the University of Florida’s College of Education. His research interests focus on educational gaming, the uses of innovative media for teaching and learning, virtual and online education, and what he calls a “deeper psychology of technology.” He graduated from Calvin College with a BA in psychology and from Michigan State University with an MA in educational psychology. He received his PhD from Michigan State University in educational psychology. At UF, he co-directs the face-to-face and online graduate programs in educational technology. He is also a University of Florida Research Foundation professor.

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Acknowledgment

As true academia consists of standing on the shoulders of giants, it becomes very difficult to thank all of the friends, family, and colleagues who made this work possible. Like some television award winner, I fear mentioning names means I will inevitably leave someone off by mistake. I do need to particularly mention four groups of people. First, the idea for this work originated in conversations with my University of Florida graduate students who were interested in gaming. What started as a gaming class led to a gaming lab, research articles, a special issue of a journal, and then this proposal. You will continue to see their work for years to come. Second, I ran a very tight ship. I want to thank the authors for their willingness to abide by my very strict requirements and deadlines. Third, there is no way one person can accomplish this task alone. I have edited for many journals, and I am convinced this was one of the strongest peer review processes I have ever seen. The reviewers (listed next) and editorial board members put time, effort, and energy into providing critiques and insight. In the end, the strength of this book is due, in large part, to their efforts. Finally, I want to thank the staff at IGI Global for taking on this project. I owe special thanks to Kristin Roth who was at my side throughout the duration of this project. E-mails and phone calls kept the ship cruising in the right direction; she was great at putting out fires along the way and providing emotional and spiritual encouragement to keep paddling. In closing, I wish to thank my family for their support of my professional efforts, allowing me to give up personal time to complete this task. Once again I am reminded of Philippians 4:11-13. Richard E. Ferdig University of Florida, USA

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Reviewer Acknowledgment

This book would not have been possible without the careful and thoughtful critiques of the following reviewers. Their timely and critical work has made this a much stronger book. I thank them wholeheartedly. Adcock, Amy, Old Dominion University, USA Arlien, Karen, Bismarck State College, USA Asgari, Mahboubeh, Simon Fraser University, Canada Baek, Youngkyun, Korea National University of Education, Korea Barbour, Michael K., Wayne State University, USA Beal, James W., Somonauk CUSD, USA Beck, Dennis, University of Florida, USA Becker, Katrin, University of Calgary, Canada Beemt, Antoine van den, Fontys University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands Biddix, J. Patrick, Valdosta State University, USA BinSubaih, Ahmed, University of Sheffield, England Black, Erik, University of Florida, USA Bopp, Matthias, University of Bremen, Germany Bowers, Clint, University of Central Florida, USA Boyer, Jeff, University of Florida, USA Breiter, Andreas, Institute for Information Management, University of Bremen, Germany Bunce, Steve, Northumberland County Council, England Buraphadeja, Vasa, University of Florida, USA Busch, John, Queens University Belfast, Ireland Cantamesse, Matteo, Università Cattolica di Milano, Italy Carbonara, David, Duquesne University, USA Cavanaugh, Cathy, University of Florida, USA Champion, Erik, University of New South Wales, Australia Chee, Yam San, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Chu, Sauman, University of Minnesota, USA Chung, Yin-Wah, Nanyang Polytechnic, Singapore Cole, Richard, Michigan State University, USA Columbus, Yolanda Debose, Texas A&M University, USA Coutts, Jade, University of Florida, USA Craig, Johanna Bromberg, University of Virginia, USA Crawford, Caroline, University of Houston-Clear Lake, USA Crawford, Christine, University of North Dakota, USA Cromack, Jamie, Microsoft Research, USA Curry, Sabrina, Lifestyle Family Fitness, USA Davenport, Rick, University of Central Florida, USA Dawson, Kara, University of Florida, USA de Beer, Jeremy, Consultant, Cape Town, South Africa

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de Byl, Penny, University of Southern Queensland, Australia de Chiara, Rosario, Università degli Studi di Salerno, Italy DeFrias, Kara, Instructional Design Consultant, USA DiPietro, Meredith, University of Florida, USA Dubbels, Brock, University of Minnesota, USA Edgerton, Erin M., CDC/CCHIS/NCHM, USA Evans, Michael A., Virginia Tech, USA Evans, Mark, University of Georgia, USA Ferry, Brian, University of Wollongong, Australia Foko, Thato, The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa Foster, Aroutis, Michigan State University, USA Francis, John, Independent Consultant, USA Friedman, Adam, Wake Forest University, USA Gazit, Elhanan, Holon Institute of Technology, Israel Goettel, Timo, University of Hamburg, Germany Gonzalez, Sebastian, Wanako Games, Chile Graves, Ingrid, Indiana University, USA Hagle, John, Texas State Technical College, USA Hatfield, David, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Heeter, Carrie, Michigan State University, USA Houssian, Aaron, Indiana University School of Informatics, USA Hudspeth, DeLayne, University of Texas-Austin, USA Inal, Yavuz, Middle East Technical University, Turkey James, Christopher, Russellville City Schools, USA Johnson, Tristan, Florida State University, USA Jones, Robert, New York University, USA Ke, Fengfeng, University of New Mexico, USA Kolo, Castulus, Macromedia University of Applied Sciences, Germany Lai, Feng-Qi, Indiana State University, USA Lai, Guolin, Georgia State University, USA Leonard, David, Washington State University, USA Lok, Benjamin C., University of Florida, USA Ma, Yuxin, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Mackenzie, Euan, 3MRT Limited, Scotland Madill, Leanna, University of Victoria, British Columbia Canada Maltempi, Marcus Vinicius, State University of Sao Paulo at Rio Claro, Brazil Mehta, Ruchi, University at Albany, State University of New York, USA Memarzia, Kam, PlayGen, England Mulkey, Kim, Independent Consultant, USA Nash, Padraig, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA Nordlinger, John, Microsoft Research, USA Nunaley, Mary, Volunteer State Community College, USA Nyburg, Adrienne, University of North Dakota, USA Oliver, Martin, Institute of Education, University of London, England Parisi, David P., New York University, USA Parker, JR, University of Calgary, Canada Payne, Denise, University of Florida, USA Peng, Wei, Michigan State University, USA Phelps, Cynthia L., The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, USA Pulman, Andy, Bournemouth University, England Qian, Yufeng, St. Thomas University, USA Randall, Pauline, Elmwood College, Scotland Richmond, Paul, University of Sheffield, England Romano. Daniela M., University of Sheffield, England

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Routledge, Helen, Independent Consultant, Scotland Ruffino, Paolo, University of Bologna, Italy Ruschin, Leonardo, Educational/Media Consultant, Germany Sanford, Kathy, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada Schrader, PG, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA Sessums, Christopher, University of Florida, USA Srinivasan, Vinod, Texas A&M University, USA Svarovsky, Gina Navoa, University of Wisconsin, USA Taylor, Laurie, University of Florida, USA Terry, Krista P., Radford University, USA Thomas, Deborah, SillyMonkey LLC, USA Traquair, Lilian, Red Deer Catholic Regional Division in Alberta, Canada Van Eck, Richard, University of North Dakota, USA van Ryneveld, Linda, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Waelchli, Paul, University of Dubuque, USA Warren, Scott, University of North Texas, USA Wazdatskey, Philip, Fielding Graduate University, USA Williams, Douglas, University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Winn, Brian, Michigan State University, USA Yildirim, Zahide, Middle East Technical University, Turkey Ziaeehezarjeribi, Yadi, Indiana University, USA

Section I

A Review of Research on Educational Gaming

Chapters in this section of the book focus broadly on a review of the research related to educational gaming. Ke describes a qualitative meta-analysis of computer games as learning tools. Foster & Mishra also address the claim of games; they develop a categorization scheme as a framework for understanding and conducting research. de Freitas and Griffiths explore whether MMORPGs can be used to support learning. Finally, Qian investigates the current state of educational games on the Internet for K-12 learners. This section of the book also addresses research on gaming within specific and unique contexts. For instance, Cavanaugh addresses augmented reality gaming. Evans explores mobile gaming in his chapter. Parisi looks at gaming interfaces and the body. Gazit looks at gaming and home contexts while Oliverio and Beck address gaming and interaction in mixed social environments. Finally, Breiter and Kolo look at gaming adoption as innovation for Germany. The purpose of this section is to provide readers with an overview and synthesis of research on educational gaming (with varied methods of design and delivery).



Chapter I

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools Fengfeng Ke University of New Mexico, USA

AbstrAct Drawing on grounded theory approach and a qualitative meta-analysis, this chapter intends to systematically review and synthesize the theories, methods, and findings of both qualitative and quantitative inquiries on computer-based instructional games. A major purpose of this literature review and meta-analysis is to inform policy and practice based on existing studies. Four major recurring themes concerning the effectiveness of computer-based instructional games have emerged from a comparative analysis with 89 instructional gaming studies and are discussed with the support of exemplar research. The chapter will assist practitioners and policymakers in understanding the “best practices” and key factors of a computer game-based learning program.

INtrODUctION Recently computer games have been anticipated as a potential learning tool with great motivational appeal and represent an interesting development in the field of education. The literature surrounding computer games and education is vast. For more than two decades, educationalists (e.g., Betz, 1996; Gee, 2003; Gredler, 1996; Kafai, 1995; Malone, 1981; Prensky, 2001; Rieber, 1996; Squire, 2003) have been investigating the potential that exists for the application of computer games to learning.

Given the broad nature of computer games, a substantial question exists as to what basic insights the literature provides on the design and application of computer-based games for learning. As a recent search shows, there are currently more than 600 research/report articles within the category of computer games in the literature. These articles fall into generalized categories with a great deal of variance within the categories. These categories include theoretical speculation (e.g., Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell, 2002; Gee, 2003), experimental or descriptive clinical study (e.g.,

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Ke, 2007; Barab, Sadler, Heiselt, Hickey, & Zuiker, 2007; Squire, 2003), and review of existing research (e.g., Dempsey, Rasmussen, & Lucassen, 1996; Randel, Morris, Wetzel, & Whitehill, 1992). Even within the same general category, games studies vary in theoretical framework, research purpose, methodology of data collection and analysis, and game genre adopted. Further, the findings of these games studies are conflicting (Dempsey et al., 1996; Emes, 1997; Randel et al., 1992). Given this multi-vocal data pool, a systematic review with rigorous qualitative meta-analysis is warranted to generate a clearer profile of computer games. The review should indicate what meta conjectures or recurring themes we can form from the huge quantity of often disassociated studies on the learning effectiveness of computer games. It should also illustrate what are the best models or best practices of designing and applying computer games for education. This proposed chapter is an attempt to systematically review and synthesize the literature on the subject of computer-based instructional games. Specifically, the chapter addresses the following questions: (1) What is the cumulative qualitative and quantitative evidence for using computer games for learning, and (2) What are the factors, if any, that weigh in an effective application of instructional gaming?

bAcKGrOUND Definition of Terms Computer Game Scholars (Dempsey et al., 1996; Malone, 1981) defined a game as “usually a contest of physical or mental skills and strengths, requiring the participant(s) to follow a specific set of rules in order to attain a goal” (Hogle, 1996, p. 5). More specifically, Prensky (2001) defined a game as



organized play including six key structural elements: rules, goals and objectives, outcomes and feedback, conflict/competition/challenge/opposition, interaction, and representation or story. There is a wide category of games under Prensky’s game conceptualization. For the purpose of this research, a computer game is: • • •

Operated on a variety of personal computer platforms Developed for formal learning or adapted for informal learning Comprising rules, goals and objectives, outcomes and feedback, conflict/competition/challenge/opposition, interaction, and representation or story (Prensky, 2001)

In addition, a game is defined as being separate from a simulation in that a game involves competition. According to Dempsey et al. (1996), a competitive format does not necessarily require two or more participants. If a simulation enables a learner to compete against him or herself by comparing scores over successive attempts at the simulation, or has a game structure imposed on the system, it is regarded as a game mode. If the focus of a simulation involves the completion of an event only, the simulation will not be considered a game. Multiple categories of computer games have been identified in this review, including but not limited to adventure games, simulation games, board games, puzzle games, business simulation games, action games, and strategy games.

Learning In this study, learning is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct comprising all three components: “skill, metaskill, and will,” or in other terms, cognitive learning achievement, metacognition, and motivation (Mayer, 1998, p. 51). Gagne (1985) defined cognitive learning achievements as comprising declarative, proce-

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

dural, and strategic knowledge. Metacognition in this study refers to knowledge or awareness of cognitive processes and the ability to use self-regulatory mechanisms to control these processes (Eggen & Kauchak, 1997). This study adopts an expectancy-value model of motivation. Specifically, the model proposes that there are three motivational components: (a) an expectancy (or perceived competence) component, which includes students’ beliefs about their ability to accomplish certain tasks; (b) a value component, which includes students’ goals and beliefs about the importance and interest of the task; and (c) an affective component, which includes students’ emotional reactions to the task (Pintrich & De Groot, 1990, p. 33).

Computer Games for Learning Theoretical Perspectives on Computer Games for Learning Several theoretical perspectives, such as Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development, Situated Learning, and Information Processing Theory, may underlie the surging interest in deploying computer games for learning. Piaget (1951) considered play and imitation as two crucial functions in a child’s intellectual development process: play as an assimilation strategy and imitation as an accommodation strategy. Extensive research on play with children and adults in anthropology, psychology, and education indicates that play is an important mediator for learning and socialization throughout life (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Provost, 1990). Given the natural role that play and simulation serve to intellectual development, computer games as a vehicle for both play and simulation are not just a diversion to children, but an integral part of their learning and social lives. Researchers have stressed the importance of anchoring or “situating” learning in authentic situations (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Choi & Hannafin, 1995; Cognition and Technology

Group at Vanderbilt, 1990). One benefit is making learners become engaged by the material, thus invoking a state of “mindfulness” in which learners employ effortful and metacognitively guided processes (Salomon, Perkins, & Globerson, 1991). Learning in a mindful way results in knowledge that is considered meaningful and useful, as compared to the inert knowledge that results from decontextualized learning strategies (such as traditional classroom worksheets). With simulated visualization, authentic problem solving, and instant feedback, computer games afford a realistic framework for experimentation and situated understanding, hence can act as rich primers for active learning (Laurel, 1991; Gee, 2003). Information processing theory (Miller, 1956), along with aspects of dual coding theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991) and cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988), also sheds light on computer games’ potential to facilitate learning. Information processing theory states that novel information must be processed in working memory in order to construct schemata in long-term memory. Multi-sensory information representation in a computer game will facilitate schema construction by offering a learner a “ready-made” explicit representation of the complicated concept, providing just the type of external support that would be required for the construction of a internal mental model. This external support, as stated by Gredler (1996, p. 597), “reduces the cognitive load and allows students to use their precious working memory for higher-order tasks.” Furthermore, the multisensory representation in computer games also helps the schema indexed in memory in multiple formats, thus making the schema accessible in more than one way.

Findings of Previous Gaming Reviews/ Meta-Analysis A discussion of previous gaming reviews offers an overview of the literature. It also highlights



A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

the limitations of previous reviews and illuminates how this current review will expand the previous research using a grounded meta-analysis method. According to Garris et al. (2002), the following are tangible reasons for using computer games for learning purposes: • •

Computer games can invoke an intensity of engagement in learners. There are empirical studies in the literature showing that computer-based instructional games have a wide spectrum of utility for learning (Dempsey et al., 1996; Randel et al., 1992). The learning outcomes measured include attitudes, cognitive strategies, problem solving, rules, and corporate concepts. Computer games have been applied in diverse environments from school education to training in military, healthcare, and management.

Six recent literature reviews (Dempsey et al., 1996; Emes, 1997; Hays, 2005; Randel et al., 1992; Vogel et al., 2006b; Wolfe, 1996b) were identified as being undertaken in areas associated with the use of computer games for learning purpose. The following section summarizes the results of these review articles. Other review reports (e.g., VanSickle, 1986; Hogel, 1996; Leemkuil, de Jong, & Ootes, 2000) have not been summarized but used to locate original computer game articles. Recently, Vogel et al. (2006b) conducted a quantitative meta-analysis with 32 studies on computer games and interactive simulation. They reported strong, positive effect sizes of interactive simulations and games vs. traditional teaching methods for both cognitive gains and attitude. Their analysis also indicated that the effects of games and interactive simulations sustained across people (in terms of gender and age) and situations (in terms of learner control, level of realism, and individual/group usage). However, Vogel et al. (2006b) noted that the effect size analysis of



computer games, different from that of interactive simulations, yielded a low reliability and hence should be considered with caution. Randel et al.’s (1992) review on video games, examining 68 early studies up to 1991, compared the effect of games and simulations with that of traditional classroom instruction on student performance. It produced the following results: of the 68 studies, 38 (56% of the studies) found no difference, 22 (32%) found differences favoring simulations/games in student performance, 7% favored simulations/games but their controls were questionable, and 5% found differences favoring conventional instruction. The authors concluded that the beneficial effects of games were most likely to be found when specific content was targeted and objectives precisely defined. In many studies students reported more interest in game activities than in conventional classroom instruction. Business games were not included in Randel et al.’s review. Wolfe (1997), conversely, reviewed only studies regarding computer-based business games used in strategic management coursework. These studies all used comparative design with at least one treatment and one control group. He found evidence for the effectiveness of business games. In every study citied in the article, game application produced significant knowledge-level increases and was superior to conventional casebased teaching in producing knowledge gains. Dempsey et al. (1996) examined 99 studies for common threads in the instructional game literature. They found the preponderance of games intending to promote higher-level intellectual skills and attitudes learning as opposed to verbal knowledge outcomes. They also found that games served many functions such as tutoring, amusing, helping to explore new skills, promoting self-esteem, practicing existing skills, drilling existing skills, automatizing, and seeking to change an attitude. Practicing existing skills (n = 22) was the highest frequency, and learning new skills (n = 21) was a close second. From

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

the studies reviewed, they delineated a list of assertions for using and designing instructional games, such as using intrinsically motivating games, employing instructional support features (e.g., debriefing, flexible scoring, progression of complexity), and selecting game genres based on learning objectives. Another review on instructional games (Emes, 1997) examined games’ use with children and found no clear causal relationship between academic performance and the use of computer games. Although Emes’ (1997) finding was based on three studies, his conclusion was confirmed by Hays (2005), who examined 105 instructional gaming articles. Hays’ review (2005) reported:

•

There is no evidence to indicate that games are the preferred instructional method in all situations” and “although some games can provide effective learning for a variety of learning for several different tasks (e.g., math, attitudes, electronics, and economics), this does not tell us whether to use a game for our specific instructional task. (p. 6)

•

These past analyses/reviews highlighted six major themes: •

•

The literature base is sparse. Although many articles discussed the use of instructional computer games, most of the literature was based on the authors’ opinions on the potential of instructional games or propositions on how games would be developed to be instructionally sound. Far fewer articles documented the empirical data on the effectiveness of instructional games (Hays, 2005; Dempsey, et al. 1996). Empirical studies’ findings conf lict (Dempsey et al., 1996; Randel et al., 1992; Vogel et al., 2006b). It appears that few firm conclusions can be drawn from the studies and there is no evidence that games can provide effective learning in all situations.

•

•

The empirical research on instructional games is fragmented. Prior studies focused on different clusters of factors when evaluating the effects of an instructional game - administrative variables (game environment), learner variables (e.g., gender or academic ability), procedural variables (game-based activity, such as game-facilitated cooperative learning), and game variables (e.g., game genre and media) (Dempsey et al., 1996; Williams, 1980). Much of the work on the evaluation of games has been anecdotal, descriptive, or judgmental (Dempsey et al., 1996). Longitudinal studies are needed (Emes, 1997). A breakdown of the available studies by subject matter reveals that some knowledge domains are particularly suited to gaming, such as math, physics, and language arts (Randel et al., 1992; Hays, 2005).

On the other hand, the prior reviews of instructional computer games had the following limitations: •

•

•

Some existing reviews excluded qualitative studies. For example, Vogel et al. (2006b), Randel et al. (1992), Wolfe (1997), and VanSickle (1986) examined all quantitative studies in their reviews. Most of the existing reviews (e.g., Dempsey et al., 1996; Hays, 2005; Hogel, 1996; Leemkuil et al., 2000) were narrative literature reviews that did not reveal the decision rules used to synthesize findings from various studies, hence a lack of analytic rigor and objectivity (Hossler & Scalese-Love, 1989). Some existing reviews included low-quality studies or non-empirical reports that plagued the analysis result (Slavin, 1986).



A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER Method Drawing on grounded theory approach, the author conducted a qualitative meta-analysis to synthesize the theories, methods, and findings of both qualitative and quantitative inquiries of computer-based instructional games. Qualitative meta-analysis basically followed the same, replicable procedure of a quantitative meta-analysis, but was more interpretative than aggregative. Instead of a statistical data analysis, the researcher analyzed textual reports, creating new interpretations in the analysis process. This study has utilized qualitative rather than quantitative meta-analysis, not because numbers are non-existent. The qualitative variant has been used specifically because it is an approach towards formulating a complete depiction of the subject and because a quantitative meta-analysis will exclude qualitative evaluation that is a major grouping in the literature. As Michelsen, Zaff, and Hair (2002) have stated, “…not every intervention strategy lends itself to an experimental evaluation.” This statement is especially true in the case of instructional games research. In the current review, descriptive and case studies comprised almost 50% of the literature. In agreement with this discovery, Dempsey et al. (1996) have argued that although experimental studies have an important place in the instructional games literature, “there is a budding movement” to look at incidental learning using process-oriented inquiry. Because the instructional games literature itself comprises both qualitative and quantitative data, the integration of both qualitative and quantitative information is essential for a thorough synthesis of the literature for a complete state-of-the-art understanding of the domain. Although some researchers regarded qualitative review methods as appropriate for interpreting qualitative data only, others (e.g., Noblitt & Hare, 1988; Light & Pillemer, 1982) proposed



the possibility of qualitatively synthesizing both qualitative and quantitative information. Specifically, Hossler and Scalese-Love (1989) developed the grounded meta-analysis using Glaser and Strauss’s grounded theory approach. Following their example, the study adopted qualitative meta-analysis and a thematic synthesis approach associated with grounded theory. Trustworthiness of findings was achieved by using multiple coders for peer examination (Creswell, 1994). The actual procedure of research synthesis abided by the proposition of Hossler and Scalese-Love (1989) and is presented in the following sections.

Data Collection A set of criteria was specified to select appropriate research for this study (Slavin, 1986). Preliminary criteria included: •

• •

Content relevance - research focused on the design or application of computer-based games for learning purpose. Year of publication was 1985-2007 English-language publications

The data search was systematic and exhaustive within the data pool consisting of computerized bibliographic databases (i.e., ERIC, PsycInfo, Educational Research Complete, Dissertation Abstracts, ACM), major education and technology journals, conference proceedings, and the reference lists of several reviews. A total of 256 studies were reviewed in the course of this analysis.

Data Coding and Analysis When conducting the literature search, the author paid special attention to the studies that established components to be used in creating frameworks for analysis. An initial open-ended coding matrix was developed to delineate each study’s stated purpose, method, intervention, learner, sample

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

size, investigated factor, timeframe, learning settings, learning task and environment, outcome and measurement, game information, findings, specified/inferred implications and recommendations, and overall quality of the study. This coding matrix was constantly refined as synthesis proceeded. Both quantitative and qualitative information was coded using the same coding matrix to permit comparison of findings across studies. It was an overlapping process of collecting studies, coding information, and analyzing data. Specifically, constant comparative method (Slavin, 1986) was employed. The author and peer investigators constantly compared the data collected/coded to revise the coding categories, reanalyze studies, and gain new insights. Both quantitative data (sample size, methodology, etc.) and qualitative information (learning context, conclusion, etc.) from each study were recorded in coding sheets for further analysis and eventual summarization. A research team of three peer coders was used to assure the consistency and rigorousness of analysis and results (Hossler & Scalese-Love, 1989). During data analysis, low-quality studies were excluded from the synthesis. In the current analysis, a quantitative study was labeled low quality if it did not explain its methodological design features (such as sample size and study procedure). A qualitative study was excluded when it failed to provide a rich description of the learning context and outcomes or it appeared to be written based on the author’s bias rather than field observation. For example, quite a few articles announced the effectiveness of a specific game based on purely design assumptions rather than empirical data from field testing.

•

Results

Discussion

A total of 256 documents on the design, use, and evaluation of computer-based games were reviewed. Of these, 167 could not be included in the analysis:

Four major recurring themes concerning the effectiveness and key influence factors of computer-based instructional gaming have emerged from a comparative analysis with 89 computer

•

•

•

• • •

20 articles focused on the effects of games on non-learning-oriented outcomes, such as the effect of an action game on children’s aggression and violent behaviors, and the effect of computer video game on body movements of children with ADHD. 13 articles were computer-based instruction studies where gaming was only a contextual element but not the research focus. 45 were either development articles that described the design and development of a specific instructional game, or discussion articles that described opinions on an instructional game without empirical or systematically presented evidence (Dempsey et al., 1996). 45 articles presented only theoretical proposition or conceptual analysis on instructional game design principles or potential gamebased learning processes. 18 articles were research reviews - synthesis of articles concerning games in general. 6 articles presented only propositions on future game application and research. 20 articles documented studies that were labeled as low quality.

Eighty-nine research articles that provided empirical data on the application and effectiveness of computer-based instructional games were included in the current analysis. Qualitative outlines of empirical studies coded were synthesized and are presented in Table 1. The table also revealed the coding rules used to synthesize findings from various studies and illuminated the potential factors that might weigh in an effective application of instructional gaming.





Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Barab, Sadler, Heiselt, Hickey, & Zuiker (2007)

Barker, Brinkman, & Deardorff (1995)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Explore gamebased learning activity

Bahr & Rieth (1989)

Ben-Zvi (2007)

Explore gamebased learning activity

Anderson (2005)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Explore gamebased cognitive process

Alkan & Cagiltay (2007)

Bartholomew et al. (2000)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game and explore game-based learning activity/ pedagogy

Purpose

Abbey (1993)

Study

Quantitative (descriptive)

Quantitative (experimental)

Mixed-method (quasi-experimental with qualitative interviewing)

Mixed-method (quasi-experimental & case study)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (correlational causal)

Mixed-method

Quantitative (experimental)

Method

90

171

26

28

46

172

15

86

Sample Size

1 semester

40-minute gaming session

1 lab session

10 days

4 weeks (with 10 minutes per day and 3 days per week)

4 weeks

1 lab session

1 lab session

Timeframe

Business simulation game

Adventure game

Role-playing/ simulation game

Massive multiplayer online game

Other (drilland-practice game)

Business simulation game

Puzzle game

Simulation game (as stand-alone or complementary pedagogical instrument)

Game Used

Graduate students

Children with asthma, ages 7-17

Pair of a child (mean age 14) and a biological parent (mean age 44) who had not been divorced for more than 3 years

4th graders (gifted students)

Mildly handicapped junior high students

College students

College students

College students

Learner

Business functions

Asthma selfmanagement skills

Divorce adjustment

Science education

Math

Business management

Non-contentrelated problem solving

Non-contentrelated problemsolving strategy

Learning Task

Higher education course work

Health education

Informal learning

School education course work

School education course work

Higher education course work

Informal learning

General learning

Learning Environment

Student affect toward gamebased learning

Descriptive knowledge and behavior change

Rule learning and selfreported behavior change

Conceptual knowledge and problem solving

Test-based cognitive learning achievement

Student affect toward gamebased learning

Cognitive strategy

Cognitive strategy near and far transfer

Learning Outcome

Gaming increased knowledge for older children and for those who scored higher at pre-test, and gaming intervention was associated with less hospitalizations. Affective reaction was favorable.

There was no significant improvement in knowledge, but subjects reported positive behavior change for divorce adjustment.

Statistically significant gains in near-transfer performance test but not in far-transfer standards-based academic achievement.

Students gained math learning achievement during gaming, but there was no significant effect of goal conditions (cooperative, competitive, and individualistic condition).

Team dynamics (e.g., cohesiveness and heterogeneity) influenced students’ game playing performance and their affect toward game.

Trial-and-error strategies were mostly used.

Gaming promoted far transfer significantly more than the conventional instruction, but not near transfer; there was no difference between the two gaming groups; and conventional instruction group solved significantly more levels.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. A summary of empirical studies reviewed

continued on following page

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game and the influence of learner’s cognitive style, and explore instructional game design

Explore gamebased cognitive process

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game and the influence of learner characteristics

Explore instructional game design

Explore the interaction between learner characteristics and instructional game

Cameron & Dwyer (2005)

CauzinilleMarmeche & Mathieu (1989)

Chang, Yang, Chan, & Yu (2003)

Chen, Shen, Ou, & Liu (1998)

Christensen & Gerber (1990)

Conati & Zhao (2004 )

De Jean, Upitis, Koch, & Young (1999)

Purpose

Cahill (1994)

Study

Qualitative (case study)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Mixed-method (case study)

Qualitative (cognitive task analysis)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Method

104

20

60

n/a (6 classes)

78

120

422

3,829

Sample Size

6 months

One 20-minute gaming session

n/a

One 2-hour lab session

1 lab session

1 lab session

45-minute gaming session

n/a

Timeframe

Massive multiplayer online game

Puzzle game

Arcade drilland-practice game

Multi-user game

Board games

Puzzle game

Other (drilland-practice game)

Simulation game

Game Used

Students ages 12-13

7th graders

Elementarylevel students (learningdisabled and non-disabled)

College students

College students

Children ages 7-15

Math

Math

Math

Web navigation skills

Multiple subject topics

Non-contentrelated problem solving

Knowledge about heart

AIDS education

5-8th graders

College students

Learning Task

Learner

School education course work

School education course work

School education course work

Online learning

Higher education course work

General learning

Higher education course work

Informal health education

Learning Environment

Game-based learning experience

Conceptual knowledge

Factual/ descriptive knowledge

Motivation

Student affect toward gamebased learning

Cognitive strategy

Descriptive and conceptual knowledge

Game-based learning process/ experience

Learning Outcome

Most girls lacked awareness of math content embedded in the game.

Game (with pedagogical agent) promoted more learning (marginally significant) than game only. Students learned little from game without any external guidance.

Straightforward drill was more effective than the game format for learning-disabled students.

Game promoted student motivation (esp. low achievement students) to learning.

Affective reaction was favorable.

A deductive model was used predominantly by 11- through 15-year-olds, a rule-based model was used predominantly by the youngest subjects, a development trend was observed from rule-based model to deductive model.

Simple gaming was not more effective than the conventional instruction in promoting achievement; gaming with questions and elaborative feedback was significantly more effective than the simple gaming and conventional instruction; there was no significant intervention between learners’ cognitive style (FD/FI) and gaming.

Learning experience was enhanced, and positive attitudes toward subject were developed.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page



0

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Grabe & Dosmann (1988)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Goodman, Bradley, Paras, Williamson, & Bizzochi (2006)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Quantitative (experimental)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Goldsworthy, Barab, & Goldsworthy (2000)

Gopher, Weil, & Bareket (1994)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Foss & Eikaas (2006)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Explore instructional game design and the influence of learner characteristics (gender)

Forsyth (1986)

70

58

169

59

1,200

120

30

Mixed-method (case study)

Evaluate effectiveness of game

Doyle & Brown (2000)

40

Sample Size

Qualitative

Method

Explore instructional game design

Purpose

Dempsey, Haynes, Lucassen, & Casey (2002)

Study

n/a

10 1-hour sessions

One 3-minute gaming session

Twice (30-50 minutes each session) a week for 4 weeks

n/a

40-minute gaming session

6 weeks

1 lab session

Timeframe

Adventure game

Flight simulation game

Puzzle game

Simulation game

Simulation game

Adventure game

Business simulation game

A variety of game genres for educational purposes

Game Used

Flight training

Reading

6th graders

Health education

Non-contentrelated social problem solving

Engineering

Place location learning

Business management

Multiple subject topics

Learning Task

Cadets ages 18-20

Hockey players ages 11-17

Adolescents ages 10-16 with ADHD

College students

4th and 5th graders

College students

Adults ages 18-52

Learner

School education course work

Flight training for cadets

Informal learning

Informal learning

Higher education course work

School education course work

Higher education course work

General learning

Learning Environment

Cognitive textprocessing and metacognitive skill

Problem solving and motor skills in actual flight performance

Conceptual knowledge

Social problem solving, social behavioral rating, and level of engagement

Affect toward game-based learning

Cognitive recall and retention, and affect toward gamebased learning

Game-based learning experience

Affect toward game-based learning

Learning Outcome

There was evidence for game’s effect on text-processing and metacognitive skill development.

Game group was significantly better in flight performance than the control group.

Game improved learning gains and increased the speed of test performance.

The group using game performed significantly better than the control group and comparably to a therapistdirected group on measures of problem solving and engagement, but there was no significant effect of game on (far transfer) social behavioral rating scale.

Affective feedback to game use was favorable.

Game-with-map groups outperformed the no-map group in instant recall test; labels-with-game groups outperformed the other groups; all groups showed high level of retention of knowledge after 2 weeks; there was no influence of gender on learning or attitude.

80% surveyees had positive simulation-based learning experience.

All game genres had potential for educational use and different learning outcomes.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Henderson, Klemes, & Eshet (2000)

Horn, Jones, & Hamlett (1991)

Evaluate the interaction between gender and game

Mixed-method

Explore the interaction between learner characteristics and game, and instructional game design

Haynes (2000)

Inal & Cagiltay (2007)

Mixed-method (quasi-experimental and qualitative interviewing)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Halttunen & Sormunen (2000)

Mixed-method (case study)

Qualitative (case study)

Qualitative (case study)

Quantitative (experimental)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Gremmen & Potters (1997)

Quantitative (correlational-causal)

Method

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Purpose

Greenfield, Camaioni, Ercolani, & Weiss (1994)

Study

33

3

1 hour per week for 6 weeks

n/a

45-minute session daily for 6 weeks

1 lab session

5 classes

20

1 tutoring session

1 semester

n/a

Timeframe

n/a (1 class)

47

200

Sample Size

A variety of game genres

Action game

Microworld simulation game

n/a (educational game)

Simulation/ modeling game

Economic simulation game

Entertaining action game

Game Used

Science education

2nd graders

Children ages 7-9

Social skill development

Basic motor skills

Math

9th graders

Non-vocal students (ages 5-8) with severe physical handicaps

Information search strategy

Economic education

Scientifictechnical discovery

Learning Task

College students

College students

College students

Learner

General learning

Special education

School education course work

School education course work

General learning

Higher education course work

Informal education

Learning Environment

Game-based experience

Scanning and selection motor skills

Descriptive knowledge, conceptual knowledge, problem solving, and transfer

Test-based cognitive learning achievement, attitude (value) toward subject

Rule learning

Conceptual knowledge

Cognitive strategy

Learning Outcome

Gender and challenge level in game influenced students’ flow experiences and game-playing behaviors. Girls had more tendency playing mind games, boys enjoyed the game playing and forming group more than girls; ludology had more effect than the narratology of games on flow of boys, while girls were the opposite.

Subjects demonstrated substantial skill development and maintenance.

Game facilitated the improvement in multiple cognitive outcomes, from basic recall to higher-level thinking (classification and inference), as well as in usage of scientific language. Transfer was not significant.

There was no effect of gender on game-based math learning achievement, but females gave more evidence of using metacognitive, cognitive, and cooperative strategies. Females showed higher motivation through relevance, while males were more motivated by challenge in terms of selfesteem.

Game enhanced learning.

Game was more effective (than lectures) in promoting post-test performance.

Knowledge of the game was developed as a result of inductive discovery process and subjects’ gaming performance correlated with their test performance with scientific-technical discovery.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page





Explore gamebased learning activity and the influence of learner characteristics

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game and explore instructional game design

Evaluate the effectiveness of game (as construction kit)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game and the influence of learner characteristics

Explore gamebased learning activity and the influence of learner characteristics

Explore instructional game design

Johnson (1993)

Ju & Wagner (1997 )

Kafai & Ching (1996 )

Kambouri, Thomas, & Mellar (2006)

Kashibuchi & Sakamoto (2001)

Ke & Grabowski (2007)

Kiili (2005)

Purpose

Inkpen, Booth, Klawe, & Upitis (1995)

Study

Mixed-method (case study)

Quantitative (quasiexperimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Qualitative (case study)

Qualitative (case study)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Mixed-method (experimental and qualitative observation)

Method

18

125

279

n/a (3 UK learning centers)

4

12

446

435

Sample Size

n/a

Twice a week (40 minutes each session) for 4 weeks

50-minute gaming session

n/a

1 hour a day for 3 days

1-hour gaming session

6-minute gaming session

40-minute gaming session

Timeframe

Role-playing/ simulation game

Puzzle games

Simulation and board games

Adventure game

Game design

Adventure games

Puzzle game

Puzzle game

Game Used

General motivation

Math

5th graders

College students

Sex education

Literacy learning

Informal learning

School education course work

School education course work

Formal adult education

After-school learning

Training

General cognitive outcomes

Math

Informal learning

Informal learning

Learning Environment

Health education

Non-contentrelated problem solving

Learning Task

2nd- and 3rd-year high school students in Japan, ages 16-18

Young adults

5th graders

College students (from senior to PhD level), most were female

General public: from preadolescent to senior citizen

School children ages 6-12

Learner

Motivation (flow)

Cognitive learning achievement and attitude toward subject

Conceptual knowledge and motivation

Literacy gains

Conceptual knowledge

Cognitive problem solving, conceptual knowledge, and affect toward game

Descriptive knowledge gain and motivation

Cognitive problemsolving tasks and motivation

Learning Outcome

Content creation was the main activity causing flow; bad usability and low gameness were cited as obstacles.

All gaming groups outperformed control group in cognitive learning achievement. Cooperative gaming group outperformed all other groups (competitive and control) in attitudes scale. SES-disadvantaged students benefited from cooperative gaming most. There was no effect of gender.

Gaming with a reversal roleplaying facilitated conceptual knowledge most, and there were no effects of experimental situations on attitudes/ motivation.

The game was engaging and learners made significant literacy gains beyond expectation.

There was evidence of improved learning.

Games endeared least information retention and problem solving and most conceptual knowledge. Ludology, role-playing, appropriate complexity level made a game appealing.

Game promoted statistically significant gain in knowledge and self-efficacy.

Playing configuration (playing together or not) had a significant effect on motivation; grouping children around one computer did not negatively affect performance and in the case of female/ female groupings, it had a positive effect.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Explore instructional game design

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Leger (2006)

Leutner (1993)

Lim, Nonis, & Hedberg (2006)

Malouf (1987)

Explore instructional game design, evaluate game effectiveness and the influence of learner characteristics

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Ko (2002)

Mandinch (1987)

Explore instructional game design

Purpose

Kiili (2007)

Study

Quantitative (correlational-causal)

Quantitative (experimental)

Mixed-method (case study)

Quantitative (experimental)

Mixed-method (case study)

Quantitative (experimental)

Qualitative

Method

48

25

8

182

87

12

Sample Size

n/a

20-minute gaming session

Longitudinal

n/a (1 lab session)

7 weeks

1 lab session

5-hour gaming session

Timeframe

Strategy game

Puzzle game

Massive multiuser game

Simulation game

Business simulation game

Board game

Business simulation game

Game Used

7th and 8th graders

6-8th graders identified as learning disabled

Non-contentrelated strategic planning skill

Vocabulary skill

Science education

Economic education

7th and 8th graders and college students

4th graders

Business functions

Basic cognitive skill development

Business functions

Learning Task

College students

Children ages 6-10

College students ages 20-30, all male

Learner

School education

School education course work

School education course work

School and higher education

Higher education course work

General learning

Higher education course work

Learning Environment

Cognitive problem solving

Motivation and descriptive knowledge

Engagement level and conceptual knowledge

Conceptual knowledge

Conceptual knowledge, technical skills, and affect toward gamebased learning

Cognitive skill development (decision making, choice behavior, and use of logical reasoning); affect toward game-based learning

Game-based learning experience

Learning Outcome

Students with successful game performance performed better on problem-solving transfer tasks than unsuccessful students; low-ability students appeared to perform better at gaming with instructional support.

Game produced significantly higher continuing motivation and quicker question response, but there was no difference in descriptive knowledge learning in comparison to computer program (with no game feature).

There was a significant knowledge gain but the level of engagement of students was low.

Learners without instructional support in game learned to play game rather than domainspecific concepts; the opposite occurred with the learners given advice. Instructional support is essential for instructional games.

Affective feedback on using game was favorable.

Children’s developed cognitive skills over the practice of games; children reported high satisfaction and joy; there was no difference between computer game and traditional game on learning.

Authenticity, group dynamic, and learning by doing were found to be most effective elements for effective instructional game application.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page





Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Explore instructional game design

Explore instructional game design

Explore instructional game design

McMullen (1987)

Miller, Lehman, & Koedinger (1999)

Moreno & Mayer (2002)

Moreno (2004)

Explore instructional game design

Explore the intervention between learner characteristics and gaming

Martens, Gulikers, & Bastiaens (2004)

Moreno & Mayer (2004)

Purpose

Study

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Method

48

104

164

24

37

33

Sample Size

1 lab session

1 lab session

1 lab session

30-minute gaming session

1 lab session

Maximum was 3 hours

Timeframe

Simulation game

Simulation game

Simulation game

Microworld simulation game

n/a

Simulation game

Game Used

Physics: electrical interaction

College students

College students

College students (with a mean age of 18) who are novice in subject knowledge

Natural science

Natural science

Natural science

Science education

6th graders

College students

Game content learning

Learning Task

College students (20 years old)

Learner

Higher education course work

Higher education course work

Higher education course work

Higher education course work

School education

Higher education

Learning Environment

Descriptive knowledge, problem solving, and affect toward learning materials

Descriptive knowledge, problem solving, and affect toward learning materials

Descriptive knowledge, problem solving, and affect toward learning materials

Conceptual knowledge

Cognitive learning achievement, retention, and attitude toward learning materials

Descriptive knowledge

Learning Outcome

Students learned more deeply from games when agent speaks in personalized speech rather than a non-personalized style. Presentation via head-mounted display (high immersion) did not lead to better performance on descriptive knowledge or problem solving than presentation via desktop computer (low immersion).

Agent-based elaborative feedback in the game facilitated learning achievements more than agentbased corrective feedback in the game, due to reductions in cognitive load.

Students scored higher on retention, transfer, and program rating in narration condition than in text conditions. The mediadesktop displays or head-mounted displaysdid not affect performance on measures retention, transfer, or program rating.

Students in the standard-goal gaming condition learned less qualitative physics than did those in the two alternative conditions (no-goal and specific-path).

There was no significant effect of gaming on instant or delayed learning achievement test; gaming promoted significantly more positive attitudes than the other groups (CAI and conventional instruction).

Students with high intrinsic motivation did not do more but demonstrated more explorative study behavior; however the learning outcomes of students with high intrinsic motivation were not better.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Okolo (1990)

Okolo (1992)

Ota & DuPaul (2002)

Oyen & Bebko (1996)

Padgett, Strickland, & Coles (2006)

Pannese & Carlesi (2007)

Purpose

Noble, Best, Sidwell, & Strang (2000)

Study

Quantitative (descriptive)

Quantitative (pre/post-case series design)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimentalmultiple baseline design)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Mixed-method (case study)

Method

n/a

5

120

3

41

18

101

Sample Size

n/a

1 lab session

1 lab session

60-80 minutes in total (4 times a week)

4 gaming sessions

7-hour gaming session

1 lab session

Timeframe

Business simulation game

Massive multiuser game

Puzzle game (with endogenous or exogenous gaming element)

n/a (educational game)

Other (drilland-practice game)

Other (drilland-practice game)

Arcade-style motorcycle action/racing game

Game Used

College students and company employees

Children diagnosed with fetal alcohol syndrome, ages 4-7, low or average intellectual functioning

Children ages 4-7

Higher education course work and workforce training

Informal learning and special education

Fire safety skill

Business functions

Memory rehearsal strategy and recall performance

Preschool education Memoryenhancing strategy

Affect toward game-based learning

Procedural knowledge gain and retention

Cognitive math performance and task engagement

Descriptive knowledge and continuing motivation

Basic motor skills, attitudes toward subject, and continuing motivation

Expectancy and value

Learning Outcome

Special education

Math

4-6th graders with ADHD

Special education

Special education

Keyboarding motor skill

Math

School education

Learning Environment

Drug education

Learning Task

Intermediatelevel students with learning disabilities

Learningdisabled high school students

Children ages 10-11

Learner

Affective feedback to game use was very high.

Game helped all participants develop procedural knowledge gain and helped knowledge retention (in one-week follow up test).

Games increased overt rehearsal strategy use, yet no greater memory recall (in comparison to traditional), and there is no effect of game type.

Gaming led to increases in active engaged time and decreases in off-task behaviors in all subjects; all subjects also showed some improvement in math performance, but improvement was modest in comparison to conventional instruction condition.

There were no significant differential effects between drill-and-practice and game on knowledge acquisition, but the game had a facilitative effect on continuing motivation of students with low initial attitudes toward math.

There were no significant differential effects between drill-and-practice and game on skill acquisition and attitudes, but the game format had a detrimental effect on continuing motivation.

Game increased students’ awareness toward illegal drug and their self-efficacy.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page





Evaluate the effectiveness of game and the influence of learner characteristics

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Explore gamebased cognitive process

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game (as construction kit)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Perzov & Kozminsky (1989)

Pillay (2002)

Pillay, Brownlee, & Wilss (1999)

Piper, O’Brien, Morris, & Winograd (2006 )

Rai, Wong, & Cole (2006 )

Ravenscroft & Matheson (2002)

Purpose

Paperny & Starn (1989)

Study

Quantitative (experimental)

Qualitative

Qualitative (case study)

Qualitative (cognitive task analysis)

Mixed-method (quasi-experimental & qualitative cognitive task analysis)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Method

36

n/a

8

21

36

68

718

Sample Size

20- to 30minute gaming session

1 semester

5 gaming episodes

n/a

15-minute gaming session

110 minutes total (10 minutes/day for 11 days)

30- to 40minute session

Timeframe

Other (dialogue games)

Game design

Board game

Puzzle and strategy entertainment games

2D puzzle recreational game and 3D strategy recreational game

A variety of games with or without elements requiring visual perception

Action games

Game Used

Secondary school students ages 15-16

College students

Children from social cognitive therapy class

High school students ages 14-18

Physics

Computer science (programming)

Social skill development

General problem solving

Environmental education

Non-contentrelated visual perception skill

Kindergarten children in Israel age 5

School children ages 14-16

Health education

Learning Task

High school students ages 13-18

Learner

School education course work

Higher education course work

Informal learning

General learning

School education course work

Preschool education

Informal learning

Learning Environment

Conceptual knowledge

Affect to gamebased learning

Social skill development

Cognitive strategies

Time on task, cognitive task performance, and cognitive/ meta-cognitive process

Basic motor skill

Descriptive, conceptual knowledge, and attitude (value)

Learning Outcome

Games promoted significant improvement in conceptual knowledge gain and retention (in comparison to conventional learning).

Game construction promoted active engagement with the content and increased enthusiasm level.

The game provided an engaging experience for participants to work with others.

Game players demonstrated complex cognitive processes (e.g., general search heuristics, use of game tools, and a combined approach, metacognitive monitoring, maintaining temporal information for multitasking).

3D game promoted successful subsequent performance on 3D computer-based instructional tasks (as opposed to 2D game), suggesting the extent of recreational game influence depends on how closely the game type matches the design of the tasks in the educational software.

No significant effect of games (with or without elements requiring visual perception) was found.

Games produced significant knowledge gain and attitude change (as opposed to traditional instruction); students with low SES enjoyed and learned from games especially.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Santos (2002)

Simms (1998)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Explore gamebased learning activity/design

Sandford, Ulicsak, Facer, & Rudd (2007)

Squire & Barab (2004 )

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Rosas et al. (2003)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Ricci, Salas, & Cannon-Bowers (1996)

Spivey (1985)

Evaluate the effectiveness of game and explore instructional game design

Purpose

Renaud & Suissa (1989)

Study

Qualitative (case study)

Quantitative (experimental)

Qualitative

Quantitative (descriptive)

Survey research

Mixed-method (experimental and case study)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Method

18

29

4

41

924

1,274

60 (most are male)

136

Sample Size

6 weeks (3 times per week, 45 minutes per session)

20 days

5 weekly lessons

3 weeks

n/a

30 hours over a 3-month period

45-minute gaming session

One 3-hour gaming session

Timeframe

Massive multi-user entertainment game

Puzzle games

Other (educational game)

Business simulation game

n/a

n/a

Puzzle game

Simulation games (with or without attitudetriggering elements)

Game Used

High school students who were academically disadvantaged

1st graders

College piano students with motivation problem

College students

History, geography, and political science

School education course work

School education course work

Game-based learning experience

Cognitive math learning achievement

Motivation

Musical education Musical skills (note identification and note playing) Math

Affect toward game-based learning

General school learning

Cognitive learning achievement and motivation to learn

Descriptive knowledge gain and retention, and attitude (value) toward subject

Attitude (value), behavior change, and transfer of learning

Learning Outcome

Higher education course work

School education course work

School education course work

Military training

Preschool/ general education

Learning Environment

Business education

n/a

Reading, math, and spelling

1st and 2nd graders from socio-economic disadvantaged schools in Chile

Primary and secondary school teacher

Military rules

Traffic safety education

Learning Task

Military students with a median age of 20

5-year-old children in school

Learner

Failure to understand basic facts drove students to learn; the game can be a powerful tool for engaging learners.

No significant effects of the game (with conventional teaching) on math learning (in comparison to conventional teaching only) was found.

There was evidence of motivational effects of game.

Students’ affective feedback toward game use was favorable.

Teacher played important role in effective use of instructional games in classroom.

Game use had positive impact on motivation and classroom dynamics. There was significant difference between gaming group and internal control group in relation to the external control group, but no significant difference between gaming and internal control groups on cognitive learning achievement.

Gaming promoted knowledge gain and retention significantly more than text situation, but not different from test situation; participants in gaming demonstrated significantly higher attitudes than the other two situations.

All gaming interventions promoted three learning achievements more than the control condition; attitudetriggering elements (roleplaying and group) was necessary and sufficient to modify behavior.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page





Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Explore gamebased learning activity

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Explore gamebased motivation process

Evaluate the effectiveness of game and explore game-based learning activity design

Evaluate the effectiveness of game and explore instructional game design

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Strommen (1993)

Stone (1995)

Taylor (1987)

Thomas & Cahill (1997)

Tuzun (2004)

Tuzun (2007)

Van Eck (2006)

Vogel, GreenwoodEricksen, Cannon-Bowers, & Bowers (2006)

Purpose

Squire, Barnett, Grant, & Higginbotham (2004)

Study

Quantitative (quasiexperimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Qualitative (case study)

Qualitative (ethnography)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Quantitative (experimental)

Mixed-method (experimental & case study)

Method

44

123

77

20

211

194

248

56

96

Sample Size

2 weeks with 10 minutes per day

50-minute gaming session

1 week

Longitudinal

1 lab session

1 lab session

n/a

n/a

n/a

Timeframe

Other (virtual reality game)

Simulation/ modeling game (with pedagogical advice or competition scheme)

Massive multiuser game

Massive multiuser game

Adventure game

Simulation game

Business strategy game

Other (educational game)

3D simulation game

Game Used

Children ages 7-12 (some were hearingimpaired)

7th and 8th graders ages 1215 in Catholic school

4th and 5th graders, 9th graders, and college students

School children

High-risk adolescents (ages 12-22)

College students

School/higher education course work

School education coursework

School education course work

Math

Math and language arts

General learning

School education

Higher education course work

Higher education course work

School education

School education course work

Learning Environment

Science education

Science education

Health education

Political science

Business management

General learning

4th graders

College students

Electromagnetic

Learning Task

8th graders

Learner

Descriptive and conceptual knowledge

Attitude (value) toward subject

Game-based learning experience

Motivation

Self-efficacy

Cognitive academic achievement and attitudes toward subject

Affect toward game-based learning

Game task performance

Conceptual knowledge

Learning Outcome

Game did not promote learning, neither more than conventional CAI, deaf children improved learning in conventional tradition more than in gaming.

The game with no competition but contextual advisement promoted most positive attitude; and there was no significant difference between gaming and the control condition.

Potential of using game in classroom setting and relative issues: school infrastructure, role of teacher, classroom culture, distraction in games.

Thirteen categories of motivational elements to play the game emerged: identity presentation, social relations, playing, learning, achievement, rewards, immersive, context, fantasy, uniqueness, creativity, curiosity, control, and ownership.

There was significant effect of the game on self-efficacy improvement.

There was no significant effect of game with lecture in comparison to lecture only.

Affective feedback toward game use was favorable.

Cooperative environment resulted in better game-based learning performance than the competitive environment.

Gaming group outperformed the conventional instruction.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued

continued on following page

Explore the interaction between learner characteristics and game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Evaluate the effectiveness of game and explore instructional game design

Evaluate the effectiveness of game

Washbush & Gosen (2001)

Wellington, Faria, & Nulsen (1996)

Wiebe & Martin (1994)

Wildman & Reeves (1996)

Whitehill & McDonald (1993)

Yip & Kwan (2006)

Purpose

Walters & Others (1997)

Study

Quantitative (quasiexperimental)

Quantitative (experimental)

Quantitative (descriptive)

Quantitative (experimental)

100

557

109

130

474

Quantitative (correlational-causal)

Quantitative (experimental)

80

Sample Size

Quantitative (descriptive and correlational-causal)

Method

9 weeks

1 lab session

n/a

1 lab session

A semester

1992-1997

Half semester

Timeframe

Other (online educational game)

Simulation game

Simulation game

Adventure game

Business simulation game

Business enterprise simulation game

Strategy simulation game

Game Used

Engineering students

Military personnel

Nursing students

5th and 6th graders

College students

College students

College students

Learner

English vocabulary

Electric repairs

Nursing education

Geography

Business marketing

Business management

Business functions

Learning Task

Higher education

Military training

Higher education course work

School education course work

Higher education course work

Higher education course work

Higher education course work

Learning Environment

Descriptive knowledge and affect toward game-based learning

Problem solving and persistence

Game-based learning experience

Descriptive knowledge and attitudes toward subject

Cognitive process/strategy

Cognitive learning achievement

Affect toward game-based learning

Learning Outcome

There was significant effect of games with lecture in comparison to lecture only, and the affective feedback was favorable.

There was no significant effect of gaming, but game with variable payoff resulted in increased persistence.

Affective feedback was favorable and games encouraged teamwork.

No significant effect of computer games in comparison to non-computer games.

Simulation play results primarily in behavioral learning, with cognitive learning playing a secondary role.

Learning took place as a result of simulation participation, but there was no relationship between learning and simulation performance.

Students whose psychological profiles exhibited significant deviation from that required to function effectively in a team were less satisfied with game use.

Findings

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Table 1. continued



A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

game studies and are discussed with the support of exemplar studies.

Game Research Purpose and Methodology The empirical studies coded can be classified into five major research purposes1: (1) evaluating the effects of computer-based game on learning (65 out of 89 studies), (2) exploring effective instructional game design (17 out of 89), (3) exploring game-based learning activity or pedagogy (9 out of 89), (4) evaluating the influence of learner characteristics on game-based learning process (10 out of 89), and (5) investigating cognitive or motivational processes during game playing (4 out of 89).

Studies on the Effects of Instructional Gaming Studies that evaluated the effectiveness of computer-based games for learning purposes are predominant. Among these studies, 69% used quantitative design-experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational-causal, or descriptive. For example, Gopher, Weil, and Bareket (1994) investigated the effect of a flight simulation game on cadets’ flight performance by randomly assigning 58 participants into two experimental conditions (gaming vs. conventional instruction). The experiment lasted 10 hours (one hour each session) and the results favored simulation game. Vogel, Greenwood-Ericksen, Cannon-Bowers, and Bowers (2006a) examined the difference between virtual reality games and conventional computer-assisted instruction in promoting math and language arts learning. They assigned 44 primary school students (in intact class unit) to two experimental conditions (lasting two weeks with 10 minute/day) and reported that there was no significant effect of games. Greenfield, Camaioni, Ercolani, and Weiss (1994) used onegroup design in their game study and discovered

0

that there was no significant correlation between college students’ successful game performance and their achievement in scientific-technical discovery. Johnson (1993) surveyed 446 instructional game players after a six-minute gaming session and reported that game promoted significant self-efficacy. Among the studies examining the effects of games, about 15% employed mixed-method design and another 15% were qualitative ethnography or case study. For example, Barab et al. (2007) evaluated the effects of a massive multiplayer online game on 28 fourth graders with both quantitative pre- and post-tests and qualitative in-field observation. Conversely, Piper, O’Brien, Morris, and Winograd (2006) reported a positive effect of a cooperative tabletop computer game for social skills development only with a thick, qualitative description. In terms of results, 34 out of the 65 game effectiveness studies reported significant positive effects of computer-based game, 17 reported mixed results (instructional games facilitated certain learning outcomes but not the others), 12 reported no difference between computer games and conventional instruction, and only one study (Christensen & Gerber, 1990) reported conventional instruction as more effective than computer games. It should be noted that in these 65 studies, computer games were compared with conventional instructions either as a stand-alone pedagogical instrument (e.g., Abbey, 1993; Bahr & Rieth, 1989; Cameron & Dwyer, 2005; Goldsworthy, Barab, & Goldsworthy, 2000) or as a drilling tool complementing the conventional instruction (e.g., Taylor, 1987; Gremmen & Potters, 1997; Yip & Kwan, 2006). In addition, less than 50% of the game evaluation studies were longitudinal; most of them lasted no more than two hours. This finding is in agreement with the claim by Emes (1997) that more longitudinal studies were still needed for game effectiveness evaluation. Another notable pattern is that qualitative studies tend to report

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

positive effects of instructional games; few of them describe games’ negative aspects.

Studies on Instructional Game Design Among the 17 studies on game design, 10 are quantitative, three are qualitative, and the remainder are mixed-method. The examined game design features include pedagogical agent within a game, game playing group dynamics, games’ goal condition (having specified goal or not), games’ interface format (verbal narration, text, personalized speech or not), feedback type (elaborative or not), alignment of game-play and learning task, attitudes-triggering elements (grouping and competition), reward mechanism (at fixed or variable interval), complexity and authenticity level, richness of storyline, and the sort. Most game design studies indicate significant results. A common finding extracted from these design studies is that instructional support features are a necessary part of instructional computer games. The studies generally conclude that learners without instructional support in game will learn to play the game rather than learn domain-specific knowledge embedded in the game (Leutner, 1993; Mandinch, 1987).

Studies on Game-Based Pedagogy In this category of game studies, the researchers generally explore how game-based learning activities should be organized or administered, or how a game-based external learning environment should be constructed. For instance, Anderson (2005) examined how team dynamics, such as cohesiveness and heterogeneity, influenced team playing in a business enterprise simulation game and hence individuals’ performance and attitudes toward game use. Bahr and Reith (1989), Ke and Grabowski (2006), and Strommen (1993) investigated whether the game-based learning goal structures-cooperative, competitive, and individu-

alistic-influenced learning outcomes. Sandford, Ulicsak, Facer, and Rudd (2007) reported that teachers’ facilitation played an important role in an effective use of instructional games in the classroom. These studies assert that the investigation on computer games for learning should focus on how games can be carefully aligned with sound pedagogical strategies or learning conditions to be beneficial.

Studies on Learner Characteristics Only 10 out of 89 game studies examine the variable of learner characteristics; this confirms the finding by Dempsey et al. (1996) that studies on the interaction of learner characteristics and instructional game usage are limited. Among the studies reviewed, gender is the most examined learner characteristic. Some research (e.g., De Jean, Upitis, Koch, & Young, 1999; Inal & Cagiltay, 2007) has reported gender difference in terms of game-based learning performance and game design preference, while other research (e.g., Forsyth, 1986; Haynes, 2000; Ke & Grabowski, 2007) has not. Interestingly, the studies reporting gender difference are qualitative in nature, while those failing to find gender difference are mostly experimental and comparative in nature. A potential proposition extracted may be that gender influences game-play and learning processes more than learning outcomes. Learner psychological profile or cognitive style (Walters et al., 1997; Cameron & Dwyer, 2005) is another examined characteristic variable. Generally, prior studies have reported that individuals’ cognitive styles influence their performance in game-based team playing, yet failed to indicate the effect of cognitive styles on game-based individual learning. In addition, learners with a lower socio-economic status and lower ability have been reported as enjoying games most (Papernv & Starn, 1989; Ke & Grabowski, 2007). Conversely, there is



A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

evidence suggesting learners with lower ability have difficulty extracting target knowledge from games (Mandinch, 1987).

Studies on Game-Based Cognitive or Motivation Processes In the four studies that examined game-based cognitive processes (Alkan & Cagiltay, 2007; Cauzinille-Marmeche & Mathieu, 1989; Pillay, Brownlee, & Wilss, 1999; Pillay, 2002), gamebased cognition is a graduate development from random trial-and-error strategy, general deductive reasoning, rule-based learning, purposeful tools usage, to a combined approach. There is also a record of game-based metacognitive self-planning and regulation processes, yet the evidence is descriptive and anecdotal. Tuzun (2004) explored game-based motivation process and found 13 core components of game-facilitated motivation: identity presentation, social relations, playing, learning, achievement, rewards, immersive, context, fantasy, uniqueness, creativity, curiosity, control, and ownership. Although the games used in these types of studies are not necessarily instructional in nature, the results on game-based cognitive or motivational processes address the question as to whether games are a potential anchor to activate learners’ cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational processes.

Learning As the analysis results indicate, game studies involve a variety of learning settings: informal learning, kindergarten/preschool education, elementary education, secondary education, adult education, business management, military, and healthcare. Business management education seems to be the one associated with the most prevalent positive outcomes. Learning subject areas in game studies comprise science education, math, language arts, reading, physics, health, natural science, science,



and non-content-related social skill and general problem-solving skill development. Although Randel et al. (1992) suggested that a breakdown of the available studies by subject matter reveals that some knowledge domains (i.e., math, physics, and language arts) are particularly suited to games, this pattern is not evident in the current analysis. Cognitive learning outcomes in those reviewed studies consist of basic motor skill (e.g., Horn, Jones, & Hamlett, 1991), descriptive knowledge (e.g., Bartholomew et al., 2000), conceptual knowledge (e.g., Conati & Zhao, 2004), problem solving (e.g., Moreno, 2004), and general cognitive strategies (e.g., Cauzinille-Marmeche & Mathieu, 1989). An interesting pattern is that games seem to foster higher-order thinking (e.g., planning and reasoning) more than factual or verbal knowledge acquisition, which sustains the finding of Dempsey et al. (1996). Importantly, it should be noted that few game studies directly measured metacognitive process or outcome. Affective learning outcomes, involving selfefficacy, value (or attitudes toward subject content learning), affective feedback toward game use, and continuing motivation (or persistence), are present in many game studies. Generally, instructional computer games seem to facilitate motivation across different learner groups and learning situations. This finding is in agreement with Vogel et al.’s (2006) quantitative meta-analysis conclusion that the effect size of games vs. traditional teaching methods is highly reliable for attitude outcomes.

Learners In this analysis, school children and college students are predominant among the targeted learner groups. Fewer studies focus on adult learners, especially the elderly. Studies regarding games for learners with disabilities typically report significant positive effects of computer games on their learning performance (e.g., Horn et al.,

A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

1991; Inal & Cagiltay, 2007; Ota & DuPaul, 2002; Padgett, Strickland, & Coles, 2006). This finding suggests that computer games can be a powerful instructional intervention in special education.

Intervention: Game Genre and Features Games used in these studies demonstrate a high heterogeneity and can be classified as simulations, puzzles, adventures, board games, action games, strategy games, and business simulation games. These games are different in terms of game genre, media format (2D or 3D), timeframe, game-play design, and instructional support features. Since all of these game features can potentially influence the effectiveness of a game for learning purposes, it is difficult to quantify and synthesize the impact of games across different studies to create a standard effect size, especially when certain gaming studies failed to clearly describe their gaming treatments.

FUTURE TRENDS This grounded meta-analysis implicates a list of propositions on the future practice and research of instructional gaming. These propositions, with the support of synthesis findings, are discussed below.

Implications on Future Instructional Gaming Policy and Practice As the analysis indicates, the learning outcomes achieved through computer games depend largely on how educationalists align learning (i.e., learning subject areas and learning purposes), learner characteristics, and game-based pedagogy with the design of an instructional game. Out of the 89 coded gaming studies, 36 (40%) have investigated the influential role of learning purposes, learner characteristics, game-based pedagogy, and

instructional game features; they generally assert the significant effects of these mediating factors on game-based learning outcomes. Additionally, there is a trend that instructional gaming may serve certain levels of learning objectives (e.g., higherorder thinking and affective outcomes) better than the others (e.g., factual knowledge acquisition) or serve certain learners (e.g., learners with disabilities) better than others. Therefore, educationalists should more frequently ask how (as opposed to whether) games can be incorporated into learning environments. Rather than using games in a oneshot and decontextualized manner, educationalists should take a comprehensive diagnostic approach to identify and measure multiple influential factors in a game-based learning environment, thus deciding how to use games effectively or when to use games. The analysis results also implicate a careful design of external and internal instructional support features for gaming application, especially when the games are used for factual knowledge development or learners who have lower prior ability and have difficulty extracting target knowledge from games. External instructional support can be provided using teacher facilitation, good team dynamics, or structured cooperative learning/playing (Anderson, 2005; Bahr & Reith, 1989; Ke & Grabowski, 2006; Sandford et al., 2007). Internal instructional support features, as the prior studies suggest, are a necessary part of instructional games and should be embedded within a game through elaborative feedback, pedagogical agent, and multimodal information presentation (Cameron & Dwyer, 2005; Conati & Zhao, 2004; Forsyth, 1986; Moreno & Mayer, 2002; Moreno, 2004). The current analysis demonstrates that instructional gaming can be used in multiple educational settings that range from informal, community learning to school education. There is no evidence to suggest that gaming is favorable for certain educational settings but not others. Therefore, educational policymakers are encouraged to con-



A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

sider using games as a learning tool in situations both within and beyond the classroom.

Implications on Future Gaming Research Consistent with the finding of previous gaming reviews, this analysis indicates that the empirical research on instructional gaming is fragmented by research variables (i.e., research purpose and methodology), administrative variables (i.e., learning setting), learner variables, procedural variables (i.e., game-based pedagogy), and game variables (e.g., game genre and media). It is proposed that instead of adopting one-shot, incoherent experiments, future gaming research should take a systematic, comprehensive approach to examine dynamics governing the relations among multiple influential variables in a game-based learning system. In addition, it is found that the empirical research on instructional gaming tends to focus on traditional learner groups while ignoring adult learners, especially the elderly. Hence more evaluation studies should be conducted to measure the effects of games in adult education. Finally, instructional gaming researchers should provide clear descriptions on games used and game application contexts when reporting their game evaluation results. Without knowing the specifics of every game application, the literature reviewers will have difficulty synthesizing the impact of games across different studies using explicit decision rules.

CONCLUSION This chapter reports a grounded meta-analysis with 89 empirical studies on instructional gaming. Research features and findings of these empirical studies are synthesized qualitatively under standard coding rules. The four recurring themes (gaming research purpose and methodology,



learning, learner, and instructional game intervention) have been extracted from the analysis to outline the four clusters of influential factors that weigh in the evaluation of instructional gaming. It is argued that the best models or best practices of designing and applying instructional gaming would form by carefully aligning and integrating the three clusters of key variables-learning, learner, and instructional game design.

NOTE A single study may serve multiple research purposes.

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A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

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A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

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mathematics instruction using a computer-based simulation game. Journal of Computers in Mathematics & Science Teaching, 25(2), 165-195. Vogel, J.J., Greenwood-Ericksen, A., CannonBowers, J., & Bowers, C.A. (2006a). Using virtual reality with and without gaming attributes for academic achievement. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(1), 105-118.

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KEY TERMS

Walters, B.A., & Others, A. (1997). Simulation games in business policy courses: Is there value for students? 72(3), 170-174.

Effect Size: A name given to a family of indices that measure the magnitude of a treatment effect.

Washbush, J., & Gosen, J. (2001). An exploration of game-derived learning in total enterprise simulations. Simulation & Gaming, 32(3), 281.

Game Genre: Computer games are categorized into genres based on their game-play. Due to a general lack of commonly agreed-upon criteria for the definition of genres, classification of games is not always consistent.

Wegerif, R., Littleton, K., & Jones, A. (2003). Stand-alone computers supporting learning dialogues in primary classrooms. International Journal of Educational Research, 39(8), 851-860. Wellington, W., Faria, A.J., & Nulsen, R.O. Jr. (1996). An empirical investigation into the nature of the learning process in a computer-based simulation game. Marketing Education Review, 6(3), 15-36. Whitehill, B.V., & McDonald, B.A. (1993). Improving learning persistence of military personnel by enhancing motivation in a technical training program. Simulation & Gaming, 24(3), 294-313. Wiebe, J.H., & Martin, N.J. (1994). The impact of computer-based adventure game achievement and attitudes in geography. Journal of Computing in Childhood Education, 5(1), 61-71. Wildman, S., & Reeves, M. (1996). The utilization and evaluation of a simulation game in pre-regis-

Game Play: In computer game terminology, used to describe the overall experience of playing the game. It refers to “what player does.” Grounded Theory: A qualitative research method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived theory about a phenomenon. The primary objective of grounded theory is to expand upon an explanation of a phenomenon by identifying the key elements of that phenomenon, and then categorizing the relationships of those elements to the context and process of the experiment. Instructional Support Features: Instructional support, or “instructional overlay,” is the component that serves to optimize learning and motivation within a multimedia learning environment, such as a simulation or game.



A Qualitative Meta-Analysis of Computer Games as Learning Tools

Simulation: A computer simulation is a computer program that attempts to simulate an abstract model of a particular system.



Simulation Game: A game that contains a mixture of skill, chance, and strategy to simulate an aspect of reality, or a simulation that has a game structure imposed on the system.



Chapter II

Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning Aroutis N. Foster Michigan State University, USA Punya Mishra Michigan State University, USA

AbstrAct We offer a framework for conducting research on games for learning. Building on a survey of the literature on games, we suggest a categorization scheme (physiological and psychological) of the range of claims made for games. Our survey identifies three critical issues in the current scholarship. They are: a lack of authentic, situated research studies; a lack of sensitivity to the pedagogical affordances of different game genres; and a lack of emphasis on the importance of acquiring disciplinary knowledge (i.e., content). We offer the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) framework as a way to address these concerns and guide future research in this area. We argue that assessment on learning from games needs to consider the specific claims of games, as they interact with genre and content knowledge. Finally, we introduce an ongoing study that utilizes this approach.

INtrODUctION The nature of technology and the way we socialize ourselves has changed over time (Johnson, 2005) and the effects of these changes are reflected in the myriad of arguments about technology integration in schools (Cuban, 1986). Electronics games form a large part of the media environment of today’s

children. In 2006, 30% of the most frequent computer game players and 40% of console game players were under 18 years old (Entertainment Software Association, 2006). Further, American children between 8 and 18 years old play video games for an average of seven hours per week (National Institute on Media and the Family, 2005). It is evident that games capture children’s

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Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

attention and engage them in important ways. Clearly, designers, educators, and researchers need to develop a better understanding of how to integrate electronic games in classroom teaching. This requires knowing that the value of electronic games for learning comes not from merely inserting games into the curriculum, but rather on how different game genres reflect underlying pedagogical strategies that allow for learning in different content areas. This advent of games in everyday life comes at a time of perceived crisis in education. For instance the President of the Federation of American Scientists, Henry Kelly, says that education in the United States is facing a critical problem in that it must educate students to face the challenges of the 21st century (Federation of American Scientists, 2005; Kelly, 2005). International studies, such as Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), and national assessments such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) show that U.S. students are not performing up to standard in mathematics, science, or literacy (Gonzales et al., 2004; Hampden-Thompson, Johnston, & American Institutes for Research, 2006). The report by the Federation of American Scientists argues that video games may be a powerful way of helping students learn what they need in order to succeed in a globalized world. Video games capture children’s attention and imagination because they challenge, present fantasy, and generate curiosity through interactivity and intelligent design of game-play (Malone, 1981). Thus, it is not surprising to hear that games present a unique opportunity to educators to use the interests of children as a way to educate them. The use of video games for learning is argued by many to arise from the affordances of video gamesin particular, video games allow learners to immerse themselves in highly interactive and engaging experiences. Such experiences can lead to contextual learning of complex activities



and the development of understanding, skills, and innovativeness (Fabricatore, 2000; Greenfield et al., 1994; Subrahmanyan, Greenfield, Kraut, & Gross, 2001). Based on increased possibilities for learning from video games, it is not surprising that a great deal of attention is being paid to the role of video games in education (Foreman, 2003; Kelly, 2005; Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2005). There are a wide range of claims made about games, both positive and negative. On one side are positive claims, such as a recognition of the power games have to motivate learners, while on the other are negative claims, such as the idea that playing violent video games can lead to increased aggressive behavior. The wide diversity of these claims makes it difficult to engage in a rational discussion about the effects of games because different groups can have wildly divergent conceptualizations of the kinds of games (and their effects) they are talking about. It is clear that we need to develop a way of classifying or categorizing these claims in order to develop a shared frame from within which to discuss these issues. In the section below, we discuss and elaborate on the various types of claims made by people designing, using, and studying video games, with the goal of developing such a categorization scheme.

The Claims of Games Proponents of games say that we should be preparing students to be innovative, creative, and adaptable in order to deal with the demands of learning in domains that are ill structured (Federation of American Scientists, 2006; Gee, 2003, 2005a, 2005b, 2007a). They (e.g., Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001) go on to argue that games provide many of the essential affordances that are needed for learning in these contexts (Foreman, 2004). Games, according to these scholars, are a medium in which students are intrinsically motivated to be competent, autonomous, cognitively flexible risk takers (without serious consequences of taking

Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

these risks). Further, playing games differs from interaction with other media because “one literally learns by playing” and usually does not sit down to read a manual first (Sandford & Williamson, 2005). Thus, it is argued that games present an opportunity to use the interests of children as a way to educate them in a situated and embodied manner for the kinds of skills increasingly required for surviving and thriving in a globalized world (Barab, Bransford, Greeno, & Gee, 2007; Barab, Dodge, & Ingram-Goble, 2007; Gee, 2007b). Opponents to the use of games for learning argue that games are just another technological fad (akin to predictions made about cinema and television in years past). They argue that video games may be a waste of time and possibly cause increased violence and aggression, and decrease prosocial behaviors in players (Walsh, 1998). Moreover, they argue that playing games has negative consequences such as inactivity and obesity, and emphasizes the superficial as opposed to the deep ideas and ways of thinking that characterize disciplinary learning. What is interesting is that both groups, while seemingly disagreeing with each other, actually agree with each other at a more fundamental level. What both groups share is a deterministic stance towards technology—that this new technology of video games will lead to specific effects on users of the technology. In other words, what both sides agree on is that children can learn from games or that games can lead to changes in behavior. What they disagree on is whether this learning is beneficial or harmful. Irrespective of which camp one agrees with, we believe that it is important for us, as scholars and researchers, to carefully study the kinds of claims being made for games and to what extent these claims are based on armchair theorizing and wishful thinking rather than sound research. For this purpose we conducted a comprehensive survey of claims about games for learning (Mishra & Foster, 2007). We surveyed over 60 different sources of information. We cast a wide

net, including in our search online magazines, empirical and conceptual articles, newspaper articles, Weblogs, Web journals (electronic and paper), game Web sites, books, university Web sites, and conference proceedings. Through this process we ended up with more than 250 distinct claims that we transcribed either written verbatim or paraphrased (see examples in Table 1). Using a grounded theory analysis, the claims were then systematically and thematically assigned a code relating to game effects or learning such as “expertise development” or “logical thinking.” After assigning the claims to themes, the themes were then coded and assigned to two emergent broad groups of “psychological” and “physiological” effects. Further, coding the list of claims within the psychological effects group led to identifying four sub-categories. These sub-categories within the psychological group include: practical skills, cognitive skills, motivation, and social skills. Within the physiological effects group, there were fewer claims than in the psychological effects group, which resulted in seven specific but comprehensive categories of effect (see Figure 1). Within both the psychological and physiological claims, there were both positive and negative effects. One clear distinction between the two major categories (the physiological and psychological) was that the physiological scheme focused on claims that are more developmental or behavioral. In contrast, the psychological scheme focused on claims that are cognitively and socially oriented. We must add the caveat that there is no clear or sharp distinction between these categories and there is (as should be expected) some degree of overlap between themthat is, there are some psychological claims that one could say cause physiological effects and vice versa. Our analysis indicates that these claimed effects are related to learning and development in four ways, by shaping attitudes, affecting behavior, influencing understanding, and affecting spatial and motor abilities. In the sections below we describe each



Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

Table 1. Examples of the claims of games for learning “Game users are no more likely than non-game users to be involved in risk-taking behavior.” (Bosworth, 1994) Proficiency at game may afford players a temporary sense of mastery, control, and achievement that was previously found lacking. (Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004, p. 8) Violent video games increase aggressive cognition, physiological arousal, and aggressive behavior, and affect and decrease prosocial behavior (Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Carnagey & Anderson, 2004) Frequent gaming orients one to a computer society. (Greenfield et al., 1994) Simulator games can help in the development of all intellectual abilities and a mind for machines. (De Aguilera & Mendiz, 2003, p. 11) Video game playing empowers players in a way that translates into real-world activism (civic activism). (Williams, 2004) “Heavy use of computer games is associated with negative rather than positive outcomes in terms of academic achievement, self-esteem and sociability.” (Roe & Muijs, 1998, p. 1) “Computer games and simulators enhance learning through visualization, experimentation, and creativity of play. Increased learning occurs by problem solving in a complex interactive multidisciplinary environment and by ‘seeing’ causal relationships between individual actions and whole systems.” (Betz, 1996)

of these categories (and sub-categories) in greater detail.

Physiological Scheme Within the physiological scheme, there were seven specific effects of how games relate to learning and development. These include aggressiveness, violence, antisocial behavior, introversion, motor skills, coordination, and obesity. An example of these claims is, “violent video games increase aggressive cognition, physiological arousal and aggressive behavior and affect and decrease prosocial behavior” (Carnagey & Anderson, 2004).

Psychological Scheme The psychological scheme could further be broken down into four sub-categories about how games relate to learning and development. These include practical skills, cognitive skills, motivation, and social skills, as shown in the continuum of psychological claims in Figure 1. Social skills also encompass identity formation, which also has sub-themes relating to it such as valuing roles and role-playing (see Figure 1). 

Practical Skills Practical skills refer to learning in games that contribute directly to the development of skills that are applicable to the real world or authentic settings. It is argued that game playing can lead to learning on how to use technology, as well as expertise development, innovativeness, and creativity. It is worth noting that these are skills that have been identified as being critical for success in the 21st century (Greenfield et al., 1994; Shaffer & Gee, 2005).

Cognitive Skills Another set of claims about games was related to the acquisition of cognitive skills. It was argued that games, through linking knowledge and doing, support the idea of learning by doing (Barab, Hay, Barnett, & Squire, 2001; Shaffer et al., 2005). People who make these claims argue that players learn by engaging in some activity and develop firsthand experience of that activity or system. Based on arguments about affordances of electronic games for immediate feedback, so-

Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

Figure 1. Emergent themes from the claims of games

cialization and collaboration, cognitive supports, problem solving, and transfer, to name a few, proponents make claims about what is possible for learning based on research in the cognitive sciences. For instance, two such claims are: “The instant feedback and risk-free environment invite exploration and experimentation, stimulating curiosity, discovery learning and perseverance” (Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004), and “Virtual worlds of games are powerful because playing games means developing a set of effective social practices” (Shaffer et al., 2005).

Motivation A third sub-category of claims in the psychological domain has to do with the motivational power of

games. For instance, these sets of claims emphasize the affordances of game environments to intrinsically motivate students to learn (Cordova & Lepper, 1996). These claims are based on motivational principles for empowering learners, including the ability to grant power, autonomy, and challenge at a player’s level and implications for learners’ identity. For instance, the fact that certain electronic games allow you to take on an identity different from your own leads to the claim that, “People learn most deeply when they take on a new identity that they really want” (Foreman, 2004). Similar claims are made based on the fact that games provide challenges adjusted to the player’s ability, provide the player with clear and immediate feedback, and give players choice and control over their actions (Games-To Teach Research Project, 2006).



Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

Social Skills The fourth sub-category in the psychological category has to do with the development of social skills. In this context, social skills are related to when players collaborate with other players or when players learn about working with others in gaming situations. It is argued that playing games allows players to develop interpersonal skills, learn to work with others, and develop identities that could be good or bad depending on the type of game and player’s personality. An example of these claims is that video games allow “social and collaborative practices to emerge” among players (Sandford & Williamson, 2005).

The Claims of Games: Identifying Problems One first benefit of this survey and categorization of the claims for games is that it provides us (as scholars and researchers) a way to systematically talk about games and what benefits (or harms) they can bring to the learning process. By breaking these claims down into different categories (somewhat independent categories, and sub-categories), we can make some sense of the varied arguments being made, both for and against the use of games for learning. Additionally, categorizing these claims allows us to study which of these claims are supported by research and which are reasoned arguments based on the affordances provided by games. In brief, our survey revealed that there is much that we still need to know about the relationship between games and learning. In particular we identify three key problems in these claims being made for learning games: (a) the kind of support (research or theoretical) that underlies many of these claims; (b) treating games as being a monolithic entity (i.e., ignoring game genres and their differential potential for learning; and (c) the content-neutral nature of many of these claims. We consider each of these in turn.



Research and Theoretical Support for the Claims for Games In their recent review of the games literature, Mitchell and Savill-Smith (2004) said that the literature base relating to the use of computer games for learning appears to remain small. In a similar vein, Williams (2004) found that research in game-based learning continues to use inappropriate samples, conflated variables, and failed to acknowledge game genre which limits their claims. Thus, the claims of games we present above seem to have emerged mainly from lab studies and continue to be echoed by researchers without verification. Most of these claims are based on logical arguments and some from small-scale lab studies; most have not been confirmed in studies. In fact, these reviews (Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004; Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004; Randel, Morris, Wetzel, & Whitehill, 1992) all found that there are no firm conclusions about learning, although most students reported an interest in using games to learn rather than using conventional classroom instructions. It is worth noting that these studies were not longitudinal, hence longterm game effects could not be validated. Two recent dissertations (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2005; Squire, 2004) that were more realistic (situated in classrooms) revealed that students learned “superficial informationnot enough to satisfy students’ educational needs, but enough for them to grasp on it.” In Squire’s (2004) dissertation, which examined students playing Civilization III, one of his conclusions was that there was an incompatibility between the game content and what was required for the school curriculum. However, both Squire (2004) and Egenfeldt-Nielsen (2005) concluded that students developed a more holistic understanding and interest in historical information. Our review showed the strengths and weaknesses of current research practice. Generally the strengths are that there is a trend in studies moving away from lab environments such as Beckett

Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

and Shaffer (2005), Williams (2004), EgenfeldtNielsen (2005), and Squire (2004). Further studies such as Beckett and Shaffer are seeking to augment game playing with reality-based support to try and get children to develop epistemic frames (Shaffer, 2006; Shaffer & Gee, 2005). In conclusion, most of the claims of games are not supported by research or the research support is from small studies, which puts into question the generalizability of the results to different contexts and populations.

Games as Monolithic Entity (i.e., Ignoring Game Genres) There are many different kinds of games (which we consider being different genres) and it is clear that these claims of learning (we list and categorize above) do not apply equally to all games. Clearly, playing Guitar Hero has very different learning consequences (both physiological and psychological) than playing World of Warcraft or Space Invaders. Too often, arguments about learning from games have treated games as a monolithic entity, leading people to assume that the pedagogical value of one game is the same as that of another. Such thinking is problematic. Mixing the strengths and weaknesses across genres of games with others misrepresents the varied potential that different genres of games can offer. We argue that it is important to look carefully at game genre because each game genre reflects a certain design stance taken towards any given domain. In other words, the design of a game, the kinds of choices regarding game-play, structure, the nature of progress through a game, the nature of representation and so on, are all the results of conscious (and maybe subconscious) decisions made by game designers. This design stance, from an educational point of view, can be seen to be an implicit pedagogical approach—with implicit theories of learning, behavior, and epistemology. Electronic game genres influence game-play mechanics, which then influence what can be done

and learned through playing electronic games. Similar to how movie genres shape the design stance behind a movie that is created, video game genres shape the mechanism and design stance in games. Organizing video games by genres is not a new idea. However, our goal is not merely to classify various game genres, but rather to try and connect these genres to the claims of games in order to develop a systematic approach for the study of games and assessment of kinds of learning that can occur through playing different genres of games. A survey of the game genre literature indicates that there is little agreement on how game genres are created or classified. This has led to multiple classification schemes, based on existing categorizations and conceptualizations, such as according to existing movie genres, and visual representation and aesthetics (Apperley, 2006; Caldwell, 2004; Wolf, 2001). These approaches include Apperley’s (2006) idea of using interactivity or non-representational characteristics to examine genres, Wolf’s (2001) classification of genres based on the Library of Congress Moving Imagery Genre-Form Guide, and King and Krzywinska’s (2002) four levels of classification according to platform, genre, mode, and milieu. Apperley (2006) synthesizes these approaches and asserts that the key aspects of video games are their interactivity characteristics, the way the games are played (or experienced). In contrast to the visual aesthetics (or iconography) of games, which can vary greatly, Apperley (2006) argues that it is these interactivity characteristics that are common to all games. This typology would allow us to focus on the non-representational, specifically interactive characteristics of video games in order to create a “more nuanced, meaningful, and critical vocabulary for discussing video games” (p. 7). This view is similar to Wolf’s (2001) classification of video game genres developed by the Library of Congress Moving Imagery GenreForm Guide.1



Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

Figure 2. How the claims of games for learning and game genres should connect in research

A ction / Shooter

Both Apperley (2006) and Wolf (2001) argue that video game genres should be classified via interactivitythat is, video game genres should be classified by the way people experience or proceed in them because other classification strategies (such as classification by iconography) ignore the differences and similarities found in a player’s experience of a game. We believe that classifying games on the basis of interactivity makes sense when we think of educational games as well. We adopt Apperley’s (2006) and Wolf’s (2001) use of interactivity to classify game genres due to its flexibility for educational purposes. Contemporary learning theories argue that learning is not a simple process of transfer of information, but rather is developed through the learner’s active engagement with subject matter, situated within specific contexts. Espen Arseth’s notion of ergodicity, defined as non-trivial effort used to traverse text, can be fruitfully applied here. Thus we can view interactivity as the non-trivial effort or actions taken in playing video games. It is this effort to traverse the “text” of the video game that sets this medium apart. Video games

40

R PG

Platform

Simulation

Sports

Strategy

Adventure

Claims of Games

Fighting

Parlour

R hythm / Dance

Video Game Genres

have specific objectives (akin to learning goals) that a player tries to complete through specific interactions with the system. Game mode, milieu, and platform also affect the spaces and social relations created by the game, and thus the interactive, ergodic process of playing the game. Our analysis indicates that there are approximately 10 main game genres (see Figure 2). They include: action/shooter, fighting, roleplaying, simulation, strategy, rhythm/dance, parlor, adventure, sports, and platform games. These 10 are by no means meant to be exhaustive (particularly given the rapid rate of evolution of games and game genres), but merely represent one scheme that covers most of the other sub-genres. For instance, in our content analysis we saw that most of the games covered under shooter were also action, so we combined those genres into one. Further, many games can fall into more than one genre. Finally, we must accept the fact that game genres will change with time, through the advent of new technologies and new techniques of game-play.

Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

The relationship between game genres and the claims of games is two-way. A given genre may be connected to many different claims about learning from games, and a given claim may be connected to multiple genres. For instance, roleplaying games (RPG) may afford more opportunities for developing identities because one plays through a surrogate character. They may, through the insertion of quests and puzzles, also help in the development of physiological skills. That said, we argue that focusing on the connection between game genres and the claims of games can be a key unit for assessment in game-based learning. What we have argued so far provides a premise for the practical, cognitive, social, and motivational affordances for a particular game. The genres provide a situated or contextual place for examining these affordances within particular domains. The claims of games for learning are hypotheses to be examined within game genre, while the genres describe the nature of interaction within an electronic game as well as the expected pedagogical and epistemological stance. The genres provide a lens to address video games as a semiotic domain via the interactivity characteristics or the way the game is experienced/played within each genre. This enables the assessment of the internal or content aspects of games and the external aspects or the ways of seeing, believing, acting, interacting, and thinking within the domain (Gee, 1999, 2003).

The Content-Neutral Nature of Many of These Claims Gardner (2006) has argued that the most important invention of the past 2,000 years has been “the scholarly disciplines.” These disciplines, he writes, “represent the most advanced and best ways to think about issues consequential to human beings.” He continues that “the sort of discipline involved in scholarly modes of thinking is far from intuitive [and] is difficult to attain.” This is because “we have not evolved to carry out his-

torical studies, compute trigonometric functions, compose a fugue, pursue a set of experimental investigations in biology, chemistry, or physics, let alone to create testable theories in these spheres” (Gardner, 2006, pp. 137-138). In other words, acquiring disciplinary knowledge is difficult and requires the devotion of years of education in the big ideas and nuances of the disciplines. If games are to be successful for pedagogical purposes, they need to consider ways in which disciplinary knowledge can be thoughtfully integrated with game-play. In other words, it is critical that games embody in them ways of thinking and working with information that is particular to a given subject matter. It is important to realize that disciplinary knowledge varies greatly from one discipline to another and needs to be reflected in both the design and research into games for learning. Most current research in learning from electronic games does not address this issue of disciplinary knowledge—restricting itself, for the most part, to generic bromides about learning. Game designers and researchers contend that games embody a theory of learning that is reflected by the best research in the cognitive sciences (Foreman, 2003, 2004). However, ignoring the unique aspects of disciplinary knowledge for a given content area indicates that these learning theories, though useful in principle, may not be as much so for actual application. It is no surprise that, while games for entertainment are good at embodying pedagogy for learning the rules of those games in order to win, games for learning are often characterized as “chocolate covered broccoli” (Laurel, 2003). We argue that this interplay between games, pedagogy, and content needs to be understood better, if the claims of games are to hold true. The problem is related to the kind of pedagogy employed by commercial games vs. those employed by educational games. Educational game designers are faced with the conundrum of trying to use game pedagogies that worked in entertainment settings to educational settings. To clarify,



Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

we are not arguing that simulation strategy games like Civilization or The SIMS do not allow students to participate in discourses such as history, economics, and so forth at a level where they develop critical understanding of the process of learning and understanding semiotic domains (Gee, 2003; Squire, 2004), but rather that this lack of emphasis on disciplinary knowledge can become a significant stumbling block as games increasingly become part of the learning environment (particularly when attempting to integrate with school settings). In Squire’s (2004) dissertation examining the commercial simulation strategy game Civilization III integration in classrooms, he found that the game content was incompatible with the school curricula and hence school goals, though students learned general things about history and engaged in critical dialog about the historical content. However, some researchers and historians contend that Civilization has design limitations (such as a mismatch between content and game-play dynamics) that end up promoting naïve understandings of history (such as a belief that history has a definite goal) (Caldwell, 2004; Friedman, 1999). A good example of how the pedagogical constraints of schools can restrict how technology is designed and used relates to the use of educational computer games. A study comparing commercial games to educational games found that commercial games often were more demanding than educational games in terms of cognitive effort as well as in time required for mastery (Heeter et al., 2003). Educational games were easier to install, easier to learn, less complex, shorter, less challenging to play, and required less social interaction than commercial games. Heeter et al. (2003) asserted that these qualities resulted mainly from the need to fit game playing into standard school schedule 45- to 50-minute timeslots. What was clear from the study was that the constraints of working within a school setting led to game-design solutions that constrained playability, particularly related to the length and



complexity of game-play, and thus limited what students could learn from the game. The authors argue that constraining games to a format that is playable in classroom settings may pose a bigger challenge to designers interested in creating fun, educational games than the need to integrate curriculum-based subject matter. This emphasis on pedagogy through play leads Heeter et al. (2003) to argue that educational games are schizophrenic, in that they continually try to serve two masters, content learning and fun. Clearly game designers and scholars need to think of some manner in which to talk about this gap. We argue that the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) framework (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) is one way of making this connection.

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Games for Learning TPCK is a framework used to describe teacher knowledge for technology integration (Mishra & Koehler, 2006)2 (see Figure 3). Within the context of game design (or game design research), the TPCK framework can help us identify some important aspects in the design of an education game. The framework can help point to critical components that need to be considered in any assessment of learning from educational gaming. We describe below some of the critical components of the TPCK framework. Readers seeking a more detailed description should visit http://www.tpck.org. The TPCK framework builds on Shulman’s (1986) idea of pedagogical content knowledge—the crafting of content for pedagogical purposesand argues that any technology solution to a pedagogical problem needs to consider the role-play by three components: content (C), pedagogy (P), and technology (T). The intersection of P and C is what Shulman would call pedagogical content knowledge (PCK).

Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

Figure 3. Technological pedagogical content knowledge

From the point of view of educational games, we can see the intersection between T and P as technological pedagogical content knowledge. The TPCK wiki describes TPK as follows: Technological Pedagogical Knowledge is knowledge of the existence, components, and capabilities of various technologies as they are used in teaching and learning settings, and conversely, knowing how teaching might change as the result of using particular technologies. This might include an understanding that a range of tools exists for a particular task, the ability to choose a tool based on its fitness, strategies for using the tool’s affordances, and knowledge of pedagogical strategies and the ability to apply those strategies for use of technologies. What is interesting from the point of view of learning games is the strong family resemblances (Wittgenstein, 1953) TPK has to the classification of game genres we discussed earlier. The TPCK framework provides for a focused analysis on how technology integrates with content and pedagogy. Game genres, especially when seen through the lens of interactivity, are just a shorthand way

of describing how a particular game integrates pedagogy and technology. If a good educational game should seamlessly integrate all three aspects of TPCKnamely T, P, and Cour analysis of game genres shows that two of the three components of TPCK are already present (i.e., T and P). Clearly what is missing from the discussion is any discussion of C (content). Thus the goal of educational game designers is to think about how this third circle can be brought into the framework. The inclusion of the TPCK approach provides us with a framework for analyzing the content of games and how they integrate with game genres, and through that provide us insight into how learning could occur and how that learning could be assessed. In the next section we provide an example of how the TPCK framework can be fruitfully used in the design of a research study on learning from games. This is from an ongoing project currently being developed by the first author.



Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

Games and Learning Assessment Framework: An Example The focus of this study is on the kinds of learning that students can get from playing an economic simulation strategy game RollerCoaster Tycoon 3: Platinum (RCT3). RCT3 is one of the games from the RollerCoaster Tycoon series of games first developed by Chris Sawyer in 1999. The aim of the game is to build the best amusement park and generate as much profit as possible while managing other resources. The design and building of the theme park is directly related to how much profit is made in terms of cost-benefit, opportunity cost, or balancing constraints and affordances in the amusement park. The game, like others in the genre, allows players to control a whole theme park from managing resources, training and disciplining workers, building rides, and trying to maintain a beautiful and clean park, while also entertaining visitors and VIPs. Players can design their own theme park, rollercoaster, and other rides, or they can modify existing parks and purchase the rides. Players must also meet the needs of patrons visiting their park by building facilities such as food stalls, drink stands, ATMs, information booths, bathrooms, benches, and many more amenities. Central to the game is that players must manage their resources and balance their budgets in expenses and income. Players must also consider the affordances of their designs of rides with respect to the game needs as dictated by terrain and available money, their needshow they want their park to lookand the visitors’

needs for a certain excitement level and intensity of rides. RCT3 allows for the development of practical skills related to expertise development, cognitive skills related to systemic thinking and critical thinking, motivational affordances such as valuing, and social skills related to identity/possible selves and communication skills. The genre also helps in establishing what questions to ask because it gives the researcher an idea of the pedagogical stances in the games and also the epistemological stance. For instance, the following are some characteristics within the simulation strategy genre that provide a good place to start: 1.

2. 3. 4.

The focus within the genre is on planning and skill resource management to achieve victory RCT3 is production-economic focus Expertise development in skills related in the game The game is activity based around observation and intervention

The complexity of games (given the claims and genres) indicates that learning from games is a complex process. We believe that this argues for learning assessments and evaluations that utilize mixed-methods that combine the control of labbased studies with the richness of description of more qualitative approaches. A mixed-method combining both quantitative and qualitative methodological frameworks has the potential for game-based studies to be both authentic and

Table 2. Example of approach to research plan Game

Claims

Genres

Content

RollerCoaster

Practical Skills

Simulation

Economics

Tycoon 3: Platinum

Cognitive Skills Motivation Social Skills



Mathematics Strategy

Social Studies Information and Technological Literacy

Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

generalizable beyond their settings, sample, or within game genres depending on a researcher’s focus. The proposed games and learning assessment framework adopts a mixed-method approach to better understand games and their relations to learning.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS There are two key sets of implications of our work. The first has to do with how our framework can influence decision makers about selecting games for learning. For instance, school teachers can use our framework (claims, games, and genres) to help identify which games would be most appropriate for their classroom and that match their learning objectives. Additionally, parents could develop a better understanding on the types of games to get for their children and how to talk about games with their children. For policymakers, decisions on use of games in school based on game genres, pedagogy, and disciplinary affordances is crucial in an era where games are being used without much empirical support. The second set of implications has to do with developing guidelines for future research and development in the area of games for learning. One key implication, in this regard, is that our work on listing the claims of games could be the basis of future research in this area. It is clear that the current claims about games for learning need to be verified empirically and with appropriate research designs or assessments. The claims of games survey revealed that the claimed effects are related to four broad psychological effects—motivation, cognitive, practical, and social. However, the physiological and the psychological effects are related to learning and development in four ways: by shaping attitudes, affecting behavior, influencing understanding, and affecting spatial and motor abilities. As the field of game design and its relationship to learning matures as a dis-

cipline, we should become more nuanced about what games can (and cannot) do. We suggest that these ideas should be used as a guide, not the endpoint for what games afford, because: (a) games are continually evolving, and (b) most of these claims are unsubstantiated by research. This of course should be seen as an opportunity to scrutinize these claims and consider them as the basis for future research. Thus, each of these claims can be considered as being a hypothesis worthy of further study and investigation, thereby allowing these claims to be validated. Another key implication of our work is that designers and researchers need to think more deeply about how content (disciplinary knowledge) can be fruitfully integrated within the design of games and then how different game genres can impact learning. One of the themes that emerged from our survey is that the claims about games for learning are usually presented as being content-neutral. They often do not distinguish what is learned, such as what subject matter is most important for particular game-genres. What is learned from Tetris or Pac-man may be useful for senior citizens who need to maintain hand-eye coordination and not younger children who will develop that ability. Simulations can teach subject matter, but may be less successful in being integrated within the typical lecturedemonstration model that characterizes most school curriculum. We argue that research should carefully consider the pedagogical affordances of specific game genres (e.g., adventure, fighting, role-playing, simulations, action, sports, and strategy games, as well as their hybrids). Each game genre represents a different pedagogy and each pedagogical stance represents a different epistemological stance. Thus, research should elucidate which genre is better for what content. Research in game-based learning should connect claims to genres, rather than discuss games as if all games afford the same learning and skills



Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

development with respect to disciplinary knowledge/subject matter knowledge. More broadly, we would like to see research on games and learning that better describes how subject matter knowledge integrates with the game-play. This to us is the single most important challenge facing us as scholars and researchers. Games, if they are to be successful in changing student learning, need to go beyond being “chocolate covered broccoli,” but rather move towards approaches that develop creative and powerful ways for learners to engage with the essential qualities of subject matter. Thus game designers need to start with key concepts in the domain in question, identify what is good learning in this area, and build the game around it. This will clearly require a greater level of collaboration between game designers and content experts, a collaboration that depends on an acknowledgment that neither group can do this alone. A better understanding of the fact that content, pedagogy, and technology interact with varying levels of success is needed. Teaching with technology is a difficult thing to do well. Until game-based learning and design deals with the interaction of content, pedagogy, and technology (what has been called Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) (Mishra & Koehler, 2006), it is unlikely that there will be significant progress in this domain’s research program. The TPCK framework suggests that content, pedagogy, and technology have roles to play individually and together. Teaching successfully with games requires continually creating, maintaining, and re-establishing a dynamic equilibrium between each of these three components. In a recent editorial in the journal Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, Bull et al. (2007), speaking of the challenge of using technology effectively for student learning, described this challenge as being a “wicked” problem (Rittel & Webber, 1973) and argued that the design of best practices for technology integration has to deal with:



…incomplete, contradictory, and changing requirements characterized by complex interdependencies among a large number of contextually bound variables. The wicked problems of technology integration require us to develop innovative and creative ways of confronting this complexity. Research indicates that such innovation occurs best at the intersection of disciplines and that ‘the more diverse the problem-solving population, the more likely a problem is to be solved’. (Lakhani & Lars, 2007) It is only by respecting the “wicked nature” of the problem and recognizing the value of collaborative work across fields, accurate representations through a greater sensitivity to the kinds of claims being made, and better descriptions of the research, that the true potential for games as an agent for learning can be achieved.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank Andrea Ploucher Francis, Sue Barratt, three anonymous readers, and the editor for their help. This research has been partially funded by a Spencer Research Training Grant and a Mellon Mays Pre-Dissertation Fellowship to the first author.

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Mishra, P., & Foster, A. (2007). The claims of games: A comprehensive review and directions for future research. In R. Carlsen, K. McFerrin, J. Price, R. Weber, & D.A. Willis (Eds.), Proceedings of the 18th International Conference of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education, San Antonio, TX.

Shaffer, D.W. (2006). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Mishra, P., & Koehler, M.J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054. Mitchell, A., & Savill-Smith, C. (2004). The use of computer and video games for learning. London: Learning and Skills Development Agency. Myers, D. (2003). The nature of computer games: Play as semiosis. New York: Peter Lang. National Institute on Media and the Family. (2005, April 22). Effects of video game playing on children. Retrieved October 21, 2005, from http://www.mediafamily.org/facts/facts_effect. shtml Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Randel, J., Morris, B., Wetzel, C., & Whitehill, B. (1992). The effectiveness of games for educational purposes: A reviews of recent research. Simulation and Gaming, 23(3), 261-276. Rittel, H., & Webber, M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155-169. Roe, K., & Muijs, D. (1998). Children and computer games: A profile of the heavy user. European Journal of Communication, 13(2), 181-200.

Shaffer, D.W., & Gee, J.P. (2005). Before every child is left behind: How epistemic games can solve the coming crisis in education. Shaffer, D.W., Squire, K., Halverson, R., & Gee, J.P. (2005). Video games and the future of learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(2), 104-111. Shulman, L.S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4-14. Squire, K. (2004). Replaying history: Learning world history through playing civilization III. Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University, USA. Subrahmanyan, K., Greenfield, P., Kraut, R., & Gross, E. (2001). The impact of computer use on children’s and adolescents’ development. Applied Developmental Psychology, 22(1), 7-30. Walsh, D. (1998, December 1). 1998 video and computer game report card. Retrieved October 29, 2005, from http://www.mediafamily.org/research/report_vgrc_1998-1.shtml#1998 Williams, D.C. (2004). Trouble in river city: The social life of video games. Unpublished Dissertation, University of Michigan, USA. Wittgenstein, L. (1953). Philosophical investigations. New York: Macmillan. Wolf, M.J.P. (2001). Genre and the video game. In M.J.P. Wolf (Ed.), The medium of the video game (1st ed., p. 232). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.



Games, Claims, Genres, and Learning

KEY TERMS Claims of Games: Broad claims made about what games (video and computer–digital) offer for learning. They usually fall within two schemes: psychological or physiological.

ENDNOTES 1

Game Interactivity: The way games are experienced or the non-trivial effort or actions taken in playing video games. Game Mode: Mode in which the game is experienced. It may affect players’ movement as tightly structured or multidirectional or multilinear. Games: Refers to types of electronic games: arcade, video, and computer games. Milieu: Visual genre of the game, for example, science fiction or horror. Physiological Scheme of Claims: Seven specific developmental behavioral claims. Platform: The hardware system on which the game is played, for example, PDA, GBA, and cell phone. Psychological Scheme of Claims: Claims that are cognitively practically, motivational, and socially oriented. Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK): A framework for integrating content into technology (games) and analyzing games. Also see TPCK.org for more information.

0

2

However, Wolf’s (2001) view of genres based on a movie model does not recognize and transforms with advancement in technology. Movie genres remain static and rarely change even with technological advancement. Apperley (2006) argues that the collapse of the video game industry in the 1980s was partially due to static genres that became too formulaic for game players. Game players prefer genres that advance and exploit the current technology, even though they may breakdown at the fringes or blur with other genres. This is important because it shows the fluid nature of game genres. Myers (2003) contends that game genres develop as a result of the technological contexts and are therefore not lasting or fundamental as are movie genres. More importantly, however, is Wolf’s (2001) idea of using interactivity over iconography or thematic analysis to examine game genres, which is similar to Apperley’s (2006) notion of using non-representational characteristics of game, specifically the interactive ones. A range of scholars have made arguments regarding TPCK (or variants thereof). A relatively comprehensive list of references to TPCK in the research literature can be found at http://www.tpck.org/.



Chapter III

Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Play Games for Learning Sara de Freitas University of Coventry, UK Mark Griffiths Nottingham Trent University, UK

AbstrAct This chapter explores whether massively multiplayer online role-play games (MMORPGs) can be used effectively to support learning and training communities. The chapter aims to propose that cross-disciplinary approaches to the study of game-based learning are needed to support better synthesis of our current understanding of the effectiveness of learning with games. The chapter therefore includes a brief literature review of online gaming research to date, taken from psychological and educational research perspectives. The chapter explores the main types of online games and highlights the main themes of research undertaken through a consideration of the use of online gaming in current learning and training contexts where online gaming is being used to support experiential and discovery learning approaches. This chapter indicates future directions for cross-disciplinary research approaches in this field and considers how collaborative learning could best be supported through this approach.

INtrODUctION By way of an introduction to the subject of online gaming, the chapter will explore the main types of online games and highlight the main themes of research undertaken through a consideration of the use of online gaming in current learning and training contexts where online gaming is being used to support experiential and discovery

learning approaches. This chapter will indicate future directions for cross-disciplinary research approaches in this field and consider how collaborative learning could best be supported through this approach. The use of MMORPGs in educational contexts is a relatively new research area; indeed the first online games have only become established in the last five to ten years, and for these reasons there are specific problems in terms of data collection and

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validation (Wood, Griffiths, & Eatough, 2004). In addition, it has been noted that the field requires analytical techniques and frameworks for evaluation, some of which are being developed (de Freitas & Oliver, 2005, 2006). However, it is envisaged that this field of inquiry is set to expand, and as such, applications of multiplayer online gaming may become more numerous over the next five years, producing a wider evidence-base of research and allowing for more effective evaluation and validation (Pelletier & Oliver, 2006). While the numbers of online games used for training and education purposes are limited at present, many of those that are available tend to center on military contexts and requirements, due to the large associated development costs. However, beyond the growing number of military applications of online gaming for training, there are an increasing number of small-scale researchbased experimental projects that also fall into this area of study (Lee, Eustace, Fellows, Bytheway, & Irving, 2005; McLaughlin, Kirkpatrick, Hirsch, & Maier, 2001; Jones et al., 2004). Although online gaming is a relatively new area of activity, its success at engaging large groups of remotely located users has meant that early research projects and military training organizations have already begun to use multiplayer online role-play gaming approaches as a means for engaging and retaining large remotely located learner groups, and for supporting collaborative learning objectives and ‘communities of practice’ (Wenger, 1998). While there are clearly central issues emerging in the review of existing literature, particular challenges lie in the fact that single disciplinary perspectives have often precluded more interdisciplinary, cross-thematic approaches that lend better to opportunities for synthesis. This chapter brings together a review that combines literature from psychology and educational theory, and practice disciplinary perspectives in an attempt to problematize key issues emerging with respect to using online gaming in educational contexts. The second section of the chapter therefore provides



a general review of what online gaming is, the third section provides a review of psychological perspectives on the literature of online gaming, and the fourth section introduces examples where online gaming is currently being used in educational and training contexts. The conclusions bring together the main themes and problems raised in the chapter. The chapter aims to propose that cross-disciplinary approaches to the study of a game-based learning approach are needed to support better synthesis of our current understanding of the effectiveness of learning with games. The chapter will include a brief literature review of online gaming research taken from psychological and educational research perspectives. The chapter will explore a range of terms including the following: online gaming, standalone games, local and wide area games, massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG), and flow.

WHAT IS ONLINE GAMING? Due to the rise of computer games as a leisure phenomenon, there has been increasing research into this area over the last few years (e.g., Bonk & Dennen, 2005; de Freitas, 2005; Dickey, 2003; Sandford, Ulicsak, Facer, & Rudd, 2005). Prior to 2003, a majority of the research had concentrated on adolescent players, and on the more negative aspects such as excessive play and addiction, the effects of playing aggressive games, and the medical and psychosocial consequences (Griffiths, 2005). However, there have been a few psychologically based studies on personality and computer game-play (e.g., Douse & McManus, 1993). As the 1990s came to a close, a new generation of machines with increasingly sophisticated processing power began to replace the early 1990s’ consoles. However, an even more revolutionary development was also occurring involving the Internet as a gaming forum. New games emerged that enabled people to link up online to game

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together, allowing greater potential for collaborative learning and working. The games varied in their mode of operation. Griffiths, Davies, and Chappell (2003) outlined the three main types of social virtual gaming over the Internet: standalone games, local and wide network (LAWN) games, and massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs).

Standalone Games Standalone games are single-player-orientated games for the PC with the option to go online to seek a human opponent. Until recently, the main use of standalone games was to pitch player vs. computer (e.g., Black & White, Dungeon Keeper II, and Diablo II). If played online, these games (by definition) do not immerse a player into a virtual, narrative-enriched world. Where players choose to represent themselves as a single character, they are usually fixed in the view offered (e.g., over the shoulder), and rarely do players engage in grouping behavior. Player communication is possible, but the depth of the social immersion in the game is restrained by the lack of a clear game narrative.

Local and Wide Network (LAWN) Games LAWN games arose from the desire to link players together in support of tournaments (e.g., Quake III and Counterstrike). The main style of play involved in these games is tactical combat. These games have a limited game narrative and character development, with an emphasis on tactical play. This style of gaming has given rise to grouping in ‘clans’. For example, in Counterstrike their identity is akin to an army’s special operation forces or terrorist group. The clans then meet in cyberspace to compete in deadly combat. The aim of these clans is to kill or destroy opponents. The kill is usually denoted by the term ‘frag’ and the view is first person. The clans may also have a

real existence (i.e., people living together in the real world) or may be a virtual grouping. This form of gaming has grown in popularity to such an extent that ‘LAN parties’ are now regularly held where hundreds to thousands of individuals meet and link up transported PCs to compete over a weekend. A further development has been professional games’ tournaments and the emergence of professional gamers.

Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPG) MMORPGs are the latest Internet-only gaming experience. These are typically represented by large, sophisticated, detailed, and evolving worlds based in different narrative environments. Examples of such games are Everquest (heroic fantasy), Anarchy Online (futurist science fiction), and Motor City Online (classic car racing). In these games the non-player characters (NPCs) are designed with advanced AI that offers a rich and unpredictable milieu for players to experience a virtual world through their own ‘player character’. The nature of these games is to offer a rich three-dimensional world that is populated by thousands of players. This game form is a fully developed multiplayer universe with an advanced and detailed world (both visual and auditory). Popular MMORPGs include games such as Everquest and World of Warcraft. Although computer gaming is becoming an integral part of mainstream cultural pastimes, very little is known about the psychology of the more recent phenomenon of online gaming. There is very little data even on the basics. For example, the relationship between personality and amount of time spent gaming (or the type of gaming pursued) has received little attention. What data there is suggests that gaming in general, particularly online fantasy gaming, is associated with introversion and lower empathic concern (Douse & McManus, 1993). There has been very little research into these online gaming communities,



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although a number of disciplines are beginning to generate research from different perspectives including the psychological, the sociological, and the economic.

ONLINE GAMING: A BRIEF OVERVIEW Bartle (1996) studied multi-user virtual environments (MUDs) and classified players into four different subgroups (i.e., achievers, explorers, killers, and socializers), formulated from the inter-relationship of two dimensions of playing style: action vs. interaction and world-oriented vs. player-oriented. He concluded that each of these four subgroups views the playing of MUDs differently. More specifically, MUDs were games (like chess, tennis, etc.) to achievers, pastimes (like reading, gardening, etc.) to explorers, sports (like hunting, shooting, fishing, etc.) to killers, and entertainment (like television, going to nightclubs, etc.) to socializers. Using Bartle’s (1996) classification of MUD players, Andreasen (2003) surveyed players from all major online gaming communities. Among the 4,380 Everquest players polled (3,672 males, 618 females), 34% were explorers, 25% were achievers, 23% were socializers, and 15% were killers. As reported, over a third of all Everquest players (34%) were explorers in the game. One of the main criticisms is that a player has to do all of these actions (exploring, killing, socializing, etc.) if they want to advance in the game. In a number of unpublished studies on his Web site, Yee (2003) has collected demographic data about Everquest players (with sample sizes ranging from 1,240 to 2,470). The main findings he reported were that 84-88% of players are male, the average age of players is 25.6 years old, 30% of players are students and 36% work in the IT business, players spend an average of 22.4 hours playing the game a week, and 25% play the game with their partner.



In an attempt to establish some benchmark data, Griffiths et al. (2003) collated data from two online gaming fan sites for Everquest players— Everlore (www.everlore.com) and Allakhazam (everquest.allakhazam.com). Each of these sites conducts a regular poll where one question is asked. Griffiths et al. (2003) examined every poll question on both fan sites from their inception (in 1999) up until June 2002. Socio-demographic data showed that the majority of players were male (approximately 85%). Over 60% of players were older than 19 years. The vast majority of the players were North American (73% American and 8% Canadian) and players had a wide variety of education. Thirty-three percent of the sample was still at an educational establishment including those currently in middle school (3%), high school (14%), college (14%), and graduate school (2%). Of those who were in employment, 23% had a high school diploma, 33% had an undergraduate diploma, 7% had a master’s degree, and 2% had a doctoral degree. The data provided evidence that the game clientele was very much an adult profile and suggested a different picture to the stereotypical image of an adolescent online gamer. Griffiths et al. (2003) acknowledged that the major weakness of their research was its reliance on secondary data. Each individual question from the poll sites had a different sample. Therefore, in a follow-up study, Griffiths et al. (2004) collected some primary data and compared it to the secondary data collected in the previous study (see Table 1). Using an online questionnaire survey, they examined basic demographic factors (i.e., gender, age, marital status, nationality, education level, occupation, etc.) of online computer game players who played the most popular online game Everquest. The survey also examined playing frequency (i.e., amount of time spent playing the game a week), playing history (i.e., how long they had been playing the game, who they played the game with, whether they had ever gender swapped

Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Play Games for Learning

Table 1. Comparison of online gamers between primary (Griffiths et al., 2004) and secondary (Griffiths et al., 2003) data Griffiths et al. (2003)

Griffiths et al. (2004)

Game played

Everquest









Everquest

Year data collected

1999-2002









2002

Sample sizes range: 2,536-15,788 Gender Male (85%) Female (15%)





540

Male Female



(81%) (19%)

Age



(8%) (59%) (22%) (11%)







Variable studied



Less than 13 years 10 to 30 years 31 to 40 years Over 40 years

(1%) (71%) (20%) (8%)



12 to 17 years 18 to 30 years 31 to 40 years Over 40 years

North America United Kingdom Germany Sweden France Australia All other countries

(81%) (4%) (2%) (2%) (2%) (2%) (7%)



North America United Kingdom Germany Sweden France Australia All other countries

(76.7%) (12%) (1.7%) (1.3%) (0.7%) (2.2%) (5.4%)



(17%) (14%) (23%) (33%) (11%) (2%)



Primary Secondary Further Higher Postgraduate Other

(13.9%) (19.8%) (23.5%) (29.3%) (12.8%) (0.7%)

Play frequency (hours per week) Up to 9 hours 10 to 20 hours 21 to 30 hours 31 to 40 hours 41 to 50 hours Over 50 hours

(8%) (25%) (25%) (18%) (9%) (15%)



Up to 10 hrs 11 to 20 hours 21 to 30 hours 31 to 40 hours 41 to 50 hours Over 50 hours

Nationality

Education level Primary Secondary Further Higher Postgraduate Other



(16%) (36%) (24%) (14%) (5%) (5%)

continued on following page

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Table 1. continued Gender swapping*

Yes No (main character)

(15.5%) (84.4%)

Yes No (any character)

(60%) (40%)

Favorite aspects of play Social contact/grouping (23%) Social contact/grouping (35%) Solo play (26%) Solo play (6.5%) Guild membership (10%) Guild membership (10%) Role-playing (5%) Role-playing (5%) Player vs. player (2%) Player vs. player (3%) Combat/killing (2%) Combat/killing (5.5%) Other aspects (32%) Other aspects (35%) Least favorite aspects of play** Slow advance for (14%) Slow advance for (13%) casual players casual players Difficult to play solo (11%) Difficult to play solo (4%) Death penalty (13%) Death penalty (6%) Too much camping (11%) Too much camping (15%) Helping inexperienced (4%) Helping inexperienced (2%) Other aspects (47%) Other aspects (60%) * These questions were not the same. One asked whether the player had ever swapped the gender of their main character. The other asked if they had ever swapped gender at all ** The two studies used different ‘forced choice’ boxes, therefore many of the answers were different.

their game character), the favorite and least favorite aspects of playing the game, and what they sacrifice (if anything) to play the game. Results showed that 81% of online game players were male, and that the mean age of players was 27.9 years of age. For many players, the social aspects of the game were the most important factor in playing. A small minority of players appears to play excessively (over 80 hours a week), and results suggest that a small minority sacrifice important activities in order to play (e.g., sleep, time with family and/or partner, work, or schooling). Their results confirmed most of the findings from their survey of secondary data (see Table 1). Everquest, Asheron’s Call, and Ultima Online are just a few of the MMORPGs that are available.

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However, with more sophisticated and advanced technology, and with increased Internet speeds, MMORPGs are certain to become a very popular gaming format. There is clearly much research needed in this area of the gaming world, as there is little research even on the most basic aspects of online gaming. There has also been some other psychological research examining other psychological characteristics of online gamers who play MUDs (multi-user dungeons, or multi-user dimensions), particularly in the area of ‘flow’ experiences. This research is based on the work of Csikszentmihalyi (2000), who describes these experiences as “flowing from one moment to the next, in which he is in control of his actions, and in which there is little distinction between self and

Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Play Games for Learning

environment, between stimulus and responses, between past, present, and future” (p. 34). Csikszentmihalyi (2000) has argued that flow may accompany almost every type of human behavior. The major characteristics of flow are: • • • •

•

Temporary loss of self-consciousness and a sense of time; High concentration on the task and a high level of control over it; Objectives become clear and distinct, and actions merge awareness; Experience brings full satisfaction and seems worth doing for its own sake (i.e., intrinsic motivation); and Immediate feedback.

What is especially important is that the flow rests upon the matching between the available skills and the task challenges. Research by McKenna and Lee (2005) showed that MUDding fits the flow model and that the social interaction while playing MUDs is inseparable from the flow experience. Subsequent empirical research has also shown that online gamers undergo flow experiences, and that these experiences are critical in forming long-term attachments to some games (Choi & Kim, 2004). Research by Voiskounsky, Mitina, and Avetisova (2005) examined ‘flow’ experiences in Russian gamers (n = 347) who play MUDs. Using a specially designed online questionnaire, they reported that online gaming environments help facilitate ‘flow’ experiences. Their research also showed that there were three-dimensional subsets to flow while MUDding. There was a universal subset (dimensions describing flow experience irrespective of any particular type of activity), a gaming subset (describing flow experienced while playing computer/video/online games), and a MUDs-related subset of dimensions specifying flow experienced while MUDding. This overview of recent research implies that the use of MMORPGs may support collaborative

learning approaches effectively by supporting ‘flow’ between separate learning experiences; this could both support new opportunities for developing learning content and create opportunities for group work (Inal & Cagiltay, 2007). The following section reviews some examples of how MMORPGs are currently being used in experiential practice in order to explore what the potential for learning with these collaborative games might be in learning and training contexts.

EXAMPLES OF HOW MMORPGS ARE CURRENTLY BEING USED TO SUPPORT LEARNING AND trAINING The following section will explore some examples of these early applications and pilots in training and learning contexts. MMORPGs are currently being used in training and learning contexts often to support collaborative experience-based and exploratory learning approaches (Kolb, 1984), and to support learning through real-time experiences.

Multiplayer Online Games for School Education While the use of ‘off-line’ games (including standalone and single-player over local and wide area networks) in school contexts is growing in popularity with tutors and learners (de Freitas, 2004; de Freitas & Levene, 2004; Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004), development of the use of MMORPGs to support learning for school children is clearly in its earliest stages. Snyder (2007) has used Second Life to help teach mathematics and science concepts. In Second Life (or any other metaverse), the real advantage is using the platform to do innovative things that could not otherwise be done in a classroom that reach into the pupil’s imaginations. This could include such



Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Play Games for Learning

examples as shrinking down and walking through the human body, becoming another gender or race, or manipulating financial markets and observing the outcome. One research project undertaken by a Research Team at Charles Sturt University in Australia involving a pilot study (called Rochester Castle) at Swan View Senior High School in Perth, Western Australia, demonstrates potential for supporting collaborative learning processes, such as those associated with problem- and experience-based learning (Lee et al., 2005). The Rochester Castle project is original not only because it uses a MMORPG to support learning in a school, but also in that the learners designed and developed the game themselves (Lee et al., 2005). The teachers and research team initially created the virtual environment for Society and Environment students to explore the history of Rochester Castle (1087-1100AD) in England in a more interactive way. The role-play online game was based upon a Multi-User Domain Object-Orientated (MOO) and was used to support English and History students. The learners designed and developed the game based upon a scenario presented by their teacher. The researchers conducted an interim analysis of online gamer behavior and found that 53 student online gamers were using Rochester Castle for a total of 223 student hours, which averaged 5.2 hours per student. Interestingly, the average time spent by teachers supporting the game was nine hours (about typical teacher preparation time). The project was successful in engaging the school children in a more interactive approach to learning, which also supported collaborative and team-building skills—skills that could then be applied to real life. Students using the MMORPG found that they had gained new skills in learning collaboratively online, while teachers found that they had developed new ICT skills and enhanced teaching practices (Lee et al., 2005). The MMORPG piloted here indicates important implications for producing collaborative learning



content through content authoring interactive environments that gaming offers teachers and learners. The project also indicates the potential of gaming for supporting collaborative learning approaches that support ‘flow’ between learning groups and throughout the learning experience, helping to engage learner cohorts but also contributing to skills development.

Online Multiplayer Role-Play Games for Post-16 Learning Although the potential for MMORPGs to be used in higher education is clearly significant, it is notable that there were few examples of this approach found in the literature searches carried out for this chapter. While simulations have been taken up fairly widely in higher education, particularly in business education and medical training, the use of games has remained largely limited to smaller flash-based games—or for self-directed learning rather than for supporting specifically collaborative learning (Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004). The greater use of simulations over games, particularly in learning contexts, has led to simulations becoming an accepted aspect of the teaching toolkits, particularly for simulating reallife experiences in low-cost, low-impact training situations. The wider use of games—and games engines for authoring immersive and interactive three-dimensional environments—has led to the development of serious gaming (or edugaming) promoting the sensible use of games, often for engaging learners and keeping motivation levels high. However, there has been a perceived convergence between games and simulations, or ‘gamesims’, that combines elements of both forms together, for example, the scenario-based role-play of simulations with the rule-based elements of gaming, ideally providing the intrinsic motivation of gaming with the proven instructional outcomes of well-designed simulations (de Freitas, 2004; de Freitas & Levene, 2004).

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This convergence may be due to the overlap of functionality as perceived by educationalists. However, it may also be attributable to the fact that simulations provide a tried-and-tested pedagogic method, while games in education have yet to be fully embedded and tested in empirical studies (Egenfeldt-Nielsen. 2005). For these reasons, as well as the significant cost associated with games development, the instances of online gaming for learning in post-16 contexts, apart from those associated with military training, have tended to center upon simulation-based rather than gamesbased approaches. The following example of this trend (Mekong e-Sim) highlights this more simulation-based approach.

Described as a ‘role-play simulation’, Mekong e-Sim (electronic simulation) was developed to support the learning requirements of geography and engineering undergraduate university students. The role-play is set in the Mekong area of South East Asia and involves “decision-making and conflict resolution regarding natural resource development” (McLaughlin et al., 2001; Kirkpatrick, McLaughlin, Maier, & Hirsch, 2002). Interestingly, the game was developed as a tool to aid students from different disciplines, including geography, technological engineering, and environmental engineering, to work collaboratively to learn about environmental decision making. Based upon earlier work (McLaughlin & Kirkpatrick,

Figure 1. Learning design of Mekong Sim (McLaughlin & Kirkpatrick, 2004)



Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Play Games for Learning

2001), Mekong e-Sim attempted to integrate shared online role-play with established teaching practices, using collaborative approaches to teaching. As the authors themselves noted: We wanted to develop a learning activity in which students would work collaboratively to develop mastery of fundamental discipline-based knowledge while developing transferable skills such as negotiation, decision-making and an understanding of the range of perspectives that could be taken with regard to complex situations. (McLaughlin & Kirkpatrick, 2004, p. 479) Mekong e-Sim was designed to bring together students from different disciplines to allow them to understand the different perspectives involved in engineering, and to help them understand the complex relationships involved in real-life engineering situations, using collaborative strategies to ensure that learners would work effectively together (e.g., Johnson & Johnson, 1996; Goodsell, Mather, & Tinto, 1992). The simulation accounted for 35% to 50% of the total course marks. The design of the simulation role-play “was guided by principles of collaborative peer learning and experiential learning” (McLaughlin & Kirkpatrick, 2004, p. 480). Like simulations, Mekong e-Sim relied on debriefing to provide an opportunity for critical reflection. Five key stages of the simulation include: briefing, role adoption, e-mail interaction, forum interaction, and debriefing (see Table 1). The simulation used a blended learning model, bringing together faceto-face sessions (for briefing and debriefing) with online sessions. Students appreciated the approach: 91% agreed that the simulation developed an awareness of multiple dimensions to natural resource decision making, four-fifths of the students said it benefited their team-building skills (80%), and more than two-thirds (71%) of the students said it supported their electronic communication skills. The simulation was also found to improve their learning

0

about the discipline and about the complexities of environmental decision making (McLaughlin & Kirkpatrick, 2004).

MMORPGs for Military Training Multiplayer online role-play games are currently being used to support military training in a number of areas. Online games such as America’s Army, Full Spectrum Command, and StrikeCOM provide a powerful model for how online collaborative communities can be supported through specially designed task-related activities (Kyda, 2005; Swartout & Van Lent, 2003; Twitchell, Wiers, Adkins, Burgoon, & Nunamaker, 2005). These online games are examined in more detail in the following sections. StrikeCOM is a multiplayer online strategy game developed by the Center for the Management of Information (CMI) at the University of Arizona as a research tool ((Twitchell et al., 2005). The game was designed to research and teach group interactions, dynamics, and processes. The game was developed in order to investigate deception detection within large groups of people (Biros et al., 2005), by examining group performance and perceptions of deception in face-to-face communications and real-time text chat (Biros et al., 2005). The two forms of communication are manipulated to make participants more suspicious of one another, according to scenarios taken from practice and developed through StrikeCOM. StrikeCOM imitates military-based Command, Control, Communication, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C3ISR) scenarios and information gathering in collaborative activities. For example, the system has been used by the U.S. Department of Defense for teaching Network Centric Warfare to Battle Commanders. In addition, the tool has been used to research leadership and deception in collaborative group decision making. Not only is the game designed to examine the development of shared awareness and communication in distributed groups (Twitchell

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et al., 2005), the system also allows trainees to develop more critical stances and to become more reflective about deceptive strategies that might be used against them in real-life situations. However, although StrikeCOM has been used with business and military students, the game lacks the immersive 3D quality that most learners who are familiar with leisure gaming expect, and is based more upon scenario-based approaches to learning than engaging with truly interactive and immersive experiences, as have been developed more recently. Full Spectrum Command is an online game, which in common with America’s Army (reviewed elsewhere–see de Freitas, Savill-Smith, & Attewell, 2006) is a more immersive style of MMORPG. The University of Southern California’s Institute of Creative Technologies and Quicksilver Software developed Full Spectrum Command as an educational tool for the U.S. Army (Swartout & Van Lent, 2003). Drawing upon the real-time strategy game genre, Full Spectrum Command aims to teach cognitive skills, such as leadership and decision-making skills to infantry company commanders. As with America’s Army and other real-time strategy games, the format centers upon training in the form of a series of missions, each of which have a designated training objective. In common with training simulations, these missions are instructor designed. However, rather differently, these missions include extensive background stories, including a detailed history of the current situation and enemy personalities (with fictional images and profiles). As the learner advances through the missions, the stories become more complex with greater surprises and twists designed to put the student under greater pressure, thereby testing their abilities to keep calm under increasing pressure (Swartout & Van Lent, 2003). Interestingly, work is currently underway to convert Full Spectrum Command into a VR environment for treating victims of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), indicating the broad range

of potential uses of online gaming for therapeutic purposes: A prototype of a ‘Wizard of Oz’ type clinical interface has also been created. This interface is a key element for the application in that it will provide the clinician with the capacity to monitor a patient’s behavior and customize the therapy experience to their individual needs by placing them in VE locations that resemble the setting in which the traumatic events initially occurred. The interface also allows for the gradual introduction and control of ‘trigger’ stimuli in the VE in real time that is required to foster the anxiety modulation needed for therapeutic habituation. (Rizzo et al., 2004, p. 2)

MMORPGs for Leadership Training O’Driscoll (2006) has been researching the potential applications of synthetic worlds and MMORPGs to real-world corporate applications. He has investigated avatar-mediated 3D environments on a number of fronts. He believes the immersion and interactivity that the ‘metaverse’ provides creates a medium for true experiential learning. For instance, a Level 60 guild leader in World of Warcraft has to spend about 500 hours in-world. In this time the leader will be strategizing, calculating risks, recruiting guild members, planning and executing raids, allocating winnings, and so forth. In essence, the process of becoming a World of Warcraft guild master amounts to a total immersion course in leadership. Yee (2007) also reports that MMORPGs can be used by individuals to learn leadership skills, and he highlights the possibility of “emergent learning” where the pedagogy is not dictated as in traditional training software, but emergent in the sense that it occurs because of the rich system mechanics. Yee (2007) claims that MMORPGs allow provocative scenarios. For instance, in MMORPGS, job candidates can be asked to join a group and persuade the group to move to a differ-



Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Play Games for Learning

ent hunting spot to gauge a candidate’s persuasion skills. In another situation an individual could be asked to join a group and then attempt to take over the leadership role while gaining the loyalty of the existing group members. Yee (2007) contends that the power of MMORPGs is the ability to place individuals in different ad-hoc groups every time they play; it makes sense to explore whether people are able to learn complex social skills from their experiences. Yee’s (2007) research demonstrates that MMORPGs can and should be thought of as potential educational mediums for complex social skills including leadership.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS These and other case studies of practice indicate that multiplayer online games are being piloted in a range of learning and training areas (de Freitas, 2006; McLaughlin & Kirkpatrick, 2004; Sandford et al., 2006). Although the use of MMORPGs is clearly more established in military training contexts, new research projects and collaborative examples from learner communities indicate that experimental take-up of online gaming is being explored in wider learning and training contexts. Although there is evidence that these online games are being used in practice, the need for the development of tools for evaluation and validation of the use of serious games to support learning outcomes is ongoing and experimental (de Freitas & Jarvis, 2007). If serious gaming follows the same route as the use of simulations, its employment may be characterized by usage in pockets of learning and training contexts, rather than as a generic tool used across different disciplines and learning contexts. Clearly, further research is needed that will both explore the psychological benefits of using games to support collaborative learning, but also to build up an evidence-base that can be used by researchers from a range of different disciplines, including psychology and sociology. In order



for serious gaming to benefit the wider learning communities, they will be an important next step to establish whether effective learning outcomes are supported by the use of serious games; work such as that conducted on the Serious Games Engaging Training Solutions (de Freitas & Jarvis, 2007) aims to start this analysis. Should this be established, then learning design will need to encompass experience design approaches, where ‘simulated’ shared experiences become the basis for learning objectives and outcomes, and this may well have profound implications for learning (and game) design (Dickey, 2005), with substantial challenges for tutors (de Freitas, 2006). While the use of MMORPGs for military training are rather more embedded into training practice, their use in the wider educational contexts are at the pilot and trialing stages; due to small pilot numbers and with the varied approaches to data collection, it is too early to state with any certainty how effectively these communities are being supported by the use of multiplayer online games, or whether the stated learning outcomes are being effectively addressed. However, as these early case studies indicate, the potential for supporting effective collaborative learning does merit further experimentation and study, and early indications suggest that this form of gaming could provide a rich vein of potential for training and learning in groups, particularly where they build upon the tried and tested methods associated with simulation-based learning approaches. Furthermore, there is more than anecdotal evidence that gaming can support intrinsic motivation and so help to engage learners and collaborative processes (de Freitas et al., 2006). In addition to the need to improve the evidence-base for the field of inquiry, there is also the need for developing methods, and frameworks for analyzing these complex interrelations between game players are just being developed. It is envisaged that in these two areas (i.e., improved evidence-base and development of analytical

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tools for evaluation), significant work will be undertaken by the authors and other researchers to support what promises to be an important and rich field of cross-disciplinary enquiry (de Freitas & Oliver, 2005, 2006). The need to provide better synthesis across different single disciplinary perspectives with regards to online gaming is demonstrated in this chapter. The key issues emerging from the practice case studies reveal that motivation and flow from the use of games demonstrate the real potential for using games with learners, particularly those that may be underserved using traditional means, or that are aiming to support particular communities of practice, or professional development where hands-on experiential learning would be best suited. Further attempts to support more synthesized approaches to the study of game-based learning may need to utilize literature findings from other related disciplines. The implications of these new forms upon general formal education are difficult to assess at this stage. The widespread use of games to support learning, as evidenced in this chapter, indicate that games can be used to support exploratory learning, peer interactions, and higher cognition, but clearly have challenges for standard pedagogic practices and for how institutions are organized. The wider use of multiplayer games and immersive world applications make also have an impact upon the physical organization and use of the university campus, with the emergence of ‘cybercampuses’ (or virtual representations of campuses) where seminars and lectures in virtual spaces are becoming part of the wider learning activities (Prasolova-Førland, Sourin, & Sourina, 2006).

REFERENCES Andreasen, E. (2003). Measuring Bartle-quotient. Retrieved November 29, 2006, from http://www. andreasen.org/bartle/stats.cgi

Bartle, R. (1996). Hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades: Players who suit MUDs. Retrieved November 29, 2006, from http://www.brandeis.edu/pubs/jove/ HTML/v1/bartle.html Biros, D.P., Hass, M.C., Wiers, K., Twitchell, D., Adkins, M., Burgoon, J.K. & Nunamaker, J.F. Jr. (2005). Task performance under deceptive conditions: Using military scenarios in deception detection research. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS’05) (track 1, p. 22b). Bonk, C.J., & Dennen, V.P. (2005). Massive multiplayer online gaming: A research framework for military training and education. Retrieved August 9, 2006, from http://www.strategicleader. us/ExperientalLearningPapers/GameReport_ Bonk_ final.pdf Choi, D., & Kim, J. (2004). Why people continue to play online games: In search of critical design factors to increase customer loyalty to online contents. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 7, 11-24. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Beyond boredom and anxiety: Experiencing flow in work and play. New York: Harper and Row. de Freitas, S. (2006). Learning in immersive worlds. Retrieved July 4, 2007, from http://www. jisc.ac.uk/eli_outcomes_html de Freitas, S., & Jarvis, S. (2007). Serious games—engaging training solutions: A research and development project for supporting training needs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 523-525. de Freitas, S., & Levene, M. (2004, December). An investigation of the use of simulations and video gaming for supporting exploratory learning and developing higher-order cognitive skills. Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference in Cognition and Exploratory Learning in the Digital Age, Lisbon, Portugal.



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de Freitas, S., & Oliver, M. (2005, April). A fourdimensional framework for the evaluation and assessment of educational games. Proceedings of the Computer Assisted Learning Conference, Bristol, UK. de Freitas, S., & Oliver, M. (2006). How can exploratory learning with games and simulations within the curriculum be most effectively evaluated? Computers and Education, 46, 249-264. de Freitas, S., Savill-Smith, C., & Attewell, J. (2006). Computer games and simulations for adult learning: Case studies from practice. London: Learning and Skills Research Centre. Dickey, M.D. (2003). An investigation of computer games strategies for engaged learning. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL.

Griffiths, M.D., Davies, M.N.O., & Chappell, D. (2003). Breaking the stereotype: The case of online gaming. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 6, 81-91. Griffiths, M.D., Davies, M.N.O., & Chappell, D. (2004). Demographic factors and playing variables in online computer gaming. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 7, 479-487. Inal, Y., & Cagiltay, K. (2007). Flow experiences of children in an interactive social game environment. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 455-464. Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1996). Cooperative and competition: Theory and practice. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company.

Dickey, M.D. (2005). Engaging by design: How engagement strategies in popular computer and video games can inform instructional design. Education Training Research and Development, 53(2), 67-83.

Kirkpatrick, D., McLaughlin, R.G., Maier, H.R., & Hirsch, P. (2002). Developing scholarship through collaboration in an online role-play simulation: Mekong eSim, a case study. Proceedings of the Conference on Scholarly Inquiry in Flexible Science Teaching and Learning (pp. 13-18). Sydney: University of Sydney.

Douse, N.A., & McManus, I.C. (1993). The personality of fantasy game players. British Journal of Psychology, 84, 505-509.

Kirriemuir, J., & McFarlane, A. (2004). Literature review in games and learning (report 8). Bristol: Nesta Futurelab.

Egenfeldt-Nielsen, S. (2005). Beyond edutainment. Exploring the educational potential of computer games. PhD Thesis, IT-University of Copenhagen, Denmark. Retrieved June 21, 2007, from http://www.it-it-c.dk/people/sen/egenfeldt. pdf

Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Goodsell, A., Mather, M., & Tinto, V. (1992). Collaborative learning: A sourcebook for higher education. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University. Griffiths, M.D. (1997). Video games and children’s behaviour. In T. Charlton & K. David (Eds.), Elusive links: Television, video games, cinema and children’s behaviour (pp. 66-93). Gloucester: GCED/Park.



Lee, M.J.W., Eustace, K., Fellows, G., Bytheway, A., & Irving, L. (2005). Rochester Castle MMORPG: Instructional gaming and collaborative learning at a Western Australian school. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 21(4), 446-469. McKenna, K., & Lee, S. (1995). A love affair with MUDs: Flow and social interaction in multi-user dungeons. Retrieved November 29, 2006, from http://www.uni-koeln.de/~am040/muds/ipages/ mud.htm

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McLaughlin, R., Kirkpatrick, D., Hirsch, P., & Maier, H.R. (2001, October). Using online roleplay/simulations for creating learning experiences. Retrieved November 29, 2005, from http://science.uniserve.edu.au/pubs/callab/vol7/ mclaugh.html McLaughlin, R.G., & Kirkpatrick, D. (2001). Peer learning using computer supported role play simulations. In D. Boud, R. Cohen, & J. Sampson (Eds.), Peer learning in higher education: Learning from and with each other (pp. 141-155). London: Kogan Page. McLaughlin, R.G., & Kirkpatrick, D. (2004). Online roleplay: Design for active learning. European Journal of Engineering Education, 29, 477-490. Mitchell, A., & Savill-Smith, C. (2004). The use of computer and video games for learning. A review of the literature. London. Learning and Skills Development Agency. O’Driscoll, T. (2006). Game based learning for employees? Retrieved September 11, 2007, from http://www.checkpoint-elearning.com/article/3252.html Pelletier, C., & Oliver, M. (2006). Learning to play in digital games. Learning, Media and Technology, 31(4), 329-342. Prasolova-FØrland, E., Sourin, A., & Sourina, O. (2006). Cybercampuses: Design issues and future directions. Visual Computing, 22(12), 1015-1028. Rizzo, A.A., Pair, J., McNerney, P.J., Eastlund, E., Manson, B., Gratch, J., Hill, R., & Swartout, B. (2004). An immersive virtual reality therapy application for Iraq War veterans with PTSD: From training to toy to treatment. Proceedings of the 24th Army Science Conference. Retrieved November 29, 2006, from http://www.asc2004. com/Manuscripts/sessionI/I.html

Sandford, R., Ulicsak, M., Facer, K., & Rudd, T. (2006). Teaching with games: Using commercial off-the-shelf computer games in formal education. Bristol: Nesta Futurelab. Snyder, G. (2007). Retrieved September 11, 2007, from http://karlkapp.blogspot.com/2007/01/gadgets-games-and-gizmos-mmorpg-in-ict.html Swartout, W., & Van Lent, M. (2003). Making a game of system design. Communications of the ACM, 46(7), 32-39. Twitchell, D.P., Wiers, K., Adkins, M., Burgoon, J.K., & Nunamaker, J.F. Jr. (2005). StrikeCOM: A multi-player online strategy game for researching and teaching group dynamics. Proceedings of the 38th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS’05) (track 1, p. 45b). Voiskounsky, A.E., Mitina, O.V., & Avetisova, A.A. (2005). Communicative patterns and flow experience of MUD players. International Journal of Advanced Media and Communication, 1, 5-25. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. Wood, R.T.A., Griffiths, M.D., & Eatough, V. (2004). Online data collection from videogame players: Methodological issues. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 7, 511-518. Yee. N. (2003). The Norrathian scrolls: A study of Everquest (version 2.5). Retrieved November 29, 2006, from http://www.nickyee.com/eqt/report.html Yee, N. (2007). Learning leadership skills. The Daedalus Project, 5(2). Retrieved September 11, 2007, from http://www.nickyee.com/daedalus/archives/000338.php Zyda, M. (2005). From visual simulation to virtual reality to games. Retrieved November 29, 2006, from http://www.isi.edu/GamePipe/pubs/ GamePipeV8.7.pdf 

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KEY TERMS Exploratory Learning: Learning through exploring environments, reality, and lived and virtual experiences with tutorial and peer-based support. This notion of learning is based upon the idea that learning patterns can be helpfully transferred to dissimilar situations through metareflection. Unlike Kolb’s experimental learning, this process is not always circular (although it may be) and does not rely upon lived experience. Rather the approach acknowledges the cognitive process that helps individuals to use their imagination and creativity to draw out lessons from interactions, as well as extracting meaning from data. This process can be complicated and happen on different levels of understanding. That is, learning can be supported through different media, and through multimedia, interactions, and textual engagement. Guild: A collection of players share a common principle or outlook. A guild is a specialized group. Guilds are popular among the variety of MMORPGs available. Often guilds will have a deity alignment (good, evil, neutral) and carry out actions consistent with that alignment. However any players that are caught behaving badly or against the policies of the guild will be dealt with appropriately, such as being expelled from the guild. Immersive World Applications: Simulations, games, and other interactive, often 3D virtual spaces or crossover spaces (e.g., between virtual and real).



Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Play Game (MMORPG): Typically represented by large, sophisticated, detailed, and evolving worlds based in different narrative environments. Examples of such games are Everquest (heroic fantasy), Anarchy Online (futurist science fiction), and Motor City Online (classic car racing). The nature of these games is to offer a rich threedimensional world where typically players have some sort of a mission or goal. For example, in World of WarCraft one of the quests is to battle Ragnoros—a type of fire god. In MMORPGs, all the characters are fictional, rather than actual persons. Metaverse: An online virtual world in which there are no specific goals or objectives. A virtual world in which a user creates an avatar and then explores the world as that avatar. Users are able to chat with others in the world and interact with the avatars. Typically an inhabitant can create buildings, clothes, habitats, or any other items they can imagine. Metaverses do not typically have nonplayer characters (characters that are computer generated). In a metaverse all the characters are tied directly to an actual person. Serious Games: Games that integrate gaming elements with learning or training objectives. The name also refers to a movement of researchers and developers who are working towards developing games specifically aimed at educational audiences. Simulations: Non-linear synthetic training environments that allow learners to rehearse different scenarios, tasks, problems, or activities in advance of real-life interactions or to update skills.



Chapter IV

An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games Yufeng Qian St. Thomas University, USA

AbstrAct Electronic games are becoming an important part of many American children’s life today. Electronic educational gaming, as a new instructional technique and media, holds great potential for the new millennium of learners. To reflect the preferences and meet the needs of this generation of learners, many various online games for educational purposes are made availablethe sheer number of existing educational games is overwhelming. The purpose of this chapter is to investigate the current state of educational games on the Internet, targeting K-12 learners in the United States. Major game providers and salient design features are identified, and future directions of game development for educational purposes are discussed.

INtrODUctION Digital games have emerged as one of the largest forms of entertainment in pop culture, and playing video and computer games is an important part of many children’s leisure life in the United States (Entertainment Software Association, 2007). Gaming is ranked among the top applications of the Internet (Pew Internet and American Life, 2005); kids between 2 and 18 years of age spend 20-33 minutes a day playing digital games (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2002). As a multi-billion-dol-

lar industry rivaling with Hollywood’s cultural influence, playing digital games is a dominant play culture and is increasingly affecting the way kids grow and their informal learning outside school. Digital games’ popularity and influence have aroused an intense interest in exploring their educational uses and benefits. Prensky (2001), Gee (2003), Aldrich (2005), and Squire (2005a) are among the early pioneers who have attempted to understand the inherent lure of games, as well as to uncover the power of digital game-based learn-

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An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

ing. Meanwhile, a number of research centers and initiatives dedicated to game study have emerged, including the Media Lab at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and its Games-to-Teach Project, the Games and Professional Practice Simulations (GAPPS) Group at the University of WisconsinMadison, the Virtual Human Interaction Lab at Stanford University, the Entertainment Technology Center at Carnegie Mellon University, and the Digital Games Research Center at North Carolina State University. Digital game-based learning is said to be the next generation’s educational media that holds great potential for meeting the needs and learning styles of the millennial generation of learners (Aldrich, 2005; Gee, 2003; Oblinger, 2004; Prensky, 2001). To reflect and cater to the needs and preferences of the millennials, myriad educational games are constantly being developed and made available on the Internet. A Google search of “online educational games” returned about 14.5 millions hits. Companies, organizations, or services targeting children compete to offer free online games intended to help children learn while playing. Some educational organizations and agencies have categorized or recognized top educational game Web sites monthly or annually. For example, EduHound (affiliated with T.H.E. Journal) identifies and updates its listing of “Fun & Games” Web sites for kids (http://www.eduhound.com/cat. cfm?subj=Kid%20Sites); Exploratorium, on the other hand, recommends “Ten Cool Sites” featuring fun games monthly (http://apps.exploratorium. edu/10cool/index.php). Undoubtedly, the sheer number of existing online games designed for educational purposes can be overwhelming for educators who want to incorporate gaming into their curriculum. In fact, one of the major obstacles for teachers is that it is difficult to identify quickly the accuracy and appropriateness of the content within a particular game and how the game is relevant to some components of the statutory curriculum (Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004; Rice, 2007). Moreover, research



on the use of electronic gaming in education is relatively new (DiPietro, Ferdig, Boyer, & Black, 2007). While a number of studies have emerged to investigate video games (Squire, 2005b), as well as 3D massively multiplayer online games (Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005b; Dede, 2003), there appears to be a lack of studies looking into the huge collection of various online games that may hold great potential in supporting learning in the K-12 classroom. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the current state of online educational games. Specific research questions include: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Who are the major providers of existing online educational games? What are the major types of existing online educational games? What are the salient design features among existing online educational games? What are the implications of the current state of online educational games for future development?

LITERATURE REVIEW Online educational games refer to a hybrid type of game genre that is played on the Internet through a Web browser, utilizes game formats (e.g., arcade, adventure, puzzle, massively multiplayer online game, etc.), and incorporates some type of learning objectives, the goal of which is to promote student learning in a fun, engaging, and interactive way (Okan, 2003). Different from mainstream games whose design focus is purely entertainment, online educational games target students, teachers, and parents, and as such their design focuses on subject matter and cognition (Gros, 2003). To identify the major types of existing online educational games, a brief overview of existing game taxonomies is in order. In addition, what the literature has suggested about core elements

An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

of true games may help uncover the salient design features among the games. In this section, therefore, game taxonomy systems and characteristics of true games will be discussed.

Game Taxonomies Several studies have already proposed game taxonomies, including Caillois’ (1958) four types of pre-computer games (competition, chance, simulation, and movement), Crawford’s (1982) two broad categories of computer games (skilland-action and strategy), and Prensky’s (2001) eight genres of digital games. In his book Digital Game-Based Learning, Prensky (2001) classifies the emerging digital games into eight genres, basing the division primarily upon what a game is about: •

•

•

•

•

•

•

Action games: Examples of action games include shoot-them-up, car races, chases, and maze games. Adventure games: Among the earliest of computer games, adventure games involve people in an unknown world, where they need to find a way out. Fighting games: As the name suggests, fighting games have two characters battle each other until one is wiped out. Puzzle games: Probably one of the most traditional games, puzzle games ask players to solve puzzle problems. Role-playing games: In these games, players take a role to achieve a set goal; such games are often played in networks with thousands of players. Simulation games: Simulation games are about driving, flying, controlling machines, or managing companies. Sports games: As a specific type of action games, sports games allow players to play sports on the screen.

•

Strategy games: Probably one of the most sophisticated games, strategy games put players in charge of something big, which involves strategic planning and higher-order thinking strategies.

From the perspective of games’ complexity, Prensky (2005) further distinguishes between mini and complex games. Mini games have little complexity, providing one single type of challenge; complex games on the other hand provide mixed challenges that demand learning a wide variety of new skills and strategies, which often are acquired through outside research and collaboration with others while playing.

Core Elements of True Games To be considered a true game, a game must contain a particular set of components. Malone and Lepper (1987) identify five elements that motivate and engage players: challenge, curiosity, control, fantasy, and interpersonal activity. Similarly, Prensky (2001) proposes six key structural elements that make a game a true game; these are rules, goals and objectives, outcomes and feedback, conflict/ competition/challenge/opposition, interaction, and representation or story. Obviously, there is an overlap between what Malone and Lepper (1987) and Prensky (2001) have suggested on games’ characteristics. Combining both views, this study considers eight core elements that distinguish true games, discussed in detail below. The first element, challenge, is the most basic component of a game that the player is supposed to encounter and resolve. The challenge can come in varied formats: it could be a problema math problem, a social ethic dilemma; it could be a goal/objective/outcometo be a millionaire, to get the highest score, to reach the end, to capture the enemy, and so on. In a game, resolving the problem or achieving the goal is a big piece of



An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

what usually motivates the gamer. The second element is rule. All games come with a set of fixed rules specific to a particular game. Rules are what differentiate games from other kinds of play (Prensky, 2001). The third is feedback. One of the most satisfactory factors of games is the immediate, frequent, and unambiguous feedback players receive that informs their progress against the goals. Fourth is the player’s experience of control, which Malone and Lepper (1987) describe as critical. When individuals face choices that produce powerful effects, their sense of personal control is increased. The fifth element is the role of interaction that facilitates intrinsic motivation. Play promotes the foundation of social grouping (Prensky, 2001). The sixth is curiosity, which plays a large role in the attraction of games and exists in two different formssensory curiosity and cognitive curiosityboth of which pique players’ desire to find the unknown and “fix” the incompleteness and inconsistency (Malone & Lepper, 1987). The seventh involves the elements of fantasy that increase intrinsic motivation. These fantasy elements encompass both the emotions and thinking process of the learner and should have an integral relationship to the learning material. The eighth and last element is representation. Representation means that the game is about something, which can include a narrative or storyline involving real events or fantasy. Since stories (narratives) usually have a strong emotional impact on people, they are an integral part of an engaging game (Prensky, 2001).

MAJOR PROVIDERS OF CURRENT ONLINE EDUCATIONAL GAMES From language to math to geography, from shooting-them-up to crossword puzzle to Sudoku, there exist a myriad of free games on the Internet for children to play and learn. The researcher acquired a list of Web sites under the directory “Kids and Teens > Games > Online” from Google’s

0

directory service. The games from the list were filtered to identify those that have education components and are browser based (i.e., can be played online through a Web browser). In addition, educational games and game Web sites referenced in education magazines and journals targeting K-12 educators, administrators, and librarians were added to the list. Such publications include Technology & Learning, T.H.E. Journal, eSchool News Online, Teacher Librarian, and Scholastic Instructor. As a result, 40 game Web sites that contain approximately 1,800 games were identified as online educational games and included in the study. (See Appendix A for a complete list of the Web sites.) While there exist well-established educational publishers (e.g., Scholastic) and educational media review services (e.g., Education-World.com) that help educators choose relevant and reliable texts and software programs, no similar services yet focus on online educational games, given that online gaming is such a new field. By examining existing online educational games acquired from a variety of sources (Google’s directory service, K-12 education journals and magazines), this study has identified six major types of game providers.

Category 1: Educational Media Companies The first and most obvious category is educational media companies. A number of major kids’ learning software companiesincluding BrainPop, Arcademic Skill Builder, LittleFingers, and UpToTenhave developed accompanying Web sites that contain free online learning games. The games developed by these companies, available free for public service, have strong educational content and are usually grouped by subject areas or academic skills. For example, the 53 games from BrainPop are categorized by topics, such as allergies games, bones games, or Internet safety games.

An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

Some other media companies provide only subscription-based online educational services. CleverIsland.com, for example, is such an educational game Web site for children, comprising more than 100 continuously updated games and activities. KidsCom.com, a similar online educational service with over 500,000 site users each month, provides monthly updated learning and character-trait building games. Time4Learning. com is another similar company developing interactive online home education programs that feature fun learning games.

Category 2: Educational Publishers Beginning in the late 1990s, the nation’s major publishers of children’s educational materials, such as Pearson Education, Scholastic, and Houghton Mifflin, started to launch learning games relevant to the publishers’ products and themes. FunBrain. com by Pearson Education is an educational game site, featuring a large array of math and word games. Houghton Mifflin, focusing on reading products, has dedicated two standalone game sites on language and math to childrenEducation Place and Game Goo. Scholastic, a publisher and distributor of children’s titles, has also devoted a section to reading games on its Web site. Likewise, emerging children’s publishers, such as ALFY, founded in 1998, and Magination Press, created in 1987, have dedicated standalone game sites to serving children and their parents. Alfy. com, striving to be a virtual destination for children, offers hundreds of online games on various topics. KidsPsych.org, by Magination Press that focuses on children’s mental health, is a learning game site that helps kids with cognitive thinking skills and deductive reasoning.

Category 3: Professional Organizations

their missions as well as to teach children. These organizations include Nobel Prize, NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund), and AAAS (American Association for the Advancement of Science). The Nobel Prize’s Web site contains a section of games and simulations, based on Nobel Prize-awarded achievements, teaching knowledge in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, peace, and economics. UNICEF provides two arcade games“World Heroes” and “Halloween Coin Toss”to teach children about UNICEF’s relief missions and fundraising. NASA Kids’ Game page consists of 80 games for young students to explore important skills and concepts in math, science, and technology. Kinetic City: Mission to Vearth, a science game from AAAS, addresses a diverse and comprehensive array of science topics.

Category 4: Academic Research Organizations The popularity and potential of gaming in education has piqued growing interest in academia, resulting in the emerging of a number of research initiatives and research centers, as discussed previously. Alongside the massive research interest are several educational projects involving 3D virtual world technology. The River City project at the Graduate School of Education of Harvard University is a 3D multi-user virtual environment for learning scientific inquiry. Quest Atlantis, housed at the Center for Research on Learning and Technology at Indiana University, is a similar project built on strategies from online role-playing games. These two research-based titles represent the newest form of educational games so far3D massively multiplayer online game (MMOG) environments.

Some professional organizations have also developed standalone educational Web sites to promote



An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

Category 5: Non-Profit Educational Groups This category of online game providers includes groups, families, individuals, and educational foundations that are committed to K-12 education and put together free online games for learning purposes. This group can be further divided into two sub-groups. The first consists of individuals or non-profit educational foundations that aim to help kids learn. Examples of this group include StarFall.com, HAGames.org, PrimaryGames. com, theproblemsite.com, and iKnowthat.com. Games in this group have a strong educational intent, with most of the games sorted into subjects and grade levels. Instead of focused subjects, the second subgroup provides a broader collection of online games ranging from word puzzles to brain teasers. Examples of this group include SparkTop.org, 4kids.org, Kidzpage.com, PlayKidsGames.com, Prongo.com, and FunIsland.com. This group of game sites has both education and entertainment components. Their games are usually categorized by types as well as by subject areas.

Category 6: Broadcasting Networks National broadcasting networks, especially those that have children and educational components, also rush to offer browser-based games on their Web sites, including pbskidsgo.org (by PBS), cartoonnetwork.com (by Cartoon Network), abckids. com (by ABC), and kids.nationalgeorgraphic. com (by National Geographic Channel), all of which have a section of online games related to their programming. Disney’s Blast Games (http:// games.disneysblast.com/) is probably the largest game site of its kind with hundreds of educational games featuring all Disney characters. The games on these network Web sites are targeted specifically to their viewing audiencechildrenand supplement their TV programming by promoting their TV characters



and shows via games. Featured games are presented on the section index page, and visitors can navigate through the game menu to see all the titles. Instead of a strong educational content, games on these sites actually train children in some non-academic skills, such as hand-eye coordination, concentration, memorization, social and emotional skills, and even detective work. Different from the games in the above discussed categories, the educational goal of these games is indirect rather than direct. It should also be noted that a number of valuable educational games portals on the Internet compile and catalog free online games. One of the most comprehensive portals is probably Gamequarium (http://www.gamequarium.com/), a portal to thousands of interactive learning games for kids, categorized by grade levels and subject areas. Since the categorization system has included only game developers, the game portal sites are thus excluded from this study. Nonetheless, these game portal sites are useful resources for educators and researchers interested in online educational games.

CURRENT STATE OF ONLINE EDUCATIONAL GAMES Game sites are different in a variety of ways. Some sites contain hundreds of games, such as Disney’s Blast Games and the game section of Cartoon Network that covers almost all game genres from arcade to puzzle; some sites are much more focused, including only a small number of games on some very specific skills, such as Arcademic Skill Building’s seven arcade games on basic math and vocabulary and Magination Press’ 14 puzzle and maze games aimed to develop young children’s developmental and cognitive thinking skills. For the purpose of this chapter, this section will describe the major commonalities manifest among the game Web sites regarding targeted grade levels, subject areas, cognitive skills, game

An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

genres, and finally, game types and the main features of each type.

Grade Levels, Subject Areas, and Cognitive Skills The vast majority of current educational game sites (80%, or 32 out of 40) are aimed at PreK to 7th graders who are children ages 5-12. Two Web sites of educational publishers claim to serve all ages of children from K to12, including FunBrain.com of Pearson Education and scholastic. com/kids/games.htm of Scholastic publishing. Web sites from broadcasting networks do not specify targeted age groups and appear to serve children of all ages; such game sites include Cartoon Network, ABC, Disney’s Blast Games, and National Geographic. Only four game sites (10%, or 4 out of 40) target middle and high school students, including two virtual world learning environment projects, Whyville and River City of Harvard University, which specifically target middle school students, and two Flash-based game sites, NobelPrize.org and HAGames.org, targeting high school students ages 16-18. The curriculum subjects addressed among the game sites include language, math, science, and social studies, with 45% (18 out of 40) of the game sites containing language games (reading, vocabulary), 30% (12 out of 40) including math games, 15% (6 out of 40) addressing science, and another 15% (6 out of 40) having social studies games. In addition to subject content, 40% (16 out of 40) of the game sites cover a variety of important developmental and cognitive skills, such as visual/auditory short-term memorization, concentration, visual search, hand-eye coordination, spatial orientation, logic/analytical thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Obviously, there are more games on language and math than on other subject areas, which could be partially explained by the finding that the vast majority of the game sites are aimed at young children at the primary level where arithmetic and

vocabulary are core curriculum content. Another reason may be that those popular traditional game typessuch as hangman, crossword puzzle, number puzzle, and the like, which depend largely on a knowledge of words and mathare still the dominant educational game types on the Internet. Due to the small fraction of games on subjects other than language and math, it is worthwhile to mention the small number of game sites dedicated to science and social studies; they are BrainPop, Nobel Prize, National Geographic, Kineticcity, and iKnowthat, which provide a number of games on earth science, life science, geography, physics, chemistry, economics, medicine, and so on. While one-fourth of the game sites do not address curriculum content, their games have been designed to practice and improve children’s developmental and cognitive skills. Without academic content in mind, games offered by broadcasting network companies such as Disney, PBS, and Cartoon Network are mainly fast-paced action games with up-tempo background music and animated sound. Such games focusing on speed and physical drama may help to improve players’ time estimation, reflexes, and coordination skills. KidsPsych.com is another game site dedicated to helping young children with cognitive thinking and deductive reasoning skills. Divided into two age groupsages 1-5 and ages 6-9each thinking game is designed to boost visual, cognitive, and attention skills of children at a certain age.

Game Genres As discussed earlier, games are traditionally categorized into eight genres: action, adventure, fighting, puzzle, role-playing, simulation, sports, and strategy (Prensky, 2001). Nearly 60% (23 out of 40) of the game sites contain action games. Action games typically feature challenges performed under a time limit, in which the player must complete a task quickly or otherwise lose a life or fail the level. Such games do not allow much time for thinking but demand a high degree



An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

of physical reaction speed, hand-eye coordination, and mental dexterity (Wikipedia, n.d.). Game titles from Arcademic Skill Builder are exemplars of action games designed for learning purposes. Demolition Division is an example of a fast-paced math fluency exercise where tanks with division problems move toward the blaster, and learners need to fire the blaster with the correct answer at the tank with the correct problem before a tank shoots down the wall and destroys the blaster. Playing such games is an effective and motivating method of increasing fluency of basic math operation. Puzzle is the second game genre that is widely used, with 30% (12 out of the 40) of the game sites containing puzzle games in different forms, including crossword puzzles, jigsaw puzzles, Sudoku, or logic puzzles (also called brain teasers). Many puzzles are discipline specific that require knowledge and skills in a specific subject. For example, a word puzzle requires a kid’s spelling and vocabulary skills, while a math puzzle practices mental number operations. Some non-content puzzles require use of visual skills, logical thinking, and problem solving. A jigsaw puzzle may help improve children’s ability to visualize the spatial placement and movement of objects, while a Sudoku puzzle requires players to use logic and deduction skills. Puzzles are usually listed as a separate category among the game sites and are not assigned a grade level appropriateness. Simulation, role-playing, and strategy are three genres that are seldom found among the game sites except in three virtual world games, Whyville, River City, and Quest Atlantis. Whyville, for example, is designed to engage children in real-life activities. Children are encouraged to earn money for writing for the Whyville Times, stocking up the cafeteria, or playing challenging games so that they can buy parts for their faces, bricks for their houses, and furniture for their rooms. Kids can even purchase and drive a cool car through a virtual loan, which forces them to learn about the details of financing, leasing, interest rates,



and credit that they will later apply in the real world. It is encouraging to see some children’s game sites that have recently started to launch a new type of game environment that goes beyond dominating mini game types (such as action and puzzle games). Disney Game Kingdom Online is a new destination where kids can create their own online worlds, adopt pets, decorate their own houses, and customize their kingdoms. Similarly, Cartoon Network recently launched a gigantic new game, Big Fat Awesome House Party, a virtual world where kids cannot only play cool mini games but go on adventures with Bloo, which gives children an opportunity to find out what it is like to have an imaginary friend at Foster’s.

Game Types and Characteristics In addition to categorization based on traditional genres, the games were also examined based on their length and complexity. The games examined in this study can be categorized into three general groupsmini, complex, and persistent. Games in the first group are simple, short, and focused on very specific topics or skills, mostly arithmetic, spelling, simple problem solving, and other basic skills, that usually take a couple of minutes to completeeither win or lose. The vast majority of online games for educational purposesgames from educational media companies (e.g., BrainPop.com), educational publishing (e.g., Pearson Education), broadcasting networks (e.g., PBS), and non-profit educational groups (StarFall. com)typically fall into this group. Examples of mini games include BrainPop Jr.’s topic-based games, FunBrain’s arcade-type arithmetic practice games, KidsPsych’s animated thinking skills games, and UNICEF’s action games for practicing speed of reaction and hand-eye coordination. The focus of mini games is on the player giving the right response to a given stimulus represented as a challenge or a problem. Mini games, usually in the arcade style, allow children to practice a

An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

specific content or skill through repetition while receiving rewards after each proper response. The rules in mini games are simple and straightforward, involving the use of the left, right, up, and down arrow keys, the spacebar, or simply mouse-clicking, and the feedback is instant with animated sound. The interaction is simple and limited between a single player and the computer or the preprogrammed player. It is noted that some game sites have started to allow a player to select and invite a live opponent from a list of players who happen to be online; this could potentially enhance players’ enjoyment and engagement with mini games (see SparkTop.org for example). In contrast, the games in the second group are complex and thoughtful, requiring deeper learning and thinking that usually takes a couple of hours or even days to complete. Games that are developed by professional organizations and academic research organizations and that target middle and high school students fall into this type. The science content games from kineticcity.com (from AAAS) and the “Thinking Games” from iKnowthat.com are such games that promote exploratory playchildren learn new knowledge and acquire thinking skills through experimentation and discovery. Complex games are focused on inquiry and discovery, involving learners in an active and meaningful interaction with the game where exploration and learning are intrinsically motivated. Widgets, a thinking game from iKnowthat.com, is an example of complex online games in which players design and assemble a virtual machine using a variety of widgets. They could design a contraption with a frog kicking balls into a target; or build a perpetual motion machine with balls moving through a tubular maze. Players exercise their creativity, imagination, and problem-solving skills through playing with the widgets; their motivation comes from the activity itself instead of an extrinsic reward as in mini games. Similar to mini games, though, feedback in complex games is immediate, and the interaction is limited to a

single player and the computer or another player (either the preprogrammed player or a live player); different from mini games, rules in complex games are more complicated and usually take quite a while to acquire. The third type of online games, probably the most sophisticated, is a persistent world which supports hundreds or thousands of players simultaneously; gaming continues to develop even while some of the players are not playing their characters. Sometimes referred to as MMOGs or MMORPGs (massively multiplayer online role-playing games), or “virtual worlds” at other times, persistent world games engage children in “persistent social and material worlds, loosely structured by open-ended (fantasy) narratives, where players are largely free to do as they please” (Steinkuehler, 2004, p. 521). Quest Atlantis, for example, is a 3D virtual world learning environment consisting of 11 worlds. Each world features three villages that address different aspects of the world’s theme, such as urban ecology, water quality, astronomy, and weather. Its legend is that the people of “Atlantis” face an impending disaster in that their world is slowly being destroyed through environmental, moral, and social decay. The challenge of the game is to save Atlantis, which requires players’ skills in self- and guided-exploration, reflection, communication, and collaboration. Persistent virtual worlds are focused on social and participatory skills. Quest Atlantis, for example, is a globally distributed community with over 4,500 participants (Barab, Arici, & Jackson, 2005a). It provides a “context of participation” where children have the opportunity to interact with users from around the world, as well as with the mentors, in a protected virtual environment. Children collaborate through co-questing, bulletin boards, blogs, and other group activities, in which they work together to solve the challenge and learn how to interact (socializing, discussing, and negotiating) with other avatars. Just as in mini and complex games, persistent virtual world games come with challenges and



An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

interaction; however, solving challenges usually requires collaboration and coordination among multiple players, and thus the interaction has more social aspects than in mini and complex games. Furthermore, persistent games embody more elements of true games, such as fantasy, curiosity, and representation, which have been seldom seen in mini and complex games. For example, Quest Atlantis has used a storyline to represent a sophisticated game context. Presented through a variety of media, including videos, novellas, comic books, and movie-style posters, the storyline provides children with an integrated, memorable, and immersive learning and playing experience (Barab et al., 2005a).

IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS The current state of online educational games, as discussed above, points to some future directions to better design and easier integration of this new but promising online resource into K-12 education. The findings from this exploratory investigation of existing games also inform some productive future directions of research in the field of online educational games. First and foremost, there is a need for more complex and persistent educational games available on the Internet to serve older children in middle and high schools by providing exploratory play and learning that involve a higher level of subject content and cognitive skills. American teens and pre-teens, ages 12-19, spend an average of three to four hours playing online games (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2005), making up one of the leading groups of consumers of mainstream games. Unfortunately, however, the vast majority of current online educational games is not aimed at this group; instead they target young children at the primary level and focus on low-level topics of simple literacy and numeracy using arcade-type mini games. The essential structural elements



and compelling drive and passion reserved for the popular commercial games are seldom invoked by the current dominating arcade and puzzle games. In fact many of today’s popular commercial games that have taken most of older children’s leisure time involve simulation, strategy, and role-playing, especially role-playing in the MMORPG form. MMORPGs, representing the newest development in the history of game technology, are visually immersive 3D online environments where individuals—represented by avatars (cartoonishlooking characters)—meet, socialize, and interact with each other, with computer-based agents, digital artifacts, and the environments in real time, just as they might in the real world (Clarke & Dede, 2005). Over the last few years, there has been a surge of interest in introducing MMORPGs into education. A variety of 3D online learning environments has rapidly burst into the limelight in education, including Second Life, Active Worlds, There, River City, Quest Atlantis, and Whyville. Second Life, in particular, has attracted millions of residents, and a number of virtual campuses based in Second Life have been built and used (Second Life, 2007). Obviously, MMORPGs point to a new direction for educational game design and development. Empirical studies are needed to explore whether and how MMORPG environments could engage and support middle and high school students’ learning and cognitive development. Second, online educational games may need to be designed to align to curriculum standards if they are to make a greater impact and reach their full potential in education. As discussed previously, most educational games do address specific subject content focused on a certain grade level, such as multiplication, reading skills, or word order in sentences; however, the targeted content and grade levels have not been articulated and made available to educators. Arcademic Skill Builders, Game Goo, iKnowthat, River City, and Quest Atlantis are among the few that

An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

have made available the curriculum standards to which the games have been aligned on their Web sites. Inconsistent alignment of educational software (including electronic games) with the curriculum has been one of the most frequently mentioned obstacles to technology integration in the K-12 setting (Gros, 2007; Williams, Boone, & Kingsley, 2004). Educators seek educational games that can meet demands for increased accountability and test scores; bringing in games that do not promise to fit the set curriculum is just too risky. It is important that the content of games be tied to curriculum standards. If this does not happen, the game will have a very limited chance in a teacher’s lesson plan. Likewise, current game genre taxonomies, such as the one suggested by Prensky (2001), may serve commercial games well, but they do not appear to facilitate the integration of games into the curriculum. An ideal game categorization system for educational purposes is needed to better reflect the correlation between the curriculum standards and embedded knowledge and skills in games. Third, parallel to the curriculum alignment issue discussed above is a need to explore other potentially feasible ways of making use of the enormous collection of free online games, to which educators and children have easy access with a few finger clicks. While previous research shows no compelling evidence that games produced significantly more learning or motivation than other instructional platforms (Gredler, 2003; Hayes, 2005; Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004), we might still want to consider how games could be used to help students’ learning outside of school, given that games are apparently a preferred form of after-school activity. Instead of the traditional paper-based drillskill practice, the existing online games could be used as a supplemental device to engage students in intensive reinforcement practice outside of

school and to strengthen what they have learned in class. FunBrain.com of Pearson Education, for example, is an ideal after-school online program, where teachers at all grade levels can find relevant games on the core academic disciplines of reading, math, science, and social studies, as the games are grouped by title, subject, and grade level. Kinetic City: Mission to Vearth of the AAAS is a similar Web-based after-school program focusing on standards-based science for children in grades three through five. The curriculum guide helps teachers identify how the game is relevant to the components of the curriculum. Fourth, apparently current design and development of online educational games lag behind that of their counterparts in entertainment. Further studies are needed to identify the core elements embedded in mainstream commercial games to which children have devoted time and energy. Meanwhile, it is not quite clear what type of current free online educational games works better for which subject area or grade level. Further studies are needed to explore children’s preferences and experiences in using these free online games, as well as their impact on children’s cognition and academic achievement. Similarly, little is known about teachers’ perspectives on and experiences with using online educational games. Further studies are needed to investigate the design and curriculum integration issues. Furthermore, using the findings of this chapter as a starting point, future studies could explore issues outlined in this chapter on a deeper level. Studies of online games focusing on a specific subject (e.g., social studies, science, or digital literacy), a cognitive skill (e.g., thinking skill or virtual social skill), an age group (e.g., young children or adolescents), or a type (e.g., mini, complex, or persistent), and how each factor interacts with other factors, would greatly contribute to the knowledge base of educational online gaming.



An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

CONCLUSION Despite the fast growth of free online games for educational purposes, research on this gaming platform is still limited. This chapter was an attempt to provide a general picture of the current state of online educational games in terms of grade levels, subject areas, cognitive skills, game genres, and major types of games and their general characteristics. The current six major providers of online educational games, as well as the collection of existing major educational game Web sites, may help educators in tracking down relevant and reliable resources of games to support students’ learning in and outside of school. Like any other learning technologies, games and gaming for educational purposes is an evolving entity. With the advance of gaming technology and the development of more educational games and game Web sites, the field of online educational games may evolve and change rapidly. American K-12 education needs a balanced representation of all types of games to be available on the Internet, addressing various grade levels and subject areas, and making optimal use of this valuable technology to truly engage and improve students’ learning, and meet the needs and preferences of the current and next generation of learners. Collaboration and coordination among game developers, educators, administrators, and researchers are needed to make this happen.

REFERENCES Aldrich, C. (2005). Learning by doing: A comprehensive guide to simulations, computer games, and pedagogy in e-learning and other educational experiences. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer. Barab, S.A., Arici, A., & Jackson, C. (2005a). Eat your vegetables and do your homework: A design-based investigation of enjoyment and



meaning in learning. Educational Technology, 65(1), 15-21. Barab, S., Thomas, M., Dodge, T., Carteaux, R., & Tuzun, H. (2005b). Making learning fun: Quest Atlantis, a game without guns. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(1), 86-107. Caillois, R. (1961). Man, play, and games. Meyer Barash, IL: University of Illinois Press. Clarke, J., & Dede, C. (2005, April). Making learning meaningful: An exploratory study of using multi-user environment (MUVs) in middle school science. Montreal, Canada: American Educational Research Association. Crawford, C. (1982). The art of computer game design. Berkeley, CA: Peachpit. Dede, C. (2003). Multi-user virtual environments. EDUCAUSE Review, 38(3), 60-61. DiPietro, M., Ferdig, R., Boyer, J., & Black, E. (2007). Towards a framework for understanding electronic educational gaming. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 16(3), 225-248. EduHound. (n.d.). Kid sites: Fun and games. Retrieved February 1, 2007, from http://www. eduhound.com/cat.cfm?subj=Kid%20Sites E nt e r t a i n me nt Sof t wa r e A s s o c iat io n . (2007). Game player data. Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.eduhound.com/cat. cfm?subj=Kid%20Sites Exploratorium. (n.d.). Ten cool sites: Bringing you the coolest since 1995. Retrieved February 1, 2007, from http://www.exploratorium.edu/learning_studio/cool/kids.html Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Gredler, M.E. (2003). Games and simulations: A technology in search of paradigm. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp. 521-540). Washington, DC: Association for Educational Communication and Technology. Gros, B. (2003). The impact of digital games in education. First Monday: Pre Previewed Journal on the Internet. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from http:// www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue8_7/xyzgros Gros, B. (2007). Digital games in education: The design of games-based learning environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 40(1), 23-38. Hayes, R.T. (2005, November). Effectiveness of instructional games: A literature review and discussion. Orlando, FL: Naval Warfare Center, Training Systems Division. Kaiser Family Foundation. (2002). Key facts: Children and video games. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from http://www.kff.org/entmedia/3271index.cfm Kaiser Family Foundation. (2005). Generation M: Media in the lives of 8-18 year-olds. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from http://www.kff.org/entmedia/ entmedia030905pkg.cfm

Oblinger, D. (2004). The next generation of educational engagement. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 8, 1-18. Okan, Z. (2003). Edutainment: Is learning at risk? British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(3), 255-264. Pew Internet and American Life. (2005). Teens and technology. Retrieved March 15, 2007, from http://www.center-school.org/pko/documents/ PIP_Teens_Tech_July2005web.pdf Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Prensky, M. (2005). In educational games, complexity matters. Retrieved May 15, 2007, from http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/PrenskyComplexity_Matters.pdf Rice, J. (2007). New media resistance: Barriers to implementation of computer video games in the classroom. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 16(3), 249-261. Second Life. (2007). What is Second Life? Retrieved March 27, 2007, from http://secondlife. com/whatis/ Squire, K.D. (2005a). Toward a theory of games literacy. Telemedium, 52(1-2), 9-15.

Kirriemuir, J., & McFarlane, A. (2004). Literature review in games and learning. Retrieved March 15, 2007, from http://www.futurelab.org. uk/resources/documents/lit_reviews/Games_Review.pdf

Squire, K.D. (2005b). Changing the game: What happens when video games enter the classroom? Innovate, 1(6). Retrieved May 15, 2007, from http://www.innovateonline.info/index. php?view=article&id=82

Malone, T.W., & Lepper, M.R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomic model of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R.E. Snow & M.J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction: III. Cognitive and affective process analysis (pp. 223-253). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Wikipedia. (n.d.). Action game. Retrieved March 15, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_game Williams, D.L., Boone, R., & Kingsley, K.V. (2004). Teacher beliefs about educational software: A Delphi study. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 36(3), 213-229.



An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

KEY TERMS Complex Games: Focused on inquiry and discovery that require deeper learning and thinking, such games involve learners in an active and meaningful interaction with the game, where learning is intrinsically motivated. Game Genre: Refers to a particular type or style of a game. The most widely used game classifying system categorizes games into eight genres: action, adventure, fighting, puzzle, roleplaying, simulation, sports, and strategy. Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG): A visually immersive three-dimensional (3D) online environment where individualsrepresented by avatars (cartoonish-looking characters)meet, socialize, and interact with each other, with computer-based agents, digital artifacts, and the environment in real time, just as they might in the real world. Also referred to as MMOGs (massively multiplayer online games).

0

Mini Games: Simple, short games focused on very specific topics or skills, such as arithmetic, spelling, hand-eye coordination, or visual skills. Usually in arcade style, mini games are an effective and motivating method of increasing fluency of a specific content or skill. Online Educational Games: A hybrid type of game genre that is played on the Internet through a Web browser, utilizes game formats, and incorporates some type of learning objectives, the goal of which is to promote student learning in a fun, engaging, and interactive way. Persistent Games: A persistent online world that supports hundreds or thousands of players simultaneously; gaming continues to develop even when some of the players are not playing their characters. Persistent virtual worlds are focused on social and participatory skills. True Games: A game must contain a particular set of components to be considered a true game. The most widely recognized elements include challenge, rule, feedback, control, interaction, curiosity, fantasy, and representation.

An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

APPENDIX A: LIST OF MAJOR EDUCATIONAL GAME WEB SITES Category 1: Educational Media Companies

Arcademic Skill Builders (http://arcademic.altec.org/games.htm) BrainPOP Jr. (http://www.brainpopjr.com/games/) KidsCom (http://www.kidscom.com/games/games.html) LittleFingers (http://www.little-g.com/shockwave/loading.html) Time4learning (http://www.time4learning.com/) UpToTen (http://www.kidsgames.org/)

Category 2: Educational Publishers

ALFY.com (http://www.alfy.com/games/learning/index.aspx) Education Place (http://www.eduplace.com/kids/games.jsp) FE Kids (http://www.fekids.com/kln/games/) FunBrain (http://www.funbrain.com/index.html) Game Goo (http://www.earobics.com/gamegoo/gooeyhome.html) Magination Press (http://www.kidspsych.org/index1.html) Scholastic.com (http://www.scholastic.com/kids/games.htm)

Category 3: Professional Organizations

American Association for the Advancement of Science (http://www.kineticcity.com/) Getty Games (http://www.getty.edu/gettygames) NASA (http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forkids/games/index.html) National Gallery of Arts (http://www.nga.gov/kids/zone/zone.htm) National Museum of Dentistry (http://www.mouthpower.org/mouthpower.cfm) National Pest Management Association (http://www.pestworldforkids.org/index.asp) Nobel Prize (http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/) UNICEF (http://www.unicefgames.org/)

Category 4: Academic Research Organizations

Quest Atlantis (http://atlantis.crlt.indiana.edu/) River City (http://muve.gse.harvard.edu/rivercityproject/index.html)

Category 5: Non-Profit Educational Groups

FunIsland.com (http://www.funIsland.com) HAGames (http://www.hagames.org/ha_story.aspx) iKnowthat.com (http://www.iknowthat.com/com/L3?Area=L2_Engineering) Kaboose (http://resources.kaboose.com/games/) Kidzpage.com (http://www.thekidzpage.com/learninggames/learningonline.htm) Playkidsgames.com (http://www.playkidsgames.com/about.htm) Primary Games (http://www.primarygames.com/) Prongo.com (http://www.prongo.com/games/) Starfall (http://www.starfall.com) continued on following page



An Investigation of Current Online Educational Games

APPENDIX A CONTINUED Category 5: continued

Spark Top (http://www.sparktop.org/games/games.html) The Problem Site (http://www.theproblemsite.com/games.asp) Whyville (http://www.virtualworldsreview.com/whyville/)

Category 6: Broadcasting Networks

ABC (http://tv.disney.go.com/abckids) Cartoon Network (http://www.cartoonnetwork.com/games/index.html) Disney’s Blast Games (http://games.disneysblast.com/) National Geographic (http://kids.nationalgeographic.com/Games/) PBS (http://pbskids.org/go/allgames.html)





Chapter V

Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning Cathy Cavanaugh University of Florida, USA

AbstrAct In augmented reality games, game experiences combining electronic game content take the form of narrative materials and game-play elements exchanged through a wide range of communication media that are used in a related physical setting. Educational game developers design these games to maximize transfer of learning through close approximation of the game-scaffolded skills and the game environment to real skills and contexts. The games immerse players in electronic and actual learning situations using features that make them effective learning experiences for fostering meaningful learning. The situated learning experienced by augmented reality game players transfers to deep learning, often in social contexts. Research into the uses of these games as educational platforms has focused on developing the technologies for the games and on studies of games for learning. Results demonstrate the strengths and areas for continued development in the application of augmented reality games for childhood and adult learning in formal and informal settings.

INtrODUctION As portable media platforms, social networking, and context-aware devices approach ubiquity, the potential expands for game content to be delivered and used anywhere in real time. Augmented reality (AR) games are innovative digital games framed by the real world that enable players to interact simultaneously with both a fictional world and the real world. Augmented reality games im-

merse players in a game scenario through visual augmentation such as head-mounted displays or others forms of digital augmentation in the form of e-mail, text messaging, or the World Wide Web. In AR games, the electronic game content is a combination of designed media intended to enhance an experience in an authentic setting. “Unlike virtual reality, augmented reality does not create a simulated reality. Instead, it takes a real object or space and uses technologies to add

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Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

contextual data to deepen students’ understanding of it” (EDUCAUSE, 2005, p. 1). Research into the uses of AR games as educational platforms has focused on developing the technologies for the games and on studies of games for learning applications. This chapter reviews the literature on the effectiveness of AR games for learning and describes implications and recommendations for research, design, and implementation at primary and secondary levels.

bAcKGrOUND Augmented reality games have been used in military and corporate environments for a semirealistic form of simulation training, and they recently began to find a K-12 audience. AR games are very well suited for educating people in the new Conceptual Age, an era identified by Pink (2005) as a period in which strengths in creativity, synthesis, and contextualization are in increasing demand to solve complex new problems. The education community has recognized that Agricultural, Industrial, and even Information Age models are no longer the most effective paths to facilitation of meaningful learning (Pink, 2005). In the Conceptual Age the analytical and logical abilities valued for the Information Age will be joined by inventive and empathic abilities, which will enable global citizens to serve emerging social needs, become independent lifelong learners, and excel in the new professional marketplace. A curriculum centered on a single approach to solving problems will not effectively prepare students in the Conceptual Age, but must evolve into a learning ecology that more accurately reflects the demands of working with multiple data sources to address problems (Siemens, 2006). The flexible, socially interactive, globally connected capabilities afforded by AR games make them among the best designs for understanding the complex challenges facing us (Dede, Dieterle, Clarke, & Ketelhut, 2007).



For a learner’s perception to transform to conceptual learning, the learner must actively interpret messages and scenarios (Goldstone & Wilensky, 2007) and must experience learning that is meaningful (Jonassen, 2002). Recent brain research draws attention to the ways that students’ neural networks function as they make determinations of the meaning of their learning and thereby foster engagement and commitment to the learning process (Rose & Meyer, 2002). Meaningful learning refers to learning that is active, constructive, intentional, and authentic. It “includes reciprocal intention—action—reflection activities,” as proposed in Jonassen’s (2000, p. v) views of activity theory, and occurs when learners make meaning in the context of solving novel problems (Rose & Meyer, 2002). Among the strengths, then, of AR games is their built-in capacity for posing problems to players that are continually novel as a function of the actions and interactions of the players. AR games have features that make them effective learning experiences for fostering meaningful learning: AR games depend on players actively solving problems, they provide information that builds on the players’ prior knowledge, they require players to intentionally act in order to succeed in game tasks, and they are set within authentic contexts. Active learning engages learners in cognitive effort, facilitated by instructional transactions (Merrill, 1992) designed to guide the learner toward acquisition of specific knowledge and skills. It occurs within an interpersonal, collaborative, learning community and depends on learner interactions with learning materials and with other learners within the context of a meaningful task. When playing an AR game, a group of students uses the guidance provided via media by the game to solve problems, often in collaborative groups. For example, in FutureLab’s Astroversity game, groups of students ages 12-14 worked in teams with instructions from a “tutor” to rescue a “casualty” during a space mission (Ulicsak, 2004). Each team member received different informa-

Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

tion electronically and needed to collaborate to accomplish the mission. Constructive learning requires the development of new knowledge and skill into existing conceptions through both reflection and metacognition for application to other contexts (Jonassen, Howland, Moore, & Marra, 2003). The results are new conceptual models. The role of the AR game is to accelerate that process through immersion and to develop in learners transferable problemsolving and group process strategies that can be applied to subsequent conceptual learning. In the FutureLab MobiMission project, teenagers with mobile phones encountered “missions” created for them by other participants (Thomas, 2007). Many missions required reflection, such as the one asking players to send a photo that “sums up your childhood.” The field trial for MobiMission revealed that players were most interested in how others built on the missions they created. In intentional learning, the goal is to support learners who will purposely choose and persist in learning experiences. Lifelong learners acquire a level of self-regulation that enables them to identify learning goals and to plan experiences to fulfill those goals. Instructional processes, such as engaging problems, can help learners articulate an intentional learning purpose (Jonassen, 2000). The play orientation, social tools, and fictional scenarios in AR games foster the motivation that students need to connect learning to their personal interests. FutureLab’s Newtoon is a mobile phone and Web experience designed to teach the laws of physics through mobile gaming that students play, create, and share (Pykett, 2007). Because the learning happens with active, engaging media and within a learning community, students are more likely to decide to use their phones as learning devices. Authentic learning principles are based on the recognition that deep transferable academic learning can be a complex endeavor requiring practice in meaningful, real-world situations. AR games immerse players in a variety of electronic

and actual learning situations. The IPerG project, Epidemic Menace, places players in the roles of medical experts tasked with saving their campus and surrounding areas from a virus (Lindt, Ohlenberg, Pankoke-Babatz, & Ghellal, 2007). Players use location-aware mobile devices to comb the campus for data, which they pooled in order to make decisions. Learners engage in meaningful learning experiences in AR games because of the active, constructive, intentional, and authentic aspects of the games. Electronic game developers design educational games to maximize transfer of learning through close approximation of the game-scaffolded skills and the game environment to real skills and contexts. AR games should reduce this burden on the game design by setting the game-play directly in reality, thereby developing schema of the players directly in the performance context (Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2007). According to early research, the situated learning (Lave, 1991) experienced by AR game players is likely to transfer to deep learning, in part due the collaborative play in social contexts and the built-in complexity of the games (Dede et al., 2007). Many massively collaborative AR games are designed such that elements cannot be solved by individuals. Broader potential social benefits of AR games should derive from the potential for the games to deliver messages about important world issues, such as in the World without Oil game presented by the Independent Television Service. This serious game is open to any participants. A teacher’s guide assists teachers in using the game in a class. Augmented reality games provide cognitive challenge by posing a novel and realistic problem for players to solve. In solving the problem posed by an educational AR game, students apply their prior academic knowledge while constructing new knowledge that they acquire by applying information provided through the game technology and by working in groups. The AR game is set in a physical setting that represents the game



Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

context, for example a lab, a vehicle, a campus, or a community. The technology that students use provides them with text and other media by which they exercise inquiry methods in developing and trying solutions. These features of AR games make them important educational resources. However, obstacles to integrating AR games in classrooms range from philosophical opposition to the use of games for learning to technological barriers resulting from the security measures employed in school networks. Growth in the use of AR games in schools will depend on greater understanding of their benefits in the education community. Increased understanding is likely to result from the stories of innovative schools where AR games are used successfully.

REVIEW OF AUGMENTED REALITY GAMES FOR LEARNING All educational AR games situate the learning in a blend of real and virtual environments and immerse learners in a problem-solving scenario, often involving role-play. Table 1 summarizes educational AR games that have been developed in recent years, their learning goals, and contexts. The following review of the descriptive research in AR games for education examines the range of early AR game design and implementation. The predominant educational problem that this group of AR games has undertaken to address is the cognitive load associated with learning about complex interactive natural systems or processes. Of the 16 educational AR games described in Table 1, 75% were designed to teach concepts in scientific systems, and the remaining AR games focus on the difficult-to-master, illdefined domains of communication, managing data collected in the field, problem solving, and understanding cultural and historic foundations of a region. Nearly half of the AR games (7 of 16) aim at teaching biological concepts in rich authentic settings.



Savannah Among the educational AR games developed and pilot tested to teach environmental science principles to children is Savannah (Benford et al., 2004). Children ages 11-12 played the game in the role of lions navigating their schoolyard savannah with the help of GPS-enabled handheld computers. Because their locations were plotted during play, the students were able to review their movements on a whiteboard in the “den” after play concluded. The combination of technology afforded the students the ability to participate in the intention–action–reflection cycle believed to contribute to constructive learning (Jonassen, 2002). Constructivist theory states that new learning builds on prior knowledge (Duffy & Jonassen, 1996). Based on observations of students during play and their reflections on the experience, the students playing Savannah were observed to be emotionally engaged in the game and referred to themselves in the first person as lions (Facer et al., 2004). Students also demonstrated their understanding of the animal-ecosystem interaction by quantifying risk and generalizing their conception of the savannah. A limitation of the AR game experience was the disconnect between the immersive simulation and the classroom setting where reflection took place. The researchers recommended allowing expert gamers to use metacognition in the process of mentoring novice gamers.

Environmental Detective Environmental Detective (Dieterle & Dede, 2006) placed players in the role of environmental consultant to respond to a campus health problem. The players used location-aware handheld devices to collect data in the field, consult virtual experts, and compile data with peers. In trials, players expressed a feeling of investment and motivation to solve the problem. Based on student reactions, the problem scenario proved to be

Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

Table 1. Summary of educational AR games, learning goals, and contexts Title (Developers)

Learning Goal, Player/

Context, Platform Collaboration

Astroversity

Collaborative and scientific

Students work in teams on networked

http://www.futurelab.org.

(FutureLab)

inquiry skills for students ages

computers and using physical materials in a

uk/projects/astroversity

12-14

space rescue scenario

Ulicask, 2004

Big Fish Little Fish

Concepts including predator-

Groups of students use handheld devices

http://education.mit.edu/pda/

(Massachusetts

prey dynamics, over fishing,

while physically interacting with each other

ifish.htm

Institute of

biodiversity, evolution for

to simulate fish feeding behavior

Technology)

school-age children

Challenger Learning

Application of mathematics,

Teams of students take on the roles of a space

http://www.challenger.org/

Centers Mission

science, reading, and

crew and mission control using networked

clc/simulations.cfm

Simulations

communications skills to

computers in a facility that simulates NASA

(Challenger Center

complete a space mission, for

vehicles and facilities to solve authentic

for Space Science

school-age students

problems

Debating the

Collaboration and awareness of

Pairs of students analyze data in realistic

http://www.futurelab.org.

Evidence

the roles of risk and uncertainty

scenarios, draw conclusions, and compare

uk/projects/debating_the_

(FutureLab)

in science for students ages

recommendations using networked computers

evidence

11-14

and additional resources

Facer, Ulicsak, & Howard-

Learner Age

Game URL and Literature Citation (where applicable)

Education)

Jones, 2005 Eduventure Middle

Learning the cultural history

Learners alternate between problem solving

http://www.eduventure.de/

Rhine

of the Middle Rhine Valley for

using video of the castle setting and problem

Ferdinand, Müller, Ritschel,

(Institute for

adults

exploration using mobile devices in the real

& Wechselberger, 2005

castle

Knowledge Media) Environmental

Collaborative understanding of

Participants role-play as teams of scientists

http://education.mit.edu/ar/

Detectives

scientific and social aspects of

investigating contaminated water using

ed.html

(Massachusetts

threats to the environment and

networked handheld devices in a field setting

Klopfer & Squire, 2005

Institute of

public health for adults

Technology) Epidemic Menace

Collaborative problem solving

Teams assume the roles of medical experts

http://iperg.fit.fraunhofer.de/

(Fraunhofer

and experiences with learning

to battle a threatening virus using gaming

Lindt et al., 2007

Institute)

arts for adults

and communication devices in a room and outdoors

HandLeR

Support for field-based learning

Groups of children respond to scenarios in

http://www.eee.bham.ac.uk/

(University of

of children ages 9-11

the field using a portable data collection and

handler/references.asp

communication device

Sharples, Corlett, &

Birmingham)

Westmancott, 2002

continued on following page



Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

Table 1.continued Live Long and

Concepts including genetics and

Groups of students use handheld devices

http://education.mit.edu/pda/

Prosper

experimental design for school-

while physically interacting with each

igenetics.htm

(Massachusetts

age children

other to simulate the genetic actions of

Klopfer, Yoon, & Rivas,

reproduction

2004

Institute of Technology) Mobi Mission

Communication and reflection

Groups of students write verbal missions and

http://www.futurelab.org.

(FutureLab)

activities for teenagers

respond to the missions of others using cell

uk/projects/mobimissions

phones

Thomas, 2007

Mystery

Collaborative thinking skills for

Groups of participants use mobile technology

N/A

(Interactive

adults

in an art gallery to solve a crime

Santiago, Romero, &

Newtoon

Physics principles for

Students use mobile phones and Web

http://www.futurelab.org.

(FutureLab)

adolescents

sites to play, create, and share games that

uk/projects/newtoon

demonstrate physics principles

Pykett, 2007

Correia, 2003

Multimedia Group)

Outbreak

Experience with the

Players create and control diseases within a

http://www.

(Angel Inokon and

complexities of responding to

simulation and share results outside of the

outbreakthegame.com/

Jeff Bowman)

an avian flu outbreak, for young

game

Inokon & Bowman, 2007

adults Savannah

The science of living things

Children, acting as lions, navigate the

http://www.futurelab.org.

(FutureLab)

interacting within an ecosystem,

savannah using mobile handheld devices

uk/projects/savannah

for ages 11-12

Facer et al., 2004

Sugar and Spice

Concepts including population

Groups of students use handheld devices

http://education.mit.edu/pda/

(Massachusetts

economics and mathematics for

while physically interacting with each other

isugar.htm

Institute of

school-age children

to simulate interactions between populations and resources

Technology) Virus

Concepts including epidemics,

Groups of students use handheld devices

http://education.mit.edu/pda/

(Massachusetts

scientific method, population

while physically interacting with each other

ivirus.htm

Institute of

growth for school-age children

to simulate the spread of disease

Dieterle & Dede, 2006

Technology)

sufficiently challenging, in that while solutions did not come quickly or easily, players wanted to continue playing. Different players had access to different information needed to solve the problem, and were instructed during play to meet together to share information, as would happen in an actual health crisis. An additional design



element that introduced authenticity was a limit on the resources players could use to dig wells and conduct other sampling. Klopfer and Squire’s (2005) studies of the Environmental Detectives field trial compared problem-solving approaches implemented by players and found that femaledominated groups favored interviews while

Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

male-dominated groups favored drilling for data. Teams that used a balanced approach were most successful in solving the problem. Players were able to access information through Web searches outside of the game environment, making “the entire world the gameboard” (Klopfer & Squire, 2005, p. 23). Adult players succeeded in an openended game design that allowed investigation of the problem through multiple means. Children in a similar game focused on interviews as clues to solutions and bypassed the strategy of collecting data, demonstrating a need for ability-leveled scaffolding to help players understand the roles of data and collaboration.

Virus The Virus game, developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) (Dieterle & Dede, 2006), built in collaboration as an element of game-play. In the game, players interacted using handheld devices that spread virtual viruses that infect all players during the game. Play episodes were alternated with metacognitive periods in which players proposed hypotheses to explain the spread of the infection. Subsequent play tested the hypotheses. According to the student reactions collected in the study, “participatory simulation allowed participants to focus on large ideas while socially constructing deep understandings” (Dieterle & Dede, 2006, p. 12). Both Virus and Live Long and Prosper were designed as constructivist games requiring students to discover the biological mechanisms responsible for the behaviors that were observed during play (Klopfer et al., 2004). Student self-assessment of learning and attitude data showed that students felt motivated and engaged while learning about science and experimental design through the game’s mix of beaming, discussion, and manipulation of data.

Outbreak Moving beyond formal academic applications of AR games for science learning, Outbreak situated learning about a pandemic in the general public, asking players to participate online as players and as problem solvers for a situation that was potentially real (Inokon & Bowman, 2007). Outbreak’s designers applied a cognitive approach to play in which players would build a framework for understanding how pandemics spread and then share prevention recommendations online. The long-term goal of the game was that players transfer the knowledge gained from up to 100 motivating and engaging “mini games” in the event that they were faced with a life-threatening pandemic. Interviews with players have guided continued development of the game.

Newtoon and Mission Simulators Learning and application of physical science principles were the goals of two AR games for adolescents, both of which set game-play in networked devices. Newtoon used mobile phones as game-playing and sharing platforms (Pykett, 2007), enabling students to acquire physics concepts through trial-and-error practice with games and then to apply the concepts as game designers. Descriptive evaluation indicated that the act of sharing and critiquing of designed games placed students in a deliberative role, thereby fostering scientific habits of mind. Learning to act as scientists is also the goal of the Challenger Learning Centers’ Mission Simulators, which brings groups of students to a life-size simulated space vehicle and mission control facility. Students use networked computers to receive, evaluate, and respond to mission data. The students solve authentic problems by working together, thinking scientifically, and applying a range of academic skills.



Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

Astroversity and Debating the Evidence

steps to ensure that games can adapt to players’ maturing abilities during play.

FutureLab designers have developed and studied two AR games to teach scientific thinking that can be applied across the science disciplines. These games for adolescents, Astroversity and Debating the Evidence, combined team play on networked computers with physical materials that are needed to solve problems in science. Astroversity developed scientific inquiry skills in a challenging scenario that required the cooperation of three players (Ulicsak, 2004). The scenario was a space rescue mission in which each student had access to different data. Students needed to share their theories, request assistance from “robotic tutors,” and use multiple methods of representation of information in order to complete the mission. The study collected observations of play, comments of players, and data on skill improvement and attitude change to find that students needed structure to develop scientific skills that did not come instinctively to them, and students were motivated to persist in the game until they solved the problem. For designers of educational games, Ulicsak (2007) cautioned that “structured reflection has no impact when it is not embedded within authentic tasks” (p. 44), indicating that students focused on the elements that were most engaging while spending little time reading and writing. Debating the Evidence took scientific thinking to a higher level by teaching about the uncertainty in scientific reasoning (Facer et al., 2005). To play the game, students worked in pairs to analyze data from a Web site and based conclusions on the data. After play, based on the number of explanations of the phenomenon that students were able to generate before and after play, the students were better able to critically examine evidence, revise theories, and improve strategies. The study authors affirmed Gee’s notion that virtual risktaking is a prime motivator in games (Gee, 2003), and therefore recommended that designers take

HandLeR and Mobimissions

0

For teaching general thinking skills, two AR games played on mobile devices have been developed and studied through observation of play. HandLeR uses a specially designed device to support student data collection and communication in the field (Sharples, Corlett, & Westmancott, 2002). During authentic field-based learning experiences, students have a need to make sense of and to share a wide range of information pertaining to their learning objective. The HandLeR developers used a socio-cognitive engineering approach to design a child-friendly organizer, assistant, and communicator to support socially constructed situated learning. After finding that the majority of children preferred to receive help from a peer, the developers made communication the central tool in the device and also created a personality for device to enable it to act as a virtual peer. The game involved a guided mission in which children explored a city’s canals. The device was used successfully in a series of tasks. Communication was central to the skills learned in FutureLab’s MobiMissions (Thomas, 2007), in which students create text-based missions for each other to “find” when they enter the vicinity with their mobile phones. Engagement resulted from the surprise at finding missions, responding to them, and receiving feedback on missions. The most engaging aspect of the game was the shared reflection on the activity, an exercise in social metacognition.

Middle Rhine Eduventure In informal adult arenas, two AR game concepts have been deployed and pilot tested. The Middle Rhine Eduventure placed learners in a virtual castle as an orienting experience and then placed them

Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

in the real castle with a problem to solve with the aid of a handheld device (Ferdinand et al., 2005). The Mystery game placed players in an art gallery to solve a virtual crime by combining information acquired from real objects and virtual characters viewed in a head-mounted display connected to a GIS-equipped computer (Santiago et al., 2003). These games represent an experimental stage at the juncture of participation in art and learning and offer novel examples of the juxtaposition of the real and the virtual. While a fully electronic game immerses players in a virtual world or a simulation of a real world, AR games overlay elements of simulation on a real world. To do so, the AR game designer selects elements of reality to simulate, thus making value judgments about reality and ways to enhance it. AR game players, in keeping with the media theories of Bauldrillard (1983), replace reality with the simulation and view it as more valuable. Each of the AR games rests along a continuum between virtual and real experience, and each uses its particular blend of the real and virtual to augment learning by situating it in an authentic and engaging context. The games add scaffolds, such as tools (hard scaffolds) and connections to co-learners (soft scaffolds), to the experience in ways that enhance learning and transfer of knowledge (Brush & Saye, 2002). The types of hard, or statically embedded, scaffolds implemented in AR games are reference databases like glossaries, recorded interviews with “experts” that answer questions that a typical player would have, maps and other location details, and tools to assist with calculation. The purpose of each scaffold is to support the player in solving the complex and authentic problem encountered in the AR game scenario. A scaffold that helps students in comprehending the information needed to develop an approach to solving a complex problem is the feature in Outbreak that allows players to share their recommendations about how to address the problem,

which is global in scale. Other scaffolds are intended to help students to consider alternative perspectives. An example is the ability that players have in Environmental Detectives to consult experts. Scaffolds are also designed into games in order to help students handle the various cognitive demands of the game. Astroversity’s robotic tutors and HandLeR’s tools that allow students to get help from a peer are examples of this type of scaffolding. There is no longer a reason to limit learning to an accessible place with the people who happen to be there at the same time. With AR games and other learning technology, learning can be the infinitely flexible, socially interactive, and globally connected enterprise that Conceptual Age humans need.

IMPLICATIONS OF AR GAMES FOR EDUCATION AR games are in a state of flux from their original psychomotor training purposes toward more artistically and socially relevant purposes. Active participation in art, education, and other social activities ought to be a democratic experience available to all, but geography has been a limiting factor for people who could not physically attend a school or art display. The Internet allows people to access art and education from anywhere that a networked device can function, and now AR games provide frameworks for engagement in art and education from anywhere. AR games may be more efficient for learning than other forms of electronic games due to their more “platformless” nature. Future AR games will capitalize on ubiquitous communications technology to connect larger and more diverse groups of learners in situated learning, like Outbreak is doing. Tools like Google Earth and Amazon Mechanical Turk will augment learning experiences by alerting people when they



Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

enter a location in which an AR game is operating and by offering people novel situations in which to apply their knowledge and skills. Democratic involvement in AR games will extend to game development as toolkits become available. The toolkits will enable designers to focus more on the content and context of the games as they spend less time on the technology behind the games. The burden for AR game designers will be to create motivation through challenge because a physical teacher will be less involved in the learning. In the AR game design process, holistic models will be needed that guide early prototypes, strong relationships with subject-matter experts (SMEs) will be needed to ensure realism and authenticity, and integration of visual design into instructional tasks will be needed to capitalize on the graphic features of the game. A design method like IBM’s Object, View, and Interaction Design (OVID) has potential for streamlining and focusing AR game design (Berry, Isensee, Mullaly, & Roberts, 1998). OVID is a framework for rapid iterative interface-oriented design that supports an evolving form of game. Research into the learning effects of AR games becomes complicated by the wide distribution of learners who may resist experimental manipulation and for whom identities may not be known. New methods of sampling or population definition will be needed. However, a benefit of AR games for education institutions is that vast amounts of performance data can be collected within an AR game system, allowing for largescale comparisons and analysis of learning to be made. In addition, new game development tools and a broad range of game technology streamline the prospect of educators and students creating their own AR games. AR games offer a rich opportunity for design, learning, and study because of their scope and portability. Each generation of AR games brings greater diversity in the content and the concepts that are addressed. In order for the benefits of AR games to reach a wide educational audience, policies toward both



game-based learning and networked technology in schools will require revision. Visionary students and educators need support throughout the education system to try these promising approaches. At the systemic level, definitions of “educational materials” needs to be broader to include games and other technology that have the potential to engage and educate effectively. Teachers who engage in action research at the K-12 level and in the scholarship of teaching at the post-secondary level can be the leaders who pave the way for others.

CONCLUSION It is difficult to imagine a more active, constructive, intentional, and authentic platform for learning with the potential to reach and connect more people through a range of devices than an augmented reality game. There are solutions to the obstacles faced in education institutions. Partnerships between educators and instructional designers will result in games that are relevant to current educational needs, including games that may reach the most challenged learners or that may teach the most complex domains. We may be seeing the dawn of the day when the potential for educational technology experiences a quantum leap forward because of ubiquitous networked computing and open source game development tools. This is certainly a day for expansion of the notion of literacy: The persistent responsiveness developed by players to potential ludic interaction represents a new kind of critical gaming literacy. The gamers grow to read the real world as rich with ludic opportunity, carefully testing everyday media, objects, sites, and social situations for the positive and negative consequences of inscribing each within the magic circle of play. (McGonigal, 2004)

Augmented Reality Gaming in Education for Engaged Learning

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EDUCAUSE. (2005). Seven things you should know about augmented reality. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://connect.educause.edu/library/ abstract/7ThingsYouShouldKnow/39384 Facer, K., Joiner, D., Stanton, D., Reid, J., Hull, R., & Kirk, D. (2004). Savannah: Mobile gaming and learning? Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20(6), 399-409. Facer, K., Ulicsak, M., & Howard-Jones, P. (2005). Debating the evidence: A FutureLab prototype research report. Retrieved July 7, 2007, from http://www.futurelab.org.uk/projects/debating_the_evidence Ferdinand, P., Müller, S., Ritschel, T., & Wechselberger, U. (2005, September). The eduventurea new approach of digital game based learning combining virtual and mobile augmented reality games episodes. Proceedings of the Pre-Conference Workshop, Game Based Learning, of DeLFI 2005 and GMW 2005, Rostock, Germany. Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Goldstone, R., & Wilensky, U. (2007). Promoting transfer through complex systems principles. Retrieved July 7, 2007, from http://cognitrn.psych. indiana.edu/rgoldsto/pdfs/groundtransport05. pdf Gosney, J. (2005). Beyond reality: A guide to alternate reality gaming. Boston: Thomson Course Technology. Inokon, A., & Bowman, J. (2007). Outbreak development wiki. Retrieved July 12, 2007, from http://outbreak.wetpaint.com Jonassen, D.H. (2000). Revisiting activity theory as a framework for designing student centered learning environments. In D.H. Jonassen & S.M. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments (pp. 89-121). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.



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Jonassen, D.H. (2002). Learning as activity. Educational Technology, (March-April). Jonassen, D., Howland, J., Moore, J., & Marra, R. (2003). Learning to solve problems with technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall. Klopfer, E., & Squire, K. (2005). Environmental detectives: The development of an augmented reality platform for environmental simulations. Retrieved July 12, 2007, from http://isites.harvard. edu/fs/docs/icb.topic40337.files/ETRD-handheld_Final_.pdf Klopfer, E., Yoon, S., & Rivas, L. (2004). Comparative analysis of palm and wearable computers for participatory simulations. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 20(25), 347-359. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lindt, I., Ohlenberg, J., Pankoke-Babatz, U., & Ghellal, S. (2007). A report on the crossmedia game epidemic menace. Computers in Entertainment, 5(1), 8. McGonigal, J. (2004). This might be a game: Ubiquitous play and performance at the turn of the 21st century. Unpublished Dissertation, University of California-Berkeley, USA. Merrill, D. (1992). Constructivism and instructional design. In T. Duffy & D. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Morrison, G., Ross, S., & Kemp, J. (2007). Designing effective instruction. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Pink, D. (2005). A whole new mind: Moving from the Information Age to the Conceptual Age. New York: Riverhead Books.



Pykett, J. (2007). Newtoon. Retrieved July 7, 2007, from http://www.futurelab.org.uk/projects/newtoon Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age. Baltimore, MD: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Santiago, J., Romero, L., & Correia, N. (2003, May 8-10). A mixed reality mystery game. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Entertainment Computing (ACM International Conference Proceeding Series, vol. 38, pp. 1-8), Pittsburgh, PA. Shaffer, D., Squire, K., Halverson, R., & Gee, J. (2005). Video games and the future of learning. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison. Shrier, K. (2006). Reliving history with ‘reliving the revolution’: Designing augmented reality games to teach the critical thinking of history. In D. Gibson, C. Aldrich, & M. Prensky (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Siemens, G. (2006). Knowing knowledge. Morrisville, NC: Lulu. Squire, K. (2005). Game based learning. Retrieved July 12, 2007, from http://www.masie. com/xlearn/Game-Based_Learning.pdf Thomas, K. (2007). A mobile with a mission. Retrieved July 7, 2007, from http://www.futurelab. org.uk/resources/publications_reports_articles/ web_articles/Web_Article264 Ulicask, M. (2004). Astroversity: A FutureLab prototype research report. Retrieved July 7, 2007, from http://www.futurelab.org.uk/projects/astroversity/research

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KEY TERMS Augmented Reality Game: A game that augments natural feedback to the player with simulated information. Authentic Learning: Learning that occurs within a realistic context in which the new knowledge, skills, and attitudes will be used. Blended Learning: A coherent learning experience using a combination of electronically mediated and face-to-face activities.

Constructive Learning: Learning that requires the integration of new knowledge and skill into existing conceptions. Meaningful Learning: Learning that is active, constructive, intentional, and authentic. Mobile Game: A game that is distributed to the customer using a mobile operator’s network. Situated Learning: A theory of learning that emphasizes the importance of the context and culture in which learning occurs.

Cognitive Load: The amount of information processing activity imposed on working memory.





Chapter VI

Mobility, Games, and Education Michael A. Evans Virginia Tech, USA

AbstrAct This chapter proposes that the convergence of mobile devices and digital game-based learning may have profound implications for educational transformation. Key issues to be addressed in the chapter are: (1) the pervasiveness of mobile and shared technologies, (2) contemporary accounts of learning theory in terms of mobility, (3) unique qualities of mobile learning and technologies, (4) successful applications for mobile learning, and (5) implications for future research and practice. Commuters play Sudoku on smart phones on the subway. High school freshman swap downloaded music across digital media devices in the parking lot. Elementary students debate strategies and “cheats” for handheld consoles on the bus ride home. For educational researchers, practitioners, and administrators, it is critical to examine these identified trends in mobile technology and digital game adoption and use to develop creative strategies and applications, and effective policies that lead to innovative instructional and learning environments.

INtrODUctION Currently, mobile learning and digital game-based learning are occupying the minds of educational policymakers, administrators, teachers, and scholars. Mobile learning, which can be categorized as a subset of distance learning or e-learning, is defined as instruction and learning delivered and conducted via highly portable (preferably wire-

less) technologies including laptop computers, tablet PCs, handheld computers, game consoles, and cellular telephones (New Media Consortium, 2007; Sharples, 2006). Digital game-based learning is defined as instruction and learning derived from methodologies and design features of computer and console video games (Alessi & Trollop, 2000; Squire, 2006). Although these trends have recently garnered much attention in

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the popular and academic press independently, the intersection of the two has been essentially overlooked. In this chapter I present a line of reasoning that argues for the convergence of these trends to induce transformation in formal and informal educational settings. The potential for mobile, digital game-based learning could have unprecedented influence on instruction and learning in the 21st century. Mobile learning has received much attention of late for several reasons. First, mostly in primary and middle school settings, mobile learning is being used to emphasize “learning by doing” (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989) and “knowledge building” (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1994) pedagogies, encouraging students to collaborate in settings in and outside the classroom by using mobile devices for data collection, analysis, and distribution. The learning theory and pedagogy invoked draws from a substantial line of literature representing everyday cognition (Lave, 1988) and communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991). One example might have middle school students use GPS-enabled handheld computers to collect audio, video, and positioning records of migratory birds in a natural science course. A second example would have elementary students monitoring a community garden using a Webenabled smart phone to collect and share text, photographs, and video with an agriculturalist to receive expert guidance and feedback. Second, in corporate, healthcare, and military settings, where a significant number of employees are “in the field,” mobile technologies are used to deliver location- and time-based information, realtime updates, and job aids. One example in the healthcare field is the use of tablet PCs by nurses on rounds to update patient data and records. In military settings, electronics technicians on ships at sea are receiving updates to technical manuals and conducting real-time chat with shore-side experts via ruggedized pocket PCs. Finally, mobile learning is taking hold in developing countries where access to desktop and laptop computers is

severely limited, and electricity is intermittent and necessitates a reliance on mobile phones. Thus, in a country such as Kenya, cell phones are used as an ubiquitous platform for education, research, journalism, and commerce. A project undertaken currently by the author, and science education and human-computer interaction colleagues (the Mobile Malawi Project) involves using smart phones in Malawi, Africa, to connect geographically dispersed community elders, teacher educators, and classroom teachers in a participatory revision of existing curriculum on sustainable agriculture. Overall, mobile learning is infiltrating a broad spectrum of learners in education, training and development, and commerce that has caught the attention of teachers, researchers, administrators, policymakers, and mobile, wireless device manufacturers. Digital game-based learning (DGBL)—though I maintain development somewhat distinct from mobile learning in the scope of instruction and learning literature—is gaining equally fervent attention from educators and researchers. Perhaps inspired in part by the work of James Paul Gee, particularly What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy (Gee, 2003), educational researchers and practitioners are incorporating off-the-shelf titles, and developing education- and content-specific games, for use in primary and middle schools. In higher education, there is an increasing interest and focus to train students in programs from computer science, human-computer interaction, and instructional design and technology in digital game design and development. DGBL can take the form of standalone instructional multimedia accessible on a desktop computer or game console, to massive-multiplayer environments and synthetic worlds entered via the Internet. Another significant trend is the serious game, which focuses on management and leadership skills, health issues, and social change endeavors (cf., Serious Games Initiative, http://www.seriousgames.org/), often balancing quite well elements of play and critical



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thinking. For example, The Redistricting Game, created by the University of Southern California Game Innovation Lab, encourages players to explore how the redistricting system in the United States works, focusing especially on the potential of abuse to unfairly influence elections and thus the representation of citizens. The game not only facilitates critical analysis, but also advocates for social action by players to promote positive change to the system. Thus, proponents of DGBL might claim that instruction and learning mediated by these advanced instructional technologies permit students to become deeply engaged with authentic material and tasks at hand. Instruction and learning that takes place in these contexts fulfills the pedagogical principles of “learning by doing,” “thinking critically,” and “building knowledge in collaboration” (Brown & Duguid, 1991; Suthers, 2006). The fundamental theory undergirding the idea behind educational pedagogies and instructional prescriptions to include cognitive tools and authentic learning environments is Vygotsky’s notion of “tool-mediated activity” (Barab, Evans, & Baek, 2004), whereby psychological and instrumental tools mediate higher-level thinking. The potential for DGBL in the classroom and elsewhere resonates so clearly with many significant stakeholders that game publishers, including Microsoft and Electronic Arts, now work in close collaboration with educators and researchers to discover ways to make game development (a notoriously expensive and precipitous enterprise) manageable at the classroom level. Given these noted trends, it would appear that the next logical step is to advocate the convergence of the two, connecting mobile learning with digital game-based learning to promote nextgeneration instruction and learning. To provide an example of what this might entail in terms of changes to professional knowledge and skills in instructional design, my graduate students at Virginia Tech have adopted and used a reduced DGBL methodology (incorporating a tutorial, fantasy elements, role-playing, strategic thinking,



incentives, and levels of difficulty) to develop for handheld computers (see Figure 1 for sample screenshots from the storyboard phase of project). The instructional prototypes were designed for second graders, to teach them basic concepts and principles in planar geometry following national and state standards for mathematics teaching (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000), encompassing characteristics of shapes, area of shapes, similarity of shapes, construction of shapes, sizes of shapes, and right angles. Working with a mathematics educator, students developed prototypes that extended the Everyday Mathematics curriculum to allow for remedial practice using handheld devices (Dell Axim v51) and DGBL (Evans et al., 2007). Drawing from a growing line of research on mobile learning and DGBL (Sharples, 2006; Squire, 2006), and from informal field observations in classrooms and in public spaces, our design scenario built off patterns of use of mobile devices and digital games by second graders. For example, in our scenario we used the observation that the school bus driver allows students to play games on handheld devices (such as community-donated Nintendo Game Boy systems) on the ride home from school. Also, the city bus system in Blacksburg, Virginia (home to Virginia Tech), has extensive free wireless connectivity, thus permitting access to Web-based materials on properly equipped mobile, wireless devices. Given the success of first-round proofsof-concept and prototypes, the next iteration of the development cycle will involve investigating the Nintendo DS Lite game console, which has wireless capability and now an Internet browser available for download. The browser, the Opera Mobile (http://www.opera.com/products/mobile/), can be used on a range of mobile devices including portable game consoles, handheld computers, and smart phones. Though our work is in an early phase, we are hopeful of the potential of developing Web-based instructional multimedia guided by DGBL methodologies and accessible on mobile devices with browser capabilities.

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Figure 1. Screen captures from storyboard phase of mobile game development for learning of geometric shapes (Evans, Diaz, Liao, Wang, Wu, Eschenmann, Snediker, & Fan, 2007)

With these trends and issues in mind, the objectives of this chapter are as follows: • •

• •

•

Identify trends in consumer mobile digital technologies, products, and services Situate trends in learner adoption and use of digital mobile and game technologies and games Provide contemporary accounts of learning theory in terms of mobility Present successful uses of mobile games in the classroom, especially for math and science Address policy, strategy, and development challenges for educators, particularly instructional designers and technologists• List implications for educational research and practice

EDUCATING DIGITAL NATIVES AND NOMADs Let me begin by sharing a personal account: My son, Walter, began first grade in Fall 2006. This major milestone was complicated by a recent move from the Midwest. Naturally, his parents asked on

his return from the first day of school how things went and whether he had met any new friends. Walter’s response, to paraphrase, was this: I met two new friendsSteve and Kyleon the bus. Steve and I are good friends because we both own a Nintendo Game Cube! Kyle and I are good friends because we own a Nintendo DS Lite! Kyle also told me about a new ‘cheat’ in New Super Mario Brothers and I’m going to try it tonight. He told me to talk to him tomorrow about whether it worked or not. Dad, can Kyle come over this weekend to play Pokémon Coliseum on the DS, please? The above scenario might sound familiar to parents and relatives of primary and middle school-age children, encountered either directly or secondhand. Additionally, the sight of children, adolescents, and young adults engaged with games on portable devices can be found in just about any public space-transportation terminals, recreation and leisure facilities, airline flights, sporting events, churches, synagogues, mosques, and more. The point of all this is that the current generation of primary and middle school students is growing up digital. That is, from a very



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early age the current crop of rising elementary, secondary, and college-level students have had significant exposure to and use of digital media and associated technologies. Prensky (2001) refers to this generation of students as digital natives. Contrasting this demographic with teachers and parents, who are referred to as digital immigrants, Prensky’s (and my) point is that educators are working with a class of students who have far greater experience, expertise, and comfort levels with mobile, wireless technologies and new digital media. These digital natives engage in generative learning sessions around games in informal settings as depicted in the anecdote above. Unfortunately, this type of learning may not be deemed legitimate because it occurred around a non-sanctioned activity and in locations outside the classroom. Despite calls for connecting schools to neighborhoods and communities, the place of mobile devices and games in this message is unclear and quite precipitous. While my personal account describes an increasingly common episode in the lives of elementary students, a recent report by the Pew Internet & American Life Project (2005) provides an even more substantial picture of the digital nomadic lives of digital teenagers: • • • • •

84% (~18 million) teenagers report owning at least one portable media device 81% (~17 million) Internet users play games online, up 52% since 2000 76% (~16 million) get news online, up 38% since 2000; 45% (~10 million) own a cell phone 33% (~7 million) have used a cell phone to send a text message

This phenomenon cuts across cultures and, very often, socioeconomic boundaries. For example, the country with the highest saturation of broadband technology is South Korea. Evidence of the influence and sophistication of digital technology adoption in South Korea, especially

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in the online gaming sector, is demonstrated by the hosting of the Blizzard Entertainment 2007 Worldwide Invitational. It is safe to claim that in developed countries around the world, the phenomena of digital natives, immigrants, and nomads can be found. In terms of socioeconomic status and technology adoption and use, the digital divide is a serious challenge—one that requires continued attention, understanding, and most importantly social action. In essence, the position is that socioeconomic factors, not technological factors, drive and influence the adoption, diffusion, and use of digital technologies and media. An incorrect assumption by educators and game developers would be that equity exists across populations in terms of access to technology. Nevertheless, the portrayed picture of haves and have-nots portrayed mainly in the popular press and news media outlets may actually be more nuanced for the current generation of digital natives. As Curry and Kenney (2006) point out, in some cases digital development is taking place among nations that have broad socioeconomic challenges. In the case of Mexico, there is evidence that significant digital development is occurring in government and education. Citizens are demanding, and the government is responding to, demands for access to information and communication technologies for the betterment of standards of living. Thomas Friedman (2007), the New York Times columnist, recently provided another example describing the creative ways by which lower socioeconomic status individuals adopt scarce technology resources. In the case of 15 women who raise and trade goats in Ngutani, east of Nairobi, a single mobile phone was purchased to avoid swindling by middleman, “which they now share to check the market prices in Nairobi for goats before they sell” (Friedman, 2007). The takeaway is that digital natives and nomads are arising in different generations, in different countries, from different cultures, from different socioeconomic backgrounds that could significantly influence attitudes towards sanc-

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tioned and acceptable instruction and learning technologies. Although overcoming the digital divide should remain a priority for teachers, administrators, and educational researchers, it must be recognized that what traditionally has been identified as a necessary technology (a desktop computer originally, more recently a laptop computer) may no longer be accurate. Following the line of argument developed in this chapter, mobile, wireless devices such as smart phones and portable game consoles should also be recognized and accounted for, as these are the preferred tools of digital natives and nomads.

TRENDS IN TECHNOLOGY, PEDAGOGY, AND LEARNING The recently released Horizon Report (New Media Consortium, 2007) predicts radical changes in instruction and learning within the next five years as a host of emerging mobile technologies and digital media are adopted and diffused in pre-kindergarten through higher education classrooms. Two trends identified in the report relevant to this chapter are the increasing role of mobile technologies in education and the changing expectations of learners when it comes to information and knowledge. The argument is that these trends are, in part, founded on specific changes in how learners create and consume knowledge, and use emerging technologies (New Media Consortium, 2007). Notably, these predictions coincide and corroborate movements in learning theory and pedagogy for new metaphors of learning defined as participation, process, and practice, where emphasis is placed on innovation, dynamic knowledge creation, and social interaction (Paavola, Lipponen, & Hakkarainen, 2004).

Dynamic Knowledge Creation and Social Computing Dynamic knowledge creation is becoming a default for digital natives as social computing becomes more widespread: in the case of wikis and blogs, individuals and groups are congregating to build knowledge in myriad disciplines and topic areas. Although the term Web 2.0 does understandably connote a “buzz word” to some, I will use it cautiously to denote those Internet technologies that permit contribution of and distribution to a wide spectrum of users, where the information and communication technology network is viewed as the platform of business, and core competencies include “harnessing the collective intelligence,” “services, not software,” and “architecture of participation” (Evans & Powell, 2007; O’Reilly, 2005). A representative example of Web 2.0 sites and technologies would include Flikr (photo file sharing) and de.licio.us (tagging), eBay reputation and Amazon reviews (user/consumer as contributor), Wikipedia (trust), and blogs (participation). In education, what should draw attention are the parallels of Web 2.0 technologies and the tenets of a constructionist pedagogy, one that advocates the externalization of cognition into a public sphere in the service of mastery and development (Koschmann, Hall, & Miyake, 2005). In higher education, we are seeing the adoption of these technologies in the latest versions of course management systems; on the Virginia Tech campus, the open source project known as Sakai uses functions including wikis, blogs, and podcasting. In the MobilEd Initiative (http://mobiled.uiah.fi/), work is being done to port these functions to mobile telephones so that nomadic, digital natives in southern Africa can “build knowledge” among peers, teachers, and elders in the community. In terms of games, both entertainment and education varieties, social computing technologies are an integral tool for collaborative efforts and success. For example, World of Warcraft, a massive multiplayer online

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game, has a suite of Web 2.0 technologies used by players to support missions and extend the knowledge base for innovations. It is this next phase of dynamic knowledge creation and social computing that appears most relevant to the needs of the current and future generations, which leads to the next point.

Mobile and Personal Technologies as Primary Platforms for Delivery Mobile and personal technologies are increasingly viewed as a primary platform for delivery: learners view mobile media devices, tablet PCs, handhelds, and smart phones as a first point of reference for information access. Learners view mobile media devices—specifically tablet PCs, handheld computers, and mobile phones—as a first point of reference for information access. If I may, I will use the Virginia Tech campus, in Blacksburg, Virginia, USA, as an example of the pervasiveness and influence of mobile technologies in higher education, both inside and outside the classroom. Within the classroom, tablet PCs and handheld computers are becoming standard supplies for entering college freshmen. Beginning in the fall of 2006, every freshman entering the College of Engineering at Virginia Tech is required to buy a tablet PC, Fujitsu LifeBook® T4000 Series, for program-related work. The devices serve as design sketchpads and lab notebooks, and as means to interact with instructors via surveys and student response systems. Educational researchers investigate handheld computers for information and educational uses. For example, on the Virginia Tech campus, mobile phones now play a vital role on campus. If one can find a positive outcome from the tragic events that occurred on our campus on April 16, 2006, it is that the university has established an emergency alert system, VT Alerts, that can be received via mobile devices.

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Individualized Experiences, Open Access Learners are expecting individualized services, tools and experiences, and open access to media, knowledge, and information: in contrast to the standardized, controlled models of information dissemination, the current generation of consumers demand customized services. The newly installed VT Alerts system highlights well the expectation of students to have open, individualized access to knowledge and information. When signing up for VT alerts, a user has several options, including the order in which different contact methods should be accessed and how that information should be delivered. For example, one user may select to have text messages sent to their mobile phone as a first order, and a voice message sent to their home phone as a second order. Another student may select to have instant messages sent to their mobile phone number as a first order, and e-mail sent to their campus account. Though these services and information may be used infrequently, it is the individualized, open access now available that students demand. On a more broadly applicable scale, Virginia Tech has subscribed to iTunes U, a podcasting distribution service offered by Apple, Inc. This service permits faculty to upload audio-video broadcasts of lectures to the iTunes store for download onto portable digital devices. In a case for the 2006 spring semester, I produced weekly 10-minute episodes that explored more specifically topics in instructional development, multimedia production, interface design, usability, and evaluation. The convergence of pedagogy that emphasizes “knowledge building” (Paavola et al., 2004; Suthers, 2006) with this next generation of internet technologies along with mobile devices presents an intriguing space in which to explore the design and use of mobile games for instruction and learn-

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ing. Attention to and thoughtful investigation of these trends is paramount. In contrast to closing classroom doors to games and mobile technologies, a more intelligent approach is to understand and assess the development and implementation of digital games on mobile devices to impact teaching and learning (Squire, 2006).

ISSUES OF POLICY, STRATEGY, AND DEVELOPMENT Although I have made a case for the intersection of mobile devices and video game methodologies in education, there are obvious obstacles to fruition of these ideas. These issues touch on school policy, strategic use of technology, and development of games on mobile devices.

Policy Issues Perhaps the greatest obstacle to the adoption and diffusion of mobile games for education are the perceived social and health risks. As Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, and Tuzun (2005) detail, video games are often to blame for aberrations in human behavior: In 1999, two high school students went on a murderous rampage at Columbine High School in Colorado, leaving 12 students and a teacher dead and wounding 23 others before taking their own lives. This atrocity triggered unprecedented media attention, with many observers blaming gratuitous violence in video games as the underlying problem, and others suggesting bad parenting, insensitive schools, and the moral decay of our time. (p. 86) If one were to assume that times have changed in the last eight years, then the massacre at Virginia Tech in 2007 makes clear that video games are often brought before the cameras as the catalyst for violent behavior. In this case, a game called

“Counterstrike,” an online game involving counterterrorism missions, was identified as the culprit. Moreover, the search of Cho’s residence hall had an explicit agenda to search for video games. In the end, none were found in his room. As for health risks and video games, a very recent debate has been covered in the news as to whether spending time on video games is detrimental to other developmentally appropriate activities. As is common when video games are a topic, speculation was that video games were inevitably harmful. On the contrary, and as a final note on the mid-summer debate, an investigation by pediatric scholars (Cummings & Vandewater, 2007) came to the following conclusion: Video game play is often assumed to be endemic to adolescent life. Our results do not support this notion. It does appear that game play is an important part of life for a limited number of adolescents and that many more of these adolescents are boys than girls. Understanding the role video game play has in their lives and its implications for academic and social outcomes will be an important area of further inquiry. (pp. 688-689)

Strategic Issues Strategic issues deal with how an organization, at the administrative level, plans for and executes a roll out of digital media and technologies. If one is to take a socio-technical perspective on mobile devices and digital games, it is imperative that the effect of these devices and games on organizational structure and culture be taken into account. Perhaps one of the greatest influences of new technologies on organizational structure is that channels of communication and lines of command are often circumvented. In the case of a classroom scenario, students may use mobile phones to chat or cheat unbeknown to the teacher. Again, if I might cautiously use the Virginia Tech incident, the university has been severely criticized for trying to maintain control of information when

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students, staff, and faculty were clamoring for access. In regards to organizational culture, there certainly can be claimed a “generational gap” between students, and faculty and administrators, particularly in the K-20 sector. Although there are occasional reports of innovate use of mobile devices and games in educational settings, more often than not these devices and media are either banned from classrooms or placed in a location such as a computer lab that is locked and only accessible when a teacher or administrator permits. If mobile devices and games are to gain a foothold in the classroom, then it is critical that informed strategic decisions be made that take into account organizational structure and culture.

Instructional Development Issues At the ground level, the design of instruction based on game methodologies (Alessi & Trollip, 2000) delivered via mobile devices can be quite challenging. To illustrate, I provide an example from a course taught in the spring of 2007. Principles of Media Product Design, offered in the spring semester, is a graduate-level course designed to provide opportunities to design, develop, and evaluate instructional multimedia for wireless and mobile devices. The model of design and development is taken from Alessi and Trollip’s (2000) Multimedia for Learning: Methods and Development (3rd edition). Based on identification of clear trends in media and technology consumption and use, the standard course of development is augmented by focus on mobile learning environments (Sharples, 2006). In addition, the multimedia development platform is focused on the Adobe product, Flash 8. This platform was chosen as it is becoming an industry standard for delivering multimedia over the Web and to a range of devices including tablets, handhelds, and smart phones. While multimedia and technology are important components of the course, it is equally, if not more important, that students learn to think

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and act as designers in these settings. The goal is that it cannot only improve their practice with the field of instructional design, but also provide a mindset and vernacular to engage with designers from cognate fields, including interaction design, industrial design, and graphic design that are employed in the mobile device and video game industries. This mindset being prescribed is best captured by Löwgren and Stolterman (2004, p. 45), who state that design broadly requires the following knowledge and skills: • • • • • • •

Creating and shaping demands creative and analytical ability Deciding demands critical judgment Working with a client demands rationality and ability to communicate Design of structural qualities demands knowledge of technology and material Design of functional qualities demands knowledge of technology use Design of ethical qualities demands knowledge of relevant values and ideals Design of aesthetic qualities demands an ability to appreciate and compose

With this position and these values in mind, students and instructors engaged in a range of design studies to produce mobile learning product prototypes, including instructional materials for pre-service history teachers, support materials for an undergraduate dance appreciate class, and virtual manipulatives for elementary students.

IMPLICATIONS The convergence of mobile learning and digital game-based learning could have profound implications affecting many areas in and outside education. Below, I present a detailed list of the most salient, summarized in Table 1. From a holistic interaction perspective, principles from behaviorism and cognitivism

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under specify and under analyze the learning experiences of digital natives. Consequently, educational researchers must incorporate a new class of learning theories that emphasize activity and knowledge building within a sociocultural context. Sharples, Taylor, and Vavoula (2006) propose a theory of mobile learning that draws distinctly from the work of Vygotsky and other activity theory scholars. Counter to research and development guided by behaviorism and cognitivism, a post-cognitive perspective places emphasis on the group and the social interactions and tools that mediate learning. If advances are to be achieved, researchers, educators, and practitioners must explore alternative theories of learning that emphasize activity, interaction, and sociocultural context. Relying solely on past perspectives will bind creativity and hamper innovation. The development of meaningful, effective mobile games for education is hampered by misalignment across disciplines and sectors. Educationists, computer scientists, and industry game developers are currently working at crosspurposes. In the current model of development on many campuses of higher education in the United States, instructional design and technology faculty and students work independent of colleagues in computer science and human-computer interaction. These efforts are further wasted by lack of concerted effort to collaborate with gaming industry engineers and developers. Although there exist pockets of innovation and success in places like Raleigh, North Carolina, Bloomington, Indiana, and Madison, Wisconsin, higher education faculty and students should continue to build mutually beneficial relationships with game industry engineers and developers. Developments and trends closely tracked and well reported by industry personnel are ignored or unnoticed by educators and academics. Educators and academics should come to terms with the entertainment and game industry practice and popular literature. There is an identified dismissal by educators and academics of literature published

and conferences sponsored by commercial game developers. The work of well-known contributors to this field, for example Koster (2005) and his work on a Theory of Fun, may provide insights to instructional designers. A case in point is a statement made by an instructional design colleague who, in a dissertation committee meeting, made a statement to the effect that “Prensky is not an academic,” and so his work should not be referenced in scholarly work. Although there may be legitimate concerns about the academic rigor of work published for a popular audience, across-theboard dismissal is unfounded. Communication across sectors is needed. Thus, conferences such as Games+Learning+Society (http://glsconference. org/2007/) should be encouraged and replicated across campuses in higher education and game industry settings. Adoption and diffusion of mobile games in the classroom are unlikely, given past efforts and outcomes. Currently, mobile technologies such as portable media devices and smart phones are severely restricted in terms of use. Policy in classrooms from first grade to graduate school is that these devices must be turned off and stored away. Instead of making an effort to critically examine the use of mobile devices for learning, the preferred position is banishment. Moreover, teachers, administrators, and parents are rightly wary of the claimed efficacy of mobile games for learning. On the surface, digital games may be haphazardly dismissed as merely a form of entertainment having nothing to do with rigorous training of primary and middle school students. More seriously, digital games are portrayed negatively in news and popular media outlets leading to close-minded misperceptions (Barab et al., 2005). Educational researchers investigating mobile learning and digital game-based learning must present convincing arguments and evidence to persuade weary school officials and parents of their efficacy. The knowledge and skills of instructional design and technology professionals will potentially

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Mobility, Games, and Education

be absent from the next generation of mobile games. The class of instructional designers being trained in undergraduate and graduate programs in the United States lack prerequisite skills to develop sophisticated mobile games. Although this group of students may have sophisticated experience with and use of mobile devices and digital games, no formal inclusion of course work exists broadly in training programs. The result is that the knowledge of learning theory and skills in development and evaluation are not significantly contributing to the next generation of mobile game design. This is unfortunate as it is clear game developers (cf. Koster, 2005) are finding it necessary to delve (only somewhat successfully) into education and psychology literature to provide grounding for their work. Instructional designers are positioned to contribute to mobile game design, should curricula and degrees provide opportunities for this type training and internship. Educators of the next generation of instructional designers must incorporate perspectives and practices from the broader development community. Instructional design and technology programs should learn from and collaborate with engineers and developers in computer science and industry. Instructional design professionals face unprecedented challenges to designing games, particularly on mobile devices where screen real estate is precious. Design of instructional multimedia, delivered on mobile platforms and drawing from digital game methodologies, must incorporate knowledge. Though developing for mobile devices and using methodologies from digital games is initially exciting for novice instructional designers, it soon becomes apparent that careful attention must be paid to issues in terms of cognitive load. That is, the ability to be mobile while interacting with digital content presented on a reduced screen can impose cognitive demands that interfere with interaction and learning. Along these lines, my students and I have drawn from the literature on cognitive load theory (see Pass, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003) to help guide design decisions. In our most

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recent effort (Evans et al., 2007), we drew on the following principles of cognitive load and multimedia learning theories: •

•

•

Split attention effect: Reduce extraneous cognitive load by temporal-spatially integrating disparate sources of information, so reducing need for mental integration. Modality effects: Facilitate working load capacity by presenting information visually and aurally. Redundancy effect: Multiple sources of information are self-contained and can be used without reference to each other.

Learning that takes place in informal settings and with unsanctioned topics is overlooked or dismissed by educators. In the current educational milieu (particularly in the United States), a focus on standards and accountability leaves little room for innovation and experimentation. The canonical position is that learning can take place only in the classroom under formal conditions with sanctioned methods and materials. Therefore, settings outside the classroom—including museums, public transportation hubs, and other public spaces—are off limits, though they may have the potential to significantly alter educational practice. The burden placed on educational researchers and game developers is to specify clearly the benefits of informal learning on methods and materials outside the “codified knowledge domain.” As it stands, current understanding of learning in mobile game environments is insufficient, and thus more work in this area must be conducted beyond anecdotal evidence and restricted case studies. The “Interaction Age,” which fosters interaction with and around digital content, is poorly understood in education. Mobile learning and digital-game based learning are based on a subset of a larger class of emerging technologies that foster “interaction with, and around” digital content to include augmented reality, ubiquitous

Mobility, Games, and Education

Table 1. Summary of implications, issues, and actions regarding mobile games for education Implications

Issues

Actions

Learning theories from behaviorism and

Emerging technologies and current

Educational researchers and practitioners

cognitivism under specify and under analyze

learning theories are incommensurable.

explore alternative theories of learning

learning of digital natives.

that emphasize activity, interaction, and sociocultural context.

The development of meaningful, effective

Educationists, computer scientists, and

Educationists, computer scientists, and

mobile games for education is hampered by

game developers are at cross purposes.

industry developers work together on this

misalignment.

complex problem.

Developments and trends closely tracked

Educators and academics dismiss

Conferences such as

and well-reported by industry personnel

entertainment and game industry experts.

Games+Learning+Society (http:// glsconference.org/2007/) are encouraged

are ignored or unnoticed by educators and academics.

and replicated across campuses.

Adoption and diffusion of mobile games in the

Teachers, administrators, and parents are

Educational researchers and developers

classroom are unlikely.

unconvinced of efficacy of mobile games

present convincing arguments and

for learning.

evidence of the efficacy of mobile games.

The knowledge and skills of instructional

The current class of instructional designers

Instructional design and technology

design and technology professionals will be

lack prerequisite skills to develop

programs learn from and collaborate with

absent from the next generation of mobile

sophisticated mobile games.

engineers and developers in computer

games.

science and industry.

Instructional designers and developers face

The development of mobile games

Curricula for instructional design and

unprecedented challenges to designing games,

requires knowledge of design and

technology include principles from

particularly on mobile devices where screen

cognitive psychology principles.

multimedia learning and cognitive load

Learning that takes place in informal settings

Learning can only take place in the

Educational researchers and developers

and with unsanctioned topics is dismissed or

classroom under formal conditions.

specify the benefits of informal

real estate is precious.

theories.

overlooked by educators.

learning of topics outside the “codified curriculum.”

The “Interaction Age,” which fosters

Mobile games represent only a subset

A new class of emerging technologies,

interaction with and around digital content, is

of emerging technologies to potentially

including augmented reality and

poorly understood in education.

disrupt the status quo in the classroom.

ubiquitous computing, investigated and understood the impact on education.

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learning, and virtual environments (New Media Consortium, 2007). Though much work remains to research and develop mobile and digital gamebased learning, it would be wise for educators to take a broader and more long-range view of generational changes. Currently, theory and practice are poorly positioned to take account of the interaction age and the potentially profound influence it may have on education specifically and society at large. This chapter, and the handbook as a whole, may be seen as a first step toward this endeavor.

CONCLUSION In this chapter the following objects were addressed: (1) identify trends in consumer mobile digital technologies, products, and services; (2) situate trends in learner adoption and use of digital mobile and game technologies and games; (3) provide contemporary accounts of learning theory in terms of mobility; (4) present successful uses of mobile games in the classroom, especially for math and science; and (5) address policy, strategy, and development challenges for educators, particularly instructional designers and technologists. Though several issues remain outstanding, particularly the challenges of socioeconomic factors to technology adoption and use, and development hurdles for instructional designers unfamiliar with the complexity of game design, I still see value in pursuing this agenda along theoretical and practical lines. My position is not that the scenario put forth is absent unanticipated challenges and unintended consequences. Though scant rigorous, empirical work has demonstrated negative effects of new use trends on learners, parents, teachers, and administrators are wary of bringing games into the classroom (Sternheimer, 2007). This should provide even greater impetus to educators to critically examine and explore these trends and issues to determine how best to adopt and de-

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velop for future learning environments. This is the proper mindset and position of an educator and instructional designer seeking to create innovative instructional artifacts for digital natives and nomads.

REFERENCES Alessi, S., & Trollip, S. (2000). Multimedia for learning: Methods and development (3rd ed.). New York: Allyn & Bacon. Barab, S.A., Evans, M.A., & Baek, E. (2004). Activity theory as a lens for characterizing the participatory unit. In D.H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 199-214). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Barab, S., Thomas, M., Dodge, T., Carteaux, R., & Tuzun, H. (2005). Making learning fun: Quest Atlantis, a game without guns. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(1), 86-107. Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42. Brown, J.S., & Dugui, P. (1991). Organizational learning and communities-of-practice: Toward a unified view of working, learning, and innovation. Organization Science, 2(1), 40-57. Cummings, H.M., & Vandewater, E.A. (2007). Relation of adolescent video game play to time spent in other activities. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161(7), 684-689. Curry, J., & Kenney, M. (2006). Digital divide or digital development. First Monday, 11(3). Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.firstmonday. org/issues/issue11_3/curry/index.html Evans, M.A., & Powell, A. (2007). Conceptual and practical issues related to the design for and

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sustainability of communities of practice: The case of e-portfolio use in preservice teacher training. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 16(2), 199-214. Evans, M.A., Diaz, T., Liao, Y.-C., Wang, F.-H., Wu, Y., Eschenmann, T., Snediker, T., & Li, F. (2007, October 23-27). Developing prototypes for mobile learning: Design studies in geometry. Proceedings of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology International Conference, Anaheim, CA. Friedman, T.L. (2007). Cellphones, maxi-pads, and other life-changing tools. New York Times, (April 6). Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Koschmann, T., Hall, R.P., & Miyake, N. (2005). CSCL 2: Carrying forward the conversation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Koster, R. (2005). A theory of fun for game design. Scottsdale, AZ: Paraglyph Press. Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. New York: Cambridge University Press. Löwgren, J., & Stolterman, E. (2004). Thoughtful interaction design: A design perspective on information technology. Boston: MIT Press. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. New Media Consortium. (2007). The Horizon report. Retrieved February 10, 2007, from http:// www.nmc.org/pdf/2007_Horizon_Report.pdf O’Reilly, T. (2005). What is Web 2.0: Design patterns and business models for the next gen-

eration of software. Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/ news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html Paavola, S., Lipponen, L., & Hakkarainen, K. (2004). Models of innovative knowledge communities and three metaphors of learning. Review of Educational Research, 74(4), 557-576. Pass, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1-4. Pew Internet & American Life Project. (2005). Teens and technology: Youth are leading the transition to a fully wired and mobile nation. Retrieved November 26, 2006, from http://www.pewinternet. org/pdfs/PIP_Teens_Tech_ July2005web.pdf Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6. Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1994). Computer support for knowledge-building communities. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(3), 265283. Sharples, M. (2006). Big issues in mobile learning: Report of a workshop by the Kaleidescope Network of Excellence mobile learning initiative. Learning Sciences Research Institute, University of Nottingham, UK. Retrieved February 6, 2007, from http://telearn.noe-kaleidoscope.org/ Sharples, M., Taylor, J., & Vavoula, G. (2006). A theory of learning for the mobile age. Retrieved February 6, 2007, from http://telearn.noe-kaleidoscope.org/warehouse/SHARPLES-MIKE2007.pdf Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29. Sternheimer, K. (2007). Do video games kill? Contexts, 6(1), 13-17.

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Suthers, D.D. (2006). Technology affordances for intersubjective meaning making: A research agenda for CSCL. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 1(3), 315-337.

KEY TERMS Digital Game-Based Learning: Instruction and learning derived from methodologies and design features of computer and console video games. Knowledge Building: A constructionist pedagogy that emphasizes the externalization of individual cognition, the creation and maintenance of public artifacts, and service to the broader community. Mobile Devices: Communication and computational technologies that are highly portable, including handheld computers, portable game consoles, and smart phones.

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Mobile Learning: A form of instruction and learning that is delivered and conducted via mobile devices; a sub-area of distance learning. Social Computing: A suite of technologies and services that specify networking among individuals and groups; examples include Facebook.com and MySpace.com. Tool-Mediated Activity: A concept derived primarily from the work of Vygotsky that emphasizes the social origin of cognition, where individual thought is mediated by instrumental and psychological tools. Web 2.0 Technologies: A suite of Web- and client-based technologies and services that specify contribution of users to generate and reuse information; examples include wikis, blogs, and personal broadcasting.



Chapter VII

Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques David Parisi New York University, USA

AbstrAct This chapter discusses the way that new video game interfaces such as those employed by Guitar Hero™, Dance Dance Revolution, and the Nintendo Wii™ are being used to invoke the whole body as a participant in the game text. As such, new video games involve more than cognitive education; they impart a set of body habits to the player. Drawing on Marcel Mauss’s concept of “bodily technique,” I propose a new vocabulary for understanding these devices, referring to them as bodily interfaces. Next, I discuss three aspects of bodily interfaces: mode of capture, haptics, and button remapping. In order to help educators take advantage of these developments, I conclude by pointing to theoretical literature on the relationship between the physical and mental aspects of the learning process that may be useful in rethinking electronic games.

INtrODUctION Electronic gaming involves learning new habits of interfacing with game texts. Each new medium brings with it a particular set of what sociologist Marcel Mauss (1973) termed “techniques of the body,” where the body is conditioned to interact with the physical medium according to a set of cultural codes associated with it. In this chapter, I will explore the techniques of the body that emerge in our interactions with electronic games

and examine the ways that they are transforming the user’s bodily experience of the medium. It is my argument that electronic gaming trains our bodies to navigate texts in a new and significant way, in some instances electronically reproducing or mimicking the non-electronic (as is the case with games such as Guitar Hero and Dance Dance Revolution), and in others creating a new set of bodily habits. My focus on the interface as something encountered physically is intended to orient the reader away from visual and audio aspects of information display and toward the materiality of

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Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

the gaming experience. Underlying this focus is the assumption that learning does not happen only through the eyes and ears, but also in the fingers, hands, legs, and feet, and in the skin, muscles and joints.1 So my focus in this chapter on the interface is designed to spark educators’ thinking about electronic games as they are encountered physically by the player, and the new possibilities for learning that this conceptualization provides.2 The gaming body is no longer static and disengaged; it is now hailed as a participant in the game text. As such, playing electronic games becomes a play of the body, invoking what Gardner (1993) in his theory of multiple intelligences referred to as bodily/kinesthetic intelligence, no longer confined to the hands. This paradigm shift in thinking about games is not simply a theoretical one. In the drive to innovate within an extremely competitive marketplace, some game designers and developers have turned away from the pursuit of increasingly realistic images and sounds to instead pursue new forms of interface mechanics. Nintendo has been the most explicit about this in its development of the Wii and Dual Screen (DS™) gaming systems, with the former system eschewing high-definition graphics (the Wii’s maximum resolution is 480 horizontal lines compared to 1,080 for the PlayStation® 3 and 720 for the Xbox 360™) and instead focusing on the motion-capture controller (the Wii Remote or as it is cutely nicknamed “Wiimote”) as the system’s primary selling point.3 The DS featured its touch-screen interface, a first for a portable gaming system, prominently in the “Touching is Good” ad campaign produced for the product’s November 2004 launch (Parisi, 2008). This strategy has been extremely successful, with the DS selling 35 million units worldwide in just over two years (Mitchell, 2007), and the Wii eclipsing sales of other next-generation consoles in every month since its November 2006 release. Nintendo’s success was somewhat unheralded and can be read as emblematic of a new paradigm in gaming, further evidenced by controllers



developed for specific games, such as the floor mat controller for Dance Dance Revolution, the guitar controller for Guitar Hero I and II, and PlayStation’s Eye Toy. Each of these interfaces solicits greater bodily involvement in the gaming experience. The SIXAXIS™ controller for the PlayStation 3 tracks the controller’s tilt and uses it to direct the onscreen action, with the intent of creating a more “intuitive” and “natural” gaming experience (“SIXAXIS Wireless Controller”).4 In June of 2007, Novint Technologies released an interface called the Falcon that renders threedimensional objects to the user’s hand through the use of vibrational feedback. Through the deployment of haptic technology, this allows users to feel the weight, texture, and shape of onscreen objects.5 This chapter will trace the current deployment of what I refer to as bodily interfaces. We can define the bodily interface as the physical aspects of the computer interface, where the interface involves and depends on the body to come into contact with it. Recognizing that all input devices in the human-computer interface (HCI) involve the use of the body in some capacity, this term is somewhat redundant. I use it to orient the reader away from thinking about the graphical user interface (GUI) toward thinking about the interface as something material that is encountered by the body. Bodily interface has a material connotation that HCI does not, and as such, I feel it is a useful term for thinking about this most recent generation of game interfaces. I will discuss three interconnected aspects of these interfaces that are used to reorganize the body in relation to the game. The first aspect, capture, involves the interface’s ability to “read” the user. All human-computer interfaces depend on the computer’s ability to legibly interpret inputs from the user. A keyboard or a voice-recognition program interprets information provided by the user. Despite their similar function, these two interfaces involve the body in radically different ways. So in discussing this first aspect, it is

Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

important that we pay close attention to the mode of capture employed by an interface. The most emblematic example is the Wii Remote, which depends on a sensing apparatus in the remote to track its movement through space relative to the light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in the sensor bar. Information about the remote’s position is transmitted to the computer, which then makes calculations based on this information to produce events that are displayed for the user visually on the screen. The haptic aspect of interfaces invokes the user’s sense of touch. Although the term haptics is often used to refer specifically to interface devices that employ some sort of force feedback or force reflection,6 following Loomis and Lederman (1986, pp.31-33) I use it here to indicate the involvement of both the cutaneous (skin) and kinesthetic senses. Kinesthesis refers to the body’s ability to sense the limb positioning and movement, relying “on specialized sensory receptors located in muscles, tendons, and joints, but also on skin receptors in the hands” (Robles-De-La-Torre, 2006, p. 27). All interfaces that require physical contact produce haptic sensations; typing involves carrying out a set of actions in the hands, arms, and fingers, and also depends on the sensation provided by pressing the keys to let us know that a key has been struck successfully. Providing information for the game to capture produces haptic sensations through what is known as active touch. Where vibrational feedback is used, the interface acts on the user, often using vibrating motors within the controller to indicate the occurrence of a game event.7 So we can distinguish between haptic sensations that are produced by the user as a byproduct of carrying out game commands and those sensations that are generated by the physical interface itself as a form of feedback for the user. Feedback generated by the motors in the PlayStation’s Dual Shock controller is one example of this second type, while the sensation produced by tilting the SIXAXIS controller for the PlayStation 3 is an example of the first.

The third aspect of interfacing, remapping, uses the same mechanisms as a traditional controller or gamepad, but places the buttons in such a way that they demand a new bodily configuration of the user, typically designed to make the user’s motions correspond to the action mimicked in the game. One example of this is the popular Dance Dance Revolution (DDR), which maps the buttons usually manipulated by the thumbs onto a larger space where they can only be effectively activated using the feet. Another example is Guitar Hero, which employs a guitar interface (the Guitar Hero SG controller, based on the Gibson SG, scaled down to three-quarter size) where users press buttons on the fret bar rather than holding down strings. Cued by a series of scrolling notes and chords on the screen, players press combinations of buttons on the fret bar while flicking the strum bar. By remapping five of the buttons on a standard controller to the fret bar and using a sixth button as a stand-in for plucking strings, Guitar Hero manages to approximate the act of playing guitar, mimetically reproducing body routines involved in the original act. It is important to note that I will not be undertaking a genealogical analysis of video game controllers in this chapter, having opted instead to focus on developing a functional vocabulary for understanding the recent wave of new interfaces. I do not mean to suggest that these aspects of interfacing apply exclusively to new interfaces, nor do I mean to suggest that the technology used in this most recent set of interfaces represents a radical break with past interface technologies. What is significant about the current moment is not the technology itself, but rather the paradigm shift that its commercial success signals.

bAcKGrOUND Techniques of the Body One of the first obstacles that a new gamer must overcome is the controller’s awkward physicality. 

Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

The act of performing finger movements that are second nature for the experienced gamer (having been inscribed through years of training into his or her muscles) appears to the new gamer as a discouraging and frustrating barrier to the world of gaming. Compared to the first Atari joystick, which moved in four directions and had one button, contemporary video game controllers, with two analog sticks and 16 buttons, can be fumblingly complex in the hands of new gamers. To help us think about this dimension of gaming, we can apply French anthropologist Marcel Mauss’s idea of “bodily technique.” Mauss was prompted to think about this subject after years of reflecting on aspects of life that anthropologists and sociologists had relegated to the abhorrent category of “the miscellaneous.” Mauss wondered why it was that his generation swam differently than the previous one, why Polynesians swam differently than the French, why English soldiers could not dig with French spades. What he realized and articulated in a 1934 lecture titled Les Techniques du Corps (Techniques of the Body) was that each culture and epoch has a set of often unarticulated bodily habits that are imparted to its members through a system of cultural education. Acquiring these bodily techniques involves learning, often mimetically, particular modes of bodily movement and positioning. For example, Mauss discusses the positioning of the arms and hands while walking, claiming that this positioning forms a “social idiosyncrasy” and cannot be assumed to be “simply a product of some purely individual, almost completely psychical arrangements and mechanisms” (p. 72). This is not to assert that biology and individual psychology play no role, but rather that these are only constitutive elements mixed “indissolubly” together with the third, social element, which he describes in the following passage: In all these elements of the art of using the human body, the facts of education were dominant. The notion of education could be superimposed on



that of imitation. For there are particular children with very strong imitative faculties, others with very weak ones, but all of them go through the same education, such that we can understand the continuity of the concatenations. What takes place is a prestigious imitation. The child, the adult, imitates actions which have succeeded and which he has seen successfully performed by people in whom he has confidence and who have authority over him. The action is imposed from without, from above, even if it is an exclusively biological action, involving his body. The individual borrows the series of movements which constitute it from the action executed in front of him or with him by others. (p. 74) To summarize, bodily technique consists of three elements: the biological, the physiological, and the social. Both the biological and psychological can also be understood as emerging from the social. In other words, the social is the place where the biological and psychological are produced. The production of these categories has of course been given significant attention, most notably by Michel Foucault (1988). Mauss’s point of intervention was this social element. The social element involves the assimilation of the techniques of the “ordered, authorized, tested action” in what Mauss terms the “imitative act” (pp. 73-74). Social sanctioning may be mobilized to enforce conformity to the technique in question. This last point is particularly important in considering the ability of electronic games to impart techniques of the body to players. Even played alone, games are actions performed for the software, which evaluates the player’s performance and makes a judgment based on it. When the game interface invokes the body, it asks the body to perform a set of actions that it can perceive as legible. The body’s actions then must be conceptualized and arranged in such a way that they can successfully perform the required movements. The body must be mastered as an instrument, and it must perform a code of actions:

Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

The constant adaptation to a physical, mechanical or chemical aim (e.g., when we drink) is pursued in a series of assembled actions, and assembled for the individual not by himself alone but by all his education, by the whole society to which he belongs, in the place he occupies in it. (p. 76) What Mauss does quite effectively and quite stealthily here is eliminate material or biological determinism from techniques of the body, carving out a space for the role that socialization and education play in producing a diverse set of techniques, even when the techniques in question are intended to carry out a similar function. The value of this approach for understanding video game interfaces should be clear; it means that we cannot consider only the materiality and design of the game interface, but also the setting in which that game interface is deployed, and the circumstances that surround its deployment. The bodily techniques displayed in advertisements for the interface supply “the ordered, authorized, tested action” for the imitative act.

Conceptualizing Electronic Games Despite the wealth of scholarly literature that has been devoted to electronic gaming recently, there has been very little discussion of the game interface’s physicality. Where “the interface” is discussed, it typically refers to a game’s on-screen elements, such as the positioning of the camera, navigation menus, heads-up display, and other elements of the graphical user interface. While these elements vary greatly from game to game, the way that the graphical interface is navigated by the user’s hands had remained fairly static through several generations of game consoles up until the release of the Wii and the SIXAXIS. Where the physical human-computer interface has been discussed, Barr, Noble, and Biddle (2006) point out that it is not differentiated from other, non-game forms of HCI. In media theory, the historical lineage of the computer interface has been

linked primarily to the cinematic apparatus, with attention to other non-visual modes of sensory interaction eschewed in favor of an emphasis on the continuity of visual presentation from cinema to computers. Manovich (2001) describes the HCI as a form of “cultural interface” that allows the user to interact not just with the computer, but with a whole nexus of cultural traditions, practices, and conventions (p. 70). Alternatively, Aarseth (1997) opts to focus on the continuity between (cognitively) navigating new media (cyber-) texts and older modes of textual narrative. In order to direct our discussion to where it will be most productive, we can use Galloway’s (2006) definition of the video game is an “action-based medium,” characterized by a set of material processes that occur at two levels, the “operator” level and the “machine” level (p. 3). It is this action, the operator acting on the machine and the machine acting back on the operator, that Galloway claims sets video games apart from other media: If photographs are images, and films are moving images, then video games are actions…Without action, games remain only in the pages of an abstract rule book. Without the active participation of players and machines, video games exist only as static computer code. Video games come into being when the machine is powered up and the software is executed; they exist when enacted. (p. 3) For Galloway (2006), the mode of operator action sets games apart from other forms of media; we see “an interesting upheaval in the area of mass culture” as “what used to be primarily the domain of the eyes and looking is now more likely that of the muscles and doing, thumbs” (p. 3). Our focus here will be primarily on the material processes that take place at the “operator level” of what Galloway terms “gamic action.” Much like bodily techniques, games are defined by action; until they are executed, they exist only as static codes waiting to be executed. Deploying



Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

Philip Agre’s idea of “grammars of action,” which describes “how human activities are encoded for machinic parsing using linguistic and structural metaphors,” Galloway goes on to claim that video games produce complex grammars of action both for machine and operator, at both the physical level (what Galloway calls “gestural grammars”) and “higher-level actions” (p. 4). Combining this vocabulary with Mauss’s, we can proceed to interrogate the interface’s physicality and the physical configurations it imparts to the operator.

MAIN FOCUS Bodily Interfaces The first images that load on the Web site for the Wii (http://us.wii.com/) are a series of stills that link to short videos, shot from the television screen’s point of view, of people playing the Wii. This is a curious move; no screenshots or flashy game-play trailers, only video after video of people sitting togetherfamilies, friends, couplesWiimote in hand, focused on the screen. Loading the Wii Sports page shows similar images: bodies active, standing and kinetic. This image, the body of gamer from the perspective of the machine, is the image I hope to conjure by using the term bodily interface. I adopt this term to shift attention away from the way that information is presented on the screen and direct our focus to the physicality of the game interface. The term is problematic because all human-computer interfaces are bodily ones; that is, all HCIs require the body to function as an input device.8 The term is useful, however, because it forces us to think of the different ways that the body is deployed in its interactions with the machine. Each bodily interface summons a different history of bodily technique or, recalling our earlier discussion, a different paradigm of bodily education. Remember Mauss’s initial motivation for exploring bodily technique was to give form to patterns of behavior that were previously catego

rized as “miscellaneous” (pp. 6-7). The way that we interact physically with video games was, up until the present paradigm shift called attention to it, treated in the same manner. So while the word “bodily” in the phrase “bodily interface” may be somewhat redundant, it does carve out a space within which we may raise fruitful questions about the way this interfacing is carried out. The term is both descriptive and proscriptive. For educators, thinking of video game interfaces as bodily things should open up new possibilities in the way that they are deployed. Recognizing that cognition does not take place in a disembodied mind but rather is distributed throughout the body in the muscles and nerves, bodily interfaces are capable of invoking and cultivating more than just rudimentary hand-eye coordination. Having explained and detailed the significance of bodily interfaces, we can proceed to explore the different aspects of these interfaces. In this analysis, I am assuming that the standard controller is norm, and the types of interfaces we are examining in this chapter are significant precisely because they deviate from this norm. The interfaces I will be analyzing are as follows (with the month and date of the interface’s commercial release in the U.S. listed for reference): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Wii Remote and Wii Nunchuk for the Nintendo Wii™ (November 2006) SIXAXIS™ controller for the PlayStation® 3 (November 2006) Guitar Hero™ SG Controller for PlayStation® 2 (November 2006) Dance Dance Revolution Game Pad (released for U.S. consoles in 20019) EyeToy® for the PlayStation® 2 (2003)

Aspects of Bodily Interfaces Mode of Capture “A computer,” according to Agre, “can only compute with what it can capture” (2003, p.

Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

749). In Agre’s model of capture, “human activity is…treated as a kind of language itself, for which a good representation scheme provides an accurate grammar. This grammar specifies a set of unitary actionsthe ‘words’ or ‘lexical items’ of action” (Agre, 2003, p.746). The process of capture requires the establishment of “grammars of action” (p. 746). Agre goes on to give several examples of these grammars; the most pertinent for our purposes comes in his discussion of computer interfaces: The user interfaces of many (if not all) computers are readily understood as supplying their users with grammars of action. The permissible unitary actions are ASCII keystrokes, menu selections, shell commands and so forth. (p. 746)

What is important to keep in mind here is that the body carries out these actions. Interfacing thus requires the acquisition of grammars of bodily action, what Galloway (2006) refers to as gestural grammars. Here, it is helpful to think about the lexical items, which we will understand as requiring bodily action, present to the user on a standard video game controller such as Sony’s Dual Shock 2 controller.10 In addition to the two analog sticks, the controller has 17 buttons, most of which are pressure sensitive, with up to 255 levels of sensitivity. The buttons are diagrammed in Figure 1. The action of pressing any one of the buttons can be understood as a discrete lexical item (the following terms can be understood as synonymous: lexical item, word, action). Pressing

Figure 1. Map of a Sony DUALSHOCK® 2 Analog Controller for PlayStation® (Copyright Sony Entertainment Corporation)



Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

multiple buttons at once can also be understood as a lexical item. The different combination of buttons that can be pressed is almost limitless, but the ability to press different buttons at once is limited by the user’s ability to do so. There is much more to this process than can be detailed here; my point in raising the issue is to show that the mode of capture structures the mode of bodily interaction with the interface. This process is as much material as it is social; what is encountered by the user is a whole nexus of anthropological assumptions that are written into the physical design of the interface, including the discourse of ergonomics that is manifested in the material design of the interface.11 So as much as the grammars of action involved in playing a particular game will differ, the lexical items of action that make up these grammars will remain constant as long as the player interacts with the same interface device. Across platforms, the mode of capture for the X-Box and X-Box 360™ is fairly similar to the Dual Shock controller described above (again, our interests here are not genealogical, so tracing origins of this design are not important at the moment). The Wii Remote and Wii Nunchuk both operate by tracking the controller’s movement through three different axes. Depending on the game, the Wii Remote can be used on its own. Tennis and baseball for Wii Sports, for example, only use the Wii Remote. For more complex motions, the Wii Nunchuk can be attached to the Wii Remote, making another set of lexical items available to the player. Boxing requires the use of both the Remote and the Nunhcuk, as each captures the separate motion of the fists to punch one’s opponent. Through repeated experimentation moving the controllers, the player learns what body motions produce the desired onscreen actions, such as a jab or a dodge. Moving the controllers sideways simultaneously will make the player bob to the side. Similarly, the SIXAXIS tracks the tilt of the controller, which means that the player must



learn the sensitivity of the tilt sensing and tailor her hand movements to it. The motions become part of the player’s gestural language, acquired through repeated interaction with the interface device. The EyeToy is an example of a similar practice of capture. It employs a camera aimed at the player that captures his or her image and displays it on the screen. The player’s image on the screen is overlaid with game objects, which the player interacts with by gesturing. The game interprets the player’s gestures and then determines if a successful interaction with a game object has occurred. Through this process, the player learns what physical actions are legible to the interface, then remembers them through repeated performance in front of the camera. In this case, a grammar of bodily action is acquired through repeated interaction with the game, but this grammar is not supplied by the ergonomics of the interface itself. So where the physicality of Dance Dance Revolution’s dance mat or the Wii Remote both lend themselves to interaction with particular body parts, the EyeToy supplies no such physical vocabulary to the player until the interface is performed for the camera. EyeToy: Kinetic (SEEC. 2005), for example, leads the player through a series of exercises by making he or she dodge oncoming objects. The game teaches the player a workout routine by judging the player’s body motion as right or wrong. If the player managed to dodge the incoming object, he or she positioned his or her body correctly. If not, then he or she must position his or her body differently. The impacts of capture on the body will be more fully articulated as we discuss the other aspects of interfacing. So far we have established that all interfaces employ capture, and that a change in the mode of capture used by the game changes the user’s bodily experience and bodily encounter with the game.

Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

Haptics Just as all human-computer interfaces use capture, so too do they all involve felt sensations of interfacing; this felt experience will differ from interface to interface. Even when not specifically hailed by the game interface, the sense of touch is never “off”; with a standard game interface, the player feels12 the controller’s contours with his or her hands, and searches for buttons with his or her fingers and thumbs. All the while, the rest of the body must be managed in relationship to the controller; whatever position the player assumes, the hands must remain attached to the controller, closing the operator/machine circuit. The game’s primary felt experience resides in the hands, which Kant (1989, p. 28) once referred to as “man’s outer brain.” Where vibrational feedback is not present, the act of manipulating the controller produces haptic experience for the hands, but also for the rest of the body, as a byproduct of game-play. In gaming with a standard controller, the felt experience of the game is produced by fixing the body so that it is only the hands that are moving. The Wii Remote spreads the portions of the body directly required to interface with the game upward from the hands. Wii Boxing, by requiring the player to hold both the Wii Remote and the Wii Nunchuk, involves both arms, the torso, and the head. The Dance Dance Revolution dance mat, in using the legs to activate the interface, involves the whole body; the haptic experience of DDR or Wii Boxing is substantially different, therefore, from playing a first-person shooter on the Xbox 360 or PlayStation. The felt experience of these games closely resembles the felt experience of the act the game is reproducing. This presents us with a new type of realism, one that we may understand as a sort of sensory realism, a bodily realism. Realism here is not an absolute category, but rather an aim in the game design. So with Wii Bowling, bodily realism is achieved by making the body’s haptic experience playing the electronic game achieve

a fidelity to the body’s experience with the nonelectronic version. To further illustrate this point, let us revisit the EyeToy interface. Because the body’s motions are captured by the EyeToy’s camera, the player actually has no physical contact with the interface. But the player does have a robust haptic experience with the game, moving wildly about in order to accomplish the game’s objectives. Recalling Marshall McLuhan’s famous formulation, “the user is the content” of the medium, the player’s felt experience of game-play becomes the game’s content (Molinaro, McLuhan, & Toye, 1987, p. 436). EyeToy: KineticCombat involves martial arts moves through successful imitation of the character on the screen; in EyeToy: Play3, the player gestures to style the hair of an onscreen character, moves his or her arms to mimic playing the trumpet, and imitates an onscreen soldier saluting his or her superior. The player’s felt haptic experience has a fidelity to the onscreen events. The entire body is hailed as an educational subject; feelings are learned by and inscribed in the muscles and joints. The content of the game text is the user’s physical performance of the game code, her adherence and conformity to the bodily motions demanded by the text. The use of vibrational (or haptic) feedback13 adds another dimension to the player’s haptic experience with the game. When game events trigger small motors that reside in the controller’s handle, the player feels vibrations corresponding to onscreen events. Though this sort of “rumble” feedback has been in game controllers for over 10 years, using it in conjunction with the forms of action described above gives it increased importance. Perhaps the best example of this is in Wii Baseball, where the Wii Remote (held like a baseball bat in the player’s hands) vibrates when the player’s onscreen avatar makes contact with the visual representation of the ball in an attempt to simulate the feel of hitting. This process educates the user’s sense of touch, producing a sort of tactile semiotics, where the felt sensations of



Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

the game world that act on the user are linked to information from other sensory modes. The vibration from firing a particular gun is linked to the sound and image of the weapon firing; just as the different guns have different sounds and images, so too do they have different vibration patterns and intensities. With higher-end devices, more robust forms of vibrational feedback are possible, allowing for the simulation of weight, pressure, and motion. This serves to add tactile information to onscreen objects, folding the sense of touch into the game’s sensory epistemology.14

Remapping When a computer receives a command, it does not care about the physical location that command comes from. In other words, when the computer gets the command from button A, it does not matter where the A button is located: whether the A button is five feet wide and can only be pressed by driving a truck onto it, or placed comfortably on the top of the Wii Remote, the computer interprets the input the same. But those two different buttons would have a large impact on the player’s experience with the game. “Good” button placement can make a console system successful, while “bad” button placement can doom a console from birth. Because the computer is indifferent to where it gets its inputs, one can play DDR with a standard controller by using the direction pad on a standard PlayStation 2 controller (see Figure 1, buttons Left, Right, Up, Down). The dance mat, by enlarging the direction pad and placing it on the floor, fundamentally changes the experience of the game text. Guitar Hero too can be played with a standard controller, but the interface would be clumsy and difficult to maneuver. So remapping the mode of capture impacts the player’s haptic experience with the game. In the case of Guitar Hero, the congruence between the interface and the guitar allows the player to feel like he or she is playing a “real” guitar because of the way the buttons are mapped out. Because of its haptic

0

dimension, this approximation of the simulated activity through remapping is a crucial step toward achieving bodily realism. But like visual realism, bodily realism remains a category that will be perpetually out of reach because the controller only approximates the simulated activity, and only approximates the relationship between the body’s action and its material effect.

IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS The implications of the new trend in bodily interfaces are best illustrated by the controversy over Rockstar Games Manhunt 2. The first Manhunt (Rockstar Games: 2003), which predates the Wii, asked players to assume the perspective of a death row convict, performing brutal executions. The more brutal the execution, the more points awarded to the player. The first game earned a Mature rating from the Electronic Software Ratings Board (ESRB). On initial review, the ESRB gave the sequel an Adults Only rating,15 with some speculating that the realism of the Wii’s interface is partially responsible for the more restrictive rating (Game Informer, 2007). In The Godfather: Blackhand Edition (Electronic Arts, 2007) for the Wii, players act out grabbing, shaking, throwing, and punching their enemies using the Wii Remote and the Nunchuk. With Manhunt 2, the fear is that rather than training gamers to press buttons that make their characters perform actions, the game trains players to actually perform those actions. This is a fear over grammars of (undesirable) bodily action being added to one’s gestural language. My point here is not to give credence to the perpetually overblown fears about the relationship between video games and violence, but rather to flag the way that this new mode of capture has already changed the way of thinking about the mode of education that video games engage us in.

Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

Designing educational applications for these new interfaces would allow a type of bodily education not possible with older generations of game consoles. By adding new lexical items to the range of grammars of bodily actions possible in electronic games, these interfaces make it possible to engage learners in dynamic and exciting ways. By adding the narrative and incentive structure of games to the physical activities carried out in the games, the time a learner will devote to what may otherwise be considered a tedious activity increases. However, it is important to bear in mind that the actions one learns through these commercial bodily interfaces are only approximations. There has yet to be a virtuoso guitarist who learned exclusively by playing Guitar Hero, and conversely, while an amateur bowler might think Wii Bowling is surprisingly realistic, a professional bowler might find that without the weight of the ball on her arm, her bowling motion changes considerably. What underlies the concept of bodily interfaces is the idea that cognition and learning do not take place only in the brain, that education is a process distributed throughout the body. Recent work in cognitive science (Calvert, Spence, & Stein, 2004)16 has attempted to provide experimental grounding for what was suggested in significant discourses that the interested reader may want to follow up on. The first is in Maria Montessori’s description of her method of sensory education, which includes techniques of education specific to each individual sense, with touch featuring prominently (Montessori, 1912, pp. 185-187, 198). Bringing this set of pedagogical strategies to bear on electronic games can help move electronic game-based learning beyond the abstract realm. By introducing a digitalized physicality to users’ experience with electronic games, conversations on the materiality of educational objects take on a new relevance. Educators may also want to consider the body of work dedicated to exploring the importance of touch in emotional and cognitive development, in particular Montagu’s (1971)

pioneering work and the more recent study by Field (2003). Also, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences posits a “bodily/kinesthetic intelligence” that is certainly cued by all game interfaces, but to an even greater extent by the bodily interfaces described above (1993, pp. 205-209). Because of gamers’ widespread adoption of these interfaces, we can assume they will be refined in subsequent generations. As other game designers try to clone the commercial success of the interfaces discussed here, more resources will be invested in development of new and more complex modes of bodily interaction. It is crucial that we have at our disposal a vocabulary for understanding how it is these interfaces involve the body. What I have attempted to sketch out here is hopefully a useful framework for helping educators to think about the new paradigm in gaming. Understanding gaming as a process of educating the body should shift the attention of researchers as they attempt to track the impacts of gaming on the broader culture it exists within. What was readily obvious for Mauss (1973), that different cultures have different bodily techniques, certainly applies to cultures of gamers. Microcultural research into different gaming cultures may help to uncover the way that charismatic individuals within the culture exert a hegemonic influence on the bodily habits of their fellow gamers, what Mauss called the “prestigious imitation” (1973, p. 74). Game interfaces can also be used to teach the player about the bodily habits of those in other cultures. By forcing the player to assume and learn a particular bodily motion, these interfaces allow players to enter into a mimetic relationship with a facsimile of another culture’s bodily habits. To synthesize Manovich (2001), Mauss (1973), and Galloway (2006), the game act becomes an ordered, authorized, and tested action, implicating the body in an interface not just between operator and machine, but between operator and culture. Bodily techniques are transmuted and transmitted through computer code, and the player becomes a willing and active participant in this process of cultural education. 

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REFERENCES Aarseth, E. (1997). Cybertext: Perspectives on ergodic literature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Agre, P.E. (2003). Surveillance and capture: Two models of privacy. In N. Wardrip-Fruin and N. Montfort (Eds.), The new media reader (pp. 740-760). Cambridge: MIT Press. (Original work published in 1994). Barr, P., Noble, J., & Biddle, R. (2007). Video game values: Human-computer interaction and games. Interacting with Computers, 19(2), 180195. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://sciencedirect.com Brightman, J. (2006, May 31). Harrison: Sony did not steal Nintendo’s idea. Retrieved March 4, 2007, from http://biz.gamedaily.com/industry/ feature/?id=12824 Calvert, G., Spence, C., & Stein, B. (Eds.). (2004). The handbook of multisensory processes. Cambridge: MIT Press. Foucault, M. (1988). Madness and civilization: A history of insanity in the age of reason (R. Howard, trans.). New York: Vintage-Random House. Field, T. (2003). Touch. Cambridge: MIT Press. Galloway, A.R. (2006). Gaming: Essays on algorithmic culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Game Informer. (2007, August). Changing the game: The aftershocks of Manhunt’s AO rating. Game Informer, 172, 34. Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences (10th anniversary ed.). New York: Basic Books. Gibson, J.J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.



Heller-Roazen, D. (2007). The inner touch: Archeology of a sensation. Brooklyn: Zone Books. Katz, D. (1989). The world of touch (L.E. Krueger, trans.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. (Original work published in 1925). Lukes, S. (2000). Different cultures, different rationalities? History of the Human Sciences, 13(1), 3-18. Loomis, J.M., & Lederman, S.J. (1984, November). What utility is there in distinguishing between active and passive touch? Proceedings of the Psychonomic Society Meeting, San Antonio, TX. Retrieved from http://www.psych.ucsb. edu/~loomis/loomis%20lederman%2084.pdf Loomis, J.M., & Lederman, S.J. (1986). Tactual perception. In K. Boff,, L. Kaufman, & J. Thomas (Eds.), Handbook of perception and human performance, volume II (chapter 31). Mauss, M. (1973). Techniques of the body. Economy and Society, 2(1), 70-87. (Original work published in 1934). Manovich, L. (2001). The language of new media. Cambridge: MIT Press. Mitchell, D. (2007, February 27). The rise of the handhelds. Retrieved February 28, 2007, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6387551. stm Molinaro, C., McLuhan, M., & Toye, W. (Eds.). (1987). The letters of Marshall McLuhan. Toronto: Oxford University Press. Montagu, A. (1971). Touching: The human significance of the skin. New York: Columbia University Press. Montessori, M. (1912). The Montessori method. New York: Frederick A. Stoles. Nintendo. (2006a). Wii Remote. Retrieved February 27, 2007, from http://wii.nintendo.com/controller.jsp

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Nintendo. (2006b). Wii Sports. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://uk.wii.com/software/02/ Parisi, D. (2008). Fingerbombing or “touching is good”: The cultural construction of technologized touch. The Senses and Society, 3(3). Parisi, D. (in press). Tactile modernity: On the rationalization of touch in the nineteenth century. In C. Colliga & M. Liney (Eds.), Image, sound and touch in the nineteenth century. Paterson, M. (2006). Feel the presence: Technologies of touch and distance. Environment and Planning, 24(5), 691-708. Robles-De-La-Torre, G. (2006). The importance of the sense of touch in virtual and real environments. IEEE Multimedia Special Issue on Haptic User Interfaces for Multimedia Systems, 13(3), 24-30. Robles-De-La-Torre, G. (n.d.) What is haptics? Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://www.isfh. org/haptics.html Schiesel, S. (2007, April 30). P.E. classes turn to video game that works legs, not thumbs. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://www.nytimes. com/2007/04/30/health/30exer.html?ex=1184904 000&en=8ecee806510b095c&ei=5070 Sony Entertainment Corporation. (2006). SIXAXIS wireless controller. Retrieved July 16, 2007, from http://www.us.playstation.com/PS3/About/ WirelessController Weber, E.H. (1996). E.H. Weber on the tactile senses (H.E. Ross & D.J. Murray, trans.). London: Psychology Press. (Original works published in 1825 and 1846.) Weber, R.N. (1997). Manufacturing gender in commercial and military cockpit design. Science Technology Human Values, 22(2), 235-253. Retrieved July 18, 2007, from http://online. sagepub.com

Wikipedia. (2007, July 12). Dance Dance Revolution. Retrieved July 21, 2007, from http:// en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dance_ Dance_Revolution&oldid=144279629 Winner, L. (1980, December 1). Do artifacts have politics? The whale and the reactor: A search for limits in an age of high technology (pp. 19-39). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wolpaw, J.R., & McFarland, D.J. (2004, December). Control of a two-dimensional movement signal by a noninvasive brain-computer interface in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101 (pp. 17849-17854).

KEY TERMS Bodily Interface: The physical aspects of the computer interface, where the interface involves and depends on the body to come into contact with it. Recognizing that all input devices in the human-computer interface (HCI) involve the use of the body in some capacity, this term is somewhat redundant. I use it to orient the reader away from thinking about the graphical user interface (GUI) toward thinking about the interface as something material that is encountered by the body. Bodily interface has a material connotation that HCI does not, and I feel it is a useful term for thinking about this most recent generation of game interfaces. Bodily Realism: As opposed to visual realism, bodily realism refers to the subject’s felt experiences of the game interface. Like visual realism, bodily realism is not an absolute category; that is to say, bodily realism is not something that is either achieved or not achieved, but rather something sought for in the design process. One example of this is bowling for Wii Sports, which attempts to replicate the bodily feeling of bowling through the use of motion capture in the Wii Remote.



Game Interfaces as Bodily Techniques

The player has to go through the motion of “real” bowling, thus producing physical sensations that approximate those of real bowling. Bodily Technique: A term used by Marcel Mauss (1973) to describe the bodily habits of different cultures. Dissatisfied with the language that anthropologists and sociologists had at their disposal to understand the way that people used their bodies, in a 1934 lecture Mauss posited that bodily techniques are composed of three elements: the biological, psychological, and cultural-mixed “indissolubly” together. Cultural Interface: Taken from Manovich (2001), who describes media as cultural interfaces, the term refers to the way that the compositional elements of media are arranged. This arrangement will reflect the preferences, values, and conventions of the culture it emerges out of. Cultural interfaces, such as cinema and the printed word, each have their own particular history of form and technique that we need to be attentive to in approaching them. Haptics (or Haptic): From the Greek haptikos or haptesthai, meaning to grasp or take hold of, haptic refers to the sense of touch. The word haptics has come to refer to the science of touch, a field of study that has its roots in German psychophysics, and also serves as shorthand for the field of haptic interface design, which attempts to technologically reproduce the sense of touch. Loomis and Lederman (1984, 1986) define the haptic as consisting of the cutaneous (skin) and kinesthetic (movement) senses, which is the meaning we will use in this chapter. Mode of Capture: The means employed by the machine to take in input from the user/operator. A central point in this chapter concerns changes in the mode of capture; the use of optical tracking by the EyeToy for PlayStation 2 is one mode of capture, and this differs significantly from standard controller, imparting a new configuration of



the user in order for his or her actions to be made legible to the machine. Remapping: One technique being used in new game interfaces such as the SG2 Guitar Controller for Guitar Hero and the dance mat for Dance Dance Revolution, remapping involves redesigning video game controllers and placing the buttons in places that demand new bodily configurations of the user. The dance mat takes the directional pad of the Dual Shock controller and maps it onto a larger space, so that the player can only press the buttons using their feet.

ENDNOTES 1

2

3

I wish to avoid confronting the problem of Cartesian dualism here, although it will remain in the background of this discussion. As with any technological development, there is a more pernicious side to the bodily interfaces I will be discussing. But in order to demonstrate their potential as learning tools, I have opted to put aside concerns that these interfaces raise about privacy, the authoritarian enforcement of body routines and body maintenance, and scores of other issues. This is not to diminish these issues, but rather to help clearly explain what has been an under-examined set of developments in gaming. Nintendo signals this shift in marketing in their description of the controller: “To make gaming as accessible to people of all ages and all abilities, Nintendo wanted to create a controller that was as inviting as it was sophisticated. The outcome is the Wii Remote. Nintendo fused the familiarity of a remote control with the sophistication of motion-sensing technology to come up with an input device for the ages!” (Nintendo 2006a).

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4

5

6

7

8

Sony’s use of the terms “intuitive” and “natural” to describe the player’s interaction with the game is certainly problematic, but these concerns will be put aside for now. What is important for our purposes is their attempt to address “unnatural” interaction by adding a system that captures the movement of the body, as recorded by the controller, in addition to the manipulation of buttons and sticks. Although devices of this kind have been around for more than a decade, the Falcon is the first with a price point low enough to be marketable as mainstream game peripheral, with a preorder price of $189. For more details on the Falcon’s release, see Novint’s homepage at http://www.novint. com. Although higher-end haptic devices with similar but improved functionality have been around for over a decade, they remain prohibitively expensive even for serious gamers. For example, SensAble’s Phantom® Omni retails for $2,795. The word haptic is often used as an umbrella term to include all the different senses of touch. Recently haptics has become shorthand for the practice and field of haptic interface design. For a concise discussion on this subject, see Robles-De-La-Torres (2006) and also the International Society for Haptics (http://www.isfh.org). The division of touch into “active” and “passive” originates in E.H. Weber’s pioneering work on touch in the 1830s and was later taken up by David Katz (1925) and J.J. Gibson (1966). This division is not without controversy; see Loomis and Lederman (1984). The one notable exception to this is the brain-computer interface (BCI), which allows the control and manipulation of the computer through the use of focused mental activity. However, this process too requires conditioning the brain to produce electro-

9

10

11

encephalographic activity that is legible to the computer. For more detailed coverage see Wolpaw and McFarland (2004). Dance Dance Revolution was popular in Japanese arcades prior to being ported to the PlayStation in 1999 (Wikipedia, 2007). This raises one point that I have not yet mentioned: very often, arcades are the birthplace of new interfaces, but it is rare that the interface present in an arcade game survives in anything looking like its original form when the game is ported to a console. One of the difficulties in porting successful arcade games to consoles is in reducing the diverse and often robust interface allowed in the arcade to the homogenous space of a standard console controller. I have opted to use the Dual Shock to illustrate my point because its design has enjoyed a good deal of longevity. The basic button and stick layout has remained the same since the first iteration of the controller, the Dual Analog, was released in 1997. Though some features have been added (such as button sensitivity and most recently tilt sensing) and others added and then removed (the DualShock® for the PS 1 and PS 2 incorporated vibrational feedback, but was absent in the PS 3’s SIXAXIS due to a recently resolved patent lawsuit brought by Immersion Corporation in 2002), the physical structure has remained constant. According to a recent (admittedly suspect) estimate from Sony president Phil Harrison, 400 million Dual Shock controllers have been sold worldwide (Brightman, 2006). I am putting aside here the whole discussion of materially coding assumptions about the user into design, but there is a wealth of literature on the subject. For example, the embedding of gender in cockpit design is taken up Weber (1997). Also see Winner’s (1980) germinal “Do Artifacts Have Politics?”



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12

13

14



There is an ambiguity in the meaning of the word ‘feeling’. I use it here to refer to physical sensation, instead of affect and emotion, though the two meanings are certainly related. For a thorough historical analysis on the subject, see Heller-Roazen (2007). This type of feedback is often referred to as “rumble” in order to set it apart from more robust uses of haptic technology. In console games, rumble has been around since the Rumble Pak was released for the Nintendo 64 in 1997. The term ‘sensory epistemology’ refers to the way that knowledge is conceptualized in relationship to the senses. Anthropologists use the term to refer to the sensory preferences of one culture or another; I use it here

15

16

to refer to the sensory modes available to us to know the computer-generated worlds. For one discussion of the term, see Lukes (2000). From a commercial standpoint, an AO rating is basically the kiss of death for a video game, similar to an NC-17 rating for a film. See http://www.esrb.org/index-js.jsp for more information. In the case of Manhunt 2, both Nintendo and Sony have both indicated that they would ban the game from their systems if the publishers are not able to get the AO rating reduced to Mature. There are several pertinent chapters in this volume revolving mainly around the interaction of sensory modes in forming our conceptions of the external world.



Chapter VIII

A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings Elhanan Gazit H.I.T.-Holon Institute of Technology, Israel

AbstrAct This chapter presents an analysis of the dynamics of children’s digital games interactions, which take place in their home surroundings, based on empirical case study. Since digital games have become one of the main building blocks in children’s world, there is a need to examine the impact of the widespread use of digital games in children’s everyday life. The study’s framework served as a window for close observation of the ways young children spontaneously play digital games and interact with each other. Theoretical implications for digital games research and the pedagogical implications regarding the design and implementation of interactive learning environments are discussed. In addition, there are methodological challenges of finding new pathways for studying the complex relationships between digital games and real-world learning interactions. The study’s findings and their implications could serve as a small step in perusing these challenges.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Like other popular media, digital games have become the building blocks of our children’s world. Ellis (1983) argues that children usually play in groups, and when they do not, they share their experiences socially. Hence, playing digital games cannot be properly understood as simply a human-machine interaction, but it should be examined in social and cultural spheres that are

perhaps more important than the game itself. Gee (2003) argues that through informal game playing, children learn how to participate in what he calls “meaningful spaces,” which are shaped by children’s interaction with virtual agents and with each other. Nijholt (2001) also claims that since learners have become more accustomed to interacting with virtual agents during their digital games experiences, learning environments should include smart artificial intelligent agents

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A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

for scaffolding the learning process. Moreover, there are many indications that digital learning environments such as digital games and virtual reality environments may provide the cognitive bridge between concrete experiences and scientific concepts (Dede, Clarke, Ketelhut, Nelson, & Bowman, 2003). A bridge of this sort is crucial in enabling students to cope with complex problem solving and other high-level thinking skills that are at the core of scientific and technological issues. Dede et al. (2005) designed a multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) called River City, in which the learner plays a researcher in a 19th century city. In order to cure the epidemic that already spread in the city and to solve any other ecological problems, the learner is forced to collaborate with his peers. The learner uses his avatar to search for clues and interact with smart avatars while performing scientific inquiry tasks. Dede et al. (2005) found that incorporating game-based scenarios increased the high school students’ motivation and engagement in learning activities, improved students’ attendance, and decreased students’ disruptive behavior. Furthermore, both minorities and women performed successfully in River City. Despite the positive outcomes of the River City project, only a few studies systematically examined learning in virtual environments (VEs), which incorporate games mechanisms (Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2002; Keating et al., 2002), and fewer studies have described the learning by digital games which takes place in informal home surroundings (Mitchell, 1985). Over the past five years since the creation of the MUVE River City, innovations in 3D game engines, artificial intelligence technology, and high-band communications have paved the way to the widespread distribution of massive multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), such as World of World Craft, RuneScape, and Maple Story, to name a few. Thomas and Brown (2007) argue that the ability to play one’s imagination and to see and experience from many different



vantage points in MMORPGs provides a new set of tools for imaginative and innovative thinking. For that reason, studying MMORPGs empirically would enhance our understanding regarding their educational potential to become: …spaces where work and play, convergence and divergence, and reality and imagination intertwine in a dance where students grow to understand the importance of communities of practice and learn how to be the things they imagine. (p. 169) The need for conducting empirical studies is also one of the main conclusions stated in de Freitas’ report (2007) on game-based learning and their potential use in education: More research needed to provide empirical evidence for how game-based learning can be used most effectively. Need for more rigorous baseline studies that can quantify how much and in which ways games and simulations are currently being used most effectively to support learning. (p. 60) Additionally, de Frietas (2007) emphasized the need for embedded games into practice to ensure effective learning, and that the use of both commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) games and proprietary games should be embedded for effective practice based on sound pedagogic principles and design. Hence, it would be interesting to examine what children do while playing digital games and what kind of effective teaching and cheating pedagogies they perform, while playing with their friends. De Freitas (2007) concluded that gamebased learning may provide new opportunities for reconsideration of how people learn and for supporting the development of new immersive spaces where learners may produce their own materials, share learning experiences, and practice skills of the ‘real world’. This may have enormous implications in coming years, as:

A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

…the ‘digital natives’who may be more interested in active ‘street gaming’ than watching television become the teachers, managers and policy makers of 2020. (de Frietas, 2007, p. 59) According to a latest analyst report by the IDC, a leading global market intelligence firm, many digital games playing takes place in informal and home settings (Pidgeon, 2006). Yet, only a few studies have examined the interactions and learning that take place in these settings (Barab et al., 2005; Squire, 2005). Although notable contributions were made by both Consalvo and Dutton (2006) and Manninen (2003) in building a framework for game interactions analysis, there is no one coherent theoretical model that describes the interactions and learning that take place in digital games. Digital game-play occurs in different space and time scales, therefore systematic and long-term observations are needed. There is also a need to develop innovative methodologies for studying the characteristics of children’s real-time interactions while they play different digital games at their homes. In other words, there is a theoretical and a methodological challenge of highlighting the complexity of children’s learning interactions while they play, and their conceptual understanding development regarding the complex spaces represented in digital games.

THE MAIN GOAL AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS The main goal of this study is to describe and analyze the digital games interactions and learning dynamics of five children (ages 9-10) while they play digital games at their home, their everyday natural surroundings. The main research questions are: 1.

What are the characteristics of children’s real-time interactions while they play dif-

2.

ferent digital games at their home surroundings? What are the characteristics of children’s learning interactions while they play digital games in their home environment, and how does their conceptual understanding develop over time regarding the complex environments represented in digital games?

METHODOLOGY The case study presented in this chapter is based on two theoretical pillars: skill theory and active theory. Both afford a systematic examination of the qualitative and quantitative changes of the interaction goals and choices made by the children in real time. Skill theory focuses on the ways people develop their skills and the ways they learn in various domains (Fischer, 1980). The approach for studying learning is called “microdevelopment,” which is defined as “a process of change in abilities, knowledge, and understanding occurring in short time spans” (Granott & Parziale, 2002, p. 1). Analysis of microdevelopment is instrumental for illuminating processes of change in development and can illuminate the process of learning. By making continuous or nearly continuous observations, researchers obtain data that can capture developmental transitions and give direct access to the actual process of change and highlight its key attributes. Active theory offers a framework for describing and examining the relations of the participants and objects as mediated by the primary components (tools, community, rules, and division of labor) that constitute an activity system (Engeström, 1999). The study’s methodology framework was used to examine the phenomena from three different and complementary perspectives: a. b.

Children’s individual real-time playing interactions Small-group real-time playing dynamics



A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

c.

Micro-culture (norms and informal/formal roles) of the children’s homes. This multidimensional conceptual framework for analyzing digital games interactions is currently under development.

Data Collection Five children (four boys, one girl, ages 9-11) participated in the study. They were selected based on their good verbal communication skills, high self-expression skills, and the fact that they all play digital games on a regular basis. They were classmates that usually meet after school on a regular basis. Table 1 summarizes some of their characteristics. Table 1 shows that three children had their computers in their rooms, while the other two had their computers in the living room, due to their parents’ wishes to have some kind of control. Gil’s father (age 36) said: “If you don’t care about him doing his homework, or him meeting with friends in the real world and not just in front of the screen, let him play computer games, in his room, behind close doors.” Other parents did not bother about the computer’s location in the house, but had some unwritten

rules regarding the amount of time their children should play digital games. For example, Shey’s mother (age 37) stated that she allowed him to play “every day, after he comes from school till four o’clock. After that, it’s homework time and other quality time activities without the computer.” In reality, this rule was found to be more flexible than stated, due to the fact that Shey’s mother was working late most of the week, without having real supervision. Three children had their parents’ encouragement and support to play MMORPGs. They paid a small monthly fee, which afforded their children a “membership” status in RuneScape and in Maple Story. Or’s father (age 35) elaborated on the agreement he made with his son: I agree to pay the RuneScape membership fee, because I think it could improve Or’s English skills. I told Or that he doesn’t have to pay it from his weekly pocket money, but if he wants me to pay every month he has to read a book. How it works?…well, for every three hours of playing RuneScape, he has to read a book of his choice for an hour. I think this is a good deal [smiles].

Table 1. Participants’ characteristics and favorite games and hobbies Name

Play Digital Games

Favorite Games

(weekly hours) Gil

19

PC Location and Other

26

Hobbies

Second born,

Sports, bicycle

Consoles Need for speed

Living room

NAB2001 Shey

Family Status

RuneScape

two sisters Child’s room, PS

First born, one

Scouts

sister Or

16

Penguin Club

Ron

19

Need for Speed

Child’s room,

First born, one

Reading,

PS in another room

sister

comics

Living room

First born, one

Soccer

FIFA2006 Tami

18

RuneScape The Waitress

0

sister Child’s room

Second born, twin sister

Scouts

A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

This agreement is a good example of a “give and take resolution” between the child and his parents, decreasing possible tension about the proper ratio of time spent on reading and playing digital games. All the children were allowed to play no longer than two hours a day, but it was found that two children (Shey and Ron) played more than three hours a day. During weekends, two children played three to four hours a day. All the parents reported having disputes with their children over the amount of time “spent” playing digital games. An ethnographical approach was taken to record the children’s parents’ informal dispositions towards computers in general, the physical positioning of the computer in the house, and the explicit and implicit rules they made regarding the use of computers by their children as reported above (Pink, 2001). Conducting a case study in the children’s home surroundings has many restrictions, since informal learning by definition is an unofficial and unscheduled activity (Cross, 2006). One of the main differences between well-planned lab studies and this current study is that the choice of which digital game to play, how long to play it, and whom to play it with was the children’s decision. The games vary from free casual Internet games to commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) computer games, such as EA Sports games (FIFA and NBA), Zoo Tycoon , Sims2, TrackMania, and RuneScape, which is an multiplayer online role-player game. The outcome of this methodological choice was a collection of game-play sessions that vary from several perspectives: 1. 2.

3.

The session duration: From a 10-minute session up to a three-hour session. The number of games played during one session: From one to four different games. The ad-hoc social gathering: An individual game-play, pair game-play resulting from

4.

5.

6.

7.

an invitation made at school or by phone, or a small-group game-play of three to four children from an invitation made my one child to other children. The use of different communication tools: ○ Face-to-face interactions, in which two or three children sit in front of the computer’s screen, and each of them uses a different kind of interface, such as a Joystick, a computer mouse, or a keyboard. ○ Online, small-group, real-time communication, in which one child plays at his house and contacts by phone, Microsoft’s Messenger ICQ, or Skype to communicate with another child who simultaneously plays the same game while being in a different physical location. The child’s family status: Being a first born or second born, a single child or having additional brothers and sisters (see Table 1 above). The child’s social position in the real world: From well accepted to less socially accepted. How many close friends the child has. Level of English: English is a second language for all five children. The level of parental support and mentoring with respect to English literacy skills for playing the games varied from a “manage your own English comprehensions difficulties” to a “guide on the side” attitudes.

Due to the children’s complex diversity describe above, gaining an understanding of the data collected and finding repeated patterns and new pathways comprise a considerable methodological challenge, as well as studying the complex relationships between digital games and real-world learning interactions.



A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

Despite the restrictions described above, more than 30 hours of digital game-play were collected so far, by direct observation, video recording, note taking, followed by sporadic semi-structured interviews. In one of the children’s living rooms, a low-cost capturing device (Averkey300 TM PC-to-TV convector) was installed and used to capture the real-time digital game-play as seen on the screen. The game-play was captured and recorded, together with what the children have said. The video records were used for instant recall technique as well. Another video camera was placed behind the players to capture their body language and hand gestures.

Data Analysis Computerized tools and cutting-edge methodological tools, such as sequential analysis and social networks (SNW) analysis, are being used to examine how children interact while playing digital games. The coding scheme, currently under development, is used to examine children’s individual knowledge construction and for mapping and describing the individual-group interactions, the cognitive-affective dynamics, and the children’s role-taking dynamics, as well as the development of their problem-solving skills.

MAIN FINDINGS The main findings presented in this chapter are based on two complementary perspectives: individual game-play interactions and small-group game-play interactions. Individual game-play involved observing the single-player actions and figuring out his or her individual progress patterns in a given game. Small-group game-play interactions involved observing the dynamics of peers playing games in the virtual space of the game, while they share the same physical location (child’s room, living room), or while they are in



different physical locations (each child located in his or her house).

Individual Digital Game Skills Acquisition This section presents individual game skills acquisition in racing games and EA Sports games. Need for Speed, TrackMania, NBA, and FIFA were the most frequent games played by four children in this specific case study, except for Shey, whose favorite game was RuneScape, a MMORPG. A close observation of the children playing these games revealed that skill acquisition patterns are composed of repeated transitions between difficulty levels. Figure 1 shows Or (a boy, age 9) playing FIFA Would Cup Germany 2006 in practice mode. Playing in low-difficulty levels for a relatively long time served as a “safe experiment space” for gaining control while experiencing few frustration events. The FIFA game skill acquisition pattern was found to be a mix of active interactions and passive observations. The passive observations duration was 23% of the total game-play sessions time, with players using the embedded replay feature in the FIFA game. This preliminary finding gives a rise to the following question: What are the dynamics of the active and passive game-play, and how might this interplay contribute to game skills acquisition? From both theoretical and pedagogical perspectives, one of the trends worth following is: What are the optimal ways of embedding replay features within dynamic learning environments? Analyzing the actions that the children make and what they actually learn from using the replay mode feature in different games is currently being done by using computerized tools embedded within the INTERACTTM software, which contains time stamping. These systematic observations might result in new insights regarding this question.

A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

Figure 1. A nine-year-old child building his skills in FIFA by using the practice mode

Three children developed an interdisciplinary conceptual understanding. For example, while playing EA’s FIFA Would Cup Germany 2006, Or performed a geographical inquiry by using the embedded globe dynamic map to identify the different national teams’ geographical locations. He used an Atlas to compare the different nations’ population and size. In addition, three children stated that their quick gaming skills progress was due to interactions with their peers. For example, Or explained his fast progress to the professional level in FIFA: I watched my friend play on this level, so now it’s easy. In another episode, Gil (a boy, age 9½) played Tony Hawk Pro Skater2. He turned to Ron, who was sitting next to him, and said: You need to know where the secret playgrounds are hidden to get more points. My big brother showed me. These examples show that digital game-play in informal settings is much more than just individual play, and that there is a need to gain better understanding of the individual–small-group

game-play dynamics, as well as the interactions and the real-time learning processes.

Small-Group Interactions in Digital Games This section presents preliminary results in regard to small-group digital game interactions. The findings suggest the following. 1. Small-group game-play interactions are a dynamic blend of different stages, ranging from teaching (in which the children’s main aim is to collaborative in order to minimize the knowledge gap between them) to cheating (in which the children’s main aim is to win by maximizing the knowledge gap between them). For example, in an episode, two children, Gil (boy, age 9½) and Ron (a boy, age 10) played a PC racing race game called “Town Madness” for 50 minutes. During the episode, the two children took turns, each playing as the “driver” and as a passive “observer.” Gil used the keyboard while Ron played using his PC joystick controls. We join them after 15 minutes of play, while Gil is the driver and Ron observing this play: [Abbreviation: Gil-G, Ron-R] G: Now I’ve stacked them [the chasing police cars]. I’m good at stoking them.



A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

R: But now you’re busted. G: OK. I do not want this mode, I want free drive mode. [Gill changes the play mode.] You know I can drive on two wheels? It’s so cool I have to show you how! I need to find a good place…here’s something I like, the fast freeway, see? [Gil makes a two-wheel car drive by, jumping it on the road lanes barrier.] R: You know, there is a code that changes all cars to airplanes. G: There’s another code which afford to jump the car above a lorry. R: Which one? G: I can’t tell you, it took me a lot to get it. R: Let me play, just for a second. G: This is great! I love doing this [drives the car on its two wheels]. There’s another cool code, which turns the car into a blue van! R: What are you doing? G: See that traffic jam?! I like to make them. This is something you don’t know how to do! Let’s return to the highway…See? Now I’m driving on the opposite direction of traffic…. R: Watch out for the police cars! G: I’ve ignored many driving rules…but how do they [the police cars] know that? I like to hide here. [He backs up an alley and waits for the police cars to pass him by.] R: This is Chicago, there are a million alleys here. Do you know there is a basketball court some were near here? G: Let’s go there. R: You know, once the police car exploded. Let’s shift, it’s my turn now. [The children shift positions, Ron takes the driver role, Gill become the observer on the side.] G: OK, hey, watch out from the police cars! Ron: Now I’ll drive to the baseball field. Gil: OK, great, you’ve jammed the two police cars into the bus, cool! Okay, try to drive the car on two wheels. R: I don’t want to. G: You don’t know how to, right? R: Leave me. Forget it.



G: Drive against the traffic, to go on top of the barrier. Drive fast and then go on top. R: Stop telling me.…[after four minutes]. G: Ok, let’s do something else. R: Do you want something to eat? G: Yep, do you have something? R: OK…let’s go to the kitchen. —End of Episode— In addition to the dynamic blend of a different stage of mentoring and cheating, this episode demonstrates that game spaces contain additional unwritten rules such as: “Cheating by using codes and breaking the game rules is cool,” “Everything can be done within the game,” and “ Trial-and-error is almost always the best plan.” These underlying rules are part of what can be broadly defined as the “Gaming culture”the culture that all gamers accept and enjoy. This “gaming culture” is in contrast to the culture and the governing rules of the formal educational system. 2. Dynamic states of collaboration, com-

petition, negotiation, and mentoring were detected during game-play of peers. Several game-plays were accompanied by ad-hoc conflicts. This dynamic state is evident in the following example, in which two children, Gil (a boy, aged 9½) and Ron (a boy, age 10) played together a two-dimensional PC game called Jumper, which is game-play similar to the Nintendo’s famous Mario game, in which each player controls his own small avatar: [Abbreviation: Gil-G, Ron-R] G: Well, when it’s my turn? You’re playing too long! Well? R: I told you, let’s play together, let’s go! R: OK. Let’s play. R: I’m the green one (avatar) you are the blue one. G: Huff, I fell to the water, it is not convenient to play on the left keyboard. R: OK you can play on the right side, let’s switch.

A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

G: OK…wait a second. R: It takes you ages! G: Do you know why I want you to wait for me? It was not convenient to me to play on the left side. Now it’s OK. I want us to be together. R: It is such an enjoinment…Great! I’ve got another life! [Two children’s avatars move on the same frame, Ron’s avatar moves faster, since Ron is more skilled than Gil.] G: Huff, you took the heart, it’s so annoying! R: What do you want? It’s fast…I forgot we’re going together. G: This is not fair, you’re snitching my stuff…let’s make us move tighter. R: I’m waiting you to catch up with me…Take this, and this. [Ron skips the heart and diamonds which appear on the game map, leaving it for Gil’s avatar.] G: WOW, I’m saved. [Laugh out load. The two children laugh tougher.] R: Great! G: Huff, I’m stuck here. No! No! See I can’t move! R: I’m coming to help you, wait…I’m pulling you. G: How many lives do we have? R: If I see a heart, I take it…. G: Wait for me. [The two children move to the next level.] G: Great! We passed to level 4. R: Here is the heart, take it. —End of Episode— Another episode demonstrated the dynamics of mentoring a new player by using instant feedbacks and constant encouragements. Or was invited by Ron to play at his house. On this episode, Ron played NBA 2001 game and invited Or to join him. This episode lasted 15 minutes. Ron played at the professional level and is considered to be an expert at this game, with over 120 hours of play time. Or did not own the PC game, and this was his third time playing the game. Ron suggested playing the team vs. team game mode. They start

playing and Ron made three baskets in a row. The frustration on Or’s face was evident as he nodded his head from side to side. We join the episode when Ron made a surprising move. Instead of shooting the ball with his avatar, he left the ball on the floor, and turned to Or. [Abbreviation: Or-O, Ron-R] R: Now I’ve passed my turn to shoot from here… come on, come on, and take the ball. [Or moves his player avatar and takes the ball. He tries to make a jump shoot but it’s too short.] R: You need to press [the shift bottom] longer to make the shot. [Or follows Ron’s mentoring and makes the shoot.] R: Very nice! How did you make it? [in astonishment]. [After five minutes they moved to player vs. player in team mode, while Ron keeps on mentoring Or.] R: Enough with these turn-outs, move forward…Now, you need to know that you have to leave this zone within 3 seconds otherwise it’s a turn over. [Or tries to shoot and misses. He moves back with his avatar to the defense zone and regains control of the ball.] R: Cool! You control the ball well! [Or moves to offense and crosses the half-court line with his avatar.] R: You have to shoot within 20 sec, do you see the clock? O: Here’s my shoot! R: Wow, I can’t stop you!…Look how you can throw the ball from here and shoot into the basket. O: I hate when I’m miss the basket. R: Me too, look I’m not scoring too…It happened because you kept pushing the Enter key to much. O: I keep missing the shoot. R: Yes, I almost made it; made the shot…Try to shoot from here, it is easier. O: I’ve almost… R: Let’s try once more.



A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

O: I did it! Yes! I can’t believe I did it. R: Great. Let’s try from here. —End of Episode— 3. Players spontaneously take different roles as leaders, managers, bankers, engineers, observers, and reporters, to name a few. For example, while playing TrackMania, an online extreme racing game, two children, Or and Ron, switched between themselves the roles of planners, builders, and racing drivers. They took turns in the roles of active players and consultants. Both of them liked to use the “construct your extreme track,” a built-in game feature, over 40% of the session, which lasted more than one hour. They jointly built a racing track that was named after testing “the most boring track in the world.” The two children explained: We built this to confuse anyone who would like to race. This racing track goes forever. You can’t finish the race, since you can’t find the finish

line. The track makes you feel like a small ant wandering around. Another small-group collaborative interaction occurred in RuneScape, a MMOG (see Figure 2). While playing, Shey mentored Ron who was setting next to him. Amir (a boy, age 10), one of Shey’s classmates and a member of Shey’s SNW in RuneScape, which was not included in the current study, played online using a “follow me” strategy. Shey and Amir used a regular phone as an additional communication tool. The game evolved during the 50-minute session including exchanging goods, making joint alliances, and performing joint attacks on other online avatars and artificial bots. One of the future research trends worth following would be examine the relations between the children’s online MMOG interactions and the children’s real-world social interaction patterns, and how they evolve over time.

Figure 2. Building leadership and business skills in RuneScape (Copyright 2007 Jagex Ltd. Used with permission)



A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

4. “No pain no gain” playing a MMORPG and the importance of a strong social network in the game world as well as in real-life. A follow-up interview about RuneScape with Shey revealed additional information in regard to the “hard work” involved in playing a MMORPG and the importance of having a strong social network within in the game world as well as in real life. Here is a portion of that interview (see Appendix A for the complete interview with Shey): [R-Researcher, S-Shey] R: Hi Shey, what is your level in the game? S: I’m level 84. R: How many friends do you have within the game? S: About…seventy. R: WOW, seventy! That’s a lot! Can you draw a map of your friends? S: I can draw only fifty-two friends which I remember. R: Great. Make a circle for each friend you remember. Do you have classmates you play with in the game? S: Yes, I have. I have additional friends from the school as well. This friend is from another class, this is my friend’s friend. Both of them are good friends of mine. [Shey draws two more circles.]

R: What do you mean a good friend? S: A good friend is someone that I meet in the game to play with and to chat with. R: You can chat with other players as well, right? S: Yes, but with my best friends, I can coordinate in advance to play together. They can call me during the game-play to set a joint meeting and more. R: What do you mean by “more”? S: We arrange to play together at the same places. Sometimes they can ask me to get them stuff. R: What do you mean by “getting them stuff”? S: Stuff, things of the game. Once, Tami [a girl, age 10] asked me to take care of her plants, so I entered and watered her plants to avoid withering. In another instance, Tami requested me to get her an armor and magic potions. [Armor and magic potions are part of game’s resources that the player uses to advance in the game’s levels.] R: So what is the difference between a good friend and other friends? S: With a good friend I’m connected in real life as well. With other friends I can’t meet face to face, because they live in different countries. [Smile.]

Figure 3. A part of Shey’s (a boy, aged 10) drawing of his RuneScape's social network



A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

Figure 3 represents part of Shey’s RuneScape social network. Each circle represents a member of his net, the number represents the player level within the game. The five dotted-line circles represent his classmates, and the circles marked with a star represent members that shared their login password with Shey. This interview was followed by an interview with Shey’s mother, two days later. Shey’s mother was asked to describe and draw Shey’s real-world social network. Her description and drawing confirmed that Shey’s real-life social network was reflected in his RuneScape social network. The part of the network that consisted of his six classmate friends served to establish and confirm his leadership status within the game. In return, Shey served as an anchor to his friends, assisting and even replacing their presence at several cases, in order to achieve the goal of climbing up the game ladder. Four months later, Shey was asked to draw his RuneScape SNW again (see Figure 4). Figure 4 shows Shey’s drawing of his RuneScape SNW map, representing only seven friends. In a follow-up interview, Shey described his departure from the game in his own words:

It was too demanding and time consuming. I had to resolve many conflicts among my friends time after time. It is just too annoying. It’s not fun anymore, I gave most of my stuff to my friends and I spend little time playing this game now. Capturing and analyzing the long-time changes of the children’s favorite games is another challenge worth perusing, since it has theoretical, pedagogical, and commercial implications. 6. During sports games sessions, certain artificial agents’ behaviors were perceived by the children as artificial stupidity (A.S.). These events made the children laugh, and served for breaking tensions and conflicts between the players. For example, an episode of two children, Or and Ron, playing a PC sport game, FIFA 2006, for 15 minutes will be presented. Both children liked to play PC sports games very much. They met on a regular basis twice a week. In the episode, they played the game by using a single keyboard. Ron used the left keyboardthe “W” “A” “D” “S” keyswhile Or used the default keyboard keys. Ron was playing the game for seven weeks and mastered the game at a professional level, while Or started to play the game at the amateur level.

Figure 4. Shey’s (a boy, aged 10) drawing of his RuneSape’s social network after four months



A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

During the episode, the two children played against each other at an amateur level. [Abbreviation: Or-O, Ron-R] Or: Now I’ve got the ball…ask for a time-out. These teams are very strong. It’s hard to play against them. R: Hey, there isn’t one. This is soccer, not basketball…GOAL! O: Hey, this is not fair. What are you doing?! [Ron uses the replay mode to watch the goal he has just scored. While watching the sequence of events, he changes the camera’s vantage point and zooms in on the goal keeper.] R: There are many tricks I can do with this camera, see? See how he moved? O: What? [Ron zooms out and zooms in again using the replay control; he notices something unusual.] O: Yeep, this is very funny! [Both of the children laugh out loud, as the goal keeper almost bumped into one of his defense players and misses the ball in a clumsy manner.] R: Let’s see it again [laugh out loud]. I have to see it! It is so funny! [Ron is actively using the replay mode controls to observe the sequence of his game moves, which ended with the goal, several times more, focusing his point of view on the goalie every time. Both children laugh out loud.] O: Let’s play together against the computer. R: Okay. O: Let’s play as the strongest team against the weakest team. I’ll be the TV broadcaster. [Ron selects the teams. The two children start playing. Ron is the player and Or takes a new role as a TV broadcaster, describing the game events that occur in real time in a funny accent. After 10 seconds of play, Ron’s player tackles a PC avatar.] O: This is so funny to see him fall. R: We received yellow card, but its fun. O: Tackle the redhead! It’s such a fun to tackle them! It’s great! we have replay to watch

again…Why don’t you tackle him? I want to see the replay. R: Yes, it’s a lot of fun. [After 30 seconds of gameplay, Ron scores a goal.] O: Goal! Great…hey, SpongeBob has started, let’s watch TV. R: OK, let’s go. —End of Episode— This short episode demonstrates how the two children bridged effectively over Or’s defeat and feelings of frustration, due to his lower level of game skill abilities. Both children find the “artificial stupidity” of the goal keeper very funny. The tension between them at the beginning of the episode was replaced by pure joy and laughter. Moreover, in the process Ron gave Or a semistructured tutorial of how to use the replay mode control buttons, and what additional information regarding the players’ moves one could get from changing the vantage points and the frame of reference of the replay mode. Or’s suggestion to play against the computer’s weakest team demonstrates the use of the flexible built-in affordances in digital games. This flexibility of changing the difficulty level of the artificial agents cannot happen in the real world, when playing against real players. The end of this short episode demonstrates a glimpse of the “battle on children’s’ attention and time” which exists in home settings. Children can switch from active game players to passive TV observers whenever they like. In addition, frequent events of breaking the game rules spontaneously to create a new game with a new time-space framework occurred. For example, while playing a racing game called Wacky Races, Or said: “It’s more fun to play bump-up cars in the river, so let’s go! I’ll show you the way.” While the artificial avatars kept racing on their course, the two children left for a joyful new adventure that had no time limit, bumping-up their cars in the “river’s” waters, laughing.



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Another example was the use of the built-in replay and camera motion control as a tool for making what the children called “the funniest NBA clip.” The children “switched” the original competitive goals with a holistic goal by making a creative and cool clip.

CONCLUSION, FUTURE TRENDS, AND IMPLICATIONS This section summarizes and discusses the future trends suggested in the previous sections above, as well as future research opportunities within the domain of studying digital games interactions in informal surroundings from four different perspectives.

The Social Interactions Perspective How do children manage their large MMORPGs’ social networks? How do children build their management and leadership skills in MMORPGs? How do gamer leaders rise and change over time? Another research trend involves studying the complexity of virtual/real-world interactions and mechanisms. For example, it would be interesting to know in what ways these skills serve the children in their real-life social network interactions? Shey’s interview about his SNW in the RuneScape game and the changes that followed four months later illuminated the complexity of the virtual/real-world interactions.

The Instructional Design and the Educational Perspective The digital games space is a special space. If one accepts Mechluan’s (1968) “the medium is the message” paradigm, one has to rethink and adjust the terms “learning” and “teaching” when examining learning and teaching in digital games.

0

How do we evaluate peer learning and mentoring? What can instructional technology experts and teachers learn from observing children mentoring their peers during digital game-play? The high level of mentoring and constant feedback found in this study support the theoretical assumptions that teaching is a natural cognitive disposition that involves intent, and understanding and learning the other player’s mind. In that sense, mentoring is a special case of teaching which was frequently found in games interactions. Digital games are spaces of experiences (Salin & Zimmerman, 2003). The gamer directly experiences difficulties and joy. This might be one of the reasons why one can mentor and help other fellow gamers. Teachers who do not experience the medium on their own would not fully understand its message, its special affordances, like children who play these games do. One of the challenges worth perusing is to find the right bridges between formal teaching and informal mentoring. Moreover, the study’s findings highlighted the “gaming culture” and some of its underlying rules, which are part of many children’s lives these days. This “gaming culture” has been ignored by the formal curriculum designers, education administrators, and policymakers. The author of this chapter argues that learning with games is a basic human disposition enhanced by current gaming technologies. Digital games are powerful learning environments since they afford individual freedom and peers collaboration within very strict roles. From a global perspective, education administrators and policymakers are advised to take into consideration the digital games medium when designing new learning and instructional programs. In addition, given the dynamic nature of the learning and peer mentoring in digital games, applying alternative assessment tools and methodologies for assessing the educational process and outcomes should be implemented on top of standard tools (Birenbaum, 2003). Another research trend worth following is mapping all the game events that make the

A Window on Digital Games Interactions in Home Settings

children laugh, and seeing how these events are connected to other children, such as learning the game rules, building a conceptual understanding of the system, and developing professional game-play skills.

The Game Design Perspective for People with Special Needs How do children manage and resolve digital game conflicts with their peers? What kind of mechanisms do they use while managing their emotions? These possible research trends might have meaningful implications for the design of effective digital games for children and adults with special needs. A good example is the Story-MultiTouch Table Game’s design, with its embedded interactions design, which enforced communication and collaboration among children with Asperger’s (Gal et al., 2005).

The Methodological Perspective The obstacles and limitations of conducting a study with formal settings described above emphasize the need to develop new methods and coherent tools for evaluating the informal learning, which takes place during digital games play. Thus, it is very important to design the appropriate timeframes and the appropriate unit of analysis, congruent to the study’s main goals. The regular time scale used in laboratory studies might not be sufficient if one wishes to study long-term changes. In conclusion, this chapter provides empirical evidence about digital games that are played by children. Analyzing digital games interactions affords a fascinating way of examining the complexity that our young generation experiences on screen and off screen on a daily basis. Selecting an approach for a case study has its well-known limitations, but highlighting the children’s’ authentic voices during digital gameplay outnumbers the limitations. That is one of

the small contributions this chapter brings to the field of game-based learning. New insights were gained from observing how children play digital games and interact with their peers in their natural home surroundings. These insights have theoretical, pedagogical, and design implications with respect to game-based learning. Moreover, today we face a major methodological challenge of finding new pathways for studying the complex relationships between digital games interactions in the virtual worlds, and the interactions and learning in real-world situations. The future trends suggested above can serve as small steps in pursuing these worthy challenges.

REFERENCES Aldrich, C. (2005). Learning by Doing: A Comprehensive Guide to Simulations, Computer Games, and Pedagogy in e-Learning and Other Educational Experiences. Pfeiffer Publication. USA. Barab, S., Thomas, M., Dodge, T., Carteaux, R., & Tuzun, H. (2005). Making Learning Fun: Quest Atlantis, A Game Without Guns. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 53 (1), 86-107. Birenbaum, M. (2003). New insights into learning and teaching and their implications for Assessment. In: M. Segers, F. Dochy, & E. Cascallar, (Eds.), Optimising New Modes of Assessment: In Search of Qualities and Standards, Vol 1, (pp.13-36). Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Consalvo, M., & Dutton, N. (2006). Game analysis: Developing a methodological toolkit for the qualitative study of games, Game Studies, 6 (1). Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://gamestudies. org/0601/articles/consalvo_dutton



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Cross, J. (2006). Informal Learning: Rediscovering the Natural Pathways That Inspire Innovation and Performance. Wiley, John & Sons Publishers. de Freitas, S. (2006). Learning in Immersive Worlds: a review of game based Learning. JISC Review report. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.jisc.ac.uk/eli_outcomes.html Dede, C., Clarke, J., Ketelhut, D. J., Nelson, B., & Bowman, C. (2005). Students’ motivation and learning of Science in a Multi-User Virtual Environment. Presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA), (April 2005), (pp.11-15), Montreal, Canada. Ellis, G. J. (1983). Youth in the electronic environment: An introduction. Youth and report for the NSF of workshops. The impact of three dimensional immersive VE on modern pedagogy. Engeström, Y. (1999). Activity theory and individual and social transformation. In Y. Engeström, R. Miettinen, & R. Punamaki, (Eds.), Perspectives on activity theory, (pp.19–38).Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Fischer, K. W. (1980). A Theory of Cognitive development. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gal, E., Goren-Bar, D., Gazit, E., Bauminger, N. Cappelletti, A., Pianesi, F.,Stock, O., Zancanaro, M. & Weiss, P.L. Enhancing social communication through story-telling among high-functioning children with autism. Intelligent Technologies for interactive entertainment (Intetain 2005), Madonna diCampiglio, Italy, November, 2005, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 3814 (pp. 320-323), SpringerVerlag. Retrived July 2, 2007 from http://cat.inist. fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=17413691 Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach us About Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.



Granott, N., & Parziale, J. (2002). Microdevelopment approach. The MIT Press, Cambridge. Habgood, J., & Overmars, M. (2006). The Game Maker’s Apprentice: Game Development for Beginners. APRESS Publisher. Kim, Y., & Baylor, A. L. (2006). Pedagogical agents as learning companions: The role of agent competency and type of interaction, Educational Technology Research & Development, 54 (3), 223-243. Kirriemuir, J., & McFarlane, A. (2004). Literature Review in Games and Learning. Bristol: Futurelab. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.futurelab. org.uk/resources/documents/lit_reviews/Games_ Review.pdf Manninen, T. (2003). Interaction Forms and Communicative Actions in Multiplayer Games, Game studies, 3 (1). Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.gamestudies.org/0301/manninen/ McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Mitchell, E. (1985). The dynamics of family interaction around home video games. Special Issue: Personal computers and the family. Marriage and Family Review, 8, 121-135. Nijholt, A. (2001). Agents, Believability and Embodiment in Advanced Learning Environments. In: T. Okamto, R. Hartley, Kinshuk & J.P. Klus (Eds.), Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies: Issues, Achievements, and Challenges (ICALT 2001), (pp. 457-459). Madison, Wisconsin, IEEE Computer Society, Los Alamitos, CA. Pidgeon, B. (2006). The IDC 2006 Videogamer Survey: Can Old Gamers Learn New Tricks?, IDC Survey Report Doc #204872. Retrieved Jun 30, 2007, from http://www.idc.com/getdoc. jsp?containerId=204872

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Pink, S. (2001). Doing visual ethnography. London: SAGE. Prensky, M. (2000). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Resnick, M. (2002). Rethinking Learning in the Digital Age. In: G. Kirkman& D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (2nd ed.), (pp.571-581). New York, Simon and Schuster Macmillan. Salin, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2003). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge: The MIT Press. Squire, K. (2003). Gameplay in Context: Learning Through Participation in Communities of Civilization III Players. Unpublished PhD thesis. Instructional Systems Technology Department, Indiana University. Thomas, D., & Brown, J. S. (2007). The Play of Imagination: Extending the Literary Mind. Games and Culture, 2(2), 149-172.

KEY TERMS Artificial Stupidity: Specific smart agents’ behavior with objects or other smart agents within the game which are perceived by the gamer as stupid compared to “human behavior standards.” These events are usually accompanied by the player’s joyful expressions. Digital Game: A computer game is a software program in which one or more players make decisions by controlling game objects and resources, in the pursuit of its goal (Overmars, 2004).

are related to the game world. Gaming Culture: A blend of actions, attitudes, and implicit rules that all gamers accept and enjoy. The “gaming culture” is not congruent to the culture and the rules that govern the formal educational system. Informal Learning: The unofficial, unscheduled, impromptu way that most of the people who learn to do their jobs go through (Cross, 2006). Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game (MMORPG): A special kind of online game that millions of different players who assume digital personalities, known as avatars, can play simultaneously. Each MMORPG has its own different rules and goals, affording different kinds of interactions in which the players carry out complex and collaborative missions. In order to succeed in the game, one needs to form relationships, join guilds, and have in-game corporations with fellow players. Microdevelopment: A process of change in abilities, knowledge, and understanding that occur in short time spans. Multi-User Virtual Environment (MUVE): Designed for the learning complex phenomena and can incorporate game-based learning scenarios. Player’s Social Network: A social network is a network of friends that a player builds within the game space and in the real world, usually in MMORPGs. Smart Agents: Computer-generated avatars that make high-level, independent, intelligent decisions, based on interactions with other objects and avatars in the virtual world.

Digital Game Interactions: All types of communications between the players of the game and range of actions–feedback loop preformed by player-player, player-objects, player-smart agent within the game world and in the real world which



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APPENDIX A: AN INTERVIEW WITH SHEY ABOUT PLAYING RUNESCAPE The interview with Shey (a boy, age 10) took place after observing him playing the game. Shey’s computer’s position is in his room. In addition he has a PlayStation 2, two joysticks, and a TV set. [R-Researcher, S-Shey] R: Hi Shey, what is your level in the game? S: I’m level 84. R: How many friends do you have within the game? S: About…seventy. R: WOW, seventy! That’s a lot! Can you draw a map of your friends? S: I can draw only fifty-two friends which I remember. R: Great. Make a circle for each friend you remember. Do you have classmates you play with in the game? S: Yes, I have. I have additional friends from the school as well. This friend is from another class, this is my friend’s friend. Both of them are good friends of mine. [Shey draws two more circles.] R: What do you mean a good friend? S: A good friend is someone that I meet in the game to play with and to chat with. R: You can chat with other players as well, right? S: Yes, but with my best friends, I can coordinate in advance to play together. They can call me during the game-play to set a joint meeting and more. R: What do you mean by “more”? S: We arrange to play together at the same places. Sometimes they can ask me to get them stuff. R: What do you mean by “getting them stuff”? S: Stuff, things of the game. Once, Tami [a girl, age 10] asked me to take care of her plants, so I entered and watered her plants to avoid withering. In another instance, Tami requested me to get her an armor and magic potions. [Armor and magic potions are part of a game’s resources, which the player uses to advance in the game’s levels.] R: So what is the difference between a good friend and other friends? S: With a good friend I’m connected in real life as well. With other friends I can’t meet face to face, because they live in different countries. [Smile.] R: OK, add small circles which represent your best friends, and add strong lines to your circle and between them, if you know for sure that they are connected in the game as well. S: My best friends are these four classmates. I have an additional…three, four friends in real life that played the game, but quit playing after three weeks or so. R: Ok. Add their circle as well…what are the numbers you’re writing next to each circle? S: That’s their level in the game. [Each number represents the player’s level in the game. A high number represents a player with overall good game skills.] R: Do you know their level?! WOW, how do you remember all of them? S: I don’t remember all of them. [Smiles.] R: Usually, your good friends have the same level as you? Or close to your level? S: They don’t have to. I have a good friend from abroad, which I don’t know in real life. R: You can make an English letter on his circle and on the ones from abroad. How did the two become friends? continued on following page 

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APPENDIX A. CONTINUED S: We met by pure chance and we started to fight against each other. Since, we are strong we didn’t succeed to kill each other [by decreasing the points and number of lives]. R: So how did you become friends? S: After we didn’t succeed to kill each other, I notified him that I’m willing to stop fighting and he accepted. We went on together to kill others. R: How many friends from other countries you have? S: mm…about fifteen, but I don’t remember the level of each and every one of them. It’s a little difficult to chat with them. Here it is 1:00 p.m., when I start playing after coming back from school every day, but abroad it is the middle of the night. At about 5:00 p.m. local time, I can play with them. R: So, the difference between a good friend and a regular friend is? S: With a close and best friend you plan in advance to play the game, and I know their passwords as well. [A password is needed for entering and playing the game.] R: WOW, how can it be? Do you know their passwords? [Knowing the player’s password allows changing the player’s avatar, and even trading and exchanging their personal-virtual in game resources.] S: Yes, I play as them and get them stuff. That’s the way I’m helping them. R: How many passwords do you know? S: About five. R: Please mark on the map little stars on the friends you know their password. So what do you actually do? S: I get in [the game] and help. I can get them stuff but not sell their stuff, unless they allow me to. R: Do they know your password as well? S: NO, I don’t share it with anyone. Once I’ve discovered that my avatar was stolen. [Stealing your avatar means that all the resources attached to the avatar were taken, and the game account and password were changed, much like an identity-stealing crime in real life.] R: How many hours do you play the game per day? S: Two to three hours per day. During the weekends it can be more, something like four to five hours. R: Do you own a house in the game? S: Yes, but I can’t get inside right now. R: Why? S: I sold it for 2,000 shekels. [Shey used the term “shekel,” which is the Israeli currency’s real-life term.] R: Why? S: You can enter your house, only if you have the book. R: So why did you sell it? S: I bought it for 1,000 shekels and I sold it for 20,00. I did it because I wanted to get a special gown that gives you special powers, and I’m still saving money in order to get it. R: How do you save money? S: I’m collecting stuff, killing creatures like these rats, see? And also by cutting stones, making swords, and selling them. I’m selling them to other children or to the bank. Most of my trades and exchanges are made there in the bank. R: Thank you for your participation and for sharing with us your experience.





Chapter IX

Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments James Oliverio Digital Worlds Institute, University of Florida, USA Dennis Beck Digital Worlds Institute, University of Florida, USA

AbstrAct We introduce the term ‘mixed social environments’ as a strategic learning construct to augment student interaction when utilizing virtual world environments such as Second Life in the classroom. While an increasing number of institutions are investigating the use of virtual world environments for enhanced learning, at present there are at least three major areas that are underdeveloped: interdisciplinary research, documentation of best practices, and exploration of the use of mixed social environments. In the spring of 2007, a new interdisciplinary research seminar addressing these aspects was offered at a large American university. We present an overview of the resultant learning artifacts, outcomes, and research questions in hopes of helping to inform best practices, expand interdisciplinary research, and assist in the design of future mixed social environments for enhanced learning.

INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT For the purposes of this chapter, games and other interactive graphical scenarios that consist of multiple environments (compared with a singlefocus virtual reality simulation such as flight training in a virtual cockpit or emergency room training inside a simulated hospital) are referred to as virtual world environments (VWEs) due to the large “world-like” scale of the virtual reality

they create. Games are broadly defined in the literature and may cover a wide range of educational purposes. User-driven VWEs (pronounced “vyoo-eez”) can often be considered games and have great potential for teaching and learning (Foreman, 2003). As a VWE, Second Life (SL) affords a sense of social interaction, visual indication of level of participation, and 3D models for instruction or simulationall factors that can be utilized for enhanced learning environments.

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Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

This potential flows across various academic disciplines. In spring 2007, a new course utilizing SL entitled Interdisciplinary Research Seminar was offered as a collaborative effort between a professor of biomedical engineering and a professor of digital media at the University of Florida’s Digital Worlds Institute. This chapter frames a context for the course from the gaming, virtual reality, and simulation literature; provides an overview of the learning artifacts produced and research developed in the course; and suggests potential future directions for researchers and practitioners who are interested in exploring mixed social environments (MSEs) as a means of merging traditional and virtual classroom spaces. We define a MSE (pronounced “mis-ee”) as a physical space wherein multiple scales of screen display and simultaneous points of view of a shared VWE can be seen, heard, experienced, and collaborated upon by persons physically present in the space, in addition to remote participants. Both personal and group displays are integrated into the space in such a way as to allow simultaneous social interaction among those in the physical space of the room and multi-perspective displays of the participants’ virtual interaction in the VWE.

GAMES IN EDUCATION A succession of theorists and philosophers have found ‘games’ and ‘play’ difficult concepts to define (Huizinga, 1980; Salen & Zimmerman, 2004; Wittgenstein, 1972). Equally challenging is the understanding of the processes that assist game-play. Games in general can be defined in surprisingly numerous ways, often changing the way games are used and perceived (Wittgenstein, 1958). Some popular definitions define games as a series of choices or as rule-based play. To refer to different types of games, current terminology utilizes terms such as: computer games, video games, serious games, game-based learning, massively multiplayer online role-play games (MMORPGs), massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs), persistent games, massively multiplayer online first-person shooter (MMOFPS), educational games, game-based learning, instructional games, sim games, gamesims, electronic simulations, virtual reality systems, training simulations, or simulators. Gaming environments now utilize diverse resources, including streaming video and audio, multiple-user interactivity, simulations of real-world circumstances, and immersive non-linear exploratory environments (Aldrich, 2004, 2006).

Table 1. Uses of games for learning (de Freitas, 2006) Selected Uses of Games

References

To motivate and engage learners, e.g., underserved learner groups

Amory et al., 1999; de Freitas et al.,

(e.g., with low literacy/language levels)

2006; Garris et al., 2002; Gee, 2003; Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2005

For skill or part-task rehearsal and practice, e.g., literacy and

de Freitas et al., 2006; Delanghe, 2001

numeracy skills To provide therapy for pain relief and cognitive difficulties

Pelletier, 2005c

To role-play particular jobs and professions in advance of real-life

Aldrich, 2004, 2006; Maharg, 2006

practice To empower learners as authors and producers of multimedia,

Pelletier, 2005b; Druin, 2002; Dickey,

mixed media, and game-based content

2005



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Since we are primarily interested in the uses of electronic games in education, we will use a definition that focuses on learning: “applications that can use the characteristics of video and computer games to create engaging and immersive learning experiences for delivering specified learning goals, outcomes and experiences” (de Freitas, 2006, p. 15). These uses tend to cluster around the activities highlighted in Table 1. There are many aspects of gaming that can be educationally sound. Games are supportive and safe, a quality that supports higher-level learning (Diamantes & Williams, 1999). They also include a strong aspect of play, which is important in the development of “flow,” which is “the mental state of operation in which the person is fully immersed in what he or she is doing” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 21). Promotion of flow and play in childhood is important because their absence can have a negative impact upon social development and socialization (de Freitas et al., 2006). Games also encourage multiple opportunities for practice, which is important because the reinforcement of practiced tasks and activities has been found to accelerate learning (Delanghe, 2001). They can also be highly motivational, which is a key aspect of effective learning (Garris et al., 2002). Multiplayer games enhance computer literacy (Benedict, 1990), visual attention (Bavelier & Green, 1993), and reaction time (Orosy-Fildes & Allan, 1989), and give multiple opportunities for making mistakes, which is an important aspect of learning (Jones, 1997). They also teach players to become problem solvers through role-playing (Gee, 2003; Johnson, 2005). Games based on historical events or stories that explore real-world social issues allow learners to step out of the immediacy of the present and imagine what it might be like to be someone else who may have lived at a different time, place, or under different social or historical circumstances (Francis, 2006).



VIRTUAL WORLD ENVIRONMENTS AND GAME-LIKE CHARACTERISTICS Under the definition and scope defined above, VWEs can often be considered games. Such games are deeply immersive and highly scalable threedimensional systems. In the VWE called Second Life, people enter the virtual world through the use of an avatar, a character that embodies their presence and intent. Many popular VWEs allow for multiple users to be in the same virtual space and interrelate with each other at the same time (New Media Consortium, 2007a). Even in their nascent state, virtual worlds allow for the development of real-life cultures through the use of individuated dialects, political configurations, multifaceted social customs, social networks, social capital, and common history (Steinkuehler, 2004; Jakobsson & Taylor, 2003). VWEs combine social networking, seamless sharing of rich media, and a feeling of presence in a generalized, persistent non-contextual environment that is applicable to almost all disciplines (Castronova, 2001). Virtual worlds also offer an opportunity for people to interact in a way that conveys a sense of presence lacking in other media (Castronova, 2001; New Media Consortium, 2007a). This aspect lends itself to role-playing and situation construction, freeing up learners to assume the responsibilities of a physicist, artist, physician, or architect without the real-world training (or the real-world consequences). The effect is twofold, providing an environment free of the limiting “thought boxes” that often accompany deep single-disciplinary training, while allowing for risk-free experimentation (Delwiche, 2006) and thinking outside the proverbial “box.” This can lead to expanded understanding of cultural and societal experiences, as well as broad experimentation with new forms of human expression and endeavor.

Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

VWEs have significant and largely untapped educational potential. Foreman (2003) predicts that shared graphical worlds are “the learning environments of the future” (p. 14). Steinkuehler (2004, 2006) and Gee (2003) argue that the educational promise of VWEs can only be fulfilled through a social constructivist approach to learning. VWEs hold considerable potential for the development of complex social practices such as leadership, collaboration, and relationships. These worlds are complex rational groups distinguished by their social practices (Steinkuehler, 2004). When novices enter a virtual world, they can be progressively initiated into intricate social scaffolding by means of the support of other group members. Virtual worlds are compelling because social relations, collaboration, and information sharing are essential ingredients, and they encourage collaboration both within and beyond game parameters (Delwiche, 2006). According to Yee, Bailenson, Urbanek, Chang, and Merget (2003), more than half of those involved in virtual worlds have gained proficiency in mediation and leadership, such as solving conflict in groups. Although also present in many types of electronic games, the concept of flow can positively enhance the educational experience in virtual worlds. Hoffman and Novak (1996) and Csikszentmihalyi (1990) explain that the flow state is characterized by factors including user confidence, exploratory behaviors, enjoyment, distorted time perception, and greater learning. Peng (2004) notes that people learn in a flow condition when they are not passive receivers of information, but are actively participating in and owning the learning activity and reaching a personally derived goal. In a recent study of 30,000 VWE users, Yee et al. (2006) found that 70% had spent at least 10 continuous hours in a virtual world at one sitting. If the amount of continuous time spent is any indication of interest and immersion in the activity, this is evidence of a compelling and flow-oriented environment that can enhance learning.

Virtual environments can also facilitate enhanced exploration of and experimentation with various social roles. Although many electronic games provide such role exploration and experimentation, student use of VWEs provides a period during which the emerging adult is free to delay taking on adult commitments. The student can explore new social roles in an authentic situation while interacting with other individuals, a situation that has been shown to have significant psychological and learning advantages (Turkle, 1995). Virtual worlds have been shown to promote role-playing behaviors (Delwiche, 2006), which have been shown to help students escape the grip of contemporary norms and beliefs (Luff, 2000), affect attitudes and behavior (Bell, 2001), and can have significant therapeutic benefits (Douse & McManus, 1993; Hughes, 1998). Yellowlees (2006) documents the use of Second Life to help students experience the role of the patient. Students learn about the subjective experience of psychosis as they navigate through a virtual psychiatric ward. “In this environment, users can literally see and hear hallucinations as a patient might, as they walk through the halls of the virtual hospital” (Yellowlees, 2006, p. 441). This application of SL enables students to explore and experiment with the role of the patient, thus gaining important insights into particular psychoses and developing a deeper empathy than through more traditional means.

SECOND LIFE AS A VIRTUAL WORLD ENVIRONMENT As a well-known and widely distributed VWE, Second Life possesses significant potential for innovations in learning. For example, Dave Taylor, knowledge transfer leader at the National Physical Laboratory, says that the use of SL opens up “new opportunities for collaboration across disciplines and geographies that would not otherwise occur” (Edwards, 2006, p. 32). The development of



Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

complex social practices such as collaboration is enhanced by two major benefits: social context and visual context (Harris & Lowendahl, 2007). In a learning experience, students are more likely to develop as leaders, collaborators, and relators; experience flow; and deeply experience alternative roles when there is a social and visual context. The emergent benefits of VWEs include: 1. 2. 3.

An enhanced sense of social interaction Visual indication of level of participation Ability to see conceptually and spatially through the use of 3D models for instruction or simulation.

The VWE Second Life (created by Linden Labs) currently boasts more than 6.6 million residents worldwide, and more than US$7 million are spent in a given month. The top 80% of residents hail from more developed nations, but a significant portion also log on from places like Africa, Southeast Asia, and Latin America. The typical resident is male, between 25 and 34 years old, and among the top 5% of the world’s wealthiest individuals.

Second Life is reality based in its economic and legal system in order to maximize the quality and quantity of user-created content. This approach is quite different than conventional massively multiplayer online games. Most companies that own and operate online games: (a) own all of the content in their world, (b) own any content generated by the player, and (c) specifically deny residents the right to earn real-world incomes while using the online game (see Table 2). For example, Sony (Koster, 2002) and Turbine (Castronova, 2004a) have banned the sale of digital items and currency on eBay. Additionally, while basic membership in SL is a free service, most other MMOGs are subscription services, requiring ongoing monthly fees from players in order to stay in the games. As mentioned above, SL has a somewhat unique approach to intellectual property (Herman, Coombe, & Kaye, 2006). Linden Labs acknowledged the value of the creative contributions that game players made to the virtual worlds that they otherwise controlled by granting their players intellectual property rights in their creations both within the game and in reality. This allowance has resulted in an entrepreneurial spirit that has made SL one of the fastest growing online games (SimTeach, 2007).

Table 2. Comparison of virtual world environments Characteristics

Second Life

World of Warcraft

SimCity

Base

Based in reality

Based in fantasy

Based in reality

Intellectual Property

Belongs to the user

Belongs to the company

Belongs to the company

Purpose or Goal

User-defined

Pre-ordainedquest oriented

Pre-ordainedprocreation/ population

Open or Closed System

Opentrajectory determined by

Closedtrajectory determined by

Closedtrajectory

the will of the user

computer algorithm

determined by computer

Supports a wide variety of tasks,

Outcomes limited by

Outcomes limited by

social interactions, contextual

preprogrammed algorithm

preprogrammed algorithm

Closedproprietary

Closedproprietary

algorithm Educational Capabilities

situations, and technical affordances Access to Software Code

0

Open source

Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

Another unique quality of SL concerns the game’s purpose, or in this case, lack of purpose (Edwards, 2006). Unlike the popular online game World of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment, 2007), in which users interact in a closed, quest-oriented system, everything in the SL universe is user created and user driven. There are no overarching quests or game-created goals handed down by the game developers. Much like real life, there are only individual and group goals such as business, education, or personal quests. Users are not required to advance through levels in the way they must in a controlled game. All activity in the VWE is actually created by the users themselves. This user-created purpose leads to another unique characteristic of SLfreewill. Unlike the popular game SimCity (Electronic Arts, 2007), which uses a computer algorithm to simulate how a city will evolve, activities in SL are governed by real people with the ability to act individually. Giving users the ability to freely determine their fate has opened up a wide variety of tasks, social and linguistic interactions, and technical affordances that may not otherwise have been available (Peterson, 2006). A significant number of universities, colleges, schools, organizations, and businesses are exploring the educational potential of Second Life. According to the Chronicle of Higher Education (Foster, 2007), as of September 21, 2007, more than 150 colleges in the United States and in 13 other countries have a presence in SL. Additionally, according to the Second Life Wiki (SimTeach, 2007), 17 educational organizations, four libraries, and four museums are currently active in SL. Second Life education-related Web sites number more than 200. The purposes of these groups’ involvement in SL are as varied as their creators (see Table 3). Second Life and other virtual worlds also possess great potential for research. According to Yee et al. (2007) and Blascovich et al. (2002), social norms of gender, interpersonal distance,

and eye gaze transfer into virtual environments even though the modality of movement is entirely different (i.e., via keyboard and mouse as opposed to eyes and legs). As a result, these online environments are also being explored as unique research platforms for the social sciences and clinical therapy. These environments can be customized through the use of in-world 3D construction tools. Settings can be created to pertain to any subject or area of study, locations and artifacts can be as realistic and detailed or as generic and undefined as desired. Even objects of large or micro scale can be easily portrayed. The combined effect of recorded interactions and customizable environments provides the ideal conditions for future interdisciplinary research. For all of its potential and current uses, there are still three major educational aspects that are underdeveloped in VWEs such as SL: interdisciplinary research, development of best practices (Delwiche, 2006; Keesey, 2007), and exploration of the use of a mixed social environment. The New Media Consortium (2007b) is attempting to work toward interdisciplinary research in the social sciences, but the inclusion of other academic disciplines could provide great benefit. Much could be learned by including biology, chemistry, physics, and other disciplines not typically included in social science research. Whereas the 2007 Second Life Best Practices in Education Conference (http://slbestpractices2007. wikispaces.com) was a major step forward in developing best practices in education, it served to highlight the need to move beyond simple recreation of the classroom experience to more of an emphasis on creative practices when using VWEs (Keesey, 2007). Given the current state of interest in usage of VWEs in education, there are other emergent parameters that can and ought to be cultivated within the template of a mixed social environment. These parameters are discussed in the context of the course presented below.



Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

Table 3. Various selected educational uses of Second Life Institution

Purpose

Location

Idaho State University

Bioterrorism preparedness program

http://irhbt.typepad.com/play2train

Dartmouth College

Simulation for distribution of medical supplies in

http://iml.dartmouth.edu/index.html

crisis. National Oceanic

Interactive educational simulations about the ocean

and Atmospheric

and weather

http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/

Administration Global Kids Island

Place for teen residents to learn about social and

Kids Connect Island

Youth collaborate via performing, storytelling, and

http://holymeatballs.org/

world issues http://zoomlab.org/kc/

collaboration http://tinyurl.com/y3wlat

Social Simulation

Library with papers, Web sites, homepages, and

Research Lab

references of interest to social scientists

BrainTalk Communities

A place for autistic and cerebral palsy patients to

http://braintalk.blogs.com/brigadoon

interact socially

http://braintalk.blogs.com/live2give/

Walkathon raised more money in a short time than

http://www.cancer.org/docroot/GI/content/GI_1_

what the society would make in real life over many

8_Second_Life_Relay.asp

American Cancer Society

months Seattle University

Property law course applies issues of law to virtual

http://fizzysecondlife.blogspot.com

environments University of Houston

Design Economics course helps students to try their

http://www.arch.uh.edu

entrepreneurial skills against an entire market New Media Consortium

Virtual laboratory constructed to provide dozens of

http://sl.nmc.org/wiki/Main_Page

settings for experiments in social interaction

WELCOME TO OUR ISLAND: BACKGROUND AND PROCESS The University of Florida’s Digital Worlds Institute is a transdisciplinary research and academic entity that provides strategic integration of arts, technology, and culture across traditional academic boundaries. Digital Worlds (DW) planned to offer a new Interdisciplinary Research Seminar (IRS) in Spring 2007 as a collaborative effort between a professor of biomedical engineering and a professor of digital media. Second Life was to



be used as the VWE within which the onscreen interaction would take place. Prior to the beginning of the spring semester 2007, an island was acquired and two staff members at DW created three initial buildings on the barren landscape in preparation for the first cohort of students. First, the university’s iconic Century Tower was re-created. This tower was built in the physical world in 1953 to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the university and was dedicated to University of Florida students who perished in World Wars I and II. Included in

Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

the virtual tower’s features were replicas of the unusual cast-bells carillon that mark the time of day and often play musical interludes during class breaks. Second, a multi-level virtual representation of the Digital Worlds Research, Education and Visualization Environment (REVE) was built. The structure itself was modeled on the metaphor of ascending levels of achievement, a common construct in quest-based video games. In this case the ascending levels of the free-floating building structures themselves formed virtual platforms that marked levels of interaction and achievement in interdisciplinary research (i.e., brainstorming, laboratory, invention, and prototype). Finally, a biomedical engineering building was added, based on architectural plans of a structure that has not yet been built in real life. On the first day of class, students had these three structures, which provided landmarks and functional space in which to meet and interact, but the rest of the island remained undeveloped. Students from a wide variety of disciplines enrolled in the class, which was offered as a means of investigating the use of VWEs in collaborative team-based research. The physical class sessions were held in the Digital Worlds’ REVE [pronounced “rev” as in Rêve, the French word for “dream”]. The REVE was designed as a multipurpose social and learning space, and featured a 52-foot wide immersive display screen, allowing local participants the opportunity to engage the VWE at near-life-size scales. This MSE afforded students and faculty a multiplicity of perspectives that proved integral to a groundswell of creativity and interdisciplinary achievement within the class. The goal of the research seminar was to investigate if the VWE (dubbed “Gator Nation Island”) could provide a compelling non-traditional framework for rapid prototyping, interdisciplinary collaboration, and invention.

RAPID PROTOTYPING IN A MIXED SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT Wilson, Jonassen, and Cole (1993) define rapid prototyping as follows: “In a design process, early development of a small-scale prototype used to test out certain key features of the design. Most useful for large-scale or projects” (p. 21.1). The REVE provided an effective rapid prototyping environment because it readily offered a facility in which the students could meet physically, virtually, or in a hybrid MSE. This immersive environment encouraged the initial development of system sketches and virtual mock-ups, followed by user evaluation, concept refinement, and implementation of refined requirements in a spiral cycle. The rapid prototyping environment was enhanced by the multiplicity of perspectives simultaneously provided to students and instructors on the REVE’s large-scale projection surfaces. While each person had their individuated laptop perspective, everyone in the room could also simultaneously share the common space from the perspective of other individuals’ diverse points of view during each phase of the design process. This MSE provided an enormous amount of visual information to inform design choices, allowing students and instructors alike to see the results of their ideas early on, detect errors in judgment and accuracy, and apply creative solutions through real-time feedback. The MSE also encouraged active student participation and enhanced collaboration throughout the design process. The “enhanced” aspect of this process emerged from several affordances not typically offered in traditional classroom settings. These include the ability of each of the students to interact either proximally in the REVE classroom, virtually within the VWE displayed on the REVE immersive displays and on their own laptops, or in any mixture of the two social environments deemed appropriate to the activities at hand. Additionally, the persistence of the virtual environment and the artifacts being created over the course



Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

of the semester, coupled with their accessibility both during and outside of class time, provided another mechanism not available when students collaboratively create “real” objects and prototypes in the physical world. Using SL as the platform for the VWE, the IRS professors established interdisciplinary student teams and assigned an ambitious number of projects. Over the course of the semester, each of the students participated in several team-based projects. Each of their tasks involved creating a process or artifact in SL that did not currently exist in the physical world. At the end of the semester, a significant number of diverse student projects had come to fruition as a result of the rapid-prototyping process. These included: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.



3.

A suite of MIDI-based musical instruments A dance/music entertainment complex and a Visual Arts Gallery The Protein Pavilion A large Welcome Center for the island Numerous media clips and playback interfaces for island visitors.

Within these original designs, structures, and conceptual developments, a number of interdisciplinary concepts and potentials were embedded: 1.

2.

The Protein Pavilion provided a 3D environment for learners to visualize protein folding, the physical process by which a polypeptide folds into its characteristic three-dimensional structure. While students from humanities and arts backgrounds had never encountered the concept of protein folding in their standard courses of study, being able to visualize this ongoing physical process provided a compelling introduction to biomechanics. The outdoor structure resembles a large veranda in which three

4.

5.

large screens can be user activated to reveal animated 3D visualizations of various processes at the sub-molecular level. The Visual Arts Gallery featured the work of an internationally renowned photojournalist from the university’s College of Journalism and Communications. Students who typically would not have visited an art gallery in real life explored this virtual space as part of their IRS experience, viewing two exhibitions of the photographer’s work in the process. The NoteMaker’s Lounge is a large, complex structure featuring a dance floor, multi-level social spaces, and recording studios containing novel musical instruments designed in the class. Guests could either walk in on the ground floor or fly into upper-level public rooms. One of the computer engineers in the class designed a secure entry system that permitted only paying customers or pre-determined VIPs to pass through a force-field structure to gain admittance to exclusive upper levels. When guests entered the music studio portions of the NoteMaker’s Lounge, a variety of non-traditional instruments acted as a catalyst for the development of original music compositions created when visitors interacted with the virtual devices. The multi-level Welcome Center was designed and constructed by students with no previous experience in computer coding or architecture. The students took it upon themselves to learn how to create automated glass doors and numerous teleport jumps directly to many of the island’s facilities, each accompanied by a detailed pictorial and narrative description of the intended site to be visited. An ultra-modern Experimental Media Space combined 3D computer graphics with live and pre-recorded video capabilities. Numerous interactive media artifacts were designed

Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

6.

and built by students with little or no previous experience with computer graphics or programming. The class also experimented with creating its own currency and banking system, and created a series of interactive video billboards and kiosks where visitors could obtain useful information about their surroundings.

SOCIAL INTERACTION AND ENTROPY: A NOVEL FORM OF RAPID PROTOTYPING A number of events were planned to be included in the Open House, ranging from guided tours to musical performances. The first 45 minutes of the Open House proceeded according to plan. But after that, a number of surprising developments occurred. While the majority of the online

interactions during the semester were modeled after the usual and customary modes of generally accepted social practice, three-quarters of an hour after the Open House began, entropydefined as “inevitable and steady deterioration of a system or society” (American Heritage, 2000)broke out. Previously courteous student interaction rapidly gave way to blasts from laser guns, unicorn riding through the shared space, driving vehicles up walls, and so forth. While end-of-semester enthusiasm and excitement about the culmination of students’ projects is understandable, there is also another potential explanation: a rapidly emergent social entropy. Whether a social construct or artifact seems to be contributing to the development or deterioration of a society or system is a socially constructed assessment, rather than an intrinsic property of the artifact (Bijker, 1995). As a result, we should consider the observation of one of the

Figure 1. Visitors perform on the new MIDI musical instruments (center screen) in the REVE’s Mixed Social Environment



Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

Figure 2. The Protein Pavilion (center screen) shows visualizations of complex sub-molecular protein structure and folding

Figure 3. Faculty and Students on Gator Nation Island at the REVE. Images courtesy of the UF Digital Worlds Institute.



Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

social scientists in the IRS class, who noted that this seemingly entropic development could be a manner of rapid prototyping of social constructs and artifacts in the VWE (Black, Beck, Dawson, Jinks, & DiPietro, 2007). These results should not automatically be discounted as a negative or simple anarchy, but instead should be explored. The use of the VWE to explore this novel type of social construct rapid prototyping should be investigated in future work. One potential application for this type of transdisciplinary research might be in the collaborative design and population testing of new urban environments or large-scale public facilities (stadiums, shopping complexes). Said structures could be placed within VWEs to assess traffic and user patterns created by live virtual users (as opposed to pre-programmed simulation algorithms) before finalizing the municipal approval of the building plans.

IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE WOrK From the developments during one short semester using SL as the VWE in a research and education setting, a number of observations come to light that lead us to the following recommendations: 1.

2.

Observation: Students worked effectively across disciplines as diverse as biomedical engineering, economics, fine arts, journalism, law, and computer science both in class and online in the VWE. Recommendation: Encourage partnerships with other departments and programs within your institution in to facilitate collaborative learning. An interdisciplinary partnership between departments or programs sponsoring the course will result in a greater breadth of cultural, academic, and social diversity among students and faculty. Observation: Students and instructors appeared to be in a state of flow (Csikszent-

3.

mihalyi, 1990) during most of the course. The flow state provided greater confidence, exploratory behaviors, enjoyment, distorted time perception, and greater learning than had occurred in past experiences with rapid prototyping by both instructors and students. Specifically, the added immersion provided by the REVE’s MSE appeared to enhance enthusiasm for the tasks at hand and fruitful collaboration by the interdisciplinary student teams. Access to the VWE and projectsin-process from outside of the classroom provided another collaborative potential. In addition to the proximal interaction in the REVE, students frequently met online in the VWE on their own time during evenings and weekends from their own personal spaces. Recommendation: Encourage gaming and involvement in other MMOGs by students and faculty. Instructors should consider hosting a hands-on seminar on using VWEs such as SL for education for other faculty and graduate students to attend. This exposure will help students to be more comfortable with various gaming interfaces and make it easier for them to enter the flow state in and out of class. Observation: Students exhibited significant enthusiasm for creating their own architectural models and invention prototypes. This is resonant with the current trend towards user-generated content in the broader online world (Bruns, 2007). Recommendation: Instructors should allow as much latitude as possible for students to create their own content- and concept-driven prototypes. Instructors should also build on the enthusiasm generated with customized content that will aid each student in his or her development. Also, in light of what occurred at the open house, students should be given opportunities to socially construct their own models and prototypes in groups and not just individually.



Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

4.

5.

Observation: With the assistance of two designated teaching assistants (a graphic artist and a digital media specialist), students were able to overcome their lack of background in design and technical areas (i.e., computer programming, 3D graphics, architecture, etc.) and create significant results despite lack of formal training in these areas. Recommendation: Instructors should consider avoiding disciplinary limitations on students in such a course and allow open enrollment from across disciplines and academic levels. This will also result in greater diversity and a multiplicity of academic perspectives as students enter the course from a wider variety of educational backgrounds. Instructors should also consider scaffolding their students by providing additional resources for those interested in pursuing independent studies in the areas of computer programming, 3D graphics, architecture, and so forth. Observation: Rapid prototyping of social constructs and artifacts within VWEs is an intriguing area that needs further exploration. Recommendation: Faculty and students need to overcome personal value judgments and biases against particular social constructs and artifacts. Researchers need to explore the potential for social construct rapid prototyping within VWEs for the insights it may provide into the relationship between artifact creation and population behavior in the “real” world, and how potential crossover effects between real and virtual worlds may lead to new understanding of system dynamics.

A number of challenges for interdisciplinary research within SL and other VWEs also emerged from this seminar: 1.



Challenge: Current technological constraints (i.e., limitations on the importing

2.

and exporting of objects and processes created within the VME, lack of interoperability standards with other business applications such as learning management systems (LMSs) and HR management systems (HRMSs), system access and security, etc.). Recommendation: Integration with other software applications may not seem necessary, but it could greatly affect the adoption of the VWE innovation into your learning community (Black et al., 2007). Unfortunately, the technical inefficiencies of some business applications, such as LMSs, utilized by most higher education institutions have hindered integration, as vendors provide little in the way of easy, plug-andplay systems that can be implemented with little effort (Egan, 2002). While current generation VWEs such as SL hold enormous potential for learners, getting them to work efficiently with easy interaction with LMSs can be time consuming, frustrating, and expensive. By spending the extra resources necessary to achieve integration with your LMS and other software systems, an institution will be paving the way for an easier adoption process. Challenge: Access to appropriately designed class and lab space for group interaction. Recommendation: Provide both individuated and group display to create an effective mixed social environment. The larger and more immersive the common display, the more conducive it will be to shared group interaction. Hertz (2002) observes that “the interaction that happens through and around games as players critique, rebuild, and add on to them, teaching each other in the process. Players learn through active engagement not only with the software but with each other” (p. 173). These kinds of environments do not have to be prohibitively expensive (Oliverio et al., 2004).

Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

3.

4.

5.

Challenge: Clear guidelines on ownership of intellectual property created in classroom VWE. Recommendation: In keeping with your institution’s intellectual property guidelines, encourage faculty and administration to give ownership of intellectual property (IP) created within the VWE to the person or team that created it. The increased production of authentic learning objects and innovative research concepts is a desirable outcome (SimTeach, 2007). Continued use of original IP in subsequent classes can then easily be arranged by simple permission from the creator/owner of the desired IP. Challenge: Overhead in setting up and maintaining the VWE. Recommendation: Seek out partnerships with other programs and departments within and outside your university in order to spread the overhead cost. Your course will not only benefit from lessened financial constraints, but will also benefit from an increased diversity in students and faculty. Challenge: Acceptance within established academic traditions and cultures. Recommendation: The chalkboard, filmstrip, and overhead projector are all examples of technologies that enabled increased interaction and shared experience in the classroom. VWEs are an inevitable and evolutionary step in the same direction, but they also must face some of the same hindrances as their predecessors. Development of quality best practices for using VWEs in education will equip teachers to overcome these hindrances and utilize them more fully.

It is apparent that network-based interaction in VWEs has much to offer in terms of contemporary learning and research applications. In our work we are particularly interested in facilitating effective MSEs by designing scalable physical classroom spaces whose affordances can maximize the effec-

tiveness of interdisciplinary activities in research and education (Oliverio & Pagano, 2004). Future studies should focus on in-class social interaction in mixed reality settings and the cultural and technical potential for rapid prototyping of objects, inventions, social constructs, and dynamic interaction systems.

REFERENCES Aldrich, C. (2004). Simulations and the future of learning. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons. Aldrich, C. (2005). Learning by doing. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. American Heritage. (2000). American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Bijker, W.E. (1995). Of bicycles, bakelites and bulbs. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Black, E.W., Beck, D., Dawson, K., Jinks, S., & DiPietro, M. (2007). The other side of the LMS: Considering implementation and use in the adoption of an LMS in online and blended learning environments. Techtrends, 51(2). Blascovich, J., Loomis, J., Beall, A., et al. (2002). Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology. Psychological Inquiry, 13(2), 103-124. Blizzard Entertainment. (2007). World of Warcraft. Retrieved October 8, 2007, from http://www. worldofwarcraft.com Bruns, A. (2007) Produsage: Towards a broader framework for user-led content creation. Proceedings of Creativity & Cognition 6, Washington, DC. Callois, R. (1961). Man, play and games. New York. The Free Press.



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Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper and Row. de Freitas, S. (2006). Learning in immersive worlds: A review of game-based learning. Proceedings of the Joint Information Systems Committee E-Learning Program. Delwiche, A. (2006). Massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) in the new media classroom. Educational Technology & Society, 9(3), 160-172. Edwards, C. (2006). Another world. Engineering & Technology, 1(9), 28-32. Egan, D. (2002). LMS and e-learning content vendors: Can’t we all just get along? T+D, 56(9), 62-64. Electronic Arts. (2007). SimCity. Retrieved October 8, 2007, from http://simcity.ea.com Foreman, J. (2003). Next-generation: Educational technology versus the lecture. EDUCAUSE Review, (July/August), 12-22. Foster, A. (2007). Professor Avatar: In the digital universe of Second Life, classroom instruction also takes on a new personality. Chronicle of Higher Education, (September 21). Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/weekly/v54/i04/04a02401. htm Francis, R. (2006). Revolution: Learning about history through situated role play in a virtual environment. Proceedings of the American Educational Research Association Conference, San Francisco. Harris, M., & Lowendahl, J. (2007, March). Second Life university classes for real-life credit. Retrieved May 9, 2007, from http://www.gartner. com Herman, A., Coombe, R.J., & Kaye, L. (2006). Your second life? Goodwill and the performativity of intellectual property in online digital gaming. Cultural Studies 20(2), 184-210.

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Hertz, J.C. (2002). Gaming the system: What higher education can learn from multiplayer online worlds. In M. Devlin, R. Larson, & J. Meyerson (Eds.), Internet and the University: 2001 Forum (pp. 169-191), Cambridge, MA. Hoffman, D.L., & Novak, T.P. (1996). Marketing in hypermedia computer-mediated environments: Conceptual foundations. Journal of Marketing, 60(3), 50-68. Huizinga, J. (1980). Homo Ludens: A study of the play element in culture. London. Routledge and Kegan. Keesey, C. (2007, June 5). The path less traveled: Thinking asynchronous for learning in Second Life. Proceedings of the Innovate-Live Seminar Series. Michael, D., & Chen, S. (2006). Serious games: Games that educate, train and inform. Boston: Thomson Course Technology. NCCS. (2007). Interdisciplinary research. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from nccs2.urban.org/nteecc/v.htm New Media Consortium. (2007a). The Horizon Report. A collaboration between the New Media Consortium and the EDUCAUSE Learning initiative. Austin, TX: Author. New Media Consortium. (2007b). The New Media Consortium. Retrieved October 8, 2007, from http://www.nmc.org/ Oliverio, J., & Pagano, P. (2004). Design and implementation of accessible digital media classrooms and studios: Facilitating both interpersonal and intercontinental collaborations. International Digital Media and Arts Journal, 1(2), 5-19. Ondrejka, C.R. (n.d.). Aviators, moguls, fashionistas and barons: Economics and ownership in Second Life. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=614663

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SimTeach. (2007). Second Life education wiki. Retrieved October 8, 2007, http://www.simteach. com/wiki/index.php?title=Second_Life_Education_Wiki Steinkuehler, C.A. (2004). Learning in massively multiplayer online games. In Y.B. Kafai, W.A. Sandoval, N. Enyedy, A.S. Nixon, & F. Herrera (Eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Conference of the Learning Sciences (pp. 521-528). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the Internet. New York: Simon & Schuster. Wikipedia. (2007a). Flow. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_(psychology) Wikipedia. (2007b). Massively multiplayer online games. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_games Wikipedia. (2007c). Second Life. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Life Wikipedia. (2007d). SimCity. Retrieved July 15, 2007 from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimCity Wikipedia. (2007e). Virtual world. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_world Wikipedia. (2007f). World of Warcraft. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_ of _Warcraft Wilson, B.G., Jonassen, D.H., & Cole, P. (1993). Cognitive approaches to instructional design. In G.M. Piskurich (Ed.), The ASTD handbook of instructional technology (pp. 21.1-21.22). New York: McGraw-Hill. Retrieved July 13, 2007, from http://www.cudenver.edu/~bwilson/training.html Wittgenstein, L. (1972). The blue and brown books: Preliminary studies for the ‘philosophical investigations’. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Yee, N., Bailenson, J.N., Urbanek, M., Chang, F., & Merget, D. (2007). The unbearable likeness of being digital: The persistence of nonverbal social norms in online virtual environments. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10(1). Yellowlees, P. (2006). Pedagogy and educational technologies of the future. Academic Psychiatry, 30(6).

KEY TERMS Best Practices: Processes and activities that have been shown in practice to be the most effective (Delwiche, 2006; Keesey, 2007). Flow: Concept developed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). “The mental state of operation in which the person is fully immersed in what he or she is doing.” Flow is the feeling of complete and energized focus in an activity, with a high level of enjoyment and fulfillment. (Wikipedia, 2007a) Interdisciplinary Research: Research efforts that bring together the humanities, physical sciences, and social sciences to develop and enhance a broad understanding of particular populations, cultures, or other related areas of research. (NCCS, 2007) Massively Multiplayer Online Game (MMOG): A type of computer game that enables hundreds or thousands of players to simultaneously interact in a game world they are connected to via the Internet. Typically this kind of game is played in an online, multiplayer-only persistent world. Some MMOGs are played on a mobile device (usually a phone) and are thus mobile MMOGs or MMMOGs or 3MOGs. (Wikipedia, 2007b) Mixed Social Environments: Meeting places, such as the Polymodal Immersive Theatre (PIT) in the Digital Worlds Institute’s REVE, that allow both proximal social interaction typical of



Enhanced Interaction in Mixed Social Environments

traditional classroom or auditorium settings and simultaneous shared display of virtual world environments in which the physically present persons can also interact virtually. Research, Education and Visualization Environment (REVE): A multi-purpose social and learning space that features a 52-foot-wide immersive display screen, allowing local participants the opportunity to engage a VWE at near-life-size scales. The REVE allows students and faculty a multiplicity of perspectives that promote creativity and interdisciplinary achievement within the classroom. Second Life: An open-ended virtual world created by San Francisco-based Linden Lab. Its foci are socialization, economic activity, and non-profit interactions. The creation of former RealNetworks CTO Philip Rosedale, Second Life gives its users (referred to as residents) tools to shape its world. (Wikipedia, 2007c) SimCity: A real-time strategy/simulation computer game created by game developer Maxis. There are four versions: the original SimCity (1989, later renamed SimCity Classic), SimCity



2000 (1993), SimCity 3000 (1999), and SimCity 4 (2003). All of the games were re-released with various add-ons including extra scenarios. In addition, SimCity Classic is available for a palmconnected organizer and on the SimCity.com Web site as Classic Live. (Wikipedia, 2007d) Virtual World Environments: A virtual world is a computer-simulated environment intended for its users to inhabit and interact with via avatars. This habitation usually is represented in the form of two- or three-dimensional graphical representations of humanoids (or other graphical or text-based avatars). Some, but not all, virtual worlds allow for multiple users. (Wikipedia, 2007e) World of Warcraft: A class-based massively multiplayer online role-playing game developed by Blizzard Entertainment. It is the fifth Blizzard game and is set in the Warcraft Universe, a fantasy setting introduced by Warcraft: Orcs & Humans in 1994. World of Warcraft is set four years after the events at the conclusion of Blizzard’s previous release. (Wikipedia, 2007f)



Chapter X

Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education Andreas Breiter Institute for Information Management, University of Bremen, Germany Castulus Kolo Macromedia University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany

AbstrAct Electronic gaming in education remains a theoretical or at best marginal issue as long as it is not adopted in general educational settings. The latter, however, not only depends on the intrinsic values or advantages discussed in other contributions to this volume. Rather, electronic gaming in education provides an interesting example for a complex adoption process where individual choices, organizational frameworks, and educational policies, as well as attitudes in the society at-large, interfere in the diffusion of gaming devices and the adoption of gaming for learning processes. After introducing an analytical framework for structuring such processes of the diffusion of innovations, the authors present empirical evidence from the adoption process of electronic gaming in Germany. The results are discussed focusing on the role of several influencing factors on the scope and the speed of innovations. The chapter concludes with possible generalizations departing from the specific situation and the tradition of education in Germany.

INtrODUctION Today, electronic games have a history of more than 25 years and include, besides the original PC-based games, a variety ranging from online

games for one, for two, or for thousands of simultaneous players to games played on mobile devices (like Game Boys or mobile phones) and even combinations thereof (e.g., Kolo & Baur, 2004). Technological improvements, specific and intense

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

marketing activities by the game industry, as well as an increasingly widespread access to electronic devices and competence in computer usage, have led to the fact that from the early ‘90s, electronic games became a matter-of-course in the everyday life of young people, including children in most industrialized countries (e.g., Fromme, 2003). This cultural and social significance of electronic games (e.g., Livingstone & Bovill, 2001; Singer & Singer, 2002) is also pedagogically relevant for at least three reasons: 1.

2.

3.

Efforts by public institutions like schools at increasing ICT skills or media competence are generally preceded by children growing up (among others) within their “computer gaming culture.” As a time-consuming leisure activity, gaming plays an important role in the psychology of childhood development and in the ways social networks are knit among children but also among (young) adults. This in turn moulds—at least partly—formal and informal learning processes. Games and gaming are eventually also seen as a new means for teaching and learning in a variety of subjects to support individualized learning processes.

This chapter is focused particularly on the latter of these three aspects of electronic games in the context of education. However, the public discourse on the first and second aspects strongly influences the pick-up of electronic games as an educational innovation. Effects of electronic games on childhood development are generally seen as very critical with few exceptions (e.g., Greenfield, 1984, 1996, as one of the earliest and persistent examples discussing also possible positive effects). Though the empirical evidence is ambivalent, even children and young people who are very engaged, in terms of frequency and general interest in playing electronic games, apparently do not give up other activities or become



socially isolated (Fromme, 2003; Kolo & Baur, 2004). The discussion in Germany is mainly led by critics who regard electronic games as motors for social isolation, aggressive behavior, decreased school performance, and gender divide (e.g., Aarsand, 2007; Dittler & Hoyer, 2006; Schindler & Wiemken, 1996; Spitzer, 2005). Unfortunately, no empirical evidence is documented in English. In media and political debates, gaming activities of children and young people are rather associated with violence and crime. A link to teaching and learning is rarely found, neither in research nor in practice. We follow the theory of mediatization (Hepp, Krotz, Moores, & Winter, 2007; Krotz, 2001), which assumes that “new” media do not replace traditional media, but enrich the media ensemble that is used. In management training, simulation games are increasingly common, though far from being widespread in Germany. There is strong evidence that gaming applications in this sphere are supporting learning processes in an efficient and effective way (e.g., Dörner, 2003). Other examples for the successful integration of simulation or gaming applications to support learning come from higher education (e.g., Ebner & Holzinger, 2007). However, success stories from neighboring fields, promising concepts as well as concrete examples for applications as given in other contributions to this volume, are neither necessary nor sufficient preconditions for the adoption of electronic gaming in education on a larger scale—not to speak of its widespread use on the basis of general educational settings. In the following we will therefore introduce electronic gaming in education as a case in point for a complex adoption process where individual choices, organizational frameworks, and educational policies, as well as attitudes in the society at-large formed in public discourse, interfere in the diffusion of gaming devices and the adoption of gaming as an activity for educational purposes. After developing an analytical framework on structuring such

Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

processes of the diffusion of innovations and its interdependencies, we will discuss the empirical evidence of the role of several influencing factors on the amount and the speed of innovation, and we conclude this chapter with possible generalizations departing from this specific situation in Germany.

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK Research on the diffusion on innovations began with the investigation of individual decision makers and was extended only later to organizational contexts or systems at-large like education. In order to structure the pick-up of electronic gaming as an innovation in education, the innovation process must be regarded on all of these levels. This is due to the fact that the penetration of gaming devices and the role of electronic gaming in private households is linked to the role of electronic gaming and PC usage in general in schools and other educational institutions. Both roles, as well as their interrelation, depend strongly on the public perception of the positive and negative effects of electronic games. For the perspective on the innovation process from private households and the individual, we will draw on Rogers’ (2003) model of the diffusion of innovations and the respective adopter categories, as well as the factors shaping the process. Much research has been undertaken into the dynamics of the diffusion of innovations, and a concurrent scheme is the S-shaped curve in the number of adopters vs. time. This particular shape arises when a small number of early adopters is followed by the majority of adopters. Those are followed again by a small number of ‘laggards’ (Rogers, 2003). This behavior across time arises from differences in the adoption process. The adoption process may thereby be assumed as consisting of five phases: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. In the knowledge phase, an individual is exposed

to an innovation for the first time. Persuasion occurs when an individual forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude towards the innovation. Decision takes place when an individual engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation. Implementation occurs when the innovation is put to use, and confirmation when the decision is reinforced after the innovation has been assessed positively, in light of possibly conflicting information concerning its utility. When, in at least one of the steps, a normal distribution of the respective behavioral trait is present, we will observe an S-shaped curve in the number of adopters vs. time. This may already be the case in the knowledge phase when only a few users appear to notice the existence of the innovation from the very beginning—for example, the existence of a gaming application—followed by the majority, and finally by those people with less frequent access to information on market developments in this sphere. For most diffusion processes, this is indeed the shape that is observed (Henrich, 2001). For PC-based games in private households, we indeed saw a slow pick-up dating back into the ’80s, followed by an S-shaped rise in the adoption rate, which finally reached a saturation effect (PWC, 2006). Online games on the other hand are still in their infancy concerning their distribution—at least when the distribution across time up to now is regarded. According to the latest measurements with a worldwide perspective (Comscore, 2006), they currently go through the phase when the majority starts to be attracted by this kind of media provisions. In our case, the knowledge phase and the persuasion phase—which precede the actual decision—deserve some further elaboration, as by the factors determining these phases, the individual innovation decision is linked to society at-large as well as to the organizational context under consideration here—the education system. Ajzen (1985) formulated the theory of reasoned action to derive the factors leading to a person’s behavior. According to this, a person’s behavior is



Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

determined by his or her intention to perform the behavior. This intention in turn is determined by three factors: attitude toward the specific behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. While the latter refers to people’s perceptions of their ability to perform a given behavior and is therefore a rather individual trait, the two former factors are strongly shaped by the social context of the individual. The theory of planned behavior holds that only specific attitudes toward the behavior in question can be expected to predict that behavior. In addition to measuring attitudes toward the behavior, one also needs to measure people’s subjective norms—their beliefs about how people they care about will view the behavior in question. To predict someone’s intentions, knowing these beliefs can be as important as knowing the person’s attitudes. As a general rule, the more favorable the attitude and the subjective norm, and the greater the perceived control, the stronger should be the person’s intention to perform the behavior in question (Ajzen, 1985). In an organization understood as a stable system of individuals who work together to achieve common goals through a hierarchy of ranks and a division of labor, innovations are usually bound to collective and authority innovation decisions. In such cases an individual cannot adopt a new idea unless the organization has previously adopted it. Compared to the innovation decision process by individuals, the innovation process in organizations is much more complex. This is particularly the case in the implementation phase, which typically involves a number of individuals—both opponents and champions of the new idea. Further, implementation amounts to mutual adaptation in which both the innovation and the organization change in important ways. For the organizational perspective, one of the most influential models in this context is Nolan’s (1973, 1979) separating “six stages of growth.” Nolan claimed that the innovation diffusion process follows a similar pattern in different organizations and can also be described as an S-shaped logisti-



cal curve. Nolan tried to use empirical evidence from innovation processes in large corporate institutions to explain these patterns. Repeating his research in the 1990s, he showed that these stages are repeated in the next innovation phase (era), leading to organizational learning (Nolan, 1993). The experiences made in the era of central data processing could only be partly used in the era of microcomputers, as this was accompanied by an organizational change from centralization to decentralization (see also Applegate, Austin, & McFarlan, 2003). The following era of networks led to a re-centralization and new forms of controlling, and it can be expected that we encounter a new era of social software and Web-based technologies. Although heavily disputed among empirical researchers in innovation research and evolutionary economics (Dosi, Freeman, Nelson, Silverberg, & Soete, 1988; Freeman, 1992), Nolan’s model is used here in a modified way to highlight the organizational embedding of technological innovations in educational institutions. •

•

•

•

Stage 1 (Initialization): Technologies are introduced into the organization for performing simple administrative functions. Stage 2 (Contagion): Computers are adopted only in some areas. The learning curve moves up sharply and the use is more widespread. Top management encourages the adoption. Stage 3 (Control): The organization reacts to uncontrolled expenditures on computers. The deliveries of projects are late, and there are unsatisfied needs. IT support is weak, and users get frustrated. Stage 4 (Integration): Acceptance and turning point. Users start to accept the technological systems, and realize and articulate their needs. There is a need for better control to provide more effective systems and technical support.

Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

Figure 1. Stages of organizational growth (adopted from Nolan, 1993)

In the final stage of “maturity,” the organization begins to trust the technological systems. A translation into the context of IT in education can be found in Breiter (2001). If we extend this approach to electronic games in education, we can identify similar process steps. In the phase of initiation, only a few members of the educational community are working with games as didactical tools. The organizational support is limited and they are regarded as outsiders (or, more positively, as “early adopters”). Others regard these activities with mistrust and have no interest in joining the group. The core question of innovation research is: When do organizations change to widely adopt the introduced technology? In the case of games, the phase of contagion is crucial, as the interest of other teachers might increase if positive outcomes of their use can be identified. As we are currently still in between these phases, the next steps are hard to predict from an organizational perspective. Hence, both perspectives, the individual and the organizational, must be integrated in a general analytical framework providing a structure for the

discussion of the empirical evidence in Germany. Additionally, the diffusion of electronic gaming as a technological innovation must be linked to the diffusion of organizational innovations in education, an issue that has been treated more systematically only in the recent innovation literature (e.g., Wollons, 2000; Fullan, 2001). The extensive and expensive initiatives on federal, state, and district levels to bring computers, local area networks, and high-speed Internet connections into schools, and the increasing number of instructional software and online resources for students and teachers have significant organizational impacts on the school system. The technology is partially shaping how and where teaching and learning is taking place, questioning the traditional roles of teachers and learners (Brunner & Tally, 1999; DiSessa, 2000; Kozma, 2003). The major impact of educational policies on schools as social organizations is through education reform. But as we know from educational research, change processes in schools are slow and the system is effective in absorbing innovations without any change (Cuban, 1986; Dalin, 1978;



Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

Figure 2. Analytical framework for the factors influencing the adoption of electronic gaming in education

Fullan, 2001; Tyack & Cuban, 1995). Innovation research on the German educational system is less developed. But the few existing publications point in the same direction (e.g., Breiter, 2001; Schulz-Zander, Büchter, & Dalmer, 2002). Technology-oriented reform efforts, which were naively driven by the idea that information and communication technologies might change the way teaching and learning happens in institutions, such as schools, are becoming less dominant. The focus is now changing from specific technology plans to whole-school reform and comprehensive education plans including technology, following the suggestion of RAND consultants already in 1996: “Technology without reform is likely to have little value; widespread reform without technology is probably impossible” (Glennan & Melmed, 1996). The new approaches include new forms of collaborative teaching and student-centered learning in authentic and virtual environments (‘blended learning’), digital content production,



and quality control embedded in a stronger framework of accountability (e.g., Behn, 2003; OECD, 2001b). Our analytical framework can be modeled as a four-tier network of interdependencies between the different layers (see Figure 2).

EMPIRICAL SITUATION As there are no explicit numbers on the use of electronic games in the German educational system, we will try to draw a picture of it indirectly. Starting with the current IT infrastructure in schools in an international perspective, we extend it to the differences between the usage of ICT at home and in schools. As the next step, we discuss the diffusion of electronic games in households. Using these three steps, we get at least nearer to the current situation of electronic gaming in schools (see Figure 3).

Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

Figure 3. Scheme for the indirect derivation of the status of electronic gaming in schools

Figure 4. Number of students per computer, based on school principals’ reports in PISA 2003 (OECD 2006)

In the longer term, the use of electronic gaming in schools may of course also have a bearing on decisions concerning investments in the ICT infrastructure, leading to a feedback loop possibly including the home-school use of ICT as well (see dotted lines in Figure 3). We will not consider this possibility in further detail here, as gaming in schools is in its infancy and such secondary effects shall be assumed to be negligible. ICT diffusion in schools varies significantly between different countries. Among the top

countries in world’s economy, Germany is lacking behind (OECD, 2004). In 2003, the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a cross-national study of student performance at the age of 15 (OECD, 2001a, 2004), also analyzed the access to technology and the use of technology in the classroom (see Figure 4). When we compare the status of the ICT infrastructure in schools with the PC penetration in private households, we observe a significant correlation (see Figure 5), which is exemplarily



Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

PCs per 100 Students

Figure 5. Penetration of PC usage in classrooms (OECD, 2006) vs. PC usage in private households (own compilation of data from different sources for 2004, cited in TNS Infratest, 2006) p (re g ressio n )< 0 ,0 0 1 ( h ig h ly sig n ifica n t)

35

2

R = 0 ,4787 30

USA

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F in la n d

15 10

G e rm a n y

P o la n d

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T h a ila n d

0 0

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documented by the situation in Thailand or Poland via the situation in Finland to the one in the U.S. However, from these numbers alone it cannot be derived whether a high number of PCs per students leads to an improved computer literacy and in turn to an increased household penetration, or whether it is rather the other way round, that a widespread distribution of PCs in private households influences the agenda of infrastructure investments at schools. A closer look to the exceptions Germany on the one hand and Hungary and South Korea on the other hand gives some hints where this partial decoupling comes from. According to the results, German students mainly have access to computers at home, and are using PCs and the Internet on a non-regular basis in school. This discrepancy is one of the highest in all OECD countries. In countries with high results in high-stakes tests,

0

50

60

70 80 90 PCs per 100 Citizens

access to computers in schools exceeds access at home. In Germany, it is the other way around. This leads to an increasing “digital divide” (for more details, see Warschauer, 2003) and leads the PISA consortium to a specific conclusion that the social gradient between access, use, and literacy is one of the highest in Germany (OECD, 2006a). Taking this into consideration, it becomes obvious that gaming in education, especially in K-12 schools in Germany, is still in its infancy. In Hungary and South Korea, we find the opposite situation as in Germany. In both countries, PC distribution in private households is preceded by political initiatives to install PCs in schools in order to promote the latter. According to Nolan’s model the diffusion process of information technology in German schools in general is currently in the stage between control and integration. We can still find

Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

a majority of educators who see digital media as additional time-consuming gadgets in their classrooms. Electronic games are even further away from being used in schools. Among German researchers, the impacts of computer games on learning are discussed. Aufenanger (1997) sees the positive impacts of computer games on learning—for example, to develop new abilities in respect to logical thinking and fact-based learning in schools. Also Wesener (2006) points out the educational opportunities that can be related to computer games; this is also supported by the empirical findings of Kraam (2004). Nevertheless, it is common to many German educational researchers to point out strongly the dangers of gaming. This can be linked back to the extensive discussion on television and its impact on children. This was only tackled by the sociological discussions of Baacke (1973), who coined the term “Medienkompetenz” (media competence), which is unique to the German language. In his

ground-breaking book, Baacke introduced a critical perspective on media use, and offered creative and reflective thinking on media (television) at the same time. For Baacke, media competence can be analyzed in four dimensions: (1) knowing about different media and how to use them, (2) reflecting the role of media in society, (3) designing media, and (4) critical thinking. His model was later extended by other researchers (e.g., Aufenanger, Schulz-Zander, & Spanhel, 2001; Groeben & Hurrelmann, 2002). It now serves as a basis for most empirical research in use of educational media. In education research, only a few scholars have analyzed computer games and their role in classrooms (e.g., Aufenanger, 1997; Fritz, 2005; Fromme, 2003; Fromme, Meder, & Vollmer, 2000; Fromme & Meder, 2001). On the other hand, Spitzer, a famous neuroscientist, wants to keep away from schools any technological tools (Spitzer, 2005). In his highly debated book, Vorsicht Bildschirm! (Be Careful

Figure 6. Private computer usage for gaming and education among Germans from 14 to 64 years old (results from the representative study ACTA, 2006)

in percent

Private computer usage for gaming and eduction among Germans (14-64) 80

P C u ser

70 O nline u ser

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U sage o f P C s for gam ing

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Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

with Monitors!), he argues that television and computer would lead to mental deficiencies and should be avoided in children’s development phases. Spitzer (2005) reflects a deeply rooted technophobia in Germany’s educational sphere, which has not changed a lot since the 1970s. If computer games are addressed in German classrooms, it is usually in relation to questions about youth protection. A brief content analysis of the curricula in three German states highlighted that the keywords “digital media” can only be found in combination with “violence” or “youth protection.” Hence, the current use is mainly restricted to the afternoon when kids play at home. This is partly due to the organizational settings in the German education system: traditionally, schools are open until 1:00 or 2:00 p.m. After that, parents or other caregivers take over the responsibility for the learning process. With the introduction of a federal program on “full-day schools” in 2003, the role of after-school programs and pedagogical offerings in the afternoon is increasing. As already mentioned with respect to PCs, the situation in schools strongly contrasts with the widespread use of PCs in German private households. The latter was still on the rise during past years (see Figure 6, where the percentages differ from those given in Figure 5, as the basis of reference is here restricted to persons ages 14 to 64 and not the total population). With regard to the use of PC-based games, we also observe an increase in percentage points, though not as much as the PC usage would imply. However, driven by the strong growth in the number of online users, online games jumped from less than 5% penetration to almost 20% within five years. Like PC usage, the adoption of gaming (in particular online gaming) differs widely across world regions, but also on a smaller scale like in the European Union. We concentrate our discussion on online games because this is the growing segment. Unfortunately, different measurements (referring to monthly use, weekly use, or the use on an average day) are applied. However, when



set into relation with e-mail usage, a comparison seems feasible. In Asian countries, online games are enormously popular, ranging from 26% in China to 72% in South Korea, to give but two examples. In other countries of the OECD, like the U.S. with 17% or the EU with 19%, usage of online games in relation to e-mail usage of such online activities are relatively less popular. Germany here again constitutes an exception with only 14% (own compilation of data from different sources for 2005, cited in TNS Infratest, 2006).

DISCUSSION OF POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS According to our empirical evidence, Germany is a very special case with a strong tradition in its educational institutions against any (technological) reforms. Taking Nolan’s model, schools in Germany are not even at the stage of contagion, as many German teachers regard games (and even more dramatically electronic and online games) as useless educational tools. Software applications such as simulation systems, game-oriented learning tools, or complex interactive learning environments are used only by a limited number of educators. If we look at diffusion rates, the adoption of electronic gaming in private households is very fast. This leads to the crucial question on how to bridge the gap between school and home use, as this reflects a social imbalance between media-rich and media-poor households. The gradient between socio-economic background and educational performance in Germany is one of the highest in the world. Hence, educators must learn to take into account the real-life adoption of digital media for children. Given the theoretical framework of the process of innovation in education, we can also identify the influencing factors on the speed of innovation observed for Germany. The results show that the innovation dynamics on the level of the private households and on the level of organizations differ significantly,

Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

which supports our assumptions. The different levels have different innovation speeds, which have to be taken into account when designing policies. Obviously, top-down approaches are nearly impossible. Change can only be induced indirectly via the individual media competence of teachers and students, for example through teacher training including teacher preparation. If new forms of communication and interaction from youth culture are rather accepted and integrated into the curriculum and classroom practices than characterized as ‘evil’, electronic games will have a place in the media repertoire of teachers. It is necessary for organizational framework conditions to be established and that the individual choice is met. In order to change those framework conditions, educational policies set reforms in order to integrate a new technology. This is done in curricula, with state programs and large-scale training schemes. Nevertheless, the sustainable integration and ubiquitous access to technological innovations such as electronic games in education is mainly led by expectations (i.e., norms perceived by the individual) and attitudes developed by social interaction in the society at-large. This has a strong impact on the individual choice as well as on the educational policies. Policymakers have a high responsibility in supporting schools to provide enriching learning approaches in the afternoon. As a baseline for any educational services, administrators need to know how to maintain the infrastructure, to learn how to plan, implement, and control a complex IT infrastructure (Breiter, 2001, 2003).

OUTLOOK AND FURTHER RESEARCH With the help of our analytical framework, we tried to identify four interdependent layers that influence the diffusion of electronic gaming in education. While the adoption is very much impacted by individual choice, the embedding in

an institutional formal learning process is highly dependent on the organizational learning process and the implementation of adequate supportive structures. Schools, particularly in Germany, are still in the very early stage of initiation dominated by early adopters and accompanied by strong critics. As long as electronic games are regarded in a broad public and supported by media as dangerous for child development, leading to aggression and crime, the pedagogical use in school settings will be limited to individual teachers. More research is needed on the impacts of electronic games in institutional learning processes as well as in learner-centered environments. Standardized tests are not reliable to measure the impacts of gaming in education. In this chapter we have primarily focused on the diffusion process, its interdependence from individual choice, organization learning, policies, as well as social and cultural development. It is still open to further research on how to implement successfully electronic gaming in teaching and learning, and to change traditional approaches as well as how learning experiences from other environments can be transferred to the schools and how this is influenced by cultural differences. In any case, it is important to take into account that regardless of the intrinsic quality of the learning application of electronic gaming, its spread to a substantial user base depends also on a large number of other factors—some of them difficult to influence, others enfolding their effects very slowly. Hence, the diffusion of electronic gaming in German educational institutions will be a long-term process.

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ACTA. (2006). Allensbacher Computer- und Technikanalyse (ACTA). Retrieved January 2007 from http://www.acta-online.de Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckman (Eds.), Action-control: From cognition to behavior (pp. 11-39). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. Applegate, L.M., Austin, R.D., & McFarlan, F.W. (2003). Corporate information strategy and management: The challenges of managing in a network economy (6th ed.). Reading, MA: McGraw-Hill. Aufenanger, S. (1997). Computerspiele als herausforderung für die politische Bildungsarbeit. In J. Fritz & W. Fehr (Eds.), Handbuch medien: Computerspiele (pp. 309-313). Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. Aufenanger, S., Schulz-Zander, R., & Spanhel, D. (Eds.). (2001). Jahrbuch medienpädagogik 1. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Baacke, D. (1973). Kommunikation und kompetenz. München: Juventus. Behn, R.D. (2003). Rethinking accountability in education. How should who hold whom accountable for what? International Public Management Journal, 6(1), 43-73. Breiter, A. (2001). IT-management in Schulen. Pädagogische Hintergründe, Planung, Finanzierung und Betreuung des Informationstechnikeinsatzes. Neuwied: Luchterhand. Breiter, A. (2001). Digitale medien im schulsystem: Organisatorische einbettung in Deutschland, den USA und Großbritannien. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 4(4), 625-639. Breiter, A. (2003). Public Internet usage points in schools for the local community. Concept, implementation and evaluation of a project in Bremen, Germany. Education and Information Technologies, 8(2), 109-125.



Brunner, C., & Tally, W. (1999). The new media literacy handbook. An educator’s guide to bringing new media into the classroom. New York: Anchor Books. Comscore. (2007). Worldwide online gaming community reaches 217 million people. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://www.comscore.com/press Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines. The classroom use of technology since 1920. New York: Teachers College Press. Dalin, P. (1978). Limits of educational change. London: Macmillan. DiSessa, A. (2000). Changing minds: Computers, learning and literacy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Dittler, U., & Hoyer, M. (2006). Machen computer kinder dumm? Wirkung interaktiver, digitaler medien auf kinder und jugendliche aus medienpsychologischer und mediendidaktischer sicht. München: Kopaed. Dosi, G., Freeman, C., Nelson, R.R., Silverberg, G., & Soete, L. (1988). Technical change and economic theory. London: Pinter. D ö r n e r, D. (2 0 0 3) . D i e l o g i k d e s mißlingensstrategisches denken in komplexen situationen (5th ed.). Reinbeck: Rowohlt. Ebner, M., & Holzinger, A. (2007). Successful implementation of user-centered game based learning in higher education—an example from civil engineering. Computers & Education, 49(3), 873-890. Freeman, C. (1992). The economics of hope: Essays on technical change, economic growth and the environment. London: Pinter. Fritz, J. (2005). Computerspiele. In J. Hüther & B. Schorb (Eds.), Grundbegriffe medienpädagogik (4th ed., pp. 62-69). München: Kopaed.

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Fromme, J. (2003). Computer games as a part of children’s culture. Game Studies, 3(1). Fromme, J., & Meder, N. (Eds.). (2001). Bildung und computerspiele. Zum kreativen umgang mit elektronischen bildschirmspielen. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Fromme, J., Meder, N., & Vollmer, N. (2000). Computerspiele in der kinderkultur. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Fullan, M.G. (2001). The new meaning of educational change (3rd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. Glennan, T.K., & Melmed, A.A. (1996). Fostering the use of educational technology: Elements of a national strategy. Santa Monica, CA: Rand. Greenfield, P.M. (1984). Mind and media: The effects of television, video games and computers. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Greenfield, P.M. et al. (1996). Action video games and informal education: Effects on strategies for dividing visual attention. In P.M. Greenfield & R.R. Cocking (Eds.), Interacting with video (pp. 187-205). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Groeben, N., & Hurrelmann, B. (Eds.). (2002). Medienkompetenz: Voraussetzungen, dimensionen, funktionen. Weinheim: Juventus. Henrich, J. (2001). Cultural transmission and the diffusion of innovations. American Anthropologist, 103(4), 992-1013. Hepp, A., Krotz, F., Moores, S., & Winter, C. (Eds.). (2007). Connectivities, networks, flows. An introduction. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Kolo, C., & Baur, T. (2004). Living a virtual life: Playing patterns and social dynamics in online games. Game Studies, 4(1). Kozma, R.H. (Ed.). (2003). Technology, innovation, and educational change. A global perspective. Washington, DC: ISTE.

Kraam, N. (2004). Kompetenzfördernde aspekte von computerspielen. medien + erziehung, 48(3), 12-17. Krotz, F. (2001). Die mediatisierung kommunikativen handelns. Wie sich alltag und soziale beziehungen, kultur und gesellschaft durch die medien wandeln. Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag. Livingstone, S., & Bovill M. (Eds.). (2001). Children and their changing media environment. A European comparative study. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Nolan, R.L. (1973). Managing the computer resource: A stage hypothesis. Communications of the ACM, 16(7), 399-405. Nolan, R.L. (1979). Managing the crisis in data processing. Harvard Business Review, 57(2), 115-126. Nolan, R.L. (1993). The stages theory: A framework for IT adoption and organizational learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. OECD. (2001a). Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. OECD. (2001b). What works in innovation in education: New school management approaches. Paris: Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development. OECD. (2004). Learning for tomorrow’s worldfirst results from PISA 2003. Paris: OECD Centre for Educational Research and Innovations. OECD. (2006). Are students ready for a technology-rich world? What PISA studies tell us. Paris: Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development. PWC. (2005). German entertainment and media outlook: 2005-2009. Frankfurt/Main: PriceWaterhouseCoopers.



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Rogers, E.M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). New York: The Free Press. Schulz-Zander, R., Büchter, A., & Dalmer, R. (2002). The role of ICT as a promoter of students’ cooperation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 18(4), 438-448. Schindler, F., & Wiemken, J. (1996). Wer hat angst vor Super Mario? Computerspiele und pädagogische praxis. In W. Faulstich (Ed.), Medien in der schule: Anregungen und projekte für die unterrichtspraxis in der sekundarstufe I und II (pp. 245-262). München: Schöningh. Singer, D.G., & Singer, J.L. (2002). Handbook of children and the media. Newberry Park, CA: Sage. Spitzer, M. (2005). Vorsicht bildschirm! Elektronische medien, gehirnentwicklung, gesundheit und gesellschaft. Stuttgart: Klett. TNS Infratest. (2006). Monitoring informationswirtschaft. 9. Faktenbericht 2006. Retrieved July 30, 2007, from http://www.tns-infratest.com/06_ bi/bmwa/infrasearchreg/reg9.asp?dfile=TB6_ Chartversion_de.pdf Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward Utopia. A century of public school reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Warschauer, M. (2003). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wesener, S. (2006). Spielen in virtuellen welten: Übertragung von inhalten und handlungsmustern aus bildschirmspielen. medienpaedagogik online, 6(2). Retrieved September 30, 2007, from http:// www.medienpaed.com/06-2/wesener1.pdf Wollons, R. (2000). Introduction: On the international diffusion, politics and transformation of the kindergarten. In R. Wollons (Ed.), Kindergartens and cultures (pp. 1-15). London: Yale University Press.



KEY TERMS Adopter Categories: According to their innovativeness, members of a social system may be classified into adopter categories: innovators, early adopters, early and late majority, and laggards. Adoption of an Innovation: The decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of action available. Members of a social system typically draw this decision at different points in time according to varying levels of their knowledge about the innovation and their general attitude towards new ideas (innovativeness). Attitude: A hypothetical construct that represents an individual’s like or dislike for an item. Attitudes are positive, negative, or neutral views of an “attitude object.” Most attitudes in individuals are a result of observational learning from their environment. In that respect, they are shaped by interactions within the social system. Diffusion of Innovation: Denotes the process in which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system. German Educat ion System: St ates (Bundeslaender) are responsible; 16 different educational systems, federal government with little influence, three tracks: 9/10 years (Hauptschule), 10 years (Realschule), 12/13 years (Gymnasium). Innovation Decision Process (of Individuals): The process through which an individual passes from first knowledge of an innovation to forming an attitude towards the innovation, to a decision to adopt or reject, to implementation and use of the new idea, and to the confirmation of this decision. Innovation Stages Theory: Developed by Nolan on empirical evidence in corporate institutions, organizational adoption of IT follows an

Electronic Gaming in Germany as Innovation in Education

S-shaped curve, from initialization and contagion to limited control and finally integration. Innovation: An idea, practice, or object is regarded as an innovation when it is perceived as new by an individual or another unit of adoption. This is in contrast to an invention, which denotes the process by which a new idea, practice, or object is discovered or created, but without being adopted yet. Innovations in Organizations: In an organization, understood as a stable system of individuals who work together to achieve common goals through a hierarchy of ranks and a division of labor, innovations are usually bound to collective and authority innovation decisions. In such cases an individual cannot adopt a new idea unless the organization has previously adopted it. Compared to the innovation decision process by individuals, the innovation process in organizations is much more complex. This is particularly the case in the implementation phase, which typically involves a number of individuals–both opponents and

champions of the new idea. Further, implementation amounts to mutual adaptation in which both the innovation and the organization change in important ways. Innovativeness: The degree to which an individual or other unit of adoption is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than the other members of a system. Media Competence: Term coined by German sociologist Baacke; can be analyzed in four dimensions: (1) knowing about different media and how to use them, (2) reflecting the role of media in society, (3) designing media, and (4) critical thinking. PISA: OECD Programme of International Student Assessment; regular standardized tests on student performance (15 years old) in 32 OECD countries. The test focus is on literacy, math, and science, taking social and organizational framework conditions (school form, school climate, infrastructure, socio-economical factors) into account.



Section II

Educational Gaming in K-12 or Teacher Education Contexts

Chapters in this section of the book focus directly on research related to educational gaming within K-12 learning content areas or on studies related to teacher education. Van Eck begins the first part of this section with an examination of commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) games in the classroom through the empirically-based NTeQ model. Durga & Squire write about their continued analyses of the Civilization software series for history. Champion also writes about history, specifically highlighting technological, pedagogical, and evaluation issues pertinent to game-based historical learning. VanFossen, Friedman, & Hartshorne provide evidence through a literature review of the potential of gaming for social studies education. Dubbels addresses how games might be used for reading and comprehension. Finally, Redfield, Gaither, & Redfield explore the effectiveness of math-based COTS games. The second part of this section switches directly to focus on teachers and teacher education. James & Wright discuss a study comparing teacher gamers vs. non-gamers. Ferry & Kervin present an online simulation used for educating pre-service teachers. Yildirim & Kilic also explore games with pre-service teachers; however, their focus is on prospective computer teachers. Finally, Sanford & Madill explore the notion of adolescents teaching teachers through videogame making. The purpose of this section is to provide readers with research directly related to the use of gaming for teaching K-12 content area knowledge or the pre-service and in-service teachers who teach or will teach that content.



Chapter XI

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom Richard Van Eck University of North Dakota, USA

AbstrAct Many of the educational outcomes we seek to promote in public education, such as problem solving and critical thinking, are difficult to achieve given the constraints of the real-world classroom. Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) games make excellent tools for addressing both content-based and higher-order learning outcomes, and many educators are exploring their use in the classroom. But making effective use of commercial games in the classroom requires that we understand how games function in relation to the typical instructional strategies and practices of the classroom. The first part of this chapter will examine the theories that underlie the successful integration of commercial games in the classroom and look at an empirically based model, the NTeQ (iNtegrating Technology through inQuiry), for designing lessons that integrate COTS games. This will lay the groundwork for the second part of the chapter in which these theories and the model are discussed in the context of actually designing COTS game-based learning (GBL).

PART I: THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS FOR DESIGNING COTS GBL Introduction Despite the growing interest in using games as learning tools in public education, very few games are designed for the classroom. Those that are

(e.g., the Leapster and Learning Company products) often tend more toward learning tutorials than learning games, and are thus difficult to integrate within the existing curriculum except as additional practice in subject areas. Such software can play a valuable role in learning, and students no doubt enjoy them more than they enjoy reading a textbook, but this does not capture the true power of games to engage (in the cognitive and

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A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

entertainment sense of the word). There are many reasons for the dearth of truly engaging games for the classroom, of course, including school infrastructure and policies that lock down labs and networks for security reasons, the difficulty of designing games without the resources of a large development company, and the attitudes of the parents and administrators who view games with a healthy dose of skepticism.1 But one of the main reasons we do not see more educational games that look and feel like commercial games is that many designers do not understand how games integrate learning and content seamlessly throughout the game. From the outside, it seems as if games have no content because all we see is play. But it quickly becomes apparent to any who sit down to play them that many games are extremely difficult to play, requiring hours of practice to master. And yet it is through interaction with the game rather than texts, videos, or other media that this learning is achieved. Clearly, games themselves serve an instructional role, and they must be effective or the titles would not sell and the players would not spend upwards of 50 to 100 hours playing them without being forced to. Unless we are willing to accept that game developers have somehow stumbled on new learning and instructional theory, it stands to reason that the things we do know about effective instruction and learning are present in these games, if in modified form. Why should we care? Because it turns out the in the same way that ignoring the theories behind how games teach has led to poor examples of learning games, so too will doing so lead to poor examples of COTS GBL.

The Use of Commercial Games It should be noted up front that the games I am most interested in here are those that address higher-order intellectual skills like problem solving. While a great many games address problem solving in one fashion or another, adventure games

0

(e.g., Myst), strategy games (e.g., Civilization), simulation games (e.g., Sim City), and modern action and first-person shooter games (e.g., Halo) tend to be extremely complex and require upwards of 50 to 100 hours to solve. While other games like card games and board games (e.g., Scrabble) have value in educational settings, they are much easier to adapt to learning environments and do not require much in the way of guidance. Many are looking to commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games for their potential integration within existing curriculum (Googling “COTS games in the classroom” yields nearly 200,000 hits on this topic).2 The assumption behind this approach is that COTS games are developed by companies who know how to build effective, engaging, entertaining games; using them relieves teachers of the need to become game developers and programmers in order to use games in the classroom. Games that involve existing curriculum areas like math (e.g., the Sim and Tycoon titles), or history (e.g., Civilization), or science and physics (e.g., Contraptions), having already been vetted in the marketplace, will be good games. These things are true, as far as they go, but we must also understand that it is not just the content that makes GBL a good idea in classrooms; it is what learners are doing with that content as they interact with the rest of the game. It turns out that the content is secondary to the critical reasoning, problem solving, and ways of processing information and negotiating, meaning they are integral features of many COTS games. And this is not just true of games; expert teachers know that you cannot teach problem solving as a set of abstract principles (e.g., Anderson, 1995), but must instead embed them within existing domains and professional ways of knowing (e.g., Shaeffer, 2006) and expose learners to many examples over long periods of time (e.g., Gick & Holyoak, 1980; Osgood, 1949; Rogoff & Gardner, 1984). As much as we might wish it were so, it is not possible to take full advantage of the power of games by simply “adding extra content” to a

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

game. Developing lesson plans that truly take advantage of what games can do requires that we understand how games embed instructional strategies, objectives, assessment, and the other instructional elements that all effective instruction uses. We must understand how these theories and instructional elements work in games if we are to extend their use to the classroom. Designing effective COTS GBL is not a simple process, any more than designing any truly effective learning is easy. In the next section, we will examine some of the most relevant theoretical and instructional principles that games employ and which govern the integration of games in the classroom. We will also examine how an established K-12 technology integration model, the NTeQ Model (Morrison & Lowther, 2005), can serve as a bridge between designing practical, effective lesson plans for the real-world classroom and the theories of learning and instruction as they exist within games. This model and process are the subject of the second half of this chapter, in which we examine the practical application of the NTeQ model to the analysis, design, and implementation of COTS lesson plans in the classroom.

Theoretical Background There are three theories and instructional principles that are key to understanding both learning as it is supported by COTS games and the use of the NTeQ model for the development of lesson plans that integrate games: situated cognition and learning, intrinsic motivation, and objectives and assessment. These will be relied on later in this chapter as we examine the NTeQ model in more detail.

Situated Learning and Cognition What It Is The first theory that guides learning in games, and which must therefore also guide COTS GBL, is situated learning. This theory arises out of a movement in cognitive studies in the 1970s that began to study human cognition in the contexts in which they naturally occur (Cohen & Siegel, 1991; Graesser & Magliano, 1991; Meacham & Emont, 1989). Research has shown that knowledge and transfer are strongly tied to context and domain (e.g., Bransford, Franks, Vye, & Sherwood, 1989; Bransford, Sherwood, Vye, & Rieser, 1986; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Perkins & Salomon, 1989) and that learning is effective to the degree that it is embedded in a meaningful context (e.g., Choi, 1995; Choi & Hannafin, 1995).

What It Means for COTS GBL There is nothing more important to COTS GBL than a conceptual understanding of this theory. Games convey the knowledge needed to meet the goal of the game and the many challenges along the way, not through direct instruction, but by embedding (situating) knowledge, feedback, guidance, and other instructional events within the context of the game. The fact that the game context may vary in its representation of “reality,” from the fantastic to the real, does nothing to undercut the efficacy of this approach. This means that the game world and context are the “real” world, not the classroom or even the professional environment in which the knowledge being generated will eventually be applied. All instructional events and content must be subservient to the game world to the extent that doing so is possible and does not violate the facts, concepts, and rules being learned. This theory is also important to understanding intrinsic motivation.



A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

Intrinsic Motivation

Objectives and Assessment

What It Is

These instructional elements are familiar to us, but are present in games differently than in more “typical” instruction. Just as was the case with intrinsic motivation, situated learning helps explain how objectives and assessment occur in games. It is good instructional practice to communicate objectives to the learner in order to support metacognitive processes and to activate or establish relevant schemas. In typical instruction, it is not uncommon to present the objectives verbally at the beginning of the instruction, and to administer a pre-test and post-test to assess learning. This, however, is antithetical to the nature of objectives and assessment in games. The purpose of a course is to learn; the purpose of a game is to play. Learners in the classroom are prepared (and expect) objectives and tests as part of accomplishing their learning goals; game players have different expectations, however.

Malone (1981) and, later, Malone and Lepper (1987) proposed a theory of what they called intrinsic motivation (motivation that stems from internal events such as goals or affective responses rather than from external events such as rewards). Intrinsically motivated learning, then, is “learning that occurs in a situation in which the most narrowly defined activity from which the learning occurs would be done without any external reward or punishment” (Malone & Lepper, 1987, p. 229). All successful games are intrinsically motivating, meaning the player wants to play them for their own sake. The four factors they proposedchallenge, curiosity, control, and fantasycan be used to explain which games are intrinsically motivating. While all of these factors are important, the concept of fantasy is particularly crucial. Intrinsically motivating games align the content of the game (learning what is needed to solve the puzzles and challenges) with the fantasy (the game-play, context, and narrative of the game), which Malone and Lepper (1987) refer to as endogenous fantasy.

What It Means for COTS GBL This is not much different, conceptually, from the idea of situated learning, and is key COTS GBL; all instructional activities (some of which must occur outside of the game itself, as we will see) must strive to extend the context of the game world (the fantasy) to the content that occurs outside the game itself (Rieber, 1996; Van Eck, 2006b). Content that is not tightly integrated with the fantasy context of the game will result in COTS GBL that is not intrinsically motivating.



What They Look Like in Games Just as everything a player learns within a game is situated within the game context, the objectives and their performance (assessment) are also situated within the game context. Objectives are presented in a variety of ways: as part of the materials that accompany the game (the game box, manual, etc.), via characters in the game who communicate with the player at different points, and through cut-scenes (cinematic episodes at strategic points in the games such as between levels). But they are also communicated through other, non-verbal actions within the game, such as when the player enters a room in the game and is immediately attacked; although the player is not told what the objective is, it becomes clear that they must defeat whatever is attacking them. Indirect communication (situation) of objectives is the most common method of establishing objectives in a game.

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

Given the ways in which objectives are communicated in authentic, situated, embedded ways in games, it follows that assessment will mirror this process. This means that assessment is continual throughout the game (temporally and conceptually contiguous with the objectives) rather than occurring at the end,3 and that the nature of the assessment always reflects both the fantasy of the game itself and the problem-based nature of learning in games (since all skills in games are learned in relation to solving the challenges, or problems, in the game).

What They Have to Do with COTS GBL So when we design learning activities to extend the learning in the game, we must ensure that any additional objectives and the assessment we develop adheres to the same principles as they do within games. Just as our extension activities should be authentic and problem based, and tied to the narrative context of the game (to reflect both situated learning principles and the idea of endogenous fantasy from intrinsic motivation), so must our objectives and assessment reflect that context as well. For example, we do not want to use a multiple-choice test to assess objectives that are part of the narrative context of problem-based learning in our extension activities and/or the game. This also means the instructor must think about assessment as a continual process broken up into smaller units than the typical “test.” In addition, effective instruction builds in opportunities for application of what is being learned, accompanied by feedback, to help the learner monitor his or her own learning. We call these practice rather than assessment, since they serve a different instructional role (information processing rather than assessment). Practice in typical instruction may occur infrequently, but is a continual process in games. Practice and assessment in games often look the same and occur in close proximity to one another, being differentiated only by the presence of feedback

and opportunities to reflect on that feedback. In regards to objectives, assessment, and practice, then, the instructor must think both about how they are communicated in additional instructional activities, and how they are organized by problem and challenge, not discrete steps that must be mastered one at a time.

The NTeQ Model These theories and instructional elements are important to the design of COTS GBL. We need to keep all of them in mind as we integrate COTS games into our classrooms. As it happens, there are models for integrating technology into the classroom, and one of them, the NTeQ model, is also well suited to COTS GBL. The NTeQ model is an established model with empirical support for its efficacy, and templates and heuristics for its implementation. Because there are many examples of NTeQ lessons available, it is mature enough to provide good support for the practical application of the ideas and theories relevant to COTS GBL. This is a model that I have worked with for the last eight years in my technology integration courses and my instructional simulations and games courses. I have seen teachers at all levels and subject areas develop dozens of lesson plans that are practical, standards driven, effective, and yet also compatible with games in the ways discussed so far (see http://idt.und. edu/gbl). Examples include using American Farmer to teach agriculture, Contraption to teach physics, I Spy to teach second grade reading and writing, and SimCity to teach geography and civil engineering. This model, which takes into account the limitations and realities of the classroom, including local and national standards, objectives, access to computers, and time constraints, is founded on five philosophical premises (Morrison & Lowther, 2005):



A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The teacher is technologically competent and assumes the roles of designer, manager, and facilitator. The student actively engages in the learning process, assumes the role of researcher, and becomes technologically competent. The computer is used as a tool, as it is in the workplace, to enhance learning through the use of real-world data to solve problems. The lesson is student centered, problem based, and authentic, and technology is an integral component. The environment incorporates multiple resource-rich activities.

Premise 1. The teacher is technologically competent and assumes the roles of designer, manager, and facilitator. One of the keys to successful COTS GBL is that the designer and the instructor be familiar (“technologically competent”) both with games in general and with the game they have chosen to use in particular. In the former case, this is critical because it is not possible to design game-based learning that is rich enough in activities, content, and problem solving without understanding how games manage these things themselves. Otherwise, the activities and lesson will almost inevitably violate the principles of situated learning and endogenous fantasy, as described earlier. It is important to know the game you have chosen very well. Because games are complex worlds that rely on exploration and variable outcomes based on the player’s interactions with the game, they are likely to exceed the breadth and scope of the intended lesson. This means that while only part of the game may be used/relevant to the lesson, there may be more than one way to get to and through the relevant portions of the game. You can be sure that students will, as a class, eventually encounter all variations during game-play. Aside from potentially exposing them to undesirable content or language, this presents



the possibility of exposing them to ideas and strategies that may not support the content or learning outcomes as designed in the lesson. Even when this is not the case, when learners end up in parts of the game world that are not tied to the content or lesson (and some of this is inevitable and even desired), the instructor must know how to get them re-focused and/or how to incorporate such explorations into the lesson. The second part of this premise, that the teacher assumes the role of designer, manager, and facilitator, is also important to COTS GBL for several reasons. It requires a shift in approach from instructivist to constructivist or constructionist learning environments. The mode of game-play is player centered and interactive; instructivist modes of learning are more teacher centered. The game and classroom modes must be aligned for COTS GBL to work without violating the endogenous fantasy principle. This NTeQ principle is aligned with this learner-centered approach to games. Second, whether the teacher is wearing the hat of both designer and instructor or whether those hats are worn by different people, it is critical that the distinction between the two be made. Too often, the teacher acts as designer with the knowledge that they will also be the instructor, which makes it possible to rely on their own problem-solving ability in the classroom to make design changes and modifications on-the-fly. But games are far more complex and allow for more learning autonomy than many instructors are prepared for, and because they address higherorder learning outcomes (when used properly), such adjustments are much harder to make. As a result, the design must happen in more detail up front than is sometimes assumed. So we have to be more mindful of this design process, and the NTeQ model emphasizes this. Premise 2. The student actively engages in the learning process, assumes the role of researcher, and becomes technologically competent.

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

The key to COTS GBL in this premise lies in the assertion that the student will be actively engaged in the learning process and assumes the role of the researcher. Games, through a variety of strategies and approaches such as problem-based learning, cognitive disequilibrium, scaffolding, and question asking (Van Eck, 2006a), require active engagement; one cannot play a game passively. Educational environments typically do not support active engagement on the part of the student in this sense, however; elementary students spend more than 90% of their time in independent seat work or whole-group instruction (Pianta, Belsky, Houts, Morrison, & NICHD, 2007). The engagement inherent in games must be extended to the classroom for any instructional activities, and the NTeQ model provides the scaffolding for generating student engagement. One of the ways it does this is by placing the student in the role of a researcher. In the NTeQ model, rather than processing information that has already been distilled down into verbal information and concepts (e.g., a textbook), the student must conduct research in order to solve problems (see Premise 4, below). This reflects the natural structure of most games as well. A goal is presented which requires the successful resolution of many challenges throughout the game. This structure then places the learner in the role of researcher; the learner must explore the environment and its challenges (gather information), devise strategies for solving the challenges (formulate hypotheses), and test and refine those hypotheses. This is the scientific method, and is at its heart what all research is. In the NTeQ model, the nature of the problem being solved determines the researcher’s role and the tools he or she uses. In the case of COTS GBL, this is determined by the problems encountered within the game rather than the “real world,” but is nonetheless an example of the same phenomenon. Accordingly, COTS GBL must adopt the same researcher perspective and problems from the game to the content and

learning outcomes addressed outside the game, in the classroom. Premise 3. The computer is used as a tool, as it is in the workplace, to enhance learning through the use of real-world data to solve problems. The connection between this premise of the model and COTS GBL is perhaps the least obvious. The essence of this premise is that we do not use technology for technology’s sake, but rather as a tool to solve problems the way we would in the real world and in different professions. Thus, an efficiency expert hired to improve productivity at a processing plant (an example of an NTeQtype problem) might use a spreadsheet to collect data and to look for patterns and trends relevant to the problem. The teacher then would require the students, in that role, to use a spreadsheet in a similar fashion. In the case of games, the problems and the roles and tools required to solve them help determine the roles and tools the designer then might require the learners to employ during classroom-based activities. So we have to pay attention to the roles that are or could be part of the game world, not the “real” world. The second idea worth considering is that there are many roles and problems that are consistent with a game, even when they are not ostensibly part of the game. A lawyer sent over to close a deal with a toy company in Europe (the premise of the award-winning game Syberia) may not have to do expense reports or write legal briefs as part of the game, yet that character might very well be expected to do that in “real” life. This makes the inclusion of technology tools and tasks for problem solving feasible in COTS GBL even when they are not part of the game. Premise 4. The lesson is student centered, problem based, and authentic, and technology is an integral component.



A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

All NTeQ lessons are problem based, just as all games are problem based. Problem-based learning (PBL) is an effective and engaging instructional modality, which is perhaps one reason that games are so effective at teaching and engaging (they are themselves examples of PBL). Some might suggest that when designing activities outside the game, it is enough to simply ask the learners to look up what is right and what is wrong (that is research, right?). But doing so substitutes rote work for problem solving, which is likely to undercut engagement if not learning, and in addition ignores the richness and complexity of real research, which is always done in solution of a problem. All NTeQ lesson problems are also authentic, meaning they center on actual problems faced by professionals in different domains that often require the integration of several strategies and tools (e.g., our efficiency expert from above would not only use a spreadsheet, but also write reports, do presentations, generate simulations, and interact with others). One need look no further than a math workbook for an example of non-authentic problems that do not engage learners (“Train A leaves Boston for Chicago going 45 mph. Train B leaves Chicago going 65 mph…”). While it may seem odd to suggest that problem solving in games is authentic, they are in the sense that they are authentic to the world (geographical, social, emotional) they are embedded in, just as problems set in the “real” world are authentic to this world. COTS GBL requires, therefore, that activities generated to address instructional gaps in a game must also be problem based (either new problems or extensions of game problems) and authentic to the game world, not the “real” world. In cases where the game world shares verisimilitude with the real world, this is a simple process. But even in cases where this is not true, the skills and strategies employed in games to solve problems are quite often the same as those used in the real



world, even if the problems themselves are of a fantastic nature. World of Warcraft requires you to take on identities of creatures like elves and dwarves to go off on quests as a group. Yet while the workplace is devoid of elves and dwarves, it is full of training sessions on how to appreciate diversity, negotiate goals and solve problems as a group, and establish leadership and communication skills, all of which are what MMOGs like World of Warcraft require. Problems can easily be generated to address these skills while still remaining “authentic” to the game world and the problems valued therein. Premise 5. The environment incorporates multiple resource-rich activities. One of the strengths of games is that they provide a wide variety of resources and modalities within the game. This includes, of course, media such as graphics, video, animation, sound, and text. But this also includes less obvious examples such as the social context of character conversations, the distributed nature of the necessary information (players must gather resources and information from multiple sources and locations), and the overall narrative (game story) generated by the interaction of player and game. What is key to this concept in the NTeQ model, in games, and in COTS GBL is the manner in which these resources are encountered and the role that they play in solving a problem. Both the NTeQ model and COTS GBL require the integration of many resources into the lesson, but mere presence is not sufficient. Resources must be required to solve the problem at the center of the lesson in an authentic way. It is critical to focus on the strategies and skills that are relevant to your learning outcomes rather than being sidetracked by the fantasy narrative context of the game (e.g., the World of Warcraft example earlier). This will ensure that you find ways to incorporate resources into the activities you

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

design to extend the game environment that are authentic to both the problems and context of the game you have chosen, and to the natural way in which such activities are organized by the problem at hand during game-play. Every activity should incorporate multiple resources authentic to the game and problem context, which are encountered by the learner in the same fashion as they are in the game, through the exploration, information gathering, and hypothesis testing required to solve the problem, despite their occurring outside the game (i.e., in the classroom).

Final Thoughts on COTS GBL and NteQ

such, it can be likened to endogenous fantasy; it is conceptually related (integral) to the learning process itself as a tool used in the solution of real-world problems. COTS GBL is technology integration, not use. If you think of the game as something you will have learners do in addition to learning in your classroom, you will have lost before you begin. In everything you do, you must strive to make the content, classroom activities, and game world seamless and integrated into a meaningful whole. This is not entirely possible of course, but it should guide your design from the start.

Problem-Based Learning

These premises are key to both the NTeQ model and COTS GBL. Keeping them in mind (and studying more about the NTeQ model) will help ensure that we adopt the right mindset for designing our own COTS GBL. Even so, experience has shown that there are a few concepts that get lost in the translation for many first-time COTS GBL designers. As we begin to shift from this theoretical discussion to a more practical discussion of how you can begin to design your own COTS GBL, here are some final thoughts on issues that many find difficult when starting out.

The best way to ensure you are integrating rather than using the game for learning is to focus on the solution of complex problems that address your outcomes. This ensures both that you are adhering to the dominant learning modality in games, and that activities inside and out of the game are conceptually related. A good problem will suggest tasks and projects necessary for its solution, which will in turn suggest technologies that are integral to those tasks and projects.

Integration vs. Use

As you design your problems, keep them authentic to both the game world and your learning outcomes. There is not always perfect alignment between the two, but compromises can almost always be found that address both. Authenticity to the game narrative should take priority whenever possible (and when it is not, you may be looking at a poor candidate game for COTS GBL).

There is a difference between integrating technology and using technology. Technology use is akin to exogenous fantasy; it is not conceptually related to the learning process or content. Using technology in the classroom means only that the teacher and/or students employ technology, most often as a tool to perform tasks related to assessment rather than problem solving (e.g., writing a research paper or book report). Integrating technology means that technology is used to support the learning process itself, most often in terms of authentic problem solving. As

Authentic Learning

Collaborative Learning Regardless of how you structure other learning activities in your classroom, COTS GBL usually requires that you have learners working together.



A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

Aside from reflecting the nature of practice in the real world and being an effective learning model in all grades and domains, collaboration places more responsibility for the learning process on the students. This ensures that you can spend more of your time facilitating learning (e.g., providing guidance, remediation, and enhancing transfer) rather than addressing technology and process problems that crop up. Students are able to solve a wide variety of such problems on their own if the learning is designed for groups rather than individuals.

Projects and Roles What you have students do and how you have them do it while solving problems is also important. Just as we spend a large part of our time in the world solving problems, we also work on projects that are related to those problems. You should design projects that are conceptually related to both the nature of the problem being solved and the outcomes for your instruction, rather than relying solely on discrete tasks in a piecemeal fashion. Just as importantly, those projects should be authentic to the problem and the game-space, and the learners should take on the roles and characters who would ostensibly be involved in those projects in the game and real world.

PART II: PUTTING THEORY INTO PRACTICE Theoretical frameworks and educational theory are a critical part of any endeavor to make use of new technologies to improve learning, including COTS GBL. But providing such theory without practical guidance as well is an intellectual exercise at best. Whether you use the NTeQ model to design your COTS GBL or simply rely on its premises to guide you through the process, the first part of this chapter should help ensure that you attend to the most critical aspects of COTS



GBL. The balance of this chapter will outline the design process from analysis through evaluation. While not a complete step-by-step template, this process is described in enough detail to scaffold the design of COTS GBL for any topic using any (appropriate) game. The NTeQ model itself is the subject of an entire textbook, so it is not possible to cover the development of NTeQ lesson plans and their many components while also describing the process as it relates to COTS GBL. However, the NTeQ model is quite well documented in text (Morrison & Lowther, 2005) and on the Web (www.nteq.com), and templates and example lesson plans for that model exist that can help you use this model in general. What follows are the areas that I have found are both critical and often overlooked or misapplied when applying the NTeQ model to game-based learning.

Know Your Audience Many people skip this step, assuming that they know their learners well enough to make decisions about the learning process. This is rarely true, but we get away with it because students are pretty resilient when it comes to poorly adapted instruction. With COTS GBL, the temptation is to assume that all learners, by virtue of being “digital natives,” are well versed in games and enjoy them all equally. Many are surprised to learn how many of their learners actually do not play games much or at all. This does not preclude the use of COTS GBL (after all, many of our students do not enjoy textbooks or reading, either), but it does have design implications. You should begin with a formal survey of your students to find out who plays games, what kinds of games they play and enjoy, how often they play them, and why they like them to begin with. The answers to these questions will determine things like which students will need more help learning to use a game (so you can create ability-based groups), and what kinds of games to

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

consider and what kind of activities to design (to reflect the things they like in games, even if the game chosen may not appeal to all equally). We found that boys and girls like adventure games, strategy games, and simulations equally, for instance, but that they like different things about them (Van Eck & AIM Lab at the University of Memphis, 2006).

Know Your Environment The place that your learning will take place is also important to analyze up front. Will your learners work during class in the classroom or in a computer lab, on their own in a computer lab or at home?4 Obviously, there are technology issues to be solved depending upon the answers to these questions. How will you ensure that they can pick up where they left off if they will play on different computers? (Saved game files can often be transferred, but who will do this?) Do the computers available have the requisite sound and video cards, and are the networks open for collaborative game-play if needed? Knowing your environment also includes knowing the culture and whether you are likely to encounter resistance (you probably are) on the part of students, parents, colleagues, and administrators. Following a process like the NTeQ model ensures that you have documentation about the standards, objectives, and outcomes addressed, but you should also be prepared to discuss (in a non-confrontational way) the rationale for your approach.

Finding a Game All this is, of course, before you even find a game to use, which is usually the first step people think of. Aside from looking for examples from others who have designed COTS GBL (e.g., http://idt. und.edu/gbl or http://brainmeld.org/), the best way I have found is to browse game titles at a local electronics store like Best Buy or online at Amazon.com. Both methods allow you to view

hundreds of games in a short amount of time. Walking the aisles of a computer game section is more convenient than browsing online, since you can pick the boxes up and read the materials quickly. Browsing online provides access to more titles and information about those titles in the form of links to other relevant games, editorial reviews, and customer ratings and opinions. These latter features provide a rich resource for learning more about the game, its strategies and content, and the quality of the game itself. Another good source of ideas for games that can be used for learning is CNN, or children, nieces, and nephews. Game players are the best source for finding out about new games and games that are popular, and they make a better resource than even online browsing since you can ask them in-depth questions about the game’s specific content and strategies. You can even get them to demonstrate the games for you, which not only lets you learn more about the games, but also speeds up the process since any game player will be better and faster at game-play than any non-gamer. So what are you looking for during this process? Obviously, titles are your first clue about whether a game might be applicable to your curriculum. Game titles like Civilization, 1701 A.D., and Zoo Tycoon all convey enough information about their content to make them candidates for further evaluation to teach history or biology. One of the reasons some suspect that COTS GBL has limited application to the classroom is that most game titles do not bear these kinds of obvious links to content. But the content is not always visible from the title and marketing material. While some might assume that Zoo Tycoon might have application for biology, zoology, and ecology from the title alone, many would be surprised to learn that some of the other primary content areas for this game are economics, business, marketing, and mathematics.5 That is because a game’s potential for teaching in different domains is not visible until one experiences the game (through research or playing it). Zoo Tycoon requires that



A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

one manage the business of the park, attending to outputs from a fairly sophisticated simulation of the zoo’s financial health. Factors like costs, customer satisfaction, and animal health are influenced by (and require adjustments from the player) the number of animals, cost of their appropriate habitats and food, the number of food stands, money spent on maintenance and sanitation, and the prices of admission and services. The skills required to adequately manage a zoo (or any business) far exceed the limited domains implied by the titles of such games, but this is not immediately visible to the casual browser. Another example may help make this point here. A physics or engineering faculty who dismisses Roller Coaster Tycoon (RTC) as unrelated to physics without researching it further will be missing one of the more significant potential aspects of the game. Roller coasters, in the real world, are built by engineers who must know a lot about physics and mathematics. While the game itself does not require this knowledge, it is reasonable (and authentic!) to expect that building roller coasters in the game world would be done by engineers using these skills, and thus be subjected to the same constraints as in the real world (e.g., safety inspections, design document and blueprints, computer simulations). This opens up RTC to teaching physics, mathematics, and engineering as well. And the same game can be used to teach these areas at different grade levels. Middle school and high school students might write simple reports and design documents about one part of a specific roller coaster using Newton’s laws and basic computations of energy, mass, and acceleration as project outcomes, while undergraduate and graduate students could generate detailed design specifications and reports that focus on higherlevel calculus, vectors, conceptual physics, and stress tolerances for an entire roller coaster, or even build simulations to test existing designs. Middle-schoolers might write reports (as zoo managers) about the financial health of the zoo

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or proposals(as exhibit designers) about a new animal acquisition and habitat, while graduate business majors write detailed analyses of the underlying economic model of the zoo simulation and predict its behavior if it were based on a different economic model. By focusing on the strategies required during game-play rather than just the surface content of the game, one finds that there are many games out there with the potential to teach a wide variety of topics at several grade levels.

Evaluating a Game Once you have chosen a game for your curriculum, you have to begin the real evaluation process. A good place to start is by reading reviews and ratings of the games on sites devoted to games. There are numerous sites that do this, but rather than rely on any one site, my approach is always to use Google to find those relevant to the game being evaluated. Typing “[game name] cheat, walkthrough, guide, FAQ” as keywords usually results in several relevant hits, and you can generally find reviews one link or less removed from the pages generated. In particular, the walkthroughs, which are documents written by game players to literally walk you through the game solution from start to finish, are invaluable. First, they let you experience nearly the full scope of the game in a matter of a couple hours. This often tells you all you need to know about whether the game has potential or not. Second, if reading them convinces you that the game has potential, they can be used to get yourself through the game very quickly. This is important because some games take experienced players 50 hours to complete. You do not have that kind of time to spend for the purpose of evaluation, yet you do have to play through the full game for reasons outlined earlier. Before you do so, however, there are a couple of things you will need to do up front, some of which you will revisit later when preparing for

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

implementation. First, many games are released with bugs that require patches (software programs that repair the problems). These can be found at the game company’s Web site, which is a good place to go prior to loading and playing the game yourself. In addition, many of the software programs, operating systems, and hardware drivers on your particular platform will have changed between the time the game was released and the time you install it. Once again, there may be several updates and fixes for these to install on your machine. You want to get your machine and software up to date before beginning play, both so that you do not run into problems later that cannot be fixed without reinstalling the game (and losing your progress to date) and so that you are aware of what it will take to do this on the machines your learners will be using. Next, before you get too far into your game, you will want to test out how the saved games work and whether you can transfer them to other computers. This is because you may find during your evaluation of the game that your learners will have to play through significant portions of the game in order for them to acquire the information and context necessary for your learning outcomes. This is desirable, of course, both for maximizing engagement and learning, and for offsetting the amount of effort and planning that goes into successful COTS GBL. In some cases, however, the time required may not be justified or possible, given the constraints of the environment. In extreme cases where the learning outcomes are not a large enough part of the curriculum to justify the time spent, you should reconsider the use of this game (or perhaps any game at all). However, you may be able to “bridge” between the portions of the game that are relevant to your lesson. This can be done by saving the game at strategic points and having students play only the portions that are relevant. Many games generate separate files each time you save a game, and rely on these to track where the player was when it was last saved. Copying these files to other machines

(in the same location and without changing their names) often allows you to load those games on the new machine so that your learners have access to them as well. To find out if and how this is possible with your game, you should save a game and, if the game allows you, name the saved game (some do not) and keep track of the name. Once you have saved the game, do a search of your computer for the title you gave it. If the game does not allow named files or if you are not able to locate the file, try searching for files by time and date, and look for files created close to the time you saved the game (remember to use your computer clock in case it is not set correctly). You can also look inside the game program folder (under Program Files on Windows, or under Applications on Macintosh) and watch for any new files that show up after you save a game. Once you find these files, you should test them to see if copying them to the same location on another computer allows that game to be loaded (in my experience, this is possible more than 50% of the time). Try doing so on one of the typical machines you think you will run the game on. Knowing whether and how this is possible not only helps you determine if the game will be useful for your lesson, but also prepares you for the implementation phase, which will require you to do the game loading and patching prior to beginning the lesson.

Design the Lesson Because commercial games were not designed to teach content, none will be sufficient on its own as a teaching tool. As the designer, you will need to identify where there are gaps and inaccuracies in the game content, and where the strategies the game supports for solving the challenges do not align with your learning outcomes (e.g., trial and error vs. reasoned thinking) or may lead to misconceptions or an incomplete picture of the content and skills. These are the places where you



A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

will need to design extension activities to extend the learning. Your goal here is not to provide “the answers” for these things, but to create learning activities that support the learner as they generate the knowledge necessary. As you do so, you should think in terms of designing problems, roles, and projects that are authentic to the game environment and which serve your learning outcomes as described earlier. These activities should extend the game world in such as way as to minimize the differences between the game and classroom activities. So while it is possible to generate a problem that addresses the gaps in the learning outcomes supported by the game, doing so will not produce the desired results unless we: (1) tie the problem to the problems in the game, (2) tie the roles of the learners to the roles in the game and to the people who would be involved in solving such problems, and (3) tie those roles to the kind of project that such people would work on in order to solve those problems. So when designing these activities, think more in terms of problems and projects like generating legal briefs, expense reports, diaries, and feasibility studies than in terms of a research paper or workbook addressing the same content. Likewise, you should avoid thinking in terms of one problem or one activity, instead designing periods of extended game-play interspersed by short projects over a longer period of time (days at least, and even weeks depending on the scope of your lesson). This keeps the game in the forefront and your learners engaged as much as possible. No learners are going to find these activities as engaging as the game, but their willingness to work within them will be higher to the extent that you achieve a good balance and keep those problems and activities authentic to the game. Consider also that it is possible to use a game as an orientation activity prior to or during study of new material, as a means of practicing or assessing prior knowledge, or as a hybrid of both. In the first case, the game establishes relevance, context, and interest in the material; in the second



case, the game provides practice and feedback; in the third case, the game and the activities serve as an anchoring environment that encapsulates the full learning cycle, which is ideal. If you determine that you need to use saved games to ensure that all learners get through the game at the same pace and/or to help bridge the game-play between important sections of the game, you will also want to be cognizant of these saved games during the design process and specify where and when to load each game. Because this process of stopping game-play and loading a new game at key points in the lesson interrupts the game narrative, you should generate textual descriptions (in the form of a journal or diary of the main characters to preserve authenticity) of what occurs during the game portions students do not play. Some learners may elect to play the game outside of class rather than read these sections, and in fact this is no different than homework and reading assignments we give students all the time. But for those who are not able to complete that process, the diaries will assure that everyone has the same information needed to proceed with the game and instruction. A final note about documentation during the lesson design process: Remember that you are designing not just the instructional materials and activities, but also all the documentation that will be needed by the learners. This means instructions for installing patches, getting help, loading saved games (and when and where to do so), FAQs, tips and tricks, shortcuts, and a whole variety of handouts that help scaffold the instructional process. Failing to do so means you will spend significant amounts of time in and out of class addressing these issues on a case-by-case basis, which is not the best role for COTS GBL or any other kind of instruction. Your role in the NTeQ model and COTS GBL is learning facilitator, not technician. These kinds of documents are not tied to the game contextthey are simply help documents. But the other documents you generate as part of the instructional materials should be tied

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

to the game context. This can be done by doing things like generating letterhead for companies within the game world (even if these are fictional and not part of the game itself) and creating false e-mail accounts and/or printouts of e-mail messages and faxes as a means of communicating additional tasks and information about the instructional activities that extend the game. These little touches go a long way toward preserving the spirit of the game within your instruction.

Preparing for Implementation Once you have designed your lesson (game and learner analysis, number of class sessions, objectives, standards, activities, assessments), there are several steps necessary for successful implementation as well, some of which you will have encountered during the evaluation process. You will need to test the platforms your learners will use to see what patches and updates need to be installed, just as you did for your machine when evaluating the gameremember that something as minor as your learner systems having a different video card or version of QuickTime or DirectX can mean the difference between a game that works and one that will not start. You do not want to encounter these problems during the instruction, so you will need to check each computer to make sure it is ready to go up front. And do not assume in a lab of computers that all have the same versions of software and hardwareequipment manufacturers use “equivalent” hardware and software within single orders of equipment, resulting in different video cards, drivers, and even OS versions. Finally, if your learners will be using the game outside of the environment you have control over, you will need to provide documentation about what the minimum requirements are, how to check for them, and a disk of relevant updates and patches (if possible) for them to use. Of course, you can require them to solve these issues as well if technology literacy is one of your goals, but this

can significantly impact the timeframe for your lesson, so choose carefully. Once you have updated all of the software needed for the game to run successfully, you will want to copy over any saved game files necessary for game-play so that each installation has access to the relevant game files.

Evaluate the Lesson This form of instruction, more than any other, requires that you collect evaluation data. This is critical both for revision of the lesson (which rarely works perfectly the first, or even second or third time), but also for documenting the benefits of the approach. Evaluation outcomes should, of course, include assessment of learning. But remember that much of the value in COTS GBL lies in addressing higher-order learning outcomes, so do not simply use measures of verbal information and concepts for assessing your content learning outcomes. Also use things like measures of problem solving, fluency in the domain, retention over time (i.e., not just immediate recall), and automaticity (speed of access to relevant knowledge). Having this data on hand is helpful not only for making the case for COTS GBL to our administrators and colleagues, but also to our students, many of whom surprisingly are suspicious that they are not learning when playing a game. Finally, you should also include other measures: attitude toward the content area, interest in pursuing careers in the field of study, differences by different demographic categories, and ability to transfer knowledge to other situations are all good candidates for COTS GBL outcomes. As you implement the lesson, keep a notebook handy to jot down ideas about things that worked well or did not, about unanticipated outcomes (good and bad), and about ideas for revision of the lesson later. It is tempting to think you will remember all of these things the next time, but COTS GBL is a rich, complex process, and your chances of recalling any of these things later are



A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

very low if you do not take good notes along the way. Once you have collected this data, do not keep it all to yourself! Share your lesson and results with your peers and supervisors, and make your lesson materials available (with copyright retention, of course) to others. You will benefit from the feedback you get from others who implement and extend your lesson, and we will all benefit from more good examples of COTS GBL when designing our own lessons.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE TRENDS Certainly, it is possible to use games without going through every aspect of the process detailed here, but results will be less than optimal. Given that COTS GBL is extremely time intensive (just the game-play and support issues, even if not for the design implied by the process I have outlined here), and given the political climate toward games in the classroom, I am not sure many of us can afford ineffective implementations of COTS GBL. Part I of this chapter described how some theories (situated learning and cognition, intrinsic motivation) and instructional elements (objectives and assessment) are related to both commercial games and to the design of COTS GBL. It also examined how an empirically based model for developing effective technology integration lessons that incorporate authentic learning, collaboration, and problem-based learning is both effective and compatible with these theories and elements as they relate to learning in games and in COTS GBL. The future certainly holds great promise for effective, engaging games that are designed to support specific learning goals and outcomes. As design tools and theory progress (hand in hand, I hope), it will become easier to develop such games from the ground up and we will begin to see an abundance of such games. Part II extended this discussion to the practice



COTS GBL using the NTeQ model, including analysis, design, development, and evaluation. The ideas in Part I were applied to each of these phases according to the unique characteristics of COTS GBL and the areas that are most commonly overlooked or misunderstood. Progress in GBL theory and practice will proceed independently for the most part in the next few years, but will need to become more interdependent and informed by each other. Neither can truly succeed in the long term without the other. I expect to see research in several areas, which are described in much more detail elsewhere (Van Eck, 2006a, 2007). It is all well and good to describe some of the theories and principles that operate in games (as I have done here), and this is indeed sufficient for the design of COTS GBL. But this piecemeal approach will eventually need to be replaced by integrated models of gamebased learning. Models that define interactivity and engagement through game design features as well as cognitive elements such as cognitive load, cognitive disequilibrium, and the scientific method to problem solving, for example, will be key to game-based learning of all kinds. Understanding how different game ontologies and genres (e.g., adventure, arcade, simulation, jeopardy-style frame games) support different learning outcomes (e.g., problem solving, verbal information) will require significant research. We might also expect to see a synergy between game technology such as MMOGs and persistent worlds, other instructional modalities such as pedagogical agents, intelligent tutoring systems, and authoring tools, and models of learning that focus on social networking and distributed cognition and knowledge such as connectivism. And studies of individual differences, cognitive load, cultural differences in play and game design will all need to be conducted in order for us to truly understand the theories that underlie this new art/medium/tool. Ultimately, this may all lead to a new perspective on learning and educa-

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

tion that may put the emphasis back (finally) on experiential learning that is situated, authentic, and interactive as it was before the onset of the industrial revolution and the emphasis on decontextualized, mass production of learners. In terms of practice of both COTS GBL and DGBL in general, I see several trends that are likely to continue over the next three to five years. The serious games movement is, indeed, quite serious, and there are now hundreds of good examples of serious games (games designed for purposes other than pure entertainment). These will not only become a good resource for use in our classrooms, but will also expose us all to a variety of approaches and ideas that will certainly help us design better COTS GBL as well. It will be critical to disseminate research and practice around the design of COTS GBL. Databases of lesson plans that are vetted and revised according to their application with different populations, ages, and content areas could be very helpful in this regard, especially if they also include performance and evaluative data. Professional development around this area is and will remain important as well, with perhaps development days as well as tracks at conferences devoted to this. Infrastructure and support will be key in making this happen as well. Right now, only those innovators and early adopters will take the time to develop COTS GBL effectivelywe will need support tools like authoring tools for lesson plans that scaffold the development of COTS GBL lesson plans specifically, and perhaps even instructional designers and curriculum specialists who understand these processes and can work with teachers to help develop COTS GBL. This model already exists in the form of technology partners and facilitators in the schools, and it is likely to evolve naturally as more and more technology facilitators and teachers are exposed to the theory and practice of GBL in pre-service and graduate school programs. Other issues such as lab structure, school policies, and funding streams and educational licensing assistance for games to be

used in the classroom are also needed (see Van Eck, 2006b, for more on these issues). As we build this body of DGBL (serious games, student game design, and COTS GBL), we will see more acceptance of games in the curriculum as well. This, in turn, will add to the growing recognition on the part of the game industry that education is a viable market worth exploring, and I believe developers will begin to make more concessions to learning outcomes in the design of their games. This is not to say they will begin developing educational titles (at least not right away), but I do believe that they will consider allowing educators access to games during design so that, where doing so does not require sacrificing game-play, the veracity of game content and the alignment of game and learning outcome strategies can be improved. Educators could easily co-develop lesson plans and activities that extend the game (and perhaps influence in small ways the design of the games accordingly) that could then be released with the launch of the game so educators would have a running start at using these games in the classroom. Game developers have sophisticated tracking models for player behavior in their games so that they can evaluate their games prior to release (this is what beta versions are for, after all). The trails learners take through games (see Loh, 2006, for more on this idea) can be rich sources of data for assessment, and it would take little for game developers to make these available, even with modifications to reflect particular assessment needs. I also see the field of serious games moving toward the development of what I call intelligent learning games (ILGs)games that incorporate existing artificial intelligence technologies like intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs) to bring content and learning into games in a powerful and scalable way (Van Eck, 2006a). Such games will leverage the power of games and these tutoring systems (which have been found to be nearly as effective as human tutors) to help solve the



A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

content integration problem we face in serious game development. Similarly, both as an outgrowth of ILGs and in recognition of the need to be able to adapt other games to different learners and domains, I see the development of authoring tools as a significant likelihood for serious games and commercial games. Currently, any game-based learning works for only the learners and domain for which it was designed. If we want to extend the use of such games to other domains and learners, we must redesign the lesson or build a new game. Authoring toolsexpert systems that serve as an interface between subject matter experts, and sophisticated technologies (like ITSs) so that new content can be generated by anyone with expertise in the domainwill address this problem. In this manner, we can create tools that allow teachers to generate new learning quickly and easily, as has already been done for ITSs (e.g., Susarla, Adcock, Van Eck, Moreno, & Graesser, 2003; Susarla, Adcock, Van Eck, & Moreno, 2003; Van Eck, Adcock, Susarla, & the TRG at Memphis, 2005). While we are waiting for all these advancements, however, COTS GBL remains one of the most accessible and effective means of integrating games into the classroom, and this chapter has provided the means for you to get started with COTS GBL in your classroom.

Bransford, J., Sherwood, R., Vye, N., & Rieser, J. (1986). Teaching thinking and problem solving. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1078-1089.

REFERENCES

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

Anderson, J.R. (1995). Cognitive psychology and its implications (4th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. Bransford, J.D., Franks, J.J., Vye, N.J., & Sherwood, R.D. (1989). New approaches to instruction: Because wisdom can’t be told. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortany (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 470-497). New York: Cambridge University Press.



Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42. Choi, J.I. (1995). The effects of contextualization and complexity of situation on mathematics problem-solving and attitudes (Doctoral Dissertation, Florida State University, USA). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(10), 3884A (UMI Microform No. 9605031). Choi, J.I., & Hannafin, M. (1995). Situated cognition and learning environments: Roles, structures, and implications for design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 43(2), 53-69. Cohen, R., & Siegel, A.W. (1991). A context for context: Toward an analysis of context and development. In R. Cohen & A.W. Siegel (Eds.), Context and development (pp. 3-23). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Gick, M.L., & Holyoak, K.J. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psychology, 12, 306-355. Graesser, A.C., & Magliano, J.P. (1991). Context and cognition. In R. Cohen & A.W. Siegel (Eds.), Context and development (pp. 57-76). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Loh, S. (2006). Designing online games assessment as “information trails.” In D. Gibson, C. Aldrich, & M. Prensky (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning research & development frameworks. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Malone, T.W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 4, 333-369.

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

Malone, T.W., & Lepper, M.R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R.E. Snow & M.J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning and instruction: III. Conative and affective process analyses (pp. 223-253). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Meacham, J.A., & Emont, N.C. (1989). The interpersonal basis of everyday problem solving. In J.D. Sinott (Ed.), Everyday problem solving: Theory and application (pp. 7-23). New York: Praeger. Morrison, G., & Lowther, D. (2005). Integrating computer technology into the classroom. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. NESTA FutureLab. (2006). Close to 60% of UK teachers want computer games in the classroom. Retrieved July 13, 2006, from http://www.nestafuturelab.org/about_us/press_releases/pr11.htm Osgood, C.E. (1949). The similarity paradox in human learning: A resolution. Psychological Review, 56, 132-143. Perkins, D.N., & Salomon, G. (1989). Are cognitive skills context-bound? Educational Researcher, 18(1), 16-25. Pianta, R.C., Belsky, J., Houts, R., Morrison, F., & NICHD (Early Child Care Research Network). (2007). Opportunities to learn in America’s elementary classrooms. Science, (March 30), 1795-1796. Rieber, L.P. (1996). Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44(2), 43-58. Rogoff, B., & Gardner, W. (1984). Adult guidance of cognitive development. In B. Rogoff & J. Lave (Eds.), Everyday cognition: Its development in social context (pp. 95-116). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Williamson Shaffer, D. (2006). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Susarla, S.C., Adcock, A.B., Van Eck, R.N. & Moreno, K.N. (2003, November). Authoring for AutoTutor: Adding a new dimension to an intelligent tutoring system. Proceedings of the 2003 World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government & Higher Education, Phoenix, AZ. Susarla, S., Adcock, A., Van Eck, R., Moreno, K., & Graesser, A.C. (2003). Development and evaluation of a lesson authoring tool for AutoTutor. In V. Aleven, U. Hoppe, J. Kay, R. Mizoguchi, H. Pain, F. Verdejo, & K. Yacef (Eds.), AIED2003 Supplemental Proceedings (pp. 378-387). Sydney, Australia: University of Sydney School of Information Technologies. Van Eck, R. (September, 2006a). Building intelligent learning games. In D. Gibson, C. Aldrich, & M. Prensky (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning research & development frameworks. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Van Eck, R. (2006b). Digital game-based learning: It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. EDUCAUSE Review, 41(2). Van Eck, R. (2007). Six ideas in search of a discipline. In M. Spector, N. Seel, & K. Morgan (Eds.), The educational design and use of computer simulation games. Van Eck, R., & AIM Lab at the University of Memphis. (2006). Using games to promote girls’ positive attitudes toward technology. Innovate Journal, 2(3). Van Eck, R., Adcock, A., Susarla, S., & the TRG at Memphis. (2005, March 11-13). Embedded design: How authoring tools can ensure that instructional design is present when we can’t be there. Proceedings of the Southeastern Conference in Instructional Design & Technology: Challenges of eLearning & IDT, Mobile, AL. 

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

KEY TERMS Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS): Refers to commercially available digital (computer or console) games that are designed for entertainment rather than educational purposes. Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL): Refers to any form of use or integration of game into a learning environment in which the game plays a central role and is itself a digital (computer or console) game. May refer to serious games, curriculum in which the students design their own game, or COTS GBL. Edutainment: A popular term from the 1980s derived from the merging of the words “education” and “entertainment.” Generally refers to computer or console software titles that are designed to teach content and which incorporate game-like features. More like tutorials than games, per se. Game-Based Learning (GBL): Refers to any learning environments or activities in which a game plays a central role. May refer to all forms of games, but most commonly paired with the word “digital,” as in digital game-based learning, first coined by Marc Prensky in 2000 in his book by the same title. Intrinsic Motivation: As it relates specifically to games, this theory was first proposed by Thomas Malone, and later extended by Thomas Malone and Mark Lepper in 1987. In general, intrinsic motivation is motivation that stems from internal events such as goals or affective responses rather than from external events such as rewards. In regards to games, there are four factors: challenge, curiosity, control, and fantasy. In particular, the concept of endogenous (internal, tightly integrated content and narrative/game contexts) vs. exogenous (external, disconnected content and narrative/game contexts) fantasy is key to developing instructional materials to support GBL.



NTeQ Model: A technology integration model (see below) that is problem based, student centered, authentic, collaborative, and in which students take on authentic roles and use technology in authentic ways to solve real-word problems as professionals in different disciplines. Problem-Based Learning: Learning environments and activities that place a problem at the center of the process. Learners adopt the roles of researchers and often work collaboratively to solve problems. In most cases, the problems are authentic, that is, they reflect real problems faced in the world by different professions, and require the same kinds of solution strategies. Problems serve to “anchor” learning within the problemsolving process rather than serving as assessment activities at the end of more traditional, didactic, instructivist learning. Serious Games: Games designed for purposes other than entertainment, according to Serious Games founder Ben Sawyer (personal communication, Serious Games ListServ). Distinguished from COTS because these are not purely for entertainment, and from edutainment because the learning is much more tightly integrated with the game environments than traditional edutainment titles. Situated Learning and Cognition: This theory arises out of a movement in cognitive studies in the 1970s that began to study human cognition in the contexts in which they naturally occur (Cohen & Siegel, 1991; Graesser & Magliano, 1991; Meacham & Emont, 1989). Research has shown that knowledge and transfer are strongly tied to context and domain (e.g., Bransford et al., 1986, 1989; Brown et al., 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Perkins & Salomon, 1989) and that learning is effective to the degree that it is embedded in a meaningful context (e.g., Choi, 1995; Choi & Hannafin, 1995).

A Guide to Integrating COTS Games into Your Classroom

Technology Integration: The process by which technology serves to support learning, rather than as a tool for creating or dissemination materials; distinguished from technology use, which would include things like using Word to write a research paper. Generally reflects problem-based learning in collaborative, authentic learning environments.

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ENDNOTES 1

2

Surprisingly to many, teachers are not among this group. A survey of educators in the UK found that nearly 60% of teachers were willing to consider the use of games in the classroom (NESTA FutureLab, 2006). COTS games, as I will be using the term here, are generally defined as games that are commercially available and intended for purely entertainment purposes. As such, they are distinct from titles such as those

4

5

described earlier from Leapster and The Learning Company, which are more typically referred to as educational software or “edutainment.” Many games do include the equivalent of pre- and post-tests in the form of a tutorial one must complete in the beginning of the game to establish the basic skills needed to interact throughout the rest of the game, and in the form of level challenges where the player must beat the “boss” (a kind of super-bad guy) before moving on in the game. I am assuming that computers are the most likely platform since most schools have them, but you should consider console games as possibilities. In particular, the Nintendo DS Lite and Sony PSP are portable, relatively inexpensive, and have WiFi browsing, communication, and game-sharing capabilities. In fact, these are staples of nearly every “Tycoon” game.



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Chapter XII

Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play Shree Durga University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA Kurt Squire University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA

AbstrAct This chapter examines the potential of video games as a learning tool given their productive capacity for content creation and dissemination. Based on the findings from a longitudinal, twoyear design-based research study investigating the potential of learning communities constructed around using Civilization III (a turn-based historical simulation-strategy game), the chapter argues that historical model construction is a compelling way to mediate one’s understandings about history. Participants in this game- based learning program developed new identities as producers as well as consumers of historical simulations. Two distinct trajectories of expertise were found to be emerging: one that developed around expert, systemic gaming (orienting toward the experience as a game system), and another that we call historical gaming, orienting to the game experience as a form of “replaying history.” Both forms have value, emphasizing different aspects of the game system. We believe that a community tying these two forms of gaming together (and other ones, as they emerge) is key for building robust learning environments. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

INtrODUctION Recent years have witnessed unforeseen leaps in technology, which many have argued are ushering in a new media paradigm (Galarneau, 2005). Video games are an excellent site to examine in order to understand this new medium, because games are natively digital. Video games are emblematic of the current popular culture we live in that has a distinctive zeitgeist. Examining games, we see three overriding themes that demarcate the modern media landscape: 1.

2.

3.

Video games are built around logic of simulation: One that is about possible worlds, rather than inspiring oratory, coherent linear arguments, or purely visual imagery. Games are worlds we explore, and learn within, through interaction and performance. Video games are participatory: Players have the opportunity to shape the medium itself through: (a) production within game worlds (many of which are filmed and published on the Internet), (b) production with game tools (such as modding), and (c) gaining membership in affinity groups, such as gaming clans, guilds, clubs, and so on, to support one’s gaming. Video games provide an aesthetic experience: Video games offer us opportunities to do new things and take on identities that are unavailable in the real world. As Galarneau (2005) writes, their potential impact in education may be best thought of as producing transformative experience.

A mature theory of game-based learning, we argue, will take into account the underlying principles by which they work as learning environments “naturalistically,” or “in the wild,” to borrow Hutchins’ (1995) term. Modern video games, with their myriad of toolkits for modding and interface editing, have increasingly evolved from being

compelling mediums that merely engage users passively, into spaces (and communities) that empower users to willfully create and disseminate content (Jenkins & Squire 2003; Steinkuehler & Johnson, this volume). As such, video games are not only a pervasive popular culture media, but also form some of the central discourses around 21st century pedagogical practices and what it means to teach or learn in a globalized future. The growing body of literature around video games and learning suggests that games are powerful models for teaching and can potentially affect how people can and ought to learn in the ever-changing landscape of knowledge (Shaffer & Gee, 2006). A key challenge that remains for educators is how to produce pedagogical models that leverage the strengths of the medium, yet meet educationally valued goals. Restated, we know that players learn through participation in MMOs such as World of Warcraft (Steinkuehler, 2005, Nardi, Ly, & Harris, forthcoming; Galarneau & Zibit 2006), and that educational interventions that use game technologies (such as networked 3D worlds) can be effective. But how might we harness the simulation, participatory, and aesthetic dimensions of games for intentional learning? This chapter will examine the potential of video games as a learning tool given their productive capacity for content creation and dissemination. Using the Civilization III game engine (a turnbased historical simulation-strategy game), we explore whether a group of disadvantaged kids playing a series of historically themed scenarios can become the kind of “producers” of media and knowledge described by Squire and Giovanetto (in press). We seek to build on the participatory nature of gaming communities (most often virtual) which function for many players as “third spaces”spaces that emerge out of coherent and shared history of information and tend to perpetuate game practices beyond virtual game worlds and foster social interactions beyond homes and workplaces (Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006). As of this writing, our community is primarily face

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Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

to face, although we are exploring ways to extend the community into virtual spaces as well.

SIMULATION IN WORLD HISTORY When it comes to history teaching in schools, there has remained a persistent tradition to present history as a body of facts about people and events in the past extracted and isolated from the larger contexts in which they existed, laying importance on getting the right facts from textbooks rather than how and why they should care about these facts. Research on how students learn history through reading textbooks reveals some of the limitations of this approach. For example, Beck, McKeown, and Gromoll (1989) found that students lacked sufficient background understanding to make much sense of text as presented in textbooks, and as a result produced (sometimes fascinating) hybridized historical interpretations, such as 17th century colonists arriving to the Americas on ocean liners. Students lack situated experience of historical events and eras to draw any meaningful interpretation of the past. The challenges for world history educators are even greater. World history, the study of global cultures and civilizations, seeks to capture and communicate over 6,000 years of recorded human history, across all six inhabited continents. Whereas much of history has been organized around political units, world history is organized around natural resources (such as salt), social institutions (such as slavery), or historical questions (such as, Why have major civilizations collapsed?). Teaching world history to students is no small task, particularly when a majority of students fail even to correctly place major civilizations on a map. Dunn (1996) argues that in order to avoid this “names and dates” problem, educators might seek to teach “patterns of change,” broad historical patterns and trends that can be used as frameworks for understanding human history.

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Historical simulations are one way to provide students a framework to think about history that stresses not facts, but how historical forces operate and interact (Staley, 2003). Simulations and models simplify the infinitely complex past into a form that enables students to make insights into basic relationships. Simulations offer useful simplifications of complex situations and are often “imperfect replica” of the real. Learning through modeling is an iterative process of modeling the past, drawing inferences based on them, comparing them to the historical record, and modifying the model as necessary. This iterative cycle of abduction shares very little with how history is normally taught in schools, but shares quite a bit with how players learn through video games. Learning through video game-based simulations and virtual modeling destabilizes traditional categories and relations. Because video games enable us to learn through having agency within a system, they demand us to shift perspectives in approaching history, enabling designers to make historiographic choices about how systems are represented, and what sorts of alternate hypotheses and interpretations of the past are made available (Staley, 2003). This pedagogical approach decenters the standard text (or teachers’ notes) from the center of the knowledge network, and places students’ questions, hypotheses, and fantasies at the center. From a model-based learning environment perspective, learning entails more than mastering one long narrative of facts; learning is about developing the ability to ask good questions, draw inferences from the model, identify points in the model that can or need to be modified, and then marshal resources to refine the model. From a socially situated perspective, the goal here is not to learn “all there is to know about one true model,” or even to “develop one true model,” but rather to engage in modeling practices within a knowledge-building community where knowledge is contested, constructed, and defended.

Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

Modding with Civ3 The commercial computer game Civilization III (or Civ3) is an interesting artifact by which one can begin testing these ideas. In Civ3, players lead a civilization (the standard game goes from 4000 B.C. to the present), making choices about how to use land resources (such as where to build cities), where to invest resources (such as in “guns vs. butter”), what kinds of infrastructure to build, and how to manage one’s military. Unlike many strategy games, which are generally just about identifying resources and then building war units, Civ3 does reasonably good (albeit simplified) approximations of economic systems, political systems, domestic systems, and military systems. The game can be won through diplomatic, scientific, cultural, or military means. Although the game is (obviously) a simplification of reality, the model does contain tens of thousands of variables and takes months, if not years to master. Civilization comes with an editing toolkit, CivEdit, that allows players to create historical scenarios. Through the editing toolkit, players can modify game rules or define new ones that can simulate specific historical events or patterns in the past. Typically, a game in Civilization III starts with an equitable distribution of power among civilizationsmeaning different attributes (such as militaristic, commercial, industrious, expansionist, religious, or scientific) of a civilization make it strong or weak in its own way. A scenario in Civilization III is a depiction of events or an era (that can either as hypothetical or historically accurate as one wishes it to be), spanning over the scale of time. For example, using the game toolkit, players may create a scenario for growth or decline of the Roman civilization, or a scenario depicting European conquests in South Africa. Players can modify almost every attribute of the game, such as a civilization’s economic growth, population growth, cost of building new infrastructure, cultural expansion, and so on. Thus, the concept of a strong or weak civilization is

not an in-built feature in the game, but viewed as a consequence that emerges from manipulating certain variables and conditions, such as cost of wonders or pace of technological research that affect different attributes of a civilization. In other words, simulating historical patterns or events is about choosing the relevant variables to manipulate, hypothesizing about effects of manipulating each rule and describing (or setting) them in CivEditin a nutshell, speaking the language of CivEdit to control the behavior of a scenario in Civ3. Past research on Civ3, conducted mostly in school contexts, has emphasized, when used in the context of classroom, that playing Civ3 can lead to game practices that foster systemic model-based understandings about history (Squire, 2003, 2004). Not only do players learn specific terminology (names, places, and dates), but they also develop understanding about how the model itself works as a means for representing history. Some players turned the game into a colonial simulation tool, using it as a context for asking under what conditions might have Native Americans held European colonists. Others were interested in playing as Egypt, and seeing if they could fend off the Greeks, Persians, and Romans. Still others played competitively, seeking to play the civilization most advantageous for world domination, given their play style (some prefer cultural expansion, as opposed to military expansion, for example). Most obviously, social studies became a meaningful subject for students, as the game invited their participation into manipulating history as a system. More advanced players developed models to think about history with, and used it as a tool for thinking through contemporary issues. Open-ended games such as Civilization III provide rich contexts for learning through recruiting players’ identities, providing a context for creative expression, and supporting the development of collective intelligence (Gee, 2004; Steinkuehler, 2005); however, bringing games into classrooms and settings poses structural and pedagogical

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Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

challenges, especially in terms of managing instructional time, integrating learning activities into the curriculum, and covering state-mandated content. Games’ complexity can at times lead to frustration and resistance among kids in the process of appropriation (Squire & Barab, 2004). Studies of learning outside of school contexts emphasize the importance of novice-expert collaborations in joint problem-solving activity as a means of managing this complexity. Steinkuehler (2006) shows how advanced players make many of the same instructional moves as advanced teacher-mentors (regardless of age): they identify salient parts of a problem situation, model expert practice, provide just-in-time feedback, gradually shift control to learners, and transmit particular values or ways of seeing the world to novices. Such examples suggest that games can be an effective medium for learning, but are hard pressed to leverage many of the instructional affordances of the medium within classroom contexts (Squire, 2004; Squire & Barab, 2004). Might after-school programs be created around alternative value systems, leveraging aspects of gamer discourse in order to enable players to develop productive identities as historical simulation game players? Can these practices result in both “traditional” academic learning (names, places, and dates), as well as the productive knowledge-generation skills indigenous to game communities and increasingly valued by educators (see 21st Century Thinking Skills, n.d.)? What might the pay-off of these activities be for participation in other settings?

Connecting Indigenous and Designed Gaming Practices This chapter is part of a longitudinal, two-year design-based research study investigating the potential of learning communities constructed around Civ3 to help disadvantaged students develop new identities as producers as well a consumers of historical simulation games. It seeks to design a game-based learning environment that,

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from a physical and organizational standpoint, can function as a third space for learning outside of the school (Squire, DeVane, & Durga, in press). It then seeks to understand what learning occurs, and identity trajectories of learning as a result. First, it seeks to unpack the practice of historical modding with Civ3 by interviewing expert Civ3 modders to understand how they use the tool for historical modding, what skills go into successfully creating a Civ3 mod, and to better elucidate the relationship between game-play and game production in expert players. Next, the chapter turns to World Civilizations, an after-school club designed for the explicit purpose of helping disadvantaged students develop identities (knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs, and value systems) as world history gamers.

Expert Use of Civilization III for Creating Historical Simulations Although the existence of gamers using Civ3 as a modding tool has been noted and even supported by the developers of Civilization (Soren Johnson, lead designer of Civ IV has an academic background in historical simulations), there has been no academic study of this practice. Historical game simulation, while presumably similar to historical simulation creation, adds the wrinkle of designing scenarios that are interesting as gameshistorical situations that illuminate historical forces and issues, lead to interesting sets of decisions, and enable players to experience salient aspects of historical eras. To date, no research has been conducted on what kinds of cognitive work go into historical game production, how this unique practice emerges in players, nor its potential as a model for expert game-play/production tied to academically valued practices. To begin answering these questions, we studied expert Civ3 mod developers (Squire et al., in press). Specifically, we observed as they built mods, conducted think-aloud studies while they edited mods, interviewed them about their

Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

practice, and analyzed historical scenarios they created. Findings from this study suggested that the language recruited by Civ3 mod creation recruits specific forms of thinking about factual knowledge in history that might be more meaningful than mere memorization of facts. Players used game mechanics and language, such as the role of military alliances, building city improvements or great wonders, gaining power through conquests or through cultural invasion as tools for thinking through historical events. Within the context of modding, these tools deeply remediated their experience and analysis of history. Implications to history teaching is that it ought to focus on curriculums that nurture designers who get the opportunity to make sense of history through creating and willfully regulating simulations of historical events. The analysis of expert modding revealed three particular game practices core to modding, each of which suggests an interesting form of “academic play” worth exploring (and perhaps replicating) in intentional learning environments: a.

Expert players modified game scenarios to make them more historically relevant through repurposing and manipulating existing game units and features to compensate for features absent in the “stock” game. In discussing their play, these players/designers referred to facts (or events from real scenarios) and used them to describe (and sometimes redefine) game attributes. For example, in creating a scenario based on the world map, one of the participants remarked, “Triggering barbarian uprising simulates [quite accurately] the Mongolian presence around China in 4000 B.C. Mongolians invaded China frequently to systematically devastate Chinese empire.” He repurposes barbarian uprising to simulate Mongolian oppression in China around the 4000 B.C.

b.

c.

Players used Civ3 as a recursive design/ play space where they iteratively play and redesign. These players’ interest in scenario design stems from identifying limitations in the core game and then creating their own game scenarios to result in an “idealized” version of the game. These players use game-play as a space for refining their idealized game and testing their ongoing hypotheses over extended periods of time. For example, when asked why one would want to use the game-editing toolkit, the participant said: “I use it (Civ3) as a history simulator. I would come up with a wish list of stuff I want to change while I play the game. Scenario creation is not about accurately or inaccurately simulating history, but [constantly] modifying the scenario to bridge the gap between my hypotheses and the way Civilization III played them out.” Game-play, for expert players, consists of seeking to create emergent historical phenomena through manipulating underlying variables. These players create hypotheses about what historical events will emerge when global forces are altered in particular ways. This manipulation of events is (necessarily) mediated in terms of the game’s pre-existing commands and variables. For example, in a scenario about European colonization of Africa in the 1400s, a participant describes his design processes, out aloud, “before the European conquest of Africa the Bantu tribes were either pastoral or agricultural and usually pacific. What if I made Bantus numerous [by starting them out with a lot of cities] and give them high culture points (as a way to model the influence of a less nomadic people on historical development)?” He hypothesizes that a higher native African population that is less nomadic (with well established and inter-connected cities) and culturally wide-

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Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

spread could have posed a greater challenge to Europeans in their conquests of Africa (and be interesting to play). These examples suggest how game affordances and players’ subjective interests interactively create a form of game-play based around historiographic choices. In creating or modifying a scenario, players view historical facts as modifiable variables in the scenarios they create in order to instantiate specific historical simulation. Scenario editing entails knowledge about the right kinds of rules to modify in game and the kinds of variables to access in order to do so. Thus, in many ways, developing the skill to design historically relevant scenarios relies heavily on the ability to identify in-game factors such as rates of cultural expansion, as well as a thorough understanding of how factors like economic interdependence and organized religion play into civilization conquests. In doing so, the game demands specific forms of thinking about historical concepts facts; it recruits specific forms of thinking and hypothesizing about factual knowledge in history. Thus, in expert Civ3 players, model-based understanding is manifest in their ability to understand the underlying architecture of the game system and model the key features in ways to instantiate the scenario as hypothesized.

DESIGNING LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS FOR HISTORIOGRAPHIC GAMING These examples illuminate the nature of “productive” gaming, suggesting how expert “productive,” mod-making practices include appropriating the game to create a more accurate modeling tool, iteratively playing and designing game scenarios to create a customized, “ideal” version of Civ3, and using Civ3 as a representational model for interrogating history or for creating an idealized, customized form of Civ3. How might we design

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learning environments that give players access to such high-end, productive gaming practicesin other words, historiographic gaming? To investigate this question, researchers are iteratively researching and designing an afterschool game-based learning program. Participants enter as novices, and through time learn to make their own game mods. The core learning activity involves playing a series of multiplayer game scenarios played in one- to one-and-a-half-hour time periods. Research methods were drawn from a design-based methodological framework, by deliberately and appropriately not controlling variables and using research methodologies to fit the morphing intervention, leading to considerable evolution of the treatment over time (Dede, 2004). The design goal was to engineer effective learning conditions while theorizing the models that worked out to be successful in this setting (Bannan-Ritland, 2003). In other words, interventions were drawn from participant expertise in the game scenarios (such as introductory or advanced) and their involvement with the game (such as wanting to play a multiplayer or singleplayer game). This approach to user-centered design seeks to develop “personas” of different users, including models of who the gamers are and what they want to accomplish, as opposed to one “standardized, homogeneous” model of the user (Cooper, 1999). Thus, the particular activities of various sessions were individualized to meet the group needs. This methodology can be broken down into four parts: 1.

2.

3.

The specific games were designed to accommodate varying difficulty levels and play styles. During and after gaming sessions, facilitators led briefings in response to observations made during play. To drill down on specific phenomena, researchers conducted structured and semistructured interviews.

Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

4.

Researchers designed driving events, events such as game competitions and modding challenges that were designed to: (a) serve as instruments to capture snapshots of players progression on well-specified tasks, (b) bolster enthusiasm for the program, and (c) enable players to see how they have progressed over time.

Players were encouraged to start out in pairs. During the game session, at least one facilitator played with the participants. The facilitator also created reflection activities for the end of each game to coalesce understandings. All of the sessions were video recorded and entered into an online database of videos, imported into the software program Transana. Researchers met in weekly meetings to identify themes and plan future events. During analysis, composite cases of particular students were identified, themes were expanded, modified, and refined. Next, the database was interrogated for additional confirming or disconfirming evidence. Key passages elucidating particular themes were identified and transcribed. This chapter organizes these findings around key themes that seek to elucidate the relationship between historiographic game-play and learning, and to suggest features for how similar environments might be designed in the future.

Expertise in Socially Contextualized Gaming A notable feature of Civ Camp, as a learning environment, was the variety of activities simultaneously occurring within it. Activities ranged from multiplayer games, to single-player games, to “simultaneous” single-player games (everyone playing the same single-player game at the same time). Nevertheless, the activity revolved around playing various versions of Civ3, and as such, the shared space of the computer lab enabled the creation of a common discourse.

Making Knowledge Public One typical practice was that individuals, after achieving a noteworthy accomplishment, would announce their progress to the group. Each time a new discovery (such as writing) was made, players would herald this to the entire group. This practice achieved several functions. For some players, it redefined the “game” being played in terms of their own goals: players with a large number of “Great Wonders” could, for example, reframe the game from being about military conquest to being about constructing wonders. Other times, it advertised one’s technological (and hence military) superiority. From a learning perspective, a key effect of this practice was that it advertised to other players what forms of accomplishment were available (new players were exposed to new terminology, concepts, and strategies this way), and it propelled others to compete with their peers. For example, soon after Mike acquired map-making, he built a galley and declared, “I made a boat.” Another participant responded, “I’ve got to have the stuff the other guys have,” and he proceeded to set about developing this capacity. Other times, vocal narrations of game-play became a part of the game-play itself. In the same game, as Rome (played by Jason) is at war with Carthage (played by Levi, facilitator), Russia (played by Marvin) is recruiting allies to war against Rome-Jason, seeking to capitalize on the fact that this protracted war has weakened RomeJason, and left them vulnerable. Russia-Marvin begins recruiting the Phoenicians (played by Deontey) to attack Rome-Jason. Russia-Marvin writes (in the chat space, which is public), “Romans are in my territory…they don’t have the right of passage. How about a military alliance? I think we should team up against Jason…Levi is strong and already up against Jason.” First, this example suggests how terminology such as “Romans,” “right of passage,” and “military alliance” were taken up by players as tools for communication. In this example, as in earlier

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Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

studies (cf. Squire, Giovanetto, Devane, & Durga, 2005), such language naturally arose in players as they needed tools to communicate with. Second, this example illustrates how the multiplayer game became an object for public scrutiny, and how negotiating interpretations of events and potential moves became a core component of game-play. In this example, Marvin begins with an observation that Rome is in his territory and an interpretation that this is an aggressive, hostile act. He notes that Romans are at war, and that Jason’s chief adversary, Levi, is strong. This statement is designed to put political pressure on Rome-Jason, which in other games has resulted in the offender removing units from enemy territory, tithing to avoid a war, or a public reinterpretation of events. This kind of public analysis of the game model and subsequent political negotiation around it was core to the game-play, something not observed in single-player games. Much of the game-play became this sort of argumentation, with those who can expertly dissect the system gaining the most social capital. It is noteworthy that almost no direct instruction on how to play the game occurred in this camp, but rather, players learned the rules (and subsequent terminology) through constant strategizing and action within the game world. These sorts of negotiations and ways of playing the game form particular game discourses, or “ways of being in world”within the game community, suggesting the fundamentally social nature of gaming expertise (Steinkuehler, 2006).

Collaborative Troubleshooting as Exploration of Game Concepts Multiplayer games functioned as joint problemsolving contexts. Similar to how learning occurs in massively multiplayer games (see Steinkuehler, 2006), learning through game-play featured players collaborating to dissect and understand the game system. Interpretations of the game system flowed freely among participants. Social value was placed on public displays of knowledge (usually

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performed as a sort of political negotiation) rather than on pure “success.” In the following example, Jason, Sid, and Marvin discuss military units such as scouts, warriors, and horsemen in exploring, again, as a part of a broader political negotiation: Sid: There is a Russian scout in my territory! Marvin: Scouts can’t attack or take over cities…right? (looks for confirmation from Levi). Sid opens the exchange with an observation that a Russian Scout is in his territory, which as illustrated above, is often interpreted within this community (as in many) as a pre-cursor to war. Marvin interjects, noting (in the form of a question) that scouts cannot take over cities. This question is designed to result in Levi, the expert, answering “no,” which Marvin hopes will result in his move not being interpreted as aggressive. Sid: What’s the point in bringing a scout if they can’t attack? You can just take your warriors instead. Marvin: Scouts travel faster than warriors. Jason (overhearing the conversation): Once you get your horsemen, send them on to explore…and pillage and stuff and then send swordsmen to follow them. In this example, Sid (who is eight years old and a novice by comparison) “buys” the interpretation that the scout is only exploring, but then asks what the point of bringing scouts into enemy territory is, since they cannot attack (and warriors can). Marvin responds with a factual explanation (scouts move faster), although, notably, he does not share why strategically this is a desirable move. Sid will have to figure that out on his own. (The primary reason scouts are desirable is that they enable the player to locate strategic resources such as horses or iron in advance and design a civilization so as to maximize access to these resources.) After this game session, as on most days, players recapitulated what happened. This practice enabled players to brag about their accom-

Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

plishments while also collectively dissecting the game system to better learn from actions. This kind of debriefing, which is considered key in the literature around gaming (cf. Thiagarajan, 1998), flowed naturally in this game space. Participants exhibited a natural desire to discuss their specific game moves and strategies, the result of which were general heuristics that became “taken-asshared” meanings within the community. This particular game was marked by very quick losses by several players due to excessive warring early in the game. Jason explains what he learned: Jason: No war till you have spearman defending your cities. I’d say build one warrior as soon as you build the city, because barbarians stole gold from my city. Becky: I declared peace with every Civ. Mitzi (who did not like losing her cities): My strategy was building cities and attacking other people to get our cities back. Thus, the learning process through play was deeply iterative. Similar to Peirce’s “abductive” reasoning process, it followed a pattern of players developing and holding a model of the game system (such as build units and attack civilizations to obtain their resources), then suffering from expected losses and a quagmire of uncertainty about the model (and personal conflict) which led players to refine their understanding of the model (Driscoll, 1994). Jason develops a relatively simple algorithm for maintaining a defense. Becky reports a different strategy altogether, which here is a proto-strategy (play peacefully), which in later games she developed into a mature strategy of rapid growth, exploration, and building, so that she had an infrastructure vastly superior to the other, more military-focused players. Mitzi’s strategy was similar to Becky’s, albeit more defensive.

Creating a Playful, Lucid Mood Conversations as a core gaming activity not only mediated problem solving, and group and individual play, but also set up the general mood for the spacean interesting parallel between third spaces in MMOs and in this sort of faceto-face gaming community (Steinkuehler, 2005; Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006). Steinkuehler (2005), in her portrayal of MMOs as third spaces, describes old-timers as “regulars” who give MMOs its character by setting up the general mood for the space. Similarly, conversations in Civ Camp transcend game-mechanics and produced a social context specific to Civ Camp. The nature of this space, which might be described as a playfully competitive environment, was one that researchers (as designers) frequently struggled to negotiate. On the one hand, the space had to be “the kids’ own space” and reflect their needs and desires to game in particular ways, but at some times, this emergent ethic contradicted our own sensitivity and values. For example, the following excerpt between Monroe (an old-timer), Sid (old-timer), and Sadira (newcomer) illustrates the playful, but direct competitiveness and even “hazing” that often emerged: Monroe: You’re going to get killed as soon as I spot you. Sadira (seeking a facilitator’s assistance): Ask Monroe to stop. Monroe: I am the champion. Sid: I want to kill Sadira too. Facilitator: Why would you do that? Sid: Because I like killing easy people. That’s what everybody does when you’re new. As was often the case, the facilitator proceeded to form an alliance with Sadira in order to usher her into the game space in a safe way. Interactions such as these established the spirit of the environment and made it their own. Many displayed a desire to repetitively play and replay

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Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

old games until they perfected particular strategies or approaches. This mastery occurred through a sort of self-initiated drill-and-practice routine, albeit augmented by the game’s many forms of evaluative feedback. In summary, participants partook in discourse practices prototypical to the social space of Civ Camp, through: a.

b.

c.

Participation in conversations in game vocabulary (such as building military alliances, negotiating trade, etc.); Displaying membership in a collective (competing to be in the “everyone” group by getting the same technologies and units that others have); and Enculturation in the social practices of the shared space (e.g.; setting up the general mood, bragging; and “smack-talking” during the game).

From Newcomer to Expert Participation Research on expert cognition details five stages that people go through in transitioning from novice to experts in which they develop qualitative differences in how they understand phenomena. A pervasive finding is that experts attend to deep structures in a problem, whereby novices focus on surface structures (see Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981). Within Civ Camp, we see evidence for players’ awareness of structure reflected in the kinds of questions they asked during game-play. Surface Features—Military Overkill, Discovering Resources, and Dealing with Civil Disorders In early single-player games, participants’ questions focus on questions about the basic game rules (e.g., “Can barbarians take over my city?”), relatively simple strategic questions reflecting a lack of goals in the game or awareness of how to accomplish them (e.g., “I have a settler; what

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should I build next?”), or questions stemming from a lack of comprehension of game events, such as civil disorder, which is triggered when the number of discontented citizens crosses a threshold (e.g., “My city is burning, how do I fix this?”). Typically, these questions would elicit a simple explanation from a more advanced player (often, but not always a facilitator). For example, Jason asks the facilitator, “What do spices give me?”, to which the facilitator responds, “Spices are luxury that make your people happy. Basically, if you build road to it, you can get access to it.” Another common early misunderstanding in defense was military overkill. In Civ3 the early forms of governments can only support a limited number of military units, after which point players must pay one gold piece for every excess unit (which simulates the cost of maintaining a military). Marvin, unaware of the game’s implicit model, stacks up dozens of warriors and spearmen and complains, “How come I’m getting no gold?” Much of the first dozen or so hours of play involves learning these basic features of the game model and mastering the “basics.” Deep Structures—Building Fewer, Yet More Manageable Cities and Strategic Placement of Cities to Take Advantage of Resources, Natural Barriers In later games, players displayed understanding of the game model (deep structure) of the game through choices and decisions. This example occurs roughly a year into the program. Players are given a challenge: pick seven early technologies and place three cities on the map. Jason (playing as Celts) places his cities in close proximity to resources, with each city having access to either horses or iron. Jason had reverse-engineered the scoring system in Civ3 and focuses on accumulating points for the sake of a high score by planning faster expansion through a large number of cities. Conversely, in the multiplayer game challenge (based on the 100 Years’ War scenario), Monroe,

Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

playing as the English, shares his frustration on too many settlers: “Argh! Settler, I’ll disband him.” When prompted by the facilitator to build one more city, he responds: “I’d rather have fewer stronger cities.” As a matter of fact, Monroe had just spelled out an underlying game mechanica large number of ineffective cities are too expensive to maintain and more so during a period of unending war with the French, something that would be inconsequential in a short, single-player game where the goal was to amass points quickly, but would matter in a longer multiplayer game, where players would need to build an economic infrastructure. These examples demonstrate that Jason and Monroe are able to unpack the game architecture and also make decisions based upon situational references (victory points in single-player games, building an economic infrastructure in multiplayer games). Both Jason and Monroe see the literal game features (like war, population growth, number of cities, or access to resources), while identifying the foundational principles of each game. Their strategies, are loaded with solution schemes that they apply flexibly, as opposed to mere attempts to find specific unknowns or single solution answers (as was the case in earlier games).

Developing Multiple Trajectories of Expertise The preceding example elucidated expertise from a more traditionally cognitive perspective; we can also examine expertise from a socio-cultural learning perspective as participation in social practice. Three elements key to this model are: (a) social acceptance of newcomers to the community of practice; (b) progression of newcomers from peripheral or smaller roles, to more and more important roles in the community; and (c) knowledge acquisition though participation, because knowledge is not a static commodity one receives, but a dynamic process of participation that one does (Lave & Wenger, 1990).

Unlike Lave and Wenger’s account of participation, which emphasized relatively uniform notions of “central” practice, in Civ Camp (much like in the affinity groups described by Gee, 2005), there were multiple models of expert practice. In openended spaces like Civ Camp that accommodate varying competencies, the notion of expert gaming is a relatively fluid concept (see Squire et al., in press), consisting of mutually overlapping forms of game-play, such as game modding, expert military play, or play as historical inquiry. At least two distinct trajectories of expertise development were evidenced in the long term in Civ Camp participants: 1. 2.

Systemic, game-design approach to gaming (embodied by Jason), and Gaming as historical inquiry (embodied by Monroe).

These two forms of gaming overlapped, and at times participants could engage in each, but fundamentally they reflect two different orientations toward the game experience.

Systemic Approaches to Gaming Over the course of one year in the program, Jason developed a design orientation to Civ. For Jason, Civ3 was very much a gamea game with inputs (action), outputs (scores or various victory states), and an underlying model that governed how they work. The first player in the group to learn Civ3’s victory scoring system, Jason enthusiastically shared his understanding in the single-player challenge: “My score goes up if I build more cities.” Jason’s interest was in exploring and manipulating the boundaries of the game system. Jason constantly monitored his game statistics and self-evaluated his progress, comparing different in-game victory parameters such as culture points, score, and power. In the multiplayer challenge game, playing as the French, Jason takes pride for a high culture point: “…let me



Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

show you something, power wise, Sid is better than me, but I’m still doing so well on culture.” At times, this sort of “reframing the game along different parameters” could be seen as simply a way of maintaining status in the community while “losing.” However, as we shall see next, for some players (indeed many) the scores are more or less irrelevant, as compared to their own particular gaming goalswinning in their own particular way. Jason’s approach to mentoring peers also reflected this orientation toward Civ3 as a game with more or less “optimal” ways to “game the system.” For example, when the group started the “Age of Discovery Scenario,” which was designed to align with what they were studying in school, Jason oriented a newcomer as follows: “Pay attention to the Civs, like where they would start out on the map, because your cities can grow and expand faster.” Reflecting after the game, Jason advises, “I’d say build a warrior as soon as you build a city.” Jason shares a military strategy with another player: “Once you get your horsemen, send them of to explore…and pillage and stuff and then send [initiate attack with] swordsmen to follow them.” Jason’s strategic advice (which he gave frequently and freely) was oriented around specific strategies to “win,” emphasizing strategies that optimally “gamed the system,” a strategy that we have seen elsewhere (cf. Squire, 2004) and have called the “min-max” approach.

Historical Inquiry in Game-Play Monroe’s predisposition to history was manifest in his orientation to game-play. As Monroe acquired systemic understanding about the game (also discussed under the development of systemic expertise), he began using the game as a model guiding his historical inquiry. Playing Civ3 elicited Monroe’s prior knowledge and piqued his interest in history. Monroe commonly related his game-play to actual events in history, and frequently sought to play the scenarios as they



were in history. For example, when discussing the newly introduced concept, the “Golden Age,” Monroe responds: “I know what a golden age is, your civilization becomes wealthier and you have great discoveries and build great wonders.” Monroe describes Golden Age as the game concept that triggers increased production and trade as a historical metaphor often ascribed to periods of great endeavors in history when a Civilization is at its peek. He does not mention any particular game outputs (in fact, wonders and discoveries are results of player actions). Unlike Jason, who frames advice and game discussion of units in terms of strategies, Monroe relates it back to historical concepts. Similarly, when participating in the singleplayer challenge (where Jason “min-maxed the system to gain points via building cities), Jason took a different approach, seeking to pursue technologies, build wonders, and build a robust civilization that could last until the middle ages. He explains, “I’m going to go for mathematics to get the Statue of Zeus” (a wonder that can be built after discovering Mathematics). When a civilization offered to trade a city, he responded, “I don’t want your city. I need technology. I’m almost to the Middle Ages!” Compared to Jason, Monroe is much more interested in using historical concepts, pursuing strategies that fulfill his goal of “replaying history,” and exploring new ways to win through technological and economic development. At no point does Monroe mention points or “winning.” For Monroe, the pleasure is more in the process of playing through scenarios. Later in the camp, in an Age of Discovery scenario, a facilitator noted that Monroe was playing as the Portuguese. His ship was sailing around the North Americas, looking for a place to land. The facilitator asks him, “Why aren’t there French settlements in North America?” Monroe’s response blends game events and history, and his response is, “The French were more interested in trading instead of settling. They mostly made agreements with the Indians instead of attacking

Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

them.” For Monroe, this sort of historical fantasy was core to his game-play. Monroe on occasion would bring his history book to camp to look up information as well.

Mod-Making Unlike previous educational interventions with Civ3 that were designed around learning through playing scenarios, participants in the Civ Camp developed a level of expertise deep enough for them to begin transitioning into producers of game scenarios as well. When it came to mod making, both Jason and Monroe used Civ3 as a history simulation tool, albeit with different emphases. For the scenario challenge competition, Jason constructed an ancient Rome scenario designed to “replay” ancient history and examine under what conditions Rome may have not succeeded Greece as a dominant European empire. Jason comments, “In real-life Rome won Greece, but in the scenario I’ve made no one has any advantage

over the other, Greece has a strong defense…the hoplites and Rome has Legions. I played as both to test.” This scenario focuses primarily on relative military strengths, and seeks to rebalance game dynamics to make a more “equal” and fun game, as well as to explore this historical hypothetical. After building this mod, Jason expressed interest in building a “Star Wars” mod with the Civ3 toolkit. Without any encouragement from the researchers (and indeed unbeknownst to us until weeks into the project), he began keeping a notebook of design ideas, which he carried to school. This notebook contained approximately 20 pages of notes on unit types, methods for implementing features, and so on. When we learned of this endeavor, we sat down with Jason and showed him several similar total conversion mods, such as a “Lord of the Rings” mod. Jason explained to us that he wanted to be a game designer when he grew up. Monroe, in contrast, modeled the current geopolitical conditions surrounding the U.S.–Iraq

Figure 1. Trajectories of expertise



Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

Figure 2. Trajectories of expertise development over the course of two years

War (see Figure 2). Monroe’s goal was to see if the Civ editor could be used to model the modern world. Monroe spent a significant amount of time (both he and his sister estimated it at 30–40 hours) researching and referencing different sources for information, from encyclopedias to the Internet. This research included changing names and boundaries to reflect today’s conditions, as he used the editor to rename civilization leaders to reflect current leader names. He created, moved, and renamed cities. Monroe used the permanent alliance feature to model the U.S. and UK alliance against Iraq. Much of the work for Monroe involved reciprocally building maps, identifying features that needed to be included, and then sifting through the editors of thousands of settings to find the best way to model chosen phenomena. By the end of this unit, Monroe had new interests with modding. Monroe struggled with how to model religion in Civ3 (something obviously important to contemporary political conflict, but not introduced to the Civ series until Civ4).



At the end of the school year, Monroe’s teacher requested him to list 10 things he wanted to learn the following year, and number one was how to use the Civ3 editor to model religious conflict in Civ3. Perhaps to the teacher’s surprise, all 10 items related to learning with Civilization. Included in this list was a short proposal to learn American history through building a Revolutionary War mod. Monroe spent about 25 hours doing background research and playing with various maps to get this started, and he suggested that he could build it over the summer and then write a paper to accompany it. When comparing with expert modding practices, scenario editing is still at its nascent stages. Participants mostly focused on surface features (e.g., leader names, permanent alliances) and only began to adapt and change features, such as adding resources or manipulating core game variables. Both exhibit a readiness to transition to a deeper sort of modding practice. For Jason, the interest was fundamentally in game systems and game

Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

design. Monroe’s interest was primarily in using the game as a tool for modeling contemporary and historical events. In both examples, we see an interest in understanding how the language of the Civ3 editing toolkit might be used as a tool for expressing ideas. Future implications might be to take a closer look at cognitive effects of game-modding for developing model-based historical reasoning and developing curriculum that is specifically structured around game modding in Civ3.

DISCUSSION: HISTORIOGRAPHIC GAMING Multiplayer games hosted in shared space functioned like sandboxes, which enable multiple forms of creative, expressive play. The learning process for these players was fundamentally social; knowledge about game rules and literal game features is acquired as players are apprenticed into conversations around multiplayer games and discourses typical to Civ Camp as a whole. Findings from the research indicate that through deliberate scaffolding and structured facilitation of activities over time, players develop systemic understandings about the game. Both games and the game environment were designed in particular ways to produce mastery. Learning occurred through what might be called “semistructured” tasks (e.g., single-player challenge); tasks that situatedgradually developing their understandings of game mechanics, while also encouragingwere not only able to situate in their understandings about the mechanisms of the game, but also were able to imbue skills that are indigenous to expert gaming practice, such as apprenticeship in discourses, situated understanding, and model-based understanding. These examples argue for a new (admittedly nascent) genre of games for learning, which we have called historiographic gaming. This pedagogical approach is based on indigenous forms

of gaming practices that have generated interesting forms of learning with games that embody key attributes of games (based on simulation, participatory in nature, and designed around aesthetics of experience). This program has sought to transition novices players into producers of game scenarios, with some success. The depth of learning required to truly become expert modders is substantial. Within this timeframe there is evidence that some participants were becoming expert gamers and novice modderswith hints of movement toward more expert. We observed two distinct trajectories of expertise emerging: one that developed around expert, systemic gaming (orienting toward the experience as a game system), and another that we call historical gaming, orienting to the game experience as a form of “replaying history.” Both forms have value, emphasizing different aspects of the game system. We believe that a community tying these two forms of gaming together (and other ones, as they emerge) is key for building robust learning environments. Within this context, games functioned as places for joint collaboration, allowing these forms of play to come together. More explicit comparisons across game types could add to deeper learning, encouraging players to investigate various aspects of the system. When it comes to reform or change in an existing system or practice, it is not merely about making changes in the surface structures, but about questioning the ways people function (or expected to function) and how those structures are constructed. While schools have successfully identified the “categories” of learners (e.g., the problem-solving kind or the collaborating kind), these categories seem rather abstract and lack functionality. A rather profound effect of schooling seems to lie in acquiring these abstract categories. The after-school game, Civ Camp, on the other hand functions as embryonic communities (Dewey, 1938), where realization of social motives and construction of meaning through actions enacted out in specific ways makes up



Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

specific kinds of learners and gives them identities in and outside of the game. While schools tend to view new technologies as multiple elements and multiple literacies, and that learning entails acquisition of all those skills, games are about multiplicities in worldnot the “one” that is said in many ways, but rather the multiple that is “folded in many ways,” in print, talk, image, gesture, or art (Gee, 2003). In this sense, learning is not unities or totalities, but multiplicities that are exemplified in the interplay of multiple identities. There are multiplicities in games and spaces designed around games, like Civ camps that operate in a system and eventually raise the question about what value we place on the things that our kids learn from technologies and to what extent our experiences from games can be intentionally leveraged as we create, use, and adapt to new paradigms of learning.

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289-325). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Cervetti, G., Damico, J., & Pearson, D. (2006). Multiple literacies, New literacies, and teacher education. Theory into Practice, 45(4), 378-386. Chi, M.T.H., Feltovich, P., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science, 5, 121-152. Cooper, A. (1999). The inmates are running the asylum. New York: Macmillan. David, J.D. (2003). Computers, visualization, and historyhow new technology will transform our understanding of the past. Dede. (2004). If design-based research is the answer, what is the question? Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 105-114. Driscoll, J. (1994). Reflective practice for practice. Senior Nurse, 13(7), 47-50. Dunn, R.E. (1996). Rethinking world history: Essays on Europe, Islam, and world history (review). Journal of World History, 7(1), 131-133. Galarneau, L. (2005). The power of perspective: Games and simulations for transformative learning. Proceedings of the Games, Learning & Society Conference, Madison, WI. Galarneau, L., & Zibit, M. (2006). Online games for 21st century skills. In D. Gibson, C. Aldrich, & M. Prensky (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning: Research and development frameworks. Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J.P. (2004). Situated language and learning: A critique of traditional schooling. Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/London: Routledge.

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Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Lesh, R., & Yoon, C. (2005). What is distinctive about models & modeling perspectives on mathematics problem solving, learning, and teaching? In W. Blum (Ed.), ICMI applications and modeling in mathematics education. Germany: Universität Dortmund. Nardi, B.A, Ly, S., & Harris, J. (forthcoming). Learning conversations in World of Warcraft. Proceedings of HICSS 2007. O’Connor, M.C., & Millers, S. (1996). Shifting participant frameworks: Orchestrating thinking practices in group discussion. In D. Hicks (Ed.), Child discourse and social learning (pp. 63-102). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Papert, S.A. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers and powerful ideas. Shaffer, D.W., & Gee, J.P. (2005). Before every child is left behind: How epistemic games can solve the coming crisis in education. Under review by Educational Researcher. Squire, K.D (2004). Replaying history: Learning world history through playing Civilization III. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Indiana, USA. Retrieved from website.education. wisc.edu/kdsquire/REPLAYING HISTORY.doc Squire, K., & Barab, S. (2004). Replaying history: Engaging urban underserved students in learning world history through computer simulation games. Proceedings of the 2004 International Conference of the Learning Science. Squire, K., DeVane, B., & Durga, S. (in press). Designing centers of expertise for academic learning through video games. To appear in Theory into Practice.

Squire, K., Giovanetto, L., Devane, B., & Durga, S. (2005). From users to designers: Building a self-organizing game-based learning environment. TechTrends, 49(5), 34-42, 74. Steinkuehler, C.A. (2005). The new third place: Massively multiplayer online gaming in American youth culture. Tidskrift Journal of Research in Teacher Education, 3, 17-32. Steinkuehler, C.A. (2006). Massively multiplayer online videogaming as participation in a Discourse. Mind, Culture, & Activity, 13(1), 38-52. Steinkuehler, C., & Williams, D. (2006). Where everybody knows your (screen) name: Online games as “third places.” Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 11(4). Thiagarajan, S. (1998). The myths and realities of simulations in performance technology. Educational Technology, 38(5), 35-41. 21st Century Thinking skills. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/index.php?Itemid=114&id=204&option=com_ content&task=view

KEY TERMS CivEdit: A game editing toolkit that comes with the game. Players can create historical scenarios, can modify game rules, or define new ones using this editor Civilization III: A turn-based history strategy game in which players lead a civilization making choices about how to use land resources, where to invest resources, what kinds of infrastructure to build, and how to manage one’s military. Historical Simulation: Historical models that depict a certain time period in history with some reasonable amount of historical accuracy and relevance.



Productive Gaming and the Case for Historiographic Game-Play

Mod (Modding): Short for modifications made in a game. Mods can either be add-ons or tools that can work as additional interfaces for a game, or new graphics and content for the game. In Civilization III, players can mod scenarios, for example, a player can build the Rise of Rome scenario. Sandboxes: Spaces designed in and outside of video games that allow room for experimentation without much serious consequence (see Gee, 2003).



Scenario: A scenario in Civilization III is a depiction of events or an era (that can be either as hypothetical or historically accurate as one wishes it to be), spanning the scale of time. Simulations: Offer useful simplifications of complex situations and are often “imperfect replica” of the real. Video games are increasingly becoming powerful tools for creating simulations. Civ3 is one such example that helps create and play through historical simulations.



Chapter XIII

Game-Based Historical Learning Erik Malcolm Champion Auckland School of Design, Massey University, New Zealand

AbstrAct Serious games research typically uses modified computer games as virtual learning environments. Virtual heritage projects typically aim to provide three-dimensional interactive digital environments that aid the understanding of new cultures and languages, rather than merely transfer learning terms and strategies from static prescriptive media such as books. As an intersection between the two fields, game-based historical learning aims to provide ways in which the technology, interactivity, or cultural conventions of computer gaming can help afford the cultural understanding of the self, of the past, or of others with mindsets quite different to our own. This chapter will outline the major technological, pedagogical, and evaluation issues pertinent to game-based historical learning, provide working definitions of virtual learning that may lend themselves to evaluations, and endeavor to explain how specific issues of gamebased historical learning may be addressed. It will also forecast trends and suggest approaches to help focus this diverse field.

INtrODUctION Virtual heritage is not merely a theoretical endeavor for domain specialists. Apart from the issue of how to theoretically determine, create, and achieve both social and cultural presence, there is the added logistic issue of how best to convey these subjective experiences through interactive media in a way that is amenable to how individuals learn. In addition is the issue of how to evaluate

not just how they learned, but exactly what they learned and why they learned it. As to what learning means, unlike virtual learning environments or serious games, we do not want to only measure effectiveness, efficiency, and user satisfaction, but also the awareness, understanding, and sense of newfound ownership or appreciation of cultural diversity, authenticity, and significance. Once we understand how to preserve and communicate social and cultural significance,

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we also need to communicate it to a wider audience and create a platform in which shareholders (descendents or visitors) can maintain, improve, and collaborate. Ideally, the shareholders will then learn more about what has been simulated and why it is (or was) culturally significant.

bAcKGrOUND Definitions In virtual heritage projects, the aim is typically to ‘recreate’ or ‘reconstruct’ the past through threedimensional modeling, animation, and panorama photographs. Historical reconstructions have been a common reason for creating environments using virtual reality technology. Moreover, many of these virtual environments have aimed for realism rather than for meaningful interaction. Yet this may not be the most effective means of educating and engaging the public (Champion, 2006), for virtual heritage is a ‘visualization’ or ‘recreation’ of culture (UNESCO, 2003, 2007). The point of virtual heritage is thus to visualize the significant and revealing aspects of a culture through its artifacts and the records it leaves behind. For example, the ICOMOS (1999) Burra Charter argues: Cultural significance means aesthetic, historic, scientific, social or spiritual value for past, present or future generations. Cultural significance is embodied in the Place itself, its fabric, setting, use, associations, meanings, records, related places and related objects. Places may have a range of values for different individuals or groups. Currently virtual heritage models fail most if not all the criteria for collection and dissemination of culturally significant information to various groups of people, for they are typically expensive, fixed in place, do not allow personalization, and

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require expert assistance. Yet heritage is not just that which physically remains, but also that which can be passed on, or conversely, something that is intangible. Conveying the intangible is also an issue for digital history (which can be described as the visualization of historical resources using digital technology). Interactive history is a subset of digital heritage, the development of digital resources that teaches historical learning through interactive media, particularly by using the interactive and multimodal features found in computer games. Game-based historical learning could be defined as the use of the in-game editors to modify (‘mod’) existing game levels in order to enhance learning about historical content. However, it has a wider scope than the use of game editors alone. Game-based historical learning could be more comprehensively defined as the focused use of real-time rendering engines, game editors, game platforms, game peripherals, and/or game-style interaction metaphors to help the public enhance their awareness of historical issues and heritage sites. Hence, game-based historical learning is an intersection of digital history and serious games (games designed to aid learning).

Viewpoint As computer games are both highly popular and highly interactive, they may appear to be an ideal fit for virtual heritage projects in terms of presentation and education. Such use of technology as a focused pedagogical tool may help scientists communicate, collaborate with each other, or otherwise evaluate various hypotheses on the validity, construction, significance, use, maintenance, or disappearance of historic- and heritage-based sites, artifacts, and cultural beliefs. However, the use of games may popularize archaeology and heritage at a superficial level. Much like the Indiana Jones and Lara Croft: Tomb Raider films, game-style interaction does not necessarily teach

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respect for other cultural beliefs and for the careful preservation and contextually appropriate use of cultural artifacts. So there are still important issues to be resolved in the selection of game-based technology, interaction metaphors, depicted content, and evaluation of the effectiveness of virtual heritage and interactive history projects that use game-based features. This chapter will examine these issues and suggest ways in which they can be resolved.

GAME-BASED HISTORICAL LEARNING Academics in virtual heritage appear to have accepted game engines as viable ways of allowing more people to enter the field (Anderson, 2003; Stone 2005; Addison, Refsland, & Stone, 2006). Game engines allow cheap modeling packages that include editors, are accessible and engaging for students, contain built-in scripts and resources, are optimized for personal computers (and also for consoles), with powerful physics engines. The graphics can include a surprisingly high amount of detail, import from professional or free 3D modelers, and show a large amount of terrain (Germanchis, Cartwright, & Pettit, 2007) and sometimes even dynamic weather or lighting. They can also allow modification of the graphical user interface, include avatars with triggered and re-scriptable behaviors and path finding, or incorporate maps that demonstrate location, orientation, or the social attitude of non-playing characters in relation to the player. However, games are not typically designed for historical learning or to commemorate culturally significant artifacts. It may take a large amount of time modifying a game so that it is a suitable learning environment, a game may offer powerful features but be difficult to script, it may contain content that is not historically suitable, or it may be controlled by an online licensing software that

makes collaborative classroom work difficult or intellectual ownership of mods and 3D assets unclear.

Types of Games I suggest there are many types of games that could potentially afford some level of historical or cultural understanding (see Table 1). Such games challenge us to explore, unravel puzzles, allocate resources, recreate and relive historic events, become immersed in a character, control others, socially engineer conflict, or create aesthetically engaging or dramatically immersive narratives. Tourist games allow players to view distant locales, inspired by their exotic nature, but the interaction does not necessarily probe beyond the visual spectacle. They challenge the explorer within us to find specific places or to traverse the entire region, and reward the player through either personalizing the environment, collecting items, or filling in a related map. Through play individual landmarks and the general lie of the land are learned, but exactly how the virtual inhabitants behave and believe as situated agents is probably not developed. Unlike tourists in the real world, travelers in virtual worlds typically must solve logistic challenges to get from one place to another. In a sense, real-world traveling involves not just a long-term purpose, but also the resourcefulness to solve the challenges in getting from A to B. So travelers are in a way also puzzle-solvers. Puzzle games also allow people to guess the origins of current scenes or decipher clues to retrieve vital information or to escape traps. The challenge is of course to complete the puzzle (and avoid dying or running out of time). The reward is to escape, to find more puzzles, or to gain an understanding of an entire narrative. Through puzzle games (such as Qin: Tomb of the Magic Kingdom, where an archaeologist is trapped in a tomb by an earthquake and must solve puzzles in order to escape), we could learn about spe-



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cific artifacts. Through solving intricate thematic puzzles, we may even begin to understand or at least recognize specific beliefs, designs, or intentions of the puzzle designers. Resource management games challenge in terms of foreign forces or to harness dwindling supplies or to quell internal riots. So the rewards can also vary from harmony to conquering others and staying in control, or perhaps merely to see the outcomes of one’s actions. The most famous example is probably Civilization III and Civilization IV; their game-based learning potential is explored by Squire and Barab (2004). However, it is important to note the game-play cannot be relied on for historical accuracy. Some historically accurate information may be learned, and basic elements of town planning may be acquired, but generally the growth mechanisms are hypothetical, and society and resources alter in relation to player choice, not to actual history. Historical battle games are similarthe soldiers and army equipment are typically mere resources to be managed. However, battle games may provide more historical accuracy if players need to learn actual features of historical events, strategies, and resources in order to win. Control games typically allow the player to control, obliterate, or indirectly affect the temperament, morality, or other inclinations of non-playing characters. Typically these games are destructive or unstructured, however it may be possible to harness these games to teach players about different cultural and social values. Black and White is one notable exception to standard control games, as it has a moral dimension affected by player choice. Social mash-up games are similar to control games, but the emphasis is not so much on how the player controls the characters as much as how the player choreographs situations and motivations of the non-playing characters in order to create interesting social encounters between non-playing characters. One example is the game The Sims.



The Sims, At the Movies, Halo, and Unreal are also used for machinima, for the creation of films using the in-game camera. Some players may be the actors (following a script or improvising); others act as the camera crew. The use of game engines to create machinima pieces could also be developed for, say, history classes, where students re-enact historical events, record them, and evaluate them as historical documentaries. A finished machinima is pre-rendered and thus not interactive, but the actual staging of machinima is in-game and hence real-time, therefore players collaborating to create machinima can be seen as participating in game-based learning. So the above game types may help us learn the layout of a historic place; basic strategies to avoid certain problems or puzzles; a modicum of historic facts, strategies, and elements of town planning; or to identify certain symbols. Unfortunately, most only help a counterfactual sense of history, they do not accurately retell history directly. None of the above really immerses us authentically and accurately inside historic figures and social roles.

Selection Issues Game-based historical learning has advantages over traditional virtual reality techniques to present cultural heritage, especially in terms of accessibility, cost, and popular acceptance. So it may be tempting to purchase a popular game with an inbuilt editor, and mod (modify) it for classroom teaching or for online distribution. However, selecting an appropriately popular game is not straightforward, as the popularity of games is not always easy to determine. Very popular games may be pirated or be popular on account of their free demo versions. Conversely, commercially successful games may actually be played only once. There is no doubt that the gaming industry is large and profitable. There are impressive

Game-Based Historical Learning

Table 1. Games with the potential to afford some level of historical or cultural understanding Type of Game Tourist Game: These games aim to enjoy life of a site from a safe and comfortable distance. Puzzle Games: Puzzle detection games aim to find what happened by examining material remains, material changes, epigraphy, and so forth, while minimizing damage to local artifacts. On the other hand, puzzle escape games aim to complete tasks using local affordances and artifacts.

Closest Examples in Available Games The new travel game genre, like Weekend in Capri. Archaeologist learning about a past culture, for example, ArcDig. Perhaps murder mysteries or interactive fiction comes closest. The information is prescriptive, but the way in which information is synthesized is like creative detective work. An example of a puzzle escape game is Qin: Tomb of the Magic Kingdom, where one has to escape the Forbidden City by solving puzzles. Another is a 3D adventure game like Heretic II. In these games the explorer must reach the objective by ‘reading’ the site, without personal health being adversely damaged. Neverwinter Nights 1 could be used in this way.

Resource Management Games: These games aim to understand the beliefs roles and relationships of inhabitants and their surrounds (ideally,

Civilization, Age of Empires, Tribal Trouble, Pharaoh, Caesar IV.

without damaging local customs). Historical Battle Games: The goals are to avoid being killed, to take over territory, and to learn

The Total War Series, Battalion IV, Starcraft.

military strategies. Role-Playing Games (although computer roleplaying games are arguably less able to create character immersion than non-digital roleplaying games). Control Games: These games aim to control or overcome inhabitants.

Games like Oblivion allow people to take on their own character and profession with its related attributes, and to choose suitable quests. Often has a medieval and mystical or mythological setting (for example, Lord of the Rings). Shadow of the Colossus, Darwin, Black and White.

Social Mashup Games: These games aim to create interesting encounters between semi-

The Sims, Spore (at time of writing, this is yet to be released).

controlled characters. Games that allow classroom role-playing of history through in-game camera capture

Halo, Unreal, Sims, The Movies.

(machinima).

statistics on the size and spending power of the gaming audience (Graft, 2006), but the statistics can be misleading (Smith, 2006) and the games unsuitable for specific types of learning such as for heritage and history. Some of the more extensive market research is often done by the companies themselves, and there is confusion over the distinction between hardcore gamers and casual gamers, and how to design for both.

Learning Issues Using powerful game engines may help us prototype digital representations of virtual heritage environments in a medium accessible to a generation less appreciative of books, but these games carry ‘genre baggage.’ Even first-year archaeology students are keen to find out what they can destroy in these virtual environments designed



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to show them past artifacts in use. They are accustomed to games and may attempt to do the same destructive things in game-based historical environments. This problem of using a toy as a tool is something the author (Champion, 2005) has previously described as the “Indiana Jones dilemma.” This dilemma worsens the more we have actual user-accessible interactive content to model, something not shared with traditional, flythrough, and instructor-controlled virtual environments. The more interactive the content, the more visitors will want to manipulate or even sabotage it. In the author’s own evaluations of archaeology students and visualization experts, in 2004 the author found that given game genres are both a blessing and a curse. When told a virtual environment is a game, participants of all ages and both genders seem much more at ease and aware of potential affordances. However, they tend to look for interaction and personalization while disregarding the actual content, and they conflate fact, conjecture, and fiction (Kensek Dodd & Cipolla, 2002). Many scholars see the possibilities of games as learning platforms. For example, Johnson (2005) and Gee (2003) argue that interactive media are changing the way people think, while Squire and Barab (2004) argue that history can be taught via games, and geographers are also now using game engines for visualization (Germanchis et al., 2007). Seen as a learning application, games allow students to learn by trial and error and at their own pace. However, games often involve simplistic interaction (such as testing hand-eye coordination) and do not engage the brain to reflect on fact and controversy. For example, America’s Army is a free, downloadable simulation engine that is actually a marketing tool designed to train and recruit players as potential soldiers. As Zyda (2006) remarks, players are “twice as likely to consider a career in the U.S. Army as those who didn’t play



the game.” While Zyda calls the game “the most widely used and successful serious game to date [in the world],” America’s Army teaches players how to shoot and to react, not necessarily how to think. According to Davis et al. (2004, p. 12), “Basic teaches you to think Army-style (forget shooting your drill instructor)” so it is possible the lack of emphasis on reflective thinking may have been intentional. Education is also hard to combine with entertainment; using a game in a classroom does not mean the students have effectively learned something (De Souza & Delacruz, 2006, p. 240). Wideman et al. (2007) note that evaluation of the effectiveness rather than just engagement of these games also needs to be implemented more accurately, with standardized measures. Writings by the proponents of games as learning platforms, such as Prensky (2001), Gee (2003), and Johnson (2005), have not conclusively shown that games are the best form of learning, or even that time spent playing games does not impede skill-based learning in other activities. This last point is more serious than many non-gamers realize: Yee (2006) has stated that online gamers play on average 20 hours a week and there has been recent debate over whether computer game playing can be considered potentially addictive (Rauth, 2006). Excessive playing of computer games may be deleterious to physical health, desensitize players to graphic acts of violence, or affect learning and engagement in other (academic) subjects. Would using interactive game techniques and technologies create a more engaging user experience or would it merely derail reflectivity (Coyne, 2003)? If we can animate the past in this way, will the entertainment factor help or impede learning, and how will we know how effective the interactivity is? Unlike many games and virtual learning environments in general, virtual heritage environments also have specific issues. For example, they typically have a set narrative to tell, or they

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are based on extrapolated data or over-arching hypotheses. How do we allow the freedom of interaction and personalization but also provide linear or multi-threaded narratives, or allow users to choose from and discern between varying archaeological interpretations and hypotheses? Dangers arising from using games as cultural learning experiences could involve confusing fact with fiction, developing violent or behaviorally undesired attitudes, or trivializing local customs and beliefs. Can we utilize the creative experiences afforded by games so people can experience factual, counterfactual, and hypothetical reconstructions of history? After all, games are quite happy to allow users to ‘muddy’ historical settings. One could counter that virtual heritage has much to learn from online games that call themselves ‘worlds’ (featuring persistence, social communication, and role-playing). Yet socialization is typically via voice-chat rather than inside the game, and the social roles and changing context are dictated and administered by the game company rather than by the users. As more than just visualization devices to showcase 3D content, practitioners need to develop ways of using game engines that: (1) explore, challenge, and foster social conventions, and help build awareness of social similarities or perhaps even differences; and (2) help educate people on the cultural significance of heritage sites and cultural practices. Richer forms of interaction and more sophisticated display technology may lead to further problems. There is perhaps some truth in thinking that in the past the limited capacity of many traditional virtual reality environments to represent social processes and ‘intangible’ heritage means that their virtual heritage environments can imply a certainty of knowledge that we actually do not possess. On the other hand, the dynamic and aesthetic features of modern game engines could impress us artistically, but impede or distort the scientific message that was meant to be conveyed.

Evaluation Issues The complexities of environmental design, uncertain audience needs, the vagueness of ‘cultural learning’, and the technological constraints of graphical rendering, processing, and networking ensure that applying contextual interaction from entertainment media to accessible virtual heritage environments complicates evaluation strategies. The first major problem for evaluating virtual heritage is thus to determine exactly what we are trying to improve through the testing of virtual heritage environments. How can we evaluate the success or failure of an attempt to recreate digitally a past culture? How do we know whether the designer’s goal is achieved in terms of the audience? It is not clear what the experimental goal is. Even if we have a definition of culture, what are the outcomes of tailoring virtual environments to communicate a sense of cultural presence or cultural significance? Is the objective to increase the participant’s knowledge or ability to extrapolate socially contextual principles of behavior? There is still the problem of defining cultural learning, and ensuring that this definition could produce clear and verifiable outcomes. Even if there are clear outcomes that can be tested with small statistical samples, evaluators must ensure that the testing is as close as possible to real-world use. Yet here in this emerging field the research literature is sparse, and comparisons with equivalent products and media are problematic. In conventional virtual environment research, biosensors offer up a range of interesting possibilities for evaluation and contextual interaction, and low-cost biosensors are even included with commercial games (such as Wild Divine). Unfortunately, there are specific issues with evaluating cultural presence that are not addressed by physiological testing. It is not clear how awareness of cultural presence in a virtual environment can be indirectly ascertained. Changes in brain state, heart beat, or skin temperatures do not necessarily



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mean the participant is either increasingly aware of cultural presence, or increasingly knowledgeable or skillful about a new cultural perspective. Secondly, there is also the issue of time; people have had years to build up knowledge of film and television, and even computer games. They may also take a long time to build up experience of virtual environments. We could use ethnographic methods or ask people in online communities to compare new interaction modes or new interfaces. Unfortunately, we do not know if they represent the complete spectrum of the target audience, while their knowledge is typically very specific and accumulated through potentially unhealthy amounts of time spent online (Yee, 2006). How much time is enough to evaluate the cultural understanding gained in the virtual environment? Thirdly, there is also the issue of which evaluation method to use. For cross-media comparisons, questionnaires are typically used, but they can be problematic. People may answer how they feel they are expected to respond, or may misinterpret the question, or simply lose interest. Many evaluations also ask people to answer Likert questionnaires and then aggregate the results, unaware that “strongly agree” is not easily reducible to a number. Fourthly, it is difficult to run comparisons of virtual environments against traditional media (to ask for cross-media audience preferences), because the form of interaction and the technology is so different and in some cases alien to the test subjects (Riihiaho, 2000, pp. 101-103). To argue that the content in a film and a game based on that film are comparablethis is to conflate narrative with self-directed interaction, ignore the atmosphere of a cinema, and equate high-tech surround systems with a desktop monitor. This is not just an issue of how to compare across technology, but also across different forms of media. If we are evaluating whether a control group using a standard interaction mode performs or understands a culture better or worse than a treatment group that is using a new mode of in-



teraction, we must make sure that the two modes of interaction do not differ greatly in cognitive loading. We must also ensure that the second group is not getting the same information twice. For example, Kavakli, Akca, and Thorne (2004) forgot to mention this effect in their interesting paper comparing learning history when playing a computer game to reading a text. Finally, we may wish to compare different types of interactivity to a virtual heritage environment, but different contexts in the same environment may require different forms of interactivity. An evaluation of virtual heritage projects by Mosaker (2001) indicates interactivity and personalization may be more important than realism. However, different forms of learning and different traditional ways of navigating environments or manipulating artifacts may require particular forms of interaction. For example, interaction appropriate to the cultural learning of a monk in a monastery may not apply to the learning in the farms that feed the monastery. In the former, one learns by instruction, while in the latter one may learn by trial and error, or by observation. The environment may thus dictate a specific type of interaction, or a specific combination of degrees or even kinds of interaction. Yet virtual heritage projects do not typically involve carefully modulated and monitored levels of interactivity. So we do not know which method of interactivity is most appropriate, for varying audiences, mediums, or recreated objects. Hence it is very hard to determine which features most aid cultural understanding, as it is so contextual. Unfortunately, academia has diverged rather than converged in attempting to solve the above issues. The general academic approach to dissemination is to deliver papers at conferences; however, heritage experts have gone on record as saying that there are too many conferences discussing this area, but not enough conferences moving the issues forward (Addison, 2006). This problem is exacerbated for game-based historical learning research. As both virtual heritage and

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serious games cover a wide range of technology (learning objectives, target audiences, and academic fields), it is difficult to gain both an extensive understanding of the field and a focused body of research targeting specific issues.

Controversies The capture and presentation of data is a contentious issue in virtual heritage and interactive history. Various scholars have attacked projects for providing an overly unified and homogenous view of disparate or uncertain archaeological sources (Frischer, Niccolucci, Ryan, & Barcelò, 2000). However, the dilemma in presenting conflicting or dubious sources while educating and not confusing the audience is not easily solved. For example, a major issue of contention is whether intangible heritage should be incorporated with reconstructions, with recent organizations and heritage charters advocating they be included (ICOMOS, 2007, p. 8). Yet, researchers concerned with material remains may ignore or avoid mentioning this topic. For example, Frischer and Stinson (2007, pp. 52-53) suggest virtual reconstructions are “a tool that can be used, by experts, to generate new discoveries and insights and, by the general public, to understand a site more quickly and effectively.” Yet intangible heritage is not mentioned in this chapter, and the value of helping the public understand the significance of a cultural site from the viewpoint of the original inhabitants does not seem to them to be a primary aim of virtual heritage. Secondly, if there is agreement on the authenticity of the data captured and transferred into digital form, there is still debate over what exactly virtual heritage is and where it is best employed. It is also possible that the interactive possibilities of interacting with historical visualizations may increase the public’s confusion between what is fact and what is fiction, as well as possibly tarnish the symbolic and spiritual authenticity of cultural artifacts and processes.

Thirdly, as discussed in this chapter, the best way for audiences to interact with historical and heritage-based content is still uncertain. Partly this is due to the highly context-dependent nature of the subject; partly it is due to the lack of extensive evaluations in the area; and partly it is perhaps due to the previously static and intuitionally fixed nature of virtual heritage with its previously limited means of interaction. Cheaper technology (such as improved gaming platforms and graphic cards, head-mounted displays, augmented reality, biofeedback devices, and other peripherals) promise to improve interaction richness, customization possibilities, immersivity, and engagement for the end user, but will make evaluations more difficult as more and more virtual heritage projects are experienced outside of the usability laboratory or test site and as peripherals and display settings are customized by end users. Finally, the issue of who are the experts and custodians of cultural heritage is also a matter of debate. For example, Frischer and Stinson (2007, pp. 54-55) note, “Often in the history of CVR, the analysis and authorship has been entrusted to the hands of computer experts, not of art historians, archaeologists, etc.”; yet, they do not mention indigenous people or other shareholders. Perhaps this is because many virtual heritage projects are of ancient and classical history, or because virtual heritage research has not been underpinned by a great amount of evaluation, so the custodial issue of who needs to update and maintain the virtual heritage project to improve its usability, accuracy, and effectiveness has not yet become such an issue. Still, it is not yet clear exactly who can be entrusted with the preservation and representation of history. History is not a static and immutable object, but a dynamic mass of interpretations, actions, intentions, and beliefs. Every group of people has its own viewpoints, issues, and outlook on the world. Without understanding this specific cultural agency, there is a danger that we may see the virtual heritage site only in terms of our own



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cultural perspective. Some critics such as Sardar (1996) and Suzuki (1997) have even described cyberspace and virtual reality as a ‘museumization’ of the world, and a way of subsuming anything non-western into a digital form. A limited ability to represent social processes and ‘intangible’ heritage can create another danger: the static and apparently immutable aspect of digital reconstruction can imply a certainty of knowledge that we actually do not possess.

Future Trends Viable technology for heritage and history will be more accessible and affordable for end users (Stone & Ojika, 2000); and as virtual heritage environments rely more and more on game technology (Addison et al., 2006), the above issues are likely to increase in significance. Such a development is likely to change significantly not just how virtual heritage projects are developed, learned, evaluated, and distributed, but also how history and cultural learning is taught and understood. I suggest there are two major trends of direct relevance to game-based historical learning. Firstly, we are entering a new era of digital convergence and collaboration. The increasing collaborative work on open-source (Jacobsen, Rendard, Lugrin, & Cavazza, 2005) and crossplatform technologies should also see the release of 3D models (Jacobson, & Holden, 2005) and augmented reality systems that will allow people to work on the interaction techniques, not just on modeling. Recent tools available inside the game engines will allow players to modify and share aspects of their game experience. The opening up of game consoles to home ‘modders’ and to hobbyist programmers, along with the explosion in thematic gaming peripherals, will increase the accessibility and imaginative possibilities of game-based historical learning. As more homes take up broadband and as streaming and compression technologies improve, we are also likely to see



far more textured and dynamic environments. Secondly, the traditional mouse and keyboard interfaces are giving way to more advanced, reconfigurable, and physically sensitive interface devices. We now have the possibility of adopting biosensors and physical computing devices (that are already appearing in commercial games) for virtual heritage environments. For example, while there have been interactive virtual environments with biofeedback mechanisms for over a decade (Davies, 1998), only in the last few years have we seen portable consumer devices (such as the Nintendo DS game Nintendogs) that rely on breath to control the interface. Such devices may allow us to monitor users’ performance, and preferences without disturbing their engagement in the experience could be usefully included in virtual heritage environments. For example, in games, data are gathered by innate interactive mechanisms (chat logs, health points, fully exploring and surviving a level, or acquiring a full inventory of artifacts). Such data could be compared against results from a pre-experience and post-experience user evaluation questionnaire to determine if we can gain user feedback on cultural immersion in virtual heritage environments, without users’ enjoyment being curtailed and without users being forced to participate in laboratory interviews or complete survey forms.

Solutions and Recommendations More powerful technology combined with more accessible scripting increases the potential of suitable interaction metaphors. For example, tangible computing and devices like biofeedback could dynamically update, overlay, or even erode the virtual environment with player sensations and experiences so that objects develop an ‘aura’ for future players. GPSs could even be used to show the weathering of the actual site as caused by tourists. The game engine’s shaders could change

Game-Based Historical Learning

the display settings (such as color, hue, or field of view) according to time, season, participant performance, or cultural perspectives. The virtual heritage environment could also be annotated or allow player-created or experientially defined maps to be shared among players. Maps can also be developed and learned to encourage appreciation of culturally thematic symbolic notation and description of social status and ritual importance. Game engines are not neutral and objective vehicles for displaying real-time interactive content; they are behavioral ‘skinner’ boxes, and they carry cultural genre baggage, and rely on perceptual affordances. There are many recent developments in psychology that we need to apply to social and collaborative virtual environmentsfor example, exploring how third-person views may encourage desired social behavior more than a first-person viewpoint. As a communal tool, virtual heritage may help social and community-based ownership through allowing ownership of digital resources, presentation, or networking or hosting; through linking the heritage project to online or off-line mapped or contactable community resources and providers; to updateable or taggable information via feeds, comments, user tagging or ratings, and blogs. Player communication could be filtered so that only by developing in-situ or collaborative communication can they explore or advance. This would encourage ways of appreciating difference rather than relying on conventional cultural assumptions. Avatar representation, interaction, and ability could vary according to social role, social importance, or cultural significance.

Implications for Designers, Teachers, and Researchers It may appear that entertainment and archaeology are strange bedfellows. Yet just as Hollywood and other film industries have contracted domain experts to help them create authenticity, game

companies could also consider hiring archaeologists, ethnographers, epigraphers, and historians to both help them with the setting and historical background, and advise them on how the game engine or editor could be adapted and developed to tap into the educational market. Sometimes, game companies even buy virtual heritage companies (French, 2007). And there exist already archaeologists who consider virtual environments and related digital media not as a rival to books or to conferences, but as a communication tool that can also gather feedback information from the general public, and disseminate the processes and not just findings of archaeological research (Gillings, 1996; Gillings & Goodrick, 2003; Anderson, 2003). These two groups need to agree on how both their interests could be best served. Game designers appreciate having the chance to market their games and game creation tools to a young and creative audience. Teachers and other academics have the chance to modify and evaluate sophisticated virtual environments and toolkits at a fraction of the cost of commercial virtual reality equipment. Further, industry-related prizes and media releases for new and useful interaction, and for finding content previously hidden, ignored, or misunderstood, could help fledging content producers from poorer countries access internships or training in visualization, virtual reality, and virtual heritage research centers. Information on free game engines such as Apocalpex, irrlicht, Blender 3D, Baja, Ogre 3D, and Crystal Space could be collated with virtual heritage templates and scripts available for download to speed production and improve content production. More collation on free or low-priced hardwareperhaps the MIT US$100 computer running Linux or a stripped PC running a free operating systemcould be provided to schools along with free versions of animation or modeling packages (such as SketchUp, Blender 3D, or the free version of Houdini, Softimage XSI, or game editors such as Unreal Runtime).



Game-Based Historical Learning

Improved technology coupled with intelligent guides and mentors require improved evaluation methods to ensure that virtual heritage environments are more likely to be developed for home use (not just for learning in the classroom), and hence non-intrusive innate evaluation (rather than evaluation in lab conditions) needs to be developed. These devices will probably originate with commercial game development, but they can also be taken up and shared by the academic community. There are also commendable attempts by researchers to standardize evaluations. For example, scholars in the related field of presence research have recently attempted to standardize their methods (Doron, Andrea, Angus, & Slater, 2005) and share their data, so that experiments can be corroborated and the field extended through shared knowledge. However, educationalists are needed to reevaluate how historical and cultural learning is best served by interactive digital media, and to help scientists appropriately choose contextual interaction that best suits the learning capabilities and interests of the audience, without simplifying or degrading the cultural content of the culture portrayed. To help standardize the use of games for virtual heritage, the many conferences that have virtual heritage as a section should consider specializing in aspects of virtual heritage and serious gaming in order to focus on specific issues, rather than duplicate an endless sea of academic papers that proclaim they use game-based technology, gameplay, or metaphors, without explaining how they have solved specific problems, catered to specific audiences, or advanced the field. While serious games-type conferences offer many advantages to history and heritage scholars entering the field, specialist panels on game-based learning in history and heritage conferences and workshops may provide more appropriate subject-orientated debate and discussion.

0

CONCLUSION Despite the implementation and evaluation issues, this is an exciting area to be in, especially for those of us who wonder whether the book is always the best medium to convey differing types of lived and conjectured knowledge. As Gillings (2002) notes, the issue is not how virtual reality can appear to be reality (i.e., be identical to the place that it recreates), but how virtual reality can augment the experience in a new and different way to reality. This also applies to the use of game-based historical learning. The advantages of using computer games are compelling, but we also need to improve the evaluation mechanisms by which these projects are judged so that the learning content rather than the technology continues to impress and continues to perform the role for which it was designed.

REFERENCES Addison, A.C. (2006, March). The vanishing virtual: Safeguarding heritage’s endangered digital record. In T. Kvan & Y. Kalay (Eds.), New Heritage: Beyond Verisimilitude. Proceedings of the New Heritage Conference on Cultural Heritage & New Media (pp. 36-48), Hong Kong. Addison, A.C., Refsland, S., & Stone, R. (2006). Special issue: Virtual heritage guest editors’ introduction. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, 15(3), iii-iv. Anderson, M. (2003, April). Computer games & archaeological reconstruction: The low cost VR, enter the past. Proceedings of CAA 2003, the Enter the Past + Workshop 8: Archäologie und Computer Conference, Vienna, Austria. Champion, E. (2005). Indiana Jones and the joystick of doom: Understanding the past via computer games. Traffic, A Vision Splendid, (5), 47-65.

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Champion, E. (2006). Evaluating cultural learning in an online virtual environment. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life-Long Learning, 16(3/4), 173-182.

on Authenticity, Intellectual Integrity and Sustainable Development of the Public Presentation of Archaeological and Historical Sites and Landscapes. Ghent, East-Flanders.

Coyne, R. (2003). Mindless repetition: Learning from computer games. Design Studies, 24(3), 199-212.

Frischer, B., Niccolucci, F., Ryan, N., & Barcelò, J. (2000, November). From CVR to CVRO: The past, present, and future of cultural virtual reality. Proceedings of the Virtual Archaeology between Scientific Research and Territorial (VAST) Marketing Euroconference, Arezzo, Italy.

Davies, C. (1998). Osmose: Notes on being in immersive virtual space. Digital Creativity, 9(2), 6574. Preliminary version published in Proceedings of the ISEA 6th (1995) International Symposium on Electronic Arts Montreal. Retrieved October 17, 2005, from http://www.immersence.com/publications/char/DigitalCreativity-F.html Davis, M., Shilling, R., Mayberry, A., Bossant, P., McCree, J., Dossett, S., Buhl, C., Chang, C., Champlin, E., Wiglesworth, T., & Zyda, M. (2004). Making America’s Army. In M. Davis (Ed.), America’s Army PC game vision (pp. 9-15). Monterey, CA: Wecker Group. De Souza, A.E., & Delacruz, G.C. (2006). Hybrid reality games reframed. Potential uses in educational contexts. Games and Culture, 1(3), 231-251. French, M. (2007). Blitz buys virtual experience company. Retrieved October 25, 2007, from http://www.developmag.com/news/26606/Blitzbuys-Virtual-Experience-Company Friedman, D., Brogni, A., Antley, A., Guger, C., & Slater, M. (2005, September). Sharing and analysing presence experiments data. Proceedings of Presence 2005, the 8th Annual International Workshop on Presence, London. Frischer, B., & Philip, S. (2007, September). The importance of scientific authentication and a formal visual language in virtual models of archaeological sites: The case of the house Of Augustus and villa of the mysteries. Proceedings of the Interpreting The Past: Heritage, New Technologies and Local Development Conference

Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Germanchis, T., Cartwright, W., & Pettit, C. (2007). Virtual Queenscliff: A computer game approach for depicting geography. In W. Cartwright, M.P. Peterson, & G. Gartner (Eds.), Multimedia cartography (2nd ed., pp. 359-368). Berlin/New York: Springer-Verlag. Gillings, M. (2002). Virtual archaeologies and the hyper-real. In P. Fisher & D. Unwin (Eds.), Virtual reality in geography (vol. 17-32). London/New York: Taylor & Francis. Gillings, M., & Goodrick, G. (1996). Sensuous and reflexive GIS exploring visualisation and VRML. Retrieved October 17, 2005, from http://intarch. ac.uk/journal/issue1/ Graft, K. (2006). Game industry shipments to hit $12.5 bln in ’06. Retrieved March 11, 2007, from http://www.next-gen.biz/index.php?option=com_ content&task=view&id=3640&Itemid=2 ICOMOS. (1999). Burra Charter. The Australia ICOMOS charter for places of cultural significance. Retrieved October 11, 2007, from http:// www.icomos.org/australia/burra.html ICOMOS. (2007, April 10). The ICOMOS charter for the interpretation and presentation of cultural heritage sites (proposed final draft). Retrieved October 26, 2007, from http://www.enamechar-



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ter.org/downloads/ICOMOS_ Ename_Charter_ENG_10-04-07.pdf Jacobson, J. (2007). planetjeff. Retrieved March 29, 2007, from http://planetjeff.net/horus/Screenshots.html Jacobson, J., & Holden, L. (2005, September). The virtual Egyptian temple. Proceedings of the World Conference on Educational Media, Hypermedia & Telecommunications (ED-MEDIA), Norfolk, VA. Jacobson, J., Le Rendard, M., Lugrin, J., & Cavazza, M. (2005, June). The CaveUT system: Immersive entertainment based on a game engine. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology (ACE 2005), Valencia, Spain. Johnson, S. (2005). Everything bad is good for you: How popular culture is making us smarter. London: Allen Lane. Kavakli, M., Akca, B., & Thorne, J. (2004, February). The role of computer games in the education of history. Proceedings of the IE2004 Australian Workshop on Interactive Entertainment, Sydney, Australia. Kensek, K., & Cipolla, N. (2002, October). Fantastic reconstructions or reconstructions of the fantastic? Tracking and presenting ambiguity, alternatives, and documentation in virtual worlds. Proceedings of the ACADIA 2002 Thresholds between Physical and Virtual Conference, Pomona, CA. Mosaker, L. (2001). Visualizing historical knowledge using VR technology. Digital Creativity, 12(1), 15-26. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Pujol Tost, L., & Economou, M. (2006). Evaluating the social context of ICT applications in museum



exhibitions. Proceedings of the 7th VAST International Symposium on Virtual Reality, Archaeology and Cultural Heritage, Cyprus. Rauh, S. (2006). Detox for video game addiction? Experts say gaming can be a compulsion as strong as gambling. Retrieved July 11, 2007, from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/07/03/ health/webmd/main1773956.shtml Riihiaho, S. (2000). Experiences with usability evaluation methods. Unpublished Licentiate’s Thesis, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland. Roussou, M. (2004). Learning by doing and learning through play: An exploration of interactivity in virtual environments for children. Computer Entertainment, 2(1), 1-10. Roussou, M., & Drettakis, G. (2003, November). Photorealism and non-photorealism in virtual heritage representation. Proceedings of the 1st Eurographics Workshop on Graphics and Cultural Heritage, Brighton, UK. Sardar, Z. (1996). alt.civilizations.faq: Cyberspace as the darker side of the west. In Z. Sardar & J. Ravetz (Eds.), Cyberfutures: Culture and politics on the information superhighway (pp. 14-41). London: Pluto Press. Smith, L. (2006). Gamefest 2006: Microsoft has 100M monthly gamers. Retrieved March 11, 2007, from http://www.1up.com/do/ newsStory?cId=3152853 St one, R . J. (20 05, Oct ob e r). Se r iou s gamingvirtual reality’s saviour? Proceedings of the VSMM 2005 Conference, Belgium. Stone, R., & Ojika, T. (2000). Virtual heritage: What next? Multimedia, 7(2), 73-74. Suzuki, H. (1997). Introduction. In S. Ken & H. Suzuki (Eds.), The virtual architecture: the difference between the possible and the impossible. Japan: Kenchiku Hakubutsukan.

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UNESCO. (2003). Convention for the safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0013/001325/132540e.pdf UNESCO. (2007). Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://whc. unesco.org/en/conventiontext/ Wideman, H.H., Owston, R.D., Brown, C., Kushniruk, A., Ho, F., & Pitts, K.C. (2007). Unpacking the potential of educational gaming: A new tool for gaming research. Simulation & Gaming, 38(1), 10-30. Yee, N. (2006). The labor of fun: How video games blur the boundaries of work and play. Games and Culture, 1, 68-71.

KEY TERMS Cultural Presence: A visitor’s subjective impression when visiting a virtual environment that people with a different cultural perspective occupy or have occupied that virtual environment as a ‘place’. Such a definition suggests cultural presence is not just a feeling of ‘being there’ but of being in a ‘there and then’, not the cultural rules of the ‘here and now’. Cultural Significance: The ICOMOS (1999, p. 7) Burra Charter defines this as the “aesthetic, historic, scientific, social or spiritual value for past, present or future generations. Cultural significance is embodied in the place itself, its fabric, setting, use, associations, meanings, records, related places and related objects. Places may have a range of values for different individuals or groups.” Digital History: Can be described as the visualization of historical resources using digital technology.

Game-Based Historical Learning: The focused use of real-time rendering engines, game editors, game platforms, game peripherals, and/or game-style interaction metaphors to help the public enhance their awareness of historical issues and heritage sites. Generally, the term implies the virtual environment experience is best achieved by playing, but that what is learned through such game-play is designed to be perceived as being culturally or scientifically significant and authentic. This technology may also help scientists communicate, collaborate with each other, or otherwise evaluate various hypotheses on the validity, construction, significance, use, maintenance, or disappearance of historic- and heritage-based sites, artifacts, and cultural beliefs. Intangible Heritage: UNESCO (2003) defines this as “the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skillsas well as the instruments, objects, artefacts and cultural spaces associated therewiththat communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals recognize as part of their cultural heritage.” Interactive History: A shortened form of the more unwieldy phrase ‘interactive digital history’, it can be seen as the development of digital resources that teaches historical learning through interactive media. Mod: Many computer games now come with editors that allow users to modify the game or import their own ‘levels’, 3D assets, characters, or scripts. These new or modified game levels are called mods. Serious Games: Related terms are gamebased learning, edutainment, and eduventures.The “Indiana Jones” dilemma: popular media such as Indiana Jones and Lara Croft: Tomb Raider have popularized archaeology, but they are actually violent action films and do not promote careful and deferential approaches to archaeological relics and heritage sites. This raises a dilemma:



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how should archaeology best make use of this popularization while distancing themselves from the vandalism, sensationalism, violence, and shoddy scholarship? Virtual Heritage: Aimed at visualizing the significant and revealing aspects of a culture through its artifacts and the records it leaves behind. Virtual heritage is thus a ‘visualization’, ‘restoration’, ‘recreation’, or ‘reconstruction’ of objects, events, beliefs, and places of cultural significance.





Chapter XIV

The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education Phillip J. VanFossen Purdue University, USA Adam Friedman Wake Forest University, USA Richard Hartshorne University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA

AbstrAct In this chapter, the authors will report evidence for the potential of MMORPGs for social studies education by providing a detailed review of relevant literature from the fields of game studies, educational technology, and the social networking universe. This evidence will include game scholars’ efforts to develop classroom applications of MMORPGs in the social sciences and related disciplines, and also provide examples of ‘citizenship education’ already occurring with MMORPGs. The authors will also provide an overview of perceived costs and benefits associated with classroom MMORPG use, including logistical hurdles that need to be overcome. They will also share a list of recommendations to the field for classroom use of MMORPGs, as well as implications for policy changes and future study.

INtrODUctION World of Warcraft. Ultima Online. Everquest. Second Life. Star Wars Galaxies. Asheron’s Call. While these titles may sound like the latest ‘straight-to-DVD’ titles at your neighborhood

video store, they are not. What do these have in common? They are some of the most popular MMORPGs (massively multiplayer online roleplaying games; pronounced ‘mor-pegs’) in the world today. With the proliferation of broadband Internet access, MMORPGs, and the number of

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The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

players who play them, have exploded over the past five years. Indeed, there are currently more than 13 million active MMORPG players around the world (Woodcock, 2005). These MMORPGs are not our parents’ (or, for that matter, our own) video games. Rather a MMORPG is a form of online computer role-playing game in which a very large number of players (in some games, upward of 100,000) interact with one another in a synthetic world (Castronova, 2005). Within the MMORPG, a player takes on a fictional character (an in-game representation known as an avatar) and is responsible for nearly all of that character’s actions within the synthetic world: from earning a living, to buying food and clothing, to—most importantly—interacting with fellow players. Many MMORPG players spend much of their waking free-time playing their ‘game.’ For many MMORPGs this might mean joining a guild, learning a trade, building a house, trading with fellow players, or starting a shop. These players take on a persona in these synthetic worlds and interact with thousands of other players role-playing similar characters. What lessons do they—or can they—learn about how to participate in a society, how to earn a living, and how to protect their rights? In short, what do these players learn about how to develop and hone their skills as citizens in society? Gee (2004) goes so far as to state that “computer and video games are going to become the predominate form of popular culture interaction in our society” (p. 2). Mitch Kapur, CEO of Linden Labs (creator of Second Life), believes that MMORPGs have “the potential to fundamentally change how humans interact” and that MMORPGs may even “accelerate the social evolution of humanity” (The Week, 2007, p. 11). What might these online games and gaming (specifically MMORPGs) have to do with social studies and citizenship education?



In this chapter, the authors will report evidence for the potential of MMORPGs for social studies education by providing a rich and detailed review of the relevant literature from the fields of games studies, educational technology, and the social networking universe. This evidence will include game scholars’ efforts to develop classroom applications of MMORPGs in the social sciences and related disciplines (Prensky, 2001a; Castronova, 2005) and also provide examples of ‘citizenship education’ already occurring in MMORPGs (Arnseth, 2006; Jenkins, 2006). Indeed, we are just now at the cusp of researching the potential of MMORPGs to improve the teaching and learning of citizenship education, and so this chapter is a call to investigate the efficacy of their use in social studies and citizenship education today and in the future. The authors will also provide an overview— from the literature—of perceived costs and benefits associated with classroom MMORPG use, including logistical hurdles that need to be overcome. They will also share a list of recommendations to the field for classroom use of MMORPGs and for future study by social studies educators which includes the following: •

•

•

Developing MMORPG-based instructional environments that include specific, obtainable, and measurable objectives; Developing teaching and assessment methodologies that utilize MMORPGs in ways that enhance student learning that otherwise would not be available, as Mason et al. (2000) advocate; and Addressing curricular issues and implications for policy changes related to the effective and appropriate integration of MMORPGs into the social studies curriculum.

The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

THE SOCIAL STUDIES AS EDUCATION FOR DEMOCRATIC CITIZENSHIP As the Center for Civic Education (1995) reported, “Democracy is not a ‘machine that will go of itself’, but must be consciously reproduced, one generation instructing the next in the knowledge and skills, as well as the civic character and commitment needed for its sustenance” (p. 3). In other words, if a democracy wishes to continue, then it must actively socialize its future citizens in the necessary requirements for democratic citizenship. Many believe, along with noted political scientist Benjamin Barber (1992), that “education and democracy are inextricably linked and that in a free society the link is severed at our own peril” (p. 9). Moreover, the American public school system evolved, at least in part, to ensure the education of young citizens into our democratic society. In the American case, the primary curricular home for that citizenship education has been the social studies. In fact, the widely held mission of the social studies, according to the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS, 1994), has been to help “students develop a core of basic knowledge and ways of thinking drawn from many academic disciplines, learn how to analyze their own and others’ opinions on important issues, and become motivated to participate in civic and community life as active, informed citizens” (p. vii). More explicitly, the NCSS (1994) defined the social studies as: …the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law, philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the humanities,

mathematics, and natural sciences. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world. (p. 3, emphasis added) If the primary mission of social studies education is preparation for democratic citizenship, then what does such a citizen know and what can she do? Engle and Ochoa (1988) stressed that basic civic knowledge was essential, of course, but that an ‘ideal’ citizen also possesses a reasoned commitment to democratic principles “and an understanding of how these principles apply in every aspect of life from the most local of social groups to the peoples of the entire world” (p. 17). They went on to note that the strength of a democracy lies in the “broad and intelligent participation of citizens,” and that decision-making skills and “all of the knowledge and attitudes that go into making intelligent decisions are at the heart of democratic citizenship” (p. 18). Thus, the ‘ideal’ citizen—for Engle and Ochoa (1988)—possesses the following: (1) basic civic and general knowledge, (2) dispositions that support democratic principles, (3) participation skills including political skills, and (4) intellectual skills including decision-making skills (pp. 18-26).

Basic Knowledge Engle and Ochoa (1988) believed that basic ‘civic’ knowledge consists of knowing what institutions—governmental, economic, etc.—exist in society and how each of these institutions work. In addition, they stressed that democratic citizens needed to understand cultural differences, understand the historical antecedents to current society, and be aware of “the major problems that confront society and be knowledgeable about them” (p. 23).



The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

Dispositions that Support Democracy What dispositions or character traits are essential to democratic citizens? The Curriculum Standards for Social Studies of the NCSS (1994) stated that certain values are essential for democratic citizens and that these included valuing “fundamental rights as the right to life, liberty, individual dignity, equality of opportunity, justice, privacy, security, and ownership of private property. They include as well the basic freedoms of worship, thought, conscience, expression, inquiry, assembly, and participation in the political process” (p. 8). Parker and Jarilomek (1997) noted that “without certain dispositions, self-governance and civic life would be impossible” (p. 11). Their list of such dispositions included such character traits as “a reasoned commitment to the public values of this society…knowing the basic rights guaranteed all citizens [and] treating oneself and others with respect” (p. 12). Engle and Ochoa (1988) expressed similar goals. They noted that students “should come to have a more reasoned understanding of democracy, including such ideas as freedom of choice, openness to new ideas…the protection of minority rights and opinions; freedom of the press, freedom of religion, freedom to speak one’s mind and academic freedom” (p. 23).

Democratic Participation Skills The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) Civics Consensus Project (1996) concluded that if citizens are “to exercise their rights and discharge their responsibilities as members of self-governing communities,” they need “to acquire relevant intellectual and participatory skills” (p. 24). The Center for Civic Education (1995) described these skills as follows: To be able to think critically about a political issue, for example, one must have an understanding of the issue, its history, its relevance, as well as



command of a set of intellectual tools or considerations useful in dealing with such an issue. Thus equipped, a citizen is better able to evaluate, take and defend positions on issues. (p. 5) Engle and Ochoa (1988) stressed that such skills must go beyond the ability to retrieve and remember information, and that “the skills needed by citizens of a democracy are more complex in nature and focused on the utilization of knowledge in making decisions” (p. 25). Among these skills were: the ability to make reasoned judgments in light of conflicting evidence, being able to see a problem in its broadest possible context, and being able to select and apply the most relevant information for a particular problem.

BEYOND DIRECT CIVIC INSTRUCTION: MMORPGS AND THE SOCIAL STUDIES Thus the ‘ideal’ democratic citizen requires a wide array of knowledge, skills, and dispositions. Some of these are not necessarily best taught using direct instruction, as they require types of engagement that involve higher-order thinking skills. Moreover, the next generation of citizens is what Prensky (2001b) refers to as “digital natives.” These are young people, born after 1984, for whom digital technology has become ubiquitous. Indeed, Prensky (2001b) estimates that high school students today have spent twice as many hours engaged in video game-play as reading books. Thus, educating these digital natives, coupled with the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2005 estimation that 41.9% of 18- to 24-year-olds participated in the November 2004 election (as compared with 58.3% of the total population over 18 years old) presents unique challenges to social studies and citizenship education. One approach that holds potential for educating citizens to reach Engle and Ochoa’s (1988) vision is through the use of MMORPGs. Interactions in

The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

these virtual, synthetic worlds can mirror those in the ‘real’ world and outside society in terms of rules, laws, economic interaction, and civic engagement, thus providing a potential teaching tool by which to develop citizens in the manner Engle and Ochoa (1988) envisioned. One vehicle through which this may occur could be the popular MMORPG Second Life (commonly referred to as SL), which has more than 6.8 million ‘real-world’ members from every continent that inhabit its ‘virtual world’ (Second Life, 2007a). As Engle and Ochoa (1988) noted, however, in order for a society or community to prosper, it is necessary for there to be a set of rules and/or laws that its members adhere to, and simultaneously a mechanism by which these may be enforced. Furthermore, John Locke, in his Second Treatise (1689/2005), stressed that this is the only reason for a society to bond together in the social contract: that the main purpose of establishing government is to protect the “life, liberty, and estates” of all members of society. Locke also stressed that a civil government does not have the right to arbitrarily take away the life, liberty, or property of any individual. Three centuries later, compare these ideas with the ‘civil government’ in MMORPGs such as Second Life. Put simply, the civil government in a MMORPG environment is the site administrator, and the laws (or rules of the game) can be enforced by warnings and, ultimately, suspension from the game for a specified period of time. In effect, by agreeing to the “End User Licensing Agreement” (EULA) or “Terms of Service” (which is required in order to register for an account), a user is agreeing to a type of ‘social contract’ within this virtual government—one that has far-reaching and autocratic powers. For example, a portion of Second Life’s (2007b) Terms of Service states that “Linden Lab may suspend or terminate your account at any time, without refund or obligation to you.” In addition, Second Life has “Community Standards,” whereby violation may “result in suspension or, with repeated

violations, expulsion from the Second Life Community” (Second Life, 2007c). Further, perhaps in an effort to bring attention to the offenders, certain MMORPGs contain a ‘police blotter’ in which recent wrongdoers and their offenses can be viewed (Dibbell, 2006). Some legal scholars have examined the importance of such ‘social contracts’ for online communities. Fairfield (2007) argued for the need for contracts (beyond the EULA) that secure the necessary legal relationships required for such online communities to thrive. According to Fairfield, such contracts would ensure simple default rules such as definition and enforcement of private property, “freedom from force and fraud, reliable enforcement against criminal acts, and some basic constitutional protections, including the ability to speak and convey necessary information to the market” (p. 3). This social structure presents an opportunity to examine the importance of citizenship education concepts such as power of the government, property rights, and consent of the governed, and to compare these with the Lockian ideal. The individual user is at the complete discretion of the game operator. This form of authoritarian rule is not without opponents, however, as virtual citizens’ rights groups have begun to develop. For example, the Virtual Citizenship Association (http://www.virtualcitizenship.org/) is a worldwide organization dedicated to protecting the rights of MMORPG users and developed a social contract underscoring the basic tenets and rights to which they subscribe, particularly the notion that individuals own the avatars that they create (Virtual Citizenship Association, 2007). In a separate effort to represent individual MMORPG users, the Second Life Liberation Army (SLLA) has been created, with an overarching mission to “achieve political rights for avatars within Second Life” (Second Life, 2007). In terms of teaching and learning social studies, both of these examples present an opportunity for students to learn about dissent and civic action in a number



The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

of contexts, as students may compare the similarities and differences between the SLLA and other forms of protest and civil disobedience, such as the civil rights movements in the United States or Mahatma Gandhi’s leading India’s struggle for independence, as well as the underlying principles of the U.S. Constitution.

Civic Participation on a Global Scale The use of MMORPGs is not limited to the United States, as this is a worldwide phenomenon. In fact, a recent study estimates that over 20 million people in China have participated in MMORPGs (BBC News, 2005). At first glance this might be an interesting topic by which to study contemporary Chinese culture, as it might be a representation of other aspects of early 21st century China such as Internet connectivity, industrialization, and the world’s burgeoning interconnectedness, as espoused in Friedman’s (2005) The World is Flat. However, deeper currents run through this statistic. Because the Chinese notion of citizenship and governmental control differs from the United States, it is interesting to note how participants under the auspices of different ‘real’ governments act within virtual ones. An example of this took place in China in July 2006; a user who had been playing the MMORPG Fantasy Westward Journey (FWJ) for over two years was placed in jail (in the virtual world) because his username (“Kill the little Japs”) was deemed offensive to Japanese players. When the player refused to change it, he was removed from the game and his in-game property was confiscated (Jenkins, 2006). This triggered an online protest ‘march’, with more than 80,000 individuals logged on to the game’s server to register their displeasure at the FWJ ‘government’ decision (Jenkins, 2006). This case study of FWJ presents several ‘teachable moments’; not only is the history of Chinese-Japanese relations important, but this can also demonstrate the benefits of protest and self-determination in the context of government.

0

At the same time, it is also a lesson in the importance of providing and enforcing private property rights. It is significant to note that this player had spent roughly 30,000 RM (about US$2,750) to acquire property within FWJ, yet the property was stripped from him without ‘due process.’ As such, an interesting discussion topic might be who has the right to control an individual’s avatars, the property an avatar acquires, and how this might be compared with property rights in the real world. Most importantly, perhaps, this ‘synthetic world’ example has important parallels to the evolution of ‘real-world’ democratic societies. Comparing the reaction of FWJ ‘citizens’ to those of the British Colonies in America or India has the potential to illuminate the role of citizens in moving society toward self-government, a key tenet of Engle and Ochoa’s (1988) ‘ideal’ citizen.

Economic Education One aspect of being an effective citizen is economic wherewithal (NCSS, 1994), and because MMORPGs often mirror the ‘real-world’ economy, they lend themselves to teaching economic principles, particularly concepts such as supply and demand, intrinsic value, as well as currency exchange. MMORPGs can be used as teaching tools in this regard, whether a teacher or class decides to join it or not. As an activity, a class could navigate to the Second Life Web site (http://secondlife.com/) and from there a variety of economics concepts can be taught. For example, the homepage contains statistics such as the total number of residents (over 6.8 million) and how much money has been spent in the past 24 hours in both U.S. currency (over $1.5 million) as well as LindenDollars currency. In fact, SL recently opened an official, online currency market called LindeX (http://secondlife.com/whatis/economy-market.php). Students could compute descriptive statistics such as per capita in-game spending, as well as prevailing rates for currency exchange and real estate prices for land in SL.

The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

Reuter’s has a SL News Center (http://secondlife. reuters.com/) that regularly reports on breaking economic news from within the SL world, including exchange rates and real estate prices. Using these data, principles of currency markets and exchange rates could be taught, with questions posed as to what might serve to increase or decrease the value of Linden currency. Students could also calculate inflation in SL by using these data to create a SL consumer price index. The Second Life Web site could also be used to teach the concepts of supply and demand, intrinsic value, and investments in real estate. As of this writing, an island in Second Life costs US$1,675 for about 16 acres. Students could be asked what factors this price might be a function of, and in answering this fundamental question, they might better understand principles of supply and demand. Certainly, $1,675 for 16 acres of land is a price many times cheaper than can be found in the ‘real’ United States. However, Second Life has a distinct advantage in the real estate market relative to the real United States: while the real United States has a limited quantity of land for a growing population (thereby bidding up real estate prices), Second Life can simply add another server to its Web site in order to support expansion. As students are learning these principles, they can also learn the economic concept of the value theory of price—that is, virtual land is only worth what people will pay for it. Land in Second Life in and of itself is clearly a much more abstract notion than owning a piece of property; however, it may be a better investment from an economic point of view. First off, the start-up costs are much lower (US$1,675 for 16 acres would be impossible to find in the ‘real’ United States) and therefore much less of a monetary risk for the investor. Because of this lower price, it is less likely that an investor would need to borrow money from a lender in order to finance this purchase, and it is possible that the return on investment might be higher than if an individual purchased ‘real’ real estate.

It is also possible for users to earn a real profit from synthetic goods and services. In 2005, journalist Julian Dibbell spent a year trying to earn a real living in the synthetic world of UltimaOnline™ (http://www.uoherald.com/). Dibbell did what thousands have done in the synthetic world: he created ‘virtual’ goods (gold pieces, spells, clothing, weapons, etc.) and tried to sell them in the real world economy to players who—whatever the reason—wished to purchase these goods rather than spend the time accumulating them within the game. Most of these real money transactions (or RMTs) were facilitated through eBay auctions, but in 2006 Sony Corporation went so far as to open up an RMT exchange within its game EverQuest II. Economists have estimated the size of the RMT economy at close to $1 billion (Dibbell, 2006). That is $1 billion in real currency spent on ‘synthetic’ goods and services within ‘synthetic’ worlds. Dibbell reported on more than his success in RMTs, however. While attending a conference on serious gaming, he described what many believe to be the unrealized potential of MMORPGs—the opportunity to teach those who participate in them about democracy, property rights, and markets: A tingling and vaguely political excitement was the dominant mood—a sense that distributing control more equally among the stakeholders of an online world was good not just for business, but for society…a famous legal scholar in attendance made the case that Western democracy itselfwith its free markets, universal suffrage, and bill of rightshad succeeded mainly because it was the most efficient and least costly way to manage massively multicitizen societies. Why should it be any different for the massively multiuser collectives emerging online? (pp. 192-193) It is interesting to note Dibbell’s analogy to Western democracy, as recent events in China demonstrate that RMT can be subject to government regulation. In its March 2007 blog, the



The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

Virtual Economy Research Network reported online that the Chinese government, in an effort to dissuade trading and profit earning in virtual economies, will impose “strict limits on the volumes of virtual currencies issued by operators and the amounts purchased by consumers.” However, it should be noted that at the time of the blog posting, the authors noted that no action had been taken. Nevertheless, this too presents an interesting concept to teach within the context of citizenship education, as the definition and rights of citizens and their economic interactions in different parts of the world may be compared and contrasted. Perhaps nowhere is the potential of MMORPGs for teaching about key civic and economic ideas greater than in the study of property rights. Both free markets and free societies are predicated on clearly defined and enforced property rights. Indeed, without guarantees that property rights are both exclusive and transferable, individuals within a society have little incentive to improve their economic station. Certainly these are important concepts for future citizens and consumers to grapple with, and, to some degree, Prensky’s (2001b) “digital natives” have already addressed issues of intellectual property during the Napster/ file-sharing debate from the late 1990s. Moreover, Lastowka and Hunter (2004) argued that, just as in the ‘real’ world, private property systems must evolve if the virtual worlds are to remain commercially viable, and MMORPGs present innumerable opportunities to discuss what happens in societies without such property rights. Consider the case of intellectual property rights in Second Life. SL members create nearly anything they can imagine—clothing, buildings, music, restaurants, furniture, islands, etc.—and members own the intellectual property rights to what they create. This means that anyone who wishes to wear a piece of clothing designed by another member must pay the owner for the privilege. Until recently, this approach to intellectual property rights was unusual in that most



MMORPGs required players to transfer all copyrights in any and every expressive act the players might engage in, including their avatars, to the MMORPG owner. A recent example from Second Life illustrated the potential for exploring property rights. In November 2006, SL faced a threat to its virtual economy when some players discovered other players using a program called CopyBot to copy objects in SL. This program allowed players to make multiple copies of any item and thus ‘steal’ virtual property from its owners. One resident noted the “essence of creativity in (SL) is largely because of creators and their work being protected…” and that “this tool defeats all protection” (Terdiman, 2006, p. 2). Further, as CNET News reported, it was not clear what Linden Labs (SL’s owners) “can do to stop people from using the bot” (Terdiman, 2006, p. 1). What happens when a player’s in-game property rights are violated? Lastowka and Hunter (2004) as well as Dibbell (2006) have noted that some communities in synthetic worlds will turn offenders into toads, may empower informal police forces to identify violators, and may even hunt down offenders and kill them (in the game, of course). Dibbell reported the emergence of a de facto police force in Ultima Online made up of game masters whose job it was to combat ‘black hat’ hackers who operated in-game robots to mine gold, thus disadvantaging other players. This police force ensured the rules of the game were followed by all. Why this extreme enforcement? In part, because synthetic worlds have rarely had formal legal mechanisms for defining and enforcing property rights. In some sense, this makes the potential for study all the greater, as some synthetic worlds might be likened to pre-Magna Carta England, prior to the evolution of civil law addressing property. Thus, students could examine the case of a MMORPG that does not have existing institutions for defining and enforcing property rights, and then contemplate the consequences.

The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

Participation Skills MMORPGs have other potential advantages as well. Because MMORPGs are a worldwide phenomenon, it is not uncommon for a user to interact with participants who live in other countries and are members of other cultures and religions (Alvarez, 2006). It is hoped that the relationships that are fostered through MMORPGs will lead to an increase in understanding and tolerance of others, which is a fundamental goal of citizenship education. Finally, another benefit (although perhaps less measurable) of MMORPGs is that they can lead to an increased ability of individuals to engage in teamwork. The skills of being able to work and get along with others, as espoused in Fulghum’s (1988) All I Really Needed to Know I Learned in Kindergarten, are invaluable as they transcend social studies and school in general, and can have an impact on future relationships and careers. However, developing online relationships comes with a word of caution: it should be noted that teachers, students, and parents should be offered cybersafety training as a method of “protecting young people from embarrassment or harm” (Berson & Berson, 2006, p. 127).

Decision-Making Skills Yet another advantage of MMORPGs is the promotion of the development of decision-making skills. The dynamic and complex environments present in MMORPGs provide various scenarios, each with multiple variables and sources of information. These scenarios afford participants opportunities to continually analyze information, interpret variables and information, and make decisions related to both their short- and long-term goals (Galarneau & Zibit, 2007; Johnson, 2005). As opposed to most classroom environments, decision-making opportunities are presented in rapid succession and through multiple formats in an effort to provide as much relevant information as possible. Interacting with this information

requires complex decision-making skills. Hence, MMORPG environments not only offer numerous opportunities to practice decision making, but also more dynamic and complex scenarios and sources of information resulting in a richer and deeper decision making. Additionally, unlike many classrooms, participants in MMORPG environments are provided immediate feedback regarding their decisions. Thus, consequences are immediate, but without ‘real-world’ implications (Prensky, 2005).

IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL STUDIES RESEARCH AND PRACTICE Games and play have been a subject of serious scholars and academics for more than a century. Such work has tended to emerge from the field of sociology, and many of the well-known scholars who have written about games and play have been noted sociologists (e.g., Max Weber, Johan Huizinga, etc.). The study of the games that were developed for use on early computers tended to fall to computer scientists. Recently, however, a new group of scholars has focused on the study of computer and video games. These scholars have attempted to understand not just video and computer games, but the players who play them and the interactions between them. Two organizations are representative of much of the work in this new field: The Serious Games Initiative (http://www.seriousgames.org/index2. html) and Game Studies: The International Journal of Computer Game Research, an online journal. The Serious Games Initiative “was founded at the Woodrow Wilson Center for International Scholars in Washington, DC.” and is focused on the study of games “for use in exploring management and leadership challenges facing the public sector. Part of its overall charter is to help forge productive links between the electronic game industry and projects involving the use of games



The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

in education, training, health, and public policy” (Serious Games Initiative, 2007). Game Studies is a “crossdisciplinary journal dedicated to games research, Web-published several times a year at www.gamestudies.org.” The primary focus of this journal is “aesthetic, cultural and communicative aspects of computer games,” and the journal provides “scholars a peer-reviewed forum for their ideas and theories; to provide an academic channel for the ongoing discussions on games and gaming” (Arnseth, 2007). Among the questions explored by both groups is the role of computer gaming in education and learning. Indeed, the explosion in popularity of computer games and “developments in information and computer technologies more generally have resulted in a renewed awareness of the potentials of simulations and games among researchers interested in learning and cognition” (Arnseth, 2006). Scholars in games studies have also begun to investigate how players learn to play video and computer games, and to what degree game-play might constitute a particularly effective way of organizing learning activities (Aldrich, 2005; Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001b). Most importantly, scholars and policymakers have become “concerned with whether games might become more integrated with official school curricula” (Arnseth, 2006). Have game studies scholars investigated the possible citizenship education applications of games and gaming? Indirectly, yes. Squire (2002), writing about the potential role of educational and social science research in digital gaming noted: Still, little is known about what players are learning through playing SimCity? Is it deepening their appreciation for geography, helping them develop more robust understandings about their environment, or perhaps promoting misconceptions about civic planning? How does a game such as Civilization III work as a cultural simulation? Does it impact players’ conceptions of politics or diplomacy? Is there any way to reappropriate Civilization for use in history classes? Given the



immense influence of SimCity and Civilization in present game design, what innovations might be sparked by games built around science, engineering, literature or architecture subjects? How might these innovations have an impact on the rest of game design? (paragraph 10) Although there are a number of potential instructional benefits to MMORPGs, various logistical considerations must be taken into place before they will be able to be adopted into the K-12 environment. These range from evaluating student performance, to negotiating firewalls, to meeting districts’ acceptable use policies. First and foremost, in the standards-driven model of schools today, it is imperative that every student be evaluated; therefore, a clear method of assessment must be developed for each student and the learning outcomes that they produce by participating in a MMORPG. As noted earlier, because MMORPGs are not ‘games’ in the traditional sense with clear winners and losers, designing assessment of student participation might prove especially challenging. Another consideration is how MMORPGs relate to the ‘reality’ of school curriculum today, particularly that of the social studies. Traditionally, social studies teaching has involved teacher-centered, fact-driven instruction (Goodlad, 1984), and Cuban (2001) points out that despite the influx of computer hardware in the K-12 environment and their potential to transform teaching and learning, they have not made as appreciable an impact as their advocates had claimed. More recent research reveals that standardized testing has reinforced this type of pedagogy, particularly in the social studies, as instruction is often provided at the lowest level of Bloom’s Taxonomy often little more than “glorified information gathering” (Friedman, 2006; VanFossen, 1999/2000, p. 104). A question of logistics is also paramount. First and foremost, in order for students to actively engage with a MMORPG, there would need to

The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

be significant classroom access to computers, as students could work alone or in pairs. To use a MMORPG, a school does not need a software license per se as they would other software, but it would cost money to buy land or space in a particular MMORPG, and for some MMORPGs, additional costs such as a one-time registration fee or a recurring monthly user fee exist. Also, because these sites have been developed for adults, it would be necessary to ensure that their use would meet a district’s Acceptable Use Policy (AUP), as well as pass through firewalls. In regards to this, it should be noted however that Second Life has a teen (under 18) version, which can be found at http://teen.secondlife.com/, and was created in order for teenagers from around the world (ages 13-17) to interact with one another in a safe environment, with “Linden Liaisons” monitoring interactions (Second Life, 2007b). Additionally, students would need to have computer access on a regular basis. A final consideration is moving beyond past generations’ perceptions of games as trivial endeavors. As previously mentioned, MMORPGs are not our parents’ (or even our own) video games. There are few parallels with popular MMORPGs of today (World of Warcraft, Ultima Online, and Second Life) and the popular games of past generations (Trivial Pursuit, Dungeons and Dragons, and Monopoly). Because of this incongruency and lack of experience with MMORPGs, today’s adults have little understanding of the complex nature (and learning benefits) of the games of today’s children. Additionally, they have difficulty moving beyond their view of games as trivial pursuits (Prensky, 2001a, 2005). In order for MMORPGs to become more prominent in social studies and citizenship education, it is critical that today’s adults are afforded opportunities to look beyond their past experiences with the ‘games’ of their generation and explore the ‘games’ of the digital native’s generation and their potential benefits for teaching and learning.

CONCLUSION These concerns and costs are very real. Do they outweigh the admittedly vast potential MMORPGs seem to hold for social studies and citizenship education? Where do we go from here? Indeed, while it may not be feasible (nor necessarily a good idea) at this point in time for K-12 social studies students to participate in a MMORPG, the potential benefits of their use as a learning tool are too great to ignore. Therefore we have developed a list of recommendations that should be in place for MMORPGs to be used effectively, which includes the following: • •

•

Develop lessons that include specific, obtainable, and measurable objectives; Create a teaching methodology that utilizes MMORPGs in a manner that enhances student learning that otherwise would not be available, as Mason et al. (2000) advocate; Establish an individualized evaluation alongside a rubric to ensure that each student attained the objective. At first, this might be accomplished by using and referring to a MMORPG site within a lesson, similar to the economic examples from Second Life described above.

In order for this vision to become a reality however, it is our contention that there needs to be some structure for teachers to take the first step, and simultaneously, teachers need to feel comfortable within the MMORPG environment. Therefore, it might initially be helpful to work with teachers who are experienced MMORPG users, as they might better be able to envision how MMORPGs could be used in the classroom. In so doing, there is an abundance of potential. For example, in the name of academic study, several islands could be purchased with different government and economic systems. Not only could these differing systems be compared, contrasted, and analyzed, but over the course of weeks and



The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

months, concepts in history could be studied as well, as decisions made in the past will impact the present. Castronova (2005) has proposed using large MMORPGs as just such ‘Petri dishes’ for experiments in economics. In addition, interactive learning environments for MMORPGs are being created; for example Sloodle (Second Life Object-Oriented Distributed Learning Environment) combines Second Life with Moodle, which is an online course development system. This hybrid system highlights the pedagogical benefits of both SL and Moodle, while muting the pedagogical drawbacks of each. Benefits of SLsuch as simplicity of content modification, ability to facilitate collaboration, three-dimensionality, and the integration of multimedia—are combined with benefits of Moodle—including limited hardware demands, integration with communicative technologies, management of learning activities, and organization and access of instructional materials—to afford teachers opportunities to create immersive, three-dimensional instructional settings (Kemp & Livingston, 2006). We are just now on the cusp of researching the potential of MMORPGs to improve the teaching and learning of citizenship education. One specific example of implications for social studies research can be seen in deKanter’s (2007) preliminary study of leadership traits and MMORPGs. deKanter wanted to determine: 1.

2. 3.

How do leadership characteristics in an online community compare to those in the ‘real’ world? Do leadership experiences from the virtual world transfer to the ‘real’ world? Does participation in a virtual community encourage or limit civic participation in the ‘real’ world?

In order to answer these questions, deKanter (2007) used a modification of Flanagan, Sy-



vertsen, and Stout’s (2007) civic engagement measure to survey guild leaders in several popular MMORPGs (World of Warcraft, Runescape, etc.). deKanter (2007) determined that the guild leaders developed key communication skills and exhibited more civic agency than non-leader players. In addition, although his sample was very small (n=47), deKanter found some transfer to ‘real-life’ civic engagement in that two-thirds of the sample were registered voters, 100% of whom had voted in the last local election. As MMORPGs continue to integrate into mainstream society, this chapter is a call for investigation of the efficacy of their use among young people today as they prepare to become the citizens of tomorrow. While voter participation in general is lower in the United States than in other industrialized nations, this apathy is particularly acute among 18- to 24-year-olds. While there are a number of reasons why this might be the case, this aspect of the social studies’ goal of developing “active, informed citizens” has not, for the most part, come to fruition. While MMORPGs are not necessarily a panacea to this problem, their use within the social studies classroom may be an impetus to move social studies instruction and learning from the teacher-centered environment described by Goodlad (1984) to more of an active subject in which students, particularly the “digital natives” described by Prensky (2001b), are prepared to assume the office of citizen (p. 1).

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Arnseth, H. (2006). Learning to play or playing to learn: A critical account of the models of communication informing educational research on computer gameplay. Game Studies: The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 6(1). Retrieved February 15, 2007, from http:// gamestudies.org/0601/articles/arnseth BBC News. (2005, August 25). China imposes online gaming curbs. Retrieved June 11, 2007, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4183340. stm Barber, B. (1992). An aristocracy of everyone: The politics of education and the future of America. New York: Oxford Press. Berson, I.R., & Berson, M.J. (2006). Privileges, privacy, and protection of youth bloggers in the social studies classroom. Social Education, 70(3), 124-128. Bogost, I. (2006). Water cooler gameslive from the serious games summit (day 1). Retrieved February 20, 2007, from http://www.watercoolergames. org/archives/000658.shtml#swain Castronova, E. (2004). Game development and social science. Journal of Game Development, 1(1), 91-94. Castronova, E. (2005). On the research value of large games: Natural experiments in Norrath and Camelot. CESifo Working Paper Series No. 1621. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=875571 Clegg, A. (1991). Games and simulations in social studies education. In O. Shaver (Ed.), Handbook of teaching and learning in the social studies. New York: Macmillan. Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Dibbell, J. (2006). Play money: Or, how I quit my day job and made millions trading virtual loot. New York: Basic Books. deKanter, N. (2007, July 23-26). A guild-ed future: Lessons in leadership from massively multiplayer on-line games. Proceedings of the 2nd James F. Ackerman Colloquium on Technology and Citizenship Education, W. Lafayette, IN. Retrieved from http://www.edci.purdue.edu/ackerman/colloquium/2007/PPT_ files/Ackerman07nk.ppt Engle, S., & Ochoa, A. (1988). Education for democratic citizenship: Decision making in the social studies. New York: Teachers College Press. Fairfield, J. (2007). Anti-social contracts: The contractual governance of online communities. Retrieved September 4, 2007, from http://ssrn. com/abstract=1002997 Flanagan, C.A., Syvertsen, A., & Stout, M.D. (2007). Civic measurement models: Tapping adolescents’ civic engagement. Retrieved from http://www.civicyouth.org/PopUps/WorkingPapers/WP55Flannagan.pdf Friedman, A.M. (2006). State standards and digital primary sources: A divergence. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 6(3). Retrieved from http://www.citejournal. org/vol6/iss3/socialstudies/article1.cfm Friedman, T.L. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Fulghum, R. (1988). All I really needed to know I learned in kindergarten: Uncommon thoughts on common things. New York: Villard Books. Galarneau, L., & Zibit, M. (2007). Online games for 21st century skills. In D. Gibson, C. Aldrich, & M. Prensky (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning: Research and development frameworks (pp. 59-88). Arlington, VA: Information Science.



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Goodlad, J.I. (1984). A place called school: Prospects for the future. New York: McGraw-Hill. Huizinga J. (1944/1971). Homo ludens. London: Beacon Press. Jenkins, H. (2006). Confessions of an ACA/fan: The official Weblog of Henry Jenkins. Retrieved February 20, 2007, from http://www.henryjenkins. org/2006/08/national_ politics_within_virtu_ 1.html Johnson, S. (2005). Everything bad is good for you. New York: Penguin. Kemp, J., & Livingstone, D. (2006, August). Putting a Second Life “metaverse” skin on learning management systems. In D. Livingstone & J. Kemp (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second Life Education Workshop at the Second Life Community Convention (pp. 13-18). Paisley, UK: University of Paisley. Lagorio, C. (2007). The ultimate distance learning. The New York Times, (January 7). Retrieved January 14, 2007, from http://www.nytimes. com/2007/01/07/education/edlife/07innovation. html Lastowka, G., & Hunter, D. (2006). The laws of virtual worlds. California Law Review, 92(1). Locke, J. (1689/2005). Two treatises of government and a letter concerning toleration. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mason, C., Berson, M., Diem, R., Hicks, D., Lee, J., & Dralle, T. (2000). Guidelines for using technology to prepare social studies teachers. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 1(1). Retrieved from http://www.citejournal.org/vol1/iss1/currentissues/socialstudies/article1.htm NCSS (National Council for the Social Studies). (1994). Expectations for excellence: Curriculum standards for social studies. Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies.



NCSS. (2001). Creating effective citizens. Retrieved June 27, 2007, from http://www.socialstudies.org/positions/effectivecitizens/ Parker, W.C., & Jarolimek, J. (1997). Social studies in elementary education (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Prensky, M. (2001a). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Prensky, M. (2001b). Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6. Prensky, M. (2005). In educational games, complexity matters: Mini-games are trivial—but “complex” games are not: An important way for teachers, parents, and others to look at educational computer and video games. Educational Technology, 45(4), 22-28. Regan, T. (2006). What if civics class were an online game? Christian Science Monitor, (June 14). Retrieved February 12, 2007, from http://www. csmonitor.com/2006/0614/p17s01-cogn.html Second Life. (2007a). What is second life? Retrieved February 15, 2007, from http://secondlife. com/whatis/ Second Life. (2007b). What is teen second life? Retrieved February 21, 2007, from http://teen. secondlife.com/whatis?PHPSESSID=fd2f0483f a59dbc38997d0b606402f09 Second Life. (2007c). Terms of service. Retrieved May 23, 2007, from https://secure-web9.secondlife.com/corporate/tos.php Second Life Liberation Army. (2007). Second Life Liberation Army. Retrieved June 7, 2007, from http://slla.blogspot.com/ Squire, K. (2002). Cultural framing of computer/ video games. Game Studies: The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 2(1). Retrieved February 15, 2007, from http://www. gamestudies.org/0102/squire/

The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

The Week. (2007). Living in a virtual world. The Week: The Best of the U.S. and International Media, (February 16). U.S. Census Bureau. (2005). Voting and registration in the election of November 2004. Retrieved June 19, 2007, from http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/voting/cps2004.html VanFossen, P.J. (1999/2000). An analysis of the use of the Internet and World Wide Web by secondary social studies teachers in Indiana. International Journal of Social Education, 14(2), 87-109. Virtual Citizenship Association. (2007). The social contract. Retrieved June 11, 2007, from http://www.virtualcitizenship.org/page/project_socialcontract Virtual Economy Research Network. (2007). Government rumbles, Chinese virtual money markets stable for now. Retrieved May 24, 2007, from http://virtual-economy.org/blog/government_rumbles_chinese_vir Woodcock, B. (2005). MMOG chart. Retrieved March 14, 2007, from http://www.mmogchart. com

KEY TERMS ‘Active’ and ‘Effective’ Citizenry: Active, democratic citizenship is a broad definition, which the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) posits can take “diverse forms.” This can range from individual citizens “becoming informed about issues and voting in elections” to participating in political and social movements (NCSS, 1994, p. vii). Examples of this include, but are not limited to, writing a letter to an editor, participating in a letter-writing campaign, participating in a political Weblog, and contacting an elected official. NCSS (2001) defines an effective citizen as one who has the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to assume the “‘office of citizen’ in our

democratic republic.”. NCSS defines an effective citizen as one who: • • •

•

•

•

•

•

• •

Embraces core democratic values and strives to live by them; Accepts responsibility for the well-being of oneself, one’s family, and the community; Has knowledge of the people, history, and traditions that have shaped our local communities, our nation, and the world; Has knowledge of our nation’s founding documents, civic institutions, and political processes; Is aware of issues and events that have an impact on people at local, state, national, and global levels; Seeks information from varied sources and perspectives to develop informed opinions and creative solutions; Asks meaningful questions and is able to analyze and evaluate information and ideas; Uses effective decision-making and problem-solving skills in public and private life; Has the ability to collaborate effectively as a member of a group; and Actively participates in civic and community life.

Citizenship Education: The young people of today may learn effective citizenship skills in a variety of courses. For example, students may learn about individuals involved in the development of the U.S. Constitution in a history course, but the application of laws and amendments in a civics or government class. NCSS (2001) states that: To accomplish this goal [of effective citizens], every student must participate in citizenship education activities each year. These activities should expand civic knowledge, develop participation skills, and support the belief that, in a democracy,



The Role of MMORPGs in Social Studies Education

the actions of each person make a difference. Throughout the curriculum and at every grade level, students should have opportunities to apply their civic knowledge, skills, and values as they work to solve real problems in their school, the community, our nation, and the world. Digital Immigrants: Prensky (2001b) defines “digital immigrants” as “those of us who were not born into the digital world but have, at some later point in our lives, become fascinated by and adopted many or most aspects of the new technology” (pp. 1-2). Digital Natives: Prensky (2001b) defines “digital natives” as the first generation of students to “have spent their entire lives surrounded by and using computers, videogames, digital music players, video cams, cell phones, and all the other toys and tools of the digital age” (p. 1). Social Studies: “The integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence. Within the school program, social studies provides coordinated, systematic study drawing upon such disciplines as anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography, history, law,

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philosophy, political science, psychology, religion, and sociology, as well as appropriate content from the humanities, mathematics, and natural sciences. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world” (NCSS, 1994, p. 3). Further, “In social studies, students develop a core of basic knowledge and ways of thinking drawn from many academic disciplines, learn how to analyze their own and others’ opinions on important issues, and become motivated to participate in civic and community life as active, informed citizens” (NCSS, 1994, p. vii). The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS, 2001) also states that “the core mission of social studies education is to help students develop the knowledge, skills, and values that will enable them to become effective citizens.” Generally speaking, at the secondary level, a wide variety of courses falls under the umbrella of social studies. These include United States and world history, civics, government, economics, geography, sociology, psychology, and anthropology.



Chapter XV

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension Brock Dubbels University of Minnesota, USA

AbstrAct In this qualitative study, literacy practices of “struggling” seventh and eighth graders were recorded on videotape as they engaged in both traditional and new literacies practices in an after-school video games club. These recordings were analyzed in the context of building comprehension skills with video games. The students struggled with reading and are characterized as unmotivated and disengaged by the school, which may be at the root of their inability to use comprehension strategies. Playing video games is viewed here as a literate practice, and was seen to be more engaging than traditional activities (such as reading school text, writing journals, etc.). The conclusion of this observation makes connections to current research in comprehension and provides a basis for teachers to use games to develop comprehension and learning.

INtrODUctION Games are designed to be accessible and can be used to develop print-based comprehension in reluctant and struggling readers. The goal of this chapter was to help make those connections clear, and demonstrate the need for this approach through observations of an after-school video game club where game-play was examined from a theory of comprehension and then examined in a non-laboratory context from the perspective

of cultural cognition, often known as cognitive ethnography (Hutchins, 1995). The after-school games club was created for the enrichment of students who had been pulled from mainstream classroom instruction to help them become more successful readers with comprehension strategies. Two videotaped sessions of the games club were analyzed in the context of games being new narratives that depend upon comprehension processes.

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Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

Comprehension is transmedial. It is not dependent upon a specific medium. It is a cognitive process that is an artifact of cultural and sociallymediated cognition. School and academia have their own cultures of cognition, and when we look at school, we need to remember that not everyone uses academic language or has experience with academic cultural values at home. Academic culture at school is another culture with a different language and different values for many people. Comprehension translates across cultural boundaries based upon the way we share information. In its most basic sense, comprehension is pattern recognition, and this can be found in games, texts, dance, and whatever composed cultural communication and expression. The socio-cultural implications of the way these students approached games may be of assistance in helping educators to build upon informal learning to develop traditional academic learning. With an understanding of this, we can begin to teach for transfer and recruit prior experiences, and perhaps become strategic in our use of games for developing comprehension.

Comprehension in the Wild vs. Comprehension in School—the Problem Defined Often we assume that once students enter the classroom, they are ready to learn and perform whatever we give them. This approach ignores the possibility that these students may have rich lives outside of classroom culture, where they solve problems and have their own cultural models that frame and develop cognitive competencies (Lee, 2007). In order to engage students, we may need to learn about their cultural activities and their values to make connections and create transfer. When it comes to learning, connecting to prior knowledge is essential. Many young people do not know what they want in 10 years, but they know what they are interested in now. What this chapter has begun



to explore is how an after-school reading remediation program was modified into a games club curriculum that aligned with student interest to make reading instruction more like an activity the club members might engage in if they chose the activity. In this case, they did choose the activity, and we worked to create connections and transfer. This choice empowered the students rather than alienating them with threats that they would never go to college if they did not pass a reading test. So we encouraged them to play video games since that is what they wanted to do. We decided that games could provide a connection to the types of literate activities that kids might be participating away from the classroom environment. The foundation of the approach in the “Games Club” was to tap into activities that he kids wanted to participate in and make connections, and build upon their strengths and interests. This connection to the life of students outside of school, or in the wild, might begin to make school more relevant and possibly aid in our attempt to connect them to traditional academic culture, while also acknowledging that what they do outside of school is valuable too. According to O’Brien and Dubbels (submitted, page 3): Reading is more unlike the reading students are doing outside of school than at any point in the recent history of secondary schools, and high stakes, print-based assessments are tapping skills and strategies that are increasingly unlike those that adolescents use from day to day. The connection could build a portal to showing how school learning could help the students in their interest areas. What we wanted to move away from was strategies instruction or direct instruction about how to read. Many students have shown themselves to be tenacious in their reluctance to participate in this kind of instruction. And for good reason, strategies instruction may condition students to look outside of themselves for answers, rather than using the knowledge

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

they have in a methodical way—the key is in helping the readers to become strategic, rather than consumers of strategies. The strategies that we traditionally have used do not meet the needs of all readers in all reading conditions. According to researchers (Narvaez, van den Broek, & Ruiz, 1999), strategies that are often taught to students are not equally applicable to every text that they read. Some texts are fictional, some expository, and some are detailed, some of multiple plot lines, and some organized a single character’s experience. Research has shown that asking readers to use different strategies can lead them to make different inferences using those different strategies, even with the same piece of text (Narvaez et al., 1999). Strategies just will not do it all. People who have a hard time reading need to be provided the incentive and opportunity to experience a variety of literate experiences—preferably ones that scaffold the reader to integrate a variety of strategies where they build a repertoire of tools for interpreting and organizing texts into a coherent model in their minds of what is happening in the text. Students need to be able to recognize when a text will be organized in certain ways for conveying information in different ways. This genre level approach to reading utilizes the reader’s prior knowledge to build expectations of the text built from prior knowledge of organization, themes, and plot characteristics. So it is crucial that our readers be strategic, not consumers of strategies. To become strategic with comprehension, it is important that students read a variety of texts (Allington, 2006), and these texts do not need to be print, just a composed message. It is important that educators not ignore new literate practices like video games in favor of spending more time to practice test-taking, strategies instruction, and reading traditional texts. Although these traditional genres and assessments are important, they assess interactions with the world in ways that are disconnected from the new skills, knowledge,

and abilities necessary for being successful today, found through engaging and producing in today’s culture. What we did not want to do was to turn the kids completely away from academic reading and learning. This was an attempt to coax them into reading and building comprehension with media more to their liking. This approach is an important approach, not only from my experience in the classroom, but from the research literature. Adolescents’ perceptions of their competence may be a more important predictor of whether they will engage with difficult texts across the disciplines than their past reading performance (Alvermann, 2001; Guthrie & Wigfield, 2000). Thus, support in high-interest and quick-success activities may reward trial and effort, and lead to the possibility that students who have disengaged and lost confidence will make renewed attempts at the work of building traditional academic skills. This belief can build courage and resilience, and most importantly, tenacity. Tenacity is often the trait that works against educators. Students who have disengaged are often tenacious when it comes to avoiding what they do not want to do. With reading, this is especially true. Guthrie and Wigfield (2000) and Alvermann (2001) make a case that struggling adolescent readers have disengaged from reading and are unlikely to re-engage when offered strategies instruction alone. For this reason, using high-interest literate practices in the classroom may provide a gateway activity for connecting with more traditional forms of literacy. New media literacies can be used as a method for convincing students that they are capable of complex reading and comprehension. The first step is for educators to acknowledge that the world of media that students participate in is valuable. Recruiting these new skills for classroom instruction, learning about students’ experiences with new media, and helping students build confidence and competency might convince them that they can have this same success in participating in more



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

traditional literacies like standardized tests and literary analysis. Students can build upon what they know, using their problem-solving abilities to learn and make connections for transfer between different academic domains. The second step is having educators who are capable of finding and connecting the literate activities so that they can be recruited with confidence to support the students’ attempts to become more competent readers. This can be done if we understand that comprehension is transmedial—that is, comprehension is not print dependent, and that many of the key processes in comprehending print are also used in a variety of other composed communication and media. I believe we can teach just about anything and relate it to the traditional content areas taught in school if the learner is willing to engage with us and try to make the connection. Video games provide this opportunity to engage reluctant learners and also provide a bridge for print-based competency. With video games as the big picture, the students from the games club were willing to tolerate our talk about reading and our asking them about their learning. Perhaps it is needless to say here, but the kids were excited about playing video games at school. It was pretty amazing working with these students and having the influence to persuade them to slow down and reflect on their literate practices and watch them develop as readers and comprehenders; but this does not begin to resemble what we normally assume as a traditional reading intervention. Typically, students are separated out from successful readers for remediation, which often resembles drill and practice.

Traditional Views on Literacy There is great depth in our literary traditions and the culture of inquiry across disciplines. What I would like to see is the opportunity for young people to learn experientially, and games



can provide this hands-on reflective experience in the right context. I am not suggesting that we abandon Chaucer in favor of taking kids on graffiti field trips for tagging buildings and creating gangster rap—although this would make for an interesting Canterbury Tale—but if the instructor is able to make connections between high-interest activities that are not hurtful or illegal, we may be able to show the value of traditional academic content and traditions in relation to what is interesting to students today. This is called teaching for transfer. Traditional views on reading comprehension such as those put forward by the National Reading Panel (2002) state that slowing reading down, helping students to monitor their comprehension, and making relationships between objects in the text and the students’ prior experience is important for building comprehension—and comprehension is reading. But this is not the whole picture. The key is getting the students to connect and participate, and to act on what they have read. When they can demonstrate and embody the information in performance, we can look at their comprehension as a demonstrable knowledge act. Although this government report has received much attention, there has also been much criticism of the NRP’s round-up of research. Snow (cited in Paris & Stahl, 2006) emphasized that we should begin to examine comprehension from the perspective of theories and empirical research on reading comprehension, rather than from constructions of comprehension found in standardized tests. According to Snow, we need to work from a theory of comprehension and localize our assessments, making this process part of what we teach in the classroom, rather than use a standardized test, which is a one-way transaction constructed for the convenience of the evaluators—and this requires teachers who have some idea of what comprehension is, and how those teachers can help students develop comprehension skills.

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

Reading and Comprehension in Schools Today Often teachers are not preparing their students for the change in the purpose of why they read in later grades. Around fourth grade, many students are asked to read and comprehend. They are reading to learn, rather than learning to read. They are no longer asked to show that they can just decode with fluency (Chall, 1983), but to take what they read and act upon the information in the text and apply it in a knowledge act. They are asked to read independently and comprehend to participate in discussions and inform their projects like book reports and research for the science fair. Interestingly, this time of reading to learn is when many young people begin to struggle. When readers do not get the help they need, they may find that their struggles escalate, as texts become more difficult and provide less contextual support. Two major phenomena in schools that may be the result of this are called the “fourth-grade slump” and the “eighth-grade cliff,” where the reading expectations are raised and reading scores drop. This difficulty for young readers seems to be compounded by the fact that many upper-elementary-grade and secondary school teachers do not know how to teach reading (Kamil, cited in Grosso de Leon, 2002, p. 1). The “fourth-grade slump” and the “eighth-grade cliff” can be avoided with a strong foundation of skills that support comprehension and vocabulary development in the primary grades, and continued maintenance and development of these abilities throughout a child’s school career. Unfortunately, these students are often put in situations where their instruction takes the form of remediation, and they are often given texts that are easy to decode, but immature in content. This content is often a source of discomfort for readers who already know about being a child, when what they are really hungry for is to learn more about what it is like to be older.

Unfortunately, these students are often in environments where the teacher does not know this and does not have the skills or the time to work individually with struggling readers. This often escalates to where students become frustrated and become known as behavior problems, acting out to avoid the discomfort of reading, and eventually they are tracked, labeled, and acquired by a learning disability (McDermott & Varenne, 1995), sent away to rooms sequestered from students who can read and perform in the mainstream.

Why Games? Games represent a high-interest, accessible medium to build comprehension, and in using games we can continue to engage in topics that are complex, provocative and motivating, and not often found in texts designed to be simplified for the sake of decoding. Games will also help to get these students to reconnect with reading and learning, and create a basis for developing and using comprehension strategies. With this in mind, this knowledge and experience of theory can provide an opportunity for educators to bootstrap traditional print-based literacy and engage students in comprehension development. Regardless of whether we are talking about comprehension in novels, articles, sculpture, or dance, comprehension comes from dialogue and interaction, where the learner gathers information and must act upon it in some way—feedback and reflection are essential. Feedback and interaction were central to the work of Lev Vygotsky, as depicted in Figure 1 (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988, p. 35). In this model called the Zone of Proximal Development, the external dialogue created by interaction in stage 1 eventually becomes internalized, and through this internalization individuals go through a process where they learn to selfmonitor, learn to observe, learn to practice, learn to receive feedback, and ultimately they learn to refine the process of comprehension through



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

Figure 1. The zone of proximal development

questioning and verifying what they know in what can be called a knowledge act. Vygotsky (1978) maintained that children imitate what they see adults do, and this gradually develops into the ability to do certain tasks without help or assistance. We need to start with where the student is at with their ability to solve problems, and then under the guidance of a more experienced problem solver, their ability is extended—this is called the Zone of Proximal Development. Games can provide the interaction, relevant feedback, and demand mastery in the same way a competent instructor can scaffold a learner through the Zone of Proximal Development. In a classroom situation, where a teacher has 30 or more students, and 55 minutes to work with them, it is unlikely that teacher will be able to work one-onone with each student in a meaningful way every day. But it is possible that games can provide the kind of accessibility, interaction, and instruction to develop comprehension that young people who struggle to decode might benefit from, but more importantly, games may give incentive to reengage in developing essential reading skills.



What Teachers Need to Know The big idea here is that games are built upon many of the same comprehension elements that are incorporated in reading printed text. There is a tradition of consideration of video games as new narratives; Laurel (1993), Murray (1997), Aarseth (1997), Frasca (2003), and Crawford (2005) agree that there are narrative elements, but that games are also designed to be interactive in the way that they tell stories. As Frasca (2003) describes, the aspects of simulation and problem-solving components of the game are also very compelling, and are what he called the ludic aspects of the game: the elements that instigate play—see also Salen and Zimmerman (2004). These elements create the feedback and demand knowledge acts, where the player must gather information, decide what is useful, and use it to act to get through a puzzle. This process of game-play demands that the player acquire and act upon the information they gather. This view of games, play, and learning presents a highly flexible and powerful form of comprehension, and it is generally instinctual, but often needs mentoring, modeling, and practice to develop.

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

Learning and Play Are Inseparable Play can be seen as an evolutionary adaptation (Sutton-Smith, 1997) useful in transferring culture, knowledge, and developing proficiency in tool use, as well as the creation of knowledge, culture, and tools, (Mumford, 1945). Above all, play represents an opportunity for exploration and inquiry in a context where the cost of failure is the opportunity to learn from a mistake. In play, knowledge is gathered and acted upon, a very powerful process to develop experience and comprehension. Play is visible evidence of comprehension. It is an expression of and toward comprehension. It is a knowledge act. Play is one of the building blocks of comprehension. With play, children and adults seek and explore through observation, manipulation, and imitation. When we play, we take our prior knowledge and attempt to create order and demonstrate competence. With toys, children are interacting with a representation of something that adults use. My own son likes to play with cars. He makes engine sounds and drives them around with screeching tires. He also likes to take on roles

and imitate with toys that are representations of the tools we use for productivity. At right we see him in his own office with the same tools mom and dad use. What he was doing was building a repertoire of how things work and what they are used for in his memory. From an evolutionary perspective, he is using his imagination to prepare for a time when he will drive and also to share, communicate, and produce culture through knowledge of cultural artifacts like cars and computers. This process of visualization, belief systems, and cultural roles are important aspects of learning. Shaffer (2006), in his description of epistemic games, provides depth and detail on how these elements work in games (and this is exemplified and contextualized later in Figure 2). Games are a structured form of play, and what teachers need to understand is that play is learning, and by structuring play, we can create a higher degree of engagement and effort. Games allow for the kind of learning that encourages mastery, builds resilience and tenacity, innovation and creativity, as well as practice solving problems. Play creates comprehension through knowledge acts, whether the learner is performing or investigating.

Exhibit 1.



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

Games, Play, and Learning are Inseparable As children develop and grow, their play becomes more complex, and we begin to see imaginative play, with language and visualization, use of complex ideas, actions, tools, and language, and interaction and shared play with others. If you look at a game, it generally is composed of a number of elements that are structured to create the interaction and experience that children and adults enact in play (Figure 2) such as imagination, role-playing and identities, rules, branching, and choice, as well as incorporating the use of probability and chance. Games are tools for learning, but what is important for educators to know is how to use games that structure and extend play and create reflection. Often tools are useful in helping individuals to learn complex problem solving and pass along cultural knowledge, but what we often fail to account for is that tools are not as powerful until used in an activity with intention. Kids may have grown up in a digital age, but this does not make them digital natives. They may just be strangers in a strange land that they want to know more about—we can provide the passport.

Figure 2. Elements of games and play



We need to consider play as the foundation in an approach to using video games, and we need to recognize that games may represent an activity that is complex and relevant enough to engage students in learning and developing comprehension skills. But games are not enough. In education, we often talk about the tools, because the tools are often the measure of what we take to be progress in education. Often the tools we use such as tests and software are thought to be capable of definitive assessment. And if the software helps improve test performance, it must be improving learning over all. This is not always the case, and more often than not it is the way the tool is used that is important. We are foolish to think we can just give out the tools and easily replicate this (Cuban, 1986). It is important to understand that tools are only as powerful as the way they are employed. The central role of the tool may be one of the major obstacles educators will need to overcome in the classroom if schools and teachers are going to remain relevant for preparation of young people for the new global labor force. Games should not be seen as a panacea, but they may be used as powerful tools.

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

Play and the way that we learn to use tools should be the focus. Play changes the discourse around learning. It implies making mistakes, trying new things, and creativity and innovation— traits necessary for knowledge workers. It also takes the pressure off of children who are already under tremendous pressure to perform in school settings that regularly insist on going faster and covering more ground because we are all so far behind. Play can bring some more humanity into our classroom teaching, and it is also a proven method for learning and developing cultural competency—and games represent more formalized and structured approaches to this cultural learning often found in informal learning environments often known as the wilds away from school.

The Take-Home Message Play is how we share and transfer physical and intellectual tools to our young and other community members. Huizinga (1938), the author

of Homo Ludens, stated that play is the basis of culture. According to Mumford (1954), it was imitation, role-play, the creation of miniature environments, and the symbolic fields of play where every function of life was modeled as a game to develop competency and advance what was known and will be known. Perhaps play and representation is the factory of our conceptual abilities, and if play involves the creation of abstractions and models of the world, then sharing play necessitates complex communication as well as a means for innovation and production. This makes it the perfect method for developing comprehension.

A Model for Comprehension In terms of understanding the elements of comprehension, the tradition of discourse processing provides ample opportunity to look at comprehension as transmedial. Kintsch (1988, 1998), in presenting the Construction Integration Model, suggested that there were three levels of representation of text (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. The Event Indexing Model



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

Two additional levels of discourse processing were later added by Zwann, Langston, and Graesser (1995), and account for literary elements often associated with genre and the author’s purpose and style that are used for top-down processing. These levels are: •

•

The text genre level: Accounts for the kinds of information presented, how the information is presented, and the ways in which the information is to be interpreted The communication level: Involves the reader constructing a representation of the writer of the text

The Event Indexing Model, which includes all five boxes from Figure 3, provides insight on events, or situations as portrayed in a variety of media, which are the made up of the interrelated elements. This level can be very useful for teachers to know how to develop comprehension in their students and create transfer between different media experiences; and it is the basis for the transmedial nature of comprehension. If students have struggled to decode, games and film can provide a more accessible entry point at the situation model level (level 3 experiences),

Figure 4. Dimensions of a situation model

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where they can interact with complex texts and narratives without the cognitive load of decoding text and making meaning from it (bottom-up processing). With games, much of the action, the context, and the actors are depicted (they are shown in pictures), and also described through the action and narrative text in the print and audio of character dialog and narration. This depiction with description allows for clarification for how we should view the context and understand the situation with the directing of our attention (Kress, 2003), and may lessen demand on the propositional level from the text to make a mental image representing what is being described in the text. This contextualization of images with printed traditional text informs and focuses the player, and offers the experience and information to embody the reading and comprehension experientially. Thus, the learner makes a more robust model of the situation to develop and build the representation as the narrative evolves. This might allow for the student to draw from prior experience and use top-down processes to make meaning of the events and comprehend without the taxation on processing from decoding, therefore utilizing and further developing comprehension.

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

But How Does This Help Decoding? When a reader has well-developed comprehension skills, he or she can recruit prior knowledge to bootstrap lower-level processes (Stanovich, 2000); this is an important idea for making a case for using more accessible texts that are relevant and interesting to the learner. Once again, the reader can use higher-level process in order to support lower-level process (Stanovich, 2000). What makes teaching with games to develop comprehension meaningful are the second and the third level, called the propositional and situation levels. The propositional level is where we decode communications into the situation level. The situation level is where the reader represents many of the elements and descriptions that go into making a mental model of a situation. On this level, the learner constructs a mental representation of the situation experienced, remembered, read, perceived, or described in a real or imaginary world (Zwann, Langston, & Graesser, 1995; Zwann & Radavansky, 1998). When working to teach reading with this information, it is important to connect to prior knowledge and build and compare the new information to prior situation models or prior experience. Consider a story board or a comic strip where each scene is defined and then the next event is framed. Readers need to learn to create these frames when comprehending text. Each event in a text should then be integrated and developed as an evolution of ideas presented; as each scene builds with new information, the model is updated and expanded. If the event that is currently being processed overlaps with the events in working memory on a particular dimension, then a link between those events is established, then a link between those events is stored in long-term memory. Overlap is determined based on two events shar[ing] an index (i.e., a time, place, protagonist, cause, or

goal). (Goldman, Graesser, & van den Broek, 1999, p. 94) Thus, we must build our understanding. The attributes of a situation model can be made much more robust and much more easily accessible when prior knowledge is recruited and connected into what we already know, and less effort will be made of finding the familiar. Two types of prior knowledge that support this in the Event Indexing Model are: •

•

General world knowledge (pan-situational knowledge about concept types, e.g., scripts, schemas, categories, etc.), and Referent specific knowledge (pan-situational knowledge about specific entities).

These two categories represent experience in the world and literary elements used in defining genre and style as described from the Event Indexing Model. The theory posits that if a reader has more experience with the world that can be tapped into, and also knowledge and experience about the structure of stories, he or she is more likely to have a deeper understanding of the passage.

Genre Expectation It is possible that when we are familiar with “once upon a time,” we will be familiar with the structure and purpose of fairy tale stories. Thus we begin to expect certain events, characters, and settings that we may be able to predict, and can therefore be surprised and entertained when the story has a twist or when an element that was unexpected is presented. Further, van den Broek et al. (2001) report that readers engage in a different style of reading according to genre expectations, and that reading purpose will inform the notion that readers differentially allocate their processing resources according to their expectations about the genre of



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

the text—so when readers have familiarity, they generally have a tactic or strategy for engaging with the text. It would be expected that a reader with little or no familiarity would use a button mashing style of trial and error when playing a game, just as a reader would cast about for meaning when trying to comprehend a passage in a challenging text. To sum this up, comprehenders parse clauses of texts into events on five situational dimensions: time, space, causation, motivation, and the protagonist. There are four central assumptions this model is built upon: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Events are the central units of situation models (the event-centrality assumption). Events can be linked on five dimensions (see Figure 4). Events are either related or not related on a particular dimension. All dimensions are equal.

With this in mind, the Event Indexing Model is an equal opportunity model of comprehension. It works across media and is just as applicable with pictures as it is with text. It is transmedial. It was this exploration of theory that led to the study of struggling readers using video games as methods for observing upper levels in student comprehension.

The Site, the Students, and Observations on their Play The observations and experiences of this study took place at a suburban middle school near Minneapolis, Minnesota. The students in this study had been pulled from regular coursework for reading remediation. In order to explore whether these kids had just disengaged and whether they might display more competence in comprehension with video games, something they all said they liked, we sponsored an after-school video game club to



observe the literate practices of these students as they played video games. Over the course of four months, I helped to sponsor the club by going to the school and spending two hours every Tuesday supervising and supporting students in their game-play. I brought a video camera for recording the sessions. The room itself was a typical middle school classroom, except for there being two teachers during the day, and breakout areas for relaxing and reading on a couch and chairs arranged around a coffee table. On the other side of the room, separated from the relaxation area by six rows of desks, was a large round table with six Apple computers for student use. On a typical Tuesday, I would come into the classroom just after the bell had rung, and a few boys would be waiting to put things together and get started. We would all be small-talking, and it was evident there was excitement about the game club. I had no indication from these students that they were experienced gamers, just that they were enthusiastic. A few of the class members had wanted to talk about their games, and one brought me copies of the game magazine, Game Informer.

Session 1 The video began with the six boys who stayed to participate. I had brought an Xbox and a Nintendo GameCube as well as a few games for each of the systems. The boys were excited to get things going. These boys had been invited, along with 24 other students, from a remedial reading class; we held the activity in the same classroom after school. As we began to get things going, it seemed like a free-for-all. The boys were told where to borrow a television and they went to retrieve it. I began to get out the game systems and create a sitting area for the Xbox and the GameCube. Since this was our first meeting, I was not sure

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

how things were going to work out; so we set up stations: one area for the Xbox and one area for the GameCube. The boys were enthusiastic about creating the play spaces, and this was a very different feel as compared to asking them to get ready to read an assigned book! The area for the GameCube was set up with four chairs since I had multiplayer games for the GameCube; we also set up four chairs around the Xbox. As it turned out, a smaller group of boys, two of them, went to the Xbox and played the Harry Potter game with their regular classroom teacher, while a group of four started making decisions to play the GameCube. What came out of it was that decisions for play were made so that only one person could play. This did not seem like a wise decision, but I sat back and watched to see what would transpire. The benefit of playing a game in single-player mode is that you are more involved in a narrative, where as in multiplayer mode, the players generally tend to more free play, and in some cases, very simple twitch games. Twitch games tend to rely upon fast reaction times and do not necessarily deliver a plotline or character arc, which you would find in a roleplaying or adventure game. For our observation, I tried to encourage the boys towards adventure and role-playing games rather than button mashing and twitch gamesthe difference being that singleplayer games generally have interesting storylines, impressive graphics, and realistic non-player characters and opponents. Notable examples include the Half-Life series and Doom 3. The key is providing a basis for reflection and thinking about what opportunities and constraints provide the outcomes and storyline. This is not so easy with a multiplayer game, as it is necessary to explore the story that was co-created by the players without the benefit of a back story, as the players are put directly into the game with the tools and a simple objectiveoften some variation of steal the flag and remove opponents from the game, or drive.

So the boys got everything set up and ready, and they began. I asked them if they had ever read the instructions to the games they play; all of them said no. They said that they preferred to just figure it out. What followed was a lot of trial and error, and surprisingly, encouragement of the boy with the controller to try different things. These included trying different buttons on the controller and going to different places in the game space depicted from the game console on the television screen, and trying to open doors and move handles, and switch from an armored humanoid to an armored ball rolling around the deck of a spaceship. Since none of the boys had read the instructions or studied the box very intently, they did not know there was a story behind the current situation for the armored humanoid/ball in space. This indicated to me that the boys did not have much experience playing complex games. Most players of complex games understand the importance of the story arc in order to know the strengths and weaknesses of the protagonist, the antagonists, as well as the environment and the goals of the game. In Metroid Prime the protagonist is a she. The boys did not know this. When observing the recording of the play session, they continued to talk to the player as “you,” as in the boy with the controller. What they did not know was that “she” was supposed to enter into a colony that had been taken over by aliens to discover who they were, what they wanted, and to stop and destroy them if necessary. None of the boys knew they were playing a female character because they had not read the back-story in the manual. The manual contains some pretty good tips on how to get started and what had happened in the game Metroid Prime, of which this was a sequel to; none of the boys had played this or the original game, and I do not think they had ever heard of it. My feeling was that they were not as experienced as they had let on and that they were “fronting,” which



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

means putting on a façade in boy/radio/hip hop talkpretending to be more than who you are and what you can really do. There might be a couple of reasons for doing this: •

•

The boys can all claim experience and be a part of the group, and later learn their way, learning on the fly—that is, they will pick it up by watching and learning expertise from what others do and say. They can have access to the game and have some control while they play—thus getting an audience and getting some attention from the other boys and feeling popular.

I cannot be sure that either observation is correct, but it seemed to me that each boy got a turn until they showed that they did not know what they were doing, and then had to step aside and hand over the controller for another boy to try to see if he could get them through the door to the next stage of the game. When a student who is unfamiliar with the game began, the others were less than enthusiastic to watch them learn. They did take turns and offer suggestions as to what might work to move through the puzzle, but really had no success. But with a successful suggestion, one could request the controller and take the lead. The ability to show competence feeds status among the boys. It is probably an entitlement where the more experienced player shows that he can navigate successfully and show the others what to do when it is their turn to play. It seemed like there was definitely an “in” group. Some boys were looked up to, and the others wanted an opportunity to interact with them. The games club seemed to offer the opportunity for kids who typically do not interact to get to know each other based on common interest. This allows for a way for boys who wanted to get to know other boys to be introduced without the awkwardness of professing admiration and desiring friendship. One of the other attractions



for the boys was that certain popular boys were interested in video games and would be coming to participate. This was evident in the talk building up to our session; they would say things like “I heard Darius is coming.” The popular boys are put on a pedestal by the others. In our observation, the popular boys seemed to be given more of a chance to play and show what they knew for the audience. One example of a popular boy was Darius. Darius came in a little late, and the other boys had already begun. They were trying to play Metroid Prime and were not having an easy time of it. Darius sat down and, after watching for a short time, began to tell the boy with the controller how to move through this level of the game. The boy seemed to be excited to be getting help from Darius. As he begins to have success following Darius’ advice, he asks for more help, and the other boys begin commenting in tones and expressions that are complimentary to Darius. They seem to appreciate, if not venerate, his knowledge and are pleased that he has decided to join them. It seems clear that Darius was strategic in the way that he plays video games. After talking to him, I found that Darius clearly read about the games that he plays and made informed decisions on what he would purchase to play, and also bought game guides that helped him to understand how to navigate the games, as well as hidden features that make the games interesting to him and the boys who play with him. Darius suggested that Chris try turning his character into a ball and rolling, and then becoming a human again and pushing a door lock on the wall. Part of what is interesting here is that Chris seems to have had more of an understanding of games than the other boys until Darius came. Darius is content to help Chris. Oddly, Chris was able to get the boys to agree that Metroid Prime was a cool game, but it was clear he does not know how to move around in space or use the controls except for a rudimentary understanding. Chris seemed to have used his status as a popular boy

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

to choose the game, but as I watched, there was clearly evidence that Chris was not an experienced game player. He, like most of the other boys in the group, played games that were easy to learn and were based mostly on hand-eye coordination and were more likely casual players. There was no denying that they were somewhat skilled in navigating, but they were not very quick in figuring out the controls of Metroid Prime. The boys were all looking for a good experience that they would be able to share in, but it was clear that with this game, only one person could play and the rest had to offer suggestions. In the course of Chris learning to play, the other students were having a good time; but as it became clear that Chris did not know how to play, the other boys started asking for their chance to try. Since Darius seemed to know what he was talking about, he went next, and as he played, the other boys watched and were excited with what Darius was able to do. Darius seemed happy to demonstrate what he knew. While I was recording, the boys described Darius’ play and shared ideas enthusiastically about how the game worked and looked forward to their chance to play. As Darius made a move where he showed how to do a double bomb jump, the boys watched intently. The way it was explained was that you lay a bomb, and right before that bomb explodes, set a second one, then set a third just before you reach the very top of the jump. You should fall and land on the second bomb, then ride up to the third. He said the easiest way “is to count out: 1, 2, 3, 4.” And he laid the bombs on 1, 3, and 4. The boys were excited about this, as well as Darius’ willingness to show them. What was clear was that Darius had not only had played the game before, and as I questioned him more later I found that he had read about it and applied what he had read. He had performed a knowledge act demonstrating comprehension. The other boys were eager to try some of the things Darius had shown them, and Darius was happy to relinquish the controller. What happened

from there was that Darius watched for a while and then walked over to the Xbox and then to the bank of computers. I left the camera to record and I walked over to see what Darius was doing. He showed me a site on the Internet where he was reading about the game. He had gone to a fan site where another gamer had written a record of what each section of the game was like, what the challenges were, cool things to do, and cool things to find. I asked him if this was cheating; he said “maybe” and smiled. He said that it made the game more fun and that he could find more “cool stuff” and it helps him to understand how to win easier and what to look for. This idea of secondary sources to better understand the game makes a lot of sense to me. It is a powerful strategy that informs comprehension as described previously in this chapter. The more prior knowledge a person has before reading or playing, the more likely they are to comprehend it fully. Secondary sources can help the player by supporting them in preconceiving the dimensions of Level 3 in the comprehension model, and with that knowledge, the player may have an understanding of what to expect, what to do, and where to focus attention for better success. Darius has clearly displayed evidence that he knows what it takes to be a competent comprehender. He had clearly done the work in looking for secondary sources and was motivated to read with a specific purposeto know what games he wants to try and to be good at those games. His use of secondary sources showed that he was able to draw information from a variety of sources, synthesize them, and apply his conclusion with practice to see if it works. What was clear was that many of the boys were trying to figure the games out with trial and error because they had no clear understanding of how to approach the new game with tactics or strategy, while Darius was clearly accomplished in his approach to the games, and seemed to have knowledge games from a broad range of experience and could actually play in a way



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

that showed evidence of a layered strategy that was built around an aesthetic of game-play and knowledge of genre. The other boys eventually found their way over to where Darius was showing me the Web site. I went over the last of the video from that session, and the other boys were not as successful as Darius was at playing Metroid Prime. As each boy had gone through a section of a game, they were less likely to watch another player go through what they already had. The group splintered; it seemed clear that it was not as enjoyable to watch someone else struggle though the game as they learned. As I stated, the other boys walked over to Darius to see what he was looking at and began to explore different Web sites to find out how to play games they were interested in, while the boys who were last to get the controller played without an audience. Left by himself, Lawrence continued to try and figure out what comes next in the game on his own. He seemed distracted in the way the boys have left him to play by himself. He kept looking over at the other boys to see what they were doing and gave them updates about what was happening. He eventually abandoned this to go to the computers and see what they were doing. This aspect of watching the gaming experience of the boys was very informative in that the boys were pretty specific about what they will participate in and how they will participate. The boys are willing to sit and watch, but prefer to be actively engaged and perform for an audience. When one of the boys was struggling in front of the other boys, learning to play the game, it was clear that the boys lost interest and preferred to engage in activity where they could actively learn and share. The boys were also a little frustrated with Lawrence. Whenever he was supposed to hand over the controller to another boy, he came up with an excuse and continued playing. What came of this was that Lawrence was left playing the game by himself for most of the rest of the session. As noted, he eventually abandoned his



game to go and be part of the group of boys and see what they were doing.

Connections to Reading Comprehension Besides the obvious ways to connect the comprehension model to video game-play, the idea of play as a social discourse and cultural approach to learning can be fruitful in environments for development with learners chosen for remediation. They need feedback and lots of do-overs, and games can provide meaningful practice almost as well as having a private teacher that is sensitive to the Zone of Proximal Development. In addition, it occurred to me was that there seems to be a progression in what I have seen these boys do when they approach a problem and try to solve it. Often a solution involves a lot of experimentation and blind luck for beginners, whereas players that have more experience use their prior knowledge to have a strategy going into the game, and to keep an eye out for the possible affordances and constraints in the environment. In some cases, they may know enough to play with an aesthetic beyond top-sight of the system, and can innovate and create as they gracefully coast through the challenges of the game. This experience relates directly to comprehension from the genre and communication levels (levels 4 and 5). With the less-experienced players, if they were successful with a tool, a movement, or resource in the game, that player tended to use that act as a tactic until the game demanded that they changed their approach. As with Metroid Prime, the boys had no experience, and it also seemed that they had very little experience with the genre. This was surprising since Metroid Prime is a “firstperson shooter,” which is a very common style of game, and rather predictable, so I am assuming that these boys were not experienced, and were stuck in trial and error. Metroid Prime does present puzzles and requires that one learn to use the tools and learn the affordances and constraints of the designed environment.

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

Often a Well-Designed Game Will Force the Player to Use New Tools and Tactics An experienced player expects this and has looked at the situation and made predictions, or inferences about how they will use the tactics they have learned in the form of a strategy, and eventually as layered strategies as they bring their knowledge of the situation and genre levels into play; this may even be influenced by the communication level (level 5), where experience with games in a series or by the same designer provides an indication of possible challenges and intentions. The key to understanding this idea of the genre and communication levels (levels 4 and 5) are interconnected with the idea of playing with layered strategies (see Figure 5), which would imply familiarity with the games’ design and layout, as well as enough experience to demonstrate skills like a double bomb drop, where more simple tactics would help the player level up (move to the next level). This instructional strategy designed into games demands that the player become capable of creating strategies, and this is what it takes for

people to become successful readers of complex texts: •

• •

They must adjust and try new tactics and perhaps become strategic, as compared to users of strategies, like we teach in many remedial reading classes. They must gather knowledge, act upon it, and adjust and become more efficient. This is the Zone of Proximal Development, and it is the cycle of comprehension.

None of the boys except Darius seemed to be near the communication and genre levels of Metroid Prime for strategies and comprehension. In fact, none of the boys seemed to have any real grasp for playing Metroid Prime except Darius; his understanding of the genre level in the game was shown with demonstrable comprehension by his playing Metroid Prime with an aesthetic.

Session 2 For this meeting, the same group of boys met at the classroom except for Darius. Lawrence has chosen the game Super Monkey Ball, and he

Figure 5. Approaches to problem solving



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

played in a style, as was recorded before, that limited participation. Super Monkey Ball is an easy entry game where you navigate through mazes and puzzles, and you can also play party games. There is a bit of a narrative at the beginning, which I encouraged them to watch, but they went right in to the game. The game seems best to me when it is played with multiple players, but Lawrence set it up in single-player mode. At 5:44 into the recording, he was told that he should step aside so that another boy could play. Instead, Lawrence made excuses and manipulated and changed the game; but in doing so he retained the controller, and he and a new boy played. In the beginning, Lawrence was bragging. He pointed out his own successes, like “I got a star!” And he tended to also diminish the play of the other boy. Later in the game, when the other boys began moving toward the computers and the Xbox, and away form he and Chris, he took a different tactic and began to diminish his own play to try and get the boys’ attention back. Rather than creating group play, it seems like Lawrence was more interested in being in control and having an audience. Lawrence had made agreements to share the controller, but he continually broke his commitments. His style was that of a bully that wanted to be liked, but did not seem to know how to create relationships with others. He did change his tactic. Rather than highlight his play, as mentioned, he began to humble himself, changing his competitive talk to highlighting his lack of success, and praising the success of his competitor. Lawrence seemed to be the kind of boy who wants to be noticed, respected, and belong, but did not have the social skills or the gaming skills to be looked up to like Darius. Chris had also broken his word about sharing game-play. He and Lawrence were extending their time by trying to engage the other boys through discussing their game-play, asking for advice, and trying to entertain the other kids with their successes and then self-deprecation when that



did not work. The other boys soon became tired of being led-on and looked for other things to occupy their time. Chris was one of the popular boys, who was known as someone that was confident and fun. However, he showed that he was not any more skilled than the other boys, but was willing to change the rules to continue playing the game with Lawrence; as Lawrence manipulated the rules so that he could continue to play, Chris went along with him. This was done at the expense of Tony, Stephen, and Craig, who eventually abandoned Chris and Lawrence. When Chris noticed that Tony and Craig were no longer interested in the game, he began to lose interest in playing with Lawrence. Eventually, Chris, Tony, Stephen, and Craig left Lawrence to play by himself; together, they played a game on the Internet called Runequest. Interestingly, Runequest is a multiplayer game that all of the boys can play at once. Lawrence continued to play, and made efforts to try and get the other boys’ attention by calling to them about special things that were happening in the game as he played, but he could not generate interest, as the boys had left him to play by himself. This was completely different from the gameplay observed in the first meeting where none of the boys were left out—where they shared knowledge and took turns trying out the new strategies, watching and commenting on the way Darius played, and how they would try this move or that move. What happened during the first session when Darius was present was very different from what happened the second session. Having Darius there made the boys want to play and willing to wait to try out the game as they learned from watching. When Darius was no longer playing, the group’s interest ended. Darius’ style of play and interaction showed that he was skilled in game-play, and was also willing to take turns to let the other boys try

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

his techniques and also help them navigate the puzzles. From the very beginning, the boys handed off the controllers so that they could all try. This may be because Darius was the most skilled, but also willing to share the experience.

Reflection What became quite clear in reviewing the two sessions was that the boys who struggled to read and comprehend were also struggling with games. In a game like Metroid Prime, where you really needed to have some prior knowledge and experience of the game, and perhaps other games like it, these students really struggled. The one boy who was adept at this game clearly had help and experience shared from playing games with his father. What was very interesting was seeing the boys talking about Darius’ game-play—I am guessing the interest they expressed in Darius’ play was similar to the interest that Darius showed his father when they played at home. As they watched and asked questions, they all had a better idea of how they were going to play the game when they got a chance. They were definitely actively engaged and excited, and wanted to act upon their knowledge. They were watching to learn and sharing ideas about their strategies. This is not something often seen in class according to their teacher when I questioned him on this. The teacher said that the boys tended to be fairly reluctant about learning in school when they were in groups, but tended to want to learn when they worked one-on-one with him. I noticed this same trend when I sat with a few of the boys to listen to them read and talk about a book called “Seed People.” They liked reading to me, and they wanted to tell me about what they knew, but they were a bit more reluctant in sharing with me and making connections about reading when they were in a reading group. Although this is odd behavior, it fits with what I have seen in some of my own classrooms. The

games just seemed to be a thing that they wanted to own, as compared to class work, which was an obligation. What I noticed in talking to them about Seed People was that they would read without stopping. They would just roll right through the narrative until I would ask them to stop and tell me about what they thought was going on, with no thought of looking at the situations and events that framed each major scene, and then connecting these scenes as a coherent whole as is described earlier in the chapter as an act of effective comprehension. In one case Stephen made interesting connections between what he saw with an older boy in the story and the struggles his brother was having in real life. I just wondered if he would have made that connection if I had not stopped at the close of that event to talk about it and make connections. This ability to chunk events and make connections, as situations change and the mental representations are updated, are important transition points in the incremental building of a comprehensive model of a story or experience. A skilled reader tends to be aware of and look for incongruities and frame events into a manageable whole (an event index), where a less-skilled reader may just be trying to move through the text, unaware that the scene has changed. This button-mashing style of reading comprehension resembles trial and error in Figure 5, and seems to be consistent across the way the boys approached game-play and reading to build situation models. They were inexperienced in stopping to update their model of what was happening in the story, much in the way that van den Broek et al. (2001) suggest in the Landscape Model, where readers build to resolve each proposition as they move through a text. In a more challenging text, as are common in eighth grade, a change may occur in the text that is subtle, and the reader may not even know they are in the midst of a flashback, foreshadowing, or narrative change. This maturity in perspective



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

taking, updating and validating a model, and looking forward to reading to resolve questions seems to be lacking in the way some of the boys read, as well as the way they played the games. They seemed to be running in a race, unaware that there were stops along the way to regroup and reconsider their knowledge and strategy, and then to conceive and plan their next knowledge act.

Why Was Darius in Remedial Reading? Darius, like the other boys, was in a remedial reading class, yet he read complex texts to understand complex game environments often designed for adult play. What made his play special is that adults often find these games challenging as well, and will often use the same strategies, although not often with the aesthetic that Darius showed in his play. All of this makes Darius a bit of an enigma, and I asked Andrew, Darius’ teacher, and also the sponsoring teacher of the club, to help me understand about Darius. He told me that Darius was very smart, but really struggled on the standardized tests that inform placement into the remedial reading program.

Darius had Disengaged I was told that Darius tended to freeze up when it came to testing, and the things that he read just disappeared when it came time to answer questions, but yet in regard to games, Darius demonstrated the kind of ability and comprehension that would place him as accomplished. He was able to act on what he read; he utilized prior knowledge of game genre as well as content from secondary sources, as well as experience from other games. Perhaps it was this ability to perform for himself on his own terms, and having the experience of playing and learning from his father. The key here seems to be this issue of play as a discourse and

0

activity, as compared to high-stakes judgments like tests.

Implications Darius’ game-play may have been more than for just the sake of game-play; it may be that his expertise and talent was about pursuing something he enjoys with his dad, emulating his father’s game-play habits, which included gathering information about the game. Csikszentmihaly (1993) makes a case for the importance of this kind of support and interaction from adults in the lives of young people. We need to share, demonstrate, model, and encourage expertise with young people, as well as give them the time and resources to develop real talent and expertise. Darius seemed to play effortlessly and was willing to help others, but he also worked outside of the game. Interestingly, Darius may have been imitating his father, or attempting to take on the role of his father and his father’s work and study habits in the way that he played games. Perhaps this practice and assimilation of his father’s approach to gaming is what made his play effective and look effortless, as compared to the way his teacher described him in relation to test taking and classroom reading—perhaps he did not have a model for test taking. In addition, his effortless play and knowledge of the game gave him status and reinforced his efforts with reward, in that with the other boys, he could demonstrate expertise publicly; further, he shared his expertisegaining credibility both for his prowess in play, as well as his willingness to help others. Clearly, the boys wanted to be like Darius, probably in the same way Darius wanted to emulate his father. Thus, literacy seems to be socially mediated in that the work that he puts into his play may be influenced by activities and values he shares with his father, as well as the credibility and reputation it provides him with the boys. And beyond that, it seems reasonable to

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

assume that people want to be seen as competent (Deci & Ryan, 2002) and prefer to learn quietly until they are confident with feedback from a trusted expert or mentor.

Games and Comprehension Think of comprehension and mental models as entering a maze or labyrinth, working your way through without knowing what could be around the next turn. The more familiar a reader is with the elements of the story, the more likely the reader will have the ability to develop a systems view, and also have a better recall of the story for retelling and imaginative elaboration. If a person has prior knowledge or can accumulate systems knowledge, they can create a flexible model of the situation and create tactics based upon their conception to build strategies—this is called top-sight. Often the systems we present in school are abbreviated because we have great difficulty presenting complex and dynamic systems for study—because often many of our young people cannot decode them! For this reason, we often teach simple stories, and the systems we teach are pale in comparison to the activities available to what students are interested in. They know the world is really complex, dynamic, multilayered, three-dimensional, and relative. If we present this in the form of printed text, learners often are overwhelmed by the sheer complexity. Games might provide an engaging entry point to connect with complex print narratives by using top-down strategies and prior knowledge. I must admit, Metroid Prime was a tough game for the boys to just pick up on, but they had the same difficulty with titles like Pikmon and Tales of Symphonia. Games will generally provide learning on the fly and ease people into the action by building tactical experience that can help the player gain experience in knowing what may come next, and also give them a do-over with hints to move forward, or level up.

Games are designed to provide interactive learning, manageable pieces that can be connected and layered and presented for the learner to have early success to heighten his or her feeling of confidence and engagement, and eventually build into complex approaches to solving problems that seem more like an unfolding than a strategy. Games add complexity little by little and ask us to change our strategies once we become comfortable. A good game will not allow you to do the same thing to solve every problem. If it does, the player will soon put it aside; the same is true if the game is too hard. A teacher, friend, or mentor can provide prior knowledge and support understanding of the elements of a media narrative system, and it is imperative that the student become practiced in becoming able to piece together not only a situation, but to have the ability to stitch these situations together in a hierarchy of first situations, then episodes (strings of situations), and then into a comprehensive model such as a: 1. 2. 3.

Situation model (event-specific) Episodic model (coherent sequences of events) Comprehensive model (a comprehensive collection of episodes)

Transmediality This discussion of discourse processing research on comprehension was intended to show that comprehension should be considered as transmedial. That is, we use the same cognitive and cultural tools to understand across a variety of communication and media experiences, and we can often use experience with one medium to understand one that is new in a top-down fashion. The key attribute here is that we use the imagination and visualize in making representations of an event in order to know how to interact with it—filling in the gaps when we are not certain.



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

The power of video games over the traditional narratives that are described in text and depicted in film are that the player can experience and act within the description and move around in what is depicted, exploring the ideas and rules, experimenting and looking for the limits of the tools and the setting. It does not mean they are any easier, but they are definitely more engaging and interactive than many printed texts when read without support. This ability to act on what we read, hear, and see may prove to be a powerful method for developing recall and flexibility in retell as well as elaboration. The real benefit of looking at comprehension from the perspective of games is that the player must act on their knowledge, and a knowledge act may be a better indication of comprehension than answering a multiple-choice question. This perspective can be taken outside the context of games and applied to reader response, reciprocal teaching, or just a literature circle where the texts are talked about and guiding questions and themes explored. The key is practice with learning to self-monitor, create dialog, and look for incongruities and verification of our knowledge of what we have read or experienced.

Games in the Classroom The obvious opportunity here for teachers is that with games, they can still provide rich learning environments for their students to develop comprehension, even if the students are struggling to decode and use the game to help students build more complex problem solving without the barrier of decoding the text into propositions and events—which is often what makes them disengage. Games provide all of the same elements of a narrative, but the surface level may be more accessible to all students—so kids who might normally avoid the readings can still engage. With video games as the big picture, I found that the students from the games club were more



willing to tolerate my talk about reading and my asking them about their learning. Perhaps it is needless to say here, but the kids were excited about playing video games at school. It was pretty amazing working with those students and having the influence to persuade them to slow down and reflect on their literate practices. What this begins to resemble is a model of literacy that connects new and traditional notions of readingwhere students have access to a variety of Web-based resources like databases, blogs, commercial Web sites, chat rooms, forums, listservs, as well as film, television, radio, telephone, teachers, friends, and parents, and where they can build comprehension through interaction with all of these. Further, through this experience the teacher can support the students in building flexibility in comprehension so that they may become more strategic and adaptive. Teachers need to connect with this and in many ways become more like ethnographers than dispensers of skills and knowledge. The activities discussed in this chapter have been shown to be motivating and engaging, and interestingly and despite our fears, they represent a new way of thinking about literacy, because they are a new form of literate practice. The thing that I saw with these students was that only a few of them had developed the skills we had hoped with the video games, and that students who were poor comprehenders and poor decoders with traditional text also struggled with the games. But they were more willing to explore and learn about games than they were traditional texts, and the games actually provide a level of interactivity that unskilled independent reading cannot. Part of these students’ lack of skill with games may have been because of their lack of familiarity with the games available; it may also come from not knowing what to do when they were stuck, slowing down and being methodical, or their lack of experience in searching for secondary sources to support their play.

Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

I am much more prone to believe that these boys have not had enough guidance or practice in slowing down to think about the thing they were experiencing and why they were stuck or how to ask for help. Their inability to look ahead and activate their prior knowledge about possible events may be one of the limiting factors in their success as readers and game players. With games, they can make the game react; with a book, they will often put it down. Once we help them learn to deconstruct the possible elements, and make predictions and have ideas about how to solve the problems rather than just reacting and mashing buttons, they will have gained valuable skills for problem solving. In most cases, I would bet that they have not been shown how to problem solve and deconstruct situations into models that they can reason through or use as anchor points as experts do (Chi, Feltovish, & Glaser, 1981).

Video Games as Learning Tools This provides an apt opportunity to build comprehension around high-interest activities that are complex and dynamic like games. Kids are not natural experts at games; they need exposure and experience, and time to figure things out—learning through play. We are all learners, and many of us exhibit the same behaviors in our approach to learning. Do not push games away out of fear that as a teacher you are not a digital native. People who have had experience in the world of typewriters, hand-cranked pencil sharpeners, and phones with dials may have an advantage over those who have never known a different world. They know what to do when the power goes out! We are all learners, and we can all become good at things like video games. In fact, the majority of the young people observed struggled in playing games that were new and required problem solving rather than fast reaction times. This was shown with Metroid Prime. A competent learner

is flexible in their approach to problems and can weigh different solutions through the process of elimination; one solution proves to be the best choice and can be modified on the fly. Comprehension is transmedial. It is not dependent upon a specific medium. It is a cognitive process that is an artifact of cultural and socially mediated cognition. School and academia have their own cultures of cognition, and when we look at school, we need to remember that not everyone uses academic language or has experience with academic cultural values at home. Academic culture at school is another culture with a different language and different values for many people. The more our students have prior knowledge of content, structure, and genre, the more likely they are to have flexible knowledge structures and be strategic in how they approach a situation. This process promotes metacognition, learning to learn, and the ability to self-monitor, and makes adjustments when the text is confusing, leading to greater comprehension of the text or a game. Comprehension translates across cultural boundaries based on the way we share information. In its most basic sense, comprehension is pattern recognition, and this can be found in games, texts, dance, and whatever composed cultural communication and expression exist. The socio-cultural implications of the way these students approached games may be of assistance in helping educators to build upon informal learning to develop traditional academic learning.

REFERENCES Aarseth, E. (1997). Cybertext. Perspectives on ergodic literature. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. Allington, R.L. (2006). What really matters for struggling readers: Designing research based programs (2nd ed., pp. 121-123). Pearson Education.



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Alvermann, D.E. (2001). Effective literacy instruction for adolescents. Executive Summary and Paper Commissioned by the National Reading Conference. Athens, GA: University of Georgia. Alvermann, D.E., Moon, J.S., & Hagood, M.C. (1999). Popular culture in the classroom: Teaching and researching critical media literacy. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Bransford, J.D., & Johnson. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 717-726. Chall, J.S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: McGraw-Hill. Chall, J.S., & Jacobs, V.A. (2003). The classic study on poor children’s fourth-grade slump. American Educator, 27(1), 14-15. Chi, M., Feltovich, P., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorisation and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science, 5, 121-152. Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. New York: Teachers College Press. Crawford, C. (2005). Chris Crawford on interactive storytelling. Berkeley: New Riders. Csikszentmihaly, M. (1993). Talented teenagers: The roots of success and failure. New York Cambridge University Press. Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester: University of Rochester Press. Frasca, G. (2001). Ludology meets narratology: Similitudes and diffrences between (video) games and narrative. Retrieved October 27, 2007, from http://www.ludology.org/articles/ludology.htm



Frasca, G. (2003). Simulation versus narrative. In J.P. Wolf & B. Perron (Eds.), The video game reader. New York: Routledge. Goldman, S., Graesser, A.C., & van den Broek, P. (Eds.). (1999). Narrative comprehension, causality, and coherence. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Graesser, A.C., McNamara, D.S., & Louwerse, M.M. (2003). What do readers need to learn in order to process coherence relations in narrative and expository text. In A.P. Sweet & C.E. Snow (Eds.), Rethinking reading comprehension (pp. 82-98). New York: Guilford Publications. Grosso de Leon, A. (2002). Moving beyond storybooks: Teaching our children to read to learn. Carnegie Reporter, 2(1). Retrieved June 19, 2006, from http://www.carnegie.org/reporter/05/learning/index.html Guthrie, J.T., & Wigfield, A. (2000). Engagement and motivation in reading. In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research: Volume III (pp. 403-422). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum. Huizinga, J. (1955). Homo ludens: A study of the play element in culture. Boston: Beacon Press. Hutchins, E. (1996). Cognition in the wild. Boston: MIT Press. Kintsch, W. (1988). The use of knowledge in discourse processing: A construction-integration model. Psychological Review, 95, 163-182. Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Kintsch, W. & Van Dijk, T.A. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, 85(5), 363-394. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the media age. New York: Routledge.

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Laurel, B. (1993). Computers as theater. London: Addison–Wesley. McDermott, R., & Varenne, H. (1995). Culture as disability. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 26, 323-348. Mumford, L. (1945). The myth of the machine: Technics and human development. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & World. Murray, J. (1997). Hamlet on the holodeck: The future of narrative in cyberspace. New York: The Free Press. Narvaez, D., van den Broek, P., & Ruiz, A. (1999). The influence of reading purpose on inference generation and comprehension in reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 488-549. National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read. An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Retrieved from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/nrp/ ch4-II.pdf O’Brien, D., & Dubbels, B.R. (Submitted). Reading-to-learn: From print to new digital media and new literacies. Learning Point Associates. The North Central Regional Education Laboratory. Paris, S.G., & Stahl, S.A. (2006). Children’s reading comprehension and assessment. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). The game design reader: A rules of play anthology. Cambridge: MIT Press. Shaffer, D.W. (2006). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave. Stanovich, K.E. (2000). Progress in understanding reading. New York: Guilford Press. Sutton-Smith, B. (1997). The ambiguity of play. Boston: Harvard University Press.

Tharp, R.G., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing schools to life. American Educator, 13(2), 20-25, 46-52. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. van den Broek, P., & Kremer, K. (2000). The mind in action: What it means to comprehend. In B. Taylor, P. van den Broek, & M. Graves (Eds.), Reading for meaning (pp. 1-31). New York: Teacher’s College Press. van den Broek, P., Lorch, R.F. Jr., Linderholm, T., & Gustafson, M. (2001). The effects of readers’ goals on inference generation and memory for texts. Memory and Cognition, 29, 1081-1087. van den Broek, P., Risden, K., & Husbye-Hartmann, E. (1994). The role of readers’ standards of coherence in the generation of inferences during reading. In R.F. Lorch Jr. & E.J. O’Brien (Eds.), Sources of coherence in text comprehension (pp. 353-373). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. van den Broek, P., Tzeng, Y., Risden, K., Trabasso, T., & Basche, P. (2001). The effects of questioning during and after reading on comprehension at different grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 521-529. Zwaan, R.A., Langston, M.C., & Graesser, A.C. (1995). The construction of situation models in narrative comprehension: an event-indexing model. Psychological Science, 6, 292-297. Zwaan, R.A., & Radvansky, G.A. (1998). Situation models in language comprehension and memory. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 162-185.

KEY TERMS Button Mashing: A term used in console gaming contexts to refer to quick, repeated, and generally random button pressings. It is a tech-



Video Games, Reading, and Transmedial Comprehension

nique most commonly employed in two genres of game: athletic, where the faster the buttons can be mashed translates into the better the athlete will perform; and fighting, where the technique is used often out of desperation or unfamiliarity with the controls, with players relying on barraging the opponent with random blows (and the occasional accidental special move) to win. Comprehension: Comprehension of an object is the totality of intensionsthat is, attributes, characters, marks, properties, or qualities that the object possessesor the totality of intensions that are pertinent to the context of a given discussion Construction Integration Model: Model that suggests there are three levels of representation of text: surface level, where we decode from words and letters; propositional level, where we make meaning form the words; and the situation level, where a mental image connected to prior experience and what we might predict as coming. Decoding: To analyze spoken or written symbols to ascertain their intended meaning. Event Indexing Model: Made up of interconnected representations of situation models, readers monitor five aspects or indexes of the situation. This can be important for learners who have not had success with complex narratives, and who have struggled to decode complex texts into connected scenes where they can look at causality and interaction.



Interaction/Interactive: A kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction, as opposed to a one-way causal effect. Combinations of many simple interactions can lead to surprising emergent phenomena. Knowledge Act: To verify comprehension though an act or performance. Level-Up: When your character in a game gains a level in a class-and-level system. Ludic: Derives from Latin ludus, “play.” Means literally “playful,” and refers to any philosophy where play is the prime purpose of life. Self-Monitoring: The conscious awareness of the reader’s own progress and understanding of a text, marked by rereading and reflection on features of the text needed to communicate. Situation Model: Representations of an event or situation with a mental representation of a described or experienced situation in a real or imaginary situation, using time, motivation, protagonist, and place. Transmedial: Across many types of media like newspapers, dance, video games, and other forms of composed expression. Walk-Through: A thorough explanation (usually accompanied by a demonstration) of each step in a procedure or process.



Chapter XVI

COTS Computer Game Effectiveness Carol Luckhardt Redfield St. Mary’s University, USA Diane L. Gaither Southwest Research Institute, USA Neil M. Redfield John Jay Science and Engineering Academy, USA

AbstrAct This chapter looks at the effectiveness of commercially available educational computer games. It defines what a game is from game theory and what an intelligent tutoring system is, suggests some concepts from these areas to use for game development, and reflects on some surveys of commercial off-theshelf (COTS) educational software, including computer games. Two effectiveness studies conducted at John Jay High School, and the results of the studies are presented on the educational computer game Math Blaster Algebra. One of the studies showed a positive learning increase from using Math Blaster Algebra. Both studies showed no negative impacts on scores and grades with more time playing the game. With lessons learned from game theory, the intelligent computer-based training field, and these effectiveness studies, educational computer gaming can continue to grow, be effective, and be accepted into educational systems.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

INtrODUctION For centuries, people have played games. Some of the games have been educational. In recent history, games have been made available electronically, on separate handheld devices and on computers, either on standalone computers, networked machines, or over the Internet. There have been a number of books about computer games and learning, including those by Gee (2003), Michael and Chen (2006), and Pensky (2001), but no effectiveness studies have been made available to the public on these commercial off-the-shelf educational computer games. Many educational software title materials say that they help in learning, but do not show any empirical tests. This book discusses the effectiveness of educational electronic games. The objective of this chapter is to present results of some surveys of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) educational computer games, to report on effectiveness studies on one of the COTS games, and to discuss a possibility for improving the effectiveness of learning for students who play these games. The effectiveness study procedures are presented of Math Blaster Algebra with some Algebra 1 students at John Jay High School. The statistically significant results are shown in detail. Hopefully, others will become more interested in making good games and performing effectiveness studies on games by improving on the methods and procedures presented here.

bAcKGrOUND Every game has at least one player, often two, and even more. Single-player games are often called puzzles. Every game has a goal or outcome that a player or set of players is working to achieve. Sometimes the goal is just to score points or collect objects, and sometimes when the goal is met, the game is over. Every game has rules that the players



play by, even if the rules are not well defined or change during game play. In every game, players are making moves where they select actions from a set of possible actions. The moves may be turn-based or simultaneous with other players. In addition to these characteristics of a game, every educational game has an objective to teach or practice some kind of knowledge or skill. The following sections outline some background areas of work that may be useful in the development of educational computer games so that the games can be more effective for teaching and learning. Some concepts are presented from game theory and intelligent tutoring systems that include concepts from artificial intelligence and instructional design theory. These two topics are referred to in the last sections of this chapter to potentially improve the learning effectiveness of educational computer games. There is also a summary of surveys that have been done on commercially available educational software that were used to help select Math Blaster Algebra for the studies.

GAME THEORY The study of games began to be formalized with the mathematical field of game theory (Osborne & Rubinstein, 1994). Players in a game are contenders that can be human, machine, nature, or other entities. The players control some piece of a situation in a game. Games with many players are called n-person or multiplayer. A strategy is a set of rules that a player uses to play the game. A move by a player is given by the player’s strategy. A move determines the next state of the game. Players are contending for various payoffs that are the results or consequences for the players at the end of the game. A player may get a reward or have to give up something. One way to define a game is by the rules of the game, including the relationships between players, who moves when, what information is

COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

available, alternatives available to a player, and the outcomes of each sequence of choices. The extended form of a game from game theory specifies these four things: • • • •

Initial state of the game Admissible moves from one state to another Terminal or end of the game states Payoffs to the players at the end of the game

All the possible strategies for a player i are represented by a set, Si. The normal form of a game is a set of all the strategy sets for each player and the payoff functions for each of the players Pi that map a strategy for each of the players to the payoff for the player i: {S1, …, Sn; P1, …, Pn} A common representation for the play of a game is a game tree. The initial state of the game is represented at the root node. The first moves the first player can make are represented by the children of the root node, and children of those nodes contain the new states of the game for the next player to make a move. Each successive level of children represents the possible moves of the next player and the resulting states of the game, until the end of the game. The leaf or terminal nodes are the possible places where the game ends. In general, game theory tries to find the best or likely end-result as a solution of a game. The solution often depends on the type of game. A zero-sum game is one that has the sum of the payoffs at the end of the game equal to zero. A constant-sum game is a one where the sum of the payoffs is always a specific constant amount at the end of the game. A perfect information game is one where all the players know all the other players’ actions in the game. A cooperative game is one where players are allowed to form

coalitions to work together. Otherwise, the game is non-cooperative. Other game theory classifications include finite or infinite, continuous, probabilistic, differential, Markov, quota, nonatomic, compound, and stochastic. Depending on the classification of a game, different game theoretic solutions apply to the game. The game solutions infer ways to play the game, but game theory solutions are developed from the view of the entire game having been played out. Most educational games have one or two players where the computer may be considered a player. The educational computer games we see are also perfect information, constant-sum, and non-cooperative games. Game theory solutions for these kinds of games are about finding a saddle point where the payoffs are the best for both players given the competitive nature of the game. Multiplayer game solutions, of a similar type of game otherwise, find an equilibrium point where any one player can do no better by selecting a different strategy while all the other players’ strategies stay the same. Other kinds of game theoretic solutions include the Bargaining Set, Core, Kernel, Shapley Value, and Stable Set. When educational computer games have the characteristics of perfect information, constant-sum, and non-cooperative, our games could direct the student toward a saddle or equilibrium point in an interesting and entertaining way. When a game is cooperative, a player will tend to do better when playing with as large a coalition of players that the player can be a part of (Luckhardt, 1989).

Intelligent Tutoring Systems Educational games have been developed that are considered tutors to teach skills and concepts similar to having a person tutor a student. Some computer-based tutoring systems just present a concept or set of concepts, and then the student applies the concept in a testing-type situation that can be part of a game. There are also tutoring games that present material based on how well a



COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

student has performed. Presenting material based on a student’s history provides a more personalized approach to the instruction. When there is a model of the student’s behavior and knowledge that is used by an instructional module to present material to the student, the software is called an intelligent tutoring system (ITS) (Burns, Parlett, & Redfield, 1991). It has been shown that a computer-based tutoring system can be modified to perform as an intelligent tutoring system (Redfield, 1995). An ITS has a student model, instructional module, an interface module to present the information, and an expert model that contains the material or knowledge to be presented. Intelligent tutoring systems are a combination of artificial intelligence, learning theory, and instructional theory. Instructional design theory is based on Gagné’s events of instruction (Gagné, Briggs & Wager, 1992) that include: gain attention, inform objectives, stimulate recall, present content, provide guidance, elicit performance, provide feedback, assess performance, and enhance retention. Many of these ITSs have been shown to be effective including Stat Lady, which was created at Brooks Air Force Base to teach statistics; also, many tutors created with the XAIDA authoring tool (Murray, Blessing, & Ainsworth, 2003). Some of the ITSs that are also games have been shown to be effective. These games were created and tested in research laboratories, and the study results were not always available to the general public. One study showed that an ITSs did not make any more significant difference in learning than just spending more time on the task of learning the subject in other formats (Hall, 1987). A few of these intelligent tutoring system games have been sold to school systems such as ISIS from TutorTek that teaches the scientific method (Steuck & Meyer, 2003) and Cognitive Tutor Algebra 1 by Carnegie Learning (2007).

0

COTS Educational Computer Games Commercial off-the-shelf computer games have been available since the first personal computers could be purchased in the early 1980s. These games started out having the purpose of entertainment. People realized that games could be used to teach subject matter in a way that was different from the classroom setting and perhaps effective in other ways. Thus, “edutainment” and later “serious games” have been the buzzwords. When personal computers became less expensive and easier to use with graphical user interfaces, games for both entertainment and learning became more available. Families, including children, found that having a computer in the home was ideal for many purposes. Computers started to become more readily available for use in schools. Educators found that computers could be used as tools to teach students. A few surveys have been done on existing educational software titles that included computer games. A survey done in 1998 (Redfield, 1999) found around 200 titles for pre-kindergarten to adult. A survey in 2000 (Redfield, 2000) found over 200 titles for just the elementary grades. The surveys considered course content topics from a number of state and national standards and included business, computer literacy, economics, English language arts, fine arts, geography, health, history, mathematics, physical education, Spanish, science, U.S. history, and vocational education. These surveys found that no matter what high-level topic you select, there is some software title that can be purchased that will contain some of the material of that topic. Many of the titles from these two surveys were games or had a game component. In 2005, a survey was performed to gather just educational computer games. A computer game was considered educational if the game

COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

documentation included learning about an area or if the game has been used in a learning situation. That survey resulted in a database of over 1,000 titles (Gaither & Redfield, 2006). The data from this survey at www.wingz2fly.com/GameSurvey is being updated regularly by graduate students at St. Mary’s University in San Antonio, Texas. There is also a database for educational software that can be used to search for games at http://www-ed.fnal. gov/espg. This database contains 127 computer games that are noted as educational (Educational Software Preview Guide Consortium, 2007). Companies that have produced many educational computer games include Funschool, Knowledge Adventure, The Learning Company/Riverdeep, Scholastic/Tom Snyder Productions, and Sunburst Technology.

COTS GAME EFFECTIVENESS Since many COTS educational computer games say that they do teach something or improve learning, it would be beneficial to know exactly what games are available to the public and to note if there is any data to support what the games are purporting. It would also be useful if the games were in an organized system that could be searched to find out what is available and to find games with a specific content or at a certain age or grade level. The survey by Gaither and Redfield (2006) made available on the Internet a searchable database of educational computer games. In the 2005 survey, the subjects taught to the elementary-level students filled the spectrum of educational courseware. Games covering topics from foreign language studies, to science, to typing proficiency were available. The teaching methods that these games utilized varied considerably. Some games were strictly drill and practice, while others used simulations and role-playing. Over 70% of the games in the survey targeted elementary-level students. Approximately 7% of

all the games are targeted toward middle school students, and 14% of the games recorded were targeted to high school level and above. There were many more titles in language arts and mathematics at the elementary level, while there were many more titles in science for middle school and high school. This survey noted the lack of educational games available for the upper grade levels. The educational game industry has a wide open market for older students and higher learning courseware. Table 1 shows a list of some of the COTS educational computer games from the database at www. wingz2fly.com/GameSurvey. This list of games shows the games that say they teach mathematics for sixth grade or higher. Each game title can be selected in the table on the Web page to find out detailed information about the game. The survey did not find any study that measured the effectiveness of any commercial educational game. There have been many studies on the impact and effectiveness of games in education, but none have been made available to COTS educational computer games (Randel, Morris, Wetzel, & Whitehill, 1992). A formal effectiveness study was organized on one educational computer game (Redfield, Gaither, & Redfield, 2007). Algebra was selected as the topic because all high school students must pass Algebra 1, there were students available for the study, and there were a number of existing educational computer games that work with algebra. The Algebra 1 students were made available at John Jay Science and Engineering Academy in San Antonio, Texas, thanks to the principal, Ms. Peggy Greff, and the Algebra 1 teacher, Ms. Monica Gonzales. A number of firstyear algebra software titles were considered for the study including the following products: • • •

Algebra Animator by Riverdeep Algebra Concepts by Ventura Educational Systems Algebra Stars by Sunburst



COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

Table 1. Computer games for math from www.wingz2fly.com/GameSurvey



TitleMath Educational Computer Games

Publisher

2xy Algebra Helper

MathRealm

Accelerated Math

Renaissance Learning

Algebra

BestQuest Teaching Systems

Algebra ‘scool: Module 2

BestQuest Teaching Systems

Algebra ‘scool: Module 3

BestQuest Teaching Systems

Algebra Animator

Riverdeep

Algebra Concepts

Ventura Educational Systems

Algebra Stars

Sunburst Technology

ClueFinders-Empire of the Plant People

The Learning Company-Riverdeep

Crocodile Mathematics

Crocodile Clips

Force Addition & Subtraction

Intellectum Plus Incorporated

Freebody

Physics Academic Software

Geometry Concepts

Ventura Educational Systems

Geometry World: Middle Grades Interactive Explorer

MathRealm

Larson’s Intermediate Math Grade 6

Larson’s Learning Inc.

Math Arena Advanced

Sunburst Technology

Math At Work: On the Fly!

CORD Communications

Math At Work: Train Reaction

CORD Communications

Math Blaster

Knowledge Adventure

Math Express

Aces Research Inc.

Mathville: VIP

Ingenuity Works

Measurement in Motion

Learning in Motion

Measurements & Units

Intellectum Plus Incorporated

Mighty Math-Cosmic Geometry

Riverdeep

Mighty Math: Astro Algebra

Riverdeep

Mighty Math: Calculating Crew

Riverdeep

Mind Power Math High School

The Learning Company

Pre-Algebra World

MathRealm

PrimeTime Math: Cliffbound!

Tom Snyder Productions

PrimeTime Math: Emergency!

Tom Snyder Productions

PrimeTime Math: Fire!

Tom Snyder Productions

The Hidden Treasures of Al-Jabr

Sunburst Technology

The Number Devil

Viva Media

COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

• • • • • •

Algebra World by Math Realm Math Blaster Algebra by Davidson/Knowledge Adventure M ig ht y Mat h: A st ro A lgebr a by Riverdeep Mind Power Math: High School by The Learning Company/Riverdeep Quickstudy Algebra 1 by Selectsoft Publishing Windows Algebra by ProOne

The software product for the study had to run on Windows XP, cover much of the Algebra 1 curriculum, be easy to use, stay within a budget, and provide a game environment. The game also needed to meet the requirements for the TEKS (Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills) standardized curriculum (Texas Education Agency, 2007b). Math Blaster Algebra was the game best suited for the electronic game effectiveness study since it ran on Windows XP, had a usable user interface, and was still available for purchase ($12-30 per CD, depending on how many are purchased).

Math Blaster Algebra and Studies Math Blaster Algebra was originally created by Davidson and later purchased by Knowledge Adventure (Wikipedia, 2007). On the game packaging, the publisher of Math Blaster Algebra says that the game provides tools to succeed and improve skills in a student’s first year of algebra (Knowledge Share, 1998). The skills include • • • • • •

Using decimals, integers, and rational numbers Understanding algebraic expressions and equations Working with ratio, proportion, and percent Plotting points on a graph Factoring polynomials Applying the order of operations

• •

Exploring inequalities and quadratic equations Building and solving equations

Math Blaster Algebra takes a player through an animated adventure on a spaceship. The ship called Nomial has broken down from a collision with an asteroid. The goal of the player is to correct the ship operations before the aliens called the Quadraticas find them. The player solves algebraic problems to gather required resources and fix the ship. There are six different rooms (communications, defender, electrical, engine, strategy, and transporter) plus the control center to work and play on the ship. There are six kinds of activities with three different levels. There is context-sensitive help through a robot assistant called Scully. The help includes information and tutorials about the algebraic concepts. Two learning effectiveness studies were performed on Math Blaster Algebra at John Jay Science and Engineering Academy. The purpose of these studies was to determine if Math Blaster Algebra is effective in teaching and reinforcing algebra concepts. The first study lasted for a fiveweek period and was part of a science fair project. After the first study finished, the second study lasted for 16 weeks of the students playing Math Blaster Algebra. The studies were approved by the school’s Institutional Review Board, which cleared the procedures and ethics of the studies. The procedures and analysis for the two studies were similar. For the first study, the project was presented to three different ninth-grade Algebra 1 classes to a total of 90 students. Of those 90, 42 volunteered to participate in the first study, 37 volunteered for the second study, and 32 were in both studies. With certain limitations such as availability of a computer, parent approval, and willingness to play the game, the students were separated into two groups. The subject or game group students took a pre-test, played the game at their homes in addition to any class work they received, and took a post-test. The control group



COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

Table 2. First study test scores per student Game Group Student

Pre-Test Number

Number

Post-Test Number

Number

Number

Number

Score

Number

Attempted

Correct

Incorrect

Score

Attempted

Correct

Incorrect

2

25

6

19

1.25

24

10

14

6.5

3

12

3

9

0.75

10

4

6

2.5

4

23

12

11

9.25

17

12

5

10.75

5

9

6

3

5.25

7

4

3

3.25

6

12

5

7

3.25

17

7

10

4.5

7

11

3

8

1

19

6

13

2.75

8

11

5

6

3.5

18

7

11

4.25

9

12

5

7

3.25

23

11

12

8

10

25

10

15

6.25

25

13

12

10

11

12

7

5

5.75

12

6

6

4.5

12

18

8

10

5.5

18

7

11

4.25

13

12

7

5

5.75

12

2

10

-0.5

14

17

6

11

3.25

11

7

4

6

15

24

7

17

2.75

11

6

5

4.75

17

7

2

5

0.75

24

6

18

1.5

19

18

9

9

6.75

11

5

6

3.5

20

16

11

5

9.75

25

16

9

13.75

21

21

11

10

8.5

17

10

7

8.25

22

11

2

9

-0.25

3

1

2

0.5

1

15

6

9

3.75

16

4

12

1

16

22

11

11

8.25

5

2

3

1.25

18

12

6

6

4.5

13

4

9

1.75

23

12

7

5

5.75

15

9

6

7.5

24

18

9

9

6.75

23

8

15

4.25

25

8

0

8

-2

12

1

11

-1.75

26

12

9

3

8.25

5

3

2

2.5

27

12

6

6

4.5

10

5

5

3.75

28

10

5

5

3.75

7

3

4

2

29

20

11

9

8.75

17

11

6

9.5

30

21

12

9

9.75

11

4

7

2.25

31

9

3

6

1.5

25

9

16

5

32

25

12

13

8.75

16

12

4

11

33

20

13

7

11.25

21

16

5

14.75

34

13

9

4

8

13

9

4

8

35

15

11

4

10

17

13

4

12

continued on next page



COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

Table 2. Continued Game Group Student

Pre-Test Number

Number

Post-Test Number

Number

Number

Number

Number

Attempted

Correct

Incorrect

Score

Attempted

Correct

Incorrect

36

15

6

9

3.75

9

3

6

Score

1.5

37

13

6

7

4.25

14

4

10

1.5

38

17

11

6

9.5

12

6

6

4.5

39

20

16

4

15

20

16

4

15

40

11

7

4

6

16

7

9

4.75

41

11

10

1

9.75

16

9

7

7.25

42

7

4

3

3.25

14

9

5

7.75

took a pre-test, continued through the year as normal with the same class work, and took a posttest. Before the beginning of each study period, the students took the pre-test that consisted of a 25 multiple-choice-question test, comprehensive for Algebra 1. This test was created by a certified math teacher and reviewed by three other math professors at St. Mary’s University in San Antonio, Texas. The test had to take less than the 50-minute class period to finish and was comprehensive for all of Algebra 1 since Math Blaster Algebra includes concepts from all of Algebra 1. Each game-group student was given a CD of Math Blaster Algebra and played the game on a home computer on their own time. Each student recorded the amount of time they spent playing the game. The students were asked to play the game at least two hours per week. After the study periods were completed, each student took a posttest that was the same content as the pre-test. Both the pre-test and the post-test were graded similar to the SAT’s grading system, where one point is given for a correct answer, and a quarter of a point is deducted for an incorrect answer. The maximum score is 25 and the minimum is -6.25. The data collected included students’ course grade averages; the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS), a state-given standardized test in Texas (Texas Education Agency, 2007a)

for the second study; and benchmarks (two for the first study and five for the second study) that were taken throughout the year. The main difference between the two studies was the time the students were able to play Math Blaster Algebra. The analyses for both studies were very similar, although the second study had more data available from school-based scores and grades. The significant data is included here so that people who organize future studies can see what worked and hopefully expand and improve on the study.

First Study Data and Results Tables 2 and 3 show some of the data from the first study, including the individual scores of all students’ pre- and post-tests, as well as the number of questions attempted, answered correctly, and answered incorrectly. These tables show only a portion of the data that was collected. Table 2 contains the overall data for the pretest and post-test that showed some statistically significant results. The last column shows the number of hours each student played Math Blaster Algebra. Summary data in Table 4 show that the range of pre-test scores was -2 to 19.75, the range of posttest scores was -1.75 to 15, and playing time was



COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

Table 3. First study test scores and time played per student Pre- to Post-Test

Time Played in

Subject Number

Pre-Test Score

Post-Test Score

Difference

Hours

2

1.25

6.5

5.25

7

3

0.75

2.5

1.75

18.5

4

9.25

10.75

1.5

52.5

5

5.25

3.25

-2

1.5

6

3.25

4.5

1.25

26.5

7

1

2.75

1.75

27

8

3.5

4.25

0.75

10.5

9

3.25

8

4.75

>2

10

6.25

10

3.75

4.75

11

7.75

4.5

-3.25

9

12

5.5

4.25

-1.25

12.75

13

5.75

-0.5

-6.25

1.5

14

3.25

6

2.75

14

15

2.75

4.75

2

44.75

17

0.75

1.5

0.75

10.5

19

6.75

3.5

-3.25

15.5

20

9.75

13.75

4

9

21

8.5

8.25

-0.25

11

22

-0.25

0.5

0.75

>2

Pre- to Post-Test

Time Played in

Table 4. First study summary data First Study Game Group

Pre-Test Score

Post-Test Score

Difference

Hours

Average

5.887

5.381

-0.506

16.25

Highest

19.75

15

-5.25

52.5

Lowest

-2

-1.75

-3.75

1.5

Table 5. Example t-test results Pre-Test-Two-Sample Assuming Equal: Variances



Game group

Control group

Mean

4.434210526

7.086956522

Variance

9.450292398

20.78186759

Observations

19

23

Hypothesized Mean Difference

0

P(T<=t) One-Tail

0.018380204

P(T<=t) Two-Tail

0.036760408

COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

1.5 to 52.5 hours. Looking at the pre-test scores, the control group started out at a somewhat higher level of performance than the game group, but not statistically significant. Much analysis was performed, looking for any kind of significant impact that Math Blaster might have had on the students’ learning and understanding of algebra. Many statistical tests were performed on the data such as a t-test, both 1-tail and 2-tail. A t-test is a tool for statistical analysis showing if there is a statistical difference in comparing data sets. The t-tests were performed using analytical tools in Microsoft Excel. A few of the t-test results will be shown later. A list of all

the t-tests that were performed on the data from the first study is given in Exhibit 1. Table 5 shows results of one t-test analysis. The analysis shows the comparison of the pretests for each of the game and control groups for the first study. The Mean row shows the average score for all of the game group members and the control group members. In the Observations row, the numbers show the count of for each category. In the first study, there were two students who did not play the game at all, so they were moved to the control group. In the row labeled Hypothesized Mean Difference, since the value is 0, there is no expected

Exhibit 1. •

Pre-test scores, between groups

•

Post-test scores, between groups

•

Pre-test to post-test difference, between groups

•

Game group pre-test to post-test

•

Control group pre-test to post-test

•

Pre-test correctly answered questions, between groups

•

Pre-test incorrectly answered questions, between groups

•

Post-test correctly answered questions, between groups

•

Post-test incorrectly answered questions, between groups

•

Game group score only using objectives covered

•

Control group score only using objectives covered

•

Game group percent answered correctly of objectives covered

•

Control group percent answered correctly of objectives covered

•

Pre-test to post-test score, difference for objectives covered

•

Pre-test to post-test percent answered correctly, difference for objectives covered

•

Game group 1st grading period to 2nd grading period

•

Control group 1st grading period to 2nd grading period

•

Game group 1st grading period to 3rd grading period progress report

•

Control group 1st grading period to 3rd grading period progress report

•

1st grading period to 3rd grading period progress report difference, between Groups

•

1st grading period averages, between groups

•

2nd grading period averages, between groups

•

3rd grading period progress report averages, between groups

•

Game group 1st grading period to 2nd grading period benchmark

•

Control group 1st grading period to 2nd grading period benchmark

•

Grading period benchmark to 2nd grading period difference, between groups



COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

Table 6. Pre- to post-test difference T-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances Game group

Control group

Mean

0.776315789

-1.565217391

Variance

8.763157895

16.18873518

Observations

19

23

Hypothesized Mean Difference

0

P(T<=t) One-Tail

0.020707505

P(T<=t) Two-Tail

0.04141501

Table 7. Pre- to post-test differences T-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances: Relevant Content Scores Pre- to Post-Test Difference Game group

Control group

Mean

0.381578947

-1.130434783

Variance

3.773391813

3.550395257

Observations

19

23

Hypothesized Mean Difference

0

P(T<=t) One-Tail

0.007307054

P(T<=t) Two-Tail

0.014614109

difference between the two means for this test. The P values (labeled with P(T<=t)) determine if these results are significant or not. The P value is the chance that the null hypothesis is true. In this case, only about 2% of the range of scores overlap, meaning the other 98% do not overlap. Therefore, these means are significantly different. It is generally understood that if the P value is below .05 (less than a 5% overlap), the two means are significantly different. There is no significant difference in the pre-test scores between the game group and control group students. Table 6 shows the statistics for a comparison of the differences between the pre-test and post-test, comparing the game and control groups. The game group, on average, did 3% better on the post-test than the pre-test. The control group did about 6% worse on the post-test that the pretest. The drop in scores for the control group is



most likely related to taking the post-test right after a nine-day holiday from school. The difference between the two groups is 9%. Since the P value is less than 0.5, the difference is significant between the pre-test to post-test differences of the game group compared to the control group. The game group did 9% better than the control group. Since this first study completed nearly halfway through the year, only part of the Algebra 1 curriculum topics had been covered in the year. The data from the questions of topics covered so far in the course from the first study completed were pooled together. This subset of the data brought a whole other possible set of tests. The comparison shown in Table 7 proved to be statistically significant. This t-test in Table 7 compares the average difference from the pre-test to the post-test between the game group and the control group for

COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

Figure 1. Playing time vs. post-test scores 

R = 0.0

Time Playe d in vs. Pre- to Post-test Diffe rence

Pre- to Post-Test Difference l

   0 -

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

- - -

Time Played in Hours

the 10 questions that tested algebra topics already covered in class. The results show the same trend as the fully graded test. The game group rose slightly while the control group fell greatly. The variations are statistically significant. Although there were no statistically significant results relating the hours of playing the game to any scores, the graph in Figure 1 shows the relationship of game-playing times to pre- and post-test differences. There were no negative effects on scores from playing the game. Each of the diamonds in the graph represents a single game group student, where the values on the x-axis shows the number of hours that a student played Math Blaster Algebra and the yaxis represents the difference from the pre-test to the post-test. This trend line is used to determine if there is a correlation between two values, time spent playing the game and pre to post-test difference. At the upper left of the graph is the R 2 coefficient, which determines whether these two values are correlated or not. Normally it is accepted that if it is above .3 or below -.3, then it is correlated, either positively or negatively. In this case, there is no strong correlation. It may be important to note that there was not a negative

correlation with the amount of time spent playing and any grades or scores. While the positive results of 9% better for the game group were great for such a short period of time, there were no significant conclusions that could be made about the grade averages, or the Texas standardized tests, or the time spent playing the game.

Second Study Data and Results Since there were such positive results from the first study, a second effectiveness study was organized. The second study was designed to last for most of the second semester. The study procedures were identical to the first study. Ninth grade Algebra 1 students from John Jay Science and Engineering Academy were invited to participate. Each of the students in the new game and control groups took a pre-test and post-test before and after the study period. For those who were in the first study, their post-test in the first study served as their pre-test in the second study, since the second study started within a month of when the first one ended and the students had a holiday in between. The second study lasted over three times as long, a total of



COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

16 weeks, and more school-generated data was available. At the end of the study period, there were 19 students in the game group and 15 in the control group. The average pre-test score was 5.73 with a range of 1.5 to 13.75 for the game group, and 4.75 on average with a range of -0.5 to 14.75 for the control group. The average post-test score was 7.40 with a range of -1.0 to 16.75 for the game group, and 8.86 on average with a range of 3.0 to 20.75 for the control group. Table 8 shows these values for the game group in addition to the play times that ranged from 1.16 to 68.33 hours.

There were some anomalies in the timesheets that students used to record their playing times. For instance, students played regularly for the first six-week grading period, but many did not play the game much after that period. There was also one student who played enough to fill up one timesheet, but just stopped playing even though the instructions on the timesheet say to continue on the back or ask the teacher for another timesheet. What was even more damaging is that there were about six students who were missing some piece of data, such as a post-test since they were not

Table 8. Second study summary data Second Study

Pre-Test

Pre to Post-Test

Game Group

Score

Post-Test Score

Difference

Time Played in Hours

Average

5.73

7.40

1.67

13.31

Highest

13.75

16.75

3.0

68.33

Lowest

1.5

-1.0

-2.5

1.16

Exhibit 2.

0

•

Pre-test scores, between groups

•

Post-Test Scores, Between Groups

•

Pre-test to post-test difference, between groups

•

Game group pre-test to post-test

•

Control group pre-test to post-test

•

Average number attempted from pre-test to post-test in game group

•

Average number attempted from pre-test to post-test in control group

•

Game group percent answered correctly from pre-test to post-test

•

Control group percent answered correctly from pre-test to post-test

•

Game group percent answered incorrectly from pre-test to post-test

•

Control group percent answered incorrectly from pre-test to post-test

•

Game group 3rd grading period to 6th grading period

•

Control group 3rd grading period to 6th grading period

•

Game group 3rd grading period to 4th grading period

•

Control group 3rd grading period to 4th grading period

•

Game group 4th grading period to 5th grading period

•

Control group 4th grading period to 5th grading period

•

Difference from 1st-3rd grading period compared to 3rd-6th for game group

•

Difference from 1st-3rd grading period compared to 3rd-6th for control group

COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

available the various times the post-test could be given. These students had to be removed from the study. There were some students who did play the game, but had no timesheet to return. These students were not used in analysis of the time spent playing the game. More t-tests were performed since there were data over the three-month period. The additional t-tests are shown in Exhibit 2. No significant results were found with the data from this second study. Also, there were no significant results looking at the pool of students who were in both game groups (compared to students in both control groups). It is interesting to note that there were no negative impacts to scores and grades related to the time spent playing Math Blaster Algebra. The data may have been inconclusive because the students were not playing as much as expected. The students in the longer study played, on average, three hours less than the students involved in the first, even though the second study was over three times as long in duration. The students who participated in the game groups spent 276 hours playing the game in the first study and 213 hours in the second study. The game group students spent over 489 hours more interacting with algebra concepts than they might have without these effectiveness studies.

Future Studies There studies are intended to be a starting point. There are many additions, corrections, and extensions that can be made to improve other studies. Beyond the significant result of the first study, there was much learned from both of these studies. Some things to consider for future studies are having: • • •

More students participate A longer time period to play A controlled and monitored play environment

• •

• •

A more standardized or normalized testing instrument A continual motivation for the students throughout the study (extra credit from teachers, for example) Different games Different subjects

There is a plan to perform more effectiveness studies on Math Blaster Algebra at a couple of high schools in the San Antonio area for future academic years.

FUTURE OF GAME EFFECTIVENESS Educational computer games are becoming more prevalent as technology becomes more and more available in homes and schools. This segment of the gaming industry is growing each year. Perhaps this growth is due to the amount of anecdotal data that indicates subjectively that students are benefiting from the use of these games. What needs to be done to show scientifically and objectively how effective these games really are or can be? First of all, more effectiveness studies need to be performed on any educational software including games. Second, more educational computer games should be developed. Third, as educational computer games are developed, more attention can be paid to the method of instruction and practice with lessons from game theory, instructional design, learning theory, and intelligent tutoring systems. As we show that educational computer games can be effective, we see that they can be used in and out of the classroom as another teaching method. Students could elect to take classes and cover subjects by a game method, for example, in addition to classroom style or group work. As we see more games with artificial intelligence (AI) and smart agents in them, we could put an AI player into an educational game where



COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

the goal of the AI is for the student to learn. The game could be like an intelligent tutoring system in a game setting and can point a student to an efficient and effective path for learning. The goal of an agent could be directed by a smart instructional navigator that selects material to present based on the play so far. When a game is multiplayer, the players could be encouraged to work cooperatively and potentially learn more. The AI could act in a way that directs students toward an equilibrium point. As advancements in technology make it much more possible to develop realistic graphics and sound, the possibility to truly engage the student into the learning experiences becomes a greater task for the game developer. We now have dual processors; Direct X and Open GL graphics libraries; 3D graphics tools such as Maya, Lightwave, and 3ds Max; and gigabyte and terabyte storage capacities for many computer systems. The ability to create virtual reality systems promotes endless possibilities for learning. Expectations will be high to make educational games both effective for learning as well as engaging and interesting. With bandwidths being capable of supporting more activities on the Internet, computer usage is being drawn to Web-based services. The gaming industry has taken advantage of this opportunity with games that allow for thousands of users to play a game simultaneously. A good example of this MMORPG (massively multiplayer online role-playing game) is Blizzard’s World of Warcraft, which had 8.5 million subscribers as of March 2007 (Blizzard Entertainment, 2007). Some online services allow users to create their own online communities and worlds such as in Second Life. Some educators have used Second Life as a support community for education (Linden Labs, 2007). Perhaps the future will see the gaming industry offer subscriptions to educational environments. These worldwide environments will make learning interactive, educational, fun, and potentially collaborative.



CONCLUSION Only the future will tell what the demand is for educational computer games. These games will only get the chance to be effective if people make, buy or subscribe, and play them. The games must be attractive and engaging. More educational computer games should be created and developed in ways that are effective in teaching. Developers can use lessons from many disciplines such as intelligent tutoring systems to produce games that engage the player’s interest and are effective. Also, higher grade levels and adult education topics could use more computer games that teach. One effectiveness study on Math Blaster Algebra showed the potential for commercially available educational computer games to make a positive impact on student learning and understanding of algebra. If this result can be extrapolated, then other educational computer games should be able to positively impact students’ learning and understanding for other subjects. It was shown that although there was not always a positive impact, there was not a negative impact on test scores and grades as a result of the time spent playing an educational computer game. Studies must be done to determine if these games are effective in teaching and supporting learning of the desired content. More effectiveness studies can be easily performed improving on the procedure given in this chapter. Maybe the real value of playing educational computer games is to provide a motivation and incentive for students to play around with whatever subject that game may cover, spending more time with the subject matter.

REFERENCES Blizzard Entertainment. (2007). World of Warcraft®: The Burning Crusade™ continues recordbreaking sales pace. Retrieved July 8, 2007, from http://www.blizzard.com/press/070307.shtml

COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

Burns, H., Parlett, J., & Redfield, C. (1991). Intelligent tutoring systems: Evolutions in design. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Luckhardt, C. (1989). N-person game playing and artificial intelligence. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International.

Carnegie Learning. (2007). Carnegie Learning: The cognitive tutor company. Retrieved July 12, 2007, from http://www.carnegielearning.com/approach_research.cfm

Michael, D., & Chen, S. (2006). Serious games: Games that educate, train, and inform. Boston: Thomson Course Technology PTR.

Educational Software Preview Guide Consortium. (2007, June 29). Educational software preview guide. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://wwwed.fnal.gov/espg Gaither, D., & Redfield, C. (2006). Survey of electronic games that teach. Proceedings of the 2006 Society of Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference. Orlando, FL: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Gagné, R., Briggs, L., & Wager, W. (1992). Principles of instructional design (4th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Hall, D. (1987). A comparative analysis of guided vs. query-based intelligent tutoring systems (ITS) using a class-entity–relationship-attribute knowledge base. Denton, TX: University of North Texas (and UMI Proquest). Knowledge Adventure. (2006). Math Blaster. Retrieved January 28, 2007, from http://www. knowledgeadventure.com Knowledge Share. (1998). SuperKids educational software review. Retrieved January 28, 2007, from http://www.superkids.com/aweb/pages/reviews/ math/algebra/1/blaster/merge.shtml Linden Labs. (2007). Second Life education. Retrieved July 8, 2007, from http://secondlife. com/education

Murray, T., Blessing, S., & Ainsworth, S. (Eds.). (2003). Authoring tools for advanced technology learning environments: Toward cost-effective adaptive, interactive and intelligent educational software. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: SpringerVerlag. Osborne, M., & Rubinstein, A. (1994). A course in game theory. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Pensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Randel, J., Morris, B., Wetzel, C.D., & Whitehill, B. (1992, September). The effectiveness of games for educational purposes: A review of recent research. Simulation & Gaming, 23(3). Redfield, C.L. (1995). Turning a CBT into an ITS. Proceedings of the 7th World Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education, Washington, DC. Redfield, C.L. (1999, March). Sky’s the Limit Charter School: Offering a tutor-based curriculum. Proceedings of the 1999 AACE International Conference of the Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education. San Antonio, TX. Redfield, C.L. (2000, November). Computer tutors fulfilling curriculum topics. Proceedings of WebNet 2000, San Antonio, TX. Redfield, N., Gaither, D., & Redfield, C. (2007). Educational game effectiveness. Proceedings of the 2007 AACE Conference of the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education, San Antonio, TX. Steuck, K., & Meyer, T.N. (2003). The fundamental skills training project. Technical Report



COTS Computer Game Effectiveness

AFRL-HE-AZ-TR-2003-0041, Human Effectiveness Directorate, Air Force Research Laboratory, USA. Texas Education Agency. (2007a). Student assessment division: About the student assessment program. Retrieved July 11, 2007, from http:// www.tea.state.tx.us/student.assessment/about/ overview.html Texas Education Agency. (2007b). Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS). Retrieved July 11, 2007, from http://www.tea.state.tx.us/teks/ Wikipedia. (2007). Knowledge Adventure. Retrieved July 6, 2007, from http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Knowledge_Adventure

KEY TERMS Artificial Intelligence (AI): A branch of computer science that attempts to have computers and computer programs do things that appear smart or intelligent; knowledge representation and gaming are two areas within AI. Computer-Based Training (CBT): A process of teaching and learning that is executed with software applications on a computer; the student is, in effect, trained by the computer. Computer Off-the-Shelf (COTS): Computer products or software that are ready-made and available for sale, lease, or license to the general public.



Equilibrium Point: A set of strategies and payoffs for a multiplayer game that is the best that each player can do, given the other players keep the same strategy; in a two-person game, it is called a saddle point. Game Tree: A representation of the play of a game where the root or first node is the initial state of a game, the first level or ply is all the possible moves of the first player, and the content of the nodes are the resulting states of the game; the leaf nodes represent when the game is over. Intelligent Tutoring System (ITS): A computer system that tutors a student on some subject matter by presenting course content based on a model of the student. An ITS typically has four components: interface module, instructional module, expert model, and student model. Perfect Information Game: A game where each player is aware of all the actions and consequences of moves of all the other players. Serious Games: Games used for training, advertising, simulation, or education that are designed to run on personal computers or video game consoles. These games are not only entertaining, but have some kind of learning value associated with them. Strategy: The method of play for a player to play a game; the rules by which a player selects the move to make at any given point in a game. Student Model: A representation of the current state of what a student knows in relation to material that is being presented in an intelligent tutoring system.



Chapter XVII

Teacher Gamers vs. Teacher Non-Gamers Christopher L. James Russellville City Schools, USA Vivian H. Wright University of Alabama, USA

AbstrAct The purpose of this study was to identify secondary teachers with video game-play experience and determine if perceived levels of comfort in regard to completing job-related technology tasks, amounts of instructional technology usage, and amounts of participation in innovative teaching strategies are affected by experience or lack of experience with video games. Although significant differences were not found between teachers identified as gamers and those identified as non-gamers, researchers may choose to investigate specific areas where mean differences were found. For example, gamers were more comfortable using presentation software for demonstrating concepts in class, communicating electronically with colleagues and students, using the Internet for instructional purposes, and presenting information using various delivery modes. In comparison to gamers, non-gamers indicated a tendency to communicate electronically with parents more often, encourage students to use electronic tutorials outside of class more often, and allow students to use word processors to complete assignments more frequently. This study can be used as a reference point for future research into teachers and video game-play in regard to teaching practices and job-related tasks.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

INtrODUctION Video games have become a part of the daily lives of many individuals, regardless of age or gender. In fact, the video game industry has grown to rival the motion picture industry and each of the major television networks in terms of revenues and profits. Despite the size of the industry, more research is needed on the potential benefits of video game-play and learning (Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2004). In an exert entitled, “From Video Games, Learning About Learning,” from his book, What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy, Gee (2003) describes video games as being long, hard, and challenging. Gee indicates if a game has good learning principles in its design, the learning can be translated in positive ways. In his opinion, the theory of learning behind good video games closely resembles learning theories from the cognitive sciences. Cognitive science is the study of the mind and includes processes such as thinking, reasoning, language, perception, learning, and remembering. Cognitive science crosses several disciplines including computer science, linguistics, philosophy, and psychology (Rapaport, 1996). Research within this area suggests human interaction within an environment and perception are related in creating memory (Glenberg, 1997). Video games create environments and allow interaction within these environments. According to cognitive science principles, this should create memory. Good games are challenging, give information in context, allow players to create, build problem-solving skills, are motivating, and offer opportunities for individuals to work together (Gee, 2003). Characteristics of gamers, such as willingness to volunteer, creativity, and reading to gain knowledge, have been used to describe innovative teachers (Cumming & Owen, 2001; Thomas, 1993). Also, similar to video games, innovation requires creating, persistence, action, teamwork,



and risk taking (Ballantyne, McLean, & Macpherson, 2003). Based on the premise that learning takes place in video games and many characteristics of game players and innovators are similar, the researchers designed this study to determine the effects video game experience may or may not have on perceptions of teachers and their comfort levels when completing job-related computing tasks, amount of instructional technology usage, and participation in innovative teaching practices. If video game experience allows individuals to gain certain knowledge and skills applicable to basic computing skills and instructional technology, teachers may have higher comfort and participation levels in each area. Also, many of the characteristics of game players reflect the same qualities found in innovative teachers. This study is important to the field of education and gaming because certain aspects of gaming such as problem solving, teamwork, communication, and knowledge of technology may be increased by the playing of video games. Intuitively, if knowledge of technology is increased, comfort levels with various technologies may also be increased. Also, motivation (Rosas et al., 2003) and self-confidence (Carstens & Beck, 2005) have both been enhanced by video game-play. Each of these aspects or traits are important to the field of education as teachers are facing ever-increasing pressure to raise scores on various standardized tests and teachers are expected to perform at high levels in the classroom.

bAcKGrOUND Computer games and video games are two terms that are often used synonymously to describe games played on personal computers, handheld systems, consoles, or arcade machines (Wikipedia, 2005). A game is a form of art that requires decision making, opposition, the management of resources, the attainment of tokens, and a sufficient

Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

amount of information. Games are often strengthened by diplomacy, simulation, variety, character identification, role-playing, and socialization (Costikyan, 1994).Games are complete systems with explicit rules, with fantasy playing a major role in various situations (Crawford, 1982). Gee described a game as a world in a box allowing a player to create an identity they really want and the ability to gain experiences that were not available before (cited in Foreman, 2004). Most people consider games to be for younger members of society or for males only, but the statistics within the industry tell a different story. In May 2005, the Entertainment Software Association released the results of a consumer survey that indicated game players were an average age of 30, with 35% under the age of 18 and 43% between the ages of 18 and 49. Nineteen percent of game players were over the age of 50, and 55% were male. Previous research has shown gamers to enjoy such activities as exercising, sports, volunteering, religious activities, creative undertakings, and reading. In fact, the Entertainment Software Association (2005) reported that gamers spend over three times the amount of time on activities such as these when compared to playing video games. Also, characteristics of gamers, such as being risk takers (Beck & Wade, 2004), showing a willingness to volunteer, having creativity, and reading to gain knowledge, have been used to describe innovative teachers (Cumming & Owen, 2001; Thomas, 1993). Research indicates girls prefer games that allow them to play with other players, have highquality graphics and multimedia components, and allow for communication between participants during game-play (Agosto, 2004). Males tend to enjoy games with a lot of action and fighting with weapons, but both genders believe realism is an important aspect in game design (Media Analysis Laboratory, 1998). Many educators and parents do not believe video games are a viable component of a cur-

riculum and have issues with the educational software that is available (Virvou, Katsionis, & Manos, 2005). Leaders within the area of gaming and learning argue that video games may change the way we learn and can effectively engage learners (Squire & Jenkins, 2003). A vast amount of information and resources are available to individuals at the click of a button, but classrooms have not adapted. While games are often complex and difficult, people work through them and the difficulty often provides motivation. Further, Shaffer et al. (2004) indicated that video games allow players to participate in communities and develop thinking and organization skills, but they also noted the field is absent of sufficient research concerning learning theory. One sign this may be changing occurred in March 2004, when the first Serious Games Summit was held at the Game Developers Conference. The summit brought together educational researchers, game developers, and trainers to share experiences in hopes of developing new markets and better products (Corbit, 2005). Another positive sign for the industry is the fact that more colleges and universities are offering courses, and in some instances, degrees related to video game design. Prestigious universities, such as The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford, Carnegie Mellon, and Southern California, are leading the way in this area (Mangan, 2005). Until recently, little research existed concerning the potential benefits of video game-play even though many children and adults spent a large amount of time playing games. Now, more researchers are looking at possible benefits of game-play and have found that they may improve social skills, encourage teamwork, increase knowledge pertaining to technology, develop math and reading skills, and improve problem solving (Media Awareness Network, n.d.). It is evident from the literature that video games have become a part of our culture and have gained a tremendous amount of popularity. For several years, the majority of research on video game-play



Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

focused solely on negative aspects, but the trend is beginning to change. Pillay, Brownlee, and Wilss (2003) indicated recreational game players engage in cognitive processing while playing, and many of these processes are very valuable in educational settings. Gamers display the ability to digest explicit and implicit information, reason inductively and deductively, make inferences, and solve problems. Whether it be in the role of teacher or student, each of these processes lend themselves well to an environment implementing instructional technology. Instructional technology is changing the way we learn. Exposure to different types of video games aids in developing schema that may be used in completing future tasks and solving problems in technology-rich settings (Pillay, 2003). Structural knowledge may be gained from games, allowing individuals to function in similar environments with instructional technology. According to Gros (2003), video games are often the first access young people have to the world of technology, and they help create a positive outlook towards technology. It is the hypothesis of Gros that children acquire digital literacy through play, and video games are the most interactive multimedia available today. Many games require players to reach some type of goal, and innovative teachers have been described as having a vision for the future and strategies for reaching this vision (Cumming & Owen, 2001). Innovation is the introduction of something newa new idea, method, or device (Merriam-Webster Online, 2005). While the formal definition of innovation is rather straightforward, defining innovative teaching practices is much more difficult. Several of the skills learned from video games mirror characteristics of innovative teachers identified by Cumming and Owen (2001), Thomas (1993), and Ballantyne et al. (2003). Each of these studies acknowledged innovative teachers as having the ability to work with others, possessing strong social skills, a sound knowledge base, and a desire to succeed.



After an exhaustive search, the researchers were unable to locate any previous research on teachers who play or once played video games. Rather, most studies focused on such areas as increased motivation, problem-solving skills, aggression, and addiction (Amory, Naicker, Vincent, & Adams, 1999; Bensley & van Eenwyk, 2001; Hauge & Gentile, 2003; Rosas et al., 2002). Merriam-Webster Online (2006) defines experience as “the fact or state of having been affected by or gained knowledge through direct observation or participation.” If experience playing video games allows teachers to become more comfortable with job-related technology, more readily accept instructional technology, and more readily participate in innovative teaching practices, perhaps the educational community will adopt gaming as a viable component of effective teaching practices at both the postsecondary and K-12 levels. College education departments may add gaming to their pre-service teaching programs, and professional development content for teachers and administrators may be delivered through similar means. The following research questions guided this study: 1. 2.

3.

4.

Who are the teachers with experience playing video games? Are teachers with experience playing video games more comfortable completing jobrelated technology tasks? Do teachers with experience playing video games use instructional technology more often than those without experience playing video games? Do teachers with experience playing video games participate in more innovative teaching strategies?

Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

METHODOLOGY Population The researchers designed this study to determine the effects video game experience may or may not have on perceptions of teachers and their comfort levels when completing job-related computing tasks, amount of instructional technology usage, and participation in innovative teaching practices. In determining the sample for this study, the researchers had specific criteria for selecting the schools. Specifically, each school needed to be at a secondary level to obtain a better ratio of male to female teachers. The researchers also wanted the schools to include various socioeconomic levels, which were determined by the free or reduced lunch percentage. Based on these criteria, seven secondary schools in North Alabama were selected. For this study, all classroom teachers serving grades 6 through 12 were given the opportunity to complete the survey instrument. By including each classroom teacher, the researchers hoped to reduce the amount of bias when generalizing to the population. The population was divided into two groups: those with video game-play experience and those without. For this study, a teacher is considered to have video game-play experience if he or she has enjoyed playing video games weekly as a hobby anytime in the past or present. Each respondent was questioned regarding their perceptions of comfort using technology to complete basic job-related tasks, amounts of instructional technology usage in the classroom, and amounts of participation in innovative instructional practices. The researchers then determined if a significant difference existed in comfort levels and amounts of usage between each group in relation to basic job-related computing tasks, instructional technology, and participative levels in innovative teaching methods. A survey was designed by the researchers to collect information from respondents through a

traditional paper option. Each classroom teacher received the paper survey, along with a cover letter, explaining the purpose of the study and directions for completing the survey. Administrators at four schools chose to have the surveys completed in a faculty meeting and returned at the conclusion of the meeting resulting in return rates of 75%, 75%, 100%, and 94%, respectively. One school chose to distribute the surveys at a faculty meeting and have the surveys returned in a sealed envelope to a designated location, resulting in a return rate of 25.7%. Two schools chose to have the surveys placed in teacher mailboxes and returned in a sealed envelope to a designated location, resulting in return rates of 70% and 78%. Overall, 258 faculty members were given the opportunity to complete the surveys and 184 surveys were submitted for analysis, resulting in a return rate of 71%.

Survey Design The survey instrument (see Appendix) was developed by reviewing several instructional technology surveys administered in higher education and a video game survey administered by the Beckman Institute (n.d.), reviewing the National Education Technology Standards for Teachers (ISTE, 2000), focusing on the best practices for using instructional technology established by the University of Texas at Austin (n.d.), and researching a study on innovative teaching (Cumming & Owen, 2001). Questions related to gaming practices were developed by the researchers to garner specific statistics from the participants. The survey contained five sections to gather information regarding and to assess: 1. 2.

Demographic information from questions 1-6 Game-play experience from questions 711



Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

3.

Perceptions of teacher comfort levels when completing job-related computing tasks from questions 12-17 Amounts of instructional technology use by the teachers from questions 18-30 Amounts of implementation of innovative teaching practices from questions 31-41

4. 5.

A four-point Likert scale was used to rate each item from section three (‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘disagree’, ‘strongly disagree’), section four (‘frequently’, ‘sometimes’, ‘rarely’, ‘never’), and section five (‘frequently’, ‘sometimes’, ‘rarely’, ‘never’). Validation of the survey was obtained by having the survey reviewed by a panel of experts. Reliability was tested through a pilot application of the survey and testing the internal consistency of the questions using Cronbach’s alpha. One question was removed from the original survey to reach an acceptable level of .894 for section three, .839 for section four, and .863 for section five.

Data Analysis Descriptive statistics were used to analyze items on the survey. Three separate independent samples t-tests were conducted to determine if a significant difference existed between each group regarding comfort levels with job-related technology tasks, amounts of instructional technology usage, and implementations of innovative teaching practices.

Demographics The first section of the survey instrument included six questions that gathered demographic information from the participants. Percentages were rounded to the nearest whole number for discussion. The first question asked the participants to choose a range in which their age fell. Table 1 displays the frequencies and percentages for this item. The data revealed that 17% of the population fell between the ages of 20 and 29, 26% fell between the ages of 30 and 39, 22% fell between the ages of 40, and 49 and the remaining 35% of the population was 50 or older. The second question identified the gender of the respondents. The data in Table 2 indicate the participation of 58 males and 126 females in the study, resulting in percentage levels of 32 and 69 respectively. Question 3 asked the participants to specify their highest level of education. Of the total population, 30% indicated a bachelor’s degree as the highest degree earned, while 60% revealed having a master’s degree. Also, 9% were identified as having an education specialist degree, and 1% had earned a doctoral degree. Table 3 displays the frequencies and percentages for this item. Question 4 attempted to gather information regarding the years of teaching for each individual in the study. Frequencies and percents from each range of years are listed in Table 4. Out of the population, 23% identified themselves as having 6-10 years of teaching experience, followed closely by the 0-5 years experience group at 21%.

Table 1. Age of participants Age

Frequency

Percent

20-29

32

17

30-39

48

26

40-49

40

22

50+

64

35

00

Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

Table 2. Gender of participants Gender

Frequency

Percent

Male

58

32

Female

126

68

Degree

Frequency

Percent

Bachelor’s

55

30

Master’s

111

60

Education Specialist

17

9

Doctoral

1

1

Table 3. Highest level of education

Table 4. Years of teaching experience Years

Frequency

Percent

0-5

39

21

6-10

43

23

11-15

34

19

16-20

19

10

20-25

19

10

25+

30

16

Subject

Frequency

Percent

Math

35

19

English

32

17

Science

22

12

History

30

16

Physical Education

12

7

Vocational

16

9

Special Education

19

10

Other

18

10

Table 5. Subject area

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Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

Next was the 11-15 years group at 19%, followed by the group with 25 or more years at 16%. The smallest groups represented included the 16-20 years experience and the 20-25 years experience groups at 10%. Question 5 gathered data concerning the subject areas taught by the participants. The subject area of math was represented at the highest rate at 19%, followed by English at 17%, history at 16%, science at 12%, special education at 10%, other areas at 10%, vocational at 9%, and physical education at 7%. Frequencies and percents for this question are found in Table 5.

Gaming Experience The second section of the survey collected participant data specific to video game experience. Question 6 identified each participant as a game player or non-game player during the present or any time in the past. Out of 184 respondents, 66 (36%) identified themselves as a gamer (as having game playing experience) and 64% classified themselves as not having game playing experience. When asked about playing video games on personal computers, only 18% chose ‘frequently’. The majority, 41%, chose ‘seldom’. When asked about playing video games on consoles, 59% chose ‘seldom’. Within the game-playing population, 48% reported playing Web-based games ‘sometimes’ or ‘frequently’. In an average week, 64% of game players reported playing games less than one hour per week, 27% played from one to three hours per week, and 9% played from three to seven hours per week. No respondents reported playing more than seven hours per week. Question 11 from the survey asked the participants to list an approximate age at which they began playing video games. Almost 20% indicated they began playing games at the age of 10, and 17% indicated they began playing games at the age of 12.

0

Research Question 1 Who are the teachers with experience playing video games? When looking at the game players, 32% of the population was from the 30-39 age group. This percentage was followed closely by the 40-49 age group at 27%. While this study did not account for anyone under the age of 20, these percentages resembled statistics released from the Entertainment Software Association in 2005, where the mean age of game players was found to be around 30. Among the total male population surveyed, 52% were labeled as a gamer, while only 29% of the total female population carried the same label. Even though the female population had a lower percentage within their own gender, they made up 55% of the game-playing population due to their higher total population in this study. Each of the groups with years of experience from 0 to 5, 6 to 10, 11 to 15, and 16 to 20 had at least 35% of the group identified as gamers, with the 6 to 10 years experience group leading the way at almost 50%. History teachers and teachers from the group “other” classified themselves as gamers at a rate equal to or greater than 60%. Science, math, and English followed at percentage levels of 32%, 31%, and 41% respectively.

Research Question 2 Are teachers with experience playing video games more comfortable completing job-related technology tasks? Total scores for gamers and non-gamers were computed and analyzed by an independent samples t-test to explore this research question. The effect of video game-play experience was not significant, t(182)=.983, p = .189, at an alpha level of .05. Sufficient evidence existed to conclude that there is no significant difference among teacher gamers and teacher non-gamers in regard to comfort levels with job-related technology. The

Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

mean total score for game players in this section was 20.33 and the mean total score for non-game players was 19.99. This section of the survey contained six questions. Even though no significant difference was found between the groups for total scores for these questions, the gamers had higher mean scores on five questions, and one question had equal means. Of the five questions with differing means, the question regarding the use of basic computer applications had a very small difference of .01, leaving four other questions with mean differences of at least .10. The questions with mean differences of at least .10 between each group included perceived comfort levels of using software to demonstrate concepts in class, communicating electronically with colleagues and students, using the Internet for instructional purposes, and presenting information using a variety of delivery modes including audio, video, and text. These differences may be explained by studies such as Mitchell and Savill-Smith (2004), where computer games were found being used to teach a variety of basic and complex skills supporting several areas and disciplines. Also, video games are often times the first access individuals have to technology and may create a more positive outlook towards technology (Gros, 2003). Each question reflected positive confidence levels for both groups, except in regard to comfort levels creating and updating Web pages. On a four-point Likert scale, this question had a mean score of 2.58 for each group. In fact, 44% of game players and 50% of non-game players chose ‘strongly disagree’ or ‘disagree’ in response to this item. In contrast, all of the other questions in this section had mean scores above 3.23, with most hovering around 3.50. Hopefully, each group will become more comfortable working with Web pages as technology advances and becomes more user friendly, but each group will need sufficient professional development to see great improvement. For example, blogs can replace the often

tedious and time-consuming class Web page, but many educators are skeptical in regard to new types of technology.

Research Question 3 Do teachers with experience playing video games use instructional technology more often than those without experience playing video games? After total scores were computed for each group for the survey questions related to this research question, an independent samples t-test was conducted to determine if a significant difference existed between the gamers and non-gamers in regard to their amounts of instructional technology usage. The effect of video game-play experience was not significant, t(159.273)=-.318, p = .751, between the two groups at an alpha level of .05. The mean total score for game players in this section was 31.38 and the mean total score for non-game players was 31.73. There were 13 items answered by the respondents for this section. Six of the questions had more positive results for gamers, and six of the questions had more positive responses for nongamers. One question had equal means from each group. Even though 12 questions had different means for each group, several questions had similar means, and only three of the questions had differences greater than .10. Of these three, all had higher mean scores for the non-gamers, indicating non-gamers communicate electronically with parents more frequently, encourage students to use electronic tutorials outside of class more frequently, and allow students to use word processors to complete assignments more frequently. In relation to communicating electronically with parents, gamers scoring at a slightly lower level resemble the results from Lawry et. al. (1995), where no clear relationship was found between anti-social behavior and gaming. Also, non-gamers allowing students to use word processors and electronic tutorials more often may be attributed to computers becoming

0

Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

more prevalent in teacher education programs. Teacher education programs are offering more opportunities for students to learn with various types of instructional technology, and many are requiring introductory computer courses (Betrus & Molinda, 2002). A few of the items in this section had mean scores below 2.0 on a four-point Likert scale. The choices on this section were ‘never’, ‘rarely’, ‘sometimes’, and ‘frequently’. This would indicate an average result somewhere between ‘never’ and ‘rarely’ on these items. Neither group exhibited positive results in regard to allowing students to communicate with teachers, students, or experts via blogs. The negative results associated with blogs could be attributed to the new emergence of this type of communicative technology. Blogs are attractive because of their ease of use (Downes, 2004), but many teachers may not be familiar with them. Also, both groups reacted negatively to how often they allow students to use spreadsheets to complete assignments. Game players also had an average below 2.0 in response to allowing students to use databases to complete assignments.

Research Question 4 Do teachers with experience playing video games participate in more innovative teaching strategies? An independent samples t-test was conducted to determine if a significant difference existed between the gamers and non-gamers in regard to their participation in innovative teaching strategies. The effect of video game-play experience was not significant, t(182)=.336, p = .737, between the two groups at an alpha level of .05. The mean total score for game players in this section was 35.71 and the mean total score for non-game players was 35.49. There were 11 items on this section of the survey. The choices on this section were ‘never’, ‘rarely’, ‘sometimes’, and ‘frequently’. When a closer look is taken at each individual statement, the means are extremely close for each item for

0

both groups, with differences less than .08 for all questions except one. The only item with a greater difference was in regard to how often the individual takes risks with instruction by trying something new. The game players group reported taking risks more often, but the difference between each group was only .10. The slight difference in the amounts of risks taken could be explained by Beck and Wade (2004) when they found gamers to have the ability to implement bold but measured risk-taking strategies in the business world. Beck and Wade (2004) also described gaming as a possible training ground for critical business skills. Items reported with lower means from each group included using alternative assessments such as digital rubrics and portfolios, and incorporating creative writing activities into daily lessons. Each of the other items in this section represented more positive results, with both groups reporting very high means on reflecting upon and assessing their own teaching and ensuring that all students are experiencing some type of learning success in their classroom.

IMPLICATIONS Implications of this research may prompt further study and also an evaluation of one’s thoughts concerning the potential benefits of gaming. It is hoped that this study and other studies centered on gaming and education will further inform both policymakers and practitioners about the characteristics of game players and the potential benefits of gaming in education.

Is Education Willing to Keep Pace? Even though this study did not find any significant differences between gamers and non-gamers concerning specific teaching behaviors, there is little doubt the field of education can learn from the gaming community (Gee, 2004). The youth

Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

of today are growing up in technology-rich environments with almost daily advancements in the Internet, video games, and computer games. Educators are facing a very tough challenge in keeping the attention of their students in a fast-paced, technology-rich society. Students have entertainment at the touch of a button whether it is via MP3 player, computer, cell phone, game console, or remote control. Many students are losing interest in the classroom because of the lack of engagement in this setting. While entertainment should never take the place of quality information within the classroom, student engagement should always be a high priority. Policymakers and practitioners have often been slow to adapt or to accept change. A balance might be beneficial. For example, most secondary students are familiar with podcasting; podcasting has tremendous potential in the classroom. Through a computer or a digital audio device, students can download audio/video broadcasts related to classroom topics, providing another alternative to content presentation other than the traditional classroom lecture and text.

Are College and Professional Development Programs Making Progress Preparing Teachers? When the data were analyzed, all of the questions and statements received favorable results for both groups except for three questions. These three questions were related to advanced computing skills including updating Web pages, implementing blogs, and using databases. Since these were the only questions or statements receiving low scores, it may suggest that college programs and professional development activities are making progress preparing teachers to complete job-related computing tasks and implement instructional technology. Most colleges and universities are requiring students in the field of education to complete at least one class related to computing skills, and more emphasis is being placed

on meaningful professional development at the school level.

CONCLUSION This study was limited to public schools at the secondary level in North Alabama. With the increase in sales within the video game market and the continual growth of the video game player population, a similar study may benefit from a larger and more dispersed population. Although significant differences were not found between gamers and non-gamers when ttests were conducted for each research question, researchers may choose to investigate specific areas where mean differences were found. For example, gamers were more comfortable using presentation software for demonstrating concepts in class, communicating electronically with colleagues and students, using the Internet for instructional purposes, and presenting information using various delivery modes. In comparison to gamers, non-gamers indicated a tendency to communicate electronically with parents more often, encourage students to use electronic tutorials outside of class more often, and allow students to use word processors to complete assignments more frequently. Future research may address issues of experience with technologies such as online banking, scrapbooking, and online shopping. Some respondents may have experience with items such as these, but may not be gamers. This could be a clue why significant differences were not found in relation to job-related technology tasks. Also, researchers may choose to explore a possible link between teachers’ private use of computer technology and their willingness to implement instructional technology into the classroom. In this study, teachers were identified as gamers or non-gamers by age, gender, education level, years of experience, and subject area. Future studies could involve comparisons within

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Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

gaming teachers concerning teaching behaviors. Factors that may contribute to specific behaviors include average hours of game-play per week, preferred types of game genre, and type of preferred platform. Also, another study may benefit by exploring the attitudes of each group towards technology and the reasons they use or do not use certain types of technology. Future researchers could develop a scale or matrix to rate levels of game-play-based on specific characteristics or set criteria. Some game players prefer online gaming in communities, others prefer playing alone on consoles or handheld devices, and some prefer playing simple games on personal computers. As far as time spent playing games, individuals play at all different levels. Some play for less than one hour per week and others may play for several hours in the same week. Also, multiple genres are readily available for free or at varying prices. When studying video game players, there are multiple characteristics and criteria that can be studied. Future studies on teacher gamers would benefit by taking these characteristics into account, and significant differences are more likely to be found in practice. The video game industry continues to grow at a rapid pace, and more individuals are playing video games than ever before. Many people are spending significant time playing video games, and video games have become part of our culture. While this study did not find any significant differences between those teachers identified as gamers and those as non-gamers, specifically in perceived levels of comfort in regard to completing job-related technology tasks, amounts of instructional technology usage, and amounts of participation in innovative teaching strategies, the potential of video games in education should not and cannot be ignored. It is hoped that this study will be used as a reference point for further study with teachers and the effect of video game-play on teaching practices and job-related tasks.

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REFERENCES Agosto, D. (2004). Girls and gaming: A summary of the research implications for practice. Teacher Librarian, 31(3), 8-14. Amory, A., Naicker, K., Vincent, J., & Adams, C. (1999). The use of computer games as an educational tool: Identification of appropriate game types and elements. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30(4), 311-321. Ballantyne, R., McLean, S.V., & Macpherson, I. (2003). Knowledge and skills required for creating a culture of innovation: Supporting innovative teaching and learning practices. Retrieved February 2, 2006, from http://www.dest.gov. au/NR/rdonlyres/EB71B327-B55B-44CE-A7CDD2CCE6364ECC/1667/teaching_ for_innovation. pdf Beck, J.C., & Wade, M. (2004). Got game: How the gamer generation is reshaping business forever. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Beckman Institute. (n.d.). Video game survey. Retrieved November 1, 2005, from http://hpp. beckman.uiuc.edu/download/LJ_survey.pdf Bensley, L., & van Eenwyk, J. (2001). Video games and real-life aggression: review of the literature. Journal of Adolescent Health, 29, 244-257. Betrus, A.K., & Molena, M. (2002). Historical evolution of instructional technology in teacher education programs. TechTrends, 46(5) 18-21, 33. Carstens, A., & Beck, J. (2005). Get ready for the gamer generation. TechTrends, 49(3), 22-25. Corbit, M. (2005). Moving into cyberspace: Game worlds for learning. KnowledgeQuest, 34(1), 18-22.

Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

Costikyan, G. (1994). I have no words & I must design. Retrieved November 7, 2005, from http:// www.costik.com/nowords.html Crawford, C. (1982). The art of computer game design. Retrieved October 14, 2005, from http:// www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/gamebook/Coverpage.html Cumming, J., & Owen, C. (2001). Reforming schools through innovative teaching. Hobart, Australia: Australian College of Education. Downes, S. (2004). Educational blogging. EDUCAUSE Review, (September/October). Entertainment Software Association. (2005). Essential facts about the computer and video game industry: 2005 sales, demographics, and usage data. Washington, DC: Author. Foreman, J. (2004). Game-based learning: How to delight and instruct in the 21st century. EDUCAUSE Review, (September/October), 52-66. Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J.P. (2004). Learning by design: Games as learning machines. Interactive Educational Multimedia, 8, 15-23. Glenberg, A.M. (1997). What is memory for. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 20, 1-55. Gros, B. (2003). The impact of digital games in education. First Monday, 8(7). Retrieved January 26, 2006, from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue8_7/gros/index.html Hauge, M.R., & Gentile, D.A. (2003, April). Video game addiction among adolescents: Associations with academic performance and aggression. Proceedings of the Society for Research in Child Development Conference, Tampa, FL. Retrieved December 23, 2006, from http://www.psychology. iastate.edu/FACULTY/dgentile/SRCD%20Video %20Game%20Addiction.pdf

ISTE (International Society for Technology in Education). (2000) Educational technology standards and performance indicators for all teachers. Retrieved November 10, 2005, from http://cnets. iste.org/Teachers/t_stands.html Lawry, J., Upitis, R., Klawe, M., Anderson, A., Inkpen, K., Ndunda, M. et al. (1995). Exploring common conceptions about boys and electronic games. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 14(4), 439-459. Mangan, K.S. (2005). Joysticks in the classroom: Game-design programs take off. Chronicle of Higher Education, 51(22), A29-A31. Media Analysis Laboratory. (1998). Video game culture: Leisure and play preferences of B.C. teens. Retrieved December 22, 2005, from http:// www.media-awareness.ca/english/resources/ research_documents/reports/violence/upload/ Video-Game-Culture-Leisure-and-Play-Preferences-of-B-C-Teens-Report-pdf.pdf Media Awareness Network. (n.d.). The good things about video games. Retrieved December 3, 2005, from http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/ parents/video_games/good Merriam-Webster Online. (2005). Innovation. Retrieved December 11, 2005, from http://www. m-w.com/dictionary/innovation Merriam-Webster Online. (2006). Experience. Retrieved September 6, 2006, from http://www. m-w.com/dictionary/experience Mitchell, A., & Savill-Smith, C. (2004). The use of computer and video games for learning: A review of the literature. Retrieved December 11, 2005, from http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1529.pdf Pillay, H. (2003). An investigation of cognitive processes engaged in by recreational computer game players: Implications for skills in the future. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 34(3), 336-350.

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Pillay, H., Brownlee, J., & Wilss, L. (2003). Cognition and recreational computer games: Implications for educational technology. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 32(1), 203-216.

Wikipedia. (2005). Computer and video games. Retrieved November 7, 2005, from http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game

Rapaport, W.J. (1996). Cognitive science. Retrieved November 21, 2006, from http://www. cs.Buffalo.edu/pub/WWW/faculty/rapaport/

KEY TERMS

Rosas, R., Nussbaum, M., Cumsille, P., Marianov, V., Correa, M., Flores, P., Grau, V., Lagos, F., Lopez, X., Lopez, V., Rodriguez, P., & Salinas, M. (2003). Beyond Nintendo: Design and assessment of educational video games for first and second grade students. Computers and Education, 40, 71-94. Shaffer, D.W., Squire, K.R., Halverson, R., & Gee, J.P. (2004). Video games and the future of learning. University of Wisconsin-Madison and Academic Advanced Distributed Learning CoLaboratory, USA. Squire, K., & Jenkins, H. (2003). Harnessing the power of video games in education. Insight, 3, 6-33. Thomas, J. (1993). Teachers of the year speak out: Key issues in teacher professionalization. SERVE Policy Brief, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA. University of Texas at Austin. (n.d.). Best practices for using instructional technology. Retrieved November 10, 2005, from http://www.utexas. edu/academic/diia/assessment/iar/resources/ best_ practices/index.php Virvou, M., Katsionis, G., & Manos, K. (2005). Combining software games and education: Valuation of its educational effectiveness. Educational Technology & Society, 8(2), 54-65.

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Blog: Short for Weblog; considered to be an online personal diary/journal that may be updated easily and quickly online. Innovative Teaching: Demonstrating characteristics that include, but is not limited to, creativity, possessing problem-solving skills, having good social skills, using technology, and having a desire to succeed in teaching and learning. Instructional Technology: Any type of technology implementation based on learning theories and that takes a systems approach to helping individuals solve problems. Podcasting: The delivery of digital content over the Internet available for playback on a personal computer or portable media player. Schema: A mental object, structure, or organizational pattern created by an individual to aid in future understanding. Teacher Gamer: A teacher is considered to have video game-play experience if he or she has enjoyed playing video games weekly as a hobby anytime in the past or present. Video Games: The terms ‘computer games’ and ‘video games’ were used interchangeably throughout this study. These games often require problem solving, teamwork, opposition, and character identification in order to attain a goal. These types of games are played on computers, consoles, arcade machines, and handheld devices.

Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

APPENDIX Survey This instrument is designed to obtain information to aid in determining the impact playing video games may have on the use of instructional technology and participation in innovative teaching practices. Please use the following definition in considering your response: A video game is considered to be any game that is played on a personal computer, handheld system, console, or in an arcade. Directions: Please answer all items. There are no incorrect answers. Responses to the items will be coded and used in a statistical analysis. All answers will be confidential. 1. Age: 20-29 2. Gender:

30-39

40-49

Male

50+

Female

3. Highest level of education: Bachelor’s Degree

Master’s Degree

4. Years of teaching:

0-5

6-10

11-15

Education Specialist Degree 16-20

20-25

Doctoral Degree

25+

5. Subject Area Taught (Majority of Day): Math English Science History Physical Education Vocational Special Education Other: Please Specify ________________ 6. Do you consider yourself to be a full-time or part-time video game player now or any time in the past? Yes No If you answered no to the previous question, skip to question #12. If you answered yes, proceed to the next question. 7. How often have you played a video game on a personal computer? Never Seldom Sometimes Frequently continued on following page

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8. How often have you played a video game on a console (e.g., PlayStation, X-Box, GameCube, etc.)? Never Seldom Sometimes Frequently 9. How often have you played a Web-based game (e.g., cards, puzzles, role-playing, etc. on the Internet)? Never

Seldom Sometimes

Frequently

10. In an average week, how many hours do you spend playing video games? Less than 1

1-3

3-5

5-7

More than 7

11. At what approximate age did you begin playing video games? _____ For the following questions, rate how much you agree with each statement using the following scale: 1 – Strongly Disagree 2 – Disagree 3 – Agree 4 – Strongly Agree 12. I am comfortable using basic computer applications. 1

2

3

4

13. I am comfortable using presentation software for demonstrating concepts in class. 1

2

3

4

14. I am comfortable communicating electronically with colleagues and students. 1

2

3

4

15. I am comfortable using the Internet for instructional purposes. 1

2

3

4

16. I am comfortable creating and updating class Web pages. 1

2

3

4

17. I am comfortable presenting information using various delivery modes (e.g., audio, video, text). 1

2

3

4 continued on following page

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18. How often do you use computer applications to present lesson content in class? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 19. How often do you use audio/visual equipment to display materials in class? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 20. How often do you communicate electronically with parents? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 21. How often do you encourage or allow students to communicate electronically with you, other students, or experts via discussion boards? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 22. How often do you encourage or allow students to communicate electronically with you, other students, or experts via blogs? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 23. How often do you encourage students to use Web pages outside of class? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never continued on following page



Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

24. How often do you encourage students to use Web pages in class? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 25. How often do you encourage students to use electronic tutorials outside of class? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 26. How often do you encourage students to use electronic tutorials in class? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 27. How often do your students use word processors to complete assignments? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 28. How often do your students use spreadsheets to complete assignments? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely(a few times per semester) Never 29. How often do your students use databases to complete assignments? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never

continued on following page



Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

30. How often do your students use presentation software to complete assignments? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 31. How often do you take risks with your instruction by trying something new? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 32. How often do you search for new ideas or products to enhance your lessons? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 33. How often do you use alternative assessments such as digital rubrics and digital portfolios? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 34. How often do you provide individual feedback to students promoting high standards and providing motivation? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 35. How often do you reflect upon and assess you own teaching? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never continued on following page



Teacher Gamers vs. Non-Teacher Gamers

36. How often do you coordinate activities within your classroom with out of classroom experiences? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 37. How often do you foster student learning by connecting difficult concepts from the curriculum with real-world applications? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 38. How often do you incorporate creative writing activities into daily lessons? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 39. How often do you promote teamwork within the classroom and the school? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 40. How often do you share your knowledge, skills, expertise, and resources with colleagues? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never 41. How often do you ensure that all students are experiencing some type of learning success in your classroom? Frequently (more than once a week) Sometimes (more than once a month) Rarely (a few times per semester) Never





Chapter XVIII

Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment Brian Ferry University of Wollongong, Australia Lisa Kervin University of Wollongong, Australia

AbstrAct This chapter describes how we used an authentic learning framework (Herrington & Oliver, 2000) to inform the design of an online simulation that included gaming features specifically designed to enhance learner engagement. We describe our analysis of user responses to the simulation, focusing particularly on learner engagement and what the users learned from using the software. Our research revealed that users initially approached the software from a gaming framework, however with extended interaction with the software, moved toward treating the virtual experience as an authentic environment, even to the point of empathizing with some of the virtual characters and downloading some of the support material that they might use in real classrooms. We offer some explanations for this change and conclude the chapter by identifying future directions for researchers who may be interested in this field.

INtrODUctION In an era when many teachers will retire, countries like the United States, Canada, and Australia cannot afford to loose up to one in four of its begin-

ning teachers (MCEETYA, 2003). There has been debate about whether this high attrition rate can be solely attributed to deficiencies in pre-service teacher education. Within the Australian context, recent state and national reports are strongly criti-

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Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

cal of teacher preparation courses (e.g., DEST, 2003; Education & Training Committee, 2005). Research also asserts that the focus on theoretical rather than practical approaches to teaching as well as the varied and problematic nature of the practicum experience can lead to teacher disillusionment (e.g., Korthagen, 2004; Ramsey, 2000). Our own experiences in supervising the practicum over a number of decades supports this view, as we have consistently found that many pre-service teachers find school-based practical experiences consist of a series of isolated, decontextualized lessons prepared and implemented according to the requirements of the supervising teacher. While there is a need to find new and innovative ways to gain access to expert teacher knowledge and to better link the theory and practice of teacher education (DEST, 2003; Education & Training Committee, 2005), there is also a need to improve the quality of the practicum experience (House of Representatives, 2007). Typically governments respond to such issues by mandating additional practicum time in schools, but quietly ignore the issue of the quality of the experience. The purpose of the software we designed is to provide additional school-based experience through an authentic online learning simulation that challenges users to link newly acquired education theory to classroom practice. Such an experience allows for pre-service teachers to engage within a context that is known and can be formally deconstructed as a learning experience. Carter and Doyle (1989) found that much of expert teachers’ knowledge is structured around authentic classroom events and is episodic in nature, thus supporting this approach. We draw from the premise that expert teacher knowledge is developed in context, stored together with characteristic features of classrooms and activities, organized around tasks accomplished in the classroom, and accessed when needed for new situations. A number of researchers assert that online environments can assist pre-service teachers in learning important pedagogical skills. For ex-



ample, Putnam and Borko (2000), Herrington and Oliver (2000), Lampert and Ball (1998), and Marx, Blumenfeld, Krajcik, and Soloway (1998) have all investigated the efficacy of a range of technology tools that offer flexible ways of representing and connecting information, enabling in-depth exploration of unfamiliar pedagogical practices and problems by teachers. More recently, Lambert and Brown (2007) have reported the advantage is using technology tools to capture collective wisdom for others to interact with. Simulations and games are examples of technology tools and are the focus of the research reported herein. In response to the critiques of pre-service teacher education and literature acknowledging the advances in technology, we developed a simulation that employed many of the features of gaming design. In this chapter we aim to explore the following questions: • • •

What processes do users engage with while using the simulation? Which features of the virtual environment do users identify as ‘authentic’? Does the virtual environment contribute to the development of users’ understandings of teaching, learning, and classrooms?

SIMULATION AS A ‘GAME’ Simulations and games have a long history of use in education and training (Gredler, 2004). Jonassen (2000) and Aldrich (2004) assert that computer-based simulations can be powerful vehicles for learning by focusing on the acquisition of knowledge and skills in contexts that reflect the way that the information is used in real life. Such assertions emerge from the viewpoint that learning manifests itself from critical thinking, opportunities for reflection, and the support of a community of practice (Calverley, 2003). Studies into the complex learning situations presented in computer games and other simulations (e.g., Gee,

Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

2003; Aldrich, 2004; Prensky, 2004) support this view, and today we see simulations used in a wide variety of learning situations where there is a need to connect complex theoretical and practical knowledge (e.g., finance, management, medicine, nursing, and airline piloting). Gee (2003) and Alrich (2004) identified common features of game-based learning environments. These include: • •

•

•

•

The organization of socially shared intellectual work to achieve a task. Elements of the traditional apprenticeship process (Lave & Wenger, 1991) are employed as learners are encouraged to engage in active processes of observation and comment. They make explicit much of the know-how acquired, and permit the participation of relatively unskilled players. Situations are created where users employ strategies needed for acquiring a particular body of knowledge. The learning process focuses on the individual, but it makes use of a learning group to support decisions and provides opportunity for reflection.

Prensky (2004) makes a similar case for games, and he focuses on six key elements of games: rules; goals and objectives; outcomes and feedback; situations that involve conflict; competition, challenge, and opposition; and interaction. Roblyer (2000) emphasizes the importance of examining instructional games carefully for both educational and motivational value. Until recently limited research was conducted into the use of online simulations in teacher education. Eckersley, Richards, and Schofield (2004) report on an online simulation designed to introduce pre-service teachers to the broad work culture of primary and secondary schools. Gibson (2004) developed a simulation that was based on interactions among numerical models

of teacher actions, student personality, and student behavior. The ClassSim software (Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong, 2005) reported within this research was developed to create an episode-based simulation that reflects the way that expert teacher knowledge is developed, but it also contained the six key elements of games (Prensky, 2004): rules (many of which are implied); goals and objectives (to successfully organize and implement learning experiences for students); outcomes and feedback (presented as student artifacts or student updates); situations that involve conflict (decision points); competition (efficient use of time), challenge (‘successful’ teaching), and opposition (‘difficult’ students); and interaction (via the software) and a story associated with a virtual class. The development of this in an online environment provided the users with consistent access to the simulation resource. The online environment mirrored many of the characteristic features of classrooms. The scenario is presented, and in response to this users make decisions around typical tasks that need to be completed in a classroom. In addition, cognitive tools were developed to enable users to represent, store, and reflect on their current knowledge of literacy instruction. We acknowledge that many games employ similar tools to support users so that they can develop their skill level. In our case the purpose of the tools was to provide targeted support so that less experienced teachers had the opportunity to develop their own professional competency, knowledge, and understandings as they interacted with the software. As a result the tools enabled tacit knowledge to be clearly

articulated and, in addition, scaffoldings, coaching, and feedback were available as ‘just-in-time’ support.

The design of the online environment allowed users to understand the complexities of literacy teaching and classroom management from multiple perspectives. Further, it was anticipated that pre-service teachers would develop an awareness of the range of variables that teachers deal with



Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

as they interact with the software. In addition the mix of online cycles ensured that the simulation changes each time, reflecting the unpredictable nature of classrooms; of course, such features also occur in gaming environments. This online learning environment applied the findings of over a decade of separate research examining the nature of classrooms and the teaching of literacy, to inform the development of an organizational framework to help pre-service teachers advance their conceptual understanding and knowledge of effective pedagogy. We believe that our current work will not only broaden researchers’ knowledge of the role that new technologies, such as cognitive tools, play in supporting pre-service teachers to access, integrate, and apply such knowledge about effective instructional strategies, but also motivate others to extend our work and develop new online learning environments that achieve similar purposes in other contexts.

OVERVIEW OF THE KEY IDEAS PRESENTED IN ClassSim The key ideas that we identified as being important for pre-service teachers, and as such needed to be included in the ClassSim software, were based on over a decade of field work in classrooms, our collective experience as teachers, our research, and an extensive review of the literature about the education of beginning teachers. During the development of teaching cycles to be included within the software, each lesson script was taught by the researchers in ‘real’ classes to further ensure their authenticity. The following key ideas are represented in ClassSim: classrooms are complex, the needs of each student varies, teacher actions are often guided by policies, effective classroom management is an important factor in effective classrooms, and refection in and on action helps teachers to be better practitioners. Classrooms are complex environments where



teachers need to consider the many internal and external factors that have the potential to impact on the success or failure of instruction. This requires teachers to make a large number of non-trivial decisions that have a major impact on student learning, and usually these decisions need to be made in a short timeframe. The decisions that teachers make about classroom management and instruction are guided by policy such as student welfare, occupational health and safety, and various mandated syllabus requirements. It was the aim of the virtual environment to function as an ‘intellectual partner’ (Jonassen, 2000) with the user to facilitate higher-order thinking and reflection. Students have varied intellectual, social, and emotional needs, and teachers must consider these when they prepare learning experiences for the classroom. In addition, there are classroom management decisions such as the use of parent helpers, teachers’ aids, and dealing with interruptions that also impact on the work of a teacher. There are likely to be a number of suitable approaches to an instructional or behavioral management problem, rather that just one ‘correct solution’. Further, once an approach is taken, teachers need to closely observe children and the artifacts of instruction in order to gauge the impact of the pedagogical decisions they made. Finally, teachers need to find time in their busy schedule to reflect on the impact of decisions on individual students, as this helps them to grow as effective professionals. It is these considerations that were built into the ClassSim software.

REPRESENTING THE KEY IDEAS IN ClassSim The design is based on segmenting sets of authentic classroom teaching episodes into interconnected short-term events called cycles. The sets of cycles link in a variety of ways to form a diversity of possible teaching episodes. The way that each

Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

teaching episode unfolds is based on the decisions that users make about the management of the classroom, of students, and of random events that occur during each cycle. ClassSim is based on a literacy learning session commonly known as a ‘literacy block’. A ‘literacy block’ is typically a block of time (for example, two hours) that is made up of a number of short lessons known as ‘episodes’ (Crevola & Hill, 1998). The episodes in ClassSim have been designed to provide experiences for pre-service teachers to “read and respond to written text, use language to communicate in writing, and develop understandings of how language is used in our culture” (Ferry et al., 2005, p. 25). The software enables the user to assume the role of a kindergarten teacher in a virtual classroom. Throughout the running time the user is required to make decisions about organizing the lesson, classroom management, and responses to individual students. A number of different design features have been incorporated within the software for the user to interact with. These

include the incorporation of targeted students, an embedded tool called the ‘Thinking Space’, support materials, and decision-making opportunities. Figure 1 shows a screen capture of the ‘Thinking Space’ tool. Key questions and prompts are provided to help users to articulate, justify, and reflect on the decisions they make. After decisions are made the user can go back to ClassSim and access student updates to see the consequences of their decisions. Figure 2 shows a student update designed to provide feedback on the approach taken by the user. For the purposes of the questions posed in this chapter, these features of the software and users’ interactions with these will be examined in depth. This virtual online environment allows users to slow down or accelerate classroom events, revisit and reflect on critical decision points, and replay events in light of new understandings. Users are also able to view events from both the teacher’s and the student’s perspective. This allows users to fine-tune their practices, and stimulates deeper reflection about the complexity of the classroom

Figure 1. The Thinking Space

© 2007 Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong. Used with Permission.



Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

Figure 2. Student update

© 2007 Faculty of Education, University of Wollongong. Used with Permission.

and the implications of all the decisions they make. These support features promote and encourage users to be actively engaged in a virtual classroom, and reflect in and on action (Schon, 1987). This sets up a cycle of action and reflection that allows users to try out ideas and experience their consequences in terms of student learning (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996).

SITUATING THE DESIGN WITHIN A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The challenge for us was to create an online simulated environment in a way that made it an authentic learning experience. Herrington and Oliver (2000), in their review of the literature, identified nine design elements of situated learning environments; the challenge for us was to operationalize these in our online learning environment.

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These were considered further in connection to our understandings of what constitutes learning and the context in which the learning will occur (Andrews & Goodson, 1995). The section that follows describes how we operationalized these design elements. It is organized under the headings of each design element. We acknowledge that design model-based game-like learning environments may have also been suitable for this purpose.

Provision of Authentic Contexts that Reflect the Way that Knowledge Is Used in Real Life The virtual representation of a kindergarten classroom was developed from both the teaching experience and classroom-based research undertaken by team members. As such, the software incorporated ‘knowledge’ typically bound within the classroom context.

Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

The literacy focus was responsive to the difficulties many pre-service teachers are reported to experience with the classroom application of often-abstract theory. The software provided an environment where pre-service teachers had the opportunity to apply the theory in a controlled scenario where there were no harmful consequences if they made a mistake. Further, the scenarios presented within the software were connected with the reality of the teaching profession, and the collection of classroom artifacts (for example, student work samples and photographs from classrooms) added additional authenticity to the software.

Access to Expert Performance or Advice Teaching and learning experiences incorporated were collected from ‘real’ classroom examples. Our research agenda for the project had us trial these experiences with actual kindergarten children to further develop and refine the virtual experience, ensuring it was an authentic experience for users. We adopted the Quality Teaching Framework (DET, 2003) as a framework that could be used to describe, in detail, pedagogical events within the virtual classroom. Specific attention was focused on five targeted students who had a variety of learning needs. Figure 2 provided example of this. The number of target students was restricted to five to manage the cognitive load on the working memory of users. Initial trials of the software revealed that the teaching and learning experiences needed prompts with regard to the timing of the specific classroom experiences embedded in the ‘virtual’ classroom. This proved to be an important consideration, as the experience levels of our users was too low to assume that they could work within such an environment without such scaffolding. In addition, we identified a need to review the inclusion of student updates according to the targeted audience of pre-service teachers. Our trials

indicated that the Quality Teaching Framework was a difficult framework for many pre-service teachers to understand, and additional visual cues were needed to reinforce the text and graphical displays. As a result, we developed additional images that depicted facial descriptions in the student updates.

Expert Performances and Modeling of Process The users’ guidance of the simulated kindergarten teacher provides a model of teaching practice that can be reflected upon and later deconstructed. As the users’ decisions impact upon the teaching and learning experiences offered and the interaction of the teacher with students in the class, this example provides a meaningful example of practice for pre-service teachers to engage with. Our trials have revealed that many of the users appear to distance themselves from the role of the virtual teacher. We have found that the users viewed the actions of the simulated teacher as being separate from the decisions they made. Our data suggests the users see themselves as guiding the simulated teacher through the simulation, rather than fully committing themselves to the role of the simulated teacher. From this, the need to further scaffold the reflective process became evident. As a result, we further refined the initial orientation to the scenario and developed our reflective ‘thinking space’ tool by adding more explicit scaffolding.

Multiple Roles and Perspectives The simulation has been designed to enable the user to view the scenario from the perspective of the teacher. As such, the decisions they make impact on the interaction of the virtual teacher with the students in the virtual classroom. Five individual students are targeted within the software and have been designated to be representative of the more challenging students found in many



Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

classrooms (emerging from our research and experience). The number of targeted students for the user to carefully observe and track has increased throughout each iteration of the prototype software (from three to five), to a point where we felt to add more students would achieve little more than to increase the cognitive load on the user.

Support for the Collaborative Construction of Knowledge Just-in-time support is offered through summary pages that link to core subject textbooks, mandatory policies (of NSW), classroom artifacts, and Web links. We have also embedded a reflective ‘thinking space’ within the simulation, and users can share their entries via e-mail. The creation of an online forum may help to share their journey through the simulation and engage in more collaborative construction of knowledge.

Reflection So that Abstractions and Generalizations Can Be Formed The embedded ‘thinking space’ provides opportunities for the user to reflect on what has happened in the simulated classroom, and to plan, articulate, and justify future decisions as they occur. Focus questions have been developed to guide and scaffold reflection. The first prototype of the software offered access to the thinking space at pre-determined decision points. Later versions have this tool available on demand, with the user directing frequency of entries. All entries are saved onto the university server to allow users to save and revisit their entries, and for individual user entries to be accessed by lecturers involved in facilitating the virtual experience.



Tools that Enable Tacit Knowledge to Be Clearly Articulated The ‘thinking space’ provides the opportunity for the user to articulate their understandings at decision points. Observations from our initial trial showed that many users took physical notes from the summaries or pasted summaries in their thinking space. They then e-mailed these notes to themselves for future reference. In later trials (once the capabilities of the ‘thinking space’ were enhanced), users used the embedded tool to paste information copied from the ClassSim software.

Scaffoldings and Coaching by the Teacher at Critical Times Information about what the teacher is thinking is available to the user. This allows the user to enter into the ‘mind’ of the teacher and see possible rationale for decisions made. These scaffoldings have been developed from extensive classroom experience and represent a perspective guided by the user’s decisions. Ideally we need to further develop the software to provide access to a number of perspectives.

Authentic Assessment of Learning Within the Tasks While the software has been trialed with different cohorts of education students within the context of core university courses, the focus has been on researching the interaction of the students with ClassSim and the potential of the software. Different faculty staff members have incorporated it within course schedules. Discussion and subsequent planning with faculty members has revealed a myriad of ways for how the software could be further embedded within the degree structure. The possibilities are considerable and will contribute to our research agenda. In particular, how the

Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

thinking space could be followed up on in tutorial discussion needs further consideration. Thus to be an authentic learning environment, ClassSim needed to operationalize the following criteria: provide contexts that reflect the way that knowledge is used in real life, give learners access to examples of expert performance or advice, and model processes and present multiple roles and perspectives. In addition there needs to be support (in our case via sharing of thinking space entries) for the collaborative construction of knowledge, while also ensuring time for reflection (individual and collective) is available so that abstractions and generalizations can be formed. Further, just-in-time tools enable tacit knowledge to be clearly articulated to learners. As well as this, scaffolding and coaching opportunities are provided by the student updates that occur after decisions are made.

The focus on conditions of authentic environments in the development of ClassSim enabled us to develop an instructional game that was responsive to identified learning goals. The scenario was relevant to the users and enabled them to engage with the complexity of the classroom environment. Further, it served to motivate users as they were given complete control of the virtual classroom, an experience that pre-service teachers are unable to have in real classroom environments.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Since 2004, more than 500 pre-service teachers studying within the Faculty of Education at the University of Wollongong have engaged with iterations of the software. An overview of research trials conducted is reported in Table 1. With each

Table 1. Overview of pre-service teacher use of ClassSim Pre-Service Teacher Cohort

Number of Students Involved

Pattern of Engagement

First-year students enrolled in alternate teacher

24

2 x 90-minute lab sessions + URL

Year 2004

education program

access

2004

Fourth-year Bachelor of Education students

20

2005

First-year students enrolled in alternate teacher

24

4 x 60-minute lab sessions + URL access

education program 2005

First-year Bachelor of Teaching students

2 x 90-minute lab sessions + URL access

187

2 x 55-minute lab sessions + URL access

2005

Third-year Bachelor of Teaching students

40

2006

First-year Bachelor of Teaching students

180

1 x 55-minute lab session + URL access 2 x 55-minute lab sessions + URL access

2006

Third-year Bachelor of Teaching students

180

1 x 55-minute lab session + URL access

2007

First-year Bachelor of Teaching students

185

2 x 55-minute lab sessions + URL access



Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

trial of the ClassSim software, we used the same methodology. First, we used a survey to collect demographic data from all users, focus group interviews were held at the end of all sessions that focused on how users interacted with the embedded tools in the software, analysis of thinking space entries was conducted, and observations by a research assistant during scheduled times of interaction with the software occurred. Data col-

lected and analyzed from each trial provided the researchers with considerations to take into subsequent versions of the software as the design principles for ‘authentic learning environments’ were further explored.

The analysis of data was guided by the following criteria: • •

•

Evidence of patterns within the ways users interacted with the ClassSim software; Evidence of connections between the ClassSim software, university studies, and previous experiences with classroom environments; and Evidence of increased articulation and understanding from the users about teaching, learning, and classrooms.

The analysis was comparative and interpretive. Data were analyzed by coding it into categories based on the emerging themes. Conclusions were checked and discussed between the researchers.

RESEARCH FINDINGS We feel that our research with eight trials of ClassSim with over 500 pre-service teachers shows that the groups of users fall into two categories. Approximately 20% of students approached ClassSim from what we consider was a gaming perspective. Analysis of the audio recordings from focus group sessions held at the end of each trial indicated that initially these users tried to use simple gaming strategies such as trial and error in their attempt



to rapidly complete their ClassSim experience within a short timeframe (ranging from 20-40 minutes). However, as they became immersed in the story, our observation notes and interview transcripts showed that by the end of a 40-minute period, most pre-service teachers appeared to treat ClassSim far more seriously. Comments such as “When I was out in schools, my teacher used a different strategy of gaining attention…I thought hers was better than this one” and “Last week I was in schools; I witnessed a bullying situation and remember the section from ClassSim and followed that method so it helped me to…” are indicators that the pre-service teachers began to view the ClassSim experience as one that related closely to their future roles of teachers. Approximately 80% of those observed over the sessions showed that they took time to read the introductory pages of the simulation where the scenario was presented, which included information about the general classroom situation and information particular to the teacher and the targeted students. All of these participants appeared to value these features as they spent extended periods of time reading and comprehending each of them, especially in relation to the five targeted students’ profiles. After reading these initial pages within the software, the participants began to explore ClassSim following a variety of pathways as they made decisions about the issues they faced. The other approach was more exploratory, and approximately 20% of those observed briefly explored the surface features and flicked from screen to screen in more or less a trial-and-error approach. A typical response from one of our male students (age 19) was, “When I get a new game I usually just flick through to get an idea of how to play it and I am sort of doing that….” We are confident that our research has shown that ClassSim presented an effective learning environment for pre-service teachers. The identification of a target audience for the software helped to direct key design features as we were acutely

Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

aware of the localized issues that faced graduating teachers, as well as the mandated curriculum and policy documents they were expected to use. We were also aware that we needed to apply this knowledge to provide an experience that was meaningful, appropriate, and authentic to their needs. In addition, the opportunity for pre-service teachers to work through virtual classroom experiences that peers have also experienced provided an opportunity for learning to occur within a community of practice. The ability to schedule the use of ClassSim within core courses has enabled us to promote the resource and support users as they engage with the scenarios it presents. Our data has consistently shown that interaction with the software supports the preparation of our pre-service teachers for classroom reality. We have frequently heard participants acknowledge the complexity of the role of the teacher and the need to think about so many things within the simulated environment they had not previously considered. Further, our data shows that students enter actual classroom environments, after using the simulation, with greater awareness of the many dimensions that make up the multifaceted classroom situation.

Specific Examples from Our Research Examples from our research are now presented to illustrate the points previously mentioned.

Observations Some common trends appeared as all users began to engage in decision-making processes. Prior to making a decision, most users revisited relevant information via links to the summary sheets. They clicked ‘back and forth’ several times (from the additional information, to the decision and to the thinking space) before making a decision. When presented with a random event that we programmed into the software, such as decision

about whether a child should be allowed to go to the toilet, most did not access any additional information, but responded quickly. We found that only 11 users denied the student access to the toilet. At this time, one participant who denied access asked, “Does he wet his pants if you don’t let him go?... I hope so because that’s a very likely case in a kindergarten classroom situation like this.” We interpreted this response as test of the authenticity! There were no clear-cut trends in the selection of specific teaching episodes. When we followed up with interviews, a common comment was that the episodes selected were chosen to match the ones already observed in schools. This is not surprising, as the pre-service teachers went to a variety of schools during practicum and collectively they would observe a wide variety of techniques. Although the users followed different pathways and solved the problems presented in a variety of ways, some consistent trends appeared. For example, most participants regularly accessed the ‘student updates’, particularly to gain feedback on a decision they had just made. After the first 20 minutes, the use of additional support information (such as the summaries) started to vary a great deal; some participants read them carefully, but others were observed to skim or even ignore them. However, almost all users took the opportunity to listen to audio samples of the teacher’s voice, and it appeared that this tool provided further insights into how the teacher conducted the class and communicated with students. For example, one female user remarked, “I liked to way that the teacher spoken to the class. She was gentle but firm and business-like…I felt like she was working to a lesson plan.”

Analysis of ‘Thinking Space’ Entries The ways the embedded tool, the ‘thinking space’, was used varied a great deal. Some wrote less than 250 words, while others wrote in excess of 600.



Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

Besides responding to particular events, the users raised issues in relation to the teacher’s aide, who was programmed to be present in episodes. One participant wrote, “This (parent helpers) is a mixed bag…if they are good they can come but if they are dodgy and their mobile phones ring then no, I don’t want them to come.” Another participant wrote in their ‘thinking space’: “My frustration about parent help stems to the motivation of the parent…their purpose becomes evident very quickly once they are in the room. Parent helping is not a social activity for parents to catch up on the local gossip, nor is it the place to make plans for trips to the park etc. Similarly, it is not the place for the parent to spend some quality time with their child (although I am very happy for the parent to help their own child within the context of the same help being provided to others).” At some points in the software, multiple decisions were possible. The following is a typical response from a more experience user who paused ClassSim and commented to her peer, “This decision is tricky. I mean if it was the beginning of the year, I would definitely undertake handwriting using the worksheets, while if it was late term 3/term 4 I would be modeling handwriting and asking students to use their handwriting books….”

Interview Data Analysis of collected data from the more than 50 participants interviewed over the past five years shows that they appeared to find many similarities between ClassSim and what they saw in the actual kindergarten classroom. One user said, “The decisions that the teacher makes (during the ClassSim) impact on different students differently.” Another said that “all the decisions…they (as a teacher) were faced with and were required to answer, were continually evident in an everyday kindergarten classroom.” However, another acknowledged, “It could not entirely represent the classroom reality because every classroom is



different, but more importantly, each teacher has the opportunity to develop rapport and relationships with the students, something that a simulated environment would not allow….” Another participant explained, “It’s the little things in the ClassSim that make a difference…such as the blunt pencils and the lack of scissors.” She further explained, “These are all decisions that teachers are faced with every day in a classroom, and without knowledge, exposure and previous experiences with these decisions, the consequences of these decisions could result in the making or the breaking of the lesson/learning experience…They are critical and are things that are not taught in lectures at university but are continuously evident throughout the ClassSim.” Each of the users believed that even from their limited teaching experience, they had seen children in schools like the ones in ClassSim. This enhanced user engagement; as one user remarked, “I remember everything about each of the five children. I don’t remember much else that I was asked to do throughout the simulation, but I clearly remember the students and explicit details relating to each of them.”

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE INVESTIGATIONS We feel justified in claiming that the success of this simulation software was due to the fact that the pre-service users can see that ClassSim is relevant to their current and anticipated working lives. Therefore it has a relevant purpose. In addition it is a knowledge-rich learning environment that contains resources that can be used beyond the virtual environment of ClassSim. As a result the majority of the pre-service teachers who have used ClassSim have demonstrated motivation to engage with it for sustained and frequent periods of time and to make extensive use of the resources offered within the software program. Further, we have data to suggest that students revisit the

Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

Figure 3. A model of what appears to happen over time as pre-service teachers use ClassSim Gaming perspective

A

B Authentic learning perspective Time

software outside periods of scheduled use, and even after their enrollment in courses where the software has been used. We have attempted to model the perspectives that students bring to ClassSim, and Figure 3 represents in conceptual form our understanding of how pre-service teachers’ perspectives change over time. Line A represents a student who begins with a gaming perspective but over time moves to a more an authentic learning perspective—our surveys indicate that, initially, approximately 20% of students approach ClassSim from this perspective. That is, they enter the software as they would a game. One participant said they thought the software would “increase levels…and the amount of control you have [with] students to look after…with more consequences for your actions.” Line B represents a student who engages with the software as a professional exercise and retains that position, representing the majority of students. Obviously there are a variety of linear and non-linear pathways that could represent individual student perspectives on ClassSim within the triangle made by lines A and B. However, our data shows that the trend for the majority of students is represented in this diagram. Eventually the majority of the students view ClassSim as an authentic learning environment, as they can see

the relevance of the scenarios presented to their future lives as teachers. It is dangerous to assume that this new generation of learners are all enthusiastic and competent ‘digital learners’ who embrace online learning; rather they vary what they bring to the virtual situation in terms of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. For example, during our studies we found that while approximately 20% of our first-year students reported in surveys that they immerse themselves in online games and other Internet-related activities such as chat rooms for more than two hours per day, the other 80% did not. However, the majority of this group made use of e-mail and the Web for quick searches, but there were a few who made almost no use of the Internet outside of the university setting. As instructional designers, we needed to be aware of this and to develop a degree of control and choice so that all learners are catered to, as it cannot be assumed that the members of the so-called ‘digital generation’ are all prolific and proficient users of computer-based technologies. In our case we feel that we designed a learning system that allowed: multiple means of representation, providing learners with choice and control over ways of acquiring information and knowledge; multiple means of expression to



Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

provide learners with some choice and control over how they could demonstrate what they know (for example, decision points and thinking spaces); and multiple means of engagement to tap into learners’ interests, challenge them appropriately, and motivate them to learn (variety of pathways and support material). Also we feel that our design acknowledged that there is more that one way to learn, and as such, it respected individual learning style differences of our cohort of students. We acknowledge that the design may not be as effective in other contexts as if we were targeting specific cohorts of students within our teacher education courses. During their experience with ClassSim, preservice teachers are exposed to key ideas about classrooms such as: they are complex; each student has varying needs; and effective classroom management is an important factor. Initially there is a tendency to treat ClassSim as a game, which may be a reflection of the pre-service teachers’ past experience with such environments, but over time they appreciate the relevance of the virtual environment and the challenges it presents to their future roles as teachers. It appears to be that this realization shifts their approach to ClassSim, as they then treat it more as an authentic learning environment. We wish to emphasize that we are not claiming that games cannot achieve the same goals; rather the approach we took was a pragmatic one that made best use of our finances and collective expertise at the time. We have identified a need to further our research with a more extensive study that explores this issue in more quantitative terms with larger samples, as we are confident that this would support our pre-service teacher testimonials, observation notes, and audio recordings of interview and feedback sessions. Further, it would be exciting to have the finances and personnel to re-develop ClassSim with increased gaming principles and to compare of the impact of this design with our original design.



REFERENCES Aldrich, C. (2004). Simulations and the future of learning. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. Andrews, D.H., & Goodson, L.A. (1995). A comparative analysis of models of instructional design. In G.J. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present, and future (2nd ed., pp. 161-164). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Calverley, G. (2003). Reconsidering the role of content: Technology, learning and learning technology. In J.K. Seale (Ed.), Learning technology in transition: From individual enthusiasm to institutional implementation (pp. 17-30). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger B.V. Carter, K., & Doyle, W. (1989). Classroom research as a resource for the preparation of graduate teachers. In A. Woolfolk (Ed.), Research perspectives on the graduate preparation of teachers (pp. 5168). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Crevola, C., & Hill, P. (1998). CLaSS: Children’s literacy success strategy: An overview. Melbourne, Australia: Catholic Education Office. DEST (Department of Education Science & Training). (2003). Australia’s teachers: Australia’s future: Advancing innovation, science, technology and mathematics. Canberra, Australia: AGPS. Eckersley, C., Richards, C. & Schofield, N. (2004). Evaluation of a learning object. In L. Cantoni (Ed.), World conference on educational multimedia, hypermedia and telecommunications (pp. 37183720). Lugano, Switzerland: EdMedia. Education & Training Committee. (2005). Step up, step in, step out: Report on the inquiry into the sustainability of pre-service teacher training in Victoria. Melbourne, Australia: Parliament of Victoria. Ferry, B., Kervin, L., Cambourne, B., Turbill, J., Hedberg, J., & Jonassen, D. (2005). Incorporat-

Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

ing real experience into the development of a classroom-based simulation. Journal of Learning Design, 1(1), 22-32.

Lampert, M., & Ball, D.L. (1998). Teaching, multimedia, and mathematics: Investigations of real practice. New York: Teachers College Press.

Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, UK: CUP.

Gibson. (2004) New directions in e-learning: Personalization, simulation and program assessment. Retrieved February 12, 2006, from http://www.etips.info/

Marx, R.W., Blumenfeld, P.C., Krajcik, J.S., & Soloway, E. (1998). New technologies for teacher professional development. Teacher and Teacher Education, 14(1), 33-52.

Gredler, M. (2004). Games and simulations and their relationships to learning. In D.H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology: A project of Association for Educational Communications and Technology (2nd ed., pp. 571-582). New York: Lawrence Erlbaum.

MCEETYA. (2003). Demand and supply of primary and secondary school teachers in Australia. Retrieved February 2006 from http://www. mceetya.edu.au/public/demand.htm

Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2000). An instructional design framework for authentic learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 48(3), 23-48. House of Representatives. (2007). Top of the class: Report on the inquiry into teacher education. Canberra: House of Representatives Standing Committee on Education and Vocational Training, Commonwealth of Australia. Jonassen, D.H. (2000). Toward a design theory of problem solving. Educational Technology: Research & Development, 48(4), 63-85. Korthagen, F. (2004). In search of the essence of a good teacher. Towards a more holistic approach to teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(1), 77-97. Lambert, S., & Brown, C. (2007). Designer communities: Developing a knowledge base of strategies, tools and experience. In M.J. Keppell (Ed.), Instructional design: Case studies in communities of practice (pp. 238-256). Hershey, PA: Information Science.

Prensky, M. (2004). Digital game-based learning. New York: Paragon Press. Putnam, R., & Borko, H. (2000). What do new views of knowledge and thinking have to say about research on teacher learning? Educational Researcher, 29(1), 4-15. Ramsey, G. (2000). Quality matters. Revitalising teaching: Critical times, critical choices. Sydney, Australia: Report of the Review of Teacher Education. Roblyer, M.D. (2000). Integrating educational technology into teaching (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: International Society for Technology in Education/Pearson. Scardamalia, M., &. Bereiter, C. (1996). Engaging students in a knowledge society. Educational Leadership, 54(3), 6-10. Schon, D. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.



Using Online Simulation to Engage Users in an Authentic Learning Environment

KEY TERMS Authentic: Much has been written in definition and description of what it is that defines an experience, context, or environment as ‘authentic’. For something to be considered ‘authentic’, it is embedded within ordinary practices of the culture, with emphasis on the importance of the learning that emerges from engagement with this. For example, in the ClassSim software, the user is engaged in an ‘authentic’ virtual classroom where their interaction allows them to discover, examine, and experiment with the intricacies of the role of a teacher. The user is encouraged to reflect on their learning and consider how they can take these understandings into actual contexts. Community of Practice: Defined in this research as groups of people who come together to share their experiences, questions, and learning. Members engage in discussion and decision making in a safe and supportive environment, taking responsibility not only for their own learning, but for the development of the collective knowledge of the group. Embedded Tools: Tools are embedded throughout the running time of the simulation software. These tools are consistently accessible to the user and enable records of navigation and reflection to be kept throughout the running time. In the ClassSim software an embedded tool is the ‘thinking space’, an online journal where the user articulates, justifies, and reflects upon decisions made.

0

Practicum: The placement of a pre-service teacher in a school setting designed to give students supervised practical application of previously studied theory. Traditionally practicums occur as a ‘block practicum’ organized at the end of a semester, with a number of ‘rolling practicum days’ throughout the semester. The classroom teacher usually acts as the supervising teacher, mentoring and evaluating the pre-service teacher’s progress. Pre-Service Teachers: Students who are enrolled in an undergraduate teaching degree in a tertiary education setting. In this research the samples used are pre-service teachers across the four years of the Bachelor of Teaching/Education degree at the University of Wollongong, Australia. Scenario: The positioning of the user within a context where the situation, task, and subsequent goals are contributors to a scenario. In ClassSim, the user is provided with the scenario where they are the teacher, and must organize and implement literacy-based learning experiences to kindergarten students in a two-hour period. Simulation: An interactive, representational environment that can provide effective learning experiences that require learners to actively construct knowledge. Teacher Education: Refers to the degree structures at a university. This incorporates specific courses across a number of strands designed to prepare the students for their entry into the teaching profession.



Chapter XIX

Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers Zahide Yildirim Middle East Technical University, Turkey Eylem Kilic Middle East Technical University, Turkey

AbstrAct This chapter explores prospective computer teachers’ perceptions of and experiences in goal-based scenario (GBS) centered 3D educational game development process. Twenty-six pre-service computer teachers who enrolled in a Design, Development and Evaluation of Educational Software undergraduate course formed the sample of this case study, and they, in groups, developed GBS-centered 3D educational games. The data were collected through GBS evaluation checklists, interviews, and formative evaluations. The findings indicated that the pre-service teachers preferred GBS-centered educational games to traditional educational games. They declared that the most important feature of educational games was their contribution to motivation, attention, and retention. Although the majority of the groups developed their educational games in line with GBS, they had difficulty creating a realistic scenario and mission. Unlike what the literature indicates, one of the group’s formative evaluation results showed that while the second graders prefer realism, the sixth graders prefer more fantasy in the scenario.

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Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

INtrODUctION Digital game-based learning has been used extensively in a wide variety of businesses like consulting firms, manufacturing companies, and military institutions. Even though there are successful examples, there is still doubt in the effectiveness of digital game-based learning. There are two main arguments about digital game-based learning that are not yet accepted fully in the adult learning community. The first argument is that the learners have changed deeply and grew up digital. The second one is that individuals are experienced in the new form of play, computer and video games, and theses experiences shape their preferences and abilities for their learning (Prensky, 2001). One of the most important issues in designing digital game-based learning is to facilitate reflection and critical thinking while learning, and still create enjoyable games (Prensky, 2001). In designing educational games, a careful application of the story and the character is essential. According to Falstein (2005), game-play and story shape each other, and integrating storyline into game can help a player control his or her character in the game. In games, it is essential to allow the player to make progress in the storyline by doing activities, rather than by simply watching the cut scenes. A goal-based scenario (GBS) in this respect is a promising approach in designing educational games to facilitate reflection and critical thinking, and to integrate storyline into games. A GBS with a cover story, mission, the roles given to the learners, and goals in the scenario can provide an appropriate theoretical framework in designing effective educational games. In a GBS, the students try to find solutions to problems in the domain of students’ goals, and learning occurs while students are achieving those goals in a certain context (Schank, Fano, Bett, & Jona, 1994; Schank, Berman, & Macpherson, 1999). Rather than representing the topic to the student, GBSs are developed based on



the skills that a student can learn. The value of a GBS approach is clear at this point since a GBS emphasizes creating a model in which learning goals aim for the learner to learn “how to” rather than “know that” (Schank et al., 1999). Defining skills as “knowing how to do something” is the essence of the GBS. The underlying principles of a GBS are founded on Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) theory. It is the theory of memory and learning which aims to explain how people remember and use their memories in order to solve new problems (Schank et al., 1994, 1999). It focuses on solving new problems by using or adapting the solutions of the old problems (Riesbeck & Schank, 1989). Most of the time, individuals can transfer past experiences into the new one; this transfer is critical in the use of CBR efficiently. The effective learning environment creates conditions that produce strong intrinsic motivation to learn (Schank et al., 1994). A GBS itself comprises a rich context and provides interesting and complex activities that increase students’ intrinsic motivation (Schank et al., 1999). GBSs can be applicable to all levels for both formal and informal learning situations. They provide learners with active involvement in the learning environment, which represents the facts and skills in the context of real-world use. Several researchers examined the users’ opinions of GBS-centered educational learning environments through field studies. For example, Bell, Bareiss, and Beckwith (1993) developed a program called “Sickle Cell Counselor.” The evaluation results indicated that the users spent a lot of time using the program. This result was important because the program was presented in a museum, and the visitors were not required to use it. They concluded that the program was interesting for the users. In addition, they found that the program’s users made fewer irrelevant responses on the post-test than the pamphlet users did. The most important result of the evaluation was that the “Sickle Cell Counselor” group learned the conditions of applicability of the new knowl-

Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

edge. In another study, Zumbach and Reimann (2002) compared different methodsa GBS, and tutorial and strategy training by using hypertext. Comparison of the three approaches showed that the GBS was more motivating, learners acquired better overviews, and they were able to use their knowledge in the argumentation task. While the GBS was better for structural knowledge, it did not give better results for factual knowledge. Another finding of the study was that the GBS provided intrinsic motivation. Schaller, Bunnell, and Nagel (2001) indicate that a GBS provides extrinsic motivation for uninterested but potential learners, especially when a program’s appeal is increased by narratives, games, simulations, and creative play activities. Schoenfeld-Tacher, Persichitte, and Jones (2001a) investigated the impact of a GBS on different learners. In their study, they found out that the GBS provided equal opportunities for the learners from different gender and ethnicity. Additionally, the researchers indicated that such a learning environment was more beneficial for the students who possessed formal reasoning ability that was necessary to examine and to develop hypotheses in scientific settings. Foster and Bareiss (1995) state that this type of instruction eliminates some of the deficiencies in traditional methods, and makes learning more motivating for the students. Foster (1994), and Naidu, Ip, and Linser (2000) mention that the traditional case method has some shortcomings such as logistics and unwillingness, and the GBS has the ability to eliminate these shortcomings. The research results indicate that the GBS has a positive effect not only on the teaching and learning process but also on students’ motivation, and it is appropriate for teaching complex learning skill. Many studies emphasize that a GBS is an effective way of teaching by providing opportunities for learners to understand why and how they use the knowledge (Bell et al., 1993; Schoenfeld-Tacher et al., 2001a, 2001b; Zumbach & Reimann, 2002). Developing computer-based

GBSs may increase the opportunities to benefit from the GBS approach, because of the capability of the computer to meet the needs of prerequisite conditions for the appropriate use of the GBS (Schank et al., 1994). The GBS architecture requires authoring tools for education and training, contains a theory of learning within them, and ensures that the application is in line with the principles of that theory (Schank, Korcuska, & Jona, 1995). Therefore, developing an effective GBS for computer-based learning environments requires software produced based on the theoretical framework of GBSs, and evaluation of its effectiveness. Schank et al. (1999) state that “there is only one effective way to teach someone how to do something and that is to ‘let them do it,’” and they described the GBS as “a learning-by-doing simulation in which students pursue a goal by practicing target skills and using relevant content knowledge to help them achieve their goal” (p. 165). Since learning how to design and develop instructional software requires a contextual learning environment, it is appropriate to provide an authentic learning environment to prospective computer teachers who are taking the Design, Development and Evaluation of Educational Software (DDEES) course. An authentic learning environment would help them implement the theoretical bases of the course content to GBScentered three-dimensional educational games they had to develop. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to provide a contextual learning environment to preservice computer teachers, and investigate their experiences in and perceptions of a GBS-centered 3D educational game development process. More specifically, this study attempts to answer the following research questions: 1.

To what extent do the pre-service computer teachers’ GBS-centered 3D educational games reflect the components of the GBS?



Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

2.

3.

What are the pre-service computer teachers’ perceptions of GBS-centered 3D educational games? What are the findings of formative evaluation of GBS-centered 3D educational games developed by the pre-service computer teachers?

METHOD To investigate pre-service computer teachers’ experiences in and perceptions of a GBS-centered 3D educational game development process, a case study design was used in this study. For this purpose, a specific undergraduate course, DDEES, was selected, and the students who enrolled in the course formed the sample of this study. Interview techniques, GBS evaluation checklists, and formative evaluations were used to collect the relevant data. Below, the detailed description of the subjects, the study, the procedures, and the data collection and analysis procedures are presented.

Subjects of the Study This study included 26 fourth-year Computer Education and Instructional Technology students taking the DDEES course at Middle East Technical University in Turkey. The course consists of three credits (two theoretical hours and two practice-lab hours). The fourth-year students in one of the two sections of the course formed the sample of this study. Twenty-nine pre-service computer teachers enrolled in the section, but 26 subjects (19 males and 7 females) participated in the study. One of the groups consisting of three students did not participate in all phases of the course, and therefore they were excluded from the study. The majority of the students graduated from computer departments of technical or vocational high schools, and by their fourth year in the department, they had gained the necessary



technical skills and knowledge (such as programming and instructional design) to develop educational software. They are knowledgeable about computer games and computer-based educational games. However, they did not have the necessary skills in 3D design. Therefore, in the beginning of the study, they received some training related to 3D design. The DDEES course is given in the last semester of the program, and in the course, prospective computer teachers were expected to implement what they learned up to the last semester in their educational software projects. After graduating, they are expected to work as computer teachers at K-12 schools, or they work as instructional designers in the educational software development field.

Procedures In the beginning of the semester (14 weeks), the students were informed that as a DDEES course project they were supposed to develop a GBScentered 3D educational game in groups. The students were requested to form their own project groups (seven of them) that included two to four students each. The DDEES course was divided into two parts. During the first part (the first seven weeks), theoretical bases of software development process were provided. During the second part (the remaining seven weeks), the prospective computer teachers developed their GBS-centered 3D educational games. The first seven weeks of the theoretical hours of the course, the students were provided theoretical bases of an educational software development process on principles of learning; general attributes of educational software, games, simulations, and the GBS approach; and ADDIE and Rapid Prototyping instructional design models. During the practice hours of the first part, the students played with three educational games and wrote reflective journals individually about the games. In their journals, they compared three games on their educational aspects. For the

Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

remaining time, they examined the features of Blaxxun Studio, the 3D environment development software. They also received a six hours of training on 3D design. In the second part of the course, the students worked on their GBS-centered 3D educational game projects. To be able to achieve the DDEES course goals, students went through design, development, and evaluation processes of effective educational software. They followed the Rapid Prototyping Model (Tripp & Bichelmeyer, 1990) in the development process. The students in groups developed their educational software considering the seven components, the learning goals, the mission, the cover story, the role, the scenario operations, the resources, and the feedback of the GBS. During this period, a consultation schedule was prepared and each group consulted the instructor on their projects and project reports on a weekly basis. They received weekly feedback on what they have done from the instructors during the consultation periods. In order to guide students in this process, the students were provided with analysis, design, development, and evaluation templates. While they produce the documentation part of their projects, at the same time they developed paper-based and computer-based prototypes of GBS-centered 3D educational games, and conducted formative evaluation. Based on the feedback gathered from the instructors and the formative evaluation results, they made revisions on their prototypes. This iterative procedure lasted until the final versions of the GBS-centered 3D educational games were created. At end of the semester, the groups finished their GBS-centered 3D educational game, and presented their experiences and projects to their classmates.

Data Collection and Analysis In order to evaluate the GBS-centered 3D educational games developed by students, a GBS evaluation checklist developed by Nemoto and Suzuki (2005) was modified based on the components (the

learning goals, the mission, the cover story, the role, the scenario operations, the resources, and the feedback) of the GBS. The evaluation checklist consisted of 22 Likert-type criteria (three for scenario, two for goals, four for mission, two for cover story, two for roles, four for instructional strategies and activities, four for resources, and one for feedback) where 5 indicates ‘definitely appropriate’ and 1 indicates ‘definitely not appropriate’. The students’ projects were evaluated by the two researchers to assess if the students developed their 3D educational games in line with the GBS approach. To investigate pre-service computer teachers’ opinions of their GBS-centered 3D educational games and game development processes, semistructured interviews were conducted with the project groups. The interview schedule consisted of three main questions comparing the GBScentered 3D educational game approach with a traditional educational game approach, with the sub-questions in regard to learning, motivation, retention of knowledge, transfer of knowledge, assessment of learning outcomes, and the difficulties they faced while implementing the components of a GBS into their project. At the end of the semester, 26 students who were included in the study were interviewed in their project groups. Hence, seven group interviews were carried out. The first reason for preferring group interviews to individual interviews was that from the beginning of the semester, pre-service computer teachers worked in their project groups and experienced the GBS-centered 3D educational game development process together. The second reason was that in group interviews, the interviewees consider what others in the group say and then may build upon those shared opinions. Each group member might bring a different perspective on the issue interviewed (Patton, 1987). Before each interview was performed, the students were informed of the purpose of the interview, and all of the interviews were tape-recorded with the permission of the pre-service computer teachers.



Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

Additionally, the data gathered from the formative evaluation were examined to understand the target students’ (game players) opinions of GBS-centered 3D educational games. The data gathered through the GBS checklist were analyzed by descriptive statistics. Descriptive analyses of the items in the scale in terms of means were carried out, and then the sub-scale scores were calculated for each component of the GBS. The data gathered from the evaluation checklist were interpreted under the components of the GBS. The interview data were subjected to content analysis. As Miles and Huberman (1994) have stated, meaningful phenomena in the data is searched and descriptive codes are assigned in content analysis. Marshall and Rossman (1999) indicated that data analysis includes ordering, structuring, and interpreting the mass of collected data. Through the content analysis, main themes were withdrawn from the interview data, and then the data were interpreted under these themes. Lastly, formative evaluation results of GBS-centered 3D educational games were interpreted under the related themes. In order to attain interpretative validity, the original interview and formative evaluation data and all the interpretations were reviewed, and the conclusions drawn from this process were verified by the two researchers of the study.

RESULTS Descriptive Results GBS-centered 3D educational games developed by pre-service computer teachers were assessed

based on the GBS evaluation checklist. As Table 1 shows, the majority of the groups developed their 3D educational game based on GBS design principles. While one of the groups’ GBS checklist mean score (M=3.27) was at average level, for the remaining six groups, it was above average (from M=3.77 to M=4.09). However, it was not possible to state that all groups considered all components of GBS in their design. As Table 2 presents, four groups out of seven developed their scenario in line with the checklist (M=4 to M=4.33). Group 7’s scenario was below average (M=2.67), and Group 3’s and Group 6’s scenarios were in the average range (M=3.33). When the results gathered from the checklist were examined based on the sub-items in the scenario theme, five groups out of seven performed poorly (M=2), and only two groups performed above average (M=4) related with the item “the scenario is somewhat realistic.” While one of the groups performed at average level (M=3.25), the remaining six groups developed their missions in line with the checklist (M=3.50 to M=5). When the results gathered from the checklist were examined based on the subitems in the mission theme, similar results to the scenario theme were observed. Five groups out of seven performed poorly (M=2), and only two groups performed very well (M=5) in relation to the item “the mission is somewhat realistic.” The groups performed well on cover story theme. The mean scores of the groups’ performance varied from M=4 to M=5. About the roles given to the players in the scenario, all groups performed above average (M=3.50 to M=4), showing that the roles given to the players in the scenarios were somewhat motivating, and providing practice for the necessary skills (see Table 2).

Table 1. Overall performance of groups on GBS components Grp.1



Grp.2

Grp.3

Grp.4

Grp.5

Grp.6

Grp.7

Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

Table 2. Evaluation results of 3D educational game based on GBS components Scenario

Goals

Mission

Cover Story

Roles

Strategies/

Resources

Group 1

4

4

3.75

5

4

4.25

3

Group 2

4.33

4

5

4.50

4

4

3

Group 3

3.33

4

3.5

4

4

4.5

3.75

Group 4

4

4

3.75

4

4

4

3

Group 5

4

4

4.75

5

4

4.25

2

Group 6

3.33

3.50

3.50

4

4

3.50

4

Group 7

2.67

3.50

3.25

4

3.50

3.25

3

Activities

Instructional activities and strategies the students employed in the GBSs are above average (M=3.50 to M=4.25) except for one group (M=3.25), indicating that six groups out of seven used appropriate instructional activities and strategies in their GBSs. The lowest scores the projects received were related to “resources.” Only two groups performed above average, four groups performed at average (M=3), and one group performed below average (M=2). This result shows that the students focused on other GBS components and 3D design, but did not give enough importance to the resources.

Interview Results Motivation and Attention All students (N=26) in seven groups, based on their experiences and the formative evaluation of their projects, indicated that they preferred GBS-centered 3D educational games to traditional educational games. The most important feature of GBS-centered educational games perceived by the students was motivation and attention. They were in the opinion that the GBS was efficient for learning since the students were drawn to it. One student from Group 2 indicated that the “student’s attention is drawn into learning through

various aspects of GBS such as mission to fulfill.” Another student from the same group stated that “when the instructor presents the subject, I can listen to him/her about five minutes. Then, I lose my motivation and attention. There is not much to draw my interest, so I do not learn only in class, but I have to study from the notes. In GBS, there is a goal to achieve, and the student should reach that goal alone, for that reason s/he learns. If GBS is prepared good enough, the student can reach the goal without any problem.” Related to motivation, another student from the same group declared, “There is a big difference between GBS-centered 3D educational game and traditional educational game. In the latter one, the goal is to learn, but in GBS, there is another goal (mission) except learning goal. While fulfilling the mission, the student learns. This makes big difference in terms of motivation in favor of GBS.” Another student from the same group stated, “The student sees the results of his/her actions immediately. This increases motivation, at the same time increases desire to learn.” Students from Group 1 had similar statements. One student mentioned, “In GBS, the student is not given the information, s/he tries to achieve something (mission) and this motivates the students.” The members of Group 4 have similar ideas related to GBS. One student from this group indicated, “Rather than giving



Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

knowledge directly, it results in better learning and high motivation when students are involved actively through scenario.” One student from Group 5 made similar comments, “Motivation is one of the problems the teachers face very often. If the students are bored in direct instruction, it can be solved by GBS, because the students have goals to achieve, the student is not the receiver and s/he is expected to achieve something, this helps the student learn easily.” Students’ statements from Group 6 were also in favor of a GBS. Members of the group indicated that a “good scenario is more effective than the other methods, and it helps learners focus on the goal.” However, one student declared that “in both traditional and GBS approaches, it depends on the student. If the student is not interested in the course/subject, it is difficult to motivate the student.”

Retention and Transfer Another theme drawn from the interviews was retention and transfer. The majority of the students were of the opinion that learning by doing would result in retention of knowledge and transfer of learning. One of the students from Group 5 indicated, “In GBS, we help and provide guidance to the students but we do not provide exact information. The students find the exact information or answer by himself/herself. For that reason, it is more effective and knowledge retained better.” One student from Group 8 mentioned, “In GBS, the learner is learning by doing, the learner is actively involved in the process, so the learning is better.” One student from Group 2 mentioned, “Realistic practice in GBS would result in transfer of learning into other areas.” Similarly, another student from the same group indicated, “If the goal in GBS is realistic, it is easier to integrate with real life.” The members of Group 5 stated that transfer of knowledge to real life depends on how effectively the GBS is designed. If it is designed well, the possibility of the transfer is high. Even though both approaches, GBS-centered educa-



tional games and traditional educational games, may result in transfer, when they are compared, the GBS would be more effective in terms of transfer. Similarly some students (N=5) stated, “GBS-centered educational games might be more effective to apply [to a] new situation when it is compared to traditional games.” The majority of the students indicated that learning by doing would help retention and transfer of knowledge.

Student Centeredness Another theme drawn from the interviews was student centeredness of GBS-centered educational games. The students found the GBS approach more student centered than other approaches. They mentioned that since students try to fulfill the mission throughout the process in a GBS, they are being active rather than passive. One student from Group 5 stated, “In GBS we want the student to do something, and we provide some guidance but we do not give the exact information. The student solves the problem or finds the correct answer by him/herself. Therefore, GBS is more effective than other methods.” Another student from the same group stated, “Since the student performs by him/herself in GBS, s/he may gain competence. In GBS, the learner is in the center.” One student from Group 4 mentioned, “Rather than giving information directly to the student, it is better to involve students like in GBS. [The] GBS approach is [a] student-centered method, and the learner knows why s/he learns.”

Realistic Focus Even though the groups had the lowest points from the checklist related with the realistic scenario in their GBS-centered 3D educational games, they mentioned that the GBS approach is more realistic and related to real life when compared to other approaches. The students indicated that this is one of the positive sides of the GBS approach, and it looks easier to transfer learning outcomes of the

Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

GBS to other situations. One student from Group 2 stated, “If the goal is realistic, the student can integrate it with real life more easily.”

Assessment The students in six groups were in favor of GBS about assessment of learning outcome. They mentioned that if the students fulfill the mission, it is possible that they would learn the subject. The other group also favors a GBS about assessment, but they suggest additional traditional assessment methods. They indicated that multiple assessments could provide more feedback related with students’ learning. Another point students made was that since the students’ performance as examined was based on the actions the student should perform, there is assessment in each step, and so it is easier to detect in which part of the GBS the student is having difficulty. They indicated that rather than evaluating the students at the end of the process, students’ performances would be examined in the process of game-play, so students can be assessed in a long period time.

Problems Faced When the students were asked about the problems they faced while developing their GBS-centered 3D educational game, all of the groups indicated that they had difficulty in deciding on the scenario, feedback, and appropriateness of the mission for the instructional goal. It was also clear from the GBS checklist results that they had difficulty in coming up with a realistic scenario. They mentioned that after deciding on the scenario, it was difficult to integrate the scenario into the game they were to develop. They had concerns about “meaningless and boring scenario,” “possibility of not fulfilling the mission,” and “possibility of inappropriate roles/characters in the scenario and the mission.” Additionally, one group indicated that they had difficulty in deciding on the instructional activities to fulfill the mission.

It can be concluded from the interview results that pre-service computer teachers perceived GBS-centered 3D educational games to be more motivating than educational games designed based on traditional approaches. They thought that students retain and transfer the knowledge they gain from GBS-centered 3D educational games better; they find the GBS more student centered and realistic. While the majority found the GBS approach better for assessment, one group suggested the use of additional assessment methods. In regard to problems faced while developing GBS-based software, they indicated that they all had difficulty in deciding on the scenario, relating mission to instructional goal and providing feedback.

Formative Evaluation Results Once the fourth-year pre-service computer teachers developed GBS-centered 3D educational games, they were required to test them during their teaching practice at K-12 schools, and to conduct formative evaluation of their games. In this process, they gathered feedback from students, subject area teachers, and computer teachers about their games. Group 1 conducted formative evaluation with 15 students. The students found the scenario motivating and interesting, and stated that the scenario draws their attention. Students also found the cover story well designed and motivating. Group 2 performed formative evaluation iteratively. They conducted formative evaluation with nine students; after improving their product, they conducted formative evaluation with seven students and then with two students. The first nine and seven students liked the scenario. They did not criticize the scenario or cover story, but they focused on the dressing and feedback parts of the game like sound, color, texture, and text style. Based on their feedback, the students revised the dressing parts and feedback given in the software. The last two students focused



Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

on the difficulty levels of the questions asked in the game; they found the questions difficult for them. Like in other groups, these students also focused on the distracting elements of the game. They found scenario and mission effective. Based on the feedback gathered from the students, the dressing features of the game and difficulty levels of the questions were redesigned. Group 3 performed their formative evaluation with one expert and eight students. They found that the game did not have challenging factors. However, they liked the overall design of the game. They found the cover story interesting, and the scenario realistic and motivating. They also found feedback and resources effective, and liked the sequence of the questions and points made in the game. Group 4 conducted formative evaluation with 10 students and one teacher. Both the students and the teacher liked the chains of the events in the game, but they did not like the dressing features. Group 5 employed iterative formative evaluation with subject matter teacher, computer teacher, and students. In the first evaluation, the students liked the scenario overall. However, the teachers found the roles in the scenario unclear to some degree. In the second evaluation after revision, the teachers appraised the game more positively. They stated that the dialogs of the characters in the scenario were informative to learn the subject, but again feedback provided in the program was insufficient. They also suggested that more difficulty levels to reach the different learners and more motivating elements were needed. They found interface and design well organized. The students liked the game overall. They suggested more mysterious roles and scenario, and required more action, dialogs, and adventure in the program. This result was interesting, because this group’s scenario was the most realistic one of all. Rather than having a realistic scenario, as is suggested in the GBS, they required mysterious and fantastic scenarios.

0

Group 6 conducted iterative evaluation. They gathered information from 15 students first, and then from 20 students, and last from three students and one teacher. Overall, the students liked the game. They found the scenario interesting, mysterious, and fantastic, and liked the flow of the scenario. The best part of the game was found to be the role given to the students in the scenario. The students found the quality and usability of the game satisfactory. However, they indicated that there was a need for more challenging questions in the program. The teacher found the game satisfactory and in line with the subject area. Group 7 performed the formative evaluation with only one student. Overall, this student found the software well designed and motivating, and the scenario effective.

DIscUssION All pre-service computer teachers in seven groups indicated that they prefer educational games developed in accordance with a GBS to traditional educational games. Pre-service computer teachers emphasized that the GBS could motivate students and keep their attention throughout the game-play. Schank et al. (1999) also state that as long as GBS-centered software environments include a rich amount of context and provide interesting and complex activities, they are inherently motivating the students. In such a situation, students are drawn into GBS-centered software. This idea is also supported by the flow theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), which indicates that optimal experiences occur when challenges and skills are high in the context. Based on preservice computer teachers’ experiences in the game development process, it is possible to state that GBS-centered 3D games that include clear and realistic goals, immediate feedback, studentcentered activities, and a challenging mission fulfill the condition for the flow.

Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

It is important to get the intrinsic motivation to drive learning in any curricula (Schank, 1993/1994; Zumbach & Reimann, 2002). Especially when adults begin to learn something, they want to know why they should do so. Therefore, the goal must be realistic for adult users. However, the findings of this study raised some points to be investigated. A realistic goal is not the case for every user, such that the goal should also be exciting for the children. The findings of one group’s formative evaluation showed that sixth grade students liked a more mysterious GBS; on the other hand, second grade students liked a more realistic scenario. This result could be due to the games in the market because they are mostly mysterious ones and have too much fantasy in them. Therefore, the older students may want to be involved in a mysterious scenario because of their experience with the games in the market. Still, this issue needs to be investigated further to find out what the students at different grade levels think about fantasy and realism in the scenario, and what the levels of learning outcomes of the games that have realism or fantasy in their scenario are. Prensky (2001) indicates one of the most important issues in designing a game-like learning environment is to facilitate reflection and critical thinking in the learning process and still make the game enjoyable. The findings of this study showed that pre-service computer teachers created GBS-centered 3D educational games that are valuable for learning, and they benefited from this process as game designers. One of the most important findings of this study is that this study provided a contextual experience to pre-service computer teachers to gain competency in the GBS-centered 3D educational game development process. As indicated by Kafai (2006): In the case of instructional games, a great deal of thought is spent by educational designers on

content matters, graphical representations, and instructional venues. The greatest learning benefit remains reserved for those engaged in the design process, the game designers, and not those at the receiving end, the game players. (p. 39) In this process, the pre-service computer teachers became the designers of an educational game, and ultimately learned the process of educational game development. When the students were asked about the problems they faced while developing their GBScentered 3D educational game, all of the groups indicated that they had difficulty in deciding on the scenario, feedback, and appropriateness of the mission for the instructional goal. It was also clear from the GBS checklist results that they had difficulty in coming up with a realistic scenario. They mentioned that after deciding on a scenario, it was also difficult to integrate that scenario to the game they were to develop. They had concerns about meaningless and boredom, and the possibilities of not fulfilling the mission, and of inappropriate roles/characters in the scenario and the mission. Additionally, one group indicated that they had difficulty deciding on the instructional activities to fulfill the mission.

IMPLICATIONS Kafai (2006) indicated that in the educational game development process, great effort is spent by the designers of the game on the flow, content matters, visual representations, and instructional activities of the game. As the consequence of this effort, the learning benefit for the designers is greater than that for the end usersthe game players. The findings of this study indicated that prospective computer teachers as game designers implemented the principles of a GBS into their games and benefited from the constructionist approach. Implementation of the DDEES course



Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

in a constructionist way helped prospective computer teachers design an effective educational game and be critical on the educational value of the games. After graduating from the program, the majority of the participants in this study either become computer teachers at K-12 schools or work as instructional designers in the educational software development field. When they work as computer teachers at K-12 levels, they play an important role in technology integration into education. In that process, these pre-service computer teachers may select the most appropriate educational games or software for the courses, and in this selection process they might be more critical in regard to values of educational games. If they prefer to work as instructional designers, the experience they gained from the game development process may help them come up with contextual design to facilitate better learning, and become knowledgeable on the critical characteristics of educational games. Kafai (2006) stated that “game-making activities offer an entry point for young gamers into the digital culture not just as consumers but also as producers” (p. 39). As she stated, these prospective computer teachers may become educational game designers of the future. Even though the new generation is active game players, the field of education lacks the studies done on the values, promises, and challenges of games. Prospective computer teachers in this study experienced the promises and challenges of a GBS-centered 3D educational game throughout the development process, and probably would carry the experiences gained from this process to either K-12 schools or the educational software development field. In order to help practitioners and policymakers recognize the value and potential of games in education, research studies on the effectiveness of different types of games can be conducted. Additionally, based on these research studies, a new “educational games” course that includes different game design approaches can be designed



and developed for the curriculum of instructional technology departments. Another implication of this study is to conduct new research studies to investigate how different types of game players prefer the realism in GBS-centered games. This can be investigated in relation to different age groups and different subject areas. The implication of this study for practice in the DDEES course indicated that prospective computer teachers should be provided with effective guidance in determining a realistic scenario, providing resources, and giving importance to instructional activities in a GBS-centered 3D educational game. In order to help prospective computer teachers see the immediate effect of their design, the formative evaluation process should be made easier for prospective computer teachers to implement. As a conclusion remark, this study is limited to the case investigated in this study and the participants enrolled in the DDEES course. Therefore, the findings of this study cannot be generalized directly to similar groups, and further research studies are needed to support these findings. Despite these limitations, this study provides a valuable contribution into our understanding of educational games designed and developed based on a GBS approach in a pre-service teacher education course.

REFERENCES Bell, B., Bareiss, R., & Beckwith, R. (1993). Sickle Cell Counselor: A prototype goal based scenario for instruction in a museum environment. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3, 347-386. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Perennial. Falstein, N. (2005). Understanding funa theory of natural fun activity. In S. Rabin (Ed.), Introduc-

Pre-Service Computer Teachers as 3D Educational Game Designers

tion to game development (pp. 71-98). Boston: Charles River Media. Foster, D.A. (1994). Using a goal-based scenario to teach financial statement analysis. ACM SIGCUE 0utlook, 22(2), 23-31. Foster, D.A., & Bareiss, R. (1995). Administering the business school case method with a goal-based scenario. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA. Kafai, Y.B. (2006). Playing and making games for learning: Instructionist and constructionist perspectives for game studies. Games and Culture, 1(1), 36-40.

tion. Proceedings of the National Association of Interpretation 2001 Conference. Retrieved December 5, 2006, from http://www.eduweb. com/goalbasedscenarios.html Schank, R.C. (1993/1994). Goal-based scenarios: A radical look at education. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3, 429-453. Schank, R.C., Berman, T.R., & Macpherson, K.A. (1999). Learning by doing. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models (pp. 160-181). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Schank, R.C., Fano, A., Bett, B., & Jona, M. (1994). The design of goal-based scenarios. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(4), 305-345.

Kass, A., Burke, R., Blevis, A., & Williamson, M. (1994). Constructing learning environments for complex social skills. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(4), 258-264.

Schank, R.C., Korcuska, M., & Jona, M. (1995). Multimedia application for education and training: Revolution or red herring. ACM Computing Survey, 27(4), 633-635.

Marshall, C., & Rossman, G.B. (1999). Designing qualitative research (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Schoenfeld-Tacher, R., Persichitte, K.A., & Jones, L.L. (2001a). Relation of student characteristics to learning of basic biochemistry concepts from a multimedia goal-based scenario. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Miles, B.M., & Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Naidu, S., Ip, A., & Linser, R. (2000). Dynamic goal-based role-play simulation on the Web: A case study. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 3(3), 190-202. Nemoto, J., & Suzuki, K. (2005). GBS checklist for training application. Retrieved January 14, 2005, from http://www2.et.soft.iwate-pu.ac. jp/~nemoto/paper/jsise0405.pdf Patton, M.Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Schoenfeld-Tacher, R., Persichitte, K.A., & Jones, L.L. (2001b). Differential effects of a multimedia goal-based scenario to teach introductory biochemistrywho benefits most? Journal of Science Education and Technology, 10(4), 305-317. Tripp, S., & Bichelmeyer, B. (1990). Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional design strategy. Educational Technology Research & Development, 38(1), 31-44. Zumbach, J., & Reimann, P. (2002). Enhancing learning from hypertext by inducing a goal orientation: Comparing different approaches. Instructional Science, 30, 243-267.

Schaller, D., Bunnell, S., & Nagel, S. (2001). Developing goal based scenario for Web educa-



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KEY TERMS Case-Based Reasoning: The theory of memory and learning which aims to explain how people remember and use their memories in order to solve new problems (Schank et al., 1999). Solving new problems by using or adapting the solutions of the old problems (Riesbeck & Schank, 1989). Content Knowledge: “The information that achievement of a goal requires” (Schank et al., 1999, p. 173). Cover Story: “The background story line that creates the needed mission to be accomplished. The most important thing to consider is whether the story will allow enough opportunities for the student to practice the skills and seek the knowledge you wish to teach” (Schank et al., 1999, p. 174). Digital Game-Based Learning: This is precisely about fun and engagement, and the coming together of and serious learning and interactive entertainment into a newly emerging and highly exciting medium (Prensky, 2001).



Goal-Based Scenario (GBS): “A learningby-doing simulation in which students pursue a goal by practicing target skills and using relevant content knowledge to help them achieve their goal” (Schank et al., 1999, p. 165). Mission: The goal to be reached in the scenario. Process Knowledge: “The knowledge of how to practice skills that contribute to goal achievement” (Schank et al., 1999, p. 173). Role: “Defines who the student will play within the cover story.” In defining the role, “it is important to think about what role is best in the scenario to practice the necessary skills” (Schank et al., 1999, p. 175). Scenario Operations: “Comprise all of the activities the student does in order to work toward the mission goal” (Schank et al., 1999, p. 175).



Chapter XX

Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here? Kathy Sanford University of Victoria, Canada Leanna Madill University of Victoria, Canada

AbstrAct This chapter describes a study conducted with nine adolescents hired to instruct week-long video game making camps over the course of one summer and the subsequent fall, working with younger children ages 9-12. Data was collected through participant observation, repeated interviews, and focus groups with the participant adolescent teachers. By engaging in teaching as well as playing, these youth have had greater opportunities to critically reflect on their learning, assessing the value of the technical and ideological approaches to video games. Several themes emerged as we reviewed the discussions we had with the instructors, related to knowledge of content, issues of management of learning environments, and learning how to teach. In this chapter we hope to point to the importance of the cultural and subcultural capital that adolescents bring to learning experiences, in order to better utilize their expertise and to recognize ‘texts’ such as video games as sites of meaningful learning.

INtrODUctION Although there has always been a knowledge and interest gap between adolescents and adults, rapidly changing technologies in the past decade

have served to widen the gap. Teachers and parents often have a very limited understanding of the ways that youth are communicating, learning, and understanding the world. MP3 players, text messaging, blogs, wikis, and Wiis are all

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Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?

strange and mysterious technologies to those of us who grew up in a world of radio, TV (black and white), and typewriters. A common response of parents and teachers to popular cultures and new technologies is to ignore them and relegate them to categories of “waste of time” and “bad for you.” However, recent research (Gee, 2003; Johnson, 2005; Prensky, 2001) suggests that new technologies, and the users of new technologies, have a great deal to offer in our understanding of learning and teaching. Indeed, they are gaining expertise that is, and will continue to be, crucial to further educational developments. Additionally, we are recognizing the importance of creating opportunities for learners to be involved in the production (writing) of new texts as well as in the consumption (reading) of texts. That is, rather than simply telling students what they should know and directing them to reproduce the information that was transmitted, students need to create their own texts in order to learn more deeply and fully. By involving them in their own learning in active and meaningful ways, students have opportunities to think creatively and critically about their learning. The study reported in this chapter will describe a series of learning and teaching experiences for a group of youth who had the opportunity to create their own video games, drawing on their extensive experience with playing and learning through video games, and then to teach younger children to also create original video games. By engaging in teaching as well as playing, these youth have had greater opportunities to critically reflect on their learning, assessing the value of the technical and ideological approaches to video games. In this ethnographic study of a video game summer camp, we sought to better understand how we could utilize adolescents’ expertise in new technologies and new modes of learning not recognized by adult teachers and parents. Additionally, we examined ways that they translated their implicit and unexpressed understandings of



video game-play and creation into explicit directions and explanations for novices.

SETTING How often do we get to observe older students teaching younger students? How often do we make this a possibility? The Game Academy owner saw the potential in having adolescents, who were keen about video games and technology, work with children who were interested in knowing more about video game design and creation. The Game Academy was a new business venture located within a middle class neighborhood in a mid-sized west coast city in Canada that catered to the growing video game interest. The site was a building (previously an office complex) organized into five rooms that each were equipped with big screens, surround-sound, leather couches, a snack fridge, and all the latest video game consoles. People of all ages were able to visit this facility to play video games individually, and more often, with friends. In the summer and fall of one year, video game design camps were offered to children ages 10-12, and over the course of a week, they would work in pairs with the software program Stagecast (http://stagecast.com/) coached by an instructor, each day for two hours, and at the end of the week they would present their product to the other participants. Although they had the choice of both working on one game, most of the children chose to create their own games. The owner of the facility hired older youth, generally ages 13-16, to instruct the video game design camp participants, using a ‘coaching’ approach rather than a ‘teaching’ approach in order to create enjoyable experiences dissimilar from schoolthat is, providing an environment for a group with similar interests to develop their skills and knowledge, hence engaging them in an interesting process that would enable the creation of an exciting product, a video game. The owner

Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?

wanted to create an environment that encouraged learning through popular culture and sophisticated new technologiesas unlike school as possible. Although there was a “curriculum guide” that accompanied the software, instructors were encouraged to simplify and follow a brief outline to enable the campers to complete a three-level game in one week. The instructors were also encouraged to let the campers work the program, while they guided them through the process, relying on tutorials and the manual only as a last resort. Instead they allowed the camp participants to construct their own knowledge and used dialogue to get them past difficulties caused by technological and creative challenges. Throughout the running of these video game design camps, we gained permission to observe the camps as they progressed (this consisted of sitting in darkened rooms for two hours at a time, watching interactions between the instructors and their two camp participants), and conduct formal and informal interviews with the instructors. At the end of each session, we met with the instructors in informal focus group settings. In total, we worked with nine instructors, seven males and two females, as they engaged in 11 different week-long camps. The instructors were chosen by The Game Academy owner because most of them had visited the facility and were known to be friendly, capable, and comfortable with technology. Two of the instructors were interested in taking the camp themselves, but were too advanced in their knowledge of computer software and were offered instructor positions instead. The instructors ranged in age from 13-16 and attended different schools throughout the city, including both public and private middle and high schools. Their interests and success in school varied greatly, but the one commonality they all shared was their expertise and interest in video games. We found that the instructors who agreed to work with us were extremely interested in talking to us, sharing their knowledge and background experiences.

They had rarely, if ever, been asked about their understandings, and they willingly spent hours chatting about their perceptions, their own gamemaking, their favorite games, their experiences instructing the camps, and their own dreams and aspirations. The experience of teaching others was new to all of the instructors we worked with, and in addition to accessing their wealth of background knowledge learned through engagement as players of video games, we gained considerable insight into the process of learning more deeply through teaching. As the instructors developed experience in running the camps, their expertise developed and their articulation of their own knowledge became clearer. As they were learning to teach others, they were learning how to learn themselves. We were able to gain access into “insider” perspectives of these adolescents not readily available to adult researchers. The data collection process (videoclips of the instructors talking to their students; still images of the instructors and of the games as they developed, and as they were finished, written lesson plans used by the instructors; focus group interviews; individual interviews; our own observations and journal notes) was followed by a thematic analysis.

THEORETICAL EXPERTISE INFORMING THIS STUDY In this chapter we draw on theoretical understandings of cultural capital (Bordieu, 2004) and the related concept of subcultural capital (Thornton, 1995; Bullen & Kenway, 2005). “Cultural capital,” suggests Nairn, Higgins, and Sligo (2007), “is knowledge, accumulated through upbringing and education, that confers social status.” It was this cultural capital that enabled the instructors to develop a relationship with their camp participants, to garner their respect, and to enable them to create finished products within the given



Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?

timeframe. If adults had been hired to teach these camps, their ability to establish rapport and common ground would have been hampered by the intergenerational gaps, differing expectations, and modes of discourse that mark adolescent and adult communication. In addition to the cultural capital available to the camp instructors, their subcultural capitalthat is, unofficial ‘popular’ knowledgeenabled quick development of trust and respect, as well as a mode of communication that (although often unintelligible to us as researchers) allowed for success shown through the completion of games in almost every instance in the camps. And, as Nairn et al. (2007) note, “[Although] subcultural capital does not have the same status in mainstream society that the cultural capital of the dominant classes has, it nevertheless is a valuable form of capital within the less privileged domains of youth culture and subcultures” (p. 11) such as video games. While some of the instructors had status through school success and recognition, others of them had not. Until this experience, their expertise was not recognized or valued by parents or teachers, and unfortunate stereotypical notions of their expertise had silenced and marginalized them. It was, therefore, of great interest to us to be able to uncover the extracurricular knowledge and practices that proved of great value to them in their new role of instructor. Like Nairn et al. (2007), then, we conceptualize youth as “powerful actors” while at the same time recognizing the “structuring of power relations due to the hierarchy of different capitals held by adults and young people” (p. 4). In this chapter, we are also drawing on a communities of practice framework (Wenger, 1998), with the belief that learning, meaning, and identity are developed within social relationships, assuming that learning is a fundamental part of our human nature and that it happens naturally in social communities. Rather than individualizing instruction and isolating learners to study irrelevant material, we draw on Lave and



Wenger’s (1991) notion of legitimate peripheral participationthat is, the notion that the learner works with others who have more expertise, gradually moving from the margins to a more central position in the development of new knowledge and understanding. One of the strengths we observed in these video game camps was the connections made between the instructors and their students in the camps. Often the instructors were teaching material that they themselves had only recently learned, and they drew upon their confidence as players, the other instructors, and their ability to use the tutorials effectively to provide direction to their students. They were not accomplished teachers, but were learning some of the skills themselves as they were learning how to teach. Additionally and connectedly, Munby, Russell, and Martin (2001) provide a teacher knowledge framework, recognizing that teacher knowledge is derived from personal, professional, and contextual understandings, and that these are often melded and unarticulated. The adolescents we worked with had a wealth of knowledge about video games from their personal understanding of playing video games (often for long periods of time) and of talking with friends about their gameplay. As they became instructors, creating their own prototype games in preparation for teaching the video game camps, they drew heavily on their implicit understanding, developed through their own play, of how video games worked and what made interesting video games. They then adapted their video game-play and creation to meet the needs and interests of the students they were teaching during the week-long camps.

Cultural Capital: Transferring Playing Expertise to Teaching Expertise Throughout the camps, we observed the instructors facilitating the goals and plans that the camp participants brought to their week-long encounters. Through suggestions, questions, and

Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?

sharing of ideas, they assisted the participants to operationalize their ideas, to challenge themselves, and to take risks. The participant campers’ needs and interests were central to the week-long experience, as demonstrated in various ways by the instructors. The game, and the ideas that made up the game, were clearly owned by the creator, and the instructor’s role was to facilitate those ideas in order to make a successful game and a successful experience. The instructors responded respectfully to their students’ ideas with positive feedback (“That’s cool!”), specific and legitimate questions (“Is he going to have a weapon or jump over them?”), or specific suggestion (“Why don’t you have him throw a Ninja star?”); the students’ ideas and responses were acknowledged as unique and important. The instructor provided directions only when they were needed by the student to move their game forward, and that was often given in the form of casual advice or reference to a particular rule. The students set the pace for their own learning, and the instructors’ pacing was responsive to the students’ needs. Because the instructors were only working with two students at a time, there was a great deal of personal attention given to each one. The instructors modeled learning in various ways, and the students observed their instructors problem solving by returning to the tutorials, experimenting with different rules, seeking assistance from the other instructor, or by leaving the problem and coming back to it later. It was not uncommon for them to pop into another instructor’s room to ask for an idea, a reminder of how to operationalize a rule, or to get a demonstration of how to apply a rule. The Stagecast software was new to the instructors, and they often had to figure out the rules, fix glitches, and find new ways to create the game envisioned by the students. The instructors, while modeling effective teaching practices and knowledge, very seldom looked like teachers. Their manner of communicating, while they were sitting in an easy chair at

the side of the room, was casual and relaxed. Often few words were used, and these were unintelligible to the researchers observing the process. Many conversations unrelated to the game-making process occurred, sharing perceptions of music, recent movies, other games, and sharing stories of school, previous exploits, and dreams. Both instructors and their students participated as equals in these conversations, demonstrating a genuine interest in each other and the ideas being shared.

EMERGENT THEMES Several interconnected and complex themes became apparent as we reviewed the discussions we had with the instructors, including: (1) knowledge of the content (negotiating the content); (2) issues of management (negotiating individual personalities and needs); and (3) teaching roles (negotiating identity). As we reviewed the data, similar comments and ideas emerged from all of the participants. Although each of the instructors came to their new role with differing backgrounds and experiences, which influenced and shaped their approaches to teaching, their experiences all included negotiation of content, students’ behavior, and their own teaching identity.

Knowledge of Content Being passionate about video games was not the most important prerequisite for these instructors. They needed to be comfortable with the computer technology and feel capable with navigating the Stagecast program. Much of their knowledge, and hence their comfort, was gained through the video game playing they had done themselves. This extensive play provided them with knowledge of video game components (storyline, characters, conflict), knowledge of ways that video games work (rules, structures), and how to apply this knowledge to new games. The instructors had had only one week themselves to learn the program



Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?

and to create their own game. Then they had to learn more about the program as they guided the students through designing their games. They managed these tasks because of their background play knowledge of games, and the confidence that this knowledge afforded them. One instructor, an eleventh grade student, said that to teach the program to children, you had to “think like a single-minded computer.” He seemed to be inferring that he needed to walk through steps with the students, which is different than how many technologically savvy people read and learn in non-linear, multimodal ways (Johnson, 2005; Lankshear & Knobel, 2003; Kress, 2003; Kalantzis & Cope, 1996)different from the ways they operated themselves as they created their games, moving from creating characters, to backgrounds, to activating the movements, and back again. From our observations, the instructors were trying to stay a few steps ahead of their students. For example, if the student was completing a level of their game, the instructor would have to suggest that door be created to enable the character (avatar) to move to the next level. The instructors were always watching the screen to notice if the student was unsure or struggling or about to experience difficulty. Instructions such as “Undo. Press undo!” or “We’ll need some hiding places,” and questions (“How do you think you’d make a sword?” or “What kind of attack do you want?”) helped the students with their next step in creating their game. The instructors also knew how to develop a progression from one level of the game to the next, ensuring increasing levels of interest and complexity as the game progressed. The instructors often gave suggestions to their students, revealing their knowledge of the possibilities of the program, game design, and content. Some of the suggestions were framed as questions“Should he have arms?”, “Does Dark Spike fire at you?”, “Is it going to be a maze or are you just going to go around killing stuff?”and the students often seemed to feel

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comfortable choosing whether they would take their instructor’s suggestion or use their own ideas. For students who were able to learn the program more quickly, the instructors needed to know how to continue to challenge and progress the student’s learning, so they might send them to the Internet to use new backgrounds for the game or ask them to try out a more complicated rule. If the instructors encountered a problem, they needed to feel comfortable with the technology so that they did not have to defer to the owner (the only adult in the facility on a regular basis)the instructors were expected to figure out most of their own technical difficulties, and they did. In one instance, an instructor spent 15 minutes calmly trying out various avenues to correct a glitch that would not let the keyboard work. He talked the students through possible solutions instead of taking over the controls himself. Together, they came up with an ingenious way of cutting and pasting letters using the mouse, instead of keying in the letters. Lesson plans were used by the instructors when they were beginning. Having the students use journals each day was an expectation established by the owner. On the first day, all of the students would draw or write some of the ideas about the main characters for the game, but according to one instructor, “Drawing is a waste of time because you make it look all beautiful but then you put it in pixels and it looks nothing the same.” He was referring to the inability of the software to create the detailed, creative ideas that the students initially had for their games. So, by the second day most of the instructors had stopped using the journals as a means for developing ideas. Instead, they guided their students to write down their ideas as they worked on their games, and since only one student could work on the computer at a time, there was a lot of time to think and plan their next stages. The students’ disinterest in writing or drawing out their plans, and the limited ability and speed of the journal to capture

Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?

and operationalize their ideas in comparison to the computer, discouraged them from using traditional pencil-and-paper methods.

Issues of Management Depending on the week and the students who were assigned to the instructor, there were often more issues to deal with than just video game design technology. As the instructors gained a sense of themselves in a teacher role, they became more aware of behavioral issues such as inappropriate or rude responses, lack of effort, and lack of attention to the task. The instructors quickly learned that in order to enable their students to meet their goals and complete the game by the end of the week, a more focused approach was important. Physical presence became a useful tool for gaining and maintaining attentionone instructor began to stand more often, using the screen to point out instructions, and thus was able to look more directly at his students. Another instructor changed his language use in order to assert his authorityfrom informal slang to more formal “instructive” language. Questions they posed to the students (e.g., “Tell me what you’re doing?”) were used to help the students focus on the task at hand rather than going off on a tangent (often involving moving around the room, asking for snacks, or distracting their partners). The instructors also used the screen to clarify their meaning, either because they were not able to clearly articulate what they meant or the icons conveyed the meaning more effectively. They came to realize that two hours is a long time to be focused, and they began to vary the activities and include more physical movement into the time. The instructors also began to develop a more varied use of their voice. Whereas at the beginning they used a low, very casual tone most of the time, they began to vary their tone, style, and comments to address different situations more effectively. They became more aware of the need to establish and maintain respectful relationships.

Once they had done that, the positioning became more casual again. They shared use of the most comfortable chair, a “video game rocker” usually occupied by the instructor, and by the end of the week instructors were often seen sitting on the couch while a student was seen enjoying the use of the video game rocker. Sometimes it was difficult for the researchers to determine who was the instructor and who were the students. The students also began to share the front of the room screen space, often getting up and pointing out an aspect of the game they wished to highlight. And although the instructors sometimes took advantage of how the physical space of the room could be used to point out the power relations between the instructor and students, they usually came to more collaborative arrangements that were more effective in creating comfortable and productive learning spaces. A more effective way of maintaining focus and attention of the students was evident in the one-to-one attention and the positive comments the instructors often gave to their students. The enthusiasm and passion of the instructors was evident in their suggestions and comments. “I like the shark. I like how the mouth is open and shows what’s behind it.” “Good work today, guysyou did a lot of work today!” “That’s sweet! Now test it out!” “That’s cool!” “There you go. Awesome! Awesome!” With the possibility afforded the instructors by a two-to-one ratio, the instructors were able to really listen to the needs and interests of the students, and the comments and advice of the instructor became more individualized and helpful to creating an effective and exciting game for the students. Some of the more experienced instructors developed a collaborative rapport with their students that proved to be a very effective management strategy. They began to talk differently about the games and share ideas; for example, one instructor asked, “We’re doing a different enemy for stage three, aren’t we?” and suggestions became framed as “How about we…?” One of the



Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?

instructors was confident enough to acknowledge his student’s expertise at video game design, as he commented, “Once again, you out-learned your teacher.” Instead of taking the power role of expert, he was comfortable sharing expertise with his students.

Teaching Roles, Teacher Identity The role of teacher is an easy one to mimic since most of us have had considerable classroom experience, observing many teachers over the course of their educational careers. These instructors were no different. Initially the instructors tried to copy the teacher stance they had seen modeled in school classrooms; however, this approach often was modified or rejected as the instructors gained more confidence and connection with their students. During one of the focus group sessions, the instructors discussed how they taught differently from each other. One of the instructors was described as a “dictator”; he made his students follow the tutorial. He explained that he liked to give tips and explanations to his students, so they would understand the reasons why they had to use the rules as he told them. Another instructor commented how he adapted his teaching depending on the facial expressions of his students. Another recognized that his students’ video games got better as he taught better, suggesting his recognition of the correlation between his teaching approaches and the products his students were able to create. Much of teaching is about relationships, and the instructors expressed their growing understanding of the complexities of developing their role as instructor and recognizing the individual needs of their students. “You have to have a lot of patience” and “It’s harder than it looks” are comments they made in relation to their growing awareness of teaching as they reflected on the difficulty in keeping students focused and explaining the video game design process in manageable



sections. When asked how they teach similarly or differently from their own teachers, one instructor responded, “I don’t yell at the students.” Instead he explained that he pointed them in the right direction. Another instructor agreed and said that he gave suggestions rather than telling the student what to do. However, one of the younger students said, “I had to threaten a kid,” a strategy he saw as effective in dealing with a particular negative behavior, although the threat (not letting him have the pizza lunch that was provided, and holding back assistance) did not make him feel comfortable, and he later admitted that he had not been very successful in school despite continual threats of a similar nature.

IMPLICATIONS Several implications can be made from the study reported in this chapter that should show how we understand learning and how we understand adolescents. Firstly, adolescents have considerable expertise in many areas, particularly in new technologies and multimodal thinking. Additionally, it is expertise that most adults do not possess. Rather than ignoring this expertise, we need to recognize both the knowledge and the knowers as significant, and learn from them. This knowledge, as cultural and subcultural capital, that these youth bring to learning situations carries weight with their peers and shows a depth of understanding about learning and teaching. Peer interactions could be much better used in schoolbased as well as informal learning environments, enabling adolescents to help with the learning process for younger or less able peers. They are able, as “insiders,” to understand how children learn, and how they learn to learn (i.e., metacognition). Furthermore, they learn in powerful social contexts or, as Wenger (1998) describes them, communities of practicespaces that support and reinforce learning through a common interest base, and draw upon diverse and intersecting

Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?

understandings through social and constructed learning experiences. A second significant implication for schooling practice that can be drawn from this study is the need to pay attention to spaces in which learning occursthat is, social spaces and socially constructed ways. Rather than relying on the transmission of knowledge from teacher to student, alternative ways of learning prove to be engaging and meaningful for the teacher and the learner. Additionally, not only does the student learn more effectively, but the knowledge is also reinforced and deepened for the teacher as well. Socially constructed understanding develops the knowledge and also the attitudes of teachers and learners, as both negotiate the learning spaces together. This has implications not only for practice, but for policy related to how learning is “measured” and valued. As suggested earlier, if the process is as important as the product (as seen in the children’s video game creation), then evaluation practices need to be reexamined in this light. The findings of this study also suggest that we need to reconsider the cultural artifacts we count as worthwhile and legitimate for classrooms. We need to consider how to utilize new technologies in classrooms for new purposes, rather than recreating glitzier forms of traditional chalkboard and worksheet experiences. Technologies such as video games enable a greater ability to interact with texts and to actively engage in learning, to create and re-create, to produce and share with others. We need to reconsider how we acknowledge subcultural capital (Thornton, 1995; Bullen & Kenway, 2005) or unofficial “popular” knowledge in classrooms, legitimizing popular knowledge and connecting it with traditional canonized knowledge. Respecting students’ culture, language, and ideas is clearly demonstrated by the instructors in our study, and perhaps needs to be taken up in similar ways by classroom teachers.

Finally, there are clear implications for the development of new teachers’ knowledge and skill base. More focus needs to be placed on multimodal and technological knowledgethat possessed in large part by the youth and not the adults. School spaces need to make room for current and essential 21st century understandings, and teachers need to be able to embrace these understandings through attending to youth knowledge. Teacher education programs must place more emphasis on new modes of learning, those that are engaging and meaningful to youth (Smith & Wilhelm, 2002; Blair & Sanford, 2005), rather than only on traditional activities and practices. “Good video games,” states Gee (2003), “allow players not just to be passive consumers but also active producers who can customize their own learning experiences” (p. 194). We recognize, as a result of this study, the importance of learners being active producers of knowledge and of products in which they can take pride, insiders in the learning process rather than continually being relegated to outsider status while the teacher is the insider. The learner is an insider, a teacher, and a producer who is able to customize his or her own learning experience from the beginning and throughout the experience. There does not need to be any outsiders, as experienced and inexperienced learners/teachers work together and share their knowledge (Gee, 2003). This implies very different roles for teachers than the traditional disseminator of informationteachers need to become guides, facilitators, and learners in their own right, and expertise and insider position is shared with the adolescents who possess considerable new knowledge. As Gee (2003) argues, video games are the site of powerful learning opportunities, enabling active, critical, ongoing learning where players show a deep commitment to learning and improving their practice. While we are not suggesting that all formal learning experiences are modeled after video games, we need to pay closer attention to



Adolescents Teaching Video Game Making—Who is the Expert Here?

the learning principles that encourage students to practice, achieve, discover, and transfer their learning to other situations. Instructors in this study demonstrated their implicit understanding of Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) theory, enabling students to be challenged at a level just greater than the one they had already mastered, and we wonder how often that principle is applied in classroom learning.

CONCLUSION Identification of key themes has helped us to understand the importance of recognizing video game players’ skills and knowledge, and also to understand how best to help them develop as critical and creative thinkers able to continue their learning in a very complex field of video game design. Through our discussions with the camp instructors, we have come to recognize the sophisticated knowledge of adolescent ‘gamers’, both in relation to video game content and in ways to best utilize their cultural capital and subcultural capital to relate to younger peers. Their expertise reflects an, albeit implicit, understanding of ways to use subcultural discourse to develop both meaningful content and a meaning that is more relational than literal (Lankshear & Knobel, 2007). These instructors demonstrate that their expertise reflects a new mindset about learning, about sharing knowledge, and about what is worth knowing. “The world is being changed in some quite fundamental ways as a result of people imagining and exploring new ways of doing things and new ways of being” (Lankshear & Knobel, 2007, p. 7), both through the rapidly changing technologies that surround us and ways that youth communicate, learn, and understand the worldthe role of ‘expert’ is shifting and adults need to pay attention to those who now have the expertise.



REFERENCES Blair, H., & Sanford, K. (2004). Morphing literacy: Boys reshaping their school-based literacy practices. Language Arts, 81(6). Bordieu, P. (2004). The forms of capital. In S. Ball (Ed.), The Routledge reader in sociology of education (pp. 15-29). London: Routledge Falmer. Bullen, E., & Kenway, J. (2005). Bordieu, subcultural capital and risky girlhood. Theory and Research in Education, 3, 47-61. Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Johnson, S. (2005). Everything bad is good for you. New York: Riverhead Books. Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge. Lankshear, C., & Knobel, M. (2007, May 29). Researching new literacies: Web 2.0 practices and insider perspectives. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. New York: Cambridge University Press. Munby, H., Russell, T., & Martin, A. (2001). Teachers’ knowledge and how it develops. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (4th ed., pp. 877-904). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association. Nairn, K., Higgins, J., & Sligo, J. (2007). Youth researching youth: “Trading on” subcultural capital in peer research methodologies. Retrieved June 28, 2007, from http://www.tcrecord.org/ PrintContent.asp?ContentID=14515 Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.

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Smith, M., & Wilhelm, J. (2002). Reading don’t fix no Chevys: Literacy in the lives of young men. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Stagecast Software. (1997-2007). Homepage. Retrieved from http://www.stagecast.com/index. html Thornton, S. (1995). Club cultures: Music, media and subcultural capital. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language (A Kozulin, trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning and identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

KEY TERMS Communities of Practice: Process of social learning that happens when people with a common focus or concern collaborate to share their ideas, develop future courses of action, and develop social capital. Consumption: Being the recipient of ideas, interacting thoughtfully to texts that have been produced by others (i.e., reading, viewing, listening).

Cultural Capital: Knowledge accumulated through upbringing and education that confers social status, often institutionalized in educational qualifications and objectified in cultural artifacts. Insider Perspective: Being positioned as part of a group; understanding the rules, expectations, and discourses of a community or culture. Legitimate Peripheral Participation: A way of describing how new members of a group become experienced members in a community of practice or affinity group, where the new member initially participates in small but important tasks that contribute to the overall community, and gradually becomes acquainted with the more complex and challenging expectations of the community and takes up a more central and active role Production: Creation of new material, being the author of original texts (i.e., writing, performing, speaking). S u b c u l t u r a l C a p i t a l : U n of f i c i a l knowledgesuch as that of popular culture, extracurricular knowledge, and practicesembodied in current fashions, trends, and activities. Video Games: Games that use electronic systems (either personal computers or video game consoles) and involve interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device.



Section III

Educational Gaming in Other Learning Contexts

Chapters in this section of the book focus directly on research related to other contexts outside of K-12 or teacher education. Those contexts include other post-secondary educational studies, business and corporate training, and health and human performance. Cole & Quilliam explore advergames and the use of such tools to promote non-nutritious foods to children. Edgerton also focuses on health; she examines the way in which health communication theories can be used in electronic games to impact health behaviors. Peng & Liu complete the trio of chapters on health by investigating electronic games that have been empirically tested by researchers. The next two chapters in the section are related to foreign language education. Zhao & Lai present an overview of the potential of MMORPGs for foreign language education and then describe an example of a foreign language MMORPG. Feldmesser outlines relevant theories for second language learning and then describes a specific case study of language learning. BinSubaih, Maddock, & Romano discuss the development of a game for police training. Martinson & Chu present a study on their attempt to insert a game-based learning object into a design history course for college students. And Garcia-Murillo & MacInnes describe a policy and lobbying game in a virtual world. The three papers that come next are all related to gaming and computer science. Xu describes how to teach object-oriented programming and component-oriented programming via gaming. Mustaro, Silva, & Silveira use computer games to teach computer graphics and design patterns to undergradu-

ate students. Fishwick & Park present Second Life as a gaming/simulation environment for exploring Algebraic structure and behavior. The final chapter in this section provides a twist on teaching with gaming. van Ryneveld looks at the use of technology to support traditional face-to-face games in online learning environments. The purpose of this section is to provide readers with research directly related to the use of gaming in content areas and contexts outside of K-12 or Teacher Education.



Chapter XXI

Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children Richard T. Cole Michigan State University, USA Elizabeth Taylor Quilliam Michigan State University, USA

AbstrAct As Internet marketing has evolved, customized online games created to promote specific brands or products have been embraced by food marketers. At the same time that these advergames, a hybrid of entertainment and advertising, have emerged, childhood obesity in the United States has reached what some consider epidemic proportions. Advertising to children is frequently implicated as contributing to children’s poor dietary choices, and ultimately to childhood obesity and its attendant medical risks. In this chapter, we describe the nature of advergames, consider their effectiveness as teaching tools and advertisements, and suggest public policy issues related to the continued use of advergames to promote non-nutritious foods to children.

INtrODUctION Online games, designed by food marketers, have emerged as a source of free entertainment for young children. But they need to be seen as much within their context as a new tool for advertising to children as they are for their entertainment value. Game designers may be in the entertainment business, but their clients are not. Food

manufacturers and marketers are making available children’s advergames, customized online games embedded with food brands, products, and brand mascots, because they perceive them to be a new tool for encouraging the purchase and consumption of their products. In the process, they are increasingly vulnerable to the charge that this online marketing to children is contributing to childhood obesity.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children

Obesity in children, and its resulting consequence to individuals, their families, and society in general, is a topic of international concern. For children born in the United States since 2000, the lifetime risk of diabetes has been estimated at 40% for boys and 30% for girlsand that is if the rate of obesity remains at its current level. Besides physical health problems associated with obesity, children are likely to develop a variety of psychosocial problems related to being obese in a society that stigmatizes this condition (Koplan, Liverman, & Kraak, 2005). Numerous researchers in several disciplines have documented the degree to which advertising to children contributes to eating habits. This chapter includes reference to a study conducted at Michigan State University in the summer of 2006 (Lee, Choi, Quilliam, & Cole, 2007) that inventoried free online advergames and identified marketers using these games, and videos for purchase or rent, for promoting their brands and products to children. The study found what even the most casual surfer of food marketing Web sites would find. There are a large number of free games that promote food to children. Taking the long view, the chapter can be seen as an early stage of suggesting the power of a new online “technology” that could become an effective teaching tool. On the other hand, what is most disconcerting is the degree to which this new technology may be responsible for shaping maladaptive food-eating behavior of young children. A contrasting interpretation would suggest how, if redeployed, this technology could be transformed into a contributor to positive eating habits. The problem may not be with the online games, but rather with how these games are being used to produce the next generation of fatter people. Video games are being used to encourage unhealthy eating habitsbehaviors that promote abnormally high intake of non-nutritious foods and can result in a shortened lifetime of obesity. In some respects, the emergence of video and online games as a major influencer of children’s

behavior should come as no surprise. A halfcentury ago, renowned psychologist B.F. Skinner (1958) predicted the development of new “teaching machines” and demonstrated how, in the appropriate paradigms, these machines would be used to dramatically accelerate educational processes. Skinner (1980) was roundly criticized by “large universities and school systems.” It is a “matter of finances, organization, logistics of supply, with almost no attention to what is happening as the student learns. The programmed text and the teaching machine go back to the individual, and are damned for ‘neglecting individuality’” (p. 97). Skinner’s colleague James Holland (1966) opined that the attention to the technology behind the nascent teaching machines was obscuring the most important element of the debate. “Enough of machinesthey should not be allowed to obscure the truly important feature of the new technology, namely, the application of methods for behavioral control. We need to say no more about the wellknown principle of immediate reinforcement. Behavior is learned only when it is emitted and reinforced. While working with a machine, the student necessarily emits appropriate behavior, and this behavior is usually reinforced…” (pp. 77-78).

BACKGROUND: HISTORICAL INTEREST IN ADVERTISING TO CHILDREN Researchers have long studied the effects of advertising on children and expressed concern about the degree to which evidence confirmed that childhood eating habits are being shaped by the commercials children watch. The degree to which exposure to advertising stimulates the consumption of sugared cereal has been known for three decades. Scammon and Christopher (1981) extended earlier research by Atkin (1976) in finding that advertising to chil-



Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children

dren influences more than their preference for the specific product being advertised. An exposure to commercials for any sugared products, in general, leads to greater consumption of other sugared products, and to a greater preference for sugared foodseven unadvertised, sugared foods. Gorn and Goldberg (1982) looked at the effect of exposure of food advertising to children over an extended timeframe and found that children’s choices of beverages and snack food were influenced by ads they had seen over as much as a two-week timeframe. And beyond the effect of the ad over time, children who viewed the typical Kool Aid commercials not only picked the most Kool Aid, but also were less likely to prefer fruit juice. Recently, Mallinckrodt and Mizerski (2007) extended earlier television advertising work to advergames by finding that children who played a Froot Loops advergame reported a significantly higher preference for that brand over other cereals and other food types, although the advergame did not appear to create a belief that the Froot Loops were healthier than fruit. An earlier examination of breakfast food promotions that associate fun with eating (Reece, Rifon, & Rodriguez, 1999) concludes that advertising to children is a contradictory force to the potentially positive effect of nutrition labeling on breakfast food. An American Psychological Association Task Force on Advertising and Children identified a common theme in the marketing literature: Research on children’s commercial recall and product preferences confirms that advertising typically achieves its intended effects. A variety of studies using differing methodologies find that children recall content from the ads to which they have been exposed. Product preference has been shown to occur with as little as a single commercial exposure and to strengthen with repeated exposures. (Wilcox et al., 2004, p. 5)

0

Children’s online games contain a wide variety of opportunities for embedding brand and product messages designed to create and exploit preferences. An examination of the advertising embedded in interactive games suggests the potential for games as an even stronger vehicle than television in the marketing mix for selling food to children. The point is that it is possible to view the online games as advertisements, which would suggest that the powers of the persuasive appeal of traditional advertising may exist in spades in online games, particularly as it relates to vulnerable childhood populations. The interactivity, fun, and excitementemotional involvement and engagementthat has been made possible with these 21st century teaching machines provides even more potential for shaping brand loyalty and food preferences than was anticipated in pre-video game days.

BLENDING PRODUCT PLACEMENTS WITH ONLINE CHILDREN’S GAMES EQUALS ADVERGAMES Advergames are custom-made online games, typically provided free to consumers, adopted by consumer products companies to promote their products or brands to game players. Product placements in games are the paid inclusion of products or brand identifiers in video or online games, as incidental additions enhancing the realism of the game environment. One example of a product placement would be a billboard bearing a candy brand that appears on the side of the road in a car-racing game: Product placements, called ‘hidden advertising plugs’ by Consumer Reports, are brands placed in media content to add realism to the media environment, provide brand exposure and per-

Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children

suade the consumer. From a consumer learning perspective, product placements may be processed (cognitively) differently than traditional advertising because consumers may not know or understand their commercial intent. (Nelson & McLeod, 2005, p. 515) That may explain one aspect of the power of plugs within online games. But it does not fully address the specific power of advergames and product placements in other games to influence the preferences and consumption behavior of children who are less capable, if not incapable, of exhibiting levels of persuasive resistance normally found in more mature children and adults. Joseph Pereira (2004), a staff reporter at the Wall Street Journal, speaking to the power of this important new online tool for food marketers, began an article on “Junk-Food Games” by painting a clear picture of how advergames work, and on their power to influence the behavior of a young child. He wrote: Forest Hartmann, a Concord, N.H., 7-year-old, recently sat down at the family computer to play a game of basketball. After shooting some baskets he felt hungry. He asked his mom for some Oreos. Sylvia Hartmann wasn’t surprised. After all, her son was playing Oreo Dunk ‘N Slam on one of Kraft Foods Inc.’s Web sites, Nabiscoworld.com. Banners behind the virtual basket read ‘Oreo Lick em!!! Oreo Dunk ‘em!!!’ ‘How can you think of anything else but Oreos?’ his mother asks, recalling the incident. (Pereira, 2004)

PREVALENCE OF FOOD IN ONLINE ADVERGAMES AND CONSOLE VIDEOGAMES Two studies were conducted by a Michigan State University (MSU) Department of Advertising, Public Relations and Retailing research team funded by the W.K. Kellogg Foundation (Lee

et al., 2007). These were the first of what likely will be several studies that elaborate upon recommendations issued in a Kaiser Family Foundation Report (Moore, 2006). That study, based on data collected during the summer and fall of 2005, was a comprehensive analysis of food brands’ Web sites targeting children. Elizabeth S. Moore evaluated a variety of tactics employed by food marketers, including not only advergames but also viral marketing, branded entertainment, promotions, downloads, and media tie-ins. She noted that research has not kept pace with the rapid expansion of online brand messages targeting children, and issued a challenge to learn more about these emerging tactics and how children respond. The first MSU study involved the review of food products or brands in a variety of electronic games, including both online advergames and videogames available for sale or rental for a variety of popular game platforms. First, for the free advergames, researchers developed an inventory of 150 top food marketers’ Web sites and advergames targeting children, then randomly sampled 290 of the 632 advergames they found. Blockbuster, Inc. provided MSU researchers with access to the top selling and rental video games for the most popular game consoles at the time of the study (i.e., Sony PlayStation 2, Nintendo Game Cube, and Microsoft Xbox and Xbox 360). Researchers confirmed the proliferation of food product promotions incorporated into Internet advergames that Moore (2006) had previously identified. However, they found scarce evidence of branded food product placements in games available for rental or purchase. Using U.S. FDA recommendations regarding healthy levels of nutrients in food, along with guidance from prior research (Kuribayashi, Roberts, & Johnson, 2001), the advergames were classified as those that encourage the acquisition and consumption of food products that might be associated with childhood obesity vs. those that might be considered “healthy.” This second element of the overall research compares findings related to the



Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children

promotion of non-nutritious products and brands in games to those promoting the consumption of “healthy” food products. Initial results of this study confirm the supposition that non-nutritious products are considerably more heavily promoted with advergames than are healthier foods. A casual review of advergames confirms the suggestion that these games are targeted at young children. The 14-year-old son of one of the researchers agreed to be videotaped playing a sample of the advergames found on the food marketing Web sites for use in subsequent presentations on the study. Yet the nature of these games was so elementary, that it was almost impossible to hold the attention of this motivated teenaged player. Marketers are imbedding brand symbols and product signals for the purpose of encouraging the sale and use of their products. Of this there can be no doubt. Here is how it works. Advertisers integrate brand identifiers and product symbols as “active components” of the game, whatever the game genre happens to be. Brand identifiers that appeared as components of the online games include logos that are sometimes used as the tokens to be moved around a board-type game or brand characters that represent the brand. These tokens also may serve the purpose of scoring the game or dispensing the rewards. Brand integration in advergames provides children with opportunities to “have fun playing with” the food brands. In fact, in some games, the actual product is depicted as an active game component, requiring the game player to literally play with food.

PRINCIPLES OF ADVERTISING AND brANDING While lines occasionally cross, advertising and branding are thought of as discrete marketing activities, both of which support product or service adoption, sales, and consumption. Advertising is a paid message used to increase the likelihood of sale or as a usage suggestion.



In the process, advertising is seen to implant and strengthen the positive mental image of the product and brand within its category. It is designed to increase the likelihood that yours will be the product or service the target consumer thinks of first when selecting a brand within a category to meet a felt need, or to create or fulfill a desire. Branding is said to be most effective when a message connects an associative memory to a recalled memory. This process can be described as a classical conditioning paradigm in which an unconditioned stimulusthink in terms of a food that produces a ‘natural reaction’is paired with a previously neutral signal like an image or sound. This pairing turns the neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus, which eventually defines itself by its ability to produce a similar reaction as that produced by the natural reaction produced by the unconditioned stimulus. Think of the association that occurs from the experience of eating an M&M from a brown M&M-branded bag eventually endowing the bag, and to a lesser extent, the color brown or the rustling sound of the bag, with the capacity to stimulate a flow of saliva similar to that originally produced by the M&M. The M&M does not need to be provided at future trials to produce salivationat least until the effect of the conditioned stimulus (color or sound) wears off through a process called extinction. Branding experts and behavioral psychologists would suggest that a process of associative memory is capable of linking the memory of the M&M to the visual presentation of the brand as a vehicle for strengthening the reaction to the brand alone. The net effect is powerful enough to eventually produce the effect of the screaming child in the shopping cart demanding that mom stop and pick up the brown bag full of chocolatecoated candies that melt in your mouth, not in your handor else. Branding experts adopting the metaphor would identify several components of classical condi-

Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children

tioning as reasonable objectives for an effective branding strategy. Among these would be: 1. 2.

3.

Consistency: Capitalizing on every opportunity for the association to be made Frequency: Seeing that this association is evoked as often as possible in order to strengthen the conditioned response Anchoring: Recognizing that the recall cue must be associated with the memory already anchored in the mind (food, fun, etc.)

A significant share of advertising activity is directed at establishing and supporting a product’s presence in the mental marketplace of the consuming public, normally associated with the specific function of inducing the product purchase or increased consumption.

HOW ADVERTISING WORKS That advertising works to induce the sale and consumption of products, at some level at least, is beyond debate. But how advertising works or why or to what degree is far from certain and is, in fact, the subject of significant speculation. Marketing experts Rex Briggs and Greg Stuart (2006) recently published results of what has been described as the largest-ever global marketing research effort. The studies were conducted with the assistance of the Advertising Research Foundation, and involved proprietary data from more than 30 of the largest Fortune 500 companies. Among their central findings were that of the $300 billion spent on advertising in the U.S. each year alone, more than $112 billion is wasted. Briggs and Stuart (2006) allude to problems associated with the targeting of ads, the failure of the ad content to hold attention, and consumer resistance, for example, bringing to mind the statement popularly attributed to Philadelphia retailer John Wanamaker: “Half the money I

spend on advertising is wasted; the trouble is I don’t know which half.” Researchers Vakratsas and Ambler (1999) reviewed more than 250 academic journal articles and books to attempt to establish and classify what is known about advertising effectshow advertising affects the consumer and how advertising works. Citing Singh and Cole (1993), they describe advertising as “an input for the consumer. Scheduling of the media, message content and repetition are components of this input and constitute the advertising strategy that triggers a consumer’s response. The intermediate type of response implies that, consciously or unconsciously, advertising must have some mental effect (e.g., awareness, memory, attitude toward the brand) before it can affect behavior” (p. 26). Vakratsas and Ambler describe this as a behavior effect of advertising, but in another category of effects, suggest that “the consumer’s mind is not a blank sheet awaiting advertising, but rather already contains conscious memories of product purchasing and usage” (p. 27). Advertising may create awareness of the product or service, but the impacts on brand preferences are often formed after the product is experienced. Citing Skinner (1938) and Thorndike (1911), Vakratsas and Ambler suggest that “this (paradigm) is similar to operant, or instrumental, conditioning in which learning follows performance (p. 28). While there are some clues as to what successful advertising professionals feel are important components of effective advertisements, there is very little instructive academic research on this subject. Ample data, however, confirm the inability of certain categories of consumers, specifically children, to identify, evaluate, and resist advertising (John, 1999; McGinnis, Gootman, & Kraak, 2006). Advertising practitioners seem to have arrivedthrough observation, experience, and perhaps intuitionat a constellation of common characteristics and conditions they believe make advertising most effective.



Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children

First, effective ads are often defined by their presumed ability to be persuasive. So the next question is, what do the advertising experts say are the characteristics of a persuasive appealwhat makes a good ad good, and a great ad great? What are the differentiating characteristics that determine an ad’s ability to be persuasive? The list becomes instructive in picturing the difference, if any, between, for example, an advertisement presented in conjunction with a television show and one being incorporated into virtually every aspect of an interactive, online advergame. A synopsis of major ad elements that industry and academic experts (Briggs & Stuart, 2006; Arthur, 2004; Fortini-Campbell, 2001; Roman & Maas, 1992; Stewart & Furse, 1986; Sullivan, 2003; Tellis. 2004) say increase the likelihood of the ad having the desired impact would include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 9.



It speaks the language of the consumer. It presents the unique product features. It reflects the appearance and aspirations of the target customer. It is often thought to include what is described as “intrusive sound” capable of being remembered. It is also said to have the capacity for bringing itself up in the consumer’s mind much as the song that you just cannot get out of your head. It is seen as having the capacity to grab and keep the attention of the targeted consumer often because of its capacity to provide an unexpected event. It is often said to have colorful images, colorful phrases, and what the advertisers call the removal of black. It has a “plot” that holds and keeps the consumer’s attention. It produces emotional involvement or engagement. (What might be seen as the most powerful characteristic of an effective ad is

its ability to engage the full cognitive and emotional attention of the targeted consumer. An ad that is fun to watch might be considered engaging, but an ad that is fun to play with would be considered even more effective on the engagement standard). 10. It is made more powerful through variation in presentation and context.

WHAT GETS ADVERTISED TO KIDS More than 200 research studies have concluded that foods that deviate from recommended diets remain the most heavily advertised product to children (BBC, 2003; Hastings et al., 2003; Higham, 2003; McGinnis et al., 2006). Medical experts emphasize that beyond obvious conclusions about sedentary behavior, the relationship between food advertisements, unhealthy eating practices, and obesity should be seen as the source of increased childhood obesity (Strasburger, 2001). Making an unambiguous connection, however, between advertising and obesity is complicated by such things as parental supervision, level of exercise, the amount of time spent watching television, and other advertising-related activities (Hastings et al., 2003; Rideout, 2005). While the Hastings review concludes that there is substantial evidence that advertising exposure influences children’s food, the size of the effect is difficult to gauge (Hastings et al., 2003). Others have reached similar conclusions, nonetheless attributing exposure to food commercials with affecting children’s food preferences and requests (Rollins, 2004; McGinnis et al., 2006). Moore (2006) emphasizes the intensity and power of interactive media in influencing, if not shaping, choice and consumption of food products. Earlier research suggests that familiarity alone can influence what even an adult consumer comes to believe is true. This is referred to as the ‘truth effect’ (Hawkins & Hoch, 1992). For the young children who visit food marketers’

Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children

Web sites, the brand is repeatedly reinforced and familiarity grows, all in the context of fun and entertainment.

THE CENTRAL POLICY QUESTION Have videogamesboth games available for rental or purchase and those provided free onlinebecome the newest technique for targeting children while evading regulation? The voluntary guidelines for advertisers established by the Children’s Advertising Review Unit (CARU) of the Council of Better Business Bureaus acknowledge age-related differences in cognitive development, and prohibit deception and exploitation. Subsequent to the Moore (2006) and Lee (Lee et al. 2007) studies, CARU guidelines were modified and extended to address issues raised by the proliferation of online marketing to children. Yet the question remains: Can the games identified in the Moore and Lee studies be reasonably construed as conforming to these standards? Stated another way, if the general guidelines regarding blurring of advertising and editorial content or product claims are enforced in the online environment of children, can food-related advergames for children continue to exist? To get a feel for the implications of this question, one must begin with a review of the known principles of why advertising to children is especially effective in influencing behavior. Among the principle functions of advertising is the persuasive attempt to encourage the acquisition or consumption of the client’s product. Advertising research has established, and the industry’s CARU voluntary restrictions seem to verify an industry acknowledgment that children are particularly vulnerable to advertising appeals. Therefore, such appeals should be strictly monitored and limited. Participants in a task force on advertising and children of the American Psychological Association chaired by Brian Wilcox (Wilcox et al.,

2004) summarized a stream of research theory supporting the power of advertising messages on children. Studies of children indicate that those below the ages of 4 to 5 years do not consistently distinguish program from commercial content, even when program/commercial separation devices are used. (Could this be why this morning’s rerun of Sesame Street was “brought to you by the letter N?”) The second essential cognitive task involved in a mature comprehension of advertising is the ability to recognize the persuasive intent of advertising and to apply that knowledge in the (child’s) understanding of the advertising message. In other words, mature persuasive intent comprehension involves not only the recognition that the advertiser has a perspective different from the viewer and that advertisers intend to persuade their audience to want to buy their products, but also that such persuasive communication is biased, and that the biased messages must be interpreted differently than unbiased messages” (Wilcox et al., 2004, p. 4). Deborah Roedder John (1999) identified a powerful stream of research demonstrating the vulnerability of young children to advertising appeals. She highlighted three dominant vulnerabilities. First, before the ages of 7 or 8, children are not capable of showing an understanding of the intent of advertising, and until that age frequently confuse advertising and entertainment or describe it as a form of unbiased information. Not until children are about 8 years old do they begin to have a command of advertising intent. Second, until they are around 8 years old, children do not recognize bias and deception in advertising. Around that age, children no longer express a belief that commercials are always factual. Third, even as children develop knowledge and skepticism about advertising, this knowledge does not seem to translate into a more discerning or rational response to a persuasive appeal. “Perhaps the most obvious reason is that general knowledge and beliefs about advertising cannot



Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children

be expected to dampen a child’s enthusiasm for an enticing snack or toy” (p. 13). Several of the findings in the recent Mallinckrodt and Mizerski (2007) study point to a similar conclusion. Pereira’s (2004) previously cited Wall Street Journal article on the emergence of advergames as a marketing strategy to children notes: “The games are drawing fire from advertising critics, including those concerned about childhood obesity. They say many advergames are designed to bombard children with snack-food ads. Dale Kunkel, a communications professor at the University of California, Santa Barbara, says children younger than eight can’t tell the difference between a marketing pitch and straightforward information. ‘They just don’t understand persuasive intent,’ Dr. Kunkel says. ‘It’s a great way to put candy, chocolates and junk food in a good light. It’s almost as if Dan Rather was reading the news to them.’”

CONCLUSION During the past few years, concerns about the effects of advertisingmostly television advertising, and often food advertisingon children have escalated as America and other parts of the world have identified what is increasingly being called an epidemic of childhood obesity: Obesity is increasingly being recognized as an international health problem and television viewing is significantly associated with an increased risk of obesity in children. In addition to reduced physical activity, there is some evidence that television advertising of food is a factor in this association…. Our findings are consistent with those of other studies and suggest that food advertising is a contributing factor to the ‘obesogenic environment’. (Wilson et al., 1999, pp. 647-650) The central policy question of this game content analysis requires an understanding that the



previously referred to voluntary, self-regulatory program, called the Children’s Advertising Review Unit (CARU), in theory sets high industry standards and polices the advertising industry “to insure that advertising directed to children is not deceptive, unfair or inappropriate for the intended audience.” According to its policies and procedures document, “The standards take into account the special vulnerabilities of children, e.g., their inexperience, immaturity, susceptibility to being misled or unduly influenced, and their lack of cognitive skills needed to evaluate the credibility of advertising” (CARU, 2006, p. 1). Given, therefore, that to the extent advertisers understand the research-documented, limited capacity of young children to be capable of adequate consumer literacy, could not all advertising directed at them be construed as “deceptive” and therefore in violation of the non-voluntary standards imposed by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC)? Early interest in the area of children’s advertising was ignited, in large part, by questions about children’s knowledge and understanding of television advertising. Beginning in the early 1970s, arguments emerged that advertising to children was inherently ‘unfair’, based on theories developed by child psychologists and exploratory research conducted by consumer researchers that revealed young children have little understanding of the persuasive intent of advertising, viewing it as informative, truthful, and entertaining (John, 1999). The controversy led to an FTC-proposed rule in 1978 that was ultimately voted down by FTC commissioners in 1980. The ensuing debate contributed to the creation of the CARU voluntary industry guidelines that are in effect today. Given the voluntary nature of these standards, the advertising industry must confront a couple of questions. The first question relates to industry self-regulation: If advertisers are committed to the voluntary restrictions on advertising to children set forth in the CARU guidelines, and recently reinforced to encompass new tactics such

Online Games as Powerful Food Advertising to Children

as advergames, have they, in fact, significantly modified their practices to reflect this commitment? Or are the changes promised by the 2006 revisions to CARU merely cosmetic attempts to allow marketers to separate traditional commercial advertisements from new-media tactics like rental video games and “free” online games for children? The second question follows: Given the apparent disregard by the industry for demonstrating restraint in developing self-imposed restrictions on advergames and other online advertising for children, how long will be it before the government steps in and does what was proposed in the United States more than three decades ago, and was recently accomplished in the United Kingdomthat is, to ban all advertising aimed at young children?

REFERENCES Arthur, C. (2004). Making ads work. Buda, TX: Wizard Academy Press.

Fortini-Campbell, L. (2001). Hitting the sweet spot. Chicago: Bruce Bendinger Creative Communications. Gorn, G., & Goldberg, M. (1982). Behavioral evidence of the effects of televised food messages on children. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 200-205. Hastings, G., Snead, M., McDermott, L., Forsyth, A., Mackintosh, A.M., Rayners, M., Godfrey, C., Career, M., & Angus, K. (2003). Review of research on the effects of food promotion to children: Final report prepared for the Food Standards Agency. Glasgow: Center for Social Marketing, University of Strathclyde. Hawkins, S., & Hoch, S. (1992). Low-involvement learning: Memory without evaluation. Journal of Consumer Research, 19(2), 212-226. Higham, N. (2003). Confusion over ‘ junk food’ ads. Retrieved February 9, 2005, from http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi1entertainment/tv and radio/3168270.stm

Atkin, C.K. (1976). Children’s social learning from television advertising: Research evidence on observational modeling of product consumption. Advances in Consumer Research, 3, 513-519.

Holland, J.G. (1966).Teaching machines: An application of principles from the laboratory. In R. Ulrich, T. Stachnik, & J. Mabry (Eds.), Control of human behavior (pp. 75-84). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman and Company.

BBC. (2003, September 25). Kids influenced by junk food ads. Retrieved October 20, 2003, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/1/hi/ healthy/3136118.stm

John, D.R. (1999). Consumer socialization of children: A retrospective look at twenty-five years of research. Journal of Consumer Research, 26(3), 183-213.

Briggs, R., & Stuart, G. (2006). What sticks. Chicago: Kaplan.

Koplan, J.P., Liverman, C.T., & Kraak, V.I. (Eds.). (2003). Committee on prevention of obesity in children and youth preventing childhood obesity: Health in the balance. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, National Academies Press.

CARU (Children’s Advertising Review Unit, National Advertising Review Council of the Council of Better Business Bureaus). (2006). Selfregulatory program for children’s advertising. New York: Author.

Kuribayashi, A., Roberts, M.C., & Johnson, R.L. (2001). Actual /nutritional information of products to children and adults on Saturday. Children’s Healthcare, 30(4), 309-322.



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Lee, M., Choi, Y., Quilliam, E.T., & Cole, R. (2007). ‘Playing with’ food: How marketers target children online. Proceedings of the American Marketing Association, Marketing & Public Policy Conference, Washington, DC. Mallinckrodt, V., & Mizerski, D. (2007). The effects of playing an advergame on young children’s perceptions, preferences, and requests. Journal of Advertising, 36(20), 87-100. McGinnis, J.M., Gootman, J.A., & Kraak, V. (Eds.). (2006). Food marketing to children and youth. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, National Academies Press. Moore, E.S. (2006). It’s child’s play: advergaming and the online marketing of food to children. Menlo Park, CA: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Nelson, M.R., & McLeod, L.E. (2005). Adolescent brand consciousness and product placements: Awareness, liking and perceived effects on self and others. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 29(6), 5l5-528. Pereira, J. (2004). Junk-food games. Wall Street Journal, (June 3), B1. Reece, B.B., Rifon, N.J., & Rodriguez, K. (1999). Selling food to children: Is fun part of a balanced breakfast?. In M.C. Macklin & L. Carlson (Eds.), Advertising to children: Concepts and controversies (pp. 189-210). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Rideout, V. (2005). Youth obesity: Public opinion on the role and responsibility of the food and beverage industry. Proceedings of the Youth Marketing Mega-Event, Huntington Beach, CA. Rollins, J.A. (2004). Kaiser Family Foundation releases report on role of media in childhood obesity. Pediatric Nursing, 30(20), 165. Roman, K., & Maas, J. (1992). The new how to advertise. New York: St. Martin’s Press.



Scammon, D.L., & Christopher, C.L. (1981). Nutrition education with children via television: A review. Journal of Advertising, 10(2), 26-36. Singh, S.N., & Cole, C.A. (1993). The effects of length, content, and repetition on television commercial effectiveness. Journal of Marketing Research, 30, 91-104. Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York/London: Appleton-Century. Skinner, B.F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science, 128, 969-977. Skinner, B.F. (1980). Notebooks. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Stewart, D.W., & Furse, D.H. (1986). Effective television advertising: A study of 1000 commercials. Lexington, MA/Toronto: Lexington Books. Strasburger, V.C. (2001). Children and TV advertising: Nowhere to run, nowhere to hide. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22(3), 185-187. Sullivan, L. (2003). Hey Whipple, squeeze this: A guide to creating great ads. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Tellis, G.J. (2004). Effective advertising. Thousand Oaks, CA/London/New Delhi: Sage. Thorndike, E.L. (1911). Animal intelligence. New York: Macmillan. Vakratsas, D., & Ambler, T. (1999). How advertising works: What do we really know? Journal of Marketing, 63, 26-39. Wilcox, B., Cantor, J., Dowrick, P., Kunkel, D., Linn, S., & Palmer, E. (2004). Summary of the findings and conclusions in report of the task force on advertising and children. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Wilson, N., Quigley, R., & Mansoor, O. (1999). Food ads on TV: A health hazard for children?.

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Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 23, 647-650.

KEY TERMS Advergames: Customized games provided to users online and embedded with brand identifiers, product symbols, and/or brand mascots. Advertising: Paid messaging used to increase the likelihood of sale or as a usage suggestion. Brand Identifiers: Appear as components of video and online games, and include logos often used as the tokens to be moved around a board-type game, brand characters, or product depictions.

CARU Guidelines: Children’s Advertising Review Unit of the U.S. Council of Better Business Bureaus’ voluntary, self-regulatory standards designed to insure that advertising directed at children is not deceptive, unfair, or inappropriate. Engagement: In advertising, seen as the most powerful characteristic of an effective ad, the capacity to command the full cognitive and emotional attention of the targeted consumer. Product Placements: Paid inclusion of product or brand identifiers in media, including video and online games, as incidental additions to add realism, provide brand exposure, and persuade the consumer. Truth Effect: In advertising, the suggestion that familiarity with a message is sufficient to influence what the consumer feels to be true about the advertised product or service.



0

Chapter XXII

Changing Health Behavior Through Games Erin Edgerton Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA

AbstrAct This chapter discusses how proven health communication theories can be used in electronic games to affect behavior change. After discussing the need for effective health communication and reviewing the current trends in online health-seeking behavior, it argues that games provide a unique opportunity for users to interact with health information, practice health behaviors, and become immersed in meaningful content. Through exploration of the elaboration likelihood model, social cognitive theory, and stages of change theory, this chapter will discuss how games can be used to change perceptions, attitudes, and actions relating to health behaviors. Examples of how these health communication theories have been used in both public health research and games will be given. At the conclusion of this chapter, readers will have an understanding of several health communication theories and the related techniques that can be used to design persuasive games for behavior change.

GAMES AS MORE THAN JUST ENTERTAINMENT Imagine if we were twenty-five years into the development of the American cinema, and the only thing the mainstream media said about film was that it was sometimes overly violent…in a few years we will look back at the media neglect of games with the same shock and wonderment. Henry Jenkins (cited in Beck & Wade, 2006)

While movies may always fall under the broad category of “entertainment,” films have been used to address the most serious of subjects in a thoughtful and influential manner. Looking beyond the thrill of competition and beauty of graphics, games have the potential to have as much impact on our society as film and the immersive nature of game-play provides a unique opportunity for education and persuasive communication. The new genres of ‘serious games’, ‘games for health’, and ‘games for change’ can address issues

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Changing Health Behavior Through Games

affecting the health and well-being of players while still remaining fun. The gaming elements of challenge, risk, defeat, and success can be applied to content that conveys information, teaches a lesson, models an activity, and ultimately, changes a behavior. In addition, while printed materials, videos, and classroom instruction can provide a great deal of didactic content in a single sitting, persuasive and interactive video games have the potential to expose the player to meaningful content thousands of times (Lieberman, 2001). Games displayed at 2005 Serious Games Summit in Washington, DC, address a variety of topics, including participating in government and politics, conflict in the Middle East, genocide in Darfur, and public diplomacy (Musgrove, 2005). These topics, and countless others not named here, are reflective of important issues in today’s society and the movement to create games in this new serious games genre has created new possibilities for communicating persuasive messages. For persuasive games that aim to state an argument, affect an attitude, or change a behavior, health is an important and natural issue to address. Health is a common thread in today’s media. It is one of few human conditions that is important to people of all ages, races, ethnicities, incomes, and geographical locations. The world, and particularly the U.S., is in need of health information that is accurate, relevant, and timely so that individuals can better prevent an illness, manage a disease, or treat a condition. Games as persuasive technologies may be a new concept but delivering health messages that are tailored to meet the needs and interests of target audiences, structured in accordance with proven health communication theories, and delivered in a format that is accessible and appropriate for the user are not. Using these elements of effective communication, virtually any medium can be used to elicit behavior change. Through exploration of the growing need for effective health communication and the increasing prevalence of the Internet as the primary source of

health information, this chapter will demonstrate the need for games for health. The elaboration likelihood model, social cognitive theory, and the stages of change model will be discussed and this chapter will demonstrate how games can be used to change perceptions, attitudes, and actions relating to healthy behaviors. Examples for how these theories have been applied both to public health campaigns and game designs will be given. In addition, the concluding sections on implications for game designers and forecasts of future trends in health communication will provide actionable steps to creating effective games for health. At the conclusion of this chapter, readers will have an understanding of several health communication theories and the related techniques that can be used to design persuasive games for behavior change.

THE RIGHT TIME FOR GAMES To understand how health and electronic games fit together, we must first explore the tremendous need for effective health communication in the United States and the growing use of the Internet to find accurate health information. As chronic diseases become more prevalent nationwide, people are increasingly turning to the Internet to get health information, and a growing segment of this population is looking to non-authoritative sources when making health decisions. The rise in electronic health information and the trend of using search to find ‘people like me’ is creating a culture more accepting of new interactive forms of health information, such as games.

A Country in Need of Behavior Change It is hard to deny that the United States is desperately in need of healthier behaviors. While Americans today can expect to live longer than previous generations, increased longevity is



Changing Health Behavior Through Games

now accompanied by the increased prevalence of chronic diseases. About 30% of adults aged 20 or above report having high blood pressure or taking medications to control their blood pressure levels (CDC, 2006). The number of individuals who are overweight has increased dramatically, with 17 different U.S. states now reporting that at least 25% of their populations are classified as overweight or obese (CDC, 2005c). Obesity in turn serves as a risk factor for chronic diseases such as heart disease, hypertension, and back pain. These medical conditions are often the result of or worsened by unhealthy behaviors. As Americans age, they report a decline in health status, as seen in the recent statistics where 6% of young adults (ages 25-44), 22% of people ages 65-74, and 32% of those 75 years and older rated themselves as having fair of poor health status (CDC, 2006). People of both genders and all ages report unhealthy behaviors. About one-fifth of American men are current smokers, and about one-quarter of American women ‘light up’ regularly. In 2005, 30% of high school juniors and seniors reported binge drinking, 22% reported marijuana use within the past 30 days and while the percentage of students who reported thinking about suicide declined, the percentage who attempted suicide remained stable at 7-9%. For these reasons, disease prevention has become a staple in public health practice and the success of these campaigns is demonstrated by their measurable affects on population-level health trends. Persuasive health communication can positively affect the lives of large numbers of people by increasing the adoption of healthy behaviors, which in turn decreases the risk of illness and disease. In 2006 the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported that “a sharp decline in deaths from cardiovascular disease is a major public health achievement that results in large part from public health education campaigns emphasizing a healthy lifestyle and increased use of cholesterol and hypertension-lowering medications” (CDC, 2006). Effective health campaigns



can include a variety of media, such as public service announcements, printed materials, celebrity sponsorship, and now games. Using proven health communication theories and principles, games can help motivate adoption of healthy behaviors, model ways to improve health, and address barriers to healthy behaviors. While the interactive gaming components, graphic visualizations, and other elements found in games can provide context for learning, and a game played while standing or moving can serve in and of itself as a healthy behavior, this chapter will focus on creating persuasive gaming content that can affect behavior change. Increasingly, Americans are turning to online sources and ehealth products for health information, creating new opportunities for communicators to use the content in games to affect behaviors.

Trends in E-Health In today’s connected society we have immediate access to more information than at any other time in our history and many people are taking advantage of this access to learn more about health. A recent study found that 80% of Americans, or approximately 113 million people, had searched for health information online at some point in 2006. In addition, on a single day in August of 2006, eight million American adults searched for health information on at least one topic, which is equal to the amount of people who are using the Internet to pay bills, read blogs, or find general contact information such as a phone number and address (Fox, 2006). While some groups were more likely than others to use the Internet for health information, the majority of each group polled now relies on the Web for some kind of health data, making e-health, the term used for electronic health information, programs, and campaigns—an increasingly important part of public health. Not only are more people searching for ehealth information, research also shows people

Changing Health Behavior Through Games

are using that information to inform their health decisions. In the same Pew study, 53% of health information seekers reported that most of their health-related online sessions had some impact on how they care for themselves or someone else. Additional data (Fox, 2006) showed that: •

•

•

58% reported that the information they found in their last search affected a decision about how to treat an illness or condition. 55% reported that the information changed their overall approach to maintaining their health or the health of someone they care for. 54% reported that the information led them to ask a doctor new questions or get a second opinion from another doctor.

While study participants reported a varying range of effects the online information had in their decision making, the sheer number of people who are incorporating e-health into their personal health decisions demonstrates the vast potential the Internet can have in encouraging the adoption of healthy behaviors. As with many public health initiatives, ehealth information, when used in traditional health campaigns or in games, should consider the digital divide. Digital divide is a term used to describe the gap in access to the Internet or other technologies between groups of different socioeconomic status. If a significant digital divide exists, different groups of individuals may have varying levels of access to useful health information, serving to accentuate the difference in health status between more and less affluent groups. To understand what impact this divide is having on today’s public health communications, an analysis of the trends in Internet access and usage is needed. While the percentage of Internet users who searched for health information has been stable over the past four years, the overall number of people using the Internet has grown. In 2006,

70% of Americans reported having access to the Internet and more people listed as having completed only high school, the group in the study with the least amount of education, reported more connections than in previous years. In addition, the percentage of users with in-home broadband or other high-speed connections increased, an important factor for e-health because broadband users turn to the Internet first when seeking health information (Fox, 2006). Therefore, while the digital divide may still prevent some groups from accessing e-health information, the gap between those with access and those without is shrinking. For people in all demographics, the Internet is considered a credible and accurate source of health information. Of those polled, 82% of women and 77% of men reported online health information-seeking behavior. By age, the lowest ranked group to seek online health information was Internet users over the age of 65, with 68% accessing e-health data; the highest ranked group was Internet users ages 30-49, with 84% loggingon to get health information. These data make the Internet an important source of information for the majority of people in each age group. In addition, 71% of Internet users with a high school diploma or less searched for health information, while 89% of users with a college degree or more reported health-related searching, further supporting the claim that the digital divide is gradually narrowing (Fox, 2006). As more people use the Internet to research a particular disease or condition (the most prevalent reason for going online for health information in 2006), search engines have become an essential tool for connecting users, not only with trusted information sources, but also with other users with common health interests or experiences. The categorization and ranking offered by current search engines allow users to find a greater number of relevant Web pages from a wider range of sources. Sixty-six percent of e-health information seekers are now beginning their



Changing Health Behavior Through Games

health inquiry with a search engine (Fox, 2006), and 64% of users even report that they had never heard of the source they ended up consulting before they started their search (Fox & Rainie, 2002). Beginning information seeking with a search engine, rather than a trusted authoritative source, and turning to alternate sources for credible information exemplifies the changing social climate of the Web. Now, more than ever, people belong to online groups to share information, rally behind a cause, or exchange goods and services directly with one another. Mirroring this trend, many people now get their online health information from a variety of sources, including blogs, social networks, and other forums where information is provided by people ‘just like me’. In 2005, 84% of Internet users, or 100 million people, reported belonging to an online group, and 32 million users reported reading blogs (Rainie & Horrigan, 2005). Internet users today are creating a new environment where users are open to listening to reports from new sources and interacting with others when seeking health information, creating a generation of empowered patients with access to large amounts of electronic information, advice, and support (Rainie & Horrigan, 2005). The willingness to accept information from non-authoritative sources, in varying new formats and shared across open social forums, is creating a climate where e-health information provided through interactive games will be readily accepted. Just as Americans are redefining ‘credible’ sources of online information, they are also redefining what it means to be a gamer, with middleage women engaged in massive amounts of online ‘casual’ games and baby boomers buzzing about the potential for brain games like Sudoku to stave off mental decline (Cummings & Vandewater, 2007; Morris, 2006). Currently, games can be found on computers, cell phones, PDAs, smart phones, newspapers, schools, and now even in adult training courses (Lopez, Harris, Moses, & Williams, 2007). Research on media use found



that 90% of U.S. households with children had rented or owned a video game and, in 2004, 41% of those ages 8-18 played video games on a typical day (Cummings & Vandewater, 2007). Furthermore, new studies also show that children are not the only ones interested in games. A recent study found that 35% of American adult Internet users play online games and 21% have download games from the Internet (Pew, 2007). Simply stated, Americans need healthier behaviors and are increasingly turning to a wide variety of online sources for their health information. In turn, public health communicators focused on preventing or changing unhealthy behaviors are in need of persuasive messages and effective channels through which this information can be communicated. Interactive, electronic games are becoming widely accepted as a regular activity for Americans of all demographics to and provide a unique opportunity for engaged users to connect with meaningful health information. These factors add up to a social climate that is ready and willing to accept health messages through games. That said, all health communication should be based on proven theories and principles to insure that the messages will have a measurable impact on health behaviors. The following section will describe several health communication theories that can be used to change health behaviors, as well as provide examples of how each have been applied to public health research and games.

HEALTH COMMUNICATION THEORIES: APPLICATIONS IN PUBLIC HEALTH AND GAMES Understanding Health Communication Public health professionals have known for many years that information alone does not induce behavior change. In order to lower the current obesity

Changing Health Behavior Through Games

rates in the U.S. by encouraging more physical activity, decrease teen smoking by persuading teenagers never to light up, or reduce the deaths associated with seasonal flu by motivating senior citizens to get vaccinated, behavior change, not simply education, is critical. Targeted audiences should receive information that is not only accurate but is also motivational and relevant to their lives. It is the emotional elements of persuasive communication, not health education alone, that will lead to the adoption of healthier behaviors. Health communication is an area of study that uses communication strategies to inform and influence individual and community decisions in an effort to enhance health. Building on similar disciplines such as psychology and persuasion, its theories and applications serve to link the domains of communication and health and it is increasingly recognized as a necessary element in efforts to improve personal and public health. A recent report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2005b) stated that health communication can contribute to a number of aspects of disease prevention and health promotion, including: • • • • •

• •

•

Health professional-patient relations Individuals’ exposure to, search for, and use of health information Individuals’ adherence to clinical recommendations and regimen The construction of public health messages and campaigns The dissemination of individual and population health risk information, that is, risk communication Images of health in the mass media and the culture at large The education of consumers about how to gain access to the public health and health care systems The development of telehealth or e-health applications

On an individual level, effective health communication can help raise awareness for certain health conditions, increase the knowledge and skills needed to perform healthy behaviors, and provide the motivation needed to live a healthier life. To understand several core theories in the practice of health communication, overviews of the elaboration likelihood model, social cognitive theory, and stages of change theories will be given in the following sections. While each of these theories has been explained and tested through public health research, the specific elements most relevant to games are presented here. In addition, examples of how these theories have been successfully used in traditional public health campaigns and in games are provided.

Elaboration Likelihood Model The elaboration likelihood model distinguishes persuasive and non-persuasive messages and the ways in which these messages can become influential factors in behavior change. The model states that, when conveying information, there are two distinct routes used to process the messages: •

•

Peripheral Route: Pre-existing cues are used to accept or reject the message without thoughtful consideration. Central Route: Message elaboration occurs and the information is considered and/or evaluated by the receiver for some period of time.

Messages in the peripheral route are processed in an automated fashion where cues, such as stereotypes and biases, lead to a quick acceptance or rejection of the message without careful consideration of the message’s intended value. However, messages processed using the central route are considered and evaluated, a process referred to in the theory as message elaboration, providing an



Changing Health Behavior Through Games

opportunity to persuade the message’s receiver of a change in attitude or behavior (Griffin, 1997). Through advertisements, product placements, personal interactions, and a variety of other situations, we receive massive amounts of persuasive messages everyday. However, each person can only process a certain number of messages in any given period of time. To decide whether a message will be processed quickly using the peripheral route or thoughtfully using the central route, the message receiver asks the following questions: • • •

Is this message personally relevant to me and/or my life? Do I have the time and capacity to process this message? Do I have any existing biases against this information?

If the answers to any of the above questions are “no,” meaning that the individual has decided that the message is not relevant or that he or she does not have the time nor capacity to process the message, an established cue is often used to quickly accept or dismiss the message. Examples of the types of cues that can be used to form a quick decision are (Griffin, 1997): • • • • • •

Reciprocation: “You owe me.” Consistency: “We’ve always done it that way.” Social Proof: “Everybody’s doing it.” Liking: “Love me, love my ideas.” Authority: “Because I said so.” Scarcity: “Quick before they’re all gone.”

On the other hand, if the answers to all of the questions listed above are “yes,” meaning that the individual establishes that the message is relevant, he or she has the time and capacity to process it, and he or she does not have any pre-existing stereotypes about the content, the information is processed using the central route. The theory states that only messages processed through the central



route have the potential to impact the receiver’s attitudes or behavior. While all three questions listed above impact the route through which messages are processed, creating a message with a high degree of personal relevance to the receiver is the greatest factor in assuring that the message will be processed using the central route. A relevant message uses the appropriate language and tone, and frames the message in a way that is meaningful to the audience. This often means taking into account the special characteristics of the target audience, including age, gender, ethnicity, education level, or other demographic information. Even when processed through the central route, messages can have a strong or weak effect on behavior change based on the inherent strength of the information and the argument itself. According to the model, “strong messages”—those with corresponding strong effects on attitudes and behavior—are described as those that generate favorable thoughts when heard and scrutinized. Ways to create strong messages include using a credible source as the message sender and framing the message in a positive way (Griffin, 1997). Engaging electronic games provides an excellent opportunity to capitalize on the aspects of relevance and credibility described in the elaboration likelihood model. The content within a game provides a context where messages can be made relevant to the player either through framing the message to match the demographics of the game’s audience or through the game-play itself. For example, if engaging in a healthy behavior provides an advantage to the player, or conversely not engaging in the behavior puts the player at a disadvantage, the player will assume that information related to this behavior is relevant and will have the motivation to process information about this behavior through the central route, even if he or she has pre-existing biases. The player’s heightened motivation to get information about the behavior gives the games a unique advantage in communicating health information.

Changing Health Behavior Through Games

Elaboration Likelihood Model: Examples in Public Health

Elaboration Likelihood Model: Examples in Games

Elements of the elaboration likelihood model and the concept of creating messages that are relevant to the audience have been incorporated into public health communication campaigns for many years. To explore how the elaboration likelihood model could be used to create “strong messages,” a recent study on physical activity in university students found that both source credibility and message framing were important factors for effective health communication. Participants were randomly assigned to read either positively or negatively framed messages from either credible or noncredible sources. Results showed that participants receiving a positively framed message from a credible source used more message elaboration when processing the messages, leading to the highest number of reports of exercise intentions and behaviors of all of the study’s groups (Jones, Sinclair, & Courneya, 2003). Because many advertisements use elements of this model to convey credibility, like employing a popular celebrity or athlete to appear in commercials, a number of public health campaigns have been designed to evaluate the effectiveness of counter-advertising messages, specifically those targeted to combat alcohol and tobacco advertisements. Research on the “truth” campaign, one such counter-advertisement campaign related to teen smoking that launched in Florida in 2000, demonstrated that the campaign resulted in notable changes in beliefs about the tobacco industry and smoking intentions (Niederdeppe, Farrelly, & Haviland, 2004). Much of the success of this campaign was likely a result of campaign messages that tapped into the teens’ need to rebel and an outreach strategy that used edgy content, placed in a wide variety of media, youth events, and advertising spots used to make ‘truth’ appear as credible as other teen brands (Zucker et al., 2000).

Within games, perceived credibility, leading to increased message elaboration, can be affected by the game characters themselves. Within online multiplayer games, avatars, or customized virtual representations of players, are evaluated as being credible when they are perceived to be trustworthy, attractive, and similar in nature to the player who is evaluating them. While each of these characteristics is highly subjective, research has shown some basic characteristics that increase perceived credibility. In a recent study, 255 college students were surveyed to determine how they evaluate avatars with respect to classification, gender identification, and perceptions of inherent characteristics. Results from the survey revealed that people were more likely to perceive an avatar as credible when it was human, as opposed to an animal or object, and was not male, meaning that the character was either a female or a child whose gender was not apparent. Similarly with regards to attractiveness, participants reported masculine images as less attractive and child-like images as more attractive. Finally, when selecting an avatar image to represent them, participants chose the image that was most similar to them in appearance (Nowak & Ruah, 2005). This research supports using personally relevant and credible characters when presenting persuasive communication within games in order to encourage message elaboration and processing using the central route.

Social Cognitive Theory The social cognitive theory is based on the philosophy that we operate in objective environments and, as individuals, we live our daily lives as part of a larger environmental context. Our mental representations of our physical and social environments shaped by our expectations of those environments and our understandings of the



Changing Health Behavior Through Games

positive and negative incentives for our behaviors within those environments. In other words, how we behave is based on our understanding of the world we live in, our existing knowledge and skills, and incentives we see to behave a certain way. Therefore, the theory states, the behavior of any one person within the environment can be influenced by affecting his or her knowledge and skills and by introducing new positive or negative incentives for behaviors (Bandura, 2004). The social cognitive theory lists several key elements that can be used to influence a person’s knowledge or skills, can change their understanding of the benefits of various behaviors, and can provide them the capacity to behave differently. These include (Bandura, 2004; Makuch & Rechke, 2001): •

•

• •

•

Outcome expectations: The belief that the course of action will be effective to achieve a goal or manage a situation. Self-efficacy: The belief in one’s ability to use one’s skills and knowledge to organize and carry out the course of actions necessary to achieve a goal or manage a situation. Perceived facilitators: Social and structural elements that will help achieve a goal. Perceived impediments: Social and structural elements that will stand in the way of achieving a goal. Modeling: Gaining new knowledge or skills through doing, seeing, experiencing, or playing.

Using these elements, effective ways of changing a behavior can include establishing an expectation that the behavior will have a positive outcome, increasing one’s belief that he or she is capable of successfully performing the behavior, introducing facilitators that can help the individual execute the healthy behavior, addressing perceived impediments to carrying out the behavior, and allowing the individual to watch or practice the healthy behavior in a safe environment. While



the specific elements used in any communication effort will depend on the needs and pre-existing skills of the audience, positively affecting selfefficacy is this theory’s strongest predictor for behavior change (Bandura, 2004). Furthermore, modeling is an excellent tactic for increasing selfefficacy and incorporating many of the theory’s other elements. Gaming presents an ideal opportunity for modeling healthy behaviors. Effective modeling allows for the practice of healthy and unhealthy behaviors in a safe environment where the target audience can learn about the consequences of both without putting their own health in danger (McPherson, Galzebrook, & Smyth, 2007). Through interactive games, the player is allowed multiple opportunities to gain knowledge while also gaining new skills that will lead to an increased level of self-efficacy. Within the game, health communicators can use modeling to demonstrate the positive health impact of the desired behavior, encourage the use of facilitators while addressing any perceived impediments, and create a belief that the behavior is attainable and achievable. Furthermore, using modeling in a game to show that health behaviors are achievable can lead to the use of those behaviors in everyday life.

Social Cognitive Theory: Examples in Public Health Countless public health campaigns on topics including sun protection, physical activity, diabetes management, and mental health have proven this theory’s effectiveness in influencing health behaviors (Kahng & Mowbray, 2005; McPherson et al., 2007; Miller, Edwards, Kissling, & Sanville, 2002; Myers & Horswill, 2006; Suminski & Petosa, 2006). One study on the use of Web-assisted instruction to encourage physical activity found that both knowledge and self-efficacy increased when the communication included elements from the social cognitive theory. In the study, a group of students receiving in-class lectures on physical

Changing Health Behavior Through Games

activity was compared to a group who learned the same knowledge from a Web-based tutorial that was designed to provide positive incentives and increase self-efficacy. At the end of the 10-week period, the group receiving the Web-based information showed significant increases in knowledge related to physical activity and behavior change, including increases in tailoring exercise activities, overall exercise intensity, and general lifestyle physical activity (Suminski & Petosa, 2006). A similar study focused on influencing the participants’ knowledge, outcome expectations, and decision-making skills demonstrated that older adults with diabetes can benefit from nutrition education designed using the social cognitive theory (Miller et al., 2007).

Social Cognitive Theory: Examples in Games The social cognitive theory has also been used successfully to change health behaviors in a number of games. One example can be found in the Click Health game, Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus. Bronkie, the game’s main character, and Trakie, his sidekick, must work to find and assemble pieces of a wind machine that was scattered across the land by the evil Tyrannosaurus Rex. Players can win in the game by using Bronkie to demonstrate proper asthma management, which includes: taking daily medication, using an inhaler and spacer correctly, avoiding asthma triggers, monitoring peak flow, and using log books and sick-day plans appropriately (Lieberman, 2001). This complex asthma management information, when displayed through this multi-level video game, effectively introduces positive incentives to managing Bronkie’s asthma and uses Bronkie and other characters to model desired behaviors. These activities demonstrate the benefits of proper daily asthma care and create a sense that the skills needed to manage asthma can be attained and effectively used by the players themselves.

Research studies on Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus showed that, immediately after playing the game and one month later, players experienced significant improvements in asthma management knowledge and self-efficacy, as well as an increase in communication about asthma between players and their parents and friends (Lieberman, 2001). In another study with Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus, the game was compared with a video containing the same information about asthma. While the level of knowledge and skills was equal for groups who watched the video and played the game, the self-efficacy for asthma management increased for those who played the game but decreased for those who watched the video, demonstrating the need for information to be presented in an achievable format that creates positive feelings of self-efficacy (Lieberman, 2001). This game’s behavior modeling and the resulting increase in self-efficacy make Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus an excellent example of the impact that social cognitive theory can have in games.

Stages of Change Theory The stages of change theory, also known as the trans-theoretical model, is a descriptive model for segmenting audiences into groups that are at different stages in their readiness to change a behavior (Prochaska, DiClemente, & Norcross, 1992). Rather than predicting behavior outcomes, this model can be used to move a target audience through the stages necessary to adopt a new behavior or for narrowing the possible target audiences to those on whom persuasive messages can have the most effect. The theory states that for any given behavior, each person occupies one of the following stages (Prochaska et al., 1992): •

Pre-contemplation: Individual has no intention of engaging in the behavior within the next six months.



Changing Health Behavior Through Games

•

•

•

•

•

Contemplation: Individual is thinking about engaging in the behavior but has no plan to do so the next 30 days. Preparation: Individual is planning to engage in the behavior within the next 30 days and is looking for information on how to take action. This stage is also sometimes referred to as the determination stage. Action: Individual is engaged in the behavior and is starting to perform the behavior regularly. Maintenance: Individual is engaged in the behavior on a routine basis, however, there is a chance of relapsing. Termination: Individuals are performing the behavior routinely without temptation to relapse; individual has complete self-efficacy about his or her ability to perform the behavior and, therefore, is beyond the point of relapsing.

By using this model to identify target audiences, a campaign can target the specific state of mind of an individual and facilitate movement from one stage to another. Providing basic information on the risks of unhealthy behaviors is the primary way to move an individual from the pre-contemplation to the contemplation stage. To move an individual from the contemplation to the preparation stage, a campaign should encourage the person to have a new experience with the desired behavior, suggest that the individual perform a risk-benefit analysis weighing the options of whether or not to engage in the new behavior, and introduce new positive incentives and dispel negative incentives for performing the behavior. Many campaigns focus on moving individuals in the preparation stage to the action stage, as this often provides the best opportunity for measurable behavior change. Because individuals in the preparer stage are likely to have already had some interaction with the desired behavior, the best ways to facilitate their shift to the action stage are to provide new information on how to

0

restructure their environment to make the new behavior easier to adopt, plan solutions for the barriers to engaging in the new behavior, and increase the individuals’ feelings of self-efficacy. For moving individuals both from the action to the maintenance stage and from the maintenance to the termination stage, campaigns should refine existing skills, acknowledge the possibility of relapses, and create plans to recover from these relapses, as well as offer ways to continually reinforce self-efficacy. Movement between any of the stages should be structured in ways where the individual feels rewarded for the accomplishment (Prochaska et al., 1992). Games can be an effective way to reach individuals in different stages of change and encourage movement towards adopting a healthy behavior. Health communicators using the stages of change theory must often decide whether the campaign will be designed to target individuals in a particular stage, select several stages and provide different messages to each group, or attempt to move a group of individuals through a progression of stages over the course of the campaign. Regardless of which of these strategies is used, games can provide a variety of content based on the player’s action and, therefore, be an effective medium for communicating target messages to players in various stages of change. Furthermore, the linear storylines used throughout a game create an excellent opportunity to move players progressively through all of the stages of change.

Stages of Change Theory: Examples in Public Health Many public health campaigns and research studies use the stages of change model to design effective communication strategies. An example of a public health campaign that was designed to move individuals through all of the stages of change is a recent study conducted to encourage long-lasting lifestyle changes in diet and exercise (Riebe et al., 2005). Overweight and obese adults

Changing Health Behavior Through Games

completed a six-month clinic-based weight management program consisting of informational and exercise sessions and were then followed for an additional 18 months to assess long-term effects. Measurements of weight, body composition, food intake, reported physical activity, and readiness to change were completed at baseline, six, 12, and 24 months. The stages of change theory was used to create messages and activities that modified eating patterns and initiated and/or continued moderate exercise. This information was presented in a progressive fashion to all participants by utilizing a communication strategy that facilitated progressive movement through the stages. Baseline testing reported 35% of the subjects were in action or maintenance for dietary fat consumption and 33% for exercise; however, at the end of the six-month program, the majority of study participants had progressed to action or maintenance (88% for dietary fat consumption and 53% for exercise). The ability to provide varying information based on the specific stages of the target audience led to effective health communication and a sustained behavior change. The stages of change model can also be used to better understand the current mindset of the target audience. An example of this is found in a study conducted by an oral care clinic that was interested in introducing a new oral care self-treatment. Before introducing the new treatment, the clinic wanted to first understand if its clientele would be accepting of and interested in the service. In order to classify the patient’s readiness to adopt a new behavior, the clinic administered a questionnaire, which included questions on the individual’s past history, current frequency, and intended future behaviors related to cleaning between the teeth. Participants were also asked to rate how much the risks and benefits, as well as situational factors, affected their decisions on oral health care. Of the 518 respondents, 60% were in the maintenance stage and exhibiting good oral health, a fact that supported the introduction of a new treatment for oral self-care (Tillis et al., 2003).

Stages of Change Theory: Examples in Games Games are also beginning to explore how the stages of change theory can be applied to more interactive forms of communication. A community-based obesity education program for fifth and sixth grade students and their parents used the stages of change model to guide the creation of games, worksheets, and other campaign materials (Beckman, Hawley, & Bishop, 2006). In order to address the various stages of change of study participants, the campaign activities included the acronym “IGNITE.” As explained by the study designers, each letter in IGNITE stands for a simple phrase that describes the main task of each stage of change (Beckman et al., 2006): •

•

•

•

•

The “I” stands for “Ignore the problem” and represents the pre-contemplation stage. Because individuals in this stage are not aware of the problem or a need to change, their main task is to gather more information. The “G” stands for “Get a clue” and represents the contemplation stage. The main task of this stage is to weigh the costs of making a change against the potential benefits. The “N” stands for “Now what?” and represents the determination stage, when the scales begin to tip in favor of making a change. The main task of this stage is to solidify the commitment to change by telling others about it. The second “I” stands for “I’m ready!” and represents the preparation stage, when an individual must make a solid plan for change and identify how to get around the obstacles that may arise. The “T” stands for “Try it!” and represents the action stage, when an individual moves forward with his or her goal.



Changing Health Behavior Through Games

Participants in this study were able to understand the various stages of change and identify their own readiness to change, allowing them to create personal goals for moving from one stage to another, regardless of how ready they were to actually adopt the healthy behaviors. The age-appropriate content, which was geared toward 11- to 12-year-olds, led to high rates of participation and participants were able to recall the messages from their stages one week after exposure. By using the model to target individuals at various levels of readiness to change or by providing information to individuals in all of the stages of change, this model provides an excellent way to segment audiences and personalize the skills and knowledge needed to induce new behaviors. As games provide a unique medium for engaging audiences, targeting communication, and facilitating individual-level adoption of healthy behaviors, a wide variety of health communication theories could effectively be used in designing communication messages. This chapter has explored the elaboration likelihood model, social cognitive theory, and stages of change theory as three possible options for incorporating proven health communication theories into the content creation for games. More research is needed both on the ways that health communication theories and tactics can be used within the game medium and the resulting impact these communication strategies have on real-world behavior.

Addressing the Negative Effects of Games The possible negative effects of games, particularly those associated with popular commercial games with high levels of violent content, is currently being hotly debated. While this chapter does not address the evidence to support or reject these claims, the argument can be made that the techniques used to teach healthy behaviors can also be used, even inadvertently, to teach unhealthy behaviors. Whenever health communication



theories and tactics are used to design health messages, studies should not only measure the impact of these messages on the desired behavior change, but also watch for negative effects of the messages.

IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS Implications for Game Designers Through the discussion of established models and theories, this chapter has provided numerous suggestions for applying research-based health communication strategies to games. Based on the research and theories discussed here, following is a list of implications for designing electronic games that impact health behavior: •

•

•

•

A growing number of Americans are turning to the Internet to get health information and make health decisions. Search engines are being used to connect people with other people, not just authoritative sources, and this shift in information-seeking behavior creates the opportunity for games to become an accepted and credible source of health information. Information alone does not change health behaviors. Effective health communication is rooted in research-based theories and strategies. If a message is not relevant to the individual receiving it, it has little chance of being considered. Make sure that all persuasive content is framed for the audience and delivered in a credible manner. People make decisions based on their understanding of their environment. To encourage individuals to adopt a new behavior, provide them with the knowledge and skills to do so and, most importantly, help them

Changing Health Behavior Through Games

•

•

believe they can successfully perform the behavior. Individuals are at different levels of readiness to change. To help an individual progress to adopting a new behavior and making that behavior routine, messages should match their current state of mind. Additional research is needed on how to effectively use games to change behavior. When researching games and behavior change, watch for any negative consequences of persuasive communications.

Future Trends in Games for Behavior Change Games are becoming more sophisticated and ubiquitous in American society, providing increased opportunities for health communication. Understanding the trends in the use of e-health applications, the constantly evolving discipline of health communication, and the growing technological capabilities of electronic games, we can begin to speculate about the future of games for health behavior change. Each of these trends is discussed briefly here. As Internet use and e-health become increasingly more integrated in the lives of Americans, there will be an escalating need for accurate and persuasive e-health information. A 2002 report noted that the number of e-health consumers was already growing at twice the rate of the overall online population and the National Library of Medicine reported that the number of unique searches in their online medical publication database, Medline Plus, grew threefold, from 16 million to 25 million, between 2003 and 2004 (HHS, 2006). As these numbers continue to grow and e-health plays an increasingly more prominent role in American lives, the sophistication of influential health communication strategies and prevalence of ‘serious’ games will continue to evolve. The field of health communication is expanding and becoming more integrated into other related

disciplines. To date, many health communication principles are used in combination with health education, health promotion, and social marketing strategies to affect attitudes and behavior. An example of an area of practice that embodies each of these disciplines is health marketing, defined as the science of creating, communicating, and delivering health information and interventions using customer-centered and science-based strategies to protect and promote the health of diverse populations (CDC, 2005a). Health marketing is an emerging area of public health practice that draws on traditional marketing principles and communication theories to develop strategies for disease prevention and health promotion. Ongoing exploration of this area is providing excellent examples of how the complimentary disciplines of marketing and communication can be integrated for new affects on health behavior, similar to the integration of health communication campaigns and games (Bernhardt, 2006). As games move from the isolated video console to the wired world, new possibilities for the application of health communication principles are becoming available. Many new games and online virtual worlds now allow for more personalization by the players, providing an excellent opportunity for behavior modeling. Avatars, as described above, provide players with virtual representations of themselves, allowing them to learn and practice new skills, engage in new behaviors, and experience new outcomes without impacting their ‘real-world’ health. These animated personas emphasize how much fun the game is to play, provide feedback, and model the experiences and outcomes of the avatar’s behavior, allowing for an engaging and immersive learning environment (Silverman, Holmes, Kimmel, & Branas, 2003). Another important emerging factor in games is the opportunity for social interaction. Now that online gamers can compete with or against people from around the world and new commercial gaming consoles can connect to the Internet to bring large groups of



Changing Health Behavior Through Games

people into the same games, communication in games is becoming increasingly more interactive. This growth in technological capability allows health messages to be experienced in groups or social settings where the social interaction is an additional positive incentive for participation. Furthermore, target audiences can now be created by their level of participation in games or interest in a particular game genre, as opposed to more traditional segments of individuals grouped by age, geographical location, or ethnicity. The continued use and evaluation of health communication theories, in traditional campaigns, games, and other media, will expand with each additional research study and practical example. Additional research on the impact that health communication in games can have on behavior adoption or change is needed. The expansion of scientific evidence to support a connection between gaming experiences and ‘real-world’ behaviors is the best way to advance the field of interactive games for health behavior change.

CONCLUSION Games are becoming ubiquitous in today’s society. As with many other media, health is a common thread in discussions and communications, and Americans are desperately in need of information on healthier behaviors. Increases in online information-seeking behaviors and the growing trend in the use of e-health data support the use of innovative new media to deliver these important health messages. While the use of games as persuasive technologies is a relatively new concept, the practice of delivering health messages that are tailored to meet the needs and interests of a target audience, structured in accordance with proven health communication theories, and delivered in a format that is accessible and appropriate for the user is well established. Health communication has been proven to elicit behavior change and games using messages



based on theories such as the elaboration likelihood model, social cognitive theory, and stages of change theory can be effectively used to change behavior. Games using health communication strategies can provide relevant and meaningful information, allow players to model health behaviors, create positive feelings of self-efficacy, and move people to a state where they are ready to change. Using various elements from these theories, research from initial studies demonstrates games to be an effective channel for persuading target audiences to adopt healthier behaviors. As health communication expands and is integrated in similar fields, such as health marketing, the field of persuasive communication will continue to develop. As games provide an increasing number of opportunities to reach target audiences of all demographics and the ability to integrate social experiences into game-play, the fields of ‘serious games’ and ‘games for health’ will continue to advance. Through the research-driven application of health communication theories and the thoughtful design of game content, a new era in games is arriving.

REFERENCES Bandura, A. (2004). Health promotion by social cognitive means. Health Education & Behavior, 31(2), 143-164. Beck, J., & Wade, M. (2006). The kids are alright (p. 38). Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Beckman, H., Hawley, S., & Bishop, T. (2006). Application of theory-based health behavior change techniques to the prevention of obesity on children. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 21(4), 266-275. Bernhardt, J. (2006). Improving health through health marketing. Preventing Chronic Disease, 3(3), 1-3.

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CDC. (2005a). Health marketing basics. Retrieved May 22, 2007, from http://www.cdc.gov/healthmarketing/basics.htm

and attitudes: An integration of the elaboration likelihood model and prospect theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(1), 179-197.

CDC. (2005b). Healthy People 2010. Retrieved May 27, 2007, from http://www.healthypeople. gov/document/HTML/Volume1/11HealthCom. htm#_Toc490471360

Kahng, S.K., & Mowbray, C.T. (2005). Psychological traits and behavioral coping of psychiatric consumers: The mediating role of self-esteem. Health and Social Work, 30(2), 87-98.

CDC. (2005c). U.S. obesity trends. Retrieved July 2, 2007, from http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/ obesity/trend/maps/

Lieberman, D.A. (2001). Management of chronic pediatric diseases with interactive health games: Theory and research findings. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 24(1), 26-38.

CDC. (2006). Health, United States, 2006. Hyattsville, MD: CDC National Center for Health Statistics. Cummings, H.M., & Vandewater, E.A. (2007). Relation of adolescent video game play to time spent in other activities. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 161(July), 684-689. Farqunharson, L., Noble, L.M., Barker, C., & Behrens, R. Health beliefs and communication in the travel clinic consultation as predictors of adherence to malaria chemoprophylaxis. British Journal of Health Psychology, 9, 201-217. Fox, S. (2006, October). Online health search 2006. Retrieved June 1, 2007, from http://www. pewinternet.org/PPF/r/190/report_display.asp Fox, S., & Rainie, L. (2000, October). The online healthcare revolution: How the Web helps Americans take better care of themselves. Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.pewinternet.org/ pdfs/PIP_Health_Report.pdf Griffin, E. (1997). A first look at communication theory (pp. 206-226). New York: McGraw-Hill. HHS. (2006). Expanding the reach and impact of consumer e-health tools. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Jones, L.W., Sinclair, R.C., & Courneya, K. (2003). The effects of source credibility and message framing on exercise intentions, behaviors,

Lopez, A.M., Harris, S., Moses, H., & Williams, J. (2007). Reality AI: A focus-on-knowledge methodology. Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, 22(5), 123-132. Makuch, A., & Reschke, K. (2001). Playing games in promoting childhood dental health. Patient Education and Counseling, 43, 105-110. McPherson, A., Glazebrook, C., & Smyth, A. (2007). Double click for health: The role of multimedia in asthma education. Archives of Dis. Child., 85(May 15), 447-449. Miller, C.K., Edwards, L., Kissling, G., & Sanville, L. (2002). Evaluation of a theory-based nutrition intervention for older adults with diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102(8), 1069-1080. Morris, C. (2006, February 10). Whiter the gray gamer? Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://money. cnn.com/2006/02/09/commentary/game_over/ column_gaming/index.htm Musgrove, M. (2005). Video game world fives peaces a chance. Washington Post, (October 16). Myers, L.B., & Horswill, M. (2006). Social cognitive predictors of sun protection intention and behavior. Behavioral Medicine, 32(2), 57-64. Netz, Y., & Shulamith, R. (2004). Age differences in motivational orientation toward physical activ-



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ity: An application of social-cognitive theory. Journal of Psychology, 138(1), 35-49. Niederdeppe, J., Farrelly, M.C., & Haviland, M.L. (2004). Confirming “truth”: More evidence of a successful tobacco countermarketing campaign in Florida. American Journal of Public Health, 94(2), 255-257. Nowak, K.L., & Rauh, C. (2005). The influence of the avatar on online perceptions of anthropomorphism, androgyny, credibility, homophily, and attraction. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(1), 153-178. Petty, R., & Cacioppo, J. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. New York: Springer-Verlag. Pew. (2007). Internet activities. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://www.pewinternet. org/trends/Internet_Activities_8.28.07.htm Prochaska, J., DiClemente, C., & Norcross, J. (1992). In search of how people change: Applications to addictive behaviors. American Psychologist, 47(9), 1102-1114. Rainie, L., & Horrigan, J. (2005). Internet: The mainstreaming of online life. Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/ r/148/report_display.asp Riebe, D., Blissmer, B., Greene, G., Caldwell, M., Ruggiero, L., Stillwell, K., & Nigg, C. (2005). Long-term maintenance of exercise and healthy eating behaviors in overweight adults. Preventive Medicine, 40(6), 769-778. Silverman, B.G., Holmes, J., Kimmel, S., & Branas, C. (2003). Computer games may be good for your health. Journal of Healthcare Information Management, 16(2), 80-85. Suminski, R.R., & Petosa, R. (2005). Psychological traits and behavioral coping of psychiatric consumers: The mediating role of self-esteem. Health and Social Work, 30(2), 87-98.



Suminski, R.R., & Petosa, R. (2006). Web-assisted instruction for changing social cognitive variables related to physical activity. Journal of American College Health, 54(4), 219-224. Tillis, T.S.I., Stach, D.J., Cross-Poline, G.N., Annan, S., Astroth, D.B., & Wolfe, P. (2003). The transtheoretical model applied to an oral self-care behavioral change: Development and testing of instruments for stages of change decisional balance. Journal of Dental Hygiene, 77(1), 16-24. Zucker, D., Hopkins, R., Sly, D.F., Urich, J., Kershaw, J.M., & Solari, S. (2000). Florida’s “truth” campaign: A Counter-marketing, anti-tobacco media campaign. Journal of Public Health Management Practice, 6(3), 1-6.

KEY TERMS Avatar: A customized virtual representation of the player. Central Route: A path for processing incoming messages where message elaboration occurs and the message is considered and/or evaluated by the receiver for some period of time; a component of the elaboration likelihood model. Digital Divide: A term used to describe the gap in access to the Internet and other technologies between groups of different socioeconomic status. E-Health: General term used to describe electronic health information, programs, and campaigns. Health Communication: An area of study that uses communication strategies to inform and influence individual and community decisions in an effort to enhance health. Health Marketing: The science of creating, communicating, and delivering health information and interventions using customer-centered and

Changing Health Behavior Through Games

science-based strategies to protect and promote the health of diverse populations.

Perceived Facilitators: Social and structural elements that will help achieve a goal.

Message Elaboration: A component of the elaboration likelihood model in which a receiver of a message considers and evaluates that message.

Perceived Impediments: Social and structural elements that will stand in the way of achieving a goal.

Modeling: Gaining new knowledge or skills through doing, seeing, experiencing, or playing. Outcome Expectations: The belief that the course of action will have a positive or negative effect on achieving a goal or managing a situation.

Peripheral Route: A path for processing incoming messages where pre-existing cues are used to accept or reject the message without thoughtful consideration; a component of the elaboration likelihood model. Self-Efficacy: The belief in one’s ability to use one’s skills and knowledge to organize and carry out the course of actions necessary to achieve a goal or manage a situation.





Chapter XXIII

An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes Wei Peng Michigan State University, USA Ming Liu Michigan State University, USA

AbstrAct This chapter aims to provide an overall picture of the applications of electronic games for various health-related purposes, particularly for health education, health risk prevention, behavioral intervention, and disease self-management. We first summarize the electronic games for health that have been empirically tested by researchers in the past 20 years. Games that have not yet been evaluated but are promising and noteworthy are also included. These games are categorized based on their specific health-related functions (i.e., prevention, self-management, medical training, etc). Second, we synthesize the key features of electronic games that make them promising to be used for health-related purposes. Finally, implications of using electronic games for health-related purposes and future direction for research in this area are discussed. Game researchers, health providers, game designers, and potential game consumers will all find informative content in this chapter.

INtrODUctION The benefit of electronic gaming is no longer limited to entertainment. Electronic games have the potential to alter the lives of many people in fundamental ways. In the last two decades, plenty

of research has been conducted to evaluate use of electronic games in the educational setting (for a general review, see Lee & Peng, 2006; Lieberman, 2006). Recently, a new movement of “serious games for health” has been proposed to apply electronic games for health-related purposes.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

This chapter aims to provide an overall picture of the applications of electronic games for various health-related purposes, particularly for health education, health risk prevention, behavioral intervention, and disease self-management. In this chapter, we first summarize the electronic games that have been empirically tested by researchers in various health-related settings. The research studies included in this part were obtained by a comprehensive search in Web of Science and MEDLINE databases using meaningful combinations of keywords including “video game,” “computer game,” “intervention,” “health,” and “cancer.” Papers published within the past 20 years were used in order to focus on modern electronic games and their applications. A thorough check of the references in the retrieved articles was conducted to locate more studies. Additionally, some newly developed health-related electronic games that have not been evaluated but demonstrate potential were also included for a more comprehensive overview. We categorized the located electronic games based on their specific health-related functions (i.e., prevention, selfmanagement, medical training, etc). In the second part of this chapter, we discuss the key features of electronic games that make them promising to be used for health-related purposes. Finally, implications of using games for health-related purposes and future direction for research in this area are discussed. Different issues about these games faced by health providers, game designers, and researchers are discussed separately.

REVIEW OF HEALTH-RELATED ELECTRONIC GAMES Disease and Risk-Prevention Games Games in this category focus on promoting a healthier lifestyle and behaviors by delivering relevant knowledge and shifting unhealthy attitudes. These games are set in a variety of health

domains, including promoting healthy nutrition, safe sexual behavior, anti-smoking, injury prevention, and heart attack early treatment. Squire’s Quest! is a 10-session computer game designed to increase children’s consumption of fruit, juice, and vegetable (FJV), and thus prevent cancer and other illnesses in the long run (Baranowski et al., 2003). This game is set in a fantasy kingdom where the kid plays as a squire who faces challenges in his or her quest to become a knight helping the king and queen defeat invaders. The challenges for the squire were to master the skills to prepare FJV recipes to provide energy for the king and his court, with goals related to eating more nutritious FJVs. There was a wizard mentoring the squire through the challenges. Researchers at the Children’s Nutrition Research Center in Houston, Texas, developed this game and examined the impact of playing this game over five weeks, involving 1,578 children in a school setting. They found that children in the treatment group increased their FJV consumption by 1.0 serving more than those in the control group. This study demonstrated that the electronic game approach can be a very effective means to promote a healthier diet among children, because it achieved the second largest increase of serving size of FJVs compared to other school-based interventions (Baranowski et al., 2003). Several factors contribute to the success of this gaming intervention. First, the program including the game design and associated activities was based on social cognitive theory, which provides a framework to explain how people acquire and maintain behavioral patterns (Bandura, 1997). According to this theory, environment, people, and behavior are constantly influencing each other and contribute to a behavioral change all together. Environment includes both social and physical environments. Social environment includes family members, friends, and peers. Physical environment refers to the element such as a room and temperature. A relevant concept to physical environment is situation, which is the



An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

perception of the environment that may impact a person’s behavior. In this FJV intervention, the electronic game provides a simulated and attractive physical environment with an intriguing plot to engage the kids. Through multiple exposures, kids were able to increase their behavioral capability, the knowledge and skills to perform a certain behavior, which is preparing healthy FJV recipes in the intervention. Moreover, parents were also involved because one associated activity was that children asked for their favorite FJV to be more available at home, which could potentially change the environment to be more favorable to their FJV consumption. Reinforcements were also available in children’s gaming experience, defined as responses to a person’s behavior that either reinforce or disapprove it. In this case, children obtained points based on an assessment of whether their goals of making recipes were achieved, and the number of earned points determined the level of their knighthood. The second advantage of this gaming intervention is that it involves tailoring of decision making and goal setting to children’s baseline dietary assessment and reported FJV preferences. An HIV/AIDS-prevention computer game called Life Challenge was developed by the New York State Department of Health to enhance adolescents’ skill and self-efficacy regarding safer sex negotiation (Thomas, Cahill, & Santilli, 1997). Self-efficacy is a critical concept in social cognitive theory, defined as a person’s confidence in performing a particular behavior. In the process of game development, five focus groups were formed to collect ideas and get responses from the target population. The game is a time travel adventure game in which knowledge and negotiating tasks for safer sex, such as turning down sex and negotiating for condom use, were involved. Computer kiosks with the game installed were field tested in 13 sites serving high-risk populations. The result showed significant knowledge gain in some aspects and also significant improvement in self-efficacy for those who started with a lower

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level of self-efficacy. Two of the biggest barriers to protected sex among adolescents are embarrassment and lack of skills to negotiate with partners for safer sex. In this game, players can talk to their imaginary partner and hear the playback to practice safer sex negotiation skills without getting embarrassed. However, the researchers also pointed out that this game was not intended to be used as an independent intervention, but would be better integrated into existing HIV/AIDS education programs due to the complexity of adolescent sexual behavior. Two teenager pregnancy prevention games (The Baby Game! and Romance!) were targeted at adolescents who are sexually active and inclined to become parents during their adolescence. These games are aimed to improve adolescents’ knowledge of adolescent parenthood and sexual behaviors, and cause their attitude changes favoring delayed pregnancy and use of effective contraception (Paperny & Starn, 1989). The Baby Game! provides teenagers with the chance to experience a simulated life of a teenage parent through various scenarios and time/cost assessments. For teenagers who are sexually active or would like to be, through playing Romance! they can learn about contraceptive options, practice communication skills in dating situations, and experience simulated outcomes of their decisions on sexual activities. Experimental studies showed that improvements in participants’ knowledge about contraception, pregnancy risk, and cost of birth and child care were all significant, and related attitudinal improvements were mostly significant. Again, computer games demonstrated great potential to increase knowledge and cause attitude change through delivering health-related messages in a relevant simulated situation. The smoking prevention game Rex Ronan was designed to strengthen preadolescents’ negative attitude toward smoking cigarettes (Lieberman, 2001). In this video game, users play as Dr. Rex Ronan, who can shrink and enter the body of a smoker who has many tobacco-related illnesses.

An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

They see all kinds of detrimental effects (negative outcomes) of smoking all over the inside of the body, and control Dr. Ronan’s scalpel to clean and cure the body. Besides the graphic portrayals of the physiological harm of smoking, the game also involves true-false questions about the impact of tobacco on health to test and improve users’ relevant knowledge, as well as an attractive role model who is antismoking. Evaluation studies showed that this game was very attractive to children, and playing it could increase their knowledge of specific negative effects of smoking on the body and their interest in learning more. Their anti-smoking attitude was also reinforced (Lieberman, 1997, 2001). To prevent sports injury in youth hockey players, a computer game named Symptom Shock was utilized in Canada to increase youth players’ awareness of concussion symptoms (Goodman, Bradley, Paras, Williamson, & Bizzochi, 2006). This game was modeled on the popular Tetris game, and players have to make stacks of matching icons and determine whether or not the icons represent concussion symptoms in order to score more goals than the computer opponent. Goodman et al. (2006) specifically tested the impact of game content on players’ knowledge about concussion symptoms, using both the actual game and a control version of the game with irrelevant content. It was demonstrated that the players of Symptom Shock significantly improved their knowledge on concussion symptoms and speed of answering related questions. In this study, participants were provided with an incentive to get involved in the game playing, which might be important to games that are not very attractive per se. They were informed that they were in a competition with other teams of the same age division for a prize based on how successfully they played the game. Heart Sense is an online game developed at the University of Pennsylvania1 to promote heart attack awareness and reduce delay in seeking healthcare and treatment (Silverman et al., 2001).

The target population is individuals who are at risk of having a first heart attack. The current version of Heart Sense is a role-playing computer game in which users play as a hero who encounters many characters in need of help to deal with their hear attacks, and thus the player needs to make decisions about how to react in a variety of heart attack situations. So far no empirical test of this game has been published. However, an evaluation of the game prototype showed that the intention of game users to call 9-1-1 and avoid delay was significantly increased, with a better understanding of heart attack symptoms. The animated pedagogical agent in the prototype was found to play an important role in reducing the complexity of user interface, providing companionship, and increasing entertainment. Heart Sense appears to be a promising approach that will help save lives by changing the treatment-seeking behaviors of patients and their families.

Self-Management Games Video games have also been applied to improve self-management skills for coping with certain chronic diseases, such as asthma, diabetes, cancer, and so forth. All the games we identified were developed for children with the above diseases. It seems that electronic games are a more advantageous channel to reach children because they provide a fun and engaging environment for behavior rehearsal and repetitive skill practice without taking risk in real life, which is otherwise hard to achieve using traditional approaches. As playing electronic games has become one of the most popular leisure activities of youth, integrating the games into their medical regimen is very likely to be acceptable instead of being obtrusive. Re-Mission is a computer game including 20 missions/levels designed for young cancer patients.2 The game is now available in English, French, and Spanish, and free of charge to young people living with cancer. The player will play as a nano robot that goes inside the body of cancer



An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

patients undergoing chemotherapy, radiation, or immunotherapy. By acting out as the nano robot inside a cancer patient body and observing how medication and chemotherapy help the body fight against cancer cells, players get to know more about cancer and become more confident in fighting the disease. A randomized controlled clinical trial with hundreds of young cancer patients from the U.S., Canada, and Australia revealed that users’ cancer-related knowledge, self-efficacy to communicate about cancer and manage side effects, as well as quality of life were all significantly increased (Cole, Kato, Marin-Bowling, Dahl, & Pollock, 2006). Among the computer and video games with a purpose of improving self-management skills, most of them were developed for children with asthma, one of the most common chronic illnesses affecting children in the U.S. Example games are Watch, Discover, Think and Act, Asthma Control, Wee Willie Wheezie, and Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus (Bartholomew et al., 2000; Homer et al., 2000; Lieberman, 2001; Shames et al., 2004; Yawn et al., 2000). Social cognitive theory was used as the theoretical foundation for developing some of these games as well as understanding their benefits, with emphases on self-regulation, self efficacy, modeling, and so forth. For instance, in the game Watch, Discover, Think and Act, players could improve their asthma-specific self-regulatory skills through managing the game character’s asthma. According to social learning theory, role models can impact people’s behavior. Children were found to pay much attention to role models, especially those in their age group but a little older (Parrott, 1995). This game involves an older child character serving as a role model to show the player how to manage asthma (Bartholomew et al., 2000). Another game called Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus emphasizes players’ self-efficacy related to asthma (Lieberman, 2001). In this game, kids play as a dinosaur with asthma and help him save his homeland while trying to avoid asthma triggers (i.e., dust, pollen, cold viruses) and keep



asthma under control. Empirical study showed that playing the game for less than an hour resulted in significant improvements in a player’s asthma knowledge, self-efficacy for asthma self-management, as well as self-efficacy for talking with friends about asthmaboth immediately after their playing and one month later. Participating children also increased their asthma-related communication and social support during the month after they played the game. Video games have also been used to improve self-care among young people with diabetes. In the video game Packy & Marlon, players need to help their game characters, two adolescent elephants, manage their diabetes by monitoring blood glucose, taking proper amounts of insulin, reviewing a diabetes logbook, and finding appropriate food (Brown et al., 1997). Self-concept (including self-esteem and self-efficacy), social support, and knowledge were the key elements to be considered in the game design. In a randomized controlled field experiment, although participants’ self-efficacy for diabetes self-care did not achieve a significant change, the treatment group significantly improved their communication with parents about diabetes and self-care behaviors. Moreover, although the statistical result did not show a significant difference, urgent visits for diabetes dropped over 70% in the treatment group compared to an increase in the control group. In sum, a typical scenario in self-care/management electronic games is that the player takes care of and helps the main character in the game control symptoms in various settings, so that the player’s self-management skills and related knowledge are increased from practicing during game playing. The player’s self-efficacy and received social support are important mediators for the improvements of self-care and self-monitoring. The game-based approach could function significantly better than an educational videotape to increase users’ self-efficacy for self-management, because the interactive feature of the game encourages users’ active involvement, provides them with

An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

unlimited chances of practice, and brings about more enjoyment in the learning process (Lieberman, 2001). Evaluation studies of these games have shown that in general knowledge improvement is prevalent and relatively easy; however, it is much more difficult to improve behaviors related to self-management, reduce symptoms, or impact clinical outcome variables by using the games (Homer et al., 2007; Huss et al., 2003; Shames et al., 2004; Yawn et al., 2000).

Therapeutic and Fitness Games Electronic games have also shown the potential to have therapeutic benefits. For example, researchers developed a biofeedback pelvic floor muscle retraining program assisted by computer games for children with dysfunctional voiding, in which game action is controlled by patient pelvic muscle activity. Several sport games were used. For example, in a golf game, the strength of the pelvic contraction determined the distance the golf ball could travel. An empirical examination revealed that this computer-game-augmented therapy resulted in significant physiological improvements, with a significant decrease in urinary tract infection in the subjects. The advantage of this therapeutic program is that the incorporation of computer games effectively maintained the interest of children and focused their attention during the rehabilitating process (McKenna, Herndon, Connery, & Ferrer, 1999). Researchers at NASA developed a video game neurofeedback system 3 as alternative neurotherapy for Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), a disease more commonly diagnosed in children. Video games such as car racing games and adventure games were reprogrammed to integrate the standard brainwave biofeedback system (Pope & Bogart, 1996). The difficulty of a game is contingent on the player’s attention, and thus the better the player maintains attention, the more the game appears to be manageable and

favor the winning of the player. For instance, in an auto racing game, a car’s maximum speed increases when the player is more attentive. A randomized controlled experiment revealed that the video game biofeedback system is as effective as standard biofeedback training, but is much more motivating, enjoyable, and easier to learn for children. It may even become a “do-it-yourself” neurotherapy (Pope & Paisson, 2001). In other words, the entertainment and interactivity features of video games transformed traditional brainwave biofeedback training to be an effortless and fun activity that children are much more motivated to perform. Playing an exercise video game (i.e., biking) during actual exercise was found to promote the psychological benefits of exercise (Plante, Aldridge, Bogden, & Hanelin, 2003). Researchers compared three groups: bicycling only, playing a computer bicycle game only, and participating in a virtual race on computer while bicycling. Participants in the last group experienced the least tiredness and the most relaxation and exertion compared to the other groups, suggesting that the virtual or simulated reality in the computer game enhances some of the psychological benefits of exercise when combined with exercise. It seems that virtual reality in video games has the potential to draw people into an enjoyable and/or challenging environment so that the psychological benefits of exercise are increased. In this sense, the upcoming video game system Wii Fit by Nintendo is very likely to provide users with similar benefits discussed above. Wii Fit includes a unique Wii Balance Board that can sense body movements when a user is doing exercise such as Yoga and step aerobics on it. The user can also see a virtual self on the screen doing the same exercise with same movements. Some people may suspect that working out using Wii Fit cannot achieve the same exercise intensity or effects as in a gymnasium. However according to Plante et al.’s (2003) findings and arguments, combining virtual and actual exercise can enhance



An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

a users’ exercise experience, especially the mood benefits of exercise. Positive effects of playing sports video games such as Wii Sport and Dance Dance Revolution have been reported by users and observers, and “exertainment” is becoming a popular term characterizing those games. An online survey of fitness professionals was recently conducted by the International Sports Sciences Association (ISSA) to investigate the potential benefits of movement-based video games on the fitness of American people. Several positive impacts of exertainment games were proposed by those professionals. First, exertainment can be used by every segment of the population. Second, exertainment promotes physical activity in an attractive way, and the enjoyable process helps people develop their exercise habits. Third, exertainment involves a lot of aerobic exercise, which can increase one’s metabolism and help one to lose weight when having fun. Last, exertainment can provide privacy to deconditioned and obese people who may feel embarrassed to exercise in a public place (ISSA, 2007). A special population of wheelchair users can also benefit from electronic games by an interface called GAMEWheels. GAMEWheels is a portable interface between a wheelchair roller system and a computer designed to enable manual wheelchair users to play commercially available computer games by driving their wheelchair. It was aimed to help improve users’ cardiovascular fitness level. Evaluation studies showed that users could achieve a higher physiological work level by playing computer games with the interface, and 87% (13) of them reported that this system would help motivate them to exercise regularly (O’Connor et al., 2000; O’Connor, Fitzgerald, Cooper, Thorman, & Boninger, 2001).

Attention Distraction Games Electronic games are so engaging that they can also be used as a distraction tool for children and



young people to reduce the discomfort in medical procedures and treatments. The game content does not necessarily need to be health related in this context. Instead, entertainment and interactivity of games are the key elements contributing to the benefits. This can be a low-cost and convenient approach, because in most circumstances a commercially available electronic game can achieve the effect. Prior research has demonstrated that having children play electronic games alone or combined with other means is effective in reducing pain and anxiety before venepuncture and surgery (Franck & Jones, 2003; Patel et al., 2006; Rassin, Gutman, & Silner, 2004), and decreasing adverse effects of chemotherapy such as nausea (Redd et al., 1987). Compared to other non-computer-gamebased intervention strategies, using electronic games to help children cope with discomfort and distress in medical procedures appears to be a more feasible approach requiring fewer staff resources at a healthcare facility as well as less training time for children (Franck & Jones, 2003; Redd et al., 1987). Redd et al. (1987) investigated the effectiveness of video game distraction in reducing conditioned nausea in pediatric cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. In their first study, patients in the experiment group selected one from 25 commercially available video games and played the game for 10 minutes, while patients in the control group were provided access to toys, books, noncomputer games, and television, either before or during the chemotherapeutic procedure. The result showed that conditioned nausea was significantly reduced in patients playing video games. Their second study involved additional baseline assessment and repeated measures after two 10-minute sessions of playing video games. Again, video game playing resulted in significantly less nausea across time among subjects. Similarly, playing a self-selected handheld video game was found to effectively reduce pediatric preoperative anxiety (Patel et al., 2006).

An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

Although the mechanisms underlying the effects are not fully understood, researchers hypothesized that being involved in a distracting and challenging task such as playing video games could block pain to some extent by consuming part of the attentional capacity that would otherwise be devoted to perceive the stressful event. Practical advantages of using the electronic game approach were also pointed out by the researchers, including the convenience of integrating it with most existing chemotherapy administration procedures, lower cost than traditional means (e.g., hypnosis, relaxation), portability, and little needed supervision (Patel et al., 2006; Redd et al., 1987).

Medical Education Electronic games are not just used for health promotion and health education among patients. They can also be utilized as medical education and training tools for medical students and health professionals. Breast Cancer Detective Game is a Web-based learning tool about breast cancer screening for senior medical students. This game is primarily text based with a goal to get more points by answering problem-based questions. Surveyed student users reported some positive feelings, especially the accessibility of the game (Roubidoux, Chapman, & Piontek, 2002), but the efficacy of the game on knowledge learning remains unclear. The game can be accessed and played on the Internet.4 Two adapted versions of the game were targeted for Native American healthcare providers and Native women separately, but so far empirical testing of them has not yet been conducted (Roubidoux, 2005). The popular computer simulation game SimCity has been used to help nursing students critically consider community issues and practice community planning (Bareford, 2001). Game scenarios consist of hypothetical communities with various environmental problems (e.g., traffic, crime, nuclear meltdown, flooding, etc.). During

game-play, students need to identify the critical factors impacting the environmental health of the community, implement interventions to solve the problems, and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions based on game statistics. According to the researcher’s observation of participating nursing students, students all achieved their game goals. Through the practice of thinking, planning, and evaluation in a simulated community environment, students’ understandings of community planning and their application of Systems Theory were effectively and efficiently increased. Obviously, using electronic games to rehearse community planning and interventions is a low-cost and risk free approach for nursing students. A computer simulation game was also used to educate hospital staff about the casemix concepts in Australia. In the specifically designed game, a player takes the role of a manager in a large hospital, with a goal of keeping the hospital within budget while ensuring that the specialties offer a good quality of service by casemix. The player views the operation of the hospital and makes various decisions on a quarterly basis in a time-compressed manner. Once all changes have been made, the simulation process starts, in which either monthly progress statistics or a graphical animation of patients moving through the four specialties are displayed on the screen. After that, warning messages about service quality and a financial statement will be shown (Cromwell, Priddis, & Hindle, 1998). Again, easy rehearsal and active learning are two of the most important advantages of using electronic games in the training context. There is a new trend that medical experts and electronic game developers cooperate to develop sophisticated medical education games using most advanced gaming technologies. Pulse!!5 is a representative game created by Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi and the game development company BreakAway. This computer game employs cutting-edge computer-game technologies to



An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

provide users a high-fidelity and complex virtual clinical environment, as well as case-based, interactive, and customized game content relative to medical training. In the game, medical students and other trainees will play as a physician or nurse experiencing various rare and life-threatening scenarios. Through repetitive practice with performance feedback provided in the game, users can test their medical knowledge, practice skills, and correct errors without any risk to patients in real life. This game is now undergoing field testing in three leading medical institutions.

RESEARCH SYNTHESIS In the previous section, we summarized electronic games used and evaluated in the past 20 years for behavior intervention, disease self-management, health education (both for patients and healthcare providers), and other health-related purposes such as distracting attention to relieve pain and motivating users to exercise. We also introduced some newly designed and promising electronic games to show the new trends. These electronic games serve a wide spectrum of patients with different conditions. However, they all actually have the same major function—providing a simulated and interactive environment where players can engage in behavioral rehearsal. Be it disease management for patients, healthcare skills for professionals, or behavior modification for a particular population for risk prevention in an interactive trial-and-error way, the core element is simulation. The simulated environment serves as a safe test bed for them to practice self-management skills (e.g., take insulin, check blood pressure, check peak flow, etc.). Players can observe detrimental effects of their own mismanagement of a disease without engaging themselves in real danger. For instance, players can observe the severe consequence to their game characters if they fail to use an inhaler and learn a lesson. In reality, this will be an impossible way for the patients to learn the lesson of disease



mismanagement. In addition, game simulation provides the opportunity for individuals to observe the consequence of certain behaviors in an accelerated manner. For instance, for nutrition education, an electronic game can simulate the long-term effect of caloric intake and physical activity, together influencing weight in just hours of game playing (Peng, in press). Simulation is the fundamental advantage of using electronic games in health-related contexts. This also implies that taking the electronic game-based approach will be more beneficial for health interventions that demand trial-and-error and behavior rehearsal. Another unique feature of electronic games is their ability to engage and motivate users. For patients (e.g., asthma or diabetic patients), especially children and adolescents, using the format of electronic game can provide a vivid and appealing environment where they will be motivated to learn more about self-management and engage in repetitive behavior rehearsal without getting bored. For many disease self-management processes, the knowledge and skills needed are finite, yet repetitive practice and habit formation is critical. This is exactly what the game format can offer. A well-designed game can be played dozens and even hundreds of times without making the player feel bored. The fun aspect is thus another key component of the electronic game-based health education and health promotion approach, which draws the player in and keeps the player’s interest in using the game. The element of fun is also the primary feature that makes attention distraction and exertainment successful.

IMPLICATIONS For Healthcare Providers and Researchers Our review of the games used for health-related purposes indicates that electronic games can be effective tools for health education and interven-

An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

tion, disease self-management training, therapy, physical activity promotion, attention distraction to relieve pain, and medical education. In the health domain, electronic games are a better medium for education and intervention when active participation and behavior rehearsal are required. Additionally, electronic games prove to be a better channel to gain attention and to motivate people. Healthcare providers and researchers can take advantage of the unique characteristics of electronic games when the particular purpose of a health education or intervention program requires behavior rehearsal in a safe way. From the summary of the evaluation studies on the effectiveness of electronic games used for health-related purposes, we found that almost all the games demonstrate a strong effect in teaching related knowledge to the players except when the players already have rather sufficient knowledge. Some of the studies also included mediating variablessuch as attitude towards behavior, self-efficacy, behavior intention, skills, and so forthas indicators of the success of the games. Even though the ultimate goal of any health intervention should be the modification of behavior, most of the studies reviewed did not include behavior outcome as the dependent measure. Therefore, even if the evaluation studies demonstrated that the electronic games were favored by the users and did increase knowledge and influence mediating variables, it is still not a guarantee that those games could influence behaviors or indeed improve health status. Therefore, the interpretation of the effectiveness of electronic games used for health-related purposes deserves more cautionary examination. Before healthcare providers or researchers move to the development of an electronic gamebased health intervention, one important factor to be considered is cost effectiveness. Most of the electronic games reported in this chapter were supported by federal grants as a research effort to test new means of health intervention. As it is still quite costly to develop an electronic game

(even for a very simple game), some other channels might be more appropriate for certain health intervention needs. In addition, very few empirical studies have been conducted to compare whether the electronic game-based approach will be more effective than other less costly approaches, such as brochures. Without the empirical evidence, it is hard to conduct any cost-effectiveness analysis. At the same time, comparing the game-based approach with other approaches might be challenging as well, because it is extremely difficult to control confounding variables. For instance, it is not an easy task to make sure that the game approach is comparable to the other approach in terms of content and is only different in terms of delivery. Another challenge and responsibility for researchers is to sort out which particular element or feature of the game actually contributes to effectiveness so as to better inform game designers. Since many studies only conducted simple comparison of treatment and control groups, it is hard to say which of the game components contributes to the effect, such as the plot of the game, simulation, customization, or merely the fun element that attracts the player’s attention. By identifying the specific features of electronic games that contribute to success, researchers can help game designers more effectively and efficiently include those features to design effective games for health. For instance, one of the common conceptions is that realistic graphics are needed in electronic games to engage users. However, little empirical research has investigated this. As we all know, realistic graphics require a lot of resources. If researchers can show that simplistic graphics can also be as effective as photorealistic graphics in health promotion and education games, game designers can save a lot of time, money, and resources. Electronic games have great potential for health promotion and intervention. But we only have very limited popular “serious games for health” on the market, with the exception of some



An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

exercise games such as Dance Dance Revolution, Yourself! Fitness, EyeToy Kinetic, and Wii Sports, and those games used for distraction. In the future, healthcare providers and researchers need to reach out with game designers and get them involved in the production of games with health messages implicitly embedded. For instance, the game SIMS could incorporate certain features (e.g., smoking will not be a good indicator for sociability) to implicitly disseminate the health message. Only in this way can computer and video games become as effective as other mass media to reach massive audience.

For Serious Game Designers From the review of the electronic games designed for health purposes, we found that almost all games that have been empirically evaluated and proved successful share one characteristic: a theoretical underpinning for the design. Social cognitive theory is the mostly cited theory in the design of electronic games for health-related purposes. When designing games for health, serious game designers need to work closely with healthcare providers and researchers to incorporate the theoretical elements and implement game features based on theories so as to maximize the effectiveness of games. The designer’s instinct usually guides the designing process. Aesthetic appeal and playability are usually valued to a great extent by designers. However, designing serious games for healthrelated purposes goes beyond enjoyment and entertainment. Therefore, when making designing decisions, game designers need to take into consideration the content and subject matter, the users, and the environment where the game will be played. For instance, Ben’s Game6 was designed to help kids who have cancer to fight back, and relieve some of the pain and stress involved with treatment. To increase the player’s self-efficacy of fighting with cancer, unlike traditional games, the game character was designed never to die in



the game. From the entertainment perspective, a game that you will never lose probably is not that fun. However, considering the content and context of this game, this feature is particularly important. Of all the games reported in this book chapter, almost all of them were designed targeting children and adolescents. Since electronic games are highly appealing to children and adolescents (Raney, Smith, & Baker, 2006), it is natural to use the game format to approach them, especially when it is otherwise hard to draw attention of this population to topics like a healthy lifestyle. However, electronic games also have the potential to appeal to the older population. For instance, Nintendo actually has released the Brain Age game to stimulate the brain for adults. Wii Sports games are also great workouts for seniors. One cautionary remark for game designers is that the interface of the game should be appropriate for seniors with limited computer skills and eyesight if they plan to target the older population.

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children. Patient Education and Counseling, 39, 269-280.

asthma outcomes. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 17, 72-78.

Brown, S.J., Lieberman, D.A., Gemeny, B.A., Fan, Y.C., Wilson, D.M., & Pasta, D.J. (1997). Educational video game for juvenile diabetes: Results of a controlled trial. Medical Informatics, 22, 77-89.

ISSA (International Sports Sciences Association). (2007). Video games may offer health benefits, experts suggest. Retrieved September 16, 2007, from http://www.issaonline.com/press_room/ downloads/exertainment.pdf

Cole, S.W., Kato, P.M., Marin-Bowling, V.M., Dahl, G.V., & Pollock, B.H. (2006). Clinical trial of Re-Mission: A video game for young people with cancer. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9, 665-666.

Kikuchi, H., Sonoda, N., Morikawa, S., & Ishiguro, Y. (2006). Development of a computer game software as an aide for image therapy in cancer patients. Psycho-Oncology, 15, S288-S289.

Cromwell, D.A., Priddis, D., & Hindle, D. (1998). Using simulation to educate hospital staff about casemix. Health Care Management Science, 1, 87-93. Duff, A., Ball, R., Wolfe, S., Blyth, H., & Brownlee, K. (2006). Betterland: An interactive CD-ROM guide for children with cystic fibrosis. Paediatric Nursing, 18, 30-33. Franck, L.S., & Jones, M. (2003). Computer-taught coping techniques for venepuncture: Preliminary findings from usability testing with children, parents and staff. Journal of Child Health Care, 7, 41-54. Goodman, D., Bradley, N.L., Paras, B., Williamson, I.J., & Bizzochi, J. (2006). Video gaming promotes concussion knowledge acquisition in youth hockey players. Journal of Adolescence, 29, 351-360. Homer, C., Susskind, O., Alpert, H.R., Owusu, C., Schneider, L., Rappaport, L. A. et al. (2000). An evaluation of an innovative multimedia educational software program for asthma management: Report of a randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics, 106, 210-215. Huss, K., Winkelstein, M., Nanda, J., Naumann, P.L., Sloand, E.D., & Huss, R.W. (2003). Computer game for inner-city children does not improve

Lee, K.M., & Peng, W. (2006). What do we know about social and psychological effects of computer games? A comprehensive review of the current literature. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses and consequences (pp. 325-346). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Lieberman, D.A. (1997). Interactive video games for health promotion: Effects on knowledge, self-efficacy, social support, and health. In R.L. Street, W.R. Gold, & T. Manning (Eds.), Health promotion and interactive technology: Theoretical applications and future directions (pp. 103120). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Lieberman, D.A. (2001). Management of chronic pediatric diseases with interactive health games: Theory and research findings. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 24, 26-38. Lieberman, D.A. (2006). What can we learn from playing interactive games? In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses and consequences (pp. 379-398). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. McKenna, P.H., Herndon, C.D., Connery, S., & Ferrer, F.A. (1999). Pelvic floor muscle retraining for pediatric voiding dysfunction using interactive computer games. Journal of Urology, 162, 1056-1062.



An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

O’Connor, T.J., Cooper, R., Fitzgerald, S., Dvorznak, M., Boninger, M.L., VanSickle, D.P. et al. (2000). Evaluation of a manual wheelchair interface to computer games. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 14, 21-31. O’Connor, T.J., Fitzgerald, S.G., Cooper, R.A., Thorman, T.A., & Boninger, M.L. (2001). Does computer game play aid in motivation of exercise and increase metabolic activity during wheelchair ergometry? Medical Engineering & Physics, 23, 267-273. Paperny, D.M., & Starn, J.R. (1989). Adolescent pregnancy prevention by health education computer games: Computer-assisted instruction of knowledge and attitudes. Pediatrics, 83, 742752. Parrott, R.L. (1995). Motivation to attend to health messages: Presentation of content and linguistic considerations. In E.W. Maibach & R.L. Parrott (Eds.), Designing health messages: Approaches from communication theory and public health practice (pp. 2-23). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Patel, A., Schieble, T., Davidson, M., Tran, M.C.J., Schoenberg, C., Delphin, E. et al. (2006). Distraction with a hand-held video game reduces pediatric preoperative anxiety. Pediatric Anesthesia, 16, 1019-1027. Peng, W. (in press). Is a computer game an effective medium for health promotion? Design and evaluation of the RightWay Cafe game to promote a healthy diet for young adults. Health Communication. Plante, T.G., Aldridge, A., Bogden, R., & Hanelin, C. (2003). Might virtual reality promote the mood benefits of exercise? Computers in Human Behavior, 19, 495-509. Pope, A.T., & Bogart, E.H. (1996). Extended attention span training system: Video game neurotherapy for attention deficit disorder. Child Study Journal, 26, 39-50.

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Pope, A.T., & Paisson, O.S. (2001, October). Helping video games ‘rewire our minds’. Proceedings of the Playing by the Rules Conference, Chicago, IL. Pulley, J. (2007). Serious games. Government Health IT, (April 16). Retrieved September 22, 2007, from http://www.govhealthit.com/article98196-04-16-07-Print Raney, A.A., Smith, J.K., & Baker, K. (2006). Adolescents and the appeal of video games. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses and consequences (pp. 165180). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Redd, W.H., Jacobsen, P.B., Die-Trill, M., Dermatis, H., McEvoy, M., & Holland, J.C. (1987). Cognitive/attentional distraction in the control of conditioned nausea in pediatric cancer patients receiving chemotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 391-395. Roubidoux, M.A. (2005). Breast cancer detective: A computer game to teach breast cancer screening to Native American patients. Journal of Cancer Education, 20, 87-91. Roubidoux, M.A., Chapman, C.M., & Piontek, M.E. (2002). Development and evaluation of an interactive Web-based breast imaging game for medical students. Academic Radiology, 9, 1169-1178. Shames, R.S., Sharek, P., Mayer, M., Robinson, T.N., Hoyte, E.G., Gonzalez-Hensley, F. et al. (2004). Effectiveness of a multicomponent selfmanagement program in at-risk, school-aged children with asthma. Annals of Allergy Asthma & Immunology, 92, 611-618. Silverman, B.G., Holmes, J., Kimmel, S., Branas, C., Ivins, D., Weaver, R. et al. (2001). Modeling emotion and behavior in animated personas to facilitate human behavior change: The case of the HEART-SENSE game. Health Care Management Science, 4, 213-228.

An Overview of Using Electronic Games for Health Purposes

Thomas, R., Cahill, J., & Santilli, L. (1997). Using an interactive computer game to increase skill and self-efficacy regarding safer sex negotiation: Field test results. Health Education & Behavior, 24, 71-86. Yawn, B.P., Algatt-Bergstrom, P.J., Yawn, R.A., Wollan, P., Greco, M., Gleason, M. et al. (2000). An in-school CD-ROM asthma education program. Journal of School Health, 70, 153-159.

KEY TERMS Disease Self-Management: The skills of patients with a chronic disease to effectively look after themselves. Evaluation Study: Research study on the effectiveness of a service or program involving empirical data. Health Education: A process of delivering health-related information to help people learn to behave in a manner conducive to the promotion, maintenance, or restoration of health. Health Intervention: A planned program aimed to help people improve or maintain their health by adopting new behavior or changing old behavior. Health Promotion: A process that encourages a healthy lifestyle for optimal health.

Randomized Controlled Experiment: A research methodology in which subjects are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups in order to test causal relationships. Serious Game: Games with a purpose beyond entertainment, including but not limited to games for learning, games for health, and games for policy and social change. Self-Efficacy: One’s belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner or attaining certain goals. Simulation: A computer-assisted imitation of behavior in real-world situations.

ENDNOTES 1

2

3

4

5

6

The game Web site is at http://www.acasa. upenn.edu/heartsense/play.htm The game Web site is at http://www.re-mission.net The game Web site is at http://smartbraingames.com/ The game Web site is at http://www.med. umich.edu/lrc/breastcancerdetective The game Web site is at http://www. sp.tamucc.edu/pulse/ The game Web site is at http://www.makewish.org/site/pp.asp?c=bdJLITMAE&b=819 24

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Chapter XXIV

MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education Yong Zhao Michigan State University, USA Chun Lai Michigan State University, USA

AbstrAct This chapter provides an overview of the potential of massively multiplayer role-playing games (MMORPGs) for foreign language education and discusses how MMORPGs can be better designed to support foreign language education. It reviews current conceptualizations on ideal language learning environments, discusses the potential of MMORPGs for foreign language education, and elaborates on how to design MMORPGs to facilitate foreign language learning. The authors hope that this discussion will help foreign language educators realize and capitalize on the values of MMORPGs in foreign language education, and will guide the design of MMORPGs for foreign language learning.

INtrODUctION Massively multiplayer role-playing games (MMORPGs), with the features of both games and online communities, are noted for creating immersion experience and for fostering strong interactions and communities. Educators have started to examine the educative values of MMORPGs, and how they can be better used to

facilitate education. MMORPGs hold great potential for foreign language education. However, the designs of MMORPGs are crucial to whether the potential is realized. In this chapter, we are to discuss how MMORPGs can potentially create optimal foreign language learning environments and how to design MMORPGs that can facilitate foreign language learning.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

TOWARDS OPTIMAL FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS Decades of research in second/foreign language acquisition has yielded guidelines on what an ideal foreign language learning environment should be like. However, challenges abound in materializing these guidelines in current foreign language education contexts.

Ideal Foreign Language Learning Environments Conditions and Teaching Approach from Cognitive Perspective Four conditions have been identified to be crucial to successful language learning: rich input from varied sources and elaborative input via negotiation of meaning,1 ample opportunities for language use in authentic contexts for real purposes, immediate and quality negative feedback through focus on form,2 and individualized content that respects learner personal learning agenda and developmental readiness (Zhao & Lai, in press). Varied input not only reinforces learners’ understanding of the input, facilitating the automatization of the input, but also strengthens learners’ capability in using the language in context-appropriate manners. Elaborative input via negotiation of meaning engages learners in active participation and heightens their likelihood to notice certain linguistic forms. Use of language in communication facilitates acquisition in that “it connects input, internal learner capacities, particularly selective attention, and output in productive ways” (Long, 1996, p. 451). Negative feedback, either explicit or implicit, facilitates second language learning via drawing learners’ attention to the gaps or holes in their linguistic knowledge, presenting them with positive evidence, and triggering the restructuring of their grammar. Moreover, research findings

on individual difference variables such as language learning aptitude and short-term memory justify the importance of the individualization of instruction. In terms of teaching pedagogy, researchers have suggested that task-based language learning holds great potential to meet the crucial conditions summarized above, and thus could be the most effective way of learning a language (Doughty & Long, 2003; Ellis, 2003). Task-based language learning is acclaimed for situating language learning in real-life activities and for simulating natural language acquisition processes. According to Willis (2004), this teaching approach reflects several basic premises about second language learning: •

•

•

Language learning is a complex organic process rather than simplistic linear additions of discrete language items. Language is best learned through immersing learners in meaningful activities that bring them rich comprehensible input with focus on form either during or after the meaningbased activities. Language learning is indispensable of interaction and meaningful use of the language for real purposes.

Conditions from Sociocultural Perspective The sociocultural perspective to second language acquisition stresses that second language learning is an enculturation process via extended and assisted participation in socially constructed communicative practices, with more experienced members scaffolding the less experienced (Lantolf, 2000). Language is indexical in nature, indexing the social contexts in which it arises and is used. Thus, although on different grounds, the sociocultural perspective holds similar faith in social interaction as the cognitive and interactionist perspective to second language acquisition. To

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this perspective, social interaction is of paramount importance since “what learners ultimately learn in the target language and how they learn to do it are tied to the quality and quantity of opportunities they are given to develop competence in using the resources of the practices that are made available to them” (Hall, 1997, p. 303). In addition, this perspective adds two more factors to the list of conditions for optimal foreign language learning environments: the importance of various socially constituted communicative communities and the necessity of rich mediating means. This perspective maintains that communicative communities are “fundamental sources of learning, shaping both the form and content of communicative competence and the processes of individual development” (Hall, 1997, p. 304), and enable collaborative learning and scaffolded performance. Also, language learning is a mediated process both through physical and symbolic artifacts and resources, and through social mediation such as joint problem solving and discussion (Lantolf, 2000).

Conditions from the Consideration of Motivation Motivation is an important construct in second language learning since motivation is the affective filter of the language input and determines the distribution of selective attention and efforts from the learners. Without motivation, nothing much happens. But at the same time, motivation is dynamic and malleable (Dörnyei, 2001): Motivation could be generated through developing a cohesive learner group, fostering a supportive learning environment, and making learning materials relevant and meaningful to the learners, and could be maintained via providing stimulating learning materials and promoting cooperation among the learners.

Challenges for Foreign Language Education Foreign language education faces several challenges in meeting the conditions of optimal language learning environments identified above.

Table 1. Crucial conditions for foreign language learning Conditions for Language Learning Cognitive

• Rich and elaborative input

Perspective

• Ample opportunities for authentic language use • Immediate and quality negative feedback • Individualized content in alignment with personal learning agenda and developmental readiness Learners engage in a variety of meaningful, authentic tasks with a primary focus on meaning and with opportunities for focus on form during the tasks and/or afterwards.

Sociocultural

• Abundant opportunities to interact in various socially constituted communicative communities

Perspective

• Rich mediating means, both physical and symbolic artifacts and resources, and social mediation, in the environment Learners engage in rich interaction in a variety of socially constituted communicative communities and are given a rich repertoire of physical and social mediation.

Motivation

Generate and sustain learners’ motivation through group/community affiliation and through meaningful and challenging activities.

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MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

First of all, foreign language learning resources that are comprehensible and appropriate to language learners, especially those at the beginning or intermediate proficiency level, are quite limited. Although the Internet has greatly expanded the amount, the variety, and the accessibility of target language resources, many of those resources demand a far stretch of language learners’ proficiency level and are incomprehensible to, hence unusable for, the language learners. And the few that do end up usable are usually homogenous in type and mainly are instructional materials. The paucity of appropriate language learning resources is especially severe in the case of the less commonly taught languages, such as Chinese, Korean, Arabic, and so on. The opportunities for using the target language in authentic contexts for real-life purposes are also very limited. For many foreign language learners, the only situation where they use the target language is with the instructor or with peer learners in the classroom. Foreign language learners usually lack the stimulus, the sources, the opportunities, and the needs for using the target language for authentic purposes. A resultant challenge is the limited channel of feedback that is available to the learners. For the majority of foreign language learners, the instructor and the classmates are the only sources of feedback. For many foreign language learners, the only one socially constituted communicative community is the classroom. Most ‘social’ interaction is restricted to the discourse in language classrooms. Thus the mediating resources (physical, mental, and social) for their foreign language not only are limited but also are too simplistic. Moreover, foreign language education is slow to change. Although research has identified taskbased language learning as a promising approach to creating optimal language learning environments, it does not necessarily mean that foreign language education could adopt this approach quickly and easily. As Klapper and Bees (2003) observed, “In spite of the substantial changes that

have taken place in language teaching methods over the past 30 to 40 years, the ‘synthetic’ syllabus3 is, especially in many foreign language teaching contexts, still the most prevalent approach to course design” (p. 288). This slow change is not as much out of a lack of willingness, but more because of the lack of quality foreign language teachers. Most foreign language classrooms are crammed with dozens of students with only one instructor, which made it hard, if not impossible, to implement task-based language learning. Moreover, task-based language learning might after all not be plausible in “exclusively classroom-based foreign language learning” where exposure to naturalistic input is limited (Klapper & Bees, 2003). In addition to the challenges to foreign language classroom practices, foreign language learning materials also have difficulty stimulating and maintaining learners’ motivation for the target language. The learning materials are either oversimplified with intellectually ‘infantalizing’ contents or too linguistically daunting and overwhelming with ‘unmanipulated’ authentic materials. For some, even weeks into learning the target language, the learners are still at the stage of dull recitation and/or artificial role-play of isolated sentences and mini-dialogues, like “I like reading books. What do you like?…I like playing tennis.” And for others, the materials are simply too difficult to understand and thus turn language learning into dull, mechanic dictionary checking work. Although textbook-based CD-ROMs and multimedia products abound, they are very restricted in the sense that they promote solely solitary learning with no built-in mechanisms for social interaction and social activities, and they usually lack the gaming component. In summary, the challenges foreign language education is facing are two-fold: the lack of various socially constituted communicative communities in the immediate environment, and the lack of motivation and need on the learners’ part to use the target language for real purposes. To put it more

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concisely, it is the lack of immersive language learning and use experience that makes foreign language education hard to materialize the crucial conditions for successful and enjoyable foreign language learning.

WHAT MMORPGS HAVE TO OFFER TO FOREIGN LANGUAGE EDUCATION Massively multiplayer online role-playing games, through providing persistent social and tangible virtual worlds that enable the simulation of any real-world scenario and the immersive experience of living in a world in the target language, hold great potential to help foreign language education out of its current predicament.

Features and Educative Values of MMORPGs “Fun is about learning in a context where there is no pressure, and that is why games matter,” says Koster (2005, p. 98). And Lobel (2006, p. 3) notes: “The key difference between MMORPGs and other multiplayer computer games is that they facilitate human-to-human interaction through a simulated computer interface rather than simulating that interaction through artificial intelligence.” MMORPGs can host more than 2,000 concurrent users (Yee, 2006a), and thus have great potential to foster “complex social phenomena and interactions among users” (Yee, 2006, p. 320) and have undoubtedly become complex social spaces. As a matter of fact, players rated the potential to interact with thousands of others as being an essential motivation to join MMORPGs, and felt that the virtual relationships they formed are comparable to their real-life relationship. McKenna and Bargh (2000) identified several reasons why MMORPGs can facilitate positive social interactions online:

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•

•

•

Greater anonymity among the players, which makes the interactions more open and free Reduced importance of physical appearance, which enables the players to invest more attention to the discourse itself Being free of the constraints of physical space, which greatly expands both the range of possible interlocutors and possible time for interaction

Since people of different geographic locations and nationalities come together in these virtual worlds, MMORPGs proffer a locale for crossculture exchanges and interactions. MMORPGs are facilitative of social interaction, not only infrastructure-wise but also contentwise, and are very effective in community building. Most tasks in MMORPGs are constructed with such complexity that they literally encourage collaborative play (Yee, 2006b). In the MMORPG environments, players actively engage in peer mentoring and mutual learning. The instances where the players use the chat functions for ingame support and advice and the instances where the higher-level players help the lower-level players with quests, even if they were strangers, abound in MMORPGs. Pursel and Bailey (2004) incisively summarized the affordances of the MMORPG communities in education: These virtual worlds foster huge online communities that are user driven and contain large knowledge bases and interconnected networks of players. These types of networks in an educational setting would be invaluable. They would be created by students, for students. A place where students could share information, collaborate, and innovate in ways never seen before, with the instructor’s role shifting toward facilitation vs. teaching. (p. 6) MMORPGs combine computer-driven interactions and human-driven interactions, and

MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

thus enable educators to take full advantage of the capacities of computers and the capacities of humans. Computers excel in storing, sorting, and retrieving data, and in intriguing, flexible, and varied forms of information presentation. However, they are comparatively weak in engaging in heavily analytical, adaptive, on-the-spot activities and in satisfying the social nature of learning, which are exactly the strengths of humans (Zhao & Lai, in press). Thus MMORPGs, by enabling both human-computer interactions and human-human interactions, represent the most effective and efficient use of the resources for education. The open architecture of MMORPGs also enables continuous updating of the learning content and allows for unlimited expansion of the content through linking to external resources and learning tools. MMORPGs offer customizability on the part of the users via allowing the users to contribute to the environments, which also enhances the replayability of the contents. Furthermore, the object-oriented design of MMORPGs allows flexible uses of the content, and lends themselves to easy adaptation for educational use for geographically, culturally, and curricular-wise diverse learner groups. Last but not the least, MMORPG environments are extremely motivating for today’s students and fit their expectations for education, since students learn best in real-life activities with other people. More importantly, today’s students live in a digital world and expect technology to be an integrative and natural part of their learning environment. “The virtual Learning World would be the single container for all things related to the students’ education, as well as a place for entertainment and fun” (Pursel & Bailey, 2004). But at the same time, MMORPGs also allow for individualized learning since the learners can follow their own agenda to traverse the world, deciding on the forms of advancement they will pursue.

The Potential of MMORPGs for Foreign Language Education The educative value of MMORPGs discussed above is of great significance to foreign language education. With enhanced social and cultural interaction in context, the affordances of socially constituted webs of communicative practices in the simulated worlds, and the rich mediating resources and embodiment of actions and concepts, MMORPGs solve the major challenges to foreign language education—the lack of the resources, milieu, and incentives to learn and use the target language for real purposes. MMORPGs provide immersive language learning experience that is currently not available to the majority of foreign language learners and “enable students to discover concepts of human interaction in situations they would otherwise be unable to experience or simulate” (Lobel, 2006, p. 5). These immersive learning environments are full of rich embodiment of actions and concepts that are sometimes hard to materialize in foreign language classrooms due to the physical and time constraints. In these immersive language learning environments, learners are also given genuine needs and charged with a strong desire to use the target language for real purposes, learning the language in use and for use. Moreover, the challenge/adventure structure of MMORPGs also naturally provides an organic context for task-based language learning. MMORPG environments integrate the two most popular and effective means of using technology to support language learning: computerassisted language learning software and online language learning communities. On the one hand, they deliver high-quality language learning and instruction with abundant premium language input and feedback. On the other hand, learners of varying language proficiency levels and native speakers engage in social interactions and form

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various virtual social communities, which easily satisfy the social nature of language learning that is frequently lacking or insufficient in foreign language education. The increased opportunities for communicative interaction greatly expand the quantity and quality of language exposure and feedback, and provide ample opportunities to practice, develop, and test emerging communicative abilities in authentic environment. The legitimate use of human and technological expertise makes MMORPGs optimal language learning environments. Furthermore, the capacity of MMORPGs to foster collaboration among people of various language and cultural backgrounds transforms the concept of foreign language education. Foreign language education no longer relies solely on the instructor, but rather makes full use of the distributed resources among the ordinary native speakers of the language. MMORPGs not only capitalize on the valuable language and cultural learning resources distributed everywhere in the world, but also contextualizes their interactions within intriguing, highly collaborative activities to help sustain these cross-cultural, trans-lingual interactions. MMORPGs are also notable for their great motivation power for foreign language education. In addition to the enhanced motivation for education in general, MMORPGs provide two motivation factors peculiar to foreign language education. First, MMORPGs can capitalize on the motivating power of culture in foreign language education. MMORPGs provide a viable solution for integrating language and cultural learning in a natural and coherent way: quests in MMORPGs could be essentially culture based, and social interaction among the players with different culture backgrounds can enhance cross-cultural understanding. Second, MMORPGs also provide a non-threatening environment that encourages learners to build their confidence and get over the inhibition about using the new language in front of peers. Reducing language learning anxiety is

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important because high anxiety raises the affective filter for language learning and creates high thresholds for language use. Through eliminating language anxiety and promoting active language use, MMORPGs enhance learners’ motivation for learning and using the foreign language. In addition, MMORPGs are virtually a combination of the features of both MUDs and video games. Decades of research on the affordances of computer-mediated communication (MUDs in particular) in foreign language learning and on the effectiveness of video games for foreign language education also lend support to the potential of MMORPGs for foreign language education.

Infrastructure of MMORPGs for Foreign Language Education MMORPGs not only have potential for foreign language education, but are also plausible. Demographic research on MMORPGs has shown that MMORPGs have “cross-generational appeal” and “the overall demographic composition of MMORPG users is quite diverse and does not consist primarily of adolescents” (Yee, 2006a, p. 316). The patrons of MMORPGs also include college students, early adult professionals, middleaged homemakers, as well as retirees. Thus, MMORPGs can serve a wide range of foreign language learning populations. Moreover, the strong appeal of MMORPGs attracts intense time investment from the players. Yee (2006a) found that his survey respondents spent an average of 22.71 hours each week in their chosen MMORPGs, and 60.9% of them had spent at least 10 hours continuously in an MMORPG. This strong appeal is especially beneficial to foreign language education, since foreign language learning demands extended time immersing in the target language environments. The information infrastructure for MMORPGs is also sanguine. The number of worldwide broadband subscribers had increased 33% to 181 million by the end of June 2006, varying from

MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

the highest of 60 million broadband subscribers to the lowest of 80,000 subscribers. The average broadband penetration rate is 15.5%. Take the United States as an example: by the end of December 2006, the broadband penetration rate for U.S. homes had jumped to 78%. Thus MMORPGs not only hold great potential for foreign language education, but the infrastructure is also ready for its adoption.

DESIGNING MMORPGS FOR FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING In the above sections, we made the general argument for the value of MMORPGs in foreign language education. However, it needs to be born in mind that although MMORPGs hold great promises, not all MMORPGs have realized this potential. MMORPGs vary greatly in the quantity and quality of social interactions they elicit and foster, and the affordance of mediating resources for foreign language and cultural learning also differ greatly. Depending on the nature of the quests and the structure of the games, some MMORPGs may hold greater affordances for foreign language learning than others. For instance, socializationoriented MMORPGs (e.g., Second Life, There) may be much more facilitative of foreign language learning than action-heavy MMORPGs (e.g., Lineage, EverQuest). In this section, we will elaborate on our conceptualization on how to create MMORPGs that are facilitative of foreign language learning in reference to a MMORPG for Chinese learning, Zon.4 Our discussion will focus on the content aspect, rather than the technical aspect, of the game design. In all, we believe that the construction of game narrative and game-play, the sociability of the game, language and culture learning opportunities, and instructional context considerations are all key factors that differentiate MMORPGs that are foreign language learning friendly from those that are not.

Game-Play and Narrative The holy grail of game design is to make a game where the challenges are never ending, the skills required are varied, and the difficulty curve is perfect and adjusts itself to exactly our skill level. Someone did this already, though, and it is not always fun. It is called ‘life’ (Koster, 2005, p. 128). Game-play and game narrative involve issues related to game goals, the learning/difficulty curve and the advancement of the game, the storytelling, and so on. To make a MMORPG facilitative of foreign language learning, several factors about game narrative and play design need to be taken into consideration.

Reality and Immersion Immersion has always being considered a crucial concept for MMORPG design, and it is the immersion experience that gives players feelings of “being in the zone.” MMORPG designers tend to regard reality as the enemy of immersion and advocate demoting reality to promote immersion experience (Bartle, 2004). A somewhat milder version of this tension is reflected in Koster’s (2005) comment: “If games are essentially models of reality, then the things that games teach us must reflect on reality” (p. 52). Thus the majority of MMORPGs adopt the genres of fantasies and science fiction, and very few of them are set in real life and the real world, with the few exceptions of Sims Online, There, and Second Life. However, authenticity is one of the buzzwords in foreign language learning: language is learned through using the language for authentic purposes in real-life contexts. For a MMORPG to facilitate foreign language learning, it should be full of quests where players use the target language in a large variety of social contexts to fulfill various real-life purposes so that the players could pick up the communicative language to function well in daily matters in the language. Thus from a pure

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language learning consideration, MMORPGs need to simulate the variety of social interactions and communication contexts that people would normally encounter in their real life, either through a fantasy world or through a simulation of the real world. However, culture learning is inseparable from language learning, and foreign-languagelearning-friendly MMORPGs should facilitate not only language learning but also culture learning. Thus the MMORPG worlds should not only encompass the multitudes of authentic interaction contexts and needs, but also embody the codes of conduct of the target culture, and even the cultural artifacts to help the players reach full understanding and appreciation of the target culture. Therefore, a MMORPG that facilitates foreign language learning needs to immerse its players through simulating the reality and the real life. After all, is not life itself the biggest puzzle to solve and a game in nature? Zon is set in modern China. The overall goal of playing this MMORPG is to fare well and advance socially and economically in this virtual world, just as people do in real life. Players traverse the game through advancing from “tourists” to “residents” and finally to “citizens.” Players enter this virtual modern China as “tourists” and perform a series of life quests (such as looking for a hotel, joining tourist groups and going on expeditions, going to see a doctor, etc.) to function in this virtual world as tourists. In the process of solving those challenges, the learners gain understanding of Chinese culture and acquire basic communicative Chinese. Then players use the newly acquired knowledge to solve new tasks and challenges. After they tackle enough quests and accumulate enough points, the players advance into the resident identity, having more resources at their disposal and facing more complex challenges (such as renting apartments, purchasing cars, and interviewing for jobs to work in certain professions, etc.). After the learners acquire citizenship, they face even more complicated tasks that require

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a deeper understanding of Chinese culture (e.g., running businesses, buying houses, etc.). At different identity stages, the players have access to different learning materials, are exposed to different quests embedded, and are able to participate in and organize different social activities. The scope and sequencing of the language content refer to the standards for teaching and learning Chinese as a foreign language, and both communicative and profession-specific Chinese are an integrative part of this learning environment.

Player Control Player control is crucial factor in promoting immersion experience (Bartle, 2004), and two factors are pertinent to player control: the role-playing system and the structure of the game narrative. Virtually players come to the MMORPGs for role-play, and there are two paradigms of role playing in online games: classless and classbound (Bartle, 2004). Classbound role-playing is where the players select a class, pursue with a definite goal in mind, and advance towards the destination of that particular class. However, in classless role-playing, players are free to go wherever they want and do whatever they want: “In a classless system, you can still start off as a fighter; you can still stay a fighter, if that’s where your calling lies. However, you can also veer off and become something else if the muse takes you” (Bartle, 2004, p. 195). Bartle advocated classless roleplaying since it offers change and flexibility of exploring more identities, and hence players can benefit more from the gaming experience. A related issue is the openness of the narratives. MMORPG designers are pushing towards a more open-ended, player-defined game narrative. Garriott and Walton (2003) pointed out that “few players want a linear story.…What they want you to do is give them an environment within which to act: set the stage, provide the props, speak the first paragraph, and then sit back and watch while they provide the middle and end of the tale” (p. 146).

MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

These arguments hold especially true for MMORPGs that are language learning friendly, since foreign language learners need to be exposed to a wide variety of social communities and social roles, and should not be restricted to a fixed bound of possible social encounters. Furthermore foreign language learners usually have varied motivations and expectations for learning the language, and their wide range of learning needs determine that the players may want different experience out of the MMORPGs: some may need various profession-oriented experiences, some may just want to acquire some basic communicative language, and others may simply want a touch of the culture. Classbound-oriented and linear, closed narrativebased MMORPGs may cause mismatch between the learners’ needs and the repertoire of possible experiences they are exposed to. An open game narrative invites the players to weave their own stories and create their own content. However, at the same time MMORPG literature also remind us of setting a boundary on player-created content (Godager, 2003; Garriott & Walton, 2003). They recommended against player-made missions and quests, but rather suggested four aspects of playercreated content: “change the physical landscape…. change the political landscape….change the economic landscape….change the social landscape” (Garriott & Walton, 2003, p. 153). Zon adopts an open structure in its role-playing system and game narrative. It sets a general trajectory—advancing from tourists to residents and eventually to citizens—and provides the stage and props for players to engage in various quests. Other than that, the players are free to explore and take on whatever quests, either to provide services (such as running errands, providing language or culture tutoring services, etc.) to other players for money and experience or service points, or to go on expeditions to accumulate language and culture information to trade with other players. They are free to take on a variety of jobs upon passing the qualification evaluations to earn money and experience points. Players also have the freedom

to organize and participate in social activities and communities for experience or popularity points. In all, Zon leaves a lot of space for the players to weave their own stories in the virtual world and to have absolute control over their gaming experience. The players also have some freedom to create contents in Zon: they can own apartments and houses, and decorate them to their liking; they can create communities and clubs; they can elect mayors and leaders, and perform diplomatic functions and activities; they can own and run stores, schools, and clinics; they can add language and culture learning materials; and so on. However, the players are not free to create quests on their own, and their modification of the world will be monitored by the management team, together with the community-elected, management teamapproved moderators.

Player Type According to Bartle (2004), players come to MMORPGs for games, but once in there, they do not necessarily want to play them as games. Players in MMORPGs show four basic types of playing based on Bartle’s Player Interest Graph: 1. 2. 3.

4.

Achievers: Those who play for improvement, advancement, and winning the games Socializers: Those who play for entertainment and enjoy interacting with others Explorers: Those who draw satisfaction through discovery and furthering understanding Killers: Those who view games as sports and enjoy acting on other players

MMORPG designers can attune their worlds to certain player types through game-play and narrative construction, and through interface features. However, an overall suggestion is to construct the virtual world neither too exclusive nor too accommodating to every player type (Bartle, 2004). A MMORPG facilitative of for-



MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

eign language learning would want to attune its gaming structure more towards socializers since social interaction is at the essence of language learning. To achieve this, the game-play and game narrative need to be open and loosely structured in general, and there needs to be mechanisms to stimulate and support social activities, communities, and interactions. Zon is built following such reasoning. In Zon, players are living a life in a virtual Chinese world, and hence the MMORPG is social in nature.

A Newbie-Friendly Learning Curve MMORPG designers have stressed the importance of a steady flow of newbies (Garriott & Walton, 2003; Godager, 2003), as Bartle (2004) succinctly pointed out, “All virtual worlds need a flow of newbies if they are survive” (p. 141). Bartle pointed out that EverQuest 2’s “funnellike system” is a newbie-friendly system because it gives the time for the newbies to mature and gradually specialize more and more as they go up levels. However, MMORPGs that are designed for foreign language learning not only need to lessen the cognitive load on the newbies but need to consider the language load on the newbies as well. Thus the initial levels of such MMORPGs need to be relatively more structured, contain rich mediation tools, and give the players less demand on language production. The structure of Zon itself is friendly to the newbies. The newbies enter the game as tourists and are exposed to quests of less cognitive load and lower demands on language and culture knowledge. In the first several levels of Zon, there are abundant options of solo-work so that the newbies could be spared of the uncomfortable feeling from embarrassing themselves in front of other players. Also, layers of mediating tools are built in to scaffold the newbies in performing various quests. For any social context, the players have the option to first observe conversations occurred in similar social context and then practice



conducting the conversation with in-built agents through selecting from automatically generated answers, before venturing to try out similar interactions with other players.

Game Sociability “An online game is really just a mechanism to allow players to socialize in a context…They come for the game and stay for the socialization” (Garriott & Walton, 2003, p. 139). Sociability is what differentiates MMORPGs from standalone games. Unfortunately, the majority of current MMORPGs focus too much on progress and leveling, and fail to support the players’ needs to “wind down” and socialize with each other. Most of the interactions that are elicited in these games are “instrumental interaction” at the most. And the few of them that do emphasize socializing, such as There and Second Life, are unfortunately lacking a game component (Ducheneaut, Moore, & Nickell, 2007). Thus, there is an urgent need to strike a balance between socializing and gaming, and “it is important to create MMORPGs with new gaming mechanisms that revolve game around socializing itself” and through rewarding both instrumental play and social play (Ducheneaut et al., 2007, p. 163). To enhance the sociability of a MMORPG, the game should create interdependencies of the characters and communities, both professional and economic, the locales for interaction, the venues and situations conducive to communal activities, and robust tools and channels for interaction (Bartle, 2004). Game sociability is particularly important to MMORPGs for foreign language learning since language learning is about, in, and around socialization, and thus a MMORPG conducive to foreign language learning needs to revolve around socializing. However, game sociability in MMORPGs for foreign language learning also differs from other MMORPGs in that the players’ socialization capabilities are also restricted by their limited language proficiency.

MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

Thus sociability in MMORPGs for foreign language learning requires a gradual progression from more structured quests with relatively less push towards socialization to loosely structured quests that evolve out of socialization. Zon revolves around interacting with the world and socializing with other players, and players depend on each other to survive and prosper in this world since players take on different professions, and players at different identity stages have different physical and social resources as well as knowledge at their disposal. Socialization is a hidden code of conduct in the world since the players must socialize with each other to be able to survive and advance in this world. Furthermore, the players’ advancement in this game relies largely on socializing. In this system, players advance through accumulating all sorts of points, including: •

Experience points: Points gained through taking on different experiences and quests,

•

• •

Knowledge/skill points: Points gained through accumulating knowledge and skills about Chinese language and culture, Service points: Points gained through providing social services to others, and Popularity points: Points gained through demonstrating expertise in certain fields or via excelling in competitions.

Players can exchange and/or trade their services for points. Three out of the four venues of advancement points rely on socialization to a larger or a smaller extent. The world is also full of architectures—banks, hotels, tea houses, businesses, hospitals, etc.—which support and nurture socialization. At the same time, Zon has a clear progression in the support and push towards socialization with relatively larger amounts of pre-designed, structured quests at the tourist identity stage, and with much loosely structured and few pre-designed quests at the citizen identity stage. The world is full of a repertoire of chat tools that support all types of interaction—public or private, communal or individual—at all the identity stages.

Figure 1. Zon: Interactive cultural input



MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

Language and Culture Learning Opportunities How to enrich and expand the language and culture learning opportunities is the essential issue when designing MMORPGs in support of foreign language learning. The key is to make full use of interactive objects to enrich the language and culture input, and to enhance interaction opportunities; and to create an open platform through inviting user-generated content and external resources. In the section below, we will use Zon as an example to discuss how these various opportunities can be created.

Sources of Language and Cultural Input Interactive objects. Interactive objects are one major source of language and cultural input. Clicking on any interactive objects brings along the Chinese words, relevant cultural information, common expressions, and examples of related words used in a variety of contexts.

Figure 2. Zon: Conversational input



Conversational interaction input. Observation of modeled conversations and the text and audio transcripts of the conversations among learners and between learners and native speakers or qualified learners serve as another major source for language and cultural input. Further, learners can also attend classes given by native speakers and their fellow learners in the environment. Text and audio/visual language and culture input. Theaters, TV shows, radio broadcasts, and electronic magazines provide multimedia language and culture input of a variety of genres. The virtual bookstores also make available other multimedia Chinese learning products or online Chinese learning materials. External and player-generated input. Zon embeds external online resources, chatting engines, and so on to incorporate existent language and culture learning resources. As these external resources grow and expand, Zon gets richer and richer as well. It also invites the players to contribute to, co-construct, and hence expand

MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

Figure 3. Zon: Eectronic newspaper

the environment. For instance, the transcripts of learners’ conversations with native speakers are saved and serve as learning resources for others—the public facilities (e.g., classrooms, shops, etc.) learners build and the resources there all become future learning resources. The open platform of the game allows the learning envi-

ronment to constantly expand, both externally and internally.

Opportunities for Language and Culture Use In the virtual world, the players must constantly use Chinese for ‘real-life’ purposes: renting or

Table 2. Examples of inputs for different language skills Reading input

• Interactive objects • Artifacts in the virtual world (street signs, bulletin boards, etc.) • Newspapers, magazines, and other reading materials in the library and bookstores • Transcripts that accompany audio and visual materials and conversations • Transcripts of online chatting with others

Listening input

• Interactive objects • Conversations between others • Conversation with native speakers and other learners • Movies, radio broadcasts, TV shows • Classes given by native speakers and fellow learners

Cultural input

• Cultural knowledge embedded in all the materials and tasks • Cultural annotations



MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

purchasing apartments or condos; purchasing living goods; applying for jobs; or running businesses, trading services with each other, and so forth. Every move the players make in this environment is indispensable of the use of the language, written or spoken, and the use of acceptable social conducts and practices that are culturally appropriate in different social communities and contexts.

Tools for Language and Culture Learning

interactional context. Such tools include modeled conversations in similar interaction contexts with detailed explanations, as well as contrastive analyses of the modeled interaction with the transcripts and recordings of the players’ interaction, additional mechanical and meaningful exercises, and so forth. For instance, in a supermarket, clicking on a certain item brings up a brief introduction of the item, and clicking to inquire about the price for a certain item turns on a short conversation between customers and shop assistants with the pricing information in it.

Learning Tools. Learning tools are a suite of functions that enable the learners to manipulate the content for learning. There are two categories of tools: input manipulation tools and input elaboration tools. Input manipulation tools make the content comprehensible and learnable. Such tools include speech rate control, multimedia annotation, sound-text conversion, grammar analysis, vocabulary analysis and management, and so forth. Input elaboration tools expand the language and culture knowledge involved in each

Interaction tools. Interaction tools are functions that create opportunities for the players to interact with the world, enable the formation of learning partners and facilitate learner interactions, and assist collaborations among the players. The players can interact with the agents in the world. There are group management tools where the players can search the player database for partners with similar interests and language and culture learning needs to make friends with each other, motivate each other, and help each other along

Figure 4. Zon: Multimedia annotation



MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

Figure 5. Zon: Interaction tools with the environment

Individualized learning tools. Each player is given a PDA, called Inventory, to collect the language and cultural artifacts and encounters they have picked up along the way, and the Inventory serve as individualized language and cultural learning resources for learners.

the way through messaging, chatting, and blogs. There are transaction tools that allow the players to engage in “economic activities.” Interaction tools also include collaboration tools that allow the users to work together and share ideas and resources. They can collaborate through text and audio conferencing tools and via wikis and/or Google Writely.

Instructional Context

Community tools. Community tools are functions that enable the players to participate in and contribute to a variety of player communities. The players, depending on their level of accomplishment in the game, have access to different types of community tools. Community tools include media tools, which allow the players to publish newspapers, operate TV and radio broadcasts, and publish books to the whole community; instructional tools, which allow the users to offer instructional/tutoring services to less proficient players; and leadership tools, which allow the players to form special interest groups for specific purposes.

When designing MMORPGs for foreign language learning, instructional context needs to be taken into consideration as well. If we want the MMORPGs to be compatible with classroom instruction, we need to design supplementary materials, including instructor manuals, additional learning activities, and lesson plans to go with the game. The design and development of the learning content should be aligned with the ACTFL standards and other commonly adopted curriculum. Tools should be provided to facilitate learner management and cross-class collaboration. An additional institutional server needs to be in place to give the schools more control over the



MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

game traffic and better student learning management capabilities.

DIscUssION Although a MMORPG, by nature, constitutes an immersive learning environment for language learning, the environment could be extremely rich or regrettably poor depending on the way it is designed and/or used. Thus it is important to design and use the system in a way that maximizes the potential of MMORPGs for foreign language education.

For the Designers A MMORPG facilitative of foreign language learning can be either built from scratch as Zon or built in existent social-oriented virtual worlds such as There and Second Life. Doing the latter way has some advantages in that the designers can use the existing infrastructure and interface (such as the chatting engines, the interface design, etc.) in these virtual worlds, and it has a large potential user community to start with. However, the downside is that the designers are greatly restricted: they are constrained on the potential software they can use to develop the world (e.g., Second Life inhibits the import of 3D objects developed using different software); since everything is hosted on the server of the developers of these virtual worlds (the Linden Lab server for instance), it is hard for the designers to build and/or customize a learning management system and manage the user database to achieve some interaction and community functions; the scalability and the speed of the game is subjected to the traffic in the Linden Lab server; the designers have little control over the management of the game in terms of server accessibility (e.g., in current virtual worlds, minors and adults cannot co-exist), regulations against



griefers, and so on; and the graphic-heavy nature of Second Life, with its high demands on connection speed and computer configurations, makes it hard to appeal to broader users. Building the world from scratch provides better solutions to most of these problems, but incurs greater financial and personnel costs as well. Creating MMORPGs is about striking balances: the balance between “deprivation and overload, of excessive order and excessive chaos, of silence and noise” (Koster, 2005, p. 42); the balance between instrumental play and social play (Ducheneaut et al., 2007); and the balance between solo activities and social activities. And most of all, it is to strike a balance between gaming and learning (Koster, 2005). This balance is especially pertinent to foreign language learning, since different from the usual learning entities current games involve—patterns, basic survival skills, moral ethics, and so forth—the enterprise of foreign language learning demands both implicit and explicit learning. Thus MMORPGs for foreign language learning are facing the challenge of striking a delicate balance between gaming and explicit learning. In addition, MMORPGs for foreign language learning have one more layer of balance to strike—that is, the balance between the cognitive demands and the language proficiency demands on the players. MMORPGs need also to consider attracting and accommodating the needs of native speakers as well as learners of different proficiency levels to keep the learning environment alive. This could be achieved through designing content-based or cross-culture-based quests, or designing engaging game-play to attract native speakers of the target language. Furthermore, the system should allow appropriate entry points for learners of different proficiency levels. The world should also be a truly open platform both externally and internally to keep the language and culture learning opportunities alive.

MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

For the Educators The educators attempting to use MMORPGs for foreign language education need foremost to have the abilities to critically evaluate the affordances of a particular MMORPG for foreign language education in reference to the essential factors in foreign language education. Furthermore, the educators should be aware of the technological requirements of MMORPG-based foreign language learning environments and need to realize that such environments involve quite an amount of investment in helping learners to get familiar with the environments first, before being able to reap the benefits from it. Moreover, when using such environments in class, the educators also need to shift their role into facilitators and co-questers in a MMORPG environment to provide timely support to the learners. When using such environments as a supplementary part of the classes, the educators need to make sure to build strong connections between class instructions and the learners’ learning experience in MMORPGs.

CONCLUSION IBM CEO Sam Palmisano acknowledges massively multiplayer online role-playing games are “the next phase of the Internet’s evolution” and believes that they may have “the same level of impact” as the first Web explosion. Since the debut of the first MMORPG in 1997, MMORPGs have been expanding at exponential rates, and the total number of subscribers to MMORPGs exceeded 12.5 million by June 2006, according to www. mmogchart.com. Major companies have attracted huge corporations like IBM, Nike, Toyota, Sony BMG, and Sun, to name a few, to operate business and transactions inside these 3D virtual worlds. Take Second Life as an example: about $600,000 is spent daily throughout Second Life for an annual GDP of about $220 million. MMORPGs are getting into people’s lives and might as well

become part and parcel of today’s education. The educative values of MMORPGs are too appealing to let it pass. Foreign language education would fare better taking the advantages of what these thriving 3D online environments are offering. It is time to make education fun, and it is the right time to make foreign language education a fun and productive experience.

REFERENCES Bartle, R.A. (2004). Designing virtual worlds. Indianapolis: New Riders. Doughty, C., & Long, M.H. (2003). Optimal psycholinguistic environments for distance foreign language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 7(3), 50-80. Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow: Longman. Ducheneaut, N., Moore, R.J., & Nickell, E. (2007). Virtual ‘third places’: A case study of sociability in massively multiplayer games. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 16(1-2), 129-166. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Garriott, R., & Walton, G. (2003). Getting into the design. In J. Mulligan & B. Patrovsky (Eds.), Developing online games: An insider’s guide (pp. 125-152). Indianapolis: New Riders. Godager, G. (2003). Anarchy online post-mortem. In J. Mulligan & B. Patrovsky (Eds.), Developing online games: An insider’s guide (pp. 291-314). Indianapolis: New Riders. Hall, J.K. (1997). A consideration of SLA as a theory of practice: A response to Firth and Wagner. Modern Language Journal, 81(3), 301-305. Klapper, J., & Bees, J. (2003). Reviewing the case for explicit grammar instruction in the university



MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

foreign language learning context. Language Teaching Research, 7(3), 285-314. Koster, R. (2005). A theory of fun for game design. Scottsdale, AZ: Paraglyph Press. Lantolf, J.P. (2000). Introducing sociocultural theory. In J.P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language learning (pp. 1-26). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lobel, J. (2006). Multiplayer computer gaming simulations facilitating cooperative learning. Retrieved July 10, 2007, from https://www.cs.tcd. ie/~lobelj/portfolio/literature_review/literature_review_ jonathan_lobel.pdf Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. Richie & T. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 179-192). San Diego: Academic Press. McKenna, K., & Bargh, J. (2000). Plan 9 from cyberspace: The implications of the Internet for personality and social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 57-75. Pursel, B.K., & Bailey, K.D. (2004). Establishing virtual learning worlds: The impact of virtual worlds and online gaming on education and training. Retrieved July 10, 2007, from http://www. personal.psu.edu/staff/b/k/bkp10/vlw_working. pdf Willis, J.R. (2004). Perspectives on task-based instruction: Understanding our practices, acknowledging different practitioners. In B.L. Leaver & J.R. Willis (Eds.), Task-based instruction in foreign language education: Practices and programs (pp. 3-46). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Yee, N. (2006a). The demographics, motivations and derived experiences of users of massivelymultiuser online graphical environments. PRESENCE: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 15, 309-329.

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Yee, N. (2006b). The psychology of MMORPGs: Emotional investment, motivations, relationship formation and problematic usage. In R. Schroeder & A. Axelsson (Eds.), Avatars at work and play: Collaboration and interaction in shared virtual environments (pp. 187-207). London: SpringerVerlag. Zhao, Y., & Lai, C. (in press). Technology and second language learning: Promises and problems. In L.L. Parker (Ed.), Technology-mediated learning environments for young English learners: Connections in and out of school. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

KEY TERMS Immersion: The feeling of “being in the zone” or “the flow experience.” Refers to a status where the players are totally immersed in the game so that they forget about the real world around them. Institutional Server: The server that is dedicated to the use of educational institution. This server is different from a public server in that it has a strict user registration and management system, and is not open to players other than the approved users from the institution. Instrumental Interaction: An interaction that happens solely for the reason of gaining points and advance in the game. Interactive Object: One of the clickable objects or artifacts in the virtual world. They usually yield information or command upon clicking. Learning Management System: The system that manages user learning interventions with a comprehensive suite of functions including user records and reporting, collaborative learning modules, online assessment, provision of online learning, and so forth.

MMORPGs and Foreign Language Education

Open Narrative: Game narrative that invites the players to contribute to the game-play. The players are given the freedom to change the economic, social, physical, and political landscapes of the game. Standalone Game: A game played without connecting to the Internet. Virtual World: A computer-simulated world where people inhabit as avatars. It could be two dimensional or three dimensional, and people can interact with each other via text or real-time voice communication via VOIP.

ENDNOTES 1

2

Negotiation of meaning refers to the negotiation work that triggers interactional adjustments by the NS or more competent interlocutor. Devices of ‘negotiation of meaning’ include confirmation checks, clarification requests, and so on. Focus on form refers to briefly shifting the learners’ attention to linguistic code features to induce learners’ “noticing” of these linguistic features in context when they experience problems while working on communicative tasks in a primarily meaning-focused curriculum (Doughty & Long, 2003).

3

4

‘Synthetic’ syllabus is the traditional way of teaching a language, in which language is broken down into discrete language items in lexis, structures, notions, or functions, and those discrete items are sequenced for learners to learn in a uniform and incremental way (Klapper & Bees, 2003). Zon is a MMORPG developed for learning Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) at the College of Education at Michigan State University, USA. It was created to better meet the rapidly increasing worldwide demands for Chinese language and culture. It aims at providing a language and culture-rich, game-based immersive Chinese learning environment to give the CFL learners the experience of learning the language and culture through living in and with it. The goal of the MMORPG is to raise learners’ interest in and enhance their understanding of Chinese language and culture, and to help learners grasp basic communicative Chinese and be able to use simple functional Chinese to communicative with others and function well in daily life. Zon was expected to run its limited, closed Beta test in October 2007 and start its free, open Beta test in January 2008.





Chapter XXV

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language Kim Feldmesser University of Brighton, UK

Tell Me and I Will Forget Show Me and I May Remember Involve Me and I Will Understand - Confucius 430BC

AbstrAct It is a buyer’s market for employers in today’s global village, where having another language under your belt could make the difference at an interview between employment or the dole queue (unemployment line). Learning additional languages rapidly has been the goal of immersion schools, and their approaches are effective in many respects because they make use of situated learning experiences in communities of practice. Such experiences present their own challenges however, as living in the country of the chosen language for a considerable period of time may not be possible. Migrant workers too may be shunned by native speakers, particularly if they have little or no knowledge of the native language, reducing learning opportunities to engage in discourse. Video games may be one way to address these challenges. In order to do this, however, more must be understood about the ways in which games support these theories, the way individuals learning a second language interact with them, and what researchers and developers of serious games must know to support this use of games. This chapter will outline the relevant theories for second language learning, describe how they operate in games, and present guidelines for research and development of serious games and second language acquisition.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

INtrODUctION

The Research

This is a longitudinal qualitative study of how a ‘virtual world’ of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) video games was providing a safe space for an intermediate-level second language learner. The study investigates her ability to develop deep learning of English by engaging in extensive video game-play in the target language. Drawing on Vygotskian principles of research, which focus on the process and not the outcome of development, this small-scale research project explored, through interview, the process of learning to play Deus ExTM. I chose the title of this project having read Tobin’s (1999) experiences with his son entitled An American Otaku. As the computer miniaturizes into ‘must-have’ fashion accessories such as mobile phones and handheld gaming devices, a new generation is buying into the cyber age. Tobin (1999) used it to describe his son’s fanaticism with the role-playing game Warhammer™ and his immersion into cyberculture at the beginning of the millennium. As a father of a teenager, he asks himself pertinent questions about the possible ramifications of using this new technologysuch questions as whether a life on the Net can be satisfying, and whether his son’s self-confidence and the interpersonal skills he is developing through e-mail communications can translate into real life? Will he have ‘real’ (face-to-face) friends? Do otaku grow up to be happy, normal adults? The fixation on new technology that stigmatized otaku a decade ago is now in common use among teenagers growing up in technologically advanced societies that are rapidly being changed by the technology of the integrated circuit and the Internet. The title reflects how the subject, Zoe, a mainland-Chinese English Language student, was drawn in to extensive video game-play by effective game design despite the barrier of the second language. Like an otaku, she would spend many hours alone playing the video game Deus Ex on her laptop in the host family bedroom.

For the sake of brevity, the background to how the research was initially set up has not been included; the details of how the subject Zoe was found, the year-long platonic relationship of the author with the subject as a support tutor in her curriculum studies, and how, through many conversations about learning styles, she agreed to participate in this study have also been left out. Similarly, the ethical considerations that were taken into account prior to, during, and after the study have been edited, only including those areas which may impact on future research.

The Subject ‘Zoe’ is from China and in her early twenties. She has been studying in England for nearly three years. She remained with the same host family for this time. She came to the UK having completed her Chinese (full board) high school studies with the intention of improving her English sufficiently, so as to enter a UK university. She was preparing applications to universities during the time of this study. She proudly announced her Communist roots to methat her father was a prominent member of the Party in her city and that she would need to undergo a re-education program on her return to China (in order to reintegrate with Chinese society), having completed her studies in the West. She was keen to study Japanese culture on her degree course (citing that “you should know your enemy better than your closest friend”) and looked forward to living as an exchange student with a Japanese host family for a year.

Preparatory Measures Participant exposure to gore, violence, and death through the playing of Deus Ex was addressed and procedures put in place whereby the subject could contact the researcher directly should any concerns arise from video game-play. Also, an



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

agreement was reached whereby the researcher could terminate the study if evidence of video game-play was having detrimental effects on the subject’s health, her studies, or her social life. Communication lines to the subject’s course tutors and host family were established and maintained throughout the study and for some time afterwards. Despite these safeguards, Zoe decided not to play Deus Ex for at least three weeks of her own volition before informing me or asking me for help with the game for the first time. The first interview starts at this point, after Zoe had had possession of the game for six weeks. I told Zoe she could keep the games until she intended to return to China (in six months time) so that she did not feel the study had disrupted our relationship, as I felt that if I had removed the games after the interviews, she may have felt rejected and used by the research process. Addiction such as befits the title otaku is well documented, and many gamers would admit to spending more time playing video games than watching television. Zoe clearly fits into this category. I also presented her with a good bilingual dictionary as a present which she was very pleased to receive, explaining that she could tell her parents she had been given the dictionary “in order to help in research” and that it would act as a lessening blow if she admitted to having played hours of video games. She indicated during the second interview that her mother did not object to her playing Civilization III (another game I lent her) if it was helping her with her studies. 594: Zoe: yeah, in the last few minutes…also last week I told my Mum I play this game and I say how useful it is…(Kim: What does she say?) She say “Alright, if you think it’s useful.” (Kim: So she was quite happy to…) because I tell her this game just helped me to understand more and understand well during my Maths, Religious Studies, and World Development…nearly every single subject so this is very helpful.



This piece of information was most reassuring as I had concerns about parental approval despite Zoe’s maturity. Zoe’s concerns about causing upset or disappointment to her parents by her actions surfaced during tutor support on a number of occasions throughout my year as her personal tutor.

Research Material The video game focused on in this chapter is the first-person shooter/role-play game Deus Ex made by Eidos Interactive (n.d.). The reasons for using Deus Ex are pedagogic in that it provides a thorough training session at the start of play in order to develop the player’s skills. Additionally, the vast narrative script is dual-coded, with all dialogue subtitled and a copy of all conversations stored and easily accessed in Denton’s (your character’s name) databank, giving another form of backup to aid the learner. The game-play is paused and is not jeopardized while accessing the databank for facts or while reviewing a conversation. The game is designed to stretch the player into new zones of proximal development, not in a hack and slash way often used in inferior video game design, but in a thought-provoking way, demanding the player/learner step beyond their regime of competence (Gee, 2003, p. 71) in order to advance skills ready for more challenges later in the game. Deus Ex makes you question allegiance and commitment to government agencies fighting terrorism, develops leadership skills, and hones survival skills in hostile environments. It cannot be played half-heartedly, demanding weeks of regular play in order to reach its natural conclusion. The commitment is rewarded through a virtual world that is both compelling and, as Gee (2003, p. 5) described it, “life-enhancing.”

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

SOCIOCULTURAL THEORIES OF LEARNING The Zone of Proximal Development How we learn language, and particularly how we learn a second or other language, has been researched by many disciplines. Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is a relatively new field of investigation and as such has generated numerous theories. Pica (1998) comments on the theory-less but theory-laden field of SLA: Theory-less in that, as most major textbooks remind us, there has yet to emerge a single, coherent theory that can describe, explain and predict second-language learning. Yet it is theory-laden in that there are at least forty claims, arguments, theories, and perspectives that attempt to describe and explain the learning process and predict its outcomes.(Pica, 1998, p. 9, cited in Beatty, 2003, p. 79) SLA research is informed by the psychological research into behaviorism and cognitive theories of memory and learning (Bartlett, 1932; Skinner, 1957; Chomsky, 1965; Krashen & Terrell 1983; Swain, 1983; Gass, 1988; Skehan, 1989; Schmidt, 1994; Gupta & MacWhinney, 1997; Shimizu, Tang, Rampon, & Tsien, 2000; Churchland, 2002; Fauconnier & Turner, 2002), theories of human and child development (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1957; Subrahmanyam, Greenfield, Kraut, & Gross, 2001), first language acquisition and socialization studies (Slobin, 1985; WatsonGegeo 2001), and cognitive anthropology (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Chaiklin & Lave, 1996). More recently the field of sociocultural theory, based on research by Vygotsky (1978), Bakhtin (1981), and Luria (1982) among others, has been included in the SLA research arsenal. The theory of the zone of proximal development is part of the Social Development Theory proposed by Vygotsky (1978).

Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994, cited in Dunn & Lantolf, 1998) describe the zone of proximal development as: …the framework, par excellence, which brings all of the pieces of the learning setting together—the teacher, the learner, their social and cultural history, their goals and motives, as well as the resources available to them, including those that are dialogically constructed together. (cited in Dunn & Lantolf, 1998, p. 415) Research by Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) revealed that the potential level of development of the learner could be ascertained by the degree of assistance required in order to carry out an activity and also “the visible ability of the learner to utilize forms of external assistance” (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006, p. 277). That assistance could be supplied by a teacher or more knowledgeable peer, from a book such as a dictionary definition or from contextual clues provided by the environment such as learning to say “bless you” when someone sneezes, for example. Aljaafreh and Lantolf (1994) define development in the language acquisition context as: the study of how mediational means are appropriated by the individual as a result of dialogic interaction with other individuals….The potential level of development of the learner is suggested by the kinds of assistance needed to carry out the activity and the visible ability of the learner to utilise forms of external assistance…assistance should be graduated—with no more help provided than is necessary, for the assumption is that over-assistance decreases the student’s agentive capacity. At the same time, a minimum level of guidance must be given so that the novice can successfully carry out the action at hand. Related to this is that help should be contingent on actual need and similarly removed when the person demonstrates the capacity to function independently. Graduation and contingency are



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

critical elements of developmentally productive joint activity. This process is dialogic and entails continuous assessment of the learner’s ZPD and subsequent tailoring of help to best facilitate progression from other-regulation to self-regulation. (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006, p. 277) Vygotsky’s research showed that at a given time, an individual’s development was afforded and constrained by his or her ZPD. The individual’s capacity to respond to and benefit from certain kinds of interaction such as prompts, body language, or verbal remarks that would allow him or her to carry out an activity he or she would otherwise be unable to perform provided Vygotsky not with a capacity of ability as so many tests reveal, but the potential growth or proximal development to be expected from the subject. This ‘provoked development’ he referred to as the experimental-development method and at other times the instrumental method. Vygotsky elaborates thus: The [ZPD] defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic state. These functions could be termed ‘buds’or ‘flowers’of development rather than the ‘fruits’ of development. The actual developmental level characterizes mental development retroprospectively, while the [ZPD] characterizes mental development prospectively…the [ZPD] permits us to delineate the child’s immediate future and his dynamic developmental state, allowing not only for what already has been achieved developmentally but also for what is in the course of maturing. (Vygotsky, 1978, cited in Lantolf & Thorne, 2006, p, 267; author’s emphasis) Vygotsky had already formed the key principle of the ZPD conceptthe difference between the actual level of development already obtained and the cognitive functions comprising the proximal next stage. It was this that is attractive to educators,



as it gives a yardstick to understanding aspects of students’ emerging capacities and could be used for effective diagnosis of future development. Over the period of time Zoe was playing Deus Ex, observable changes had occurred. These changes would signal maturation of her ability to process the gaming environmentto be in control of the various elementsand therefore demonstrate learning within her own ZPD. The additional factor of having to play in an L2 environment suggests that in order to make these advances in game-play, Zoe would have had to decode the language along the way. This would be indicative of language learning. Transformation over time is at the heart of this method. The process of decoding and reusing the language as ‘one’s own’ demonstrates the use of higher-order skills and L2 development within the ZPD. This would demonstrate deep learning had occurred.

Deep Learning Deep learning is important in this study because it shows that the language has been acquired and can be used as an instrument or artifact of language rather than a memorized semiotic ‘out-of-context’ symbol. An example of the latter would be testing student memory by showing the students a set of flash cards of target language, waiting a few minutes, and then asking them to write down as many as they could remember. Although some of the target language may be part of the subject’s own lexical set, the test does not impinge on the subject’s understanding of meaning. They could memorize the letter shapes for example and have no relationship to the semiotic association with the words presented. Just as a toddler blurts out an expletive (if exposed to them) without understanding the semiotic meaning but relishing the reaction it generates, learning can be a veneer on the surface without any engagement with meaning. Deep learning involves the learner in complete understanding. Weigel (2001) defines deep learning succinctly:

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

Deep learning leads to understanding and longterm retention of information through the critical analysis of new ideas and may be defined as ‘learning that promotes the development of conditionalized knowledge and metacognition through communities of inquiry’.(Weigel, 2001, p. 5) Conditionalized knowledge here is defined as knowledge that specifies the contexts in which it can be useful. This requires the learner to think about how the knowledge can be applied in a particular circumstance. It requires engagement with the meaning to provide some form of concrete example in order to create an artifact that can be used in the mind of the learner. The interviews revealed some of the above characteristics of Zoe’s development of conditionalized knowledge within her ZPD, as the excerpts from the interview demonstrate.

Flow Regular video game players will engage with a well-crafted video game for a number of hours at a time. I wondered if this intense focus of attention was the same as ‘flow’, as posited by Csikszentmihalyi (1988, cited in Arnold, 1999, p. 15). Arnold describes flow as “a state of optimal experienceeffortless movement of psychic energy.” Goleman (1995) emphasizes the importance of the presence of this state for learning to take place: Flow represents perhaps the ultimate in harnessing the emotions in the service of performance and learning. In flow the emotions are not just contained and channeled, but positive, energized and aligned with the task at hand. (Goleman, 1995, cited in Arnold, 1999, p. 15) A gamer may experience the sensation of flow as they become more adept at a game. We could liken it to spectating a professional sports event where we almost feel the movements of the players

which can be observed as the involuntary muscle twitches in the leg as a goal is scored because we are so in tune with the event. Perhaps it is the way we are sometimes so engrossed by a musical performance that we lose our sense of our surroundings. Gamers twitch or involuntarily jerk as something happens in the game environment for example. Goleman adds: Because flow feels so good, it is intrinsically rewarding. It is a state in which people become utterly absorbed in what they are doing, paying undivided attention to the task, their awareness merged with their actions. (Goleman, 1995, pp. 90-91) Although flow has been cited in a number of research articles, there is little empirical research into what flow actually is. Csikszentmihalyi defined the flow response as a “holistic response” or an “optimal state of experience in which there is order in consciousness…This happens when psychic energy, or attention, is invested in realistic goals, and when skills match the opportunity for action” (1990 cited in Marr, 2000). Marr (2000) highlights the fact that there has been no experimental investigation into the nature of the somatic states that parallel flow; specifically, the “visceral and musculoskeletal concomitants to flow have never been examined.” Whether flow is self-generated by increased dopamine levels in preparation for the anticipated task as Marr suggests, or a form of meditative state is reached where certain perception channels are elevated causing others to be diminished has yet to be fully researched. Nevertheless, good video games do produce a state of flow where attention is fully directed at the task presented. I chose the video game Deus Ex because of its compelling storyline and almost flawless linking of game-play and feedback mechanisms, such as Denton’s databank, which make it not only an exciting game to play but also a thought-provoking one.



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

We start the interview evaluation with Zoe’s experiences playing the first-person shooter Deus Ex, a dystopian, cyberpunk world set in the 2050s where a mysterious pandemic is rapidly spreading across the globe. Terrorist organizations flourish as government agencies attempt to maintain order and stability. You, the player, are about to be trained as a special agent, and all that you know is you are ‘nano-augmented’ and the second agent to be so endowed. Nanotechnology by this time has become sufficiently advanced that ‘nanites’, small robotic organisms the size of a human cell, can be injected into the body and give the player superhuman powers. In Deus Ex you and your brother Paul, who is already working as an agent in the field, are nano-augmented. There are 11 skills used by JC as a special agent: computers, electronics, environmental training, lock picking, medicine, swimming, and skills with weapons from low-tech, melee weapons such as knives and mini-crossbow, pistols and rifles, to heavy weapons such as rocket launchers and explosive devices. Each of these skills has four levels of mastery (untrained, trained, advanced, and master) that can be increased by earning additional points as you play the game. You start the game with a nominal set of points, which you can use to develop you character skills. Deciding how to upgrade your skills creates a unique character every time you play the game, and overdeveloping one skill at the expense of another could leave you with fewer choices of how to solve problems or puzzles within the game or may enhance a particular style of play you favor. Wise decisions need to be made because once made they cannot be undone. You may be a player who avoids confrontations and decide to develop your character’s spy skillslockpicking, hacking, and bypassing security systems for example. Deus Ex is said to be among one of the few role-play games (RPGs) on the market that can be played without resorting to violence (except for one unavoidable confrontation), which makes it unique in provid-

ing many alternative styles of game-play to reach the same objective.

The Interview The interview was conducted at Zoe’s host family home, upon her request for assistance to proceed with the game. She called me first of all to let me know she had stopped playing Deus Ex as she did not want to “kill any more Chinese policemen in the game.” She sounded a little upset and I was concerned because my experience of game-play did not involve having to attack these characters. We start the interview with Zoe describing her initial reactions to playing Deus Ex.1 131. Zoe: (sitting in front of her laptop) the lucky thing is…when I show some medicine or kind of weapon I can see the shape…I can know what exactly it is…this is the only thing…I know.

Zoe is using visual clues to find out what items in the virtual environment are used for. In the next utterance she indicates the game is difficult to understand. She has not accessed the databank to find out her mission objectives, but is awaiting aural instruction (from the very effective game prompts acting as a form of other-regulation when the player strays away from the game’s mission objectives). She has accessed the map provided and may have used the compass provided by the HUD (heads-up display) to work out directions within the environment. Zoe is finding out about the design of the game, which Gee (2003) calls the design principle.2 133. Zoe: when I’m playing this Deus Ex because…but I’m quite understand because they give me map…that will tell me where you should go…when they go there…actually I don’t know what I need to do…so when I face to the enemy I just know I got to shoot them to protect myself and I just walk anywhere until the ‘contactor’ just tell me…‘ah’…you need to do something else…which means I arrive to the right place so I need to carry on next mission.



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

It took her two weeks of play to begin to feel confident within the environment, where she was able to develop strategies in order to survive. This is not dissimilar to the orientation of a tourist arriving in a foreign city. Also, the ‘contactor’ Zoe refers to is a character at the UNATCO headquarters who has access to Denton via a neural infolink—the game design effectively has a coach guiding you around the first level. The explicit information on-demand and just-in-time principle ensures the player is given relevant help just when it is needed. As the player becomes more competent, the guidance offered is reduced until it is no longer necessary. This reflects the otherregulation to self-regulation used in Vygotsky’s (1978) genetic method stated earlier. 135. Zoe: Yes! Really funny but…yes the first week…I’m just like this kind of confused…and in the second week I’m just improved…I can understand more…play more martially.

She has developed a “save-game” strategy in order to replay unsuccessful parts in order to “get them right.” This reflects Erickson’s (1956) moratorium principle and Gee’s (2003) practice principle. The psychosocial moratorium principle (Gee, 2003, p. 67) enables learners to take risks in the game environment because real-world consequences are lowered. Freedom to experiment without direct real-world consequences permits the learner to develop game (and laterally, realworld) concepts about life through trial and error. Begg, Dewhurst, and Macleod (2005) comment on the value of this principle in the training of medical doctors, who can make mistakes with their virtual patients without real-world consequences, meanwhile learning and improving their performance. Good COTS video games constantly juxtapose real and virtual realities so that your projected identity (i.e., the character you portray in the gamesee Tripartite identities and knowing yourself) is forever being questioned and molded throughout the game. The concept

of play has been at the center of many theories of learning, as it could easily be observed in action through children’s daily activities as they learned about their environment and their social and emotional world with peers and adults. Piaget (1962), Bruner (1983), Vygotsky (1978), and Luria (1982), among others, sought to identify how play functioned in the cognitive processes of child development, and later as maturation takes place. Sociocultural theories of play have identified the many ways in which play may affect children’s cognitive development, but also their social and emotional development. Vygotsky (1978, cited in Lantolf & Thorne, 2006, p. 185) believed that play embodied imagination and that it contained all the developmental levels in a condensed form. Through make-believe play, children were able to extend themselves beyond their own cognitive abilities and therefore present themselves with the next appropriate ZPD through a process of self-reflection and metacognitive thinking. Gee (2003, p. 67) refers to the self-knowledge principle, which states that the virtual world is constructed in such a way as to make learners think about themselves and their current and potential capacities as well as the game domain they are playing in. The game environment acts upon the player by provoking development within their ZPD. The somewhat hostile environment of Deus Ex forced Zoe to make numerous game-saves or lose the progress she had made if her character suddenly died. 137. Zoe: I save many times…because sometimes I will make a mistake. Kim: you go back and play a different part of the game Zoe: Yes. Kim: so you could actually be at the beginning of the game playing it at one time and then you could be later, playing a different part of the mission Zoe: actually, I don’t do that…I just continuing…but I’m worry about I will done something wrong so I always save.



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

Good COTS video games tap into our innate sense of survival and self-preservation, and encourage us to project this onto the character we are becoming in the game. Zoe had become emotionally involved with her virtual identity as JC Denton, UNATCO agent. Her desire to show me the part of the game where she dispatched Anna Navarre, another top agent at UNATCO, would demonstrate her competence as a player. Anna’s augmentation utilized older robotics technology, and her destruction brought about by Denton may be symbolic of the technological race for supremacy where outmoded ways must make way for the new. Anna Navarre is one of the few game characters that has to be ‘terminated’ in order to progress through the gamestealth and avoiding conflict both work effectively as strategies otherwise. However, at line 193 Zoe remarks that Anna just “explode herself.” The reason is based on Zoe having found two parts of a code word that act as a ‘killswitch’ or detonation device when spoken to Anna Navarre, a way for the government agencies to ultimately control their creations should they get out of hand. Zoe had accessed this code through hacking computers in the UNATCO headquarters. Once the two clues had been found, it was only a matter of repeating them in sequence during a conversation with Anna for the kill switch to take effect. Zoe was taken by surprise (193: I just be injured) as the blast from Anna’s mechanized body detonating caused her to lose health points. 194: Kim: She…you didn’t have to do anything…you attacked her or? Zoe: No just talking to me and suddenly she explode herself. Kim: Oh, that’s interesting, how did that happen? Have

Zoe: something I think is not that important because I can save some (tape ends).

It appears that Zoe unwittingly terminated Anna without fully realizing what she was doing. She also erased games that she claims were unimportant or because she required space for her college work (523). It made no sense to me that Zoe would want to delete the record of achievement of destroying a powerful enemy, and so perhaps this particular scene was too shocking to Zoe and deleting it may have been cathartic for her. However, she remembers all the details quite clearly. 145. Zoe: (showing Kim earlier save where Anna is still alive) this lady…I kill her…you tell me I’ve got several chance to kill her…. Kim: there’s different ways actually…yeah. Zoe: but I kill her in aeroplane. Kim: you did? Zoe: Yes. Kim: alright…erm…interestingly if you do that the game immediately presumes that you’re the enemy…is that right? 151. Zoe: No, no yet! I’m very lucky because that communicator, the contactor, and then he says ‘oh you shouldn’t kill her’ but he say you did anyway…he says…because at this time only me and you know you kill her so I will help you to cover up this thing.

Zoe returns to her boss’s office and has to select a responsewhich she does (emboldened below). She, as the projected identity JC Denton, has now effectively lied to her boss. Zoe has already started to form a virtual identity, which she is prepared to protect in the game environment by fabricating the truth.

you got that saved? Zoe: I don’t think so because I don’t like that part…perhaps

Excerpt from Deus Ex Script 3

I delete already (pause)…Yes I delete it.

JC DENTON: I have some bad news about Agent Na-

Kim: Are you deleting it because…I mean…why are you

varre.

deleting parts of games that you’ve saved before?

MANDERLEY: No shit. What the hell happened in there? JC DENTON: Lebedev. A surprise attack.

0

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

MANDERLEY: I find that hard to believe. You’re digging

that…and I just think…they just like my brother or er, we

your own grave if you cover up for your brother.

have very good partnership…I have very good relationship

JC DENTON: Yes, sir. I’m not covering up for Paul, sir.

with all these soldiers…feel very comfortable and I’m be

MANDERLEY: Because he’s gone, JC. I hope you’ll under-

free to go into the UNATCO or go out…I’m very free to go

stand this. The Coalition has shut down his augmentations

around that location…but suddenly…I’m being arrest and

and activated the killswitch.

I’m thrown into security prison and all these people…they’re

JC DENTON: Activated…what?

not my friends at all…suddenly I feel it’s a trap…just like

MANDERLEY: Some very important officials have become

trap and….

nervous, nervous about Paul but also about you.

Kim: so you needed to delete that part of the game

JC DENTON: I think I’ve proved myself. Can they really

yeah?

kill himby pressing a button?

210: Zoe: Yeah, such a very erm…depress memories…it’s

MANDERLEY: Yesand you, too. So take these orders

not a good memory which depress me.

seriously. They’re sending you to Hong Kong.

The above dialogue highlights the threat of a killswitch implanted in all nano-augmented UNATCO agents, which Zoe did not quite grasp as a concept. She had some concept of her own character exploding uncontrollably once she was in Hong Kong (248). She may have spent considerable time playing the game with it ending abruptly because she had not addressed the need to deactivate the killswitch. The earlier comment on game deletion is interesting to note because in line 202, Zoe is recalling the scene where she gets arrested and imprisoned at the UNATCO headquarters, having been on the run from UNATCO for Anna Navarre’s murder.

What is apparent from the above quotes is that deleting the game saves from the computer has not deleted the emotional trauma associated with the loss of status, position, power, and camaraderie she had initially with the UNATCO characters in the game. More noteworthy are how the comments made by the AI (artificial intelligencenon-player characters that respond to your character to create the illusion of reality) are memorized almost verbatim by Zoe, expressions that to a native-speaker playing the game would be considered ‘throw-away’ lines in the game-play scenario. Zoe has adopted a strategy of clicking on every AI character until no more useful information is forthcoming and the phrases presented are superfluous to the plot. Here is an example:

202: Zoe: Yes, very…what can I say…just the whole situation been changed…because before I’m the member of

GUARD 1

UNATCO and suddenly I’m be arrest and they will take all

If you need help, talk to one of the receptionists.

my weapons and medicine and any kind of things and they

You do not require a security pass to visit the first three

throw me into a kind of little room.

levels of offices.

…

Late night….

208: Zoe: because before I never played this game and

My feet are killing me.

you never told me he will face this situation and suddenly

Hope you find who you are looking for.

(Kim: (laughing) sorry…) and all the people…because…can you remember…at the first few missions when I complete them I back to UNATCO center I see many many soldiers and they say ‘Oh yeah great…you’re such a hero and you done many many things’ something like that and ‘I wish I can go with you to carry on this mission’ something like

The last three phrases are padding, but for a language learner they can be informative colloquial expressions in the L2 . Zoe has been accessing these (for each and every character) throughout the game. More significantly, she is



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

able to recall the expressions easily from their embodiment within the video game storyline. Deus Ex provides the player with a “memory bank” of past conversations, written word-forword. This gives the learner an opportunity to access the language both aurally and visually. This reflects the dual-coding theory research of Paivio (1990, 1991) and Clark and Paivio (1991, cited in Rieber et al., 1996, p. 2). Within Deus Ex, referential processing opportunities occur at cinematic cuts or when a player clicks on an in-game character in order to obtain information. Referential processing is particularly important because dual coding theory predicts that learning will be enhanced when information is encoded in both systems (i.e., dually coded). Information that is dually coded has twice the chance to be retrieved and used (Kobayashi, 1986). There is no limit to the number of times a learner accesses this information, which enables them to repeat and create representational structures undisturbed by other elements of the game. Although there is no appropriate grading of the language in COTS games, given the opportunity to employ study skills, a learner can access a much richer use of the L2 than may be possible within immersion classrooms for example, where pedagogic principles of “comprehensible input” and “caretaker talk” (Ellis, 1994, pp. 248-267) limit teachers’ use of the language as they guard learners against unnecessary exposure to certain (grammatical and pragmatic) forms of language and monitor the quantity of content delivered so as to avoid cognitive overload. COTS video games were never designed with language learners in mind, so none of the above restraints are present during gameplay. In fact, they have been created to be richly immersive environments for a native speaker. The language learner receives exposure to the L2 as it was originally intended. Clearly, Zoe had made associations in order to understand the context of her character JC Denton within the gaming environment and was also able to emotionally identify closely with the character as Denton



becomes hunted as an enemy of UNATCO. Gee (2003, p. 209) makes reference to three more key principles that enabled Zoe to learn within the game’s environment. The first two are the situated meaning principle and the text principle, where signs and signifiers are understood because of their embodiment in the context of the game, and where moving back and forth between text and embodied experience permits growth within this learner’s own ZPD: To understand or produce any word, symbol, image or artifact in a given semiotic domain, a person must be able to situate the meaning of that word, symbol, image or artifact within embodied experiences of action, interaction, or dialogue in or about the domain.(Gee, 2003, p. 24) A language learner must have access to the situation where that word or symbol, image or artifact was taken from in order to create meaningan embodied experience of action, interaction, or dialogue. This is defined as active learning or situated learning. The richly immersive world of video games can supply highly detailed embodied experiences. Gee (2003) highlights the need for the player to be able to participate in ‘affinity groups’ or ‘groups’ within the semiotic domain. This is the third principle alluded to above, the semiotic domains principle. Zoe was clearly proud to be a part of UNATCO, but her affinity group no longer regarded her as a friend. Zoe has trouble accepting this loss and creating a new affinity group in Hong Kong. The metalevel thinking about semiotic domains principle focuses on the ability of the learner to apply critical thinking (i.e., not passive thinking) about the relationships of semiotic domains being learned to other semiotic domains. Zoe’s awareness of her imminent death by activation of the killswitch clearly worried her, having seen its effect on Anna Navarre. Now she is on the receiving end. Her inability to locate Tracer Tong in Hong Kong may have led her to seek external assistance from this researcher in order

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

to preserve her virtual self as successful agent, although as you will see later, other events were preventing Zoe from forming her new identity with the affinity group in Hong Kong. Zoe had put in many hours of game-play in order to develop Denton’s skillsthe achievement principle states that there must be sufficient rewards offered at each level of the game to allow the learner to continue towards mastery and sufficient signposting given for the learner to recognize when he or she has been rewarded. In Deus Ex those rewards are improvements to your core skills or your weapon accuracy or upgrading of your augmentations. However, Zoe appears more taken by the AI comments of her being an effective agent in the field (see 208 above). The intertextual principle could be seen as having a more global understanding of certain categories of text, through exposure to a number of embodied experiences within a number of domains. Zoe travels to Hong Kong where she will meet a ‘terrorist leader’ that was supporting Paul, her character’s brother, another nano-augmented agent who has been terminated by UNATCO for his involvement with Tong and his cohorts. Zoe will have no choice but to drop the identity she created at UNATCO and start to build a new one using the embodied experiences the game presents her with. Her ability to cast off the old and adopt the new will also be a guide as to her ability to recognize the intertextual ‘genre’ of building a personal identity and will be a measure of how she has developed within her ZPD as the game provokes her towards this goal. Sadly, Zoe is reluctant to identify herself with Chinese terrorists, although UNATCO regards her as a common criminal now and the memories of this depress her (210). Despite this, she continued to playin game-play terms she would have had to play for a considerable time in order to exit the UNATCO headquarters and find Tracer Tong in Hong Kong which reinforces Gee’s (2003, p. 67) committed learning principle, concerning commitment to

the virtual character within a compelling virtual world.

Tripartite Identities Gee (2003) argues from a sociocultural perspective that learning as deep, critical learning will come about only if the learner has made the commitment to take on the identity of “a person who can learn, use and value the new semiotic domain” (Gee, 2003, p. 59). In other words, unless the learner has decided that the new domain is accessible to them as a member of this new community, they cannot participate in it because they do not consider themselves eligible or even capable members of this new group. Zoe’s reluctance to associate with the terrorists in Hong Kong may have hindered her ability to progress any further or resolve the pressing issue of the killswitch, the terrorists being the only ones with the technology to deactivate it. Perhaps the semiotic label ‘terrorist’ had powerful, negative associations for Zoe to the extent that she did not want to associate with them. To develop her virtual identity, Zoe must perceive herself as “a person who can learn, use and value the new semiotic domain” (Gee, 2003, p. 59). Zoe would need to forge links from her primary real-world identity (the multitude of identities she portrays to others in society) to her secondary virtual identity (the way she perceives herself as a character in this game). Our real-world identity is what helps us understand who we are, and includes our moral, cultural, and political viewpoints too. In the third identity, the projected identity, the learner builds through projecting their own wishes, goals, aspirations, and personality onto the virtual identity and is a combination of the other two. It is through this process of juxtaposition of real-world and virtual world identities that we achieve deep learning via our projected identities (Gee, 2003, p. 66). There is nothing to stop Zoe from restarting the game or mission and playing the character JC



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

Denton in quite a different way. This is a common strategy among gamers as they learn from the experience of failure in the game as to what works and what does not within the confines of the game. It also enables you as the player to direct your game-play according to the desired combination of real-world and virtual-world identities (the multiple routes principle). If Zoe had simply played the game without participating in the game domainthat is, as an external observerher description of her arrest would be vague and non-committal. However, she was highly emotionally charged, even after not having played for three weeks. She was also not happy to enter the game environment again during the interview, describing it as scary.

lost my brother…and I’m going to find out the truth in Hong Kong and I need to find out the people who is called…strange Chinese name…Tang Sing Tong or something like this.

As a player Zoe appears more confident and aware of the goals she needs to achieve at this stage of the game now that I have provoked her ZPD, and she starts to self-regulate her thoughts again. 242: Zoe: I feel quite weird because…when I arrived Hong Kong…I got so many thing I need to do…first…and then second. Kim: (laughs) can you remember them…after 3 weeks? 244: Zoe: I remember he said I need to find this guy…what’s his name? Kim: Tracer Tong.

Interview Continued: Provoking Zoe’s ZPD The emotional bonds Zoe had created demonstrated a strong virtual identity had been developed, along with her projected identity as a good team player within the UNATCO staff and soldiers. Losing this bond was quite painful for her. I would argue that Zoe’s projected identity as an important member of the group within the game was formed by her virtual self becoming an integral part of the community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) that consisted of agents working for UNATCO. Zoe had put herself on the virtual payroll at UNATCO! Once she had lost this identity (through the intentional game design of terminating agent Navarre), the loss may have been such that her motivation to continue had all but stopped. Nevertheless, she found the game so compelling she eventually asked for my help. At this stage in the game-play, Zoe, as JC Denton, is unsure of her character’s real identity and background, though she has some certainties. 218: Zoe: yeah, I think so…but at the time I’m definitely sure that UNATCO is my enemy…because I know that they are the organization who killed my parents and caused…I



246: Zoe: yeah, Tracer Tong (this guy). Kim: yeah, why do you need to find Tong? 248: Zoe: because he said I need, I must to contact these people because he’s a friend of my brother and then I can get more details from this guy. I think he’s the leader of terrorists in Hong Kong. [So I have to.] And another thing is my brother and I…we are no natural people we are been…what can I say…our body is been modify…can I say that…with part of some…just like…robot…some systems which is in our body…my brother already die…this is why I need to…when I…in UNATCO, I need to send some details from his dead body and the people…I’m quite confused because they say something like…I’m quite special and quite unusual…I’m different compared with my brother because I didn’t…(what can I say) very strange…I don’t understand this part…just that…I didn’t…oh! very strange but at least I am sure when I arrive in Hong Kong they said my body will be explode or something…over…my life will be over…so I only got 12 hours to a life…I need to find out Tracer Tong to sort out this problem. 249: Kim: okay, so Tracer Tong knows the answer to stop your body exploding. Zoe: yeah, something like that.

In line 248 Zoe is summarizing her goals on an ‘actions to do’ level, while on a metalevel she is recreating her virtual identity and her character’s

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

reason for existence. She is aware that her brother Paul is dead and that UNATCO is to blame, is the enemy (218), and is also responsible for JC’s parents’ death. Notice too how Zoe has resigned herself to accepting the need to associate with the affinity group of terrorists in Hong Kong, almost under her breath, as private speech (so I have to). Zoe had called me to help her at this stage of the game as she seemed overwhelmed with the complexities that were unfolding within the game narrative. I decided to clarify the urgency of canceling the killswitch as a priority (249). I direct her to an important conversation with Jock, the helicopter pilot, an ally.

have provoked understanding of certainty of death unless she takes action to locate Tong. I locate the Primary Goals screen and ensure Zoe understands these (265) and the location of Max Chen, another potential ally and link to Tong’s whereabouts. She recalls a scene vividly from inside Chen’s Lucky Money Club (282), which she used as a refuge from MJ12 commando units (super-robots that are created to up the stakes of the in-game demands on the player). 282: Zoe: because I get some details from Max Chen I think…and another strange thing is, when I get into Lucky Money and that Max Chen and then somebody follow me, actually…they get into the Lucky Money and shoot us…and Max Chen has lots and lots of bodyguards that in battle

256: Zoe: Hmm (reading). Twelve hours. Killswitch.

with these guys…and then the both of them…many people

Kim: yeah, I think that’s the keyword here.

die…when the battle finish…and then I just go to the…what

Zoe: Yeah.

can I say…go to the front room of Lucky Money…many

Kim: that they’re talking about the killswitch…in other

many people lay on the ground…I saw the people who fol-

words…

low me…they are like kind of policemen but I don’t think

Zoe: so I will be…

they are…they looks quite…they not natural people because

261: Kim: dead (Zoe: dead) so that’s what happened to

they’re wearing kind of machines, something….

your brother…so UNATCO can switch this thing on…(Zoe:

Kim: do they move like people, or you haven’t seen them

off) well basically, once they start the switch…it’s like

move yet…they’re just dead.

they press the switch, 12 hours later you’re dead.

284: Zoe: I think I saw one…they are very very power-

262: Zoe: yeah, I remember this…oh yes…when I stay in

ful…really hard to kill. Yeah. So I didn’t join the battle! Too

UNATCO center…when I met my former boss…when he

hard!…I thought ‘Oh my God!’ (Kim: (laughs) okay…prob-

talk with that guy (Kim: Walter Simons) yeah…and then the

ably wise!) Yeah, when I saw they are follow me I just ran

guy who in the Walter Simon he saw me and he said ‘We will

into the Max Chen’s room and I closed the door…when they

kill you. You won’t alive in next 24 hours’…something like

finish I open and go out.

this…but I’m still alive…but the thing is…in my brother and I…inside of our bodies there is something what UNATCO gave us…and something like killswitch…I think it is a kind of explosion system. Kim: it’s a time bomb. 264: Zoe: yeah, which will…when they are turn…switch on the key and then we will explode ourselves…something like that.

In line 261 Zoe hesitates to say ‘dead’perhaps she still does not accept that her character will die soon, without any enemy confrontation occurring, if she does not act fast. By line 264 I

This rich description of a massacre and the power these new characters wield appear to have frightened Zoe into a state of inaction. I decided to investigate her use of augmentations, as she would need these to survive the next stages of the game. I discovered she was poorly equipped as a player in this department (289) and that she considered the augmentations practically useless. 292: Zoe: I don’t use that actually…I think they’re useless! Perhaps because I didn’t upgrade them…so they only comes out very slightly…result…so they are not that helpful.



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

Kim: but you upgraded your strength, yeah?

306: Zoe: erm, just several times...one I changed this medi-

294: Zoe: it’s not that helpful…i think if I can up to four…level

cine number…number of this medicine box and er, number

four then might be very useful.

of ammos…I had lots and lots of weapons but…most useful

295: Kim: so your actual augmentations…you don’t really

one I think is this one…(points to sniper rifle) 2006 ammo

switch them on then when you go into a battle or…(Zoe:

because it’s very…you can see the details with this one…first

no) when you’re trying to avoid people or…

the maxi range is very good and you have silencer…very very

296: Zoe: I even try once but…it’s not that helpful.

quiet…I think ‘maxi’ range is the most important thing…it’s very high…I can shoot very far away and then…without

Interestingly she seems reluctant to experiment with using the augmentations in any aspect of the game. Even the built-in augmentation of a light is not used. There appear to be technical reasons. 393: Kim: do you ever use your light? 394: Zoe: this is why I’m want to talk about with you…I don’t know why this game…they…it takes a long time to…when I press F12 and then it switch on the light but you have to wait a long time to start to move. 395: Kim(to start to move?) show me…right you’ve got a light. 396: Zoe: I can go into here, but when I…strange…I don’t know…(giggles) perhaps because you’re here! Kim: because I’m sitting here it suddenly works! (laughs) 398: Zoe: you’re lying, you’re cheating! Kim: what was happening before? 400: Zoe: before when I press this kind of keys (the F keys along the top of the keyboard) the game would suddenly just be…stopped.

Nevertheless, they worked when I used them, which Zoe was pleased to observe. Returning to (300) indicates why there may have been problems with the augmentations. Kim: let’s take a look at your health now. 300: Zoe: I’m always being very healthy...and I already… Kim: you’ve got 253 (normal game supply is four or five per mission!)…now is that from picking them up in the game or (Zoe: No) have you used ‘cheats’? 302: Zoe: of course used ‘cheats’. Kim: okay tell me. 304: Zoe: because in the game. Kim: tell me about using ‘cheats’…how many ‘cheats’ have you used?



people knowing.

Zoe has resorted to using cheats to gain unlimited health, unlimited ammunition, and advance all her physical skills. She was also distancing herself from potential enemies and picking them off like a sniperan effective strategy. Her offhand manner with regard to the use of cheats (302) indicates she considers this to be an expected compromise by gamers and not at all unusual. She either decided that augmentation is not helping her achieve her goals or she felt the need to supplant the dearth of augmentation canisters with other (unlimited) options. Two questions come to mind: Is augmentation considered to be akin to ‘defiling the body’, which is considered unacceptable in some cultures, and does that hold true for the Chinese culture; and is Zoe using cheats to compensate for her unwillingness to use the augmentations? Using cheats is certainly an accepted part of gamer strategy to continue playing, despite the real-world inabilities of the gamer (Gee, 2003, p. 187). Good COTS video games allow for degrees of autism among its players, and cheat codes permit players to overcome particular weaknesses that would otherwise prevent their continuing or participating in the game. Despite giving herself endless health kits and unlimited ammunition, Zoe came to realize she is no match for the demands being made on her character in the virtual world and so retired from play for three weeks. Nevertheless, the game was so compelling that Zoe was unwilling to return the CD-ROM to me even though I had offered to take it back during one tutorial session; instead she was determined to solve the issues that were still vividly active

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

in her mind three weeks later. She had already discussed the lack of strategies (41) at the beginning of the game and was now confronted by the need to provide another set of strategies at a much higher level. She had advanced-level skills using the cheats so she was effectively playing as a ‘grand master’, but without augmentation, she was mortal. Augmentation leads to possession of god-like powers, as the initial cinematic introduction and the title of the game itself indicates. Zoe had reached the limits of her ZPD. Her strategies were now useless to her. In fact, she was still using a New York UNATCO ‘shoot on sight’ strategy in Hong Kong which was inappropriate because there were no threats initially, as the military police were friendly towards her character JC Denton. However, Zoe decided she needed to get some information from the police headquarters in the marketplace. The character Maggie Chow offers to help JC, but she is merely using him as a pawn in her own game to incite a feud between the two triad gangs. She gives the code for a secret vault in the police HQ to JC, but the answers he is looking for are not therethe first double cross the player experiences in the game. This action resulted in Zoe shooting at least one Chinese military policeman. (There may have been two more in the stationI decided not to look as I believed Zoe was deeply embarrassed at committing such acts, and this may have been the reason for such a long delay before informing me of the difficulties she was experiencing). A number of possible solutions could have been available to her, but she did not seem to have considered themusing a riot prod to render AI unconscious or wearing a camo suit (345 below) were not being considered by Zoe, neither to avoid detection when snooping around nor as a strategy to escape when under attackboth very effective strategies. What was more surprising was the disdain she held for the objects discarded as rubbish (Zoe: I’ve already threw them over 5 already). I decided to provoke her ZPD on this issue.

340: Zoe: (reading from Denton’s databank) computing system…they can render an agent invincible to… Kim: is that ‘invincible’? 342: Zoe: ‘invisible’(Kim: Ohh! ; Zoe laughs) to both humans or bots by dynamically… Kim: etcetera etcetera yeah…a bit of technical English there…(reading) dynamically refracting light and radar waves…so, basically it makes you invisible. 344: Zoe: but they are not very useful. There is still reluctance to use this equipment for some reason. I decide to provoke another area altogetherher culture. 345: Kim: it’s like a magic cloak (Zoe: hmm). well, you’ve got one so let’s see how you could possibly use it… (Zoe: I’ve already threw them over 5 already.) I’m sure you could find some more. What’s interesting about this is that at the moment you are saying you can’t play any further because you keep getting shot by Chinese police.

Zoe ‘complained’ to me that she could not play Deus Ex any further without “having to shoot Chinese military police.” I now discover she has disposed of at least five opportunities to become invisible while investigating situations and places, thereby remaining undetected and avoiding bloodshed. 346: Zoe: it’s not only like that…I’m not pleased to play foreign game which (inaudible ‘when they travel?’) China because I think Western people they always misunderstand Chinese culture and people and life…they always criticize them, they always blame something which they don’t agree. 347: Kim: I’m sorry…who disagrees? 348: Zoe: Western people.

There seems to be considerable bottled-up emotion. I persist. 349: Kim: about what? 350: Zoe: about anything I think because for Western people China is too foreign, too foreign and many cultures can blame many issues…can bring up many issues and many things people don’t accept and they disagree with.



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

351: Kim: but my issue here is that you’re playing the game,

359: Kim: just go into the game, show me where you are

you’re in China, your Chinese, naturally by birth…so…

in the market.

352: Zoe: yeah, it’s Chinese people’s fault…I think until

Zoe: (looking at Saved Games) Lucky Money…no I get

today, Chinese people’s minds haven’t been independent,

out from there.

haven’t been…(pause) rescued…you can say…we are still

Kim: so what’s happened…have you met Max Chen at

in limited opinion…just like can you remember why, the

this point (Zoe: yes) and have you been into the Versalife

past hundred years why China been ruined by Western

building?

people…because the last Chinese dynasty we closed our

Zoe: no yet because I cannot.

market…we closed Chinese land…we don’t allow our resi-

Kim: okay, so it’s locked to you.

dents go out to trade with another country. (Kim: right.) We

Zoe: (perhaps I will meet some enemy) I’m just scared play

are no interest in outside world.

this game sometimes!

Zoe has been reflecting deeply on Western and Chinese cultural differences and is heavy with emotion about Chinese people being misunderstood in the West. Her comments about Chinese people’s minds not having been independent, and not having been rescued provokes questions in my own mind about whether they are independent and rescued now. Does Zoe consider they are? I provoke further.

Zoe claims to be quite frightened by the game environment, but retains her composure while we look around the market. 371: Kim: okay, so you’ve looked at data cubes and what do you do when you read that? If you just click on it…that’s the free map, okay…so you’ve picked up the map…erm, so have you been involved in any gun fights or anything in the market at all…or are you just walking through the market…you’re not actually shooting anybody in the market.

353:Kim: okay, so how does that…

Zoe: I’m not, because when I arrived there at first time…I

354: Zoe: We’re proud of our civilization. So until today

think the policemen they move by themselves…but before

is same thing happen. Even we open our market we are

there’s another policeman sitting…standing in there…he

pleased people to…foreign people trade with us…to do

was standing there and I talking to him and he said ‘no one

some commercial thing.

can show their gun in this market’ so I always just take my

355: Kim: my point is, here you are in this game but you

empty hand go into there. If I pick up any weapons from my

won’t go any further…why is that?

pockets and then I think the policemen will start to shoot

356: Zoe: This is what I’m talking about.

me…something like this because when this residents saw

357: Kim: okay, explain again ’cos I can’t.

me take a gun people will terrified and will run away.

358: Zoe: my feeling!

Kim: what, you’ve done that? Zoe: I didn’t (Kim: oh you haven’t then) but I suggest it

I understand her argument to be that Western minds do not understand Chinese culture because China has been “closed to the West for so long.” What I don’t understand is how a Chinese player, playing an American secret agent, still finds it okay to kill a Chinese military policeman without any justification (other than needing to get into the police station in order to continue her mission). The proof must be in the game itself, so I decide to investigate.



will happened and there is a warning bell..(Kim: yeah yeah) yeah, if I pick up something people will run there to rung bell. (Kim: sure.)

Zoe has not experimented or if she has, she has forgotten as it is quite possible to walk around the market with a drawn weapon without encountering any opposition. It is the discharging of weapons that causes the alarms to activate. She has taken the word of a Chinese policeman AI character as ‘law to be obeyed’ and she obeyed

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

it. Interestingly, the real-world law (within Zoe’s domain as a Chinese national) appears to be stronger than the virtual game law at this stage. The real-world semiotics have powerful representations in the virtual world until such time as the player wishes to break those codes, as Zoe does by shooting a policeman, protected by the psychosocial moratorium principle. Zoe may have spent many hours of game-play trying to find answers to Tong’s whereabouts, fully knowing her virtual life was coming towards an end. In an act of desperation, I believe she resorted to violence against the military police in an effort to try to uncover mission-critical facts, unaware that this was a ‘red herring’ in the game design. The game does not just spoon-feed the player with facts and informationthe player must tease it out of the game environment, which is hard work. Gee (2003, p. 90) calls this the probing principle. For example Zoe: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Probes the virtual world to gather data, Creates some hypothesis based on this data, Reprobes the world by applying the hypothesis to see the effects, and Responds to the feedback.

375: Kim: let’s just go down this road…how do you… (keyboard configuration to control character movement does not work for Kim)…oh, you use different patterns altogether to go forward…(Zoe: there’s a robot in there) and the robot’s ‘green’ ( friendly) at the moment, okay.

Zoe has changed the key bindings, which control movement and bring up information screens and call up weapons and other devices from her inventory. I did not clarify what changes she had made so as not to interrupt the flow of her description of the current situation. Watching the contortions she had to put her fingers through to carry out simple movements was revealing as she had positioned many keys in close proximitynevertheless she still seemed unsure of which keys did what. This could have been what was causing her such difficulties in fending off opponents earlier in the game and now presented a problem of control at a higher level of play. Additionally, laptop keyboards are much more compact and do not offer the raked profile of a large keyboard, but lie flat, which could be presenting Zoe with more physical control issues. I return the laptop control to Zoe. 376: Zoe: (aside: you see this, I kill this). Kim: who’s that?

This principle could be seen as cyclic for every independent action the player carries out in the game, and a player may need to juggle a number of these separate cycles depending on the complexity of the storyline. Gee (2003, p. 90) comments that without this strategy in place, a player would not get very far in a video game. Clearly, Zoe had tried everything in her power to progress through the game. She had reached the limits of her ZPD as far as the game domain was concerned. I provoke her development at this critical stage, but first notice something strange about the way she holds her fingers over the keyboard of her laptop. I ‘drive’ for a moment to see what the problem is.

378: Zoe: Chinese Military Police (smiles). Kim: so you did shoot him? 380: Zoe: yes. Kim: okay um…why did you shoot him? 382: Zoe: because I need to get into there (indicates police station) yeah…when I picked this, opened this (Kim: that’s the police station is it?) Yes. When I get into there but I’m no allow in. Kim: okay, so you feel you need to go in there for some reason? 384: Zoe: because inside have first a TV control system I can, when I go there I can switch off. Then I can go to many place. Kim: why do you need to switch that off? 386: Zoe: I dunnosometimes I think it’s important (giggles).



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

In 376 Zoe refers to a Chinese policeman who she has shot dead. She mentions the act but refers to the character as this (not him). Unless she means to utter the phrase “I kill(ed) this man,” but in her next breath she identifies him by using the job title ‘Chinese military police’ but does not add gender (policeman). I wondered if this was a strategy to lessen the act and divorce herself from it by remaining gender-neutral or genderless. Her argument for having to enter the police HQ using violence demonstrates her overarching aim to meet the game goals even if it meant killing a Chinese authority figure. In contrast to her concerned voice on the phone when she called to tell me about not wanting to kill any more Chinese characters in the game, Zoe seems quite calm now. It is as if, having shown me the deed, she has been absolved of the crime. I decide to retrace my steps and ensure she understands all the basic elements of the storyline. 405: Kim: how do you feel about the two games…i mean…do you think you’ll carry on with Deus Ex? Zoe: perhaps not…really…if I will play again…perhaps I will start in the middle or from the beginning start because…as now I’m in Hong Kong…I feel is…the story of this game is

even in a virtual world. I check her comprehension of the plot. 409: Kim: did you understand the plot with the Grey Death…this sort of plague and the vaccine that you’re trying to find…did you understand that part of the story…you know you had to find those big green canisters…sort of bubbling liquid? Zoe: Yes. 411: Kim: do you know what they were…part of the story? Zoe: before I don’t know…because I remember the contactor he always tell me ‘you need to find these…there is three bottles of this green water, or something…green liquid…i don’t know what’s it for but anyway I found this…these three bottles. 413: Kim: can I tell you what they are?

I started to go into an explanation of the plot instead of ‘concept checking’. I was starting to feel tired after nearly three hours of interview. Zoe stopped me and wanted to explain her understanding, which seemed a better idea. She seems to be very alert stillperhaps because she can sense that solutions to her game-play will be provided soon.

getting deeper and more complex. Kim: it gets even more complex…i assure you.

414: Zoe: no…before you tell me I tell you…and then

Zoe: Yes, of course…because in the beginning I’m a

when they said ‘good you’ve found out these three bottles

member of UNATCO…and at the end I’m joined to terror-

and then we will send a group of military to cover up…to

ism group…and then become enemy of UNATCO…and

find out…to take these things away’…and I think it’s al-

UNATCO is a fake…is not right…is work for money…is

right…but…the second time…i mean…after I achieve this

no work for government…no work for the residents…this

goal…after I complete this mission…the next time when

is…which is disappoint me…a lot and shock me…and…on

I see this thing is…they are just next to my brother’s dead

the other hand….

body…well…i dunno…i think something wrong about those things…which is not right.

She seems keen to start over with the new information, although there is reluctance too and she has not come to terms with the concept of working outside of a government framework in the Hong Kong environment, which I suggest is to do with her Communist Party upbringing and her unwillingness to associate with terrorists,

0

Kim: but you’d learnt to recover them…what and then UNATCO own them…UNATCO have them. 416: Zoe: I think they have them just for…it’s an important element to support their secret testing…or something…do you think so?

I was surprised that Zoe had not grasped the special significance of these objects. She had a

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

photo and description of one in her data files and had risked her virtual life on a number of dangerous missions in order to secure them for UNATCO. The whole narrative of Deus Ex is based on their very existence, but Zoe seems to have missed the point: Ambrosia is a vaccine against the Grey Death, is manufactured by Versalife, and is in short supply, hence the importance of UNATCO preventing it from getting into anyone else’s hands. I explain a little more of the plot, and concept check vaccine and antidote with a dictionary. Zoe makes the association with Bird Flu and then corrects herself to mean the cure, not the disease. She realizes that Ambrosia is a positive thing, so must have thought that it was for negative uses, such as poison. I cannot see why she made this assumption at the beginning of the game, but decided not to ask her so as not to embarrass her. I refer to a bilingual dictionary to define ‘vaccine’.

Kim: hmmm…who does the government give the vaccine to? 440. Zoe: the most important people first…the wealthy people or like this country (Britain) it’s the Royal Family first and another famous celebrity like…celebrity of sport…or singers…this kind of…businessmen…this kind of people…poor people especially…for example in America like black people like New Orleans…these5 people will be abandoned…because they are useless…they are no valuable to the government. Kim: so that’s really what the story of Deus Ex is about…you start off working for UNATCO and you start off getting this…the first raid you do…when you go up into the Statue of Liberty Island…you have to tell the NSF boss…you arrest him at the top of the building (Zoe: yes yes) and he has one of the canisters…or you were trying to stop them because they were taking the canisters…so really the NSF were stealing these vaccines from UNATCO…or from the government. 442. Zoe: they want to survive more people. Kim: exactly…they’re trying to protect their own people…so

426. Zoe: its like this…(shows dictionary).

when you realize that that’s why you join NSF…because you

Kim: like an antidote…okay…is there another word that

realize they’re trying to protect the ordinary people.

you know? What does a doctor give you to stop you get-

444. Zoe: the government want to abandon useless

ting the disease?

people.

428. Zoe: cure? Medicine. Kim: yeah what sort of medicine…I’ll give you another word…do you know the word ‘vaccine’? 430. Zoe: hmm…oh yes…like bird flu!4 Kim: yes okay. 432. Zoe: or another normal flus…so…hmm…to protect you before you get this thing. Kim: so those green bottles you were looking for in Deus Ex…they are a vaccine. 434. Zoe: ahhh??? But it’s a positive thing…i thought they are…. Kim: they’re a positive thing, no, they’re a good thing…but there is a limited supply of the vaccine…just like with the bird flu…they can only make so much of it…so who do they give it to?

In 442 (they want to survive more people), Zoe now sees the reason the NSF wanted to capture the Ambrosia shipments from UNATCOin order to save ordinary people. She may have a concept of the NSF as ‘freedom fighters’ now. Initially, Denton as a UNATCO agent is fighting the NSF, a supposedly terrorist organization. The plot of Deus Ex plays with the concept of “one man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter”a quote spoken by a character in the novel Harry’s Game by Gerald Seymour, constantly making the player consider whose side he or she is on. Zoe’s provoked ZPD leads to her self-regulating her mission goals and purposes as Denton:

436. Zoe: I think…of course…because the vaccine is limited we can’t give every single person in the world so we…

444: Zoe: the government want to abandon useless

Kim: so who decides who gets the vaccine?

people.

438. Zoe: government.

Kim: and let them die of this death…but it also turns out…the



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

more you look at the story you find out that the Grey Death was created by… Zoe: UNATCO…government! Kim: well by…some government agency…to kill people so the government could take control…that’s what happens in the next part…when you go into Versalife you’ll find out a bit more information! Zoe: so who I am!? Kim: sorry…how do you end or who do you become… well you’ll have to find out! If you’re interested enough. Zoe: I don’t understand! If my parent’s could die, which means they’re nat(ural?)…normal person so why my brother and I we’re half machine…we are half robots…we no not natural people any more… (Kim: that’s something you’ll need to discover) …ourselves have been modified…why? …and why chose me? Kim: these are questions that the game will answer (chuckles). Zoe: why they chose me…and no choose anybody else? how special I am.

Zoe seems excited to discover the answers to these questions now. I need to check whether she still feels unable to use the augmentations. 435: Kim: but I’d recommend that if you do want to play on and find those answers you also will find you need to start using those unnatural (Zoe: super powers) super powers in order to…well obviously progress through the game.

Zoe has used the word ‘super powers’, not in the sense of great nations, but as a noun phrase to describe what being augmented is like. This may have resonances in fantasy figures like Superman™, where god-like skills are used for good, not evil. Zoe: I feel very slowly to update these skills...because I need to find that bottle (upgrade canister or augmentation canister). Kim: yeah those…you will find once you get into Versalife…there’s four more upgrades that you do in Versalife... probably you have to go in there a second time.



Zoe asks about Versalifeshe is interested in finding out about this company as it is the next stage of the game. 456: Zoe: What does Versalife mean? Kim: Versalife is a company in Hong Kong…and obviously you’re going to go in there and find out what they’re doing but you’ll soon find out they’re doing a lot more than what you think they’re doing…(laughs). Zoe: is it illegal thing? (Kim: Oh yes! Laughs.) Something bloody...something darkness…or it’s something good for people…good for residents… Kim: ummmm…

Zoe’s final question still demands to know if the Chinese government is being slandered in any way, but I assure her that it is only the American government that receives criticism, but I play this down. 463: Kim: no…there are no…there is no criticism of any known government in this game so as far as that game is concerned it’s a politically correct game except for maybe a connection between the American government and who they’re controlling. Zoe: I think so because the first location is the Liberous Island so… Kim: but I think that is just because there…obviously the number of people who will play the game are probably Americans…that’s probably they're bigger. Zoe: Yes, because George Bush everyday talking about anti… Kim: …terrorism.

The tape ended at this point. Although we started to have a discussion about terrorism and American and British policy, I cannot include this data as it was not recorded. Nevertheless, the interview process brought to mind many unanswered questions Zoe had about international terrorism and police states.

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

CONCLUSION Despite not having grasped the global pandemic storyline initially, my attempts at provoking development of her ZPD provided Zoe with increased determinism to continue with the game from a more informed position. Zoe was able to complete 12 missions, albeit using cheats, up to the interview. This is quite an achievement in itself, as Zoe did not demonstrate the skills of a seasoned first-person shooter gamer, and the game’s virtual character, being male, may have been difficult for Zoe to relate to. Selfregulation to such a degree in an L1 environment, without L2 dialogic supportthat is, relying on her own study skills to mediate for her without reference to communities of enquiry exterior to the gameclearly demonstrates the effectiveness of the gaming environment to supply this dialogue. Given that the project ran over a number of months, Zoe must have engaged in many hours of play to reach this level as an intermediate learner of English. This seems to indicate that she had fully identified with the virtual character JC Denton, and until the cultural issues arose about playing in Hong Kong, she was making good progress. This disturbance to her play/learning is indicative of her feelings towards the game’s cultural stereotyping of Chinese and may have been sufficient to cause her to withdraw from the game. There is also the possibility that the complexity of the storyline was overreaching her ZPD so flow was disturbed and only sporadic learning was occurring. It would be interesting to discover how she acquired the cheat codes for the games, whether off the Internet or by asking friends at college. The study could not ascertain whether any external help was given to Zoe throughout the period of play and is a weakness of the study. I base my assumption of minimum peer/expert support based on reports from the host mother who commented that Zoe rarely left her bedroom after returning home from college (implying she did not have an active ‘social life’ with other students),

and also my personal observations of her in the learning resources center at the college and seeing her walking home from college where she was always alone. She would have had to engage with the plot in Deus Ex to be able to give such detailed descriptions during the interview, and there are indications of deep learning with regard to this. The strongest evidence is the emotional upset she displayed when describing her capture and imprisonment by UNATCO. Her ability to make the domain shift from the in-game conspiracy of a government destroying its own people in order to gain control over the population, to the reported appalling lack of government response given to the victims of Hurricane Katrina in August 2005, allegedly based on the victim’s social class and race, demonstrates Zoe’s understanding of real-world parallels within the semiotic devices of the game. Understanding the processes that lie behind the metacognitive shifting of domains is underresearched partly because the processes are so immediate and therefore difficult to measure when they occur, and partly because they remain for the most part invisible and unconscious to the learner. I would argue that Zoe has made strong virtual identities within the video games that have demanded her to utilize the target language in order to reach a certain stage in the games she has been playing. She has not had opportunities to develop her “gaming skills” through communities of enquiry, but has provided evidence of her deep learning of real-world issues through exposure to the game and has demonstrated competence at shifting domains within her inter-language competences, which constitutes a higher-order skill. Zoe has certainly been provided with new ways of viewing such topics as conspiracy, terrorism, and allegiance, and it would be interesting to follow up the research to see if, one year later, she is able to recall any of the issues she discussed in detail as that would certainly demonstrate long-term retention of information, and more significantly, whether her ZPD had expanded in these topic



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

areas. She could certainly recall in minute detail after her three-week abstention from playing the game, which supports the argument that video games can provide effective situated learning environments. What COTS video games often do not do is provide the pedagogic intervention required. As the researcher, and as a member of a community of enquiry, I had to engage in provoking Zoe’s ZPD in order for her to understand the detailed plot of Deus Ex. Whether this was due to her need for more refined study skills or more likely her need to be part of a real-world community of enquiry would be worth researching further. The question is, do COTS video games teach language as a standalone product, or does there need to be intervention and dialogic intercourse with an expert from a community of enquiry? There were sufficient affinity groups within the communities of practice in Deus Ex to enable Zoe to feel part of the game and to contribute to its ‘development’. Further research will need to be carried out to ascertain how effective these communities are in providing the learner with language skills in the L2. There is little doubt that good COTS video games are engaging and provide dynamic and compelling entertainment. What cutting-edge educators desire is for the rich virtual worlds within video games to be harnessed for the presentation of learning material.

Video Games in Educational Use van Eck (2006) is clearly optimistic about “serious games” that are in development,6 where the lessons learned from manufacturers of COTS games have been applied to “edutainment” products so that the game-play element has not been overshadowed or lost through overzealous pedagogy. This particular process of production of digital game-based learning (DGBL) as “one-off edutainment” is expensive, as it is time consuming and requires a great deal of input in terms of man-hours, which companies are reluctant to invest in for fear of



“revisiting their unprofitable past” (van Eck, 2006, p. 20). van Eck (2006, p. 18) reminds us of the dangers of “academizing” games and quotes Papert (1998) who refers to edutainment software of the last decade, which instead of harnessing the power of games for learning resulted in “shavian reversals”the offspring that inherits the worst characteristics of both parentswhere the game element is boring and the learning is just “drill and kill.” He argues that we must ensure we do not put too much emphasis in the other direction either, where games are fun to play but “hit and miss when it comes to educational goals and outcomes” (van Eck, 2006, p. 18). By finding the synergy between effective game-like engagement with the software and effective pedagogy, van Eck claims that COTS digital game-based learning is possible in the classroom. There are a number of organizations that classify games according to guidelines agreed upon within the video games industry to inform parents and teachers of game content and suitability for young players. The Entertainment Software Rating Board (2007) and the Pan-European Game Information (n.d.) age rating system established in 2003 provide an informative censorship of game content by giving a range of suggested ages the games are suitable for, as well as iconic representations of game content, such as bad language, sex, drug use, violence, gambling, and fear, as well as racial and other forms of discrimination. This rating system is similar to that used by the film industry, but has a much lower threshold for age suitability, starting its ratings at 3+, then advancing to 7+, 12+, 16+, and 18+ for adult games. These ratings are a useful tool for teachers and educators when selecting material suitable for certain age groups and cultural backgrounds. The data provided by this study for the use of COTS video games to teach second or other languages can be considered inconclusive. Nevertheless, further research into COTS video games should attempt to assess how much change is occurring within a learner’s ZPD while accessing

A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

the L2 environment. Studies that assess all four skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) through provoking the individual learner’s ZPD would provide valuable data as to how rapidly the L2 was being acquired. Access to diagnostic equipment used by games manufacturers on subjects for beta testing new games would provide a richer source of data about how the player accesses the L2 within the game environment. Attention could be given to where the game needs to supply the dialogic interaction, which would otherwise have been supplied by a teacher or more knowledgeable peer within a community of enquiry.

rich immersive environment containing virtual identities that act as powerful learning tools, and this could be integrated into current e-learning programs where scenario-like engagement is required by the learner, for assessment purposes for example. This is already practiced in jobs where there is a high risk factor such as air-traffic control or training tactical military operations, or where simulation is an effective substitute during training where equipment used has a high replacement cost such as fighter jets or oil rigs and where novices require specialized training before being presented with the real-world scenario.

Video Games in Employment

Video Games in Life

Just as Zoe felt comfortable in the UNATCO headquarters, I suggest that video games themselves can create communities of enquiry within the game world where the domain knowledge of a field of enquiry is accessible, in stages appropriate for the learner on the periphery of his or her chosen subject. I do not envisage this as a static “body of knowledge,” but as an organic database of simulated experiences that accurately reflect the real-world domain as it is updated and renewed. “In communities of practice, knowledge, skills, identities, and values are shaped by a particular way of thinking into a coherent epistemic frame” (Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2004). This concept of providing epistemic frames is based on the epistemology of that domain, the working knowledge of how certain professional groups think. Doctors speak about medical issues in the language they all know, as do teachers, scientists, lawyers, and childminders. Within those frames lie the language and concepts of that domain’s culture and practice. Video games would be able to act as examples of good practice within these epistemic frames and provide that group with learning environments for future employees. I am not suggesting either that all forms of learning should be accessible only as a video game. What video games do, and do well, is provide a

When a player identifies with a character in a video game, he or she is projecting his or her own self into the game and giving birth to a new identity that they will eventually accept as a real-world identity. This may sound like fantastical science fiction, but the evidence is already available, as this powerful communication and learning device is being used for both good and evil. Gee (2003, p. 151) highlights the fact that racist organizations have produced their own video games in order to teach their perspectives on reality. He argues that video games are no more powerful than books or films in that we take from them what we choose to, but also suggests that playing such a game would inform the player of why such an organization hates the way that it does and makes the player want to “redouble their efforts to work for world peace, diversity and tolerance” (Gee, 2003, p. 199). I would argue that minds can be changed by dialogue, and that learning is dependent on what you bring to the video game as your real-world identity. There are a myriad of facets that make up each and every life. The games design for the language learner to experience deep learning of the target language includes the learning of that language’s culture and what binds it together as a society. Video games used as powerful learning devices would make it possible



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

to create virtual identities that enable learners to share in the effective social practices, powerful identities, shared values, and ways of thinking of important communities of practice. Shaffer et al. (2005) direct us to the provision of epistemic frames for learners, where finding out about the ways of thinking, doing, and knowing within different communities of practice, such as different professions, leads to a “thickly authentic” context in which to learn where activities are simultaneously aligned with the interests of the learners, the structure of a domain of knowledge, valued practices in the world, and the modes of assessment used (Shaffer, 2005). By engaging the language learner in virtual communities of practice that they desire to be part of, they are more able to acquire the target language while developing their projected identity as a member of that community. Video games are fun too: In play, we participate in a simulation of a world we want to inhabit, and epistemic play is participation in a thickly authentic simulation that gives learners access to the epistemic frame of a community of practice. When it succeeds, it is fun, not because fun is the immediate goal, but because interest—linked to identity, understanding, and practice—is an essential part of an epistemic frame, and thus of an epistemic game. (Shaffer et al., 2004). I do not call for the abandonment of hard-won effective practices in English Language Teaching (ELT), which have produced and will continue to produce results in providing learners with the opportunities and abilities that ownership of another language can bring them. I do call for the adoption of any and all technologies that will make the task easier to produce those results by engaging the learner. Prensky (2001) highlights the differences that these technologies are already



having on the way young people think and act in the society (Prensky, 2001). Learning styles are changing and the pedagogic processes must adapt to address this change. The technology is now ripe for deploying into educational settings such as language learning. The idea is not new. Titles such as Who is Oscar Lake? (Language Publications Interactive) and the Carmen San Diego series (Brøderbund) launched over a decade ago were brave pioneering examples of what was then considered cutting-edge language learning products. Perhaps the video game industry could take the “moral high ground” by spearheading the development of video games for learning in all communities of practice. Our schools and universities would greatly benefit from being able to provide our students with rich, deep learning environments. And as regards examining learners, just sit the examinee in front of the video game of their chosen domain and see how well they survive in it!

REFERENCES Aljaafreh, A., & Lantolf, J.P. (1994). Negative feedback as regulation and second language learning in the zone of proximal development. Modern Language Journal, 78, 465-483. Arnold, J. (Ed.). (1999). Affect in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bartlett, F. (1932). Remembering: An experimental and social study. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. Beatty, K. (2003). Teaching and researching computer-assisted language learning. Longman/Pearson Education. Begg, M., Dewhurst, D., & Macleod, H. (2005). Game-informed learning: Applying computer game processes to higher education. Innovate, 1(6). Retrieved June 10, 2006, from http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=176

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Bruner, J. (1983). Child’s talk: Learning to use language. New York: W.W. Norton. Bruner, J., Goodnow, J., & Austin, G. (1957). A study of thinking. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Chaiklin, S., & Lave, J. (Eds.). (1993). Understanding practice: Perspectives on activity and context. New York: Cambridge University Press. Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Churchland, P.S. (2002). Brain-wise: Studies in neuro-philosophy. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. Clark, J.M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3, 149-210. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow. The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Perennial. Eidos Interactive Ltd. (n.d.). Homepage. Retrieved from http://www.eidos.com Ellis, R. (1994). The study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford Applied Linguistics. Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford Applied Linguistics. Entertainment Software Association of America. (2006). Essential facts about the videogame industry. Retrieved July 2006 from http://www.theesa. com/archives/files/Essential%20Facts%202006. pdf Entertainment Software Rating Board. (2007). Ratings guide. Retrieved October 2007 from http://www.esrb.org/ratings/ratings_guide.jsp Fauconnier, G. (2002). In M. Tomasello, M. (Ed.), The new psychology of languagecognitive and functional approaches to language structure (2nd ed.). Retrieved from http://cogsci.ucsd. edu/~faucon/253/tomasello.pdf

Fauconnier, G., & Turner, M. (2002). The way we think: Conceptual blending and the mind’s hidden complexities. New York. Basic Books. Gass, S. (1988). Integrating research areas: A framework for second language studies. Applied Linguistics, 9, 198-217. Gass, S., Mackey, A., Alvarez-Torres, M.J., & Fernández-García, M. (1999). The effects of task repetition on linguistic output. Language Learning, 49(4), 549. Gee, J. (2005). What would a state of the art instructional video game look like? Innovate, 1(6). Retrieved July 30, 2006, from http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=80 Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gupta, P., & MacWhinney, B. (1997), Vocabulary acquisition and verbal short term memory: Computational and neural bases. Brain and Language, 59, 267-333. Lantolf, J.P., & Thorne, S.L. (2006). Sociocultural theory and the genesis of second language development. Oxford: Oxford Applied Linguistics. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2000). Second Language Acquisition and applied linguistics. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 20, 165-181. Luria, A.R. (1982). Language and cognition. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Marr, A.J. (2000). Intrinsic motivation and Csikszentmihalyi’s flow experience. Retrieved from http://www.homestead.com/flowstate/files/ csikszentmihalyi_ four.html Paivio, A. (1990). Mental representations: A dual coding approach (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 45, 255-287. 

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Pan-European Game Information. (n.d.). Age rating system. Retrieved from http://www.pegi. info/en/index/ Piaget, J. (1962). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood. New York: Norton. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Prensky, M. (2004). The emerging online life of the digital native. Retrieved from http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky-The_Emerging_ Online_Life_of _the_Digital_Native-03.pdf Rieber, L.P. et al. (1996). Feedback and elaboration within a computer-based simulation: A dual coding perspective. Retrieved from http://it.coe. uga.edu/~lrieber/Rieber-AERA-1996.pdf Schmidt, R. (1994). Deconstructing consciousness in search of useful definitions for applied linguistics. Revue de l’AILA, 11. Shaffer, D. (2005). Epistemic games. Innovate, 1(6). Retrieved September 19, 2006, from http://www.innovateonline.info/index. php?view=article&id=79 Shaffer, D.W., Squire, K., Halverson, R., & Gee, J.P. (2004). Videogames and the future of learning. Retrieved from http://www.academiccolab. org/resources/gappspaper1.pdf Shaffer D.W. et al. (2005, June). Wisconsin Center for Education Research Working Paper No. 2005-4. Retrieved from http://www.wcer.wisc. edu/publications/workingPapers/Working_Paper_No_2005_4.pdf Shimizu, E., Tang, Y.-P., Rampon, C., & Tsien, J.Z. (2000). NMDA receptor-dependent synaptic reinforcement as a crucial process for memory consolidation. Science, 290(5494), 1170-1174. Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second language learning. London: Edward Arnold.



Skinner, B. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Slobin, D. (Ed.). (1985). A cross-linguistic study of language acquisition (vols. 1-2). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Subrahmanyam, K., Greenfield, P., Kraut, R., & Gross, E. (2001). The impact of computer use on children’s and adolescent’s development. Applied Developmental Psychology, 22, 7-30. Swain, M. (1983). Understanding input through output. Proceedings of the 10th University of Michigan Conference on Applied Linguistics. Tobin, J. (1999). An American otaku: Adolescence, alienation, and media learning outside of school. In J. Sefton-Green (Ed.), Digital diversions: Youth culture in the age of multimedia (pp. 106-127). London: Taylor and Francis. van Eck, R. (2006). Digital game-based learning: It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. EDUCAUSE Review, 41(2), 16-30. Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/apps/er/erm06/ erm0620.asp?bhcp=1 Vygotsky, L.S. (1977). Play and its role in the mental development of the child. In J.S. Bruner, A. Jolly, &, K. Sylva (Eds.), Play: Its role in development and evolution. New York: Basic Books. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in societythe development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Watson-Gegeo, K.A. (2001). Fantasy and reality: The dialectic of work and play in Kwara’ae children’s lives. Ethos, 29, 138-158. Watson-Gegeo, K.A. (2004). Mind, language, and epistemology: Toward a language socialization paradigm for SLA. Modern Language Journal, 88(iii), 331-350. Weigel, V.B. (2001). Deep learning for a digital age: Technology’s untapped potential to enrich

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higher education. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

KEY TERMS (FROM THE 36 LEARNING PRINCIPLES PROPOSED BY GEE, 2003) Committed Learning Principle: Learners participate in an extended engagement (a lot of effort and practice) as extensions of their realworld identities in relation to a virtual identity to which they feel some commitment and a virtual world that they find compelling. Design Principle: Learning about and coming to appreciate design and design principles is core to the learning experience. Identity Principle: Learning involves taking on and playing with identities in such a way that the learner has real choices (in developing the virtual identity) and ample opportunity to meditate on the relationship between new identities and old ones. There is a tripartite play of identities as learners relate and reflect on their multiple real-world identities, a virtual identity, and a projective identity. Intertextual Principle: The learner understands texts as a family (genre) of related texts and understands any one such text in relation to others in the family, but only after having achieved embodied understandings of some texts. Understanding a group of texts as a family (genre) of texts is a large part of what helps the learner make sense of such texts. Multiple Routes Principle: There are multiple ways to make progress or move ahead. This allows learners to make choices, rely on their own strengths and styles of learning and problem solving, while also exploring alternative styles.

Practice Principle: Learners get a lot of practice in a context where the practice is not boring (i.e., in a virtual world that is compelling to learners on their own terms and where the learners experience ongoing success). They spend a lot of time on task. Probing Principle: Learning is a cycle of probing the world (doing something); reflecting in and on this action and, on this basis, forming a hypothesis; reprobing the world to test this hypothesis; and then accepting or rethinking the hypothesis. Psychosocial Moratorium Principle: Learners can take risks in a space where real-world consequences are lowered. Regime of Competence Principle: The learner gets ample opportunity to operate within, but at the outer edge of, his or her resources, so that at those points things are felt as challenging but not “undoable.” Self-Knowledge Principle: The virtual world is constructed in such a way that learners learn not only about the domain, but about themselves and their current and potential capacities. Semiotic Domains Principle: Learning involves active and critical thinking about the relationships of the semiotic domain being learned to other semiotic domains. Semiotic Principle: Learning about and coming to appreciate interrelations within and across multiple sign systems (images, words, actions, symbols, artifacts, etc.), as a complex system is core to the learning experience. Situated Meaning Principle: The meaning of signs (images, words, actions, symbols, artifacts, etc.) are situated in embodied experience. Meanings are not general or decontextualized. Whatever generality meanings come to have is discovered bottom up via embodied experiences.



A Video Game, a Chinese Otaku, and Her Deep Learning of a Language

Text Principle: Texts are not understood purely verbally (i.e., only in terms of the definitions of the words in the text and their text-internal relationships to each other), but are understood in terms of embodied experiences. Learners move back and forth between texts and embodied experiences. More purely verbal understanding (reading texts apart from embodied action) comes only when learners have had enough embodied experience in the domain and ample experiences with similar texts.

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The excerpts have been transcribed from audiotape recordings between Zoe and the researcher. Pronunciation, grammar, and syntax errors have been left unaltered and an indication of intonation direction given by arrows at the end of a line. Italics indicate characters, locations, or fictional places within the game environments, so Hong Kong indicates the city as represented in the game environment, not the real-world city. Where discussion involves real-world locations, these have been left in normal font. Where Zoe uses the first person singular to refer to herself as a character in the game, ‘I’ remains in normal font.

5

6

Gee’s excellent book on What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy has been referenced throughout Zoe’s interview to highlight the key principles built into good COTS video games. Full © script for Deus Ex prepared by Luke Kowalski: http://db.gamefaqs.com/computer/doswin/file/deus_ex_script.txt. Description of the game DeusEx with hyperlinks are from Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Deus_Ex A topical subject for ChinaSARS and now Bird Flu (H5N1 avian influenza). Zoe refers to the almost complete lack of response by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) in the United States before, during, and after Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans (taken from Wikipedia, September 5, 2005; available at http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Federal_response_to_Katrina_a_%27National_Disgrace%27). Environmental Detectives developed by Education Arcade, Hazmat Hotzone from Entertainment Technology Centre, Virtual U developed by Professor W.F. Massey, and River City by Professor C. Dede.



Chapter XXVI

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training Ahmed BinSubaih University of Sheffield, UK Steve Maddock University of Sheffield, UK Daniela Romano University of Sheffield, UK

AbstrAct The design of serious games based on sound learning and instructional principles is important to ensure learning is integrated in the ‘game-play’. However, the process of achieving this is not yet fully understood, and research is hampered by the lack of practical demonstrations of how effective instructional design is when used alongside game design. This chapter provides an example of a successful application of instructional design to the development process of a serious game for traffic accident investigators in the Dubai police force. We use the findings from an experiment conducted for 56 police officers to analyze how learning objects are affected by the instructional principles used. To conclude the chapter, we describe the implications of the use of serious games in the police force for policymakers, educators, and researchers.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

INtrODUctION Battlezone, which was used for military training in the 1980s, and The Colony, a first-person space survival game created in 1988 (Stone, 2005) are early examples of the use of serious games for learning. More recently, the growth of interest in serious games has accelerated, with the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) showing a keen interest in video game technology (Zyda & Sheehan, 1997; Keller-McNulty et al., 2006), and with initiatives such as the Serious Games Initiative, the International Simulation & Gaming Association (ISAGA), the North American Simulation and Gaming Association (NASAGA), the Education Arcade, the Games-to-Teach Project, Game Research, Social Impact Games, and the UK Serious Games Alliance. While there is a lot of interest in serious games, the term itself is variously used. In defining what a serious game is, the Serious Games Initiative focused on the link between games companies and projects involving the use of games, for example in education (Stokes, 2005). Indeed, computer game companies nowadays see serious games as an extra activity that is commercially viable and makes use of their existing expertise. However, this linkage with games companies is conceptually too narrow, although most definitions do agree that serious games involve the use of gaming technology, albeit for purposes more than entertainment (Susi, Johannesson, & Backlund, 2007). Any definition of the term serious game is fogged by the overlap between areas such as e-learning, edutainment, game-based learning, and digital game-based learning. One factor in this overlap is the technology transfer between the games industry and the simulation industry, which makes it difficult to distinguish games, simulations, and serious games (Narayanasamy, Wong, Fung, & Rai, 2006). Some researchers, like Narayanasamy et al. (2006), propose a set of design characteristics that can be used to distinguish between these



fields. Others recommend looking at the differences between games and simulation based on three distinct elementssimulation elements, game elements, and pedagogical elementsto avoid being tied up in a Gideon knot (Aldrich, 2005). We will focus on these three distinct elements in more detail later in the chapter. For now, we note that, generally, the term serious game is loosely perceived as applying to many domains such as education, training, and simulation (Zyda, 2005). For the purposes of this chapter only, we will consider the term serious game as referring to the use of a training simulation to replicate a real experience in a virtual environment in order to facilitate the learning of knowledge and skills. We call this virtual experience the game-play, which represents the player’s experience when interacting with the game. The power of serious games stems from the fact that they build on the power of computer games, which in turn build on the power of games. Each of these mediums has been shown to be effective at transferring learning across a wide skill range, although the benefits across different domains vary. For instance, military usage of serious games has reached a point where the military is described as a “true believer” (Prensky, 2001). Indeed, most of the serious games are found in the military and also most of the investment. Examples include training for rifle range and obstacles courses (Zyda, 2005; Harz, 2006), and leadership and tactical experience (Beal, 2004). Besides the military, healthcare has seen benefits from using serious games, with examples such as use in therapy (Re-Mission, 2006; Stapleton, 2005) and training procedural skills (Hoffman, 2006; Russell, 2005). A ‘games for health’ conference is now held annually. The education domain has also reported the benefits of using serious games in teaching physics (Jenkins, Klopfer, & Squire, 2003; Stapleton, 2005), mathematics (Elliott & Bruckman, 2002), and history (Jenkins et al., 2003).

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

Despite the increased usage, there is still no surefire formula for how to design a serious game that is effective at transferring learning. Becker (2006a) argues that retrofitting a learning theory onto a successful game is possible, but it is entirely a different problem to go the other way. She cites the example of the movie industry, which has been around for 100 years but has no surefire formula to create blockbusters. The challenge facing serious game design is how to integrate the learning objectives into the serious game in a way that goes beyond making the game a sugar-coating for the educational purposes, which was how edutainment was perceived (Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2004). Edutainment is a form of entertainment design to educate as well as amuse the audience. Egenfeldt-Nielsen (2005) describes the problem as the lack of connection between the learning and the game-play, which very often limits the use of games as a reward for learning. He gives the example of Math Blaster!, an educational game in which the player must shoot down the balloon that represents the right answer; whoever pops all the balloons first wins. The problem with such an approach, he argues, is that it is based on the assumption that constant shooting of balloons will automatically lead to a conditioned response, no matter the learning, context, or previous experience. He argues that this illustrates the disconnection that exists between the game (shooting balloons) and the learning (mathematics). What the game is doing here is providing extrinsic motivation (not really related to the game but consisting of arbitrary rewards) rather than intrinsic motivation (the feeling of mastery). Becker (2005) argues that this disconnected approach has led to a lack of respect for edutainment. Some researchers view instructional design as a possible solution to help integrate the learning objectives in a serious game (Mantovani, 2001; Psotka, Black, & Hom, 2004; Gunter, Kenny, & Vick, 2006; Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004). This chapter will provide a practical example of how using instructional design alongside game design

has helped to integrate the learning objectives in the game. The aim is to provide a practical demonstration of this process, thus improving on the scant knowledge obtained by reverse engineering of existing serious games (as discussed in Becker, 2006b). Our work highlights how instructional design aided the development process and illustrates issues faced and lessons learned. The serious game that we use to demonstrate the use of instructional design is a game we developed for traffic accident investigators in the Dubai police force. We call the game SGTAI. There are relatively few examples of serious games for police training. In a report by Bennell and Jones (2003), the four examples presentedBoyd (1992), Helsen and Starkes (1999), Scharr (2001), and Justice and Safety Center (2002)used video-based simulations for police training and showed a lack of empirical study of their effectiveness. The serious games that are suitable for police training such as OLIVE (Simon, 2005), Incident Commander (Greiner, 2005), and Angel Five (Harz, 2006) also lack empirical study about their effectiveness. In contrast, we will present evidence that demonstrates that our serious game, SGTAI, is effective for police training.

RELATED WORK There is a general consensus about the need for building serious games based on sound learning and instructional principles (Mantovani, 2001; Psotka et al., 2004; Gunter et al., 2006; Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004). Two issues need to be overcome for this to happen. The first issue is to prove the worthiness of instructional design models. Here, research has produced a number of accepted and well-tested models such as ADDIE (Molenda, 2003). The second issue, which is still at an early stage of research, is how to match instructional design principles to game design principles. The serious games literature focuses on reporting the technical issues involved in development, or the



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

findings of empirical studies, or a combination of both, or places the emphasis on the learning theories used for designing the serious game. The topic that does not seem to have received similar attention is a practical demonstration of how instructional design was used alongside game design in the development process. The reason why this evidence of this match is scarce could possibly be attributed to the separation between the two campsgame design and instructional designas described by Becker (2006a). The first camp views game design principles as ones that are already employing sound principles and thus do not require instructional design principles. The second camp argues that despite the fact that games are already applying instructional principles, the “game designers must yield to the better-informed professional instructional designer” (Becker, 2006b). Prensky (2001) very often in his presentations and writings quotes a game designer who complains that when you introduce instructional designers to the development team, “the first thing they do is suck the fun out.” It has been pointed out that this can be turned around to say that leaving instructional designers out sucks the pedagogy out of the game (Jerz, 2005). In a debate between Prensky (on the game designers’ side) and Cannon-Bowers (on the instructional designers’ side) during the Serious Games Summit DC 2005 (Jerz, 2005), Cannon-Bowers stressed that she did not care if her doctor had fun when learning and preferred that he trained on a solid system. Becker (2006b) argues that the differences between the two camps must be reconciled before they can be combined to develop instructional games. The literature shows that the reconciliation process is underway to establish common ground between game design and instructional design. Gee (2003) has argued against those who say that video games are mindless exercises by suggesting that good video games have 36 learning principles built into them. Another proponent of video games



as learning tools is Prensky (2001; Gee & Prensky, 2006). He identified 10 cognitive style changes in the digital natives1, which challenge the current education and training methods, and he argues for alternatives. Aldrich (2005) presented a model in which he split serious games design into three types of elements: game, simulation, and pedagogy. He argues that the careful use of all three produces an appropriate educational experience. This work could provide the common ground to aid the reconciliation between the two camps. In fact it has already started to produce instructional design models specifically developed for serious games, such as CRAFTE (Charsky, 2006), which made use of Aldrich’s elements. Aldrich’s elements will be used in the next section to help with the instructional design of SGTAI. Despite the reconciliation process and the instructional design models produced for serious games, the field is still lacking practical demonstrations of how the link is implemented. This has forced researchers to try to reverse-engineer serious games (Becker, 2006b). The aim of the reverse engineering is twofold: to identify and classify the learning objectives, and to identify the mechanisms used to achieve learning. Also, reverse engineering can be successful in unearthing the learning objectives and mechanisms that have made it to the final productit would be very difficult to identify the objectives and mechanisms that were disregarded during the development cycle without access to the development team, especially in the absence of proper documentation. Becker stresses the need to understand what she calls the stress points in the design process where disagreements occur, which might have resulted in disregarding objectives and mechanisms. She argues that these could highlight the clash points between the game designers and instructional designers, which could facilitate better understanding of how to integrate instructional design and game design, and avoid the pitfalls of edutainment.

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION AND CURRENT TRAINING ISSUES To better understand the traffic investigation field, we conducted a field study (BinSubaih, Maddock, & Romano, 2005). The field study was divided into two phases: knowledge acquisition and preliminary experimentation. The main objectives of the knowledge acquisition phase were to better understand the investigation process (Figure 1 shows a typical traffic accident investigation) and to identify the instructional problems facing current training in the Dubai police force, which consists mainly of lectures and on-the-job training. The objective of the preliminary experiment was to examine the suitability of using serious games to teach traffic investigation. The preliminary experiment compared the use of a multiplayer serious game against the use of tabletop training. The results helped in identifying what SGTAI must focus on and in getting a feel for the acceptance of such technology in the Dubai police force. The field study confirmed the well-documented problems with using only lectures for teaching practical skills (Zhou & Reed, 2005; Foreman, 2003; Aldrich, 2002). For example, lectures lack interaction and engagement, which are important (Sankaran & Bui, 2001; Sachs, 2001). Furthermore the time allocated for the traffic investigation course was not sufficient to cover all the various accident types. The field study also found that the on-the-job training suffered from issues such as impracticality, varying levels of exposure, and lack of uniform assessment. The real environment hinders repeatability and exploration, two elements that are very important in any training environment. In particular, in a real traffic accident, exploration is very difficult to achieve. Issues such as the possibility of a traffic jammeaning that a road has to be cleared as soon as possible, the bewildering heat during the day in Dubai, and the intolerance of the people around and of those involved in the traffic accident

that want to get away, make it very difficult for an investigator to do his or her job. For a novice, the pressure of such problems, including the fear of embarrassment in front of the public and his or her colleagues, induces him or her to avoid exploration. In addition, in the real world it is impossible to reproduce a situation in an identical manner so that the same tasks can be practiced again and again. A further problem is the varying level of accident exposure that the various officers are subject to. Accident types and frequency differ from one area to another. Due to the fact that a new investigator is assigned within a jurisdiction to a particular police station and a particular patrol unit during on-the-job training, he or she might only be exposed to a limited range and number of accidents. The third issue is the lack of uniform assessment. The experienced investigator uses his or her own subjective judgment to decide whether a new recruit has completed the training and the lack of objective metrics can undermine this judgment.

DEVELOPMENT The learning objectives for SGTAI are to provide an environment that resembles a real traffic accident investigation that is practical in nature and varies in complexity. Figure 1 shows a typical accident investigation path. In practice, the investigation path varies between investigators. For example, some like to start by questioning the drivers (Figure 1g) before examining the evidence (Figure 1h), whereas others like to start with the evidence. The learners targeted by SGTAI are the officers in charge during an investigation. In the Dubai police force, each patrol vehicle has two personnel: the officer in charge and an assistant who is often also the driver. SGTAI aims to provide the investigator with a single-player first-person shooter (FPS) type environment. The FPS genre represents the closest match to the real-life training



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

Figure 1. A typical traffic accident investigation experience

(a) Receive the accident call.

(b) Travel to the accident.

(d) Secure the scene by parking the patrol vehicle at an appropriate place.

(e) Secure the scene using traffic cones.

(g) Identify and question people at the scene.

(j) Take photographs.

(m) Collaborate with paramedics.



(c) Contact the operation room for further assistance.

(f) Attend injured.

(h) Search for clues.

(i) Mark clues.

(k) Take measurements.

(l) Draw the accident scene.

(n) Collaborate with tow truck operator.

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

environment, which should help improve learning (Thalheimer, 2004). The decision to use a singleplayer rather than a multiplayer environment was made because the environment was required to be used inside and outside a classroom setting. A single-player environment is more suitable as it avoids the need to provide actors. In a multiplayer version, actors are used to play the roles of drivers, operators, paramedics, and other personnel to allow the investigator to experience dealing with the people involved when investigating an accident. In a single-player environment, the interaction with people is limited to stock replies to standard questions. In traffic investigation training courses, there are three domains of learning: knowledge, skills, and attitudes. The focus of SGTAI is on the knowledge and skills domains. The aim is to provide investigators with the experience of going through and completing the tasks of the five investigative phases: receiving the incident call, arriving at the accident scene, conducting the initial investigation, finalizing the data collection, and completing the accident file. It has been stressed that the effectiveness of a traffic accident investigator is dependent on two factors: training and experience (Baker & Fricke, 1986). To provide a training environment and an environment for gaining experience, SGTAI provides participants with: (i) a practical and safe environment to practice away from real accident constraints; (ii) a modifiable environment to cater for the different accident types; (iii) an environment that provides a uniform assessment; (iv) a single-player environment that forces the investigator to carry out all the investigative phasesthis avoids the issue where an experienced investigator takes over, as was the case for a novice investigator who did not complete a single drawing during his or her six months on the job because an experienced investigator always assumed the role; (v) an environment that records the interactions and that can be used to share the experiences of an aging workforce; and (vi) an environment that facilitates social interac-

tion outside the game. Figure 2 shows a typical virtual traffic investigation experience provided by SGTAI, which matches the real experience shown in Figure 1.

Using Instructional Design to Integrate the Learning Objectives In this section, the way the learning has been embedded in the virtual experience (i.e., the gameplay) with the help of instructional principles is explained. First, however, we consider learning theories. While we have found no evidence to point to one particular learning theory being effective at explaining why learning occurs in serious games, experiential learning theory has been mentioned in a number of serious games (Buch & Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2006; Dieleman & Huisingh, 2006). Although Kolb’s experiential theory may not be the most recent or the most widely appreciated learning theory (Nielsen-Englyst, 2003), its use in serious games shows that it has been found to help in understanding of how learning occurs. This being the case, it should aid the design process. Nevertheless, learning theories in general are known to lack the ability to provide prescriptive guidelines (Morrison, Ross, & Kemp, 2003), which means their role in the design process is usually confined to being descriptive. Instructional principles have been found to be effective at compensating for the shortcomings of learning theories (Morrison et al., 2003). For SGTAI, we based the instructional principles on Aldrich’s (2005) elements (see Virtual Leader (Aldrich, 2004) for an example), which we explain in more detail later. In addition, as part of the design process, we have incorporated feedback loops at multiple stages in SGTAI in order to enhance learning. Furthermore, we should note that SGTAI has also relied on preliminary experimentation to help identify what it must focus on (BinSubaih et al., 2005), and on an iterative process of development and testing to improve different aspects of



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

Figure 2. A typical virtual traffic accident investigation experience (the drawing of the accident in Figure l is completed outside the game)

(a) Receive the accident call.

(d) Secure the scene by parking the patrol vehicle at an appropriate place.

(g) Identify and question people at the scene.

(j) Take photographs.

(m) Collaborate with paramedics.



(b) Travel to the accident.

(e) Secure the scene using traffic cones.

(h) Search for clues.

(k) Take measurements.

(n) Collaborate with tow truck operator.

(c) Contact the operation room for further assistance.

(f) Attend injured.

(i) Mark clues.

(l) Draw the accident scene.

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

it, for example, the graphical user interface and the voices used by virtual characters.

Experiential Learning Principles Figure 3 shows the experiential learning principles used to build SGTAI. The assumption made is that the learner is going to enter Kolb’s experiential cycle, already having gone through the Dubai police college course material (hearing and seeing) and looking to put the knowledge, skills, and attitudes learned into practice (doing). According to Kolb’s experiential cycle, a learner can enter at any of the four stages (Smith, 2001). In SGTAI, the learner enters the experiential cycle at the concrete experience (CE) stage and finds him or herself in a virtual environment in which he or she goes through the investigation experience. The focus of this stage is to help the learner experience the complexity of reality. For example, during this phase a trainee investigator may find it difficult to perform an investigative task such as taking measurements at the accident scene. After completing the CE stage, the learner enters the reflective observation (RO) stage in which he or she reviews and reflects on his or her experience. The focus of this stage is to stimulate the learning process. The trainee who had difficulty in performing the measurement task can consider his or her performance during this stage. In the abstract conceptualization (AC) stage the learner draws conclusions from his or her experience. This stage requires the learner to be informed about his or her task by a trainer or from reading a manual or from other sources. SGTAI provides the learner with a self-evaluation wizard to help him or her evaluate his or her performance with model answers. His or her self-evaluation is also logged to be approved by the trainer. SGTAI also logs and tracks the learner’s actions and movements in the environment to help the learner and the trainer reflect on the performance. After the wizard the student also gets a score sheet, which clearly marks the tasks that

have been completed successfully or otherwise. This phase aims to help the learner understand the theories and philosophies that are generally applicable (Dieleman & Huisingh, 2006). For the measurement task this stage provides the trainee with feedback on his or her performance by pointing out what measurements need to be taken. The final stage is the active experimentation (AE) stage where the learner forms the basis for the planned changes. Dieleman and Huisingh (2006) describe this phase as the ultimate phase of transformation since its objective is to manipulate the outside world through the implementation of the change. For the measurement task, the trainee would plan what he or she needs to do differently and apply this in the next training session. Similarly, the other investigative tasks (e.g., photographing, placing markers, and drawing) can be shown to correspond to the four learning stages.

Instructional Principles The use of experiential learning principles is helpful in describing how a serious game facilitates learning, but it lacks, as do the learning theories in general, the ability to provide prescriptive guidance (Morrison et al., 2003). The instructional theories however are more prescriptive. Examples include Gagne’s nine instructional principles, Reigeluth’s Elaboration Theory, Bruner’s PsychoCultural approach, and Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction (Becker, 2006b). For SGTAI, Aldrich’s (2005) elements were used, despite the fact they are not described as an instructional theory. The reason why they can be used is because the elements represent how the content of game (e.g., learning objectives and background material) can be delivered (e.g., simplified interfaces, conflict, practice, scoring, and feedback). Aldrich’s perspective on educational simulation is one that includes three types of elements: simulation elements, game elements, and pedagogical elements. The simulation elements aim to enable transfer



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

Figure 3. Learning foundations upon which the traffic investigation serious game is built Learning Principles (how learning occurs) • Concrete experiences allow learners through apprehension to understand the richness and complexity of reality (CE).

• When using active learning, learners pay more attention, draw on prior knowledge, require deeper processing of material, and become more motivated.

• Learning is stimulated through reflective observation (RO).

• Discovery learning develops a meaningful learning which confronts learners’ current ideas and aids in modifying them.

• Using previous experiences and feedback, learners construct universal principles on how to solve problems (AC).

• Discovery learning also changes learners’ attitudes and values by helping them to understand that learning is a process not only a set of facts and places the responsibility on learners to tackle the problem and come up with a solution.

• Using knowledge from the AC stage learners plan how to do the task differently in order to solve problems (AE). Instructional Principles (how to ensure learning) Simulation elements:

Pedagogical elements:

Game elements:

• Provide learners with an environment that allows them to discover learning by performing meaningful tasks.

•Identify learning objectives (e.g. measuring, photographing, etc).

• Use a known game genre.

• Align the learning environment to the environment in which learners are expected to perform.

• Identify instructional problems.

• Use exaggeration.

• Provide an environment where learners can practice and experiment.

• Decide on what to simulate and the fidelity of the simulation.

• Use time and score to provide a challenge.

• Physical fidelity.

• Force moments of reflection.

• Use graphics and sound.

• Functional fidelity.

• Score and diagnose the performance.

• Balance fun.

• Store libraries of successful and unsuccessful plays.

• Allow for multiple skill levels. • Set achievable goals.

Feedback

Self-evaluation wizards.

All interactions.

0

Score sheet.

Trainer’s feedback.

Navigational patterns.

Social ecology.

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

of learning to the real world. The game elements aim to be entertaining and increase the level of enjoyment from the whole experience. Finally the pedagogical elements represent the learning objectives. This perspective helps in viewing a serious game in more manageable chunks and, more importantly, provides practical guidelines (i.e., instructional principles) on what to include in a serious game to satisfy the three types of elements. The following subsections describe the elements used in SGTAI along with how they were used.

Simulation Elements From the simulation elements shown in Figure 3, SGTAI provides an environment which facilitates the process of discovery learning, enables the learner to experiment and practice, and provides feedback. The basis learning theory for discovery learning is the cognitive model of learning in which the emphasis is on how the learner’s mind handles new information (Svinicki, 1998). This model shares some of the properties associated with constructivism in the way the learner acquires information in his or her own way. It also shares experiential learning properties where a learner learns by doing. Svinicki (1998) describes different characteristics for discovery learning such as emphasizing active learning and developing meaningful learning. SGTAI follows the first principle for the active learning characteristic by enabling the learner to be actively participating, which means he or she is paying more attention to learning in general. The different investigative phases and tasks focus the learner’s attention on the key ideas that are being examined, which should lessen the influence of distractions. The learner is also forced to draw on prior knowledge to be able to respond to the activities that require completion of tasks, which results in a deeper processing of the material. To make the learning meaningful in SGTAI, the learning context is aligned to the

eventual context by using the FPS genre and by providing real problems for the investigator to solve (e.g., taking the necessary measurements when an accident involves two vehicles). Feedback is also one of the simulation elements mentioned by Aldrich and one of the activities in the abstract conceptualization (AC) stage of experiential learning. Besides the feedback described in the AC stage, SGTAI facilitates the kind of feedback that can occur when learners interact to compare score sheets. This interaction forms part of an important activity outside the game which is referred to as social ecology (Herz & Macedonia, 2002). To do this the output of SGTAI (score sheets, all the interactions recorded, and the navigation path) can be considered as part of what the learner can construct as a ‘public entity’ and share and compare with others. Figure 3 shows the different kinds of feedback provided by SGTAI.

Pedagogical Elements The pedagogical elements aim to ensure that the learning objectives are included in the game and describe what needs to be simulated. An example of a learning objective in SGTAI is to teach the learner how to take measurements at the accident scene. These measurements are required to be able to reconstruct the accident scene for further investigation, which is often needed for court cases. To do this, SGTAI provides the learner with a way to take measurements, to record these measurements, and to evaluate the learner’s performance. Each accident scene has a model answer of what measurements need to be taken. These are used to assess the learner’s performance and are presented to him or her to check off if completed during the self-evaluation stage at the end of the investigation. To ensure the learner is accurately marking him or herself, the learner’s own assessment is recorded for further verification by the trainer. The measurement activities are relevant to the measurement task and therefore ensure that the learning objective is



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

an integral part of SGTAI and not being used as sugar-coating for educational purposes. Further evaluation can be carried out to examine if the sequence of actions followed is acceptable. For instance, the investigator should not start photographing the accident scene before securing it. Another pedagogical element is reflection, which we described earlier as part of the RO stage in the experiential cycle. The final pedagogical element that is recommended and present in SGTAI is to store libraries of successful and unsuccessful play. These are helpful to guide the discussion during the debriefing session after the game and are useful to track the learner’s progress over time.

Game Elements The game elements aim to make SGTAI entertaining. The first game element (i.e., using a known genre) is covered by the fact that the first-person shooter genre has been chosen since this is an established game genre. An exaggeration element is also added in the way the investigator carries the camera, measuring wheel, and two traffic cones with him at all times, and he can just click on the menu for things to appear in the environment. Another element is the challenge element, which exists because SGTAI requires the investigator to complete the investigation in the provided time and to achieve a high score. The game also uses sound to make the environment more entertaining. For the non-player characters’ voices (e.g., drivers, the operator, and other personnel at the accident scene) used for the dialogue system, the first attempt used textto-speech tools (Microsoft’s Speech for English and EULER for Arabic). However, after initial testing, this was replaced by actors’ voices because of quality issues. The environment is also simplified to focus on teaching a set of skills which can be grouped into a first level of difficulty. This level represents the basic tasks such as measuring, photographing, securing the accident scene, searching for



clues, and marking their positions. Since SGTAI enables different scenarios to be created, the complexity can be increased by adding different accident types, traffic flow, discrepancies in the statements given, and so forth. Breaking SGTAI into levels means the player can achieve a sense of advancement and completion.

sGtAI The serious game was developed using a software architecture called game space architecture (BinSubaih & Maddock, 2006) and using a commercial game engine called Torque.2 Figure 4 shows some examples of the accident scenarios developed. The typical virtual experience is shown in Figure 2. A typical game session starts with the investigator standing beside his or her patrol vehicle waiting for an incident call. Upon receiving and accepting the deployment (Figure 2a), the investigator is put into a car and gets driven to the accident scenethe investigator does not drive the vehicle as the training is aimed at the officer in charge (Figure 2b). During travel, his or her role is to communicate with the operation room to find out more details about the incident (such as who reported it, seriousness, number of vehicles involved, etc.; see Figure 2c). After arriving at the accident scene, the investigator is placed outside the vehicle and can start attending to the accident. His or her first role is to secure the accident scene by clicking on the patrol vehicle and moving it to an appropriate spot (Figure 2d). Then he or she can search for injured people and request additional resources (i.e., an ambulance) from the operation room (Figure 2f). After that he or she can carry out other tasks such as asking questions (Figure 2g), examining the scene (Figure 2h), placing markers (Figure 2i), taking photographs (Figure 2j), taking measurements (Figure 2k), and so forth.

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

Figure 4. Sample of accident scenarios created

EVALUATING SGTAI WITH REAL POLICE OFFICERS In February and March of 2006, an experiment was conducted to measure the effectiveness of SGTAI as a training tool and to analyze its suitability to address the issues facing the Dubai police force (BinSubaih et al., 2006). Fifty-six participants were selected randomly from traffic investigators in the Dubai police force. Two groups were required for the study: novices and experienced investigators. The average experience of participants was just under seven years.3 All the participants were males. Seven participants were dropped for various reasons: two for study leave, one for special assignment, one for sick leave, one felt pressurized by the experiment and requested to stop after the first training session, one due to simulator sickness, and one due to unrecorded data in the second training session. This resulted in 49 participants for the study. The experiment design consists of two primary sessions as shown in Figure 5. The first session has three parts: agreeing and signing the confidentiality agreement for the experiment, followed by pre-test and first questionnaires. All participants went through the first three parts. After this the pre-test results were calculated and they were used

to divide participants into two groups (A and B) with similar performance averages. Group A was the control group and group B was the one that was trained. These groups (A and B) were further divided into two groups based on their experience (novices and experienced). This resulted in four groups: novices-A (10 participants), novices-B (16 participants), experienced-A (9 participants), and experienced-B (14 participants). The control groups have two main roles. The first role is to control the experiment stages to ensure that the pre- and post-tests are of similar difficulty levels. The second role is to use their results to measure the effect training has by comparing them against the trained groups. In session 2, the two A groups (novices and experienced) followed different routes to the two B groups (novices and experienced). The two A groups only took part in the post-test, whereas the two B groups went through four parts: familiarization sessions,4 two training sessions, post-test, and a second questionnaire (Slater’s (1999) presence5 questionnaire). The two hypotheses were that SGTAI should be able to improve the performances of novices and experienced investigators, and that novices should be able to improve their performances by more than the improvements recorded for the



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

Figure 5. Experiment designthe numbers in each group are shown in brackets (e.g., Novices-B had 18 people in it)

experienced investigators. The improvement was measured by conducting pre- and post-tests. A further objective of SGTAI was to assess its suitability to address the traffic accident investigation topic in the Dubai police force. This was judged by the comments received from the participants and the trainers. A detailed analysis of the experiment and the results is presented in BinSubaih et al. (2006).



The main findings were that both B groups managed to significantly improve their performance and that there was no significant improvement for both A groups. The findings also showed that the grouping process succeeded in dividing the novices and experienced investigators into groups of equal level of performance. The findings also confirmed that the pre- and post-tests were of a similar difficulty level.

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

HAS THE INTEGRATION OF LEARNING INTO SGTAI WORKED? This section presents a post-mortem of how successful SGTAI was at combining instructional design and game design to ensure that learning is integrated into the game-play. Although there is no straightforward way in which to assess how successful the integration was, because of the many complex interactions between the different factors involved (i.e., fun, fidelity, engagement, functional abstraction, etc.), there are a number of aspects that can be analyzed to provide some indications. First, we can examine if SGTAI achieved its learning objectives. This will be judged by its learning effectiveness and its ability to address the current training issues facing the Dubai police force. Second, we can examine the instructional principles to identify their limitations. We will use comments from participants in the experiment to discuss the effectiveness of the instructional principles.

Learning Effectiveness The findings suggest that there is a statistically significant improvement in the performance of both novices and experienced investigators who were trained on SGTAI compared to those who were not. These findings validate the first hypothesis of the experiment. Several reasons could help explain this positive outcome. First, it could be argued that the training sessions promoted concentration and focused participants on the investigation topic in a way that demanded attention. It is known from the learning theory literature that increased interactivity leads to increased attention, which results in a deeper information processing (Wong et al., 2007). In addition, several studies have shown that video games increase attention rate (Green & Bavelier, 2003; McFarlane, Sparrowhawk, & Heald, 2002). Another study has also shown that increased at-

tention in serious games leads to better transfer of learning (MacNamee et al., 2006). The second reason could be attributed to SGTAI presenting participants with a challenge which motivated them to achieve better scores. One of the factors that helps motivate participants in any setting is the discovery that their knowledge is incomplete (Habgood, Ainsworth, & Benford, 2005). The ability to repeatedly practice away from real-life constraints means longer exposure, which allows participants time to develop and refine their skills. Repetition is an important learning factor that can improve performances by 30 to 110% for initial repetitions and by 15 to 45% for additional repetitions (Thalheimer, 2004). The average improvement reported for novices-B between the first training session and the second training session in our study exceeded the suggested range of performance improvements due to initial repetitions quoted by Thalheimer. The average improvement reported for experienced-B investigators between the first training session and the second training session fell within the range of performance improvements due to initial repetitions. The third reason could be attributed to ability of the learning foundations used to ensure that motivation and engagement are not disconnected from learning. As described earlier, intrinsic motivation is preferred over extrinsic motivation, where intrinsic motivation relies on providing the feeling of mastery. This is provided in SGTAI through the use of a scoring system, which indicates the progress made and which is linked to the completed tasks that are all related to the investigation process. The other component used to keep participants engaged is to provide them with achievable goals without making the game too easy. The average largest and smallest performance improvements reported for all participants were 52% and 15% respectively. These findings show that the game was not too easy and not too hard. Providing feedback also keeps participants engaged.



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

The second hypothesis, which expected novices to exhibit significant improvement compared to the improvements recorded for experienced investigators, is validated to a lesser extent than the first hypothesis by the findings. There were significant differences in performance improvements between novices and experienced investigators who were trained on SGTAI. (This was true for alpha value6 of 0.05 but was not the case when alpha level was reduced to 0.005 and 0.001. The first hypothesis withstood these reductions, which increases the confidence in the results.) The basis for the second hypothesis was that the environment does not represent a high difficultly level and therefore experienced investigators should be able to achieve high scores in the preand post-tests. Also, the difference between their improvements and the improvements recorded for novices should remain significant. A possible explanation is that the study underestimated the effect real-life constraints have on shaping the knowledge and skills of experienced investigators which pushes them into adopting shortcuts. With time these shortcuts become the norm. This was evident from the improvements reported in the photographing task for the experienced investigators. Although the investigator is expected to accompany and instruct the photographer to the important clues that need to be photographed, it became a habit with a number of investigators to allow the photographer to wander alone and take the photographs that he judged appropriate. The problem with this is that the photographer is not aware of the sequence of actions that led to the accident and thus cannot determine the clues that need to be photographed. One possible explanation is because of time constraints. It could also be attributed to the culture of collaboration, which fosters an element of trust between the investigator and the photographer, as they have most likely previously worked together on a number of occasions. As one experienced investigator revealed in the debriefing session, they initially accompanied and instructed the photographer,



but with time this became a lower priority. This might provide an explanation for why the photographing task was the most improved task for experienced investigators, as they were forced to do it themselves. The above findings are important since they indicate the suitability of this type of technology for the personnel in the Dubai police force. This opens the door for expanding the investigation of its use into different fields. In fact a number of projects have been discussed since demonstrating SGTAI at InterSec 2006,7 such as using it for forensic science, search and rescue, hostage negotiation, and airport security. The findings also indicate that the three learning foundations selected experiential learning principles, Aldrich’s (2005) elements, and increasing the feedback loopshave managed to make learning an integral part of SGTAI. Comments from participants who were trained with SGTAI indicated that it was effective. For example, in open-ended questions, 10 comments were made about SGTAI’s ability to teach and six found it useful. In addition, nine thought it was excellent. This is also backed by the suggestions made where seven thought it should be used in the police academy, and one thought it should be deployed in the police clubs. What was surprising was the fact that two comments thought the communication with the operation room helped increase the realism of the environment. This is despite the fact that it is menu-based dialogue. This is probably because it contributed to the overall investigation experience despite its lack of fidelity. Comments from trainers indicated that SGTAI was effective at improving performance and at providing an environment that they could utilize in a classroom setting. Other studies such as Tactical Iraqi (Vilhjalmsson & Samtani, 2005) and Full Spectrum Command (FSC) (Beal & Christ, 2004) reported similar perception of learning by participants. For instance, in Tactical Iraqi one participant commented, “I learned more in 1 day with this [TLTS] than I did in a whole tour in Iraq.” In SGTAI, the perception of the participants’

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

ability to learn is also clear from their comments. One participant commented that “In my opinion if everyone in the Dubai police force is trained on this [SGTAI] there is no need for lectures.” Other comments showed increased interest in the subject being taught and a willingness to spend time on their own working on SGTAI. This is similar to the findings of a project that used a game to teach operations management, which found a substantial amount of increased interest in the subject (Chwif & Barretto, 2003).

Effectiveness at Addressing the Current Training Issues Besides improving performance, there are other indications that suggest the potential suitability of SGTAI to address the problems with the two training methodslectures and on-the-job trainingemployed by the Dubai police force. The issues facing the use of lectures are: examfocused teaching, lack of hands-on practice, class size and time constraint, and lack of motivation and engagement. The exam-focused teaching could be attributed to the fact that students are only tested using theoretical examinations, which leads them to focus on the topics that are going to be in the exams. These exams often measure the students’ ability to memorize facts, but the students’ ability to apply the knowledge remains questionable. Serious games can provide a platform for students to put what they have learned into practice, which can help them to refocus on the whole investigation topic rather than what is going to be in the exam. Additionally a game often forces students to take an active role, which provides hands-on practice. The issues of the class size and the time constraints were raised during interviews conducted with officers of different ranks. These issues have limited the types of accidents students are exposed to and limited the feedback they receive during lectures. SGTAI can address these constraints since students can use the game in their own

time. SGTAI is also capable of running different accident scenarios to suit the different kinds of accident types the trainers feel necessary to expose students to, but due to time constraints are unable to. Furthermore, SGTAI is well suited for providing the immediate feedback that is lacking from lectures and which is key to retention and understanding. SGTAI also logs the participants’ interactions, which a trainer can examine and use to provide further feedback. This logging ability can be used to analyze data in ways that is impractical in lectures or field training. For example, the navigational behaviors of participants and the way they prioritize tasks at a scene are easier to record and analyze in a serious game. As an example, the navigational pattern could reveal that an investigator had strayed into an unsafe area, for example, into the opposite lane of a highway, thus putting himself at risk. Another potential use for the logging ability of SGTAI is to use it as a platform for sharing the experiences of an aging workforce. The environment records users’ missions for after-action review. This data can be used to share experience. The last issue regarding the use of lectures is that of motivation and engagement. The ability of SGTAI to motivate and engage investigators was discussed in the previous section. The issues facing the use of on-the-job training by the Dubai police force are: impracticality, varying levels of exposure, and lack of uniform assessment. The impracticality issue was raised due to the lack of repeatability and exploration. SGTAI allows students to practice as many times as they feel necessary to improve their skills. Since they can practice on their own, they can explore different options without fear of failure or embarrassment. The issue of varying levels of exposure is addressed by the ability to create different accident scenarios. The issue of the lack of uniform assessment is addressed by using performance metrics, which provide a more systematic and fair assessment system.



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

Instructional Principles This section describes the instructional principles that have contributed to or undermined the integration of the learning objectives into the serious game. The presentation has two main sections: what went right and what went wrong.

What Went Right Physical fidelity was preserved by two lessons learned from the preliminary experiment (BinSubaih et al., 2005): cultural issues and familiar places. In the preliminary experiment we had a woman character at the accident scene and she was dressed in a short skirt. To the trainer’s amazement this managed to deter one of the investigators from approaching the woman, although she might have been a witness in the case and holding vital information to solving the case (although in this case she was not). When the investigator was asked about this after the experiment, he said that since she was not dressed properly, approaching her would put him into a suspicious position. Here we can see that conservative cultural principles should be considered in a serious game. This suggests that it is probable that racial and religious issues also need to be carefully considered so as not to influence an investigator’s performance. The course material used in traffic accident investigation training also warns of favoritism at the accident scene and demands that all parties should be treated equally. To minimize the possibility of these issues emerging, the characters should be of similar creed and religious belief, which should be exhibited in the way they dress and speak.8 Similar consideration also needs to be given as to whether or not the same game character should be used in different accidents. In real life, if we see somebody involved in more than one accident, we may suspect his or her driving skills. This could result in an investigator jumping to conclusions. In SGTAI we used different game characters for



the drivers for each scenario by changing their faces and textures and reusing the body mesh. We also used different voices for the actors. Another lesson learned was with regards to the location chosen for the accident. In the preliminary experiment we named the virtual street in the scenario after a known road. This caused problems. As the model of the street and its surroundings was not a replica of the real one, any missed information was pointed out by the user. In presence terminology this means a break of presence (Brogni, Slater, & Steed, 2003). The results from the presence questionnaire can be used as an indication of the level of psychological fidelity achieved in SGTAI. Both novice and experienced investigators reported a similar level of presenceabout 66% using Slater’s (1999) presence questionnaire. The questionnaire measures the subjective experience felt by the participants of ‘being there’ in the accident scene and contains 23 questions with scores between 1 and 7, and one open-ended question. The investigators’ comments listed the factors that they felt increased or reduced the fidelity as a whole. Among the factors that increased fidelity were the use of 3D technology, traveling to the accident scene, and communicating with the operation room. The factors that undermined fidelity included lack of feeling from the characters, moving people, navigation difficulty, and unrealistic accident. These results should be taken as indicative and not as a true reflection of the level of presence felt by participants. The reason for this is because the use of questionnaires is open to discussion because of their subjective nature and because it was found that the presence questionnaire only marginally managed to distinguish between real and virtual experiences in a ‘reality test’ (Usoh, Catena, Arman, & Slater, 2000). Another consideration in a serious game is the use of subject matter experts (SMEs). Although the reliance on qualified SMEs is important (Beal, 2004) to identify learning objectives and instructional problems, having first-hand experience of

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

the investigation topic is very beneficial. The time spent working in a police station and traveling to accidents revealed that there is a disconnection between what is being taught (and often what the SMEs preach) and what is actually being practiced. After further investigation and discussion, it was identified that the disconnection resulted from the constraints imposed by reality, which fostered the adoption of shortcuts. With time, these shortcuts became the norm and often ended up being passed on to new recruits during the on-the-job supervised training. Equipped with this knowledge SGTAI was focused to force the investigator to do all the tasks individually. This also makes SGTAI applicable when spaced appropriately over time to ensure that these shortcuts are identified and corrected. The other issue with SMEs is that they are linear experts (Aldrich, 2004) who speak about sequences and cases. In the development of Virtual Leader (Aldrich, 2004), it was found that trying to make experts think in a non-linear way is a very difficult task. With the two SMEs used in SGTAI, this was apparent in the way they often cited previous cases. This is where the game design and instructional design expertise need to take linear information and convert it into dynamic simulation. The other factor that helped identify what SGTAI should simulate is to identify what a serious game is going to add to training methods that are currently being used or could be used in the Dubai police force. If SGTAI is not going to add anything that other cheaper methods can achieve, its whole purpose becomes questionable. This is where some of the initial time was spent. The development of an early prototype facilitated running the preliminary experiment, which compared the use of a serious game against the use of a tabletop training (BinSubaih et al., 2005). The serious game in the preliminary experiment used an open environment that required actors to participate in the session. This restricted its usage. It also did not provide the trainer with additional functionalities (such as assessment)

to compete with the tabletop method. To address these shortcomings, the type of serious game required was switched to a single-player game and further functionalities were added to assist the trainer in evaluating students (e.g., self-evaluation, score sheet, navigational patterns, and storage of all interactions). Furthermore, it was helpful and important to look at SGTAI not only as a training tool but as part of a wider setup within the organization. Doing so revealed general issues (i.e., not only related to training) facing the Dubai police force which SGTAI can contribute to, such as experience sharing. Addressing these in SGTAI should increase its appeal. The final factor that helped the development of SGTAI is following an iterative process which relied on play testing. Play testing helped to improve two components: the audio and the graphical user interface. The characters’ synthesized audio used for the dialogue was found to be unclear and the Arabic accent to be distracting (i.e., it used accents that sounded Algerian or Moroccan, which the players found amusing). Based on this, the decision was made to replace the synthesized audio with actors’ voices with local accents (i.e., UAE accent).

What Went Wrong The limitations of SGTAI are concerned with the level of fidelity achieved, the issue of the dialogue system, and having access to course material from the game. The fidelity design mainly focused on functional fidelity, and the findings from the performances for individual investigative tasks (e.g., photographing and measuring) give a positive indication of the ability of SGTAI to improve performance across these tasks. Additionally participants’ comments mentioned a number of these tasks as adding to the fidelity, which is indicative of the functional fidelity. However the effect of the abstraction (i.e., through the computer medium) on functional fidelity was not measured. For instance, would the investigators still be able



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

Figure 6. The dialouge system

to achieve similar performances without having the icons present in the graphical user interface acting as a constant reminder of the tasks that need to be accomplished? Moreover, have some of the abstracted tasks prevented the investigator from learning (i.e., having to explain actions might have interfered with the investigators’ sequence of thoughts)? In the future the reflection boxa pop-up text the user types his or her thoughts into that is used to force a moment of reflection after actions such as photographing, measurement, and placing markersshould be optional, and preferably only be used when time is not a constraint during the training session. The dialogue system used became a problem

0

after changing the game type from being a multiplayer game in the preliminary experiment to a single-player game. In the multiplayer game actors were used to play the roles of the characters. It was difficult and expensive to try to automate the dialogue system in a single-player version while still maintaining the same level of dialogue freedom and fidelity. Therefore the decision was made not to assess investigators on this part of the investigation. Figure 6 shows the dialogue system used. In the future, to include this assessment (i.e., interviewing drivers, communicating with the operation room, and collaborating with police personnel at the scene), a multiplayer version of the game should be used.

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

SGTAI did not provide a mechanism for participants to access the course material. This is a missed learning opportunity that could have facilitated uniform feedback. Currently SGTAI provides the student with model answers of what should be accomplished and leaves it up to student to find out why such action is necessary, for example, from the trainer or by referring to other resources.

IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS This study has received positive feedback from students, educators, and policymakers. The comments described earlier show that both students and educators found SGTAI to be practical and effective. Policymakers found SGTAI to be innovative. Students, educators, and policymakers also pointed towards improvements required and other fields within the Dubai police force that could make use of this technology. This suggests that serious games have a potential in becoming one of the training methods utilized by the Dubai police force. It is important to point out that the openness to change (especially technology-driven change) is partly due to the current push in the Dubai government to become an electronic government. The Dubai eGovernment project began in 2001 with the aim of converting 90% of all services to electronic services by the end of 2007.9 In November, 2006, Dubai police announced that it had managed to reach 88% and Dubai Municipality had managed to achieve 90%.10 These are positive indicators towards technology tolerance. The implications for policymakers concern the use of serious games for training and for sharing experiences. As the number of examples demonstrating the ability of serious games to deliver on their objectives increases, combined with digital natives demanding change, the police domain would find it difficult not to follow suit with other domains that have become “true believers” in the

use of this technology. The use of serious games represents a viable option that not only appeals to the new generation of police recruits, but has shown its ability to address a number of issues facing current training methods at the Dubai police force. During discussions the first author held with police officers of different ranks, the issue novice investigators raised was the lack of practical training environments, and the issue experienced investigators raised was the lack of training provided to help them improve their skills and keep up to date with advances in the traffic investigation field. SGTAI can address both issues. It is practical and has been developed as a standalone environment. This means it can be used to provide experienced investigators with on-demand learning. Policymakers also know that these issues are not limited to the traffic investigation field but can be found across many other fields in the police domain. This studyand judging by the requests received for such environmentsshows that forensic science investigation, search and rescue, hostage negotiation, and airport security are some of these fields. In addition, serious games have a greater potential compared to the video-based simulations that currently dominate the domain of police training (Bennell & Jones, 2003) because serious games are easier to modify (or mod11). Modding is a powerful tool for digital natives who thrive on social interaction (Herz & Macedonia, 2002), and many studies have shown it to be effective in the serious games domain (Fong, 2004). Furthermore, modding has a role to play in building an infrastructure for sharing experiences. It has been shown that one of the factors that pushes people to develop their skills is to get peer acknowledgment (Herz & Macedonia, 2002). This means that policymakers would have to provide an infrastructure capable of supporting such activities. They also need to ensure that educators are available to monitor such environments to verify the experiences shared and to ensure that the shortcuts that currently undermine on-the-job training are identified and



Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

corrected. Policymakers should also consider providing incentives for investigators to share their experiences. A similar scheme currently exists in the Dubai police force to encourage suggestions, the Suggestion Program, which began in 1998. The program has three objectives. The first objective is to unleash the talents and innovative powers of human resources. The second objective is to get acquainted with the views of the public. The third objective is to ensure the continuous improvement of performance. It works based on points, and there are rewards for people with the most implemented suggestions. They are given titles such as “Knight of Suggestions” and “King of Suggestions.” A similar system to encourage investigators to exchange experiences and also to become modders by developing accident scenarios would help create a continuous learning environment. The main implication for educators is that they must understand that the current on-the-job practical training environment is not delivering what is expected of it. The cost of not having an unconstrained practical training environment is evident from the relatively low results of the pretest (see Figure 5 and accompanying description above), which averaged 39% and 51% respectively for novices and experienced investigators. This requires educators from the on-the-job training and the ones at the Dubai Police Academy to come together to identify the responsibilities, the shortcomings of the current investigator training, and possible solutions to address them. A serious game can only achieve so much and can only deliver on the learning objectives set for it. Therefore it should be part of a larger solution, and should not be seen as the only solution for a lack of practice. The ideal role for it is to bridge the gap between lectures and on-the-job training by easing learners into an intense, unsafe, and unpredictable real-life situation. Educators also need to break a serious game into chunks that can be delivered in the period of a classroom. They should also ensure, when using serious games for



on-the-job training, that it is spaced appropriately over time to prevent the issue of shortcuts becoming part of the investigation process. In addition, educators must be prepared to deal with students who are not video game players and understand the difficulty they are going to face, especially at the start with the navigation and control issues. To do this it helps if educators themselves try to become gamers to better understand these issues. Although the assumption made earlier was that learners enter SGTAI already having gone through the traffic investigation material, there is no reason why SGTAI cannot act as pre-course training material. The benefits of this would be to give the learners understanding of the vocabulary used, tasks they have to do, the people they have to interact with, and the marking scheme. America’s Army is a good example of a serious game that has been used to inform potential candidates about life in the Army before joining, and it has been shown to be effective as a training tool (Zyda, 2005). Another example is Microsoft Flight Simulator, which has been described as the most successful use of commercial games for trainingin the U.S. Navy, all student pilots and undergraduates receive a customized version of the software (Herz & Macedonia, 2002). A study conducted by the U.S. Navy showed that students who used the game during early flight training received higher scores than those who did not. The implication of this study for researchers concerns the use of instructional design when developing a serious game. The debate of whether or not there is a need to use instructional design is ongoing. From this study’s perspective, instructional design helped in breaking SGTAI into manageable blocks, which helped focus the design process. At the start of the development of SGTAI, the vast number of instructional design models available made it difficult to know what to choose. This was, and still is, hampered by the lack of practical demonstrations of how effective or ineffective instructional design is when used alongside game design. As we noted earlier, this

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

has forced some researchers to try to reverse-engineer serious games to identify what principles were used (Becker, 2006a). Our study provides researchers with a practical demonstration of using instructional design to integrate the learning objectives in SGTAI, thus improving on the scant knowledge obtained by reverse engineering of existing serious games. Towards the latter stages of our study, a number of instructional design methods targeted for serious games emerged (e.g., CRAFTECharsky, 2006). However these are new and their abilities need to be further investigated. A possible future research direction is to verify if SGTAI includes the principles suggested by these instructional design methods.

CONCLUSION There is a big gap between showing how existing games employ “best practice” in instructional design and turning that around to use “best practice” to develop good serious games (Becker, 2006b). This chapter contributes to bridging this gap by demonstrating how effective the use of instructional design was alongside game design in developing a serious game for traffic accident investigation. The effectiveness was assessed based on the success of achieving the learning objectives and based on the results of the interactions between the different principles (i.e., increasing accessibility to the serious game reduced fidelity when multiplayer capability was removed in favor of a single-player game). The comments made by the participants were also used to highlight the effectiveness of the principles. In the future, as more practical demonstrations are documented, the research of this area can start to investigate the patterns that exist and their relationship to different domains and different skill sets.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The work was sponsored by a grant from Dubai police. The authors wish to thank the trainers who helped in developing the performance metrics and giving us feedback on the game. We also wish to thank the police officers who took part in the experiment and those who assisted us in testing the game. Finally, we would like to thank the actors whose voices were used.

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Foreman, J. (2003). Next-generation: Educational technology versus the lecture. EDUCAUSE Review, 12-22. Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J., & Prensky, M. (2006). Don’t bother me momI’m learning! Paragon House. Green, C.S., & Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 423, 534-537. Greiner, B. (2005, October 31). Game industry finds serious outlet for creative energies. Retrieved August 14, 2007, from http://www. washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/10/30/AR2005103000578_ pf.html Gunter, G., Kenny, R., & Vick, E. (2006). A case for formal design paradigm for serious games. Proceedings of the International Digital Media and Arts Association. Habgood, M.P.J., Ainsworth, S.E., & Benford, S. (2005). Endogenous fantasy and learning in digital games. Simulation & Gaming, 36, 483-498. Harz, C. (2006, April 26). Games for learning: Serious entertainment. Retrieved August 14, 2007, from http://mag.awn.com/index.php?ltype=page one&article_no=2863 Herz, J.C., & Macedonia, M. (2002). Computer games and the military: Two views. Defense Horizons, 11, 1-8. Hoffman, E. (2006). Games for Health 2006: Pulse!! First-person healthcare system simulation. Retrieved August 14, 2007, from http://seriousgamessource.com/features/feature_102506_ pulse_2.php Jenkins, H., Klopfer, E., Squire, K., & Tan, P. (2003). Entering the education arcade. Computers in Entertainment, 1(1), 17.

Jerz, D.G. (2005). A debate between Jan CannonBowers and Marc Prensky (Jerz’s Literacy Weblog). Retrieved August 14, 2007, from http://jerz. setonhill.edu/weblog/permalink.jsp?id=3835 Keller-McNulty, S., Bellman, K., Carley, K., Davis, P., Ivanetich, R., Laskey, K., Loftin, R., Maddox, D., McBride, D., McGinnis, M., Pollock, S., Pratt, D., Robinson, S., vonWinterfeldt, D., Zyda, M., Weidman, S., Glassman, N., & Wright, B. (2006). Report defense modeling, simulation, and analysis: Meeting the challenge committee on modeling and simulation for defense transformation. National Research Council. Kirriemuir, J., & McFarlane, A. (2004). Literature review in games and learning. Bristol: NESTA Futurelab. MacNamee, B., Rooney, P., Lindstrom, P., Ritchie, A., Boylan, F., & Burke, G. (2006). Serious Gordon: Using serious games to teach food safety in the kitchen. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Computer Games: AI, Animation, Mobile, Educational & Serious Games (CGAMES06). Mantovani, F. (2001). VR learning: Potential and challenges for the use of 3D environments in education and training. In G. Riva & C. Galimberti (Eds.), Towards cyberpsychology: Mind, cognitions and society in the Internet age. Amsterdam: IOS Press. McFarlane, A., Sparrowhawk, A., & Heald, Y. (2002). Report on the educational use of games: An exploration by TEEM on the contribution which games can make to the educational process. Cambridge: TEEM. Mitchell, A., & Savill-Smith, C. (2004). The use of computer and video games for learning: A review of the literature. Retrieved August 14, 2007, from http://www.lsda.org.uk/files/PDF/1529.pdf



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Molenda, M. (2003). In search of the elusive ADDIE model. Performance Improvement, 42(5), 34.

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Morrison, G., Ross, S., & Kemp, J. (2003). Designing effective instruction. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Slater, M. (1999). Measuring presence: A response to the Witmer and Singer questionnaire. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 8(5), 560-566.

Narayanasamy, V., Wong, K.W., Fung, C.C., & Rai, S. (2006). Distinguishing games and simulation games from simulators. Computers in Entertainment, 4, 2. Nielsen-Englyst, L. (2003). Game design for imaginative conceptualization. Proceedings of the 7th International Workshop on Experimental Interactive Learning in Industrial Management (pp. 149-164). Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Psotka, J., Black, B., & Hom, D. (2004). Symposium on PC-based simulations and gaming for military training. ARI Research Product 2005-01, U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Re-Mission. (2006). Outcomes study: A research trial of a video game shows improvement in healthrelated outcomes for young people with cancer. Retrieved August 14, 2007, from http://www. hopelab.org/remission.html Russell, C.K. (2005). A taxonomy of serious games for education in the healthcare professions. Proceedings of the NMC Online Conference on Educational Gaming. Sachs, J. (2001). A path model for adult learner feedback. Educational Psychology, 21, 267-275. Sandford, R., & Williamson, B. (2005). Games and learning. Bristol: Futurelab. Sankaran, S.R., & Bui, T. (2001). Impact of learning strategies and motivation on performance: A study in Web-based instruction. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 28, 191-198.



Smith, M.K. (2001). David A. Kolb on experiential learning. The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved August 14, 2007, from http://www.infed. org/biblio/b-explrn.htm Stapleton, A. (2005). Game issue report. Korea IT Industry Promotion Agency, Serial No. 25. Stokes, B. (2005). Videogames have changed: Time to consider serious games? Development Education Journal, 11(2). Stone, B. (2005). Serious gaming. Defence Management Journal, (31). Susi, T., Johannesson, M., & Backlund, P. (2007). Serious games: An overview. Technical Report HS- IKI -TR-07-001, University of Skövde, Sweden. Svinicki, M.D. (1998). A theoretical foundation for discovery learning. Advances in Physiology Education, 20(1), S4-S7. Thalheimer, W. (2004). Research that supports simulations and simulation-like questions. A Work-Learning Research Publication. Usoh, M., Catena, E., Arman, S., & Slater, M. (2000). Using presence questionnaires in reality. Presence-Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 9(5), 497-503. Vilhjalmsson, H., & Samtani, P. (2005). MissionEngine: Multi-system integration using Python in the Tactical Language Project. Proceedings of PyCon 2005. Wong, W.L., Shen, C., Nocera, L., Carriazo, E., Tang, F., Bugga, S., Narayanan, H., Wang, H., &

Developing a Serious Game for Police Training

Ritterfeld, U. (2007). Serious video game effectiveness. Proceedings of Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology (pp. 49-55). Zhou, J., & Reed, L. (2005). Chinese government documents on teacher education since the 1980s. Journal of Education for Teaching, 31(3), 201-213. Zyda, M., & Sheehan, J. (Eds.). (1997). Modeling and simulation: Linking entertainment and defense. National Academy Press. Zyda, M. (2005). From visual simulation to virtual reality to games. Computer, 28(9), 25-32.

Psychological Fidelity: The level to which the participants should feel as though they are part of the virtual environment by ignoring the computer medium. Serious Games: Use gaming technology for purposes that go beyond pure entertainment.

ENDNOTES 1

2

KEY TERMS Fidelity: The level to which a serious game aims to emulate reality. There are three different categories of fidelity (Alexander, Bruny´e, Sidman, & Weil, 2005): physical fidelity, functional fidelity, and psychological fidelity. Functional Fidelity: The level to which the abstraction of the functional tasks aims to preserve how they are accomplished in reality.

3 4

5

6

7 8

Game Design: The process of creating level data, game-play, and a graphical user interface. Instructional Design: The process of bridging the gap between learning theories and how they are employed in practice to ensure learning occurs. Learning: The acquisition of knowledge or skills through study or experience or by being taught. Physical Fidelity: The level to which the virtual environment is made to look like the real environment.

9

10

11

This group of people has grown with computers, craves interactivity, and is used to parallel processing. http://www.garagegames.com/ 6.69 years (SD=8.87 and median=1) If the participant manages to complete the task during the first 15 minutes, he progresses to the next stage, otherwise he is asked to retake the training. Presence is the sense of ‘being there’ in the virtual environment. “Alpha represents the level of significance related to the probability” (Bourg, 2006). http://www.intersecexpo.com/ We wanted to control these variables during this study, but in future studies they can be varied and used to help detect favoritism and discrimination, and identify how they affect the investigation process. http://www.dubaipolice.gov.ae/dp/e_ services.jsp?Page=A4&Id=857366261&Artic alType=1 (accessed April 1, 2007) http://www.ameinfo.com/102168.html (accessed April 1, 2007) A mod refers to a modification done to the original game.





Chapter XXVII

Game-Based Learning in Design History Barbara Martinson University of Minnesota, USA Sauman Chu University of Minnesota, USA

AbstrAct Games are increasingly being used to teach content in a variety of courses from elementary to graduate education. This study investigates the effectiveness of using a game, to learning design history content, and it examines students’preferred learning activities based on learning styles. Forty-two students played a computer game and then responded to a 10-item quiz. Learning style or times played did not impact achievement on the quiz. Students did prefer games as a learning tool, but equally preferred lecture and projects. This study does indicate that games can be used as tools to teach various types of information within a college course. Games added variety to the design history course and made learning facts more fun. The concrete nature of the game was appropriate for this particular group of students, most of whom had concrete learning styles. Finally, the recycling of a previously designed learning object made the project affordable in terms of time and money.

INtrODUctION Games are not just for fun—they can be powerful learning tools and are one of the fastest growing areas of digital design. Games are available for all age groups and with differing levels of complexity. From die-hard gamers to precocious

two-year-olds, the game environment provides an opportunity to interact and respond to challenges and opportunities. Different computer games appeal to different people. This appeal may be based in content, activity, or personal affinity for game playing. We know that people have preferred learning styles, but we know very little about the

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Game-Based Learning in Design History

relationship of learning style to learning within a game context. The Game On Conference (2002) hosted by Learning and Teaching in Scotland emphasized the growing trend of using computer games for learning and identified a need for research concerning learning styles and educational games. This project focuses on integrating the game concept into class content and examines the interaction between students’ learning styles with computer game content delivery.

OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS The objective of this research is to determine if games can be used in the college classroom and to examine the relationship of learning style to achievement when a game-based learning object has been used as part of a design history course. Our research questions are: 1. 2.

3.

Will students remember content presented in the game? Do students with a certain learning style tend to do better on a quiz that includes content from the game? Do students indicate a preference for the game (as measured by a survey) based on learning style?

This project is purposefully limited to a basic learning activity—acquiring knowledge of facts. Future studies could study the interaction of learning style with higher-thinking skills. Our hunch is that students with concrete learning styles will have a greater affinity for this learning game as it emphasizes concrete knowledge.

SIGNIFICANCE The findings of this study will help to inform both educators and educational technology developers.

If the results indicate that students with a certain learning style did score higher on a quiz by using the game component, we could complete further research to see how to adapt the game for other learning styles. Variations of a game could be developed that would appeal to different learning styles, and users can select the variation that best suits their learning style. Conversely, we could develop games that take people out of their comfort zone in terms of learning style, and the notion of doing this within a game context may be more appealing and fun. One of the biggest challenges is finding the time and money to construct an educational game. We decided to make use of an existing game, developed for another purpose by one of the authors, and recycle the basic programming for this project. This fits with the notion of the learning object. “Learning objects are small, reusable chunks of instructional materials that can be included on course Web sites or with other digital instructional materials. Sometimes they have no implicit instructional objectivethey are shell programs in which instructors can insert their own content (such as a quiz game shell in which instructors insert their own questions), or media elements that can be aggregated and used with other digital instructional materials (such as a photograph or video clip). Sometimes they do have specific instructional objectives but can be adapted to different learning contexts” (University of Minnesota Digital Media Center, n.d.).

RELATED LITERATURE Games are increasingly being used in educational technology. Salen and Zimmerman (2002) define game as: A game is a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome. The key elements of this definition are the fact that a game is a sys-



Game-Based Learning in Design History

tem, players interact with the system; a game is an instance of conflict, the conflict in games is artificial, rules limit player behavior and define the game, and every game has a quantifiable outcome or goal. (p. 83) Learning design history requires significant memorization of facts and data. By integrating the content into digital game format, students are placed into an active learning situation where they need to participate in order to obtain the necessary learning contents. According to David (1997), there is increasing demand from the learning generation today for greater interactivity in learning materials. A complex level of interactivity is required to stimulate learners’ engagement. What is interactivity? Interactive options include watching, finding, doing, using, constructing, and creating. Ambron and Hooper (1988) described interactivity as a state in which users are able to browse, annotate, link, and elaborate within a rich, nonlinear database. Generally, the quality of the interaction in microcomputer courseware is a function of the nature of the learner’s response and the computer’s feedback. If the response is consistent with the learner’s information processing needs, then it is meaningful. (Jonassen, 1998, p. 101) Interactivity is generally at a basic “point and click” level for information applications, whereas games and educational products require a higher degree and more complex forms of interactivity because of the particular strategy needed for the application. For many years, images and graphics were used to accompany and illustrate text. Today, in technological media it is often the text that is complementary. It is used to expand on something that has already been presented in image form. The challenge for educators is to design ways to use this shift to enhance comprehension, while

0

still maintaining the same richness of information in the new visual context. According to Prensky (2001), computer and video game designers are specialists in this area, which is a great advantage of digital game-based learning. The digital generation has far more experience in processing information rapidly than its predecessors. The amount of information received and the number of channels available for exchanging information are greater today than they have ever been. Information is processed at high speed and understandably. The digital generation has an ever-increasing capacity for parallel processing, which involves a more diversified form of concentrationprobably less intense, and less centered on a single aspect (Gros, 2003). This is just an adaptation to a new digital environment in which we are likely to be carrying out several tasks at once, such as driving and talking on a cell phone, speaking on the phone, and checking our e-mail messages. A good example of this design in parallel can be seen on the news channel. As the newscaster reads out the news items, on the screen behind are other images that are unrelated to what the newscaster is saying; and at the same time other information about economy or current affairs appears at the top or the bottom of the screen. Adults find this much more difficult to follow than the young. Many parents do not believe that their children are able to do their homework, watching television, chatting online, downloading stuff off the Web, and listening to a MP3 player at the same time. Play is one of humans’ important characteristics. Games had been associated with entertainment till the end of the nineteenth century. With the influence of John Dewey (1916), games began to play a major role in teaching methods. Games were introduced in the school as something more than just entertainment. Educators became aware that games have a major educational potential. Games motivate students and help them to develop skills, abilities, and strategies, and to consider alternatives and think flexibly. This makes them

Game-Based Learning in Design History

an important part of teaching materials in schools, especially as kids of the “video game generation” do not respond to traditional instruction. The learning style of an individual may affect his or her success (or lack thereof). For example, if a student learns best under one style, but that style is not being accounted for in the classroom, that student may struggle. While such struggles can be part of the learning process, an understanding of how one learns best and knowing how to adapt to a different learning environment are essential parts of learning. Learning via the game environment may tap into students’ learning style preferences and thus enhance learning. Most educators consider it possible to learn through play. Games form a part of the educational strategies used by teachers at most levels of the school and university system. In fact, it is not only children that play; games are devised for language learning, for adult education, and even in organizations (Prensky, 2001). Games are transformed when they are used for educational purposes. They are still games, but they are used for a specific aim: to learn particular things, and to develop certain strategies or abilities. Squire (2005) stated that e-learning educators, in particular, spend a significant amount of time building learning environments from games. The challenge is how educators can use games more effectively as educational tools. Calvo (1997) maintains that games can enhance the following functions: 1.

2.

Motor development: Games often involve movement; they stimulate precision, coordination of movements, and speed. Students preferring trial-and-error learning situations will find that the motor skills involved in playing educational games enhances learning. Intellectual development: As well as movement, games may also involve understanding how things work, resolving problems, devising strategies, and so forth. For those

3.

4.

students with a preference for abstract reasoning activities, these aspects of gaming are most appealing. Affective development: The fictional nature of gamesthe opportunity to act out a rolemeans that games have a key function in the affective development of the individual. Games stimulate students to understand their life experiences and help them to mature. Learners who want to develop creative approaches to new knowledge are encouraged by the scenarios found in games. Social development: Games are also ways of relating to others. In addition to their socializing dimension, their capacity to symbolically generate roles makes them effective transmitters of society’s predominant values and attitudes.

Computer games foster iconic skills—the ability to read images such as pictures and diagrams. Indeed images are frequently more important than words in many computer games. In a crosscultural study carried out in Rome and Los Angeles, Greenfield et al. (1994) found that playing a computer game shifted representational styles from verbal to iconic. In the study, undergraduate students played the game Concentration either on a computer or on a board. Those who had played the game on the computer used more diagrams in their descriptions of an animated computer simulation, whereas those who played the game on the board offered more verbal descriptions. Both iconic and spatial representations are crucial to scientific and technical thinking; these modes of representation enter into the utilization of all kinds of computer applications. Another skill incorporated in playing computer and video games is divided visual attention, the skill of keeping track of a lot of different things at the same time. Greenfield (1996) explored the effect of video game expertise on strategies for divided visual attention among college students.



Game-Based Learning in Design History

Divided attention was measured by measuring participants’ response time to two events of varying probabilities at two locations on a computer screen. Participants who were expert computer game players had faster response times than novices. Playing an action game also improved strategies for keeping track of events at multiple locations. Overall the study showed that more skilled video game players had better developed attention skills than less skilled players (Gros, 2003). A study conducted by Amory, Naicker, Vincent, and Adams (1999) suggested the type of game that was most appropriate for their college-level teaching environment and examined game elements that students found useful within various types of games. Results rated by the students indicated that logic, memory, visualization, and problem solving were the most essential game elements. The most highly preferred type of games were adventure games. Students also indicated that sounds, graphics, story lines, and the use of technology are important motivators. Numerous memory retention studies have shown that students are very much in favor of learning from interactive games, and game-based activities have better learning outcomes (Pivec, Dziabenko, & Schinnerl, 2004). Learning styles were found to positively affect academic performance in a longitudinal study of computer sciences students (Ross, Drysdale, & Schulz, 2001). This project examined learning style preferences in two specific courses that introduced computer applications. In each case, sequential learners outperformed random learners in these basic classes. Learning style was determined using the Gregorc Style Delineator. Digital games are not intended to replace traditional teaching methods, but rather to provide an additional method for transferring knowledge to others. Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, and Gee (2005) stated that the challenge on the integration of digital games in education is how to form a learning environment that can take advantage



of the power and potential of the virtual world. As Dickey (2006) concluded, new models and methods must be explored and used in order to create effective digital learning materials that will enhance learners’ engagement and motivation.

METHOD Students in DHA 4131, History of Visual Communication used a memory game as a learning activity for a unit covering ancient letterforms and calligraphic scripts. The goal of the unit was to build recognition skills for early communication systems such as cuneiform, hieroglyphics, Chinese characters, and Arabic lettering. It also included calligraphic scripts from the 10th to the 15th centuries such as Celtic, Carolingian, Blackletter, and Italic. Students matched sections of each script and when an identical match was achieved, a portion of a type of ancient script was revealed. When three correct matches were made, students could select the correct name for the script from four multiple-choice possible answers. There were two parts to the game, each with eight levels. Repetition and reinforcement were used to foster recognition skills. Students played the game over a four-day period. They could play as many times as they would like. During the next class period, the students took a 10-item quiz on the ancient scripts and calligraphic hands. They also self-reported on the number of times they played each section of the game. Earlier in the semester, learning styles of the students had been measured using the Gregorc Learning Style Delineator. This instrument consists of 40 words in 10 sets of four words each. Each word in a set is an indicator of one of the four learning styles: concrete sequential, abstract sequential, abstract random, and concrete random. Each subject ranks the words in each set starting with the word that best describes him or herself down to the word that is the least descriptive. An analysis of the scores determines the total score

Game-Based Learning in Design History

for each learning style area. Gregorc’s Style Delineator has been used frequently in educational research. Scores from the quiz were analyzed using the learning style data to see if there was any relationship between learning style and achievement as measured by quiz score. Students also completed a survey to determine the appropriateness, effectiveness, and student preferences for games as learning activities. The seven-item survey included questions concerning games as teaching tools, assessment of games, and whether the students enjoyed playing games to learn.

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS Forty-two students, all participants in a design history course, participated in the study. Eighty percent are graphic design majors, and approximately 20% are journalism and mass communication majors; 98% of the participants were ages 19-25. Thirty-two female and 10 male students participated.

Learning Styles in the Sample Population The Gregorc Learning Style Delineator has four basic outcomes. The highest score in each of the four learning styles was identified for each student.

The results show that 77% of the students preferred learning styles include concrete learning experiences.

Relationship of Quiz Scores to Times Played and Learning Styles Students played the game (consisting of two distinct parts) as many times as they liked over a four-day period and then took a 10item quiz on the content presented in the game. Mean scores for the quiz and the average times played are displayed in the Table 2. Regression analysis was used to analyze the relationship between score and learning style and score and number of times played. There was no significant relationship between learning style and performance on quiz. There was only a slight advantage to playing the game multiple times.

Survey Responses Students completed a seven-question survey responding to questions about the effectiveness of games in the learning process and indicating preferences for certain learning activities. These questions can be divided into three categories: 1. 2.

Questions about games as learning tools Questions about memory and assessment regarding content attained from games Questions about learning activity preferences

3.

Table 1. Learning styles in the sample population Type of Learning Style

Number of Participants

Percentage of Sample

Concrete Random

18

42%

Concrete Sequential

15

35%

Abstract Random

5

11%

Abstract Sequential

4

9%



Game-Based Learning in Design History

Table 2. Relationship of quiz scores to times played and learning styles Overall mean on whole game

8.2/10

Range of quiz scores: 3-10

Average times played whole game

6.4

Range of times played: 2-18

Mean on part one: Ancient Letterforms

4.6/5

Range of quiz scores: 2-5

Average times played part one

3

Range of times played: 1-8

Mean on part two: Calligraphic Scripts

3.6/5

Range of quiz scores: 0-5

Average times played part two

3.3

Range of times played: 1-10

Games as Learning Tools Three questions asked students to consider how games can be used as learning tools. The first question asked students if they thought that computer games could be used as learning tools in a college-level course; 95% of the students responded yes. In response to a question asking if participants thought learning by computer game experiences would be more efficient than learning by reading or lecture: 63% of students felt that a game would indeed make the learning process more efficient, 23% felt that it would not be more efficient, and 14% said that it would depend on the type of game and the time involved. Comments supporting the efficiency of games included the interactive nature of the game (six comments) and the use of visual aids for memory (three comments). Other characteristics influencing efficiency were the ability to go at one’s own pace and to repeat sections of the game. There were no differences between learning styles in response to this question. Participants were also asked if using games made learning more enjoyable: 77% of students felt that games were more enjoyable than readings and lecture, 19% felt that games were not more enjoyable, and 4% indicated that the level of enjoyment would vary on the game and context. Participants cited excitement (five comments), interactivity, challenge, and taking one’s time as



reasons for games being enjoyable. Those who thought games were not enjoyable mentioned reasons such as the lack of human presence, frustration, and the amount of time it takes to play a game. Several felt that lectures are more informative and that they allow for diversions and elaborations on content. An interesting difference appeared when examining learning style in relation to response to this question: 100% of those with concrete sequential learning style felt that the game was more enjoyable. Responses were equally varied in each of the three different learning styles.

Games, Learning, and Assessment Two questions on the survey inquired about how students remembered information presented in games and how well they did when tested on that information. When responding to a question that asked them if they remembered information from the game better or materials from the lecture and readings, 63% said the game allowed them to remember the information better, 23% said that information from readings and lecture was better remembered, and 14% of the students indicated no difference between the game and lectures and readings. Students with concrete sequential (50%) and concrete random (52%) learning styles felt that information was better remembered from the game. Because there were so few abstract

Game-Based Learning in Design History

sequential and abstract random participants, we cannot discern the effect on these students. In response to a question asking participants if they tended to do better on a test that included content from the game or on material from lectures and readings, 47% said the game resulted in a better test score, 33% said they performed better on tests from lectures and readings, and 20% said that that they learned equally from the game, texts, and lecture when it came to assessments such as tests and quizzes. There was no difference in this response based on learning style.

Preferred Learning Activities Participants were asked to rank in order of preference seven learning activities: games, group projects, lecture, projects, reading, Web sites, and writing. Table 3 shows activity rankings as most preferred and activities ranked in the top three. Projects, lectures, and games were the most preferred learning activities; least preferred included group projects and readings.

Learning Styles and Preferred Activities Students who ranked projects as most preferred tended to be either concrete sequential or concrete random. No abstract random participants ranked projects as first in preference. Those who ranked projects in their top three choices also tended to be either concrete sequential or concrete random. However, 50% of abstract random and abstract

sequential learners did list projects in their top three learning activities. Those who ranked games as their first choice tended to be concrete sequential and concrete random. No abstract sequential learner preferred games. Only one abstract random learner who ranked games in the top three preferred learning activities. Lecture was ranked first by 26 participants, and nearly equal proportions of all learning styles preferred lecture. For those who put lecture as one of their top three choices, the concrete random learners were predominant. A higher proportion of abstract random and concrete random students identified lecture in their top three choices. Reading was not ranked very high by most participants: 50% of abstract sequential learners had reading as their last choice, and 30% of each of the other three learning style groups placed reading in their last three choices. Proportionately equal numbers of participants from each learning style placed group projects as their least (seventh) preferred learning activity; 100% of abstract random learners, 70% of concrete random learners, 50% of abstract sequential learners, and 40% of concrete sequential learners ranked in the bottom three choices. Comments related to group learning included the frustration of “too much time spent forming, norming, and storming”; increased time pressures; and variability in group members’ performance.

Table 3. Preferred learning activities Activity:

Games

Group

Lecture

Projects

Reading

Web Sites

Writing

Projects Ranked most

11

1

9

12

3

4

3

25

7

26

26

9

20

16

preferred Ranked in top three



Game-Based Learning in Design History

DIscUssION This study examined students’ learning preferences for various learning activities, including computer games. It examined the relationship between learning style and performance on a quiz based on content learned from a memory game. The findings show that learning style did not affect performance on a quiz, nor did increasing times playing the game significantly affect performance. Students did show strong preferences for three types of learning activities: games, projects, and lecture. Learning style may have played a small role in each of these preferences. The majority of participants had a concrete learning style as measured by the Gregorc Learning Style Delineator. Students with concrete learning styles prefer the concrete world and instinctive responses to learning situations. They prefer demonstrations and prefer to work with physical objects. It is probably no surprise that projects are favored by design students. Projects are dominant in the design curriculum. Self-selection into a major program that involves developing projects is responsible for the high ranking of preference for projects. Also, most of the participants are concrete learners and the very concrete outcome of a physical product would appeal to these learners. That lecture was identified as one of the preferred learning activities was a surprise. As several students responded, they enjoy the interaction with the lecturer, the fact that the information is presented in a listener-friendly way, and the ability to diverge or elaborate on meaningful topics. The context of this project—using games to learn—is a growing area of education and design research. Games are currently trendy topics in both learning and design. As design students in an educational environment, the participants may have responded more favorably to games. Students’ preference and belief in games may be due to popularity of computer games and the current trend of edutainment. The results could be confounded by the expectation effect—that



the researchers wanted to find games as effective learning activities. The game presented to the students was an early iteration prototype and was not highly sophisticated, indicating that students were not seduced by bells and whistles, but enjoyed the activity of matching ancient letterforms. Students played the game on their own time. Several encountered the inevitable technical issues of interface and viewing difficulties. Students also may have captured screen shots and used those to study, thus confounding the quiz scores. A future study could control for these types of confounding variables.

CONCLUSION This study does indicate that games can be used as tools to teach various types of information within a college course. Our first research question asked whether students would remember content presented in the game. Quiz scores did show that the information was remembered. Further research could assess how long the information was retained and if the information could be transferred to other learning situations. We did not find that learning style influenced performance on the quiz, thus answering our second research question. We did use a very simple game format. In future research we may find that learning style would influence performance when playing a more complex game. We did find that students do prefer to use games to learn. The concrete nature of the game was appropriate for this particular group of students, most of whom had concrete learning styles. Other modes of presentation may be suitable for students with other learning styles. The basic design of this memory game was effective for teaching facts. In the future, we hope to develop a game that would encourage a higher level of learning and interactivity.

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Implications The cost of producing an educational game is demanding on both human and financial resources. The recycling of a previously designed learning object made our project affordable in terms of time and money. We recommend that the process of developing an educational game will be more feasible if the game can be created in smaller learning modules. This method will allow the testing of each unit and the ability to measure the outcomes before investing in the development of an entire game. Games added variety to the design history course and made learning facts more fun. However, based on the survey result, we recommend that instructors vary method of information presentation to accommodate students of varying learning styles. Games can be used in conjunction with other learning methods to provide students with an array of learning experiences.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This study was funded through a grant from the GRAVEL (Games Research and Virtual Environment Lab) Institute of New Media, University of Minnesota, USA.

REFERENCES Ambron, S., & Hooper, K. (Eds.). (1988). Interactive multimedia. Redmond, WA: Microsoft. Amory, A., Naicker, Vincent, & Adams (1999). The use of computer games as an educational tool: Identification of appropriate game types and game elements. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30(4), 311-321. Calvo, A. (1997). Ocio en los noventa: los videojuegos. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Spain.

David, G. (1997). Integrated development and production tools for building hypermedia coursework and interactive scenarios. Proceedings of the ED-MEDIA 97 Conference. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York: Macmillan. Dickey, M. (2006). Girl gamers: The controversy of girl games and the relevance of female-oriented game design for instructional design. British Journal of Educational Technology, 37(5), 785-793. Greenfield, P.M, Camaioni, L.E., Ercolani, P., Weiss, L., Lauber, B.A., & Perucchini, P. (1994). Cognitive socialization by computer games in two cultures: Inductive discovery or mastery of an iconic code? Journal of Applied Development Psychology, 15(1), 59-85. Gregorc, A.F. (1982b). Gregorc Style Delineator: Development, technical, and administration manual. Maynard, MA: Gabriel Systems. Gros, B. (2003). The impact of digital games in education. Retrieved from http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue8_7/xyzgros/ Jonassen, D. (Ed.). (1998). Instructional designs for microcomputer courseware. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Pivec, M., Dziabenko, O., & Schinnerl, I. (2003). Aspects of game-based learning. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Knowledge Management (KNOW 03). Retrieved from http://www.fhjoanneum.at/zml/publikationen. asp?jahr=2003&typ=P&lan=DE Poggenpohl, S. (2006). Games: A transactional context. In J. Frascara (Ed.), Designing effective communications. New York: Allworth Press. Prensky, M., & Maurer, H. (2001). A new approachsituation learning (SL). Proceedings of the Society of Information Technology and Teacher 2001 Conference.



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Ross, J.L., Drysdale, M., & Schulz, D. (2001). Cognitive learning styles and academic performance in two post-secondary computer application courses. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 23(4), 400-412. Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Shaffer, D., Squire, K., Halverson, R., & Gee, J. (2005). Video games and the future of learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(2), 104-111. Squire, K. (2005). Changing the game: What happens when video games enter the classroom? Innovate, 1(6). Retrieved from http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=82 University of Minnesota Digital Media Center. (n.d.). Timeline object TEL activities. Retrieved from http://dmc.umn.edu/spotlight/timeline-object.shtml

KEY TERMS Design History: In this design history course, students learn about the development of visual communication. Beginning with ancient forms of writing, early picture-making, and hand-drawn letterforms such as Celtic and Carolingian scripts, students learn the origin of current alphabet forms. Edutainment: Describes the combination of education and entertainment in order to enhance learning. Iconic Skills: The ability to recognize and quickly process visual information. Learning Objects: Basic educational tools that can be adapted to a variety of learning environments. Learning Styles: Individually preferred ways of learning. Learning Modules: Small units of teaching content that can be combined to enhance learning experience. Visual Attention: The ability to respond and interact with multiple stimulations.



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Chapter XXVIII

A Policy Game in a Virtual World Martha Garcia-Murillo Syracuse University, USA Ian MacInnes Syracuse University, USA

AbstrAct Advances in computing and telecommunications make it possible to take advantage of immersive electronic environments to deliver content. In this chapter we present a policy game to be used in a virtual world. The benefits of this tool are examined using Gee’s learning principles. From this analysis we find that games in virtual worlds enable reflective exploration that helps participants learn from their mistakes. Learning takes place from the content conveyed through the game and through the multimedia immersion that allows students to learn the nuances of these virtual contexts. Because there are no realworld consequences, participants can take risks, provide or receive help from other students, and most importantly, apply this knowledge to a real-world situation. Recommendations are provided to educators to help them exploit the great potential of games while being prepared for the obstacles they will face.

INtrODUctION The purpose of this chapter is to explore whether virtual worlds can provide a setting for a rewarding learning experience for college students. It defines the technology and examines the potential application of games in virtual worlds for education. We believe that virtual worlds engage students cognitively and these encounters can be potentially more rewarding within the context of games that help illustrate topics in the college curriculum. The chapter also makes educators aware of the

potential challenges of using virtual worlds to support learning. There are two main contributions that we seek to make in this study. First, this chapter attempts to map the benefits of virtual worlds to a set of learning principles. This is unique, as studies to date have only documented the use of virtual worlds to teach specific subjects without analyzing the overall educational contributions of this tool to learning in general. The second contribution is the focus of the potential benefits that these virtual worlds have to enhance online education

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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at the college level. We recognize that stronger evidence can be provided by testing the game, which will be the next step for this project. While online college education is a fairly common practice today, most distance interactions with students rely on relatively mature technologies such as course management systems (e.g., WebCT, Blackboard), message boards, electronic mail, and Weblogs (‘blogs’). These applications have facilitated the asynchronous interaction of individuals located in various places and time zones. However, information and communication technologies have advanced considerably, and college professors now have the opportunity to experiment with more innovative software applications that could make online interactions more engaging and stimulating. Virtual worlds represent one such application. In this chapter we explore the pedagogical benefits of virtual worlds, which we describe here as graphically immersive, persistent, shared, and typically avatar-based digital environments. We believe at the outset that virtual worlds offer instructors a potentially powerful tool for student learning and interaction through simulated experiences. The chapter is divided in five main sections. The first section presents evidence from academic research of the potential benefits that virtual worlds can offer to distance students. Here we focus on video games and virtual worlds, and the educational benefits they can provide. The section also identifies the differences between virtual worlds and video games. The second section describes a lobbying game that was adapted from a traditional classroom to a virtual world environment. This was done because of the increasing popularity of online classes at university campuses. There is thus a need to find online activities that maintain the interest of students. Here we describe the simulation and the process that we followed to select a virtual world that could work with this simulation. The third section of the chapter analyzes the educational value of the lobbying game within the virtual world. To

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do this we used Gee’s learning principles and determined if virtual worlds offer those benefits. The fourth section presents some of the challenges to educators of the process of developing games for virtual worlds. The fifth and last major section prior to the conclusion talks about future trends of virtual worlds in educational settings.

VIDEO AND cOMPUtEr GAMEs As PEDAGOGIcAL tOOLs Work, leisure, and education have all been affected by advances in information and communication technologies. Technologies for entertainment purposes can be so captivating now that traditional classroom and electronic education programs sometimes pale in comparison. The video and computer game industry, in particular, has evolved radically over the past decade to offer interactive capabilities that were only imagined 20 years ago. The cutting-edge animation, opportunities for interaction, and dynamically generated narratives that can be found in today’s games have attracted large, diverse audiences, and many American teenagers and young adults play these computer games on a routine basis (Jayakanthan, 2002). It is thus not surprising that aspects of our lives that were not initially affected by computer-based multimedia are now being transformed. Two such aspects that are being integrated and made increasingly less distinct are entertainment- and learningrelated activities. Educational video games, for example, are now being designed around movie titles (Jayakanthan, 2002) and routinely played on home computers (Kerawalla & Crook, 2002). In contrast, computers at many schools are still being used heavily for word processingan activity that students report finding less than stimulating (Mumtaz, 2001). Given the many mediated outlets that students now have, each one competing for the student’s attention, there is greater pressure on educators to be more creative in the delivery of instructional material.

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The introduction of computer games in classrooms has aroused the interest of researchers across many fields, and as a result more papers are being published on the subject. Franklin, Peat, and Lewis (2003) found that many computer games allow students to realize and react to the consequences of their (and their peers’) decisions. Subramanian, Khang, and Sai (1999) found that computer games can diminish the apathy and boredom that affect many students. Novelty can be used to the instructor’s advantage when introducing technology into the online classroom. Heffler (2001) and De Vita (2001) argue that computer games can help instructors address differences in learning styles. According to Fleming and Rickwood (2001), video and computer games improve the moods of those who play them. His experiment showed that children who played violent video games experienced increased states of arousal more frequently than those who played pencil-and-paper games, but that their tendency towards violence did not increase. Fleming’s study suggests that video and computer games have the potential to lead to more satisfying learning experiences. These and other results should not be surprising given that video and computer games are widely perceived as vehicles for fun and play, and in such context an association with learning has the potential to increase a person’s understanding and retention of the material being taught. In the process of developing this chapter, we needed to keep in mind that the focus of this chapter is on educational games situated in virtual worlds. In this context we need to think about formal education as a lifelong process. With the emergence of online education, more and more adults are returning to school to obtain higher degrees, to change careers, or simply to upgrade their skills. These are non-traditional students that already have work experience, and their jobs impede them from participating in traditional classrooms. They are instead embracing the flexibility of online education. At the same time many of the

professionals who have recently entered the workforce are well versed with technologies, and as a result, educators have the opportunity to push the envelope and provide online experiences that challenge them and provide them with unique learning opportunities.

VIrtUAL WOrLDs Play is an activity that enhances children’s intellectual abilities by promoting exploration and experimentation. Children create imagined worlds in their play. As we grow older, though, our opportunities to explore and create imagined worlds are increasingly limited, and our creativity is curbed as a result (Harter, 1981). Virtual worlds can offer educators an alternative space where students can explore and create. Because they may be perceived as entertainment, virtual worlds may be appealing to distance students as learning environments. With their rich and immersive graphics, interactive capabilities, and visual representation of people as avatars (i.e., graphic representations of users in virtual space), virtual worlds are similar to video and computer games in many ways, with a key difference being that the latter impose grand narratives and superseding goals while the former enable users to pursue their own goals and construct their own narratives. The constructivist paradigm that underlies virtual worlds makes them potentially more enriching for education experiences than traditional video games due to the opportunity that students have to develop their own characters and the worlds themselves while interacting with other people, something that is not possible with single-player video games. The research that has been done to date on virtual worlds can be divided into three categories: 1. 2.

Studies about the benefits to children Studies about developing virtual worlds

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3.

Studies that focus on specific applications of virtual worlds

Several scholars have focused on the benefits of virtual worlds for children. These studies show great value in the spatial elements and the interactivity that is possible in these environments (Clifford, 2005; Winn, 1995). They also identify the opportunities that virtual worlds provide for collaborative and group learning through discussions and interactions (Kusunoki, Sugimoto, & Hashizume, 2000). This research also sees much potential in the use of these worlds for children to learn science in formal and informal settings (Winn & Bricken, 1992). For example, at the Cornell Theory Center, researchers have developed a virtual museum as a mechanism to teach science, languages, and social studies in a more informal environment (Maher & Corbit, 2002). Another category of studies about virtual worlds involves development. There are now tools that make the construction of these virtual environments easier. Scholars that have studied the developmental aspects of virtual worlds have highlighted the learning by doing elements and the progressive stages of learning (Barab, Hay, Barnett, & Squire, 2001). Many of these studies are done within the context of computer science, where the development of virtual worlds and games in these environments enhances the teaching of programming courses. A third type of contribution provides specific ideas that are learned through virtual worlds. Some examples of the specific types of subjects that are being taught in virtual worlds are entrepreneurial skills (Foster, 2005), the solar system (Gazit & Chen, 2003), medical emergencies (Mantovani, Castelnuovo, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2003), showing students what patients with schizophrenia may see in their hallucinations (James, 2006), quantum theory (Martin-Smith), and empathy (Paiva et al., 2005). Kusunoki et al. (2000) have used a virtual world at the college level to teach urban planning and environmental concepts. In these studies the

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main focus of the research is the content and how this is enhanced through virtual worlds. In addition there are several examples of educational institutions that have identified the potential of this means of learning. Ohio University (http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFuNFRie8wA), Harvard Law School (http://blogs.law.harvard. edu/cyberone/), and Case Western Reserve University (http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/cyberone/) for example all have campuses in Second Life (http://secondlife.com/). In these campuses classes are enhanced with multiple media to enrich the experiences of the online student population. These environments can allow off-campus students to feel a closer connection to the university. Teachers and peers can enable experiences that may be difficult to replicate in the real world. Given the existing literature this chapter is unique in several ways. First, unlike previous studies that emphasize benefits to children, this chapter focuses on college-level students. Second, while much innovation and use of technology can be implemented with campus students, more limited resources may be available for online education. Thus this chapter tries to show that, with some creativity, instructors can take advantage of online resources to enrich their classes. This chapter is also unique because it compares in a systematic manner an existing set of learning principles to a game developed for a virtual world to determine the learning potential of these technologies.

sAMPLE POLItIcs GAME FOr A VIrtUAL WOrLD The game presented in this chapter is an illustration of the type of activities and the potential benefits of games in virtual worlds that can be used in online education. We believe that other games will offer similar advantages. According to Bartle (1990), there are several elements that need to be taken into consideration when developing a game. First it should have a

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set of rules. If the game entails competition, then there should be a way of determining who wins. This can be done by specifying criteria or by identifying objectives to be met at the end. Because the purpose of an educational game is to teach a concept or a skill, the games should allow the participants to learn or practice whatever skills or knowledge are meant to be acquired. In the game described here, we took into consideration these elements [see Appendix for instructions]. This is a lobbying/logrolling game where each player assumes one of 12 roles (e.g., U.S. Senator, AT&T Vice President, Director of the Business Software Alliance) and tries to convince other players to vote in accordance with the interests of his or her role on one or more of three legislative bills. Players are instructed to employ any strategy at their disposal to accomplish this. The use of actual bills makes it easier for instructors when students ask for more information about them. Our simulation made use of three bills that have recently been considered by one or more legislative bodies: 1.

2.

3.

SPY Act (Securely Protect Yourself Against Cyber Trespass Act): If passed, the SPY Act would impose fines of up to $3 million against makers of software that steal personal information from a user’s computer or hijack a user’s browser. Digital Media Consumers’ Rights (DMCR) Bill: If passed, the DMCR bill would allow consumers to break copy controls to make personal copies of audio tracks or movies from discs (CDs, DVDs) they own, and require all copy-protected CDs and DVDs to be labeled as such. Broadband Regulation and Modernization (BRM) Bill: If passed, the BRM bill would prohibit a government or any entity it creates from offering broadband service for free.

Ideally, the students will begin the simulation knowing a great deal more about these bills than what is provided by these summaries. Two factors work against this ideal, though. First, instructions for playing are relatively long, even with the summaries, and would be made even longer with, say, an appendix detailing the bills’ specifications. Players of any game tend to find a thick stack of instructions daunting. Detail must always be balanced with “playability” and a reasonably shallow learning curve. Second, the chief pedagogical aim of the simulation is to teach lobbying concepts. If, in the process, students learn more about the bills used to demonstrate these conceptsand they most certainly willthen the simulation can be considered a success on multiple levels. However, depending on the course being taught, instructors may not have the time to teach students lobbying concepts and the history and particularities of the bills. One of the most challenging aspects of designing this simulation is the need to establish a “level playing field” at the outset. In other words, at the start of each simulation, each bill should have, to the extent possible, an equal number of roles with explicit voting preferences supporting and opposing it. To run a simulation in which, say, eight players initially oppose a bill serves to disadvantage (and possibly discourage) the four players who favor it. We created 12 roles that, to varying degrees and in various ways, had a stake in one, two, or all three of the bills listed above. We chose to create 12 roles because we believed that it would be difficult to coordinate the conversations and lobbying efforts of a larger group during the simulation. In addition, because online classes generally have approximately 25 students, it would be difficult to run more than two or three games for a class. At the same time we wanted the game to have enough students to allow them to try their lobbying/logrolling abilities with several classmates

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A final and important design choice for this simulation is the decision to include or exclude explicit voting preferences for each role at the outset. In other words, instructors can opt to tell students how they (in their roles) intend, at least initially, to vote on each bill, or they can withhold this information and let the students decide this for themselves based on a brief statement of their role’s mission, which is provided to them by the instructor. As with the level of detail on selected bills, this decision may be influenced by time constraints, pedagogical objectives, and assumptions about students’ abilities and diligence. Finally, if one opts to tell students how their role initially stands on each bill, then it is essential to design the simulation such that each role has, at the outset, an explicitly undecided voting preference, or is said to be merely leaning in one direction, on at least one of the bills. It is hoped that this gives each player greater freedom to try to influence their fellow participants. In this simulation two of the rolesthe Governor of New York and the U.S. Senator from New Yorkare designed as undecided on all three bills, perhaps causing these two roles to wield a disproportionately greater influence on voting outcomes.

sELEctING A VIrtUAL WOrLD Virtual worlds are often perceived as having a steep learning curve; this is a reason why relatively few educators at the college level have made use of them, although as explained in the previous section, there are notable exceptions. In this section we present some of the issues that need to be considered when developing educational games in virtual worlds. Because of the versatility of virtual worlds, educators need to realize that learning activities will require much planning. There are several issues that will need to be considered when selecting a virtual world. First it has to be easy to use. The focus of an educational game is not to teach

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them how to use a virtual world but to use it as a tool for a game that has educational value. For the purpose of online education, we were looking for a virtual world that would allow instructors and students the power to create and modify an avatar and three-dimensional virtual environment that did not entail a steep learning curve for beginners. The second element to consider is price. Although there are many virtual worlds, most of them require a subscription fee and/or for users to buy the software that allows them to participate in the world, such as for World of Warcraft, for example. Another element to keep in mind is the degree to which a high-speed connection is required. A final element that played into our decision is the issue of liability. Initially we had in mind a world that would be attractive for college students. However because of an incident our graduate student witnessed in his first visit to a virtual world, we chose to switch the focus towards something that would not expose students to material that might be considered inappropriate for a college class. We considered two virtual worlds: Second Life and Habbo Hotel. Second Life is a popular virtual world (Snow, 2007), and although it uses cuttingedge and relatively sophisticated design tools, it is not easy to learn. This concern, coupled with the required US$10 per person membership cost, which has since been waived, led us to consider Sulake Corporation’s Habbo Hotel, a virtual world designed for and marketed to teens. Sulake’s aim of profitably supporting online communities for paying teens, though beneficent, was not a factor in our decision to use Habbo Hotel. Instead, we wanted a virtual world that: 1.

2. 3.

Allows typical (non-expert) users to easily create and use an expressive and visually appealing avatar Makes it easy for users to move and communicate using their avatars Provides private virtual space (such as a virtual room) in which members of a small

A Policy Game in a Virtual World

4.

5.

group can interact comfortably and without interruption Possesses a vibrant interface (or “look and feel”) that might appeal to undergraduate and graduate students Imposes no monetary costs on the students participating in the simulation

Sulake’s revenues come chiefly from users who purchase Habbo credits to decorate the empty virtual rooms. As Figure 1 illustrates, we furnished the “lobbying room” with assorted rugs and chairs, a blue pinstriped floor, a potted palm tree, and two whimsical plaques for the walls, all for US$20. Habbo Hotel satisfied all of our conditions. All avatars look like cartoonish depictions of adults, but some distinctiveness can be achieved through one’s selection of skin color, hair color and style, facial expression, and the style and color of one’s shirt, pants/skirt/shorts, and shoes. Finally, the

authors, each with limited experience in virtual worlds, found moving their avatars and navigating Habbo Hotel relatively simple and straightforward. Thus, despite being somewhat concerned about the reactions of college students to a virtual environment with a somewhat adolescent motif, the authors chose to use a specially designated room in Habbo Hotel as the space in which to conduct the simulation.

EDUcAtIONAL bENEFIts OF GAMEs IN VIrtUAL WOrLDs In this chapter we will use Gee’s (2003) “learning principles” to show how virtual worlds can enhance learning. We will pair these learning principles to the virtual world to determine if there is pedagogical value in the use of these synthetic environments.

Figure 1. A screen capture of the “Logrolling Room” in Habbo Hotel. An author’s avatar sits pensively in one of the chairs. Screen published with permission from the developer.

© Sulake Corporation Oy 2007. Used with permission.

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While it is clear that students have a lot more sources for entertainment and information, this does not necessarily imply that games in virtual worlds would be beneficial for learning. To determine the effectiveness of games in these online environments, this section presents an analysis of the learning principles that Gee (2003) proposed in his book entitled, What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. Many of the 36 learning principles that Gee presents are, however, closely related; to simplify the presentation of the analysis with respect to games and virtual worlds, the authors grouped these 36 principles into eight larger categories. When Gee wrote his book he was focusing primarily on video games and not necessarily on virtual worlds. The goal of this analysis is to determine if the learning principles that he proposed in the context of video games can also apply to games in virtual worlds. It is also important to realize that due to the fact that virtual worlds are not games per se, much of the learning that takes place comes from the games or simulations that the instructor prepares in advance for the students. In this chapter we described an information policy simulation. Thus the analysis of Gee’s principles for this section is done here within the context of that simulation.

Active and Reflective Learning The simulation was intended to teach students about the strategies that lobbyists of government officials commonly use to influence policy. In this game, students are instructed to play the role of a different character and are asked to influence votes in favor of their characters’ interests. The simulation requires the students to identify the viewpoints of other characters and then try to influence them through conversation. The students have the opportunity to experiment with multiple strategies as they participate in the game. They will need to discover the positions of those who do not share their views and then think critically about the arguments that they can use to convert them to their side. They can also experiment and strategize to make their influencing efforts more effective. This process of discovery and being actively engaged in the activity helps them learn the complexities of the lobbying process first hand. This expected benefit is consistent with results from Moreno and Mayer (2005), whose experiment shows that reflection after a multimedia game produced a higher score and fewer mistakes in their evaluation.

Context-Oriented Learning One of the major advantages of using games in virtual worlds is the many opportunities that

Exhibit 1. AC T IVE A N D R EF LEC T IVE LEAR N IN G Active , C ritical Learning Principle (D oing and r eflecting) Probing Principle (D oing, th inking and str ategizing ) Intuitive Know ledge P rinciple (T hinking intuitively ) D iscovery Principle (T rying rather than follow ing instructions)

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Exhibit 2. C ON T EXT OR IEN T ED LEAR N IN G

D esign P rinciple (D oing and R eflecting) M ultim odal Principle (D oing and r eflecting) Sem iotic P rinciple (Seeing interrelationships ) Situated M eaning Principle (D iscovering m eaning) D istributed Principle (F inding m eaning in a ll p arts o f t he g am e) C ultural M odels About Sem iotic D om ains (T hinking about t he g am es and their culture) Sem iotic D om ains P rinciple (M astering g am e language)

students have to learn from new environments and be able to adapt to new circumstances. First, every time a person enters a virtual world, they need to learn from the context itself, the design, other characters, and virtual artifacts. They also have the opportunity of learning from a variety of media such as graphics, text, sounds, and even voice. From the context and the different media, they need to find the meaning of these elements and the culture of this virtual world to determine norms of conduct. It is through careful observation that students learn these subtleties. Context is important if one takes experiments in virtual worlds where students are learning the difficulties of diagnosing bipolar disorder (e.g., Ballon & Silver, 2004). Similarly Metcalf and Yankou (2003) used a game to teach ethics to a group of nursing students, taking into consideration specific situations/contexts. In the policy simulation the students will need to determine whether it is better to shout, to speak, or to whisper a given comment. Some of these text speaking modes will be acceptable under certain circumstances while others will not. They will need to determine if

it is better to lobby a group of people at once or somebody alone. They will need to determine how to initiate a conversation or how to join a conversation that has already started. All of these norms of conduct are each new opportunities for experimentation and learning. They can become more attuned to small subtleties in changes that happen in the environment that surrounds them or in the people that participate. This type of experience is difficult to emulate in the real world because it is not easy to move individuals to totally different contexts. This is even more challenging for online classes where it will be impossible to bring everyone to a single location. As students participate in this type of activity, their senses are more likely to be sharpened and they will be able to adapt more easily to different circumstances. In the context of the policy simulation, the students are put in a situation where they will experience real-time interaction with their peers who are each playing roles. Their behavior in a synchronous environment will thus differ from the behavior that they are accustomed to from bulletin boards. In this setting they have to spend some time learning

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Exhibit 3. T R AN SF ER O F KN OW LED GE M etalevel T hinking A bout Sem iotic D om ains P rinciple (R elating the gam e w orld to other w orlds) C ultural M odels About T he W orld P rinciple (T hinking about t he g am e and the r eal w orld) T ransfer P rinciple (Applying learning from problem s to later ones)

about the interests of the people that they need to lobby. They need to be able to identify them, as each of the participants is represented in the virtual world as an avatar. Thus they need to observe all of the characters carefully to be able to identify the person they want to influence. Much of the learning is not dictated but rather comes from participating in the game.

Transfer of Knowledge While the students learn from the context and the characters that participate in the game, the most important element of the game is the possibility of being able to transfer the knowledge that they learn from the virtual environment to a real-life situation. A study by Mikropoulos (2001) showed that virtual environments are suitable for knowledge transfer. He was able to show this by measuring the brain waves of participants in both virtual and real-world activities. In the case of the policy simulation, one of the objectives of the game is not necessarily to learn the skills of a lobbyist. It is true that part of the content that they need to learn for the information policy class is the set of different theories about influence, but this type of information is not relevant to them unless they can find a way of applying it. Some fields have direct connections with policy while others are indirect. It will be easier for students in fields with stronger policy connections to apply

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what they learn. This type of negotiation knowledge can be easily applied, for example, to job promotions and salary negotiations, or to have a project budget approved in a company.

Learning Through Practice It is clear that many kids are highly skilled at playing video games. This happens because they have the opportunity to practice countless times, which eventually improves their skills at whatever task they need to complete. Virtual worlds have the potential of providing this type of practice, but it is much more limited within the context of a class because it will require the presence of other students. The possibility for practice will depend on how open the teacher wants to make the environment. In order to provide students with opportunities for practice, there will need to be a critical mass of participants, all of whom know the instructions. While this could be possible within the context of a commercial virtual world, it is less likely to be the case for an educational game. One of the things that educators should keep in mind when developing or modifying games for these virtual worlds is the graduated experience that the participant gets when playing the games. These games begin with simple tasks and then over time the tasks become more complex. It is for this reason that young people return again and again to play because they know that they can,

A Policy Game in a Virtual World

Exhibit 4. LEAR N IN G T H R OU GH P R AC T IC E C om m itted Learning Principle (Putting o ut e ffort because they care ) Bottom -U p Basic S kills P rinciple (R epeating b asic skills in m any g am es ) Increm ental Principle (Being led from easy problem s to harder ones) Subset P rinciple (Practicing in a sim plified setting ) Ongoing Learning Principle (H aving to m aster new skills a t each level ) C oncentrated S am ple Principle (M astering u pfront t hings needed later) Practice P rinciple (Being e ncouraged to practice )

with practice, reach a higher level. With a higher level there is also the reward of finding new things, new experiences, and new challenges. This should be taken into account when setting up a game for a virtual world. Easier tasks should come first and then adding modules or changing the rules to add more elements of greater complexity can potentially keep the students interested in the game to be enthusiastic about playing. The lobbying simulation that was presented in this chapter was not designed taking increasing complexity into account. It was set to be played once with a specific set of rules. The game could be modified to have, for example, a session where the lobbyists organize and then a session with potential policymakers. This can at least provide more than one opportunity to interact with the content of the class as well as providing two different experiences. Of the learning principles identified by Gee, the ones related to practice are perhaps the most difficult to achieve within the context of a game in a virtual world.

Learning Through Achievement People are limited in their tolerance of disappointment. It has been shown that most people react more positively to positive than to negative feedback (McKeachie & Gibbs, 2002). Games have the power of providing players with the satisfaction of winning, while in a multiplayer game where someone will have to lose, this can be interpreted not as a failure but as an attempt. Young people are thus unlikely to get discouraged and instead try a new strategy, taking risks. Given that failure in games does not translate into failure in real life, the benefit of taking risks outweighs the costs of losing. It is precisely because of this that players have the opportunity to learn from the many attempts they make in these worlds. The policy simulation in Habbo Hotel gives students the opportunity to try multiple strategies to influence their peers. They can use scare tactics, provide statistical information that supports their point, make deals to trade votes, or work with others who have similar interests to try to influence the policy issues at stake. If, for example, they failed

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Exhibit 5. LEARNING THROUGH ACHIEVEMENT “Psychosocial Moratorium” Principle (Taking risks with reduced consequences ) Amplification Of Input Principle (Getting more out than what they put in) Multiple Routes Principle (Getting to do things their own way) “Regime Of Competence” Principle (Tasks being neither too easy nor too hard) Achievement Principle (Being rewarded for achievement)

Exhibit 6. SELF LEAR N IN G Identity P rinciple (C om bining m ultiple identities ) Self -Know ledge P rinciple (W atching their ow n behavior ) C ultural M odels About Learning Principle (T hinking about t he g am e and h ow they learn)

to influence one person, they may try a different technique the next time and, with trial and error, be able to determine the strategies that work best. Success in a simple, controlled, and fun environment keeps students interested in a task. Having achieved success in easier tasks can motivate them to try more complicated ones. Educators, when developing games or simulations, should think about the opportunities that they offer students to achieve success to motivate them to take on more difficult content or skills.

Self-Learning Virtual worlds provide opportunities for people to learn about themselves and about others, as was the case for the game FearNot where children gain experience with avatars in bullying

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scenarios (Paiva et al., 2005). Educators have to keep in mind that virtual worlds are not bound by the laws of nature, and they are not as bound by traditional social rules. With this in mind games for these worlds can be developed with great creativity and in a fantastic world. Depending on the subject matter, educators can ask students to take on real or fictional characters for whom they will then take on different behavioral traits. In this process of assuming somebody else’s persona, they can learn much about the circumstances that the person faces and the problems or benefits of having such a life. This can then give them an opportunity to compare the situation of this fictional character with their own life and learn from having or facing different circumstances. In the lobbying game the students are given the opportunity to be politicians, librarians, CEOs,

A Policy Game in a Virtual World

and presidents, and in these roles they will then have to learn about each of these characters’ interests as well as the interests of others to be able to be effective at lobbying for their cause. Role-playing, which is the basis of the lobbying game, has been found to be effective for learning (Martin-Smith, 1995). Evidence of the type of understanding that can take place between people when they take different characters is exemplified by Eric Brown and Asi Burak’s game Peacemaker, which won the Public Diplomacy and Virtual Worlds competition organized by the University of Southern California’s Center on Public Diplomacy (Brown & Burak, 2006). In the game the participants take either Israeli or Palestinian characters and the objective is to make peace. This sort of simulation could involve roles such as a CEO, a youth counselor, or a terrorist. By taking somebody else’s identity, students can learn about content and context that in the past were only available in books. They can form opinions about a situation, not from the detached and foreign context of books but from actually living the experience itself within a virtual world. These experiences also help them form their own views and learn about their own values and interests.

content The quality of content is critical for educators. While lectures and discussion boards in an online environment allow students to talk about an issue and reflect on the issue at hand, this knowledge can be superficial and likely to be forgotten. In a virtual world students are put in the middle of situations in a unique context. As a result, they are more likely to remember the issues illustrated, given that they will inevitably have to make more effort in preparing and testing many alternative actions. The mistakes they make and the successes they have will be remembered longer. Their reading now has a more concrete, even if fictional context. They can now decide the type of information that is more relevant for the situation. They are given the opportunity to select information on an as needed basis, and take and relate information that is important for the type of activity that they are engaged in. This process thus allows for a much deeper level of knowledge. The scope of topics that can be explored is nearly unlimited in its virtual worlds. For example, people can initiate virtual businesses, pay for items with virtual world currency, and develop a real state. Universities and other organizations can have a virtual presence. This flexibility of the medium can allow educators to convey a wide variety of information.

Exhibit 7. C ON T EN T T ext P rinciple (R eading in co ntext ) Intertextual P rinciple (R elating inform ation) “M aterial Intelligence” Principle (U nderstanding how know ledge is sto red) Explicit I nform ation O n -D em and Just -In-T im e Principle (R eceiving inform ation just w hen it is needed )

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These activities are, however, time consuming to createa major disincentive for educators. It is much easier to lecture for two hours on a subject than to develop a game, write clear instructions, see that students go to a virtual world and develop their characters, and then hope that the technology will work as expected. It is much more labor intensive for the same amount of knowledge conveyed. In the lobbying simulation, much thinking took place to prepare a game that could be used for an online class. As discussed above issues such as the number and type of characters to be used, the appropriate world to use, the selection of the bills to discuss, and the rules of the game itself took a few weeks to prepare. In order to minimize the amount of time necessary to play an educational game, the instructor should try to think of several concepts that can be bundled together, such that one effort is able to convey more knowledge. Alternatively one game can be built in a modular manner such as content experienced at various times in an incremental way. Bundling and gradualism are thus two important components for an effective delivery of content in a virtual world activity.

Social Learning Prior to data networks, video games were solitary and players interacted with the computer alone. With the advent of the Internet and the expansion of broadband, games have increasingly involved interaction among human players. Virtual worlds

in their massively multiplayer form could not have existed without the Internet because the nature of the experience relies on the existence of other participants. Educators can take advantage of the social aspect of the game to foster collaboration. A game, although generally conceived as a zero sum experience, can be developed so that effective collaboration rather than direct competition leads to winning. In the lobbying game, social interaction is central to the success of the simulation. Communication allows the participants to practice their skills at influence. In this case winners of the game were those that were able to convert more individuals to get a bill to be voted in their favor. This type of game can create intellectual conflicts because a participant can be required to argue for and vote for a policy that he or she disapproves of.

cHALLENGEs FOr EDUcAtOrs UsING GAMEs IN VIrtUAL WOrLDs While there are many potential rewards, as described in the previous section, there are also important challenges that educators need to keep in mind when developing games for virtual worlds. We were able to identify these challenges from the process of developing the lobbying game. The challenges that we present here are mainly for college educators, since this game was developed for them alone.

Exhibit 8. SOC IAL L EAR N IN G D ispersed Principle (Sharing w ith other players) Affinity Group P rinciple (Being p art of the g am ing w orld) Insider Principle (H elping o thers and m odifying g am es, in addition to just playing )

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The first and greatest challenge is to develop the game itself. Most university professors do not have formal training in education, much less game development. However educators should realize that in the Internet era, it should not be difficult for them to find games designed for classroom use that could be adapted for a virtual world. This can substantially reduce the development time. Second, while there are games already developed, these have not been archived in a single location and thus it will take some time and effort to find them. Third, the adaptation process is still time consuming because detailed instructions need to be written for the students as a group, as well as specific instructions for the participating characters. To make sure that the game works, the professor should test the game a couple of times with a small group of students to find weaknesses before using it in a class. Fourth, technology is unpredictable. Even in the process of developing the game without yet having it tested with students, we experienced technological difficulties. In our case the authors could not enter the virtual world by mistake because one of us was entering the American site while the other had prepared the lobbying room from the English site. While this is a minor mistake, other technical problems can easily happen, in particular regarding speed of connectivity and learning to navigate and function in a virtual world. To minimize the technical problems, it will be desirable, as suggested before, that the professor familiarize the students with the virtual world before running the simulation. Fifth, anonymity poses difficulties. In entertainment-based virtual worlds, anonymity can lead to negative behaviors that, if present in an educational setting, can severely affect the dynamics of the game. In an anonymous environment the participant may take more risks, but these can be undesirable risks from the perspective of others. Educators thus have to consider the behavioral standards that would be acceptable in the virtual

world while the game is taking place. The teacher should consider when to reprimand and even expel a student who engages in inappropriate behavior. In all of these situations, testing the game before using it in a class will help to minimize these challenges.

FUtUrE trENDs Virtual worlds are still new environments that are likely to evolve into complex settings that can provide rich and challenging experiences for students. Online distance education is based on the traditional campus education. However because it is no longer necessary to be physically present in a campus, there is thus no need to have the student admitted to a particular university to be able to take a class. This idea is not new, as it has been thought about for many years. Brooks (1997) discussed the use of virtual realities in distance education. This is just beginning to be realized, and it is thus possible that in the future we could see models where students can develop their classes a la carte and be able to select from a variety of topics from different institutions and obtain a customized degree. Virtual worlds could become the online classroom of the future in place of traditional bulletin boards. In these settings the professor can immerse the student in the context that relates to the content of the class. These experiential learning encounters can also be recorded and serve as reference and future learning for students that were unable to attend. In virtual worlds, distance does not matter and thus students can move from one situation to another in a matter of seconds. Different topics covered in the curriculum could thus take place in multiple contexts. Students who were situated in a classroom alone or on a bulletin board alone could now be taken to multiple settings for many of the topics of the class.

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With the popularity of educational games in virtual worlds, open source efforts by faculty and students will help to develop more simulations. These worlds will allow developers to work together on the development of a simulated environment and learn in the process as well. In addition, because of these experiences, the learning curve that we experience today will be reduced, because these settings will become second nature to students and extensive tutorials prior to games will not be necessary. In virtual worlds students do not need to take only human personae, but also any other organisms. Thus a student learning about zoology can become an insect for example and experience first hand the life of this organism. A chemistry student can become a molecule and see how it interacts with other elements. In the context of lifelong learning, students who are about to enter college can get to know what it is like to be stock broker, an archeologist, or a scientist. These simulations can move high school students from shadow career days that are difficult to coordinate and expensive to implement to virtual worlds where they can actually experience the careers that they are considering. At the edges, one of the most exciting parts of virtual worlds can occur when the simulation is no longer a game and becomes a reality. Realworld interactions and economic transactions take place. A class that started with a simulation and a role-playing game can enter the real world through a virtual experience. Imagine, for example, a psychology student who is learning to become a therapist in a role-playing game. He could initially have patients through role-play, but after gaining some experience, they could provide counseling online to people who are unable to attend a therapy session in person. A student can thus learn in a controlled environment prior to encountering patients.

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IMPLIcAtIONs AND cONcLUsION There are several lessons and implications that can be learned from role-playing games in virtual worlds. From an instructor’s perspective, it is clear that online education can be enhanced from the use of these multimedia technologies. The learning principles that were identified within the context of the lobbying game indicate that there is great potential in this type of activity. Given that much planning and preparation is necessary to host games in virtual worlds, instructors need to plan well in advance of the time when the class is to take place. It is also important to recognize that technology changes rapidly, which means that they need to be aware of new developments or tools that can make game development easier and faster. These activities also need to take into consideration that different virtual worlds have different capabilities, and they need to be aware of them to take advantage of the medium when developing any game. While in this chapter we illustrate the potential of virtual worlds with a lobbying game, this does not mean that this is the only content that can be used. Virtual worlds can accommodate a great variety of subjects. The possibilities of the subject matter are not limited and can be realized through the imagination of the instructor. From the perspective of university administrators, it should be noted that this type of activity can enhance online distance education. Administrators can foster these activities by providing faculty with the support and training that may be necessary to take advantage of these technologies. This type of support can help faculty reduce the time and effort required for planning. In addition, with sufficient motivation, internal libraries of games could be developed by faculty and students to be used and adapted for multiple classes. At this point few faculty members are sufficiently

A Policy Game in a Virtual World

aware of these simulated environments, and thus few resources have been provided to facilitate this type of education. However, the increasing popularity of these platforms and the presence of some universities and companies inside them will create the critical mass necessary to make development of the environment much easier, such as the creation of libraries that collect virtual world games and simulations for the many disciplines that are taught at universities. The physical worlds will no longer dictate the rules of the virtual worlds, and over time a completely different educational experience can bring about advances in distance education. It is clear that the medium provides students with many opportunities to learn about themselves through taking on multiple personae or even other entities. They can learn from participating in many contexts, each of which can provide different content. A multimedia environment in a digitally literate society can help to enrich the experience, making the learning much more immersive and compelling. The social interactions can also support learning by allowing collaborations. These virtual worlds will become the online education of the future because of the flexibility and the richness that educational games can provide students. At this point in time, however, there are important challenges to overcome. These can be attributed to the fact that we are just beginning to utilize this medium for distance education and we do not yet have the tools and the skills to develop games and work with students. Even though students today are more technologically sophisticated, most have not yet been exposed to this type of experience. Thus the learning curve for them remains steep. Over time, with enough support, both students and teachers will become more familiar with virtual worlds and will be more easily able to take advantage of their capabilities to develop games or simulations that fit their classes to enhance and enrich the online learning experience and make it enjoyable.

rEFErENcEs Ballon, B., & Silver, I. (2004). Context is key: An interactive experiential and content frame game. Medical Teacher, 26(6), 525-528. Barab, S.A., Hay, K.E., Barnett, M., & Squire, K. (2001). Constructing virtual worlds: Tracing the historical development of learner practices. Cognition and Instruction, 19(1), 47-94. Bartle, R. (1990). Interactive multi-user computer games. Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http://www. skepticfiles.org/cowtext/comput~1/mudrepor. htm Brooks, J.M. (1997). Beyond teaching and learning paradigms: Trekking into the virtual university. Teaching Sociology, 25, 1-14. Brown, E., & Burak, A. (2006). PeaceMaker. Pittsburgh, PA: ImpactGames. Clifford, P. (2005). Cyberkids. Education Canada, 42(2), 14-16. De Vita, G. (2001). Learning styles, culture and inclusive instruction in the multicultural classroom: A business and management perspective. Innovation in Education and Training International, 38, 165-174. Fleming, M.J., & Rickwood, D.J. (2001). Effects of violent versus nonviolent video games on children’s arousal, aggressive mood, and positive mood. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(10), 2047-2071. Foster, A.L. (2005). The avatars of research. Chronicle of Higher Education, 52(6), A35. Franklin, S., Peat, M., & Lewis, A. (2003). Nontraditional interventions to stimulate discussion: The use of games and puzzles. Journal of Biological Education, 37(2), 79-84. Gazit, E., & Chen, D. (2003). Using the Observer to analyze learning in virtual worlds. Behavior

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Research Methods Instruments & Computers, 35(3), 400-407. Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Harter, S. (1981). A new self-report scale of intrinsic versus extrinsic orientation in the classroom: Motivational and informational components. Developmental Psychology, 17, 300-312. Heffler, B. (2001). Individual learning style and the learning style inventory. Educational Studies, 27, 307-316. James, K. (2006). BT: Real benefits in virtual worlds. Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http:// xinkaishi.typepad.com/a_new_ start/2006/12/ bt_real_benefit.html Jayakanthan, R. (2002). Application of computer games in the field of education. Electronic Library, 20(2), 98-102. Kerawalla, L., & Crook, C. (2002). Children’s computer use at home and at school: Context and continuity. British Educational Research Journal, 28(6), 751-771. Kusunoki, F., Sugimoto, M., & Hashizume, H. (2000). Towards the integration of physical and virtual worlds for supporting group learning. In Digital Cities (vol. 1765, pp. 224-235). Mantovani, F., Castelnuovo, G., Gaggioli, A., & Riva, G. (2003). Virtual reality training for health-care professionals. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 6(4), 389-395. Martin-Smith, A. (1995). Quantum drama: Transforming consciousness through narrative and roleplay. Journal of Educational Thought, 29, 34-44.

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McKeachie, W., & Gibbs, G. (2002). Teaching tips: Strategies, research, and theory for college and university teachers. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Metcalf, B.L., & Yankou, D. (2003). Using gaming to help nursing students understand ethics. Journal of Nursing Education, 42(5), 212-215. Mikropoulos, T.A. (2001). Brain activity on navigation in virtual environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 24(1), 1-12. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R.E. (2005). Role of guidance, reflection, and interactivity in an agentbased multimedia game. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(1), 117-128. Mumtaz, S. (2001). Children’s enjoyment and perception of computer use in the home and the school. Computers & Education, 36(4), 347-362. Paiva, A., Dias, J., Sobral, D., Aylett, R., Woods, S., Hall, L. et al. (2005). Learning by feeling: Evoking empathy with synthetic characters. Applied Artificial Intelligence, 19(3-4), 235-266. Snow, B. (2007). GigaOM top 10 most popular MMOs. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http:// gigaom.com/2007/06/13/top-ten-most-popularmmos/ Subramanian, R., Khang, G.N., & Sai, C.L. (1999). Word Juxtapozan innovative tool for promoting interest in biological education. Journal of Biological Education, 33, 103-104. Winn, W., & Bricken, W. (1992). Designing virtual worlds for use in mathematics education: The example of experiential algebra. Educational Technology, 32(12), 12-19. Winn, W.D. (1995). The Virtual Reality Roving Vehicle project. T.H.E. Journal, 23(5), 70-74.

A Policy Game in a Virtual World

KEY TERMS Avatar: A graphical image that represents a user in a virtual world.

Lifelong Education: The process of continued learning after an individual leaves formal education. This can include college continuing education courses, correspondence, and certifications in physical or distance formats.

Course Management System: Software application designed to facilitate online education using a Web interface. The system can manage enrollment, content, and grades, among other things.

Role-Playing Game: A game where the participants take a real or fictional persona for entertainment or education.

Distance Education: A learning environment for students that take classes primarily online from different locations “Teaching and learning in which learning normally occurs in a different place from teaching” (http://www1.worldbank. org/disted/glossary.html).

Video Game: Entertainment software with predetermined goals that can be played through specialized equipment or with a computer.

Simulation: A simplified model that attempts to represent a situation that the creator intends.

Virtual World: A graphically immersive, persistent, shared, and typically avatar-based digital environment that is generally hosted on servers connected to the Internet.

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Chapter XXIX

Teaching OOP and COP Technologies via Gaming Chong-wei Xu Kennesaw State University, USA

AbstrAct This chapter introduces an innovative pedagogical method for teaching object-oriented programming (OOP) and component-oriented programming (COP) via gaming. Going through the evolution of the three-layer gaming framework, we clearly illustrate that gaming covers almost all core features of OOP and COP technologies. Teaching OOP and COP technologies via game development not only engages students’ efforts, but also opens an opportunity for involving students with industry-level projects and enhancing students’ ability to brainstorm and solve real-world problems. Furthermore, gaming may play an important role in developing other applications, especially those that feature visualization and animation.

INtrODUctION The game industry is growing rapidly. “The worldwide game industry reached $33.5 billion in size in 2005, with expected growth to $58.4 billion by 2007, a near doubling in size in a twoyear period.” The hiring requirements at a typical game company are something on the order of 65% computer scientists, 30% artists, and 5% designers. In addition, government and non-game-industry corporations for the new area of serious games are also growing (Zyda, 2006). “Game-play has begun to surpass television viewing among some

segments of the population. Video game development budgets are already the size of motion picture development budgets, on the order of $20 million to $100 million, with expected revenue for a hit game reaching from $250 million to more than $1 billion” (Zyda, 2007). We would expect these data to show that the demand for computer scientists is increasing. However, internationally, computer science has experienced a 70% decrease in undergraduate enrollments since 2000 (Zyda, 2006). “Don’t just play games, create them!” has become an attractive and interesting innovation in computer science

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Teaching OOP and COP Technologies via Gaming

curriculum. Several universities have created game degrees, while a number of other universities have set up game tracks and/or courses. Actually teaching game development is valuable not only because students and the young generation are interested in games, but also because gaming itself has the potential to revitalize and increase interest in computer science (Zyda, 2006). First of all, games have a unique role in education. Games “do all of the things that the learning scientists told us worked well” (Schollmeyer, 2007). Games support the following effective learning paradigms identified by learning science: experiential learning (“If you do it, you learn it”); inquiry-based learning (“What happens when I do this?”); self-efficacy (“If you believe you can do it, you will try longer/harder, and you will succeed more often than you would otherwise”); goal setting (“You learn more if you are working toward a well-defined goal”); and cooperation (team learning) (Mayo, 2007). Secondly, games are the integration of humanity, mathematics, physics, arts, artificial intelligence, graphics, visualization, animation, sounds, images, programming, and so on. Gaming itself is becoming a science (Zyda, 2007). Consequently, teaching game developments will promote the further study of all sciences, especially mathematics and physics, programming skills, and problem-solving abilities. Here, we are going to concentrate on the discussion of teaching programming knowledge and skills. The traditional way of teaching programming is going over one chapter for covering one topic, such as class, object, inheritance, polymorphism, and so on. Specifically made programming exercises are used to demonstrate and explain the individual concept. Unfortunately, this traditional approach misses the connections among the different topics, and students fail to see opportunities to put these technologies together to solve a real-world problem. The drawbacks of this pedagogical method often appear on students’ evaluations, such as “The program didn’t do anything cool” (only see some text outputs) or “no

idea what it was doing” (change programs do not affect the output) (Phelps, Bierre, & Parks, 2003), due to the fact that students cannot see the effects of their programs intuitively. Games are based on graphics, visualization, and animation. Students can easily see the cause-and-effect relationship between their programs and the results in the format of graphics and animation. In addition, visualization and animation will further catch their attention and encourage their interests. This idea has been demonstrated by many famous projects, such as “Logo,” “StarLOGO,” “Karel,” “Programmable Brick,” “Lego RCX Brick,” “Alice,” “MUPPETS,” and so on (Phelps et al., 2003; Bierre & Phelps, 2004). These excellent projects mainly create a 3D virtual environment for students to control a robot or a set of characters to visualize the programs’ effects, to extend and practice the programming skills, and to engage students’ efforts. Considering the limitations of resources and time, we are trying to directly teach the programming language (Java) through gaming. We select the 2D simple games, such as Worm, WormChase (Davison, 2005), Breakout, Othello, puzzle games, and so forth, as examples to teach object-oriented programming (OOP) and component-oriented programming (COP) technologies. Even though these games are simple, they all include static scenes, dynamic object animation, collision detections, player controls, a score calculation system, and a level system. We apply analysis and synthesis methodology to partition a game into pieces, use incremental development strategy to build up a game step by step, and incorporate term projects with presentations to bundle all related OOP and COP concepts together for designing and implementing one projecta game. The contents of a game are rich and interesting and closely related to the industry world. The size of the project is suitable for students and feasible to be finished in one semester. In other words, game development promotes a new teaching method for not only learning, but also applying what has been

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previously taught to solve a real problem. Different levels of gaming technology can be applied to different levels of teaching, which certainly enriches the teaching materials and enhances students’ collaboration, problem-solving ability, and documentation and presentation capability. Through teaching practices, we have found that developing games actually is challenging. Students need a solid background and willingness to accept the challenges. We would recommend following two tracks. For upper-division courses, students have taken their programming classes and they would be able to create and implement games. However, in lower-division courses, students are beginning to learn programming language and OOP programming concepts, so how can they engage in game development? This chapter intends to emphasize the latter case, to see how a game can teach our students OOP and COP technologies, which includes class, inheritance hierarchy, abstract class, interface, polymorphism, graphics, animation, JavaBeans, and event handling, just to name a few. The incremental development approach supports a beautiful pedagogical methodology that guides a game to be built from the beginning to the end. Due to its richness and usefulness, gaming technology is an important technology that a computer science major should master. Furthermore, this technology can be applied to other applications, especially those dealing with visualization and animation. Thus, we can say that game development is an important pedagogical tool and process for education, especially for computer science majors.

tOPIcs cOVErED IN GAME DEVELOPMENt We feel that action games are one of the most interesting genres in games. In general, any action game consists of four major components: static background scenes, dynamic animated objects, collision detections, and player controls. Every-

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thing in a game should be visualized by displaying scenes and objects on a canvas using graphics. The animated objects require animation technologies, frame-based or cast-based, to change the shape of objects or move objects following certain motion patterns. The animation causes collisions. The players just want to control the animation and collisions to build up their scores following the game stories. Both collisions and player controls are supported by event handling and event-driven programming. Therefore, we can safely say that games are based on visualization, animation, and event handling. From another angle, we can say that a game consists of three parts: (1) the user interfaces, which display objects, control mechanisms, and scores; (2) the game logic, which consists of internal game logic for controlling the animation and collision detections, and external logic for accepting the player’s inputs, judging the legal or illegal actions of the player, and displaying outputs for the player; and (3) the player of the game. We may develop the user interface first and then develop the game logic. Finally, the game should be verified and revised under the control of the player and the developer.

Visualizing a Single Object A game is either a standalone application or a networked online application. Any game starts from object creation. Let us start from a simplest case that only displays a single object, say a red ball, which illustrates a static scene. Think about a static scene as an oil painting that is placed in a frame. That is, the program needs to make a frame and provides a canvas or a paper for the developer to draw the scene. The frame comes from the class JFrame; the canvas or the paper corresponds to the class JPanel. The JFrame is the top container that contains the JPanel as the canvas for drawing. Thus, the class VisualizingRedBall and its constructor have the following codes.

Teaching OOP and COP Technologies via Gaming

public class VisualizingRedBall extends JFrame { public VisualizingRedBall() { setDefaultCloseOperation(WindowConstants.EXIT_ ON_CLOSE); getContentPane().setLayout(new BorderLayout()); pack(); setTitle(“A red ball”); setSize(500, 400); RedBall ball = new RedBall(); add(ball); setVisible(true); } …

The RedBall class is a JPanel that supports a paint() method, which draws the ball with the red color. The object ball is painted on the panel and then the panel is added onto the JFrame just like an oil painting is decorated with a frame. The class RedBall is defined as follows: public class RedBall extends JPanel { public RedBall() { } public void paint(Graphics g) { g.setColor(Color.red); g.fillOval(30, 30, 20, 20); } }

The UML diagram of the application is shown in Figure 1.

Animating the Single Object Animation is the heart and soul of games. Some objects in games must be moved to make a dynamic video scene and the story of the game. For making animation, a Thread (in terms of the Java language) is needed. Therefore, the RedBall class not only extends JPanel but also implements Runnable interface for creating a Thread to support the animation. The run() method defined in the thread contains a so-called game loop. The game loop does three things: (1) calls updateBall() for updating the coordinates of the ball following certain motion pattern, say bouncing around the four edges; (2) invokes repaint() for calling the paint() method to paint the ball with the new updated coordinates for creating an animation illusion; and then (3) sleeps for a while to allow other threads to be executed. The idea is described by the UML diagram shown in Figure 2. Clearly, the driving force of animation in games is the run() method defined in the Thread. Two methods are needed for supporting the animation: updateBall() and paintBall(). The updateBall() method changes the position of the object and follows certain rules for defining its motion pattern. For example, if the ball is moved as a bouncing ball, then the rules can be implemented in a method, say bouncingMotion(), it defines the states of the ball for a bouncing motion. Thus, the updateBall() method simply calls bouncingMotion() to control the movement of the object. After the new coordinates are calculated, the paintBall() paints the ball in the new position. The moving and painting cause a “trail” prob-

Figure 1. The UML diagram of the simplest application that displays a red ball

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Figure 2. The UML diagram of the red ball with a bouncing motion using a Thread

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lem because the new drawing of the object at the new position will partially overlap with the old drawing of the object at the previous position. Thus, a new action “erasing” should be added in addition to the update and paint actions, which erases the old drawing of the object before the new drawing starts. That is, the entire animation contains three quickly switched actions: erasing, updating, and painting. They cause a new “flicker” problem. The “double buffer” technique is, thus, introduced for further improvement (Brackeen, Barker, & Vanhelsuwe, 2004; Davison, 2005). That is, besides the main classes shown in Figure 2, a game needs more detailed codes for implementing solutions for overcoming “trail” and “flicker” problems.

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Add Another Object If we are going to add another object, say a bouncing blue rectangle, into the scene, then we need to create another class, say BlueRect. If we follow the code like the RedBall shown above, we have to make the class BlueRect extend JPanel as well. These two objects actually live inside one game. One game only needs one panel for drawing all objects. In other words, we should adjust the structure of the game from the UML diagram shown in Figure 2 to the UML structure shown in Figure 3. The new class MyGamePanel implements game-level controls. Besides the Thread for a game loop, which invokes updateGame() and paintGame(), many other methods, such as pauseGame(), resumeGame(), and terminateGame(), should be added. In addition, it has the responsibility to instantiate all objects of a

Teaching OOP and COP Technologies via Gaming

game, such as RedBall and BlueRect, as well as the detailed coding for solving the “trail” and “flicker” problems. On the other hand, the classes RedBall and BlueRect are dealing with object-level controls. The class RedBall should implement updateBall() and paintBall(), and the class BlueRect should implement updateRect() and paintRect(), respectively. Then the method updateGame() in the game level calls updateBall() and updateRect(), and the method paintGame() calls paintBall() and paintRect(). In reality, a game always involves multiple objects. These objects are independently animated and are called sprites in the game field. The structure shown in Figure 3 gives us a very convenient way to add any number of sprites into a game. Every individual sprite is a class that only needs to implement two methods for updating itself and for painting itself. All update methods of all sprites are called by the updateGame() method, and all paint methods of all sprites are called by the paintGame() method.

Some Challenging Questions However, when a game needs to instantiate multiple sprites with different names, it may force the game to deal with a long list of different sprites. More challenging, a game should be able to add or delete sprites at any stage of its development. How can we easily handle these requirements? Furthermore, imagine if there are two sprites, as we described above, one is a BouncingBall and the other is a BouncingRect, and they are animated with the same bouncing motion. Clearly, these two classes must repeatedly implement the identical motion pattern (the bouncing motion). What if a game has a hundred or a thousand sprites with the same motion pattern? Due to the fact that every animated object relies on two actionsupdating and paintingthe same motion pattern means the same updating action is repeated in every sprite class. In other words, any modification in the motion pattern would cause a modification in

the hundred or thousand classes. That makes the program lacking reusability and maintainability. For solving all these problems, we need a welldefined software architecture that is based on some theoretical guidelines.

Theoretical Principles Here, we emphasize two theoretical principles. The first principle is the open-closed principle (OCP). It says, “Software entities should be open for extension but closed for modification” (Meyer, 1998). The second principle is the variation principle, which says, “Don’t mix variations” and “Don’t spread variations” (Shalloway & Trott, 2001). For implementing these principles, some of the most important aspects of OOP technology should be applied, including abstract class, inheritance hierarchy, interface, polymorphism, and COP technology. First of all, many common features and shared codes can be extracted into abstract classes and interfaces. Then, these abstract classes and interfaces are used as the root class for building up an inheritance hierarchy or an implementation hierarchy. Due to the fact that the inheritance hierarchy can be extended by inserting or deleting any subclasses whenever the software needs, it confronts the requirement of the “open” aspect of the OCP principle. On the other hand, all extensions that happen in the hierarchy will not affect the root abstract class. It confronts the “closed” aspect of the OCP principle. Secondly, looking for variations and encapsulating different variations into different classes will dramatically increase the software reusability and maintainability.

The Abstract Class AbsGamePanel For deriving a well-defined software architecture based on these theoretical principles, we start by defining an abstract class in the game level. As we have known, every game involves animation. Every animation needs a run() method. Inside the

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Figure 4. The UML diagram of a game that incorporates the abstract class AbsGamePanel

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run() method, there always is a game loop. The game loop essentially performs the three steps: updateGame(), paintGame(), and sleeping. In addition, to overcome the “trail” and the “flicker” problems, an erasing action and the double buffer technique should be implemented at the game level. Also, to control the game, some methods like pauseGame(), resumeGame(), and terminateGame() should be implemented. Clearly, all these are common codes exist in the game level. No matter which game, these common codes are the same. For reusing these common codes, we can extract them into an abstract class, named AbsGamePanel as shown in Figure 4. Then, we only leave special parts of different games as abstract methods, such as initSprites(), updateGame(), paintGame(), and announceTermination(), to be defined in the class AbsGamePanel.

paints itself; correspondingly, some properties are the same for all sprites. These common properties, such as updatability, visibility, size, location, and the like, can be extracted into an abstract class, say AbsSprite, so that all sprites are the sub-classes of this abstract class. The root abstract class AbsSprite and all real sprite classes form a sprite inheritance hierarchy. The new UML diagram that incorporates the abstract class AbsSprite is shown in Figure 5. This sprite inheritance hierarchy supports a set of benefits:

The Abstract Class AbsSprite and Sprite Inheritance Hierarchy

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The majority of special parts in different games are sprites. In order to solve the challenge questions discussed above, we now turn to the sprite level. As we know, sprites are the most dynamically changing part of any game because each game has a different number of sprites and different kinds of sprites; any sprites could be added and deleted at any time. It is sprites that should confront the OCP principle. Every sprite updates itself and

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The hierarchy has an abstract class as its root that realizes the OCP principle’s “closed for modification,” and any sprites can be inserted into and deleted from the hierarchy at any time, which realizes the “open for extension” aspect. All sprites have the same parent class, so that all sprites can be declared as the same type and added into a linear data structure, for example an ArrayList or a Vector. It will dramatically reduce the complexity of the methods updateGame() and paintGame() since these two methods no longer need to deal with a long list of all different sprites, instead only a “for loop” is needed to go over the entire linear data structure for accessing all sprites of the same type. Thus, no matter what kinds of sprites and how

Teaching OOP and COP Technologies via Gaming

Figure 5. The UML diagram of a game that incorporates the abstract class AbsSprite

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many sprites, the methods updateGame() and paintGame() are no longer specific for a specific game. These two methods can be moved to the AbsGamePanel class and will no longer be declared as abstract methods. That leaves only two methods inside the class AbsGamePanel to be declared as abstract, namely the initSprites() and announceTermination() methods. It is a perfect programming practice for adopting the polymorphism of the OOP technology to dynamically bind the methods calls for all sprites. This mechanism makes all sprites loosely coupled with the game level, which will dramatically increase the reusability and maintainability in the sprite level. For example, a chess board sprite can be reused in any chess-like games. The modifications of sprites will not impact the game-level codes and will not cause recompilation of the entire source code.

In a sum, the abstract class AbsGamePanel can be reused and extended by any game without modifying its source code. Every new game only needs to override two abstract methods defined in the class AbsGamePanel: one is the method initSprites() that initializes all specifically required sprites for the game and adds the sprites into a linear data structure; the other is the announceTermination() method that displays

scores and any special actions needed, like restart the game. Similarly, the class AbsSprite can be reused and extended by any sprites. Every new sprite only needs to override the abstract methods: updateSprite() and paintSprite().

Separate Painting from Updating We have not yet solved the “repeated works” problem mentioned above. The problem arises if a game animates multiple sprites that have the same motion patterns. The source that causes the repeated works is that it mixes two variations—updating and painting—together so that it violate the “variation principle” discussed above. If we can split the two variations into two separate classes, then we only need to implement one bouncing motion that can be reused by any number of sprites with the same motion pattern. The extra benefit is that we can pre-build a library with different kinds of motion patterns. Any sprite can pair with any motion pattern whenever it needs. For example, the object worm in the game Worm moves in either X or Y directions, while the object worm in the game WormChase moves along eight different directions. The worm object can be reused in these two different games when it is paired with the different motion patterns. How do we realize this idea? We should adopt the component-oriented philosophy (Szypersli, 2002; Wang & Qian, 2005) to implement differ-

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Figure 6. The definition of the interface MotionPattern and sprites pair with motions AbsSprite

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ent “variations” into independent components. We apply the JavaBeans technology (Sun, 2007; Doherty et al., 2000)—the component-oriented model in Java—to further split a sprite class into two classes: the BouncingBall class is split into BallSprite class and the BouncingMotion class. This split separates two variations and encapsulates them in two different classes. The BallSprite class only performs painting, the class BouncingMotion only implements updating. In order to make all motion patterns as components, an interface, named MotionPattern, is defined. All motion patterns implement the interface so that all motion patterns can be “plug-and-play” with any sprites. Thus, a motion library that contains different motion patterns, such as BouncingMotion, WrapMotion, XMotion, and so on, can be pre-built. Thus, a BouncingBall is a pair of BallSprite with a BouncingMotion component. Following this approach, any motion pattern can be plugged-and-played with any sprite such that all sprites can be assembled. The following example code illustrates how to assemble a sprite with a motion that implements the interface MotionPattern: public interface MotionPattern { public int getX();

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public int getY(); public void setSpriteWH(int w, int h); public void setPosition(int x, int y); public void setVelocity(int vx, int vy); public void updatePosition(); public void checkPattern(); } public BouncingMotion implements MotionPattern {} public void initSprites() { aBall = new RedBallSprite(); aMove = new BouncingMotion(); aMove.setSpriteWH(aBall.getSpriteW(), aBall.get SpriteH()); aMove.setPosition(aBall.getLocx(), aBall.getLocy()); aMove.setVelocity(2, 3); aBall.setMotion(aMove); spriteAry.add(aBall); }

Thus, the sprite-level contains a sprite inheritance hierarchy and a motion pattern implementation hierarchy. Any motion pattern is only implemented once, but can be reused any number of times. An example is shown in Figure 6.

Teaching OOP and COP Technologies via Gaming

and MouseEvent are two major event listeners. Event listeners are implemented in MyGamePanel since it can see all of sprites. All property change events and player’s control events go through three phasesregister phase, capture phase, and action phaseto relate one sprite to the other. If we would understand the “is,” “uses,” and “has” relationships as “hard links” among all classes, then we can understand all the event listeners as “soft links” for all classes.

Collision Detections Collisions are the reactions among sprites, which generate new actions and new stories. Collision detections require communications among sprites. Since every sprite is isolated in its own class, sprites are siblings. Any property changes in one sprite should be passed to other sprits in the checking group. What communication mechanism is suitable for this environment? We selected the PropertyChangeEvent, which is supported by an interface PropertyChangeListener and a class PropertyChangeSupport (Doherty et al., 2000). The method firePropertyChange() defined in PropertyChangeSupport can pass the new value and the old value of the property to other sprites automatically. For passing properties, a “meeting place” is needed to allow the sprites to “see each other.” The best meeting place is the class MyGamePanel since it is the container that “uses” all sprites and allows sprites to pass their new properties for each other. The class MyGamePanel implements the interface PropertyChangeListener to catch the event and handle the properties passing.

A THREE-LAYER GAMING FRAMEWORK Based on the discussions above, we have evolved a three-layer gaming framework as shown in Figure 7 (Xu, 2007a). The top layer is called “application layer.” A JFrame or a JApplet is used as a top-level container. The JFrame or the JApplet “uses” the class GamePanel in the second layer. The majority of the codes in the game level are implemented in the second layer, which leaves the top layer almost “empty.” This allows the top layer to easily switch from an application to an applet or vise versa. The reason for making a switch is that usually we develop a game as an application. But we would often like to share games. An applet is a convenient way for sharing and demonstrating, especially for illustrating games in teaching.

Player Controls Definitely games should be controlled by players. A game player controls a game through either key press or mouse click. The KeyEvent

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The second layer, called “game layer,” consists of JPanels and event listeners. The abstract class AbsGamePanel contains the “universal” codes of all games and declares two abstract methods, initSprites() and announceTermination(). The GamePanel inherits the AbsGamePanel and implements the specific portion of the specific game by using the two abstract methods defined in the AbsGamePanel. The GamePanel also “has” different event listeners for handling all communications among sprites for detecting collisions and accepting the players’ controls. The third layer, called “sprite layer,” refers to the sprite level. This layer encompasses all sprites in one inheritance hierarchy and all motion patterns in another interface implementation hierarchy. These two hierarchies can be extended to any level for making sprites and motions with flexible addition and deletion capabilities at any time. The entire process for building up this framework is the process of exploring all important concepts of the OOP and COP programming technologies, including visualization, animation, abstract class, interface, inheritance hierarchy, polymorphism, “uses” and “has” relationships for organizing an entire game, event handling techniques for taking care of communications among all components, and the software developing principles for increasing software reusability and maintainability, which reveals what students can learn from gaming, even from the simple 2D gaming.

cAsE stUDIEs A software framework is typically a semi-finished software architecture for an application domain (Szyperski, Gruntz, & Murer, 2002; Scherp & Boll, 2005), which can be adapted to the needs and requirements of a concrete application in the domain. All the concepts and technologies for building up the three-layer gaming framework

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are closely associated with the development of games. The framework analyzes the entire game into components, places all components in proper positions and sets up relationships among them, and synthesizes components into an active game. Under the guidance of the framework, students can incrementally develop a game step by step. Consequently, the software framework has a great significance for teaching and learning.

The Game Breakout Let us take the simple game Breakout as a case study for demonstrating the three-layer gaming framework. The game interface is shown in Figure 8. The game displays a set of bricks on the top of screen. A ball is bounced around to hit the bricks. Whenever the ball hits a brick, the brick will disappear and the ball will bounce accordingly. The ball will bounce on the left, the right, the top boundaries, and all bricks. In addition, the player controls the paddle for bouncing the ball to prevent the ball from falling down to the bottom boundary. The more bricks were hit, the higher the score the player earned. All of the bricks, the ball, and the paddle are buffered images. When the ball hits the boundaries, the paddle, and the bricks, different sounds stimulate the player’s attention. The AbsGamePanel and AbsSprite classes in the framework are reused to build up a prototype for the Breakout game easily. From the “story” of the game, we can find three sprites are needed. The bricks are the static scene that can be added into the sprite inheritance hierarchy in the first stage of the development. The brick sprite contains a set of brick cells. Every brick cell is an imageSprite, which inherits visibility property defined in the AbsSprite class. When a brick is hit by the ball, it sets the visibility property to false so it will not be painted any more, which illustrates the brick disappears. This kind of sprite, like the brick sprite, is called a composite sprite, which contains many cells. The second stage adds the bouncing

Teaching OOP and COP Technologies via Gaming

Figure 8. The GUI and the simplified UML diagram of the game Breakout B reakout M ouseM otionListener AbsGamePanel

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ball into the sprite inheritance hierarchy. The ball sprite pairs with the pre-implemented bouncing motion for its animation. In the updating method of the ball sprite, the firePropertyChange() method is called to pass its new coordinates to the brick sprite for collision checking. Finally, the paddle sprite is added into the inheritance hierarchy and the player’s control events are formalized. We have also designed a static method for calling sounds so that any class can directly invoke sound without instantiating a sound object. A state chart is used to examine the environment and determine the sound actions (Davison, 2005). The simplified UML diagram shown in Figure 8 summarizes the implementation of the game and illustrates all classes and their relationships.

The Game Othello Even though the three-layer gaming framework has been derived from action games, it can also be applied to other kinds of games. Othello is a turn-based game. The three-layer framework (Figure 9) successfully guides the entire incremental developing process. The developing process is briefly described as follows. Otherllo1 defines the BoardSprite as a simple board that contains 8x8 of square CellSprite

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on the board. Otherllo2 adds a ScoreSprite for displaying scores, a PieceSprite as a simple oval, and a PlayerSprite that uses a PieceSprite to indicate whose turn, as well as arranges PieceBoard, PlayerBoard, and ScoreBoard for informing the current status as shown in Figure 10(a). Then, Othello3 implements the player’s actions by using MouseMotionListener and MouseListener. It facilitates the player to move the mouse with a yellow color slot and to click the mouse to add a piece on the game board as shown in Figure 10(b). Othello4 starts the first playing rule for checking valid moves. Othello5 completes all playing rules, including UpRule, DownRule, LeftRule, RightRule, UpLeftRule, UpRightRule, DownLeftRule, and DownRightRule, and adds all these rules into a linear data structure to be easily accessed. Every rule implements isValid() and flipPiece() for confirming the play and flipping pieces. The white square shown in Figure 10(c) indicates a potential valid movement for the reference of the white player. This is a kind of artificial intelligence embedded in the game to tell the player all valid movements. Continuously, Othello6 replaces the primitive drawing pieces by using 3D images, which consist of six images for making a frame-based animation when a piece is flipped as shown in Figure 10(d). Othello7 also

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Figure 9. The simplified UML diagram of the game Othello O thello

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adds sounds for valid movement and every piece flipping. Finally, a networked online Othello is also finished.

IMPLIcAtIONs, cONcLUsION, AND FUTURE WORK Taking advantage of the visualization and animation, we can teach programming efficiently and effectively, since visualization will clearly reveal the relationship between the causes and the effects. That is, it will display any semantic errors in programs and allow students to see what they cannot see before. Animation will increase the students’ interest level and promote students to continuously improve their programs and actively brainstorm to solve problems. This concept goes along with the popular sayings, “A figure is worth a thousand words” and “A video is worth a million words.” Meanwhile, gaming supports an additional dimension: interactive. The interactive playing engages students’ attention. This observation is supported by the theory of intrinsic motivation (Purdue University–Calumet, 2007) and self-efficacy (Emory University, 2007). We have developed game courses for teaching gaming technologies. We have found that learning OOP and COP technologies via gaming is an innovative pedagogical method. First of all, the gaming technology covers almost all core technologies in OOP and COP. Developing games

Applying Gaming Technology for Other Applications Gaming technology is not only for game development but also can be applied to other applications, especially for applications dealing with visualization and animation. We have applied the gaming technology to develop teaching tools, for example, a number conversion package (Xu, 2007b). This package can convert integers from decimal to any base and vice versa, and perform two integer summations in the signed-magnitude, 1’s complement, and 2’s complement notations with animations so that it can dynamically illustrate the computation process for teaching the Computer Organization and Architecture course. Figure 11 (left) shows the GUI of the summation in the 1’s complement notation; Figure 11 (right) shows its simplified UML diagram. Comparing this UML diagram with Figure 7, we can tell the entire application was developed under the guidance of the threelayer gaming framework.

Figure 11. (left) The GUI of summation in the 1’s complement notation; (right) the corresponding simplified UML diagram

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promotes students to apply all technologies to solve an industry-oriented project that enhances students’ knowledge and, more importantly, motivates students to exercise brain storming in problem solving. Secondly, games are a suitable size of industry-level projects that could be done by students in one semester. Thirdly, the visualization of game development provides invaluable scenarios to allow students interactively to program what is in their minds and immediately see the results. It is an excellent opportunity for them to be trained with the ability to express their ideas in videos that they can then view. This process trains the students from reality to abstract and from abstract to reality. In order to fully explore these benefits and guide students smoothly through the challenging work, we have evolved a three-layer gaming framework. The three-layer gaming framework has guided students to develop more than 20 games already. Many students commented: • This course (Game Programming) should be a regular course not just a special topic course. I felt I learned more about programming in this course than other programming courses. • The term project was very interesting and helped develop problem solving and creativity skills. • This is probably one of the courses I enjoyed the most so far. Gaming attracts students’ attention and engages them to involve interactive “dialog” with computers through programming. Teaching gaming technology is not only preparing students for game industry market but also for learning all core concepts of OOP and COP technologies. 3D games add a third axis Z and should be mapped to a 2D screen. They deeply involve mathematical computation complexity. These computations transfer an object from the model coordinate system to the world coordinate system, to the view coordinate system, and to the screen coordinate system (Fan, Ries, & Tenitchi,

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1996). After knowing these transformations, the fundamental gaming strategies are similar with what we have discussed. Some students involved in 3D games find the need to retake some mathematics courses. Similarly, the networked online games add more technologies to the development process. Gaming technology can also be applied to develop other applications, such as animated teaching tools, computational sciences, and the like. This opens a new direction for developing interdisciplinary projects using gaming technology in the near future. “Game Science” (Zyda, 2007) is a direction worth exploring. It will integrate all science fields, especially mathematics, physics, and computer science, and will be applied to all science fields, including chemistry, biology, and bioinformatics. We should prepare ourselves and our students to accept this challenge.

rEFErENcEs Bierre, K., & Phelps, A. (2004, October 28-30). The use of MUPPETS in an introductory Java programming course. Proceedings of SIGITE’04, Salt Lake City, UT. Brackeen, D., Barker, B., & Vanhelsuwe, L. (2004). Developing games in Java. New Riders. Davison, A. (2005). Killer game programming. O’Reilly. Doherty, D., Leinecker, R. et al. (2000). JavaBeans unleashed. Sams. Emory University. (2007). Information on selfefficacy. Retrieved from http://www.des.emory. edu/mfp/self-efficacy.html Fan, J., Ries, E., & Tenitchi, C. (1996). Black art of Java game programming. Waite Group Press. Mayo, M. (2007). Games for science and engineering education. CACM, 50(7).

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Meyer, B. (1998). Object oriented software Construction. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Science and Computer Engineering (pp. 193-199), Las Vegas, NV.

Phelps, A., Bierre, K., & Parks, D. (2003, October 16-18). MUPPETS: Multi-user programming pedagogy for enhancing traditional study. Proceedings of CITC4’03, Lafayette, IN.

Zyda, M. (2006). Educating the next generation of game developers. Computer, (June).

Purdue University Calumet. (2007). Intrinsic motivation. Retrieved from http://education. calumet.purdue.edu/vockell/EdPsyBook/Edpsy5/ Edpsy5_intrinsic.htm Scherp, A., & Boll, S. (2005, July 25-29). A lightweight process model and development methodology for component frameworks. Proceedings of the 10th International Workshop on Component-Oriented Programming at ECOOP 2005, Glasgow, Scotland. Schollmeyer, J. (2007). Games get serious. Retrieved from http://www.thebulletin.org/article. php?art_ofn=ja06schollmeyer_100 Shalloway, A., & Trott, J. (2001). Design patterns explaineda new perspective on object-oriented design. Boston: Addison-Wesley. Sun. (2007). JavaBeans. Retrieved from http:// java.sun.com/products/javabeans/ Szyperski, C., Gruntz, D., & Murer, S. (2002). Component software: Beyond object-oriented programming (2nd ed.). Boston: Addison-Wesley. Wang, A., & Qian, K. (2005). Component-oriented programming. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Xu, Chong-wei. (2007a, March 7-9). A hybrid gaming framework and its applications. Proceedings of the International Technology, Education and Development Conference 2007 (INTED2007), Valencia, Spain. Xu, Chong-wei. (2007b, June 25-28). Applying gaming technologies for developing teaching tools. Proceedings of the 2007 International Conference on Frontiers in Education: Computer

Zyda, M. (2007). Creating a science of games. CACM, 50(7).

KEY TERMS Component-Oriented Programming (COP): Enables programs to be constructed from pre-built software components, which are reusable, selfcontained entities. These components should follow certain pre-defined standards, including interface, connections, versioning, and deployment to make themselves ready to use whatever from wherever. Game Genres: Games have a variety of different kinds including action games, role-playing games, adventure games, strategy games, simulation games, sport games, fighting games, casual games, educational games, puzzle games, online games, and the like. Gaming: Refers to all processes of designing and implementing games and all technologies that can be applied for developing games. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): Involves programming using objects. An object encapsulates attributes (data) and activities (operations) in a single entity so that many techniques, such as inheritance, abstract, interface, polymorphism, and so on, can be applied to increase the software reusability and maintainability. Software Framework: Typically a semifinished software architecture for an application domain that can be adapted to the needs and requirements of a concrete application in the domain. Software frameworks consist of frozen spots and hot spots. On the one hand, frozen spots define

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the overall architecture of a software system, that is to say its basic components and the relationships between them. On the other hand, hot spots represent those parts where the programmers using the framework add their own code to add the functionality specific to their own project. Software Maintainability: Includes modifiability and adaptability. Software should be easily modified, extended, and adapted for fixing errors and for satisfying new needs, new requirements, and new environment. Software Reusability: Software exits in different forms throughout the software engineering process. The requirements specification, the architectural design, and the source code are all software in different formats. Software reusability includes the reuse of any software artifacts in various formats. The most intuitive reuse is in the reality of “plug-and-play” just like the hardware counterpart.

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UML Diagram (Simplified UML Diagram): UML stands for Unified Modeling Language, which is the standard object modeling language. As a modeling language, it reduces everything to the essence of a program. As a diagram, it is a graphical design notation for communication and understanding. Formally, the term UML diagram includes activity diagram, class diagram, collaboration diagram, component diagram, deployment diagram, sequence diagram, state diagram, and use case diagram. This chapter used an informal term “simplified UML diagram” to indicate that the diagram contains class diagram with sequence diagram for saving space.

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Chapter XXX

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics Pollyana Notargiacomo Mustaro Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Luciano Silva Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil Ismar Frango Silveira Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, Brazil

AbstrAct This chapter discusses some possibilities of using computer games to effectively reach didactic goals in undergraduate teaching. Nowadays, undergraduate students belong to the Net generation and usually play different kinds of games on consoles, computers, and the Internet. Some elements such as creativity and abstraction could be included in computer science and information technology curriculums through the use of games as educational methodological resources, due the motivational factor they inherently have. This learner-centered approach not only contributes to personalizing the knowledge-building process but also permits the consideration of learning styles to adapt different ludic environments and/or realworld situations according to topics of the course. To demonstrate the possibilities of this educational scenario, two case studies were conducted. One focuses on Design Patterns contents in a computer science course, and the other spotlights computer graphics topics in an information technology course. The results gained in these processes demonstrate the students’ involvement in the proposed activities and the capacity to apply the lessons learned in diverse situations.

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Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

INtrODUctION The acquisition of skills related to creativity and abstraction, indispensable to any computer science and information technology curriculum, constitutes unquestionably a didactical challenge. From the educational point of view, the use of games in this process is a motivational element that could help to make the knowledge-building process more personalized. It is also possible to take into account students’ learning styles, thus establishing an adaptive and flexible environment where any skill, subject, or even concept can be effectively learned (Prensky, 2007; Gee, 2003; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Another aspect that must be considered is that actual undergraduate students belong to the so-called “Net generation” (Tapscott, 1998). According to Tapscott, “N-Geners” could be characterized by having autonomy sense, intellectual openness, technology inclusion (or the facility to use technological elements even though never having any previous contact with them), freedom of expression, curiosity, immediacy, and mainly trust. This scenario perfectly fits into a game universe-based andragogic proposal, because nowadays it is necessary to institute mechanisms that take advantage of technological culture over where they are steeped and transform it into learning resources. The same author also points out the need for an interactive learning posture where focus is learner centered and related to interaction with hypermedia-based systems in order to promote a lifelong learning from a customizedand mainly funpoint of view. In this situation, professors could be, in a metaphorical way, considered analogous to game masters that guide and encourage players (the students) into a game (the educational process itself) to play the game, face the challenges, and go through the next level (in other words, succeed in academic life). By exceeding curriculum demands, students could be able to

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enjoy a lifelong, meaningful learning experience (Ausubel, 1962). In the role of gamer characters or game development, learners have the opportunity to compare, analyze, and experience situations similar to the real ones. When a student plays in this controlled environment or constructs them, it is possible to present fully inspiring situations where actions only occur in the virtual world, which contributes, among other factors, to reduce cognitive load. Another consideration in this proposal is based on Shaffer’s (2007) works, which focus real problem solving by role-playing a professional character that uses new digital technologies to assume his or her own learning process and institutes attitudinal changing by implementing epistemic games. Nonetheless, teachers and students barely consider games as something detached from entertainment. The sole tentative of introducing “serious,” non-entertaining games into a curriculum often causes the inverse effect, since these sorts of games tend to be tedious as they do not prime for the entertainment-related aspects that are responsible for retaining students’ attention. It must be remembered, although obvious, that the act of learning does not have to be a boring, unexciting situation that students are exposed for a significant part of their lives (Johnson, 2005). Instead, it must be a stimulating andwhy not?funny, entertaining activity to be performed by students. Thus, recovering the ludic side of learning is primordial to motivate students to learn the issues curricula tell them they have to. Specifically in computer science and information technology areas, students often are already gamers; thus, they are completely aware of game strategies, terminology, and play. The introduction of game-related situations in their curricula has being a well-accepted operation, since games belong to their cognitive comfort zone. Thus, given such familiarity with the pedagogical instrumentthe gameeven uncomfortable, hard-to-be-taught syllabi could make use of games

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

in order to approximate curriculum subjects to students’ social context (Sweedyk & Keller, 2005; Squire, 2002). According to the elements previously presented, this chapter’s main objective is to show how ludic aspects of electronic gaming could be used as motivation for advances studies in computer science and information technology undergraduate courses. This involves three aspects: the theoretical aspects of game playing as a contributing factor for constituting more autonomous, self-criti,c and inquirer students; how game-driven activities could be inserted in traditional curricula of such courses; and the demonstration of theory reviewed and discussed through analysis of two case studies about applying games in syllabi.

tHE UsE OF GAMEs IN EDUcAtIONAL PrOPOsALs An educational proposal based on games requires a different instructional design approach. In this special case, it is necessary to consider not only learning objectives, learning styles, contents, pro-

cedures, and other elements related to structure, such as methodology, evaluation, outcomes, and feedback (Mustaro, Silveira, Omar, & Stump, 2007; Reighluth, 1999). Games for education also demand the use of narratologyscreen written and creativity components to develop a result that could be motivating, challenging, and enjoyablebeing able to engage learners in a process where learn and play are combined into one. This architecture can be established through the use of a learner-centered educational approach with adaptive systems that could take advantage of interactive media. The type of media or resource used in educational proposal influences learners’ activity levels during the learning process (Dale, 1969). According to this idea, it is possible to adapt Dale’s scheme to the contemporary scenario (see Figure 1). From the elements presented in the adaptation of Dale’s Cone of Experience, games could be classified as activities with high levels of participation, which also amplifies information retention, making them more significant to students. This occurs because, through video games, learners can “interact with real rules while imagining a

Figure 1. Adapted Dale’s Cone of Experience (Mustaro et al., 2007)

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fictional world” (Juul, 2005, p. 1). Furthermore, game playing could be considered “an activity of improving skills in order to overcome…challenges, and playing a game is therefore fundamentally a learning experience” (Juul, 2005, p. 5). According to Juul (2005) games present essentially two forms of providing challenges for players. The first is based on a combination/variation of a small set of rules (called emergence); the second is related to the level-based structure and sequence of events (denominated progression). Besides, the game universe developed for educational purposes also needs to consider knowledge and background abilities of students to present challenges that match the contextualization requirements, and they must also take into account Vygoysky’s (1978) theory about the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). This combination requires exploration of serious games’ characteristics. Bergeron (2006) pointed out that a serious game is mainly an interactive computer application that presents challenging goals, fun elements of engaging, and some score concepts, as well as provides knowledge, skill, or even attitudes that could be used in real-world situations. These concepts could be complemented with the following sentence: “To play a game is to improve…repertoire of skills, and the challenge of game design is to work with the skill set of the player through the game” (Juul, 2005, p. 5). However, not only providing games to students could be effective, but it is also relevant to motivate them to develop their own games if possible, especially in computer science (CS) and information technology (IT) undergraduate courses. This approach can merge the Real Problem Solving approach proposed by Shaffer (2007) with Problem-Based Learning (PBL) developed by Barrows and Tamblyn (1980), thus exploring constructivist elements when considering previous knowledge and concepts of each student through the whole process of learning construction (Halverson et al., 2006).

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In this situation, it is possible to retrieve concepts and knowledge, or even pieces of information to establish a relationship with new content. In a complementary way, it also allows one to experience solving problems that are similar or even equal to those that students usually find in their professional lives. According to Norman and Schmidt (2000), the use of PBL in curricula could improve knowledge retention, students’ motivation, and self-learning capacity, and presents the capacity to transfer learned concepts to new scenarios. Because of that, the present research combines PBL with games to increase intrinsic motivation of students, thus instituting a significant learning scenario.

METHODOLOGY Both case studies were taken in the context of undergraduate courses at a private university in Brazil, namely Mackenzie Presbyterian University. The first case study was carried out from 2005 to 2006 with three different groups of students from the fourth year of a CS undergraduate course, involving approximately 120 students. The second case study included nine different groups of IT undergraduate students during the same year, involving around 550 students. The approach presented here is mainly based on Problem-Based Learning (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980; Barr & Tagg, 1995; Wilkerson & Gijselaers, 1996), which is an instructional theory that motivates students to work in a collaborative way to propose solutions to real-world problems. In both cases, students were faced with different sorts of game-related problems. In the first case, the students had to have a software engineering vision about games, having to propose different solutions for the problem of modeling games in an object-oriented way, using extensively Responsibility Assignment Patterns (Larman, 2004) and Design Patterns (Gamma, Helm, Johnson, & Vlissides, 1995). According

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

to the learner’s evolution, the modeling evolved together. Nowadays, a growing demand for some updates and changes in the curricula of software engineering-related courses is being noticed in CS and IT undergraduate courses, in order to include modern software development techniques. In this sense, inclusion of Design Patterns in such curricula is being considered as an urgent necessity. However, the Design Patterns’ learning process demands students to have a high level of abstract reasoning, in addition to a certain degree of maturity on software engineering issues, which makes this task a non-trivial effort to be performed. The main purpose behind Design Patterns (Gamma et al., 1995) is to provide to software development community a set of problem-solution pairs so they are generic enough to serve as guidelines to solve recurrent problems in different application domains. Together with such a set, a common high-level vocabulary also arises, which makes integration easier among development teams, leading to a software development process with higher abstraction levels. Using Design Patterns is an extremely good practice in the sense that it improves one’s skills about object-oriented system design, and since it allows the evolution from a low-level reasoning, dealing with isolated classes and their object, to a more abstract way of thinking, where software is usually planned in a macro-structured way, and patterns can be applied in a plug-and-play manner. In the second case, students were meant to face the problems related to computer graphics issues when creating a game scenario. Such modeling was supposed to evolve while students were presented new computer graphics techniques. Modeling and rendering are major issues in a computer graphics course. However, IT undergraduate courses have some specific characteristics that often make the teaching of computer graphics topics a hard task, since many students consider the matter as uncoupled, isolated from

the rest of curricula. Besides, computer graphics learning frequently requires from students a very good basis in Math, as well as dealing with a family of non-trivial algorithms for both modeling and rendering. Games were used in this case study in order to improve students’ sense of motivation, as long they were learning and applying sophisticated techniques to create a game scenario (Rucker, 2003). Simple board games were chosen, since they usually rely on a family of accomplishable challenges for undergraduate IT students, regarding their simple, but comprehensive modeling process of pieces and the board itself, as well as the fact that they open a wide range of possibilities for studying rendering techniques.

Case Study #1: Design Patterns and Software Metrics This section will show some experiences from the years 2005 and 2006 in which games were used to teach patterns to CS students. These experiences will be divided in two phases: the first one, introductory, shows how games could be used in order to stimulate students in their first contact with basic software patterns, specifically Responsibility Assignment Patternssome of them supported by object-oriented metricsand Architectural Patterns. The second phase deals with the same students being taught GoF Design Patterns (Gamma et al., 1995), a more sophisticated subject of study. Games were also used in this second phase. To explore this scenario, it is relevant to consider some elements. The increasing of processing power of computers, the spreading of mobile devices, and all the Internet phenomena are factors that contribute to the demand each time for more complex and sophisticated software. Since software is becoming increasingly complex, it is expected that its design follows the same path. Thus, professionals are required to act in a market with increasing demands for sophisticated designs (Cayley, 1999).

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In this scenario, an average student of a regular CS course would not be completely able to ingress in such a software engineering market. With few exceptions, these students lack expertise in more realistic situations involving software development. The fact of not knowing Design Patterns could lead such students to propose simplistic, naïve solutions for problems that otherwise would require complex solutions. Such a gap in students’ formations could be partially explained by the low level of abstraction that is commonly used in regular software engineering courses. In spite of it being very useful to teach basic principles about object orientation paradigm, such strategies are shown to be inefficient when applied to larger, more complex systems. A wide range of didactical aspects must be considered when dealing with such a category of subject, often considered too abstract and high level for undergraduate students, who must be motivated in some manner to build the knowledge related to these topics. Motivation, as stated by Gagné, Briggs, and Wager (1992), is a key factor to learning, and it can be achieved through a variety of strategies. For instance, a recent book about Design Patterns (Freeman, Freeman, Sierra, & Bates, 2004) tries to promote motivation through the usage of a metacognition-based approach, while an earlier publication (Duell, 1997) already tried to present Design Patterns’ main concepts by associating them to non-software real-world examples. In the context of the experience, games are used as motivational factors, acting as triggers to the learning process. The complexity of the subject is easily perceived, if confronted withbarely not naïveapproaches first-year students usually apply when modeling object-oriented systems. To depict this, a first case study was carried out in 2005 with a class of fourth-year students. Students were confronted with a simple but not trivial challenge: given a software already completed and how to analyze it, extract its main characteristics and, through a reverse engineering-based process,

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infer which would be a good object-oriented design for this software, particularly dealing with UML Class Diagrams. In order to improve students’ motivation, a game was proposed as the subject software for this study (Berguin, Reilly, & Traynor, 2005; Björk & Holopainen, 2005; Nguyen & Wong, 2002). The targeted game is known as Extreme Farm Simulator,1 a very simple game done in Adobe Flash©. It is a third-person shooting game, with a solelyand funnygoal: a farmer, controlled by the player, must shoot a flying saucer that tries to abduct his cows. Although simple, it is a multi-phased game, in which new levels add new flying saucers, requiring simply players’ quicker reactions. Students’ first attempts to propose a class diagram for this game, based on their previous knowledge about object orientation, resulted often in simplified models, whose cores dealt only with that which is known as resource tier in a five-layered architecture. Some of these attempts can be seen in Figures 2 and 3, which depict two different diagrams for the same subject. Since they are made by Brazilian students, all projects were originally written in Portuguese. For the sake of readability, all class diagrams in this chapter show translated versions of the originals. Both cases show how students cope with the concept of classes in the Object Orientation paradigm: they are merely representations of visually perceived “real” objects that are present in the application domain. Even though this is a conceptually correct first concept, to reach higher levels of abstraction, students would have to be able to recognize classes that are not necessarily direct representations of “physical” elements. Thus, invariantly, at this time students are able to present diagrams that would better fit as data-tier elements in a multi-tiered approach. Some interesting questions arose from a first analysis of these diagrams made in the classroom. For instance, which class would be responsible for controlling the game? Which would be responsible for creation of other objects (the student that

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

Figure 2. Simple class diagram for the game (example #1)

Figure 3. Simple class diagram for the game (example #2)

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Figure 4. A more elaborated class diagram, applying the Three-Tiered Architectural Pattern

authored Figure 3’s diagram tried to solve it using a “self-creating” class-like level)? Since students, at that point, were not yet presented to GRASP Patterns (Larman, 2004), they were unable to apply patterns like Pure Fabrication, Controller, or Creator to solve these problems, which remained unsolved until the next step forward. Starting from this point, students were invited to present and discuss their diagrams with colleagues. Such discussion took place at two different times: first in the classroom, where students were stimulated to have a critical approach to colleagues’ proposals, and afterwards through a virtual environment-based forum (Moodle2 was used in this case). The discussion allowed students to be presented to a high-level Architectural Pattern, namely Three-Tiered Architecture, based on the MVC (Model-View-Controller) Pattern (Adams, 1988). Students were invited to rethink

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their designs after having contact with this pattern. One of the results can be seen in Figure 4. It must be noted that Figure 4 represents an overall improvement from those depicted in Figures 2 and 3: by having made contact with the concepts around tiered architectures, students now go beyond the simple representation of a data/resource tier by thinking in specific classes for encapsulating business rules. However, interface issues are not yet well addressed in these phases. More than just modeling, in this educational approach, students were also invited to criticize colleagues’ works. Again, the fact of using popular games as subjects of modeling was decisive, as their domains are widely well known by everyone. Below is an intervention (translated from Portuguese) of a student about the design proposed by a colleague in the semester before. In this case,

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

students were faced with various diagrams, from which they had to choose the best one according to their own criteria. Using a virtual environment, they were asked to expose the reasons of their choices. I think the diagram of students X and Y is the one that better represents the game, since it has the best class definition, keeping clear the idea about how game is structured. On the other hand, Z’s diagram is without methods and attributes, making vague the idea about how the game works. In the Game class I could not understand why there are methods like shoot( ), moveRight( ), or moveLeft( ), since they are already defined in the following classes: Flying Saucer, Cow, and Farmer. Where are the methods related to cow’s abduction??? And those one related to flying saucers’shoots? It was good to have tried to divide in tiers, although I’m not sure if it is correct. After having contact with some basic concepts regarding architectural patterns, the next set of patterns studied was Larman’s (2004) GRASP (General Responsibilty Assignment Software Patterns), which is a set of nine general-purpose patterns. Such patterns serve as guidelines for software development, as well as being the foundations for Gamma’s Design Patterns.

In order to motivate the use of GRASP concepts, it was proposed that the students choose a game and build a class diagram to represent it, with posterior applying of two object-oriented metricsLCOM and CBOfrom the wellknown set of metrics proposed by the classical work of Chidamber and Kemerer (1994). These metrics were chosen since they support the application of two GRASP patterns, respectively High Cohesion and Low Coupling (Larman, 2004). One of the students choose Tetris (from Russian Тетрис), a well-known game whose pieces are composed of four square blocks, called tetraminoes (Figure 5), that fall down on the playing field. The basic mechanics of the game are to manipulate these tetrominoes, by moving each one sideways and rotating it by 90-degree units, with the aim of creating a horizontal line of blocks without gaps. When such a line is created, it disappears and the blocks above (if any) fall. As the game progresses, the tetrominoes fall faster, and the game ends when the player “tops out”that is, when the stack of tetrominoes reaches the top of the playing field and no new tetrominoes are able to enter. A non-end configuration of a Tetris session is depicted in Figure 6. To contextualize object-oriented metrics, the following section revises LCOM and CBO metrics. The Lack of Cohesion Metric (LCOM) is an object-oriented metric and states the dissimilarity of methods in a class by instance variable or attri-

Figure 5. Possible configurations for Tetri’s tetraminoes

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Figure 6. An intermediate Tetris configuration during a game session

butes. Lack of cohesion or low cohesion increases complexity, thereby increasing the likelihood of errors during the development process. Classes with low cohesion could probably be subdivided into two or more subclasses with increased cohesion. A highly cohesive module should stand alone, and high cohesion indicates good class subdivision. High cohesion implies simplicity and high reusability, and indicates good class subdivision. LCOM measurement is not a trivial problem, since it requires classes’ methods to be already well defined in an algorithmic way. Besides, there are currently different methods to perform it, leading to different interpretations of this metric. A comprehensive analysis of these different methods can be found in Lakshminarayana and Newman (1999). The Coupling Between Object (CBO) is a count of the number of other classes to which a class is coupled. It is measured by counting the number of distinct non-inheritance-related class hierarchies on which a class depends. Excessive coupling is detrimental to modular design and prevents reuse. The more independent a class is, the easier it is to reuse it in another application. The larger the number of couples, the higher the sensitivity to changes in other parts of the design,

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and therefore maintenance is more difficult. Strong coupling complicates a system since a class is harder to understand, change, or correct by itself if it is interrelated with other classes. Complexity can be reduced by designing systems with the weakest possible coupling between classes. This improves modularity and promotes encapsulation. Computation of CBO is often done through the class diagram being represented as a directed graph, where edges represent dependencies among classes. An individual node’s CBO is its outer degree. One result devised from the proposed experiment is depicted in Figure 7. The proper application of GRASP could lead students to a satisfactory project for the games they have chosen. By means of PBL and Collaborative Learning, students themselves could build these solutions and, through criticism, supported by LCOM and CBO metrics, they were able to decide if they had made the correct choices during design phases. This first attempt to bring a higher level of maturity to students concerning object-orientation issues owes a considerable part of its success to the fact of using well-known games as subjects of modeling. Such a decision allowed students to be motivated by dealing with a ludic,

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

Figure 7. A class diagram with applied Design Patterns and corresponding object-oriented metrics

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Figure 8. Modeling Checkers with GRASP

stimulating problem, which was also a chance for them to model a “complete” system, due to its simplicity. After this first approach, students were able to deal with more sophisticated concepts, like Design Patterns. Recently, the use of patterns, as defined by Gamma et al. (1995) and Alur, Crupi, and Malks (2003), among others, is increasing in the software industry. In some countries, the study of patterns, especially Design Patterns, is to be considered as standard in the core of undergraduate courses (Astrachan, Mitchener, Berry, & Cox, 1998; Wick, 2005). In other countries, such initiatives are in their early stages. In Brazil, for instance, the official Curricular Guidelines barely mention Design Patterns (Menezes et al., 2001). To satisfactorily understand and apply Design Patterns, a set of previous skills is required of students. Many of them were developed in a previous phasefor instance, the awareness of cohesion and coupling issues, and the separation

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of concerns, among others. Nonetheless, the results produced by students are not yet satisfactory if compared with professional expectances of complex software. An example of this, shown in Figure 9, is presented by two students to model the classic Checkers game. It can be noted that, in spite of being conceptually correct, this diagram primes for simplicity. It presents a proper three-tiered organizationbusiness rules are dealt by CTR–Controller classes (Larman, 2004), objects creators are well-defined, and so onalthough its implementation, if carried through up-to-date frameworks or APIs, would present a considerable gap between conceptual design and implementation project. Based on this, games were used again to move a step forward in direction to a more sophisticated set of patterns, namely GoF Design Patterns (Gamma et al., 1995). Using students’ criticisms and some punctual interventions of professors,

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

Figure 9. Discovering the Command Pattern in a game of Checkers

students were able to absorb the main concepts involving such patterns. The text below shows one of these interventions, and Figure 9 shows the final version of the diagram from Figure 8 after some months studying GoF Design Patterns. This new version for the diagram is better than previously presented in classroom. However, there are still some issues to be addressed: • • •

What’s the need of having a class for black pieces and another one for reds? There is no relationship among Player, Action, and Piece? Coupling of CTR_Piece is over the diagram’s average.

By means of the triad of criticism, intervention, and auto-criticism, students were able to discover by themselves, in the application domain of the game, some of the patterns taught. For instance, Figure 9 shows part of the diagram made by the same students that authored the previous diagram (Figure 8). Figure 9 shows how students were able to properly identify and apply the GoF Command Pattern (Gamma et al., 1995).

Case Study #2: Computer Graphics Teaching computer graphics in the context of an IT undergraduate course has been the topic for discussion. Now we ask, how do we teach highly algorithmic content to students that are not really motivated to it? IT courses educational purposes, different from CS courses, are usually more driven to the application of technology than the behind-the-scenes content CS courses are used to having. In the 1970s the issue was already being discussed, and a large range of APIs and frameworks appeared in order to make computer graphics learning easier in different contexts (Knowlton, 1972; Towle & DeFanti, 1978). More recent works proposed alternatives to the omnipresent OpenGL through the use of widespread languages that give support to 2D-3D basic modeling tools, such as Java (Mukundan, 1999) and Java plus Java3D API (Zhang & Liang, 2005; Tori, Bernardes, & Nakamura, 2006), or even languages that were not as widespread like Ada (Brown, 2004). Other tests focused on modeling software like Maya

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and Blender (van Gumster, 2003; Zhu & Owen, 2004). The present case study was carried out using Blender. Groups from a fourth-year IT course had been submitted to one experiment: modeling and rendering of a board game. Initially, the groups had chosen which game they wanted to work on, and, using concepts of modeling and rendering, had produced a final project of a game in two phases. In the first phase, the objective was to apply extensively concepts of polygonal modeling, NURBS, and generative curves, in such a way to show the difficulties and applications of each of these types of modeling. Some concepts involving modeling are sometimes extremely abstract to students in general, specifically to IT undergraduate students, which are meant to face computer graphics issues not as full developers of algorithms and techniques, but instead as having a comprehensive knowledge about techniques and methods. A relevant unit on this course is about modeling. On this topic, students were meant to be presented to a range of modeling techniques, which vary from direct polygonal mesh modeling to procedural techniques (Foley, van Dam, Feiner, & Hugues, 1995; Watt, 1999). One of these techniques is CSG (Constructive Solid Geometry), which is based on combining pre-built solid primitives according to a set of Boolean operators. A

Figure 10. Domino pieces modeled with CSG

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solid is thus described by its scene graph, in which leaves are the primitives and internal nodes are the operators. CSG is a very easy technique to learn. However, the more formal specification through scene graphs is not always an easy topic for IT students, since it requires basic knowledge about trees, besides basic algebra and set theory. This topic was addressed over three semesters by proposing to students the modeling of some board games’ pieces using CSG. According to the game chosen, some pieces were extremely easy to createcheckers, for instance. Ludo, dominoes, or some chess pieces, for instance, require a little more modeling effort, being a proper issue to be addressed with CSG techniques. To achieve this goal, a modeling tool was used. Tools instead of direct programming with APIs like OpenGL have been used in an effective manner to improve student’s learning of hard topics in computer graphics. The works of Abdullah, Suyoto, and Ahmad (1997) and Song, Ou, and Shiau (2000) show experiences that used tools to teach computer graphics concepts to undergraduate students. More than just using tools, the experience in these classes was meant to stimulate students to use such tools. It is well known that complex modeling tools have inherently also complex, user-unfriendly interfaces, besides being, most of the time, machine-consuming, proprietary, and

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

expensive. The solution found to some of these problems was using Blender,3 an open source, cross-platform suite of tools for 3D modeling and rendering. Figure 10 shows some students’ results applying CSG modeling techniques in some pieces of a domino game. Typically, these pieces are the result of applying an intersection among a box and a sphere (to generate a rounded-corner piece basis); holes are built by applying a difference between such basis and a hemisphere, which is built by again using the difference operator between a sphere and a cube; a box is used as separator. Linear transformations and the union operator are applied afterwards. Some other topics that require a deeper knowledge of math are specially considered as difficult matters, with no practical application. For instance, NURBS (Non-Uniform, Rational BSplines, see Piegel & Tiller, 1997) is a non-trivial topic when teaching computer graphics, since it is a kind of curve that require students to have some knowledge about the concept of continuity (positional, tangencial, and curvature). Besides, they are expected to cope with a curve’s weighted control points and its knot vector. More than this, NURBS surfaces require an extra degree of complexity.

NURBS curves are extremely useful in some modeling techniques, such as sweeping through revolution. Students were stimulated to model some chess pieces using such technique. Again, once the goal was well established, students were able to understand and apply some intricate concepts related to such curves in the chosen tool. Figure 11 shows a chess piece created using a mixed approach, combining sweeping and CSG. Having some pieces modeled, students were assigned the task of modeling an entire board game, with all pieces. Such a game was supposed to be located over a surface, like a table. Some results obtained by students in this phase are shown in Figure 12. The variety of proposals was sufficiently great, and the motivation with the use of a game as the subject was very well accepted. After that, in the second phase, the challenge was to add realistic effect (illumination effects) to the models generated in the previous phase. Our current program of computer graphics includes two basic illumination models: Lambert and Phong. Although they represent the most basic models of illumination in computer graphics, they demand certain mathematical maturity to understand them.

Figure 11. Chess horse modeled with NURBS-based sweeping and CSG

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Figure 12. Some of the best results in the modeling phase

The Phong Reflection Model is an illumination and shading model, which allows the assignment of shades to points on a 3D model. It represents a simplification of the more general rendering equation, whose computation is a hard computational task. Essentially, the Phong illumination model comprises three componentsambient, diffuse, and specularas depicted in Figure 13. The Lambert illumination model is a more simplified model and includes only the diffuse component. Both equations for these models are obtained by the formula in Box 1. In this equation, the terms (ka,kd,ks,α) represent the material to be bound to the 3D model and quantify the amount of reflected light ia, id, is

Box 1.

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(ambient, diffuse, specular). The required maturity to understand these models includes methods from vector calculus and analytic geometry, which, not always, are remembered when we are initiating the topic of illumination models. For example, in order to calculate the normal vector (N), an important step for both Lambert and Phong Models, we need to evaluate partial derivatives over polygonal surfaces (Foley et al., 1995; Watt, 1999). This direct approach often shifts the focus of the discipline for a purely mathematical scenario, which often decreases the motivation of students to learn more complex illumination models. As the model of illumination of Phong is empirical, we also follow the same empirical

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

Figure 13. The components of the Phong Illumination Model

strategy to teach the model to our students. As a strategy, initially, groups had been motivated to test several lighting conditions in order to gain mathematical and perceptual skills related to photo-realistic parameters. Using these skills, they had tried some models to get realistic qualities for wood and plastic, among other materials that could appear in the scenes of the games. The results obtained from these experiments are shown in Figure 14. Using the common approach of the Phong model, the students extrapolated the results to include models of texturing, using the qualitative equation material = lighting model + texture. The textures were generated by procedural models involving complex models, such as Perlin’ noise (Watt, 1999), for wood and marble. The results were very interesting, mainly because the students had faced the mathematical barriers of the model and had been able to transform them into sufficiently convincing products of the point of view of realism.

IMPLIcAtIONs AND FUtUrE trENDs These case studies demonstrate the effective use of instructional design elements to elaborate a proposal of applying games exclusive in undergraduate courses such as computer science

and information technology. In these types of courses, students use and explore computers and technological tools constantly. It is necessary to implement the methodology developed in other areas as social sciences, philosophy, biology, and so on to compare the results and analyze the specialties of these experiences. Another element that can be pointed out is to research the possibilities of amplifying the collaborative approach combined with massive multiplayer games to investigate how students work and structure an autopoietic system to examine and solve problems in a game universe. But not all of these proposals can be developed without a change in the posture of teachers, which includes increasing the value of ludic (playful) in education and verifying, by use of instructional design analysis, how different contents can be combined in a game universe to contextualize and offer a meaningful experience to students. This proposal requires an interdisciplinary approach and new curricula structures that also consider different learning styles and the use of group dynamics to provide an environment where ZPD can emerge.

cONcLUsION This chapter showed two case studies carried out by the authors at a university in Brazil in which

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games were effectively used to teach two different subjects: Design Patterns for a computer science course and Computer Graphics for an information technology course. To implement this proposal, we used an instructional design approach that pointed out a learner-centered methodology and constant analysis of games contexts, contents, and scenarios development during the course periods in a blended solution that amplifies the laboratory classroom when implementing a virtual environment to discuss students projects. These elements enhanced the proposal because students were challenged to study, in a detailed way, Design Patterns and Computer Graphics content so to have the opportunity to create their games architectures and interact with other colleagues to find solutions to real projects, not in a hypothetic or theoretical manner. The use of games as a motivation factor for the presented concepts showed importance not only for the ludic aspect, but for the wealth of exploration elements as well. In both cases, the exploration factor represents a relevant aspect for attainment of clear and cheap solutions for software, as well as three-dimensional realism in models.

rEFErENcEs Abdullah, A., Suyoto, R., & Ahmad, A. (1997). Learning NURBS through S-CAD. Malaysian Journal of Computer Science, 10(1), 81-85. Adams, S.S. (1988). Metamethods: The MVC paradigm. HOOPLAHooray for Object Oriented Programming Languages, 1(4), 5-21. Alur, D., Crupi, J., & Malks, D. (2003). Core J2EE patterns: Best practices and design strategies (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Astrachan, O., Mitchener, G., Berry, G., & Cox, L. (1998, February). Design Patterns: An essential component of CS curricula. Proceedings of the

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29th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (pp.153-160), Atlanta, GA. Ausubel, D.P. (1962). A subsumption theory of meaningful verbal learning and retention. Journal of General Psychology, 66, 213-224. Barr, R.D., & Tagg, J. (1995). From teaching to learninga new paradigm for undergraduate education. Change, (November/December), 13-25. Barrows, H.S., & Tamblyn, R.M. (1980). Problembased learning. New York: Springer-Verlag. Bergeron, B.P. (2006). Developing serious games. Boston: Thomson Delmar Learning/Charles River Media. Berguin, S., Reilly, R., & Traynor, D. (2005). Examining the role of self-regulated learning on introductory programming performance. Proceedings of the 2005 International Workshop on Computing Education Research (pp. 81-86), Seattle, WA. Björk, S., & Holopainen, J. (2005). Games and Design Patterns. In K. Salen & E. Zimmerman (Eds.), The game design reader. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R.R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Brown, C.W. (2004). Teaching graphics using Ada. Proceedings of the 2004 Annual ACM SIG International Conference on Ada. Cayley, J. (1999, January 9). The writing of programming in the age of digital transliteration. Proceedings of the Cybertext Seminar, Jyvaskyla, Finland. Chidamber, S.R., & Kemerer, C.F. (1994). A metrics suite for object oriented design. IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, 20(6), 476-493.

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Dale, E. (1969). Audiovisual methods in teaching (3rd ed.). New York: Dryden Press. Duell, M. (1997). Non-software examples of software design patterns. Object Magazine, 7(5), 52-57. Foley, D.F., van Dam, A., Feiner, S.K., & Hugues, J.F. (1995). Computer graphics: Principles and practice in C (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: AddisonWesley Professional. Freeman, E., Freeman, E., Sierra, K., & Bates, B. (2004). Head first Design Patterns. Sebastopol: O’Reilly. Gagné, R., Briggs, L., & Wager, W. (1992). Principles of instructional design (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: HBJ College. Gamma, E., Helm, R., Johnson, R., & Vlissides, J. (1995). Design Patterns: Elements of reusable object-oriented software. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Gee. J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave. Halverson, R. et al. (2006). Theorizing games in/and education. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Learning Sciences (pp. 1048-1052). Johnson, S. (2005). Everything bad is good for you: How today’s popular culture is actually making us smarter. New York: Riverhead. Juul, J. (2005). Half-real: Video games between real rules and fictional worlds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Knowlton, K. (1972). A report on the use of FORTRAN-coded EXPLOR for the teaching of computer graphics and computer art. Proceedings of the Symposium on Two-Dimensional Man-Machine Communication (pp. 103-112). Los Alamos, NM: ACM Press.

Lakshminarayana, A., & Newman, T.S. (1999). Principal component analysis of Lack of Cohesion in Methods (LCOM) metrics. Technical Report TR-UAH-CS-1999-01, Computer Science Department, University of Alabama in Huntsville, USA. Retrieved May 15, 2006, from http://www.cs.uah. edu/tech-reports/TR-UAH-CS-1999-01.pdf Larman, C. (2004). Applying UML and patterns: An introduction to object-oriented analysis and design and iterative development. New York: Prentice-Hall. Menezes, P.B. et al. (2001). Proposta de plano pedagógico para cursos de ciência da computação [Proposal of pedagogical plan for computer science courses]. Retrieved March 27, 2006, from http://www.sbc.org.br Mukundan, R. (1999). Teaching computer graphics using Java. ACM SIGCSE Bulletin Working Group Reports from ITiCSE on INNOVATION and Technology in Computer Science Education (vol. 31, p. 4). ACM Press. Mustaro, P.N., Silveira, I.F., Omar, N., & Stump, S.M.D. (2007). Structure of storyboard for interactive learning objects development. In A. Koohang & K. Harman (Eds.), Learning objects and instructional design (pp. 253-280). Santa Rosa, CA: Informing Science. Nguyen, D., & Wong, S.B. (2002). Design Patterns for games. Proceedings of the 33rd SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (pp. 126-130), Cincinatti, KY. Norman, G.R., & Schmidt, H.G. (2000). Effectiveness of problem-based learning curricula: Theory, practice and paper darts. Medical Education, 34, 721-728. Piegel, L., & Tiller, W. (1997). The NURBS book (2nd ed.). New York: Springer-Verlag. Prensky, M. (2007). Digital game-based learning. MN: Paragon House.

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Reigeluth, C.M. (1999). Instructional-design theories and models (vol. II). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Watt, A. (1999). 3D computer graphics (3rd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Shaffer, D.W. (2007). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Wick, M.R. (2005, February). Teaching Design Patterns in CS1: A closed laboratory sequence based on the Game of Life. Proceedings of the 36th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (pp. 487-491), St. Louis, MO.

Song, W.-C., Ou, S.-C., & Shiau, S.-R. (2000). Integrated computer graphics learning system in virtual environment: Case study of Bezier, Bspline and NURBS algorithms. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Information Visualization (pp. 33-38), Salt Lake City, UT. Squire, K.D. (2002). Rethinking the role of games in education. Game Studies, 2(1). Retrieved October 7, 2004, from http://www.gamestudies. org/0102/squire/ Sweedyk, E., & Keller, R.M. (2005). Fun and games: A new software engineering course. Proceedings of the 10th Annual SIGCSE Conference on Innovation and Technology in Computer Science Education (pp. 138-142). ACM Press. Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up digital: The rise of net generation. New York: McGraw Hill. Tori, R., Bernardes, J.L., & Nakamura, R. (2006). Teaching introductory computer graphics using Java 3D, games and customized software: A Brazilian experience. Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH 2006 Educators Program. Towle, T., & DeFanti, T. (1978). GAIN: An interactive program for teaching interactive computer graphics programming. Proceedings of the 5th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH ’78) (vol. 12, p. 3). ACM Press. van Gumster, J. (2003). Blender as an educational tool. Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH 2003 Educators Program. ACM Press.

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Wilkerson, L., & Gijselaers, W.H. (Eds.). (1996). Bringing problem-based learning to higher education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (New Directions for Teaching and Learning 68). Zhang, H., & Liang, Y.D. (2005). Undergraduate computer graphics using Java 3D. Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Southeast Regional Conference (vol. 1). ACM Press. Zhu, Y., & Owen, G.S. (2004). Teaching strategies: Integrating modeling and animation tools into an introductory computer science graphics course. Proceedings of the ACM SIGGRAPH 2004 Educators Program. ACM Press.

KEY TERMS Design Pattern: A proven solution for a recurring problem. Some authors provide a catalog with 23 Design Patterns (Gamma et al., 1995). Instructional Design: Constitutes a systematic framework that involves educational theories, instructional strategies, and other elements to support learning experiences, and permits one to acquire competences based on educative goals. Learning Styles: Involves individual preferences of perceiving and processing information in response to educational stimuli.

Using Games to Teach Design Patterns and Computer Graphics

Ludic: The Latin word ludus (meaning “game”) originated the concept of ludic, which represents a human behavior characteristic that synthesizes social and educational principles, and establishes a vehicle of imaginary expression and action through knowledge and rules appropriations in a pleasant way. Curiously, ludus also refers to a “school” for roman gladiators: they used to be taught to fight and use weaponsdaggers, swords, tridents, and so onin ludi (plural form of ludus), by “teachers” (in fact, gladiators’ trainers and often owners) called lanistae (plural form of lanista). The “game” gladiators were meant to “play” was also called ludus. Modeling: In computer graphics, modeling is related to the process of representations of ndimensional elements in a well-defined language or data structure. There are many techniques for modeling, many of them more suitable to some kinds of objects to be modeled. Rendering: In computer graphics, rendering is the process of generating a still image from a scene, taking in account information about the geometries present in the scene, as well as viewpoint, lighting, shading, and texture information.

Software Metrics: Metrics are a set of parameters used to perform assessment of a product or process meant to be measured. Software metrics are commonly applied to the software engineering process or the artifacts derived from them. The object-oriented metrics targeted in this chapter are part of a set of metrics proposed by Chidamber and Kemerer (1994), which are meant to give some quantitative values over a class diagram. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Determined by distance existing between real capacity to solve problems in an autonomous way and potential capacity to solve problems with the help of a partner (another person as teacher, colleague, or even a group).

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http://extreme-farm-simulator.freeonlinegames.com/ http://www.moodle.org; university’s distribution is available at http://ead.mackenzie. com.br/moodle http://www.blender.org

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Chapter XXXI

A 3D Environment for Exploring Algebraic Structure and Behavior Paul A. Fishwick University of Florida, USA Yuna A. Park University of Florida, USA

AbstrAct Multimedia technology for personal computers has undergone a radical transformation over the past two decades with significant changes made in hardware-assisted audio and three-dimensional graphics processing. These changes suggest new possibilities for educational environments. The area of computer gaming represents one type of emerging technology since first- and third-person games have saturated the market over the past 10 years. We have taken an offshoot of computer games in the form of the multi-user, meta-gaming Second Life virtual environment, and explored its use for performing basic algebra operations such as the distributive property and computation of expressions. We leveraged the inherent multi-user collaborative-building capabilities within Second Life to explore how simple algebra manipulations can be accomplished. We also allowed students in a Spring 2007 class to build similar expressions as well as tool-based environments to facilitate the construction of virtual algebraic manipulatives. Our results suggest that while the current technology presents some key human interface challenges inherent to three-dimensional user interfaces, multi-user environments can be successfully used to construct algebraic expressions in ways not possible with prior technologies. Specifically, these environments provide real-time distance communication, the ability for multiple users to collaborate spatially toward creating and positioning algebraic components, sensory and cognitive immersion, and the possibility of personalizing representations in ways not easily accomplished with two-dimensional environments. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

A 3D Environment for Exploring Algebraic Structure and Behavior

BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION We present a method and implementation for teaching the distributive law of algebra and basic algebraic computations within a multi-user environment called Second Life (Au et al., 2007; Cross, O’Driscoll, & Trondsen, 2007). The broader goal of our work is to avail ourselves of the technology of these environments and explore how they can be used to provide alternative modes of representation for basic structures in computer programming. Since algebraic structures are a fundamental part of the syntax of expressions within a computer program, our effort to date has centered on simple algebraic structures found in expressions that are located inside of program statements. With this goal in mind, several questions naturally arise: 1.

2.

3. 4.

Why are we using multi-user environments for algebra, or more generally, for computer programming? How does this approach differ from other work performed in representing expressions and programs? Why is Second Life relevant for this approach? What is the role of assessment and evaluation?

We will take each of these questions in turn. To answer the first question, we must address it in three parts: (1) the importance of representation, (2) the role of technology, and (3) multi-user environments. If we take the following algebraic expression for the distributive law, a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c), we recognize this law in its common textual format. It might be difficult at first to imagine why we might want to explore such an expression in other formats. One of the key goals of mathematics education is to use multiple representations for the same concept or structure (NCTM, 2000). It is not necessarily that one representation is better than another, but that

as a collection, alternate representations serve to provide a plurality of ways in which to think about a concept or structure. Since mathematical expressions and computer programs are types of languages, we can also look toward other areas such as media studies or new media for guidance (Manovich, 2002; Munster, 2006). The goal in media studies is to provide us with many ways in which to mediate the human experience. For example, one may learn about the history of a geographic region of interest by playing a board game, watching a video, reading a book, listening to a narrated audio script, or exploring a threedimensional (3D) environment. These media forms are complementary rather than based on evolutionary replacement; it is both possible and advantageous to have a wide array of representations, with each type of representation offering a unique human perspective. In response to the second part of the first question, we must address the role of technology. New representations are made possible and facilitated through technological advancement. The inventions of the printing press, cinema, and computer have contributed to new forms of representation not previously possible. One might argue that one should not utilize a technology for its own sake; however, the prudent path is to have some researchers engineering new environments for concepts to be learned (such as algebraic expressions), while other researchers attempt to establish boundary conditions for the new approach through assessment. As for addressing the third part of the first question, we note that multi-user environments are made possible through the new 3D gaming technology, and we should experiment with these environments to see how algebra can be represented and performed while fully exploiting the properties of these environments. Thus, if one has a 3D environment that offers a first-person perspective, a natural question would be how to represent variables, constants, and operators in three dimensions, and how to enable the distributive law with human interaction via an avatar.

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The immediate issue is not one of assessment or evaluation, but rather it is an issue with an engineering focus: how, technically, can one create this new environment using multi-user environment technology? As we will discuss in the last section, the technical aspects were significant with specific challenges we encountered during the research. The second question regarding the contribution of this work is answered through reference to prior work. While related work is discussed in more detail throughout the chapter, we note that there has been little work performed in representing algebraic expressions, or computer programs containing these expressions, in three dimensions. Within mathematics, most visualizations and interactive software are created to show the effects of solving or computing expressions rather than to represent the structure of the expressions. For example, one finds different ways to sketch or color plots of equations, however the equations as structures remain confined to text form. Virtual manipulatives (i.e., analog representations of symbols) can be used to illustrate algebraic concepts (NLVM, 2007), however the concept of function machine for grades 6-8 is in 2D and remains a black box. The internals of the box are often not made explicit in diagrams. A wider variety of forms using visualization and human interaction are found in the computer science literature. Computer programs, of which an algebraic expression is only a small part, can be represented in 2D or 3D diagrammatic form. This area is termed software visualization (Stasko, Dominque, Brown, & Price 1998), and yet even in this area, little work has not been done to take advantage of multi-user, collaborative environments, although there has been work in 3D representations that one can see through translation and rotation (Hopkins & Fishwick, 2001). The idea of taking an expression, building it in a multi-user environment, and either manipulating it or computing its functional effects is a singular research contribution.

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The third question can be summarized as: Why use Second Life? Second Life has been used extensively over the past few years for education (Livingstone & Kemp, 2006; Antonacci & Modaress, 2005) with an average of over 50 messages per day on the Second Life Education Digest (Simteach, 2007). Second Life is not a gaming environment, but rather a collaborative 3D environment in which experiments, or indeed games, can be implemented. The definition of “game” itself is problematic as noted by Wittgenstein, Anscombe, and Anscombe (2001) when he introduces language games, although we can use the word successfully in practice. While games can employ a variety of media from cards to boards and video, the technology-push in the game market is toward increasingly immersive and engaging 3D games played on computers. Environments built in Second Life have many attributes of games such as 3D geometry, immersion, interaction, and engagement. Our implementation closely resembles the Myst (Cyan Inc., 2007) series of games where one explores a 3D mechanism to understand how it functions and what can be done with them to move on toward the next mechanism. Second Life can be considered a meta-game, since it provides developers with the tools and scripts to create games. Second Life differs substantially from other multi-user environments in that: (1) it is a general, meta-game environment not biased toward a specific genre or goal; and (2) it contains the unique capability of creating geometric objects within the environment itself. The non-game nature of Second Life puts it in a class similar to environments built with the older, but still functional, Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML). VRML (Carey & Bell, 1997) is a textual language used to create simpler, prototypical explorative 3D environments. Other gaming environments are biased toward specific genres such as quest-based medieval environments with a dungeon legacy. For education, it is preferable to build environ-

A 3D Environment for Exploring Algebraic Structure and Behavior

Presentation: The ability to use static objects as well as dynamic, scripted objects. Objects can be in text, 2D, or 3D. Engagement: The user is engaged in the activities within the virtual environment due to the multiple ways in which interaction can occur. Immersion: The user is immersed within a virtual environment in a way similar to a 3D video game. Communication: Users can communicate with each other using instant messaging and broadcasting. Objects “in world” can communicate with users who touch them, or approach within a predefined proximity. Collaboration: Users can work with each other to build artifacts. This is a result primarily of an in-world object and scripting editing system that is fairly unique to 3D worlds. The vast majority of similar environments force the user to create geometry outside of the environment and then import it. Aesthetics: Users can employ a variety of aesthetics informed through the humanities and fine arts for personalizing mathematical expressions.

ments that have no predefined genre or cultural constraints. Second Life also has an unusual way of permitting the construction of geometry: objects are created through the use of primitives, with all primitives, objects, and structures built inside of the environment. Other environments are more restrictive since they require that an external 3D modeling and animation package be used to import the necessary digital artifacts into the world. Engineering and science are two complementary functional disciplines supporting the creation and evaluation of learning environments for education. New environments are engineered through the use of new concepts, ideas, and technology-insertion. After a maturation period where the environment is constructed and tested, formal human studies can be performed. Often there is period of a few years between the time that a new environment is created and the time that it is mature and can be successfully evaluated. The work we have done represents an engineering effort and the environment is still fairly new. Assessment and formal evaluation will occur later, once we have a stable environment necessary to support such studies.

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INtrODUctION

For our intended application in algebraic structures, we engineer an environment that promotes all of them. We can take an expression such as a * x + b and itemize each property, with the following questions being of interest to us:

The concept of representation is multi-facetted since there are issues of the type of presentation used for symbols, the interaction of the human with those symbols, and how specific elements of cognition relate to presentation and interaction. While our research and implementation do not include a formal empirical study on the educational benefits of using Second Life for representation, we are providing a new engineering approach for studying the distributive law by using Second Life technology. In particular, we have defined the following qualitative properties important for our learning environment:

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Presentation: How does one define the human-computer interaction for the expression and its components? What does x look like, and how can * represented? Engagement: What does the avatar do to manipulate and interact with the components and expression? Immersion: Do we provide the illusion of entering a real space when manipulating expressions?

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Communication: Can multiple users talk to each other and socialize within the space, while examining the structure as they might do in a museum? Collaboration: Can several users grab components and put them together to form a whole, as one might construct a house? Aesthetics: What is the range of representation? What shapes, materials, textures, cultural artifacts, and audio are used to convey the symbols?

Representations should be treated as essential elements in supporting students’understanding of mathematical concepts and relationships; in communicating mathematical approaches, arguments, and understandings to one’s self and to others; in recognizing connections among related mathematical concepts; and in applying mathematics to realistic problem situations through modeling. New forms of representation associated with electronic technology create a need for even greater instructional attention to representation.

These questions are natural to pose for material products such as automobiles, furniture, houses, and artwork, and we claim that these same questions should be asked of abstract, virtual products as well if abstract products are to have the same human relevance. We wish to promote the concept of abstract structure found in computing and mathematics as “product-like” and have built an experimental environment to explore this approach. We structure the chapter as follows. We first discuss the use of multi-user environments in gaming and education. We then highlight the importance of representation in the teaching of mathematics, followed by how the distributive law is traditionally taught in elementary and middle school texts. Our design and Second Life implementation follows, with screen shots of interacting with the distributive law, as well as interacting with other functional algebra machines. We close with a section summarizing the results of using Second Life and implications for researchers who may wish to employ similar technology in their curricula.

The use of multiple representations assists students to learn better and reinforce their understanding (Moyer & Suh, 2007). The representation systems in mathematics learning and problem solving can be broken down to five distinct types: real scripts, manipulative models, static images, spoken languages, and written symbols (Lesh, Post, & Behr, 1987). The translation among these is important because “it supports the student’s relational thinking and algebraic reasoning” (Moyer & Suh, 2007, p. 157). Different representations foster new ways of thinking about and manipulating symbols and other mathematical objects. There is an explicit educational goal to incorporate “multiple lenses” in how mathematical concepts are delivered to the student (NCTM, 2000, p. 360). By using manipulative materials, students can become familiar with abstract concepts such as associative, commutative, and distributive laws. Manipulative materials “embody the core relationships and structures of mathematics, and they stimulate intuition and inquiry” (Ford & Resnick 1981, p. 118). Based on the positive results from specific classroom projects, Moyer and Suh (2007) confirm that virtual manipulatives are effective learning tools, and that the virtual environment promotes an explicit linkage of visual and symbolic objects.

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rEPrEsENtAtION The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) emphasizes the importance of utilizing multiple representations within mathematics education (NCTM, 2000, p. 67):

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RELATED WORK The general use of games in education is well documented (Aguilera & Mendiz, 2003; Krendl & Lieberman, 1988). Game-specific multi-user worlds, commonly called MMORPGs (massively multiplayer online role-playing games) have matured over the past decade. There are a number of reasons why MMORPGs are compelling: “the chance to be enveloped in a compelling story, the sense of social engagement, the chance to be creative, the feeling of accomplishment, the opportunity to grow without falling back” (Kelly, 2004, p. 69). One of the popular MMORPGs is EverQuest, which launched in March 1999 and hosts numerous players who participate in a real-time virtual world. EverQuest involves “using avatars of Gnomes, Elves, and a variety of other fantasy-inspired characters, players move through a vast 3D landscape and battle mythical creatures with magic and virtual swords” (Taylor, 2006, p. 1). There is also Anarchy Online, the first science-fiction MMORPG. It is set on the mysterious planet of Rubi-Ka, 30,000 years in the future. Players “undertake missions, dodge dangerous animals and augment their characters’ bodies with nano-implants powered by ‘notum’, a rare and precious mineral” (Burn, Buckingham, Carr, Schott, & Thompson, 2006, p. 103). Through the analysis of Anarchy Online, Burn et al. conclude that game players’ motivations can involve representation, engaging visual imagery and characterization. MMORPGs also encourage communication among players, which is considered important for these types of games. These game-specific multi-user virtual worlds have limitations in their goals since they cater exclusively to a specific type of goal or genre. Some researchers are recognizing the potential of virtual multi-user environments and pointing out that the interfaces are underutilized for education (Dieterke & Clarke, in press) Turtlemania was one of first math games in a distributed environment, targeting first through

fourth grade students for basic math operations reinforcement. Despite possible mathematical reinforcement using this game, the game ran into limitations due to the difficulties associated with a dearth of computing and Internet resources in the educational system (Clipsham, Huffman, Meissell, & Guimaraes 1999). AquaMOOSE 3D is an environment designed to support the exploration of 3D mathematical concepts, targeting high school students. However, it proved difficult to meet students’ high expectations compared to recent video games, using low-polygon fish (Elliott, Adams, & Bruckman, 2002). Myst (Cyan, Inc., 2007) represents a family of games, that while not multi-user, have the characteristics that we feel are important to exploring algebraic expressions in 3D. The user is placed in an environment that is highly immersive and conducive to exploration for its own sake. Often there are machines of various sizes, and a machine’s function must be deduced or induced through interaction. The machines have a wide array of aesthetics from organic and crystalline to those where the user can roam (i.e., buildings with rooms that are topologically connected to create a specific sort of complex structure).

EXPErIMENts IN ALGEbrAIc rEPrEsENtAtION The Distributive Property In grades 3–5, students explore the properties of the multiplication such as the commutative property, associative property, and distributive property (NCTM, 2000). For the purposes of our study, we focused on one of these properties: the distributive property. This property is one of the most important concepts that tends to be difficult to teach and learn (Piciotti, 1998). Figure 1 is indicative of a common way in which the distributive property can be presented using tiles.

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Figure 1. The distributive property using a geometric proof

Figure 2. 2D virtual manipulatives for exploring the distributive property

(a): A 2D representation of an algebraic expression

(b): The “a” is distributed across “(b + c)”

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Figure 1 contains symbols and geometric figures in the form of squares that are connected together to form arrays of tiles. Thus the multiplication of 2 times 3 is shown as a rectangular array of six tiles. Through analog reasoning or geometric proof, one may see that two tile clusters 2 * 3 and 2 * 5 can be joined together to illustrate the distributive property. This spatial illustration uses the concept of manipulatives, which may be physical in the form of wooden squares that stick together, or virtual using computer graphics to achieve the tile design and manipulation.

Experiment 1: 2D and 3D Representations of the Distributive Property One of our goals is to create a Second Life representation of the distributive property, and we first illustrate this approach using 2D projections illustrated in Figure 2. Small colored circles (yellow, blue, and red) are the representation of the variables a, b, and c. The larger circle, which initially contains blue and red circles, represents a parenthesis. The line connecting circles represents multiplication, and the spatial property Addition is represented through proximity and containment within a circular region. In Figure

2(a), the yellow circle a is connected to the big circle, which translates to a being multiplied with the expressions contained in the parentheses. In the big circle are the blue circle b and the red circle c, both close to each other, which translate to b being added to c. Figure 2(a) translates to a * (b + c), and Figure 2(b) is the representation after the distribution a * b + a * c. This is also a geometric proof, but using algebraic structure rather than metric spaces. The yellow circle is virtually “pushed through” the parenthetic grouping, yielding duplicate connections for b and c. This procedure employs an organic biological-cell metaphor to achieve its goal. Figure 3 shows two snapshots, before and after distribution, for the distribution of a into (b + c). This process occurs within Second Life by creating objects for each component of the algebraic expression and performing the distribution. The process begins with objects representing the grouping (i.e., parentheses); the variables a, b, and c; and the bar that connects the larger sphere to a and which represents multiplication. The objects are places through dragging and placing, and several people can perform these operations simultaneously, so this process can be used within a teacher-student setting, with the teacher as one avatar and the students having their own avatars.

Figure 3. 3D virtual manipulatives within Second Life for exploring the distributive property

(a): Before the distribution “a * (b + c)”

(b): After the distribution “a * b + a * c”

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Figure 4. Applying numbers to variables and performing the distribution

(a) Entering values for three variables

(7 + 2) * 10

=

7 * 10 + 2 * 10 =

70 + 20

=

90

(b) Simultaneously distributing 10 and performing subsequent calculations resulting in 90 as the final result

Since one is embedded within an immersive environment, the positioning of objects, such as the grouping container sphere and the smaller variable spheres, approximates a reality where physical manipulatives are used. Variable a is distributed through a text-based command that is “heard” through listeners located within scripts inside of the objects. When the listeners hear this command, the yellow sphere moves toward the larger sphere, penetrates it, to reify the distribution process. An audible cue is heard during this transition where the yellow sphere enters the encapsulating sphere containing b and c. To make the translation between written symbol and this model easier, the feature of assigning numeric value to each sphere (i.e., variable) was added. This process allows students to see the calculated results of the distribution and the subsequent multiplications and additions. Students type “ number” to assign a numeric

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value for a variable, where “
Type “red 2,” “blue 7,” and “yellow 10” on the chat area as shown in Figure 4(a). Then one sees the representation of (7 + 2) * 10

A 3D Environment for Exploring Algebraic Structure and Behavior

2. 3.

4.

in the left-most picture of Figure 4(b). Type “distribute.” The structure now represents 7 * 10 + 2 * 10. Type “step.” Corresponding to the order of operations, multiplications are computed first. The result is now 70 + 20. Type “step.” Additions are calculated, and this results in the white sphere labeled 90.

Experiment 2: Algebraic Functional Machines In our second experiment, we chose to create functional machines within Second Life. These machines represent the calculation of the final result of algebraic formulas. Symbolic manipulation, where the symbols are moved around to achieve distribution, is not performed. This Simple Arithmetic Machine in Figure 5 represents (X + Y) * Z. X, Y, and Z are user-defined inputs. The machine in Figure 5 shows three cylindrical pipes and three larger cylinders. Using a fluid metaphor, initial values for X and Y flow into the first large cylinder labeled +. The output of + and the third input Z feed into the operator * to create the final numerical result of the expression. Since Second Life uses channels as a means for communication among avatars and objects, channel 10 represents the first, left-most, input cylinder. When we use the chat approach to “say a number” on channel 10, we are in effect assigning this number to variable X. Channel 11 is used for variable Y. Channel 12 is used by the script that we created to provide the user with the result of X+Y. Z uses channel 13, and channel 14 is used for the results of (X + Y) * Z. To enter a value to variable, one types “/pipe# value” within the Second Life client chat area. For example, one can type /10 3 as shown in Figure 5(a), assigning value 3 to pipe #10, resulting in X = 3 shown in Figure 5(b). Similarly, one can enter Y through channel 11 and the Z value through channel 13. As the equation is calculated with the result going through channel 14 (to the right

of *), the cylinder at the right end rotates with a speed proportional to the result. with a maximum value preset at 100. To stop the rotation, one can click on the cylinder or type anything to channel 123, or the machine resets automatically within five seconds. a. b. c.

d.

The value 3 is assigned to X via channel 10. The upper-left blue pipe representing X is now marked with 3. The lower-left pipe Y is set to 5, the result of + is shown on channel 12 as 8, and 2 is entered on channel 13 for Z in the chat window The result of * is calculated as (3 + 5) * 2 = 16 as placed on channel 14. The large green cylinder rotates at a speed proportional to 16.

During the Spring 2007 semester of the class Aesthetic Computing (Fishwick 2006), Knight and Sadowski (2007) created a general 3D toolkit within Second Life for more complex algebraic calculations. The machine in Figure 5 was constructed by hand with specific scripts inserted to facilitate the calculation. The interface supporting the toolkit in Figure 6 shows a sample equation (X + Y) * Z, with values of 7, 2, and 10 for X, Y, and Z.

cONcLUsION AND IMPLIcAtIONs We have created two experiments within the Second Life multi-user virtual environment to support the study of algebra. The first experiment supported an interactive form of manipulating variables to see the distributive property in action. The variables and their operators appear to the user in an immersive setting. We envision that this type of immersion, with engaging actions taken by several users when creating these expressions, can be used to enrich the experience in a way

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Figure 5. The Simple Algebra Machine illustrating a fluid metaphor for calculation; values enter through the pipes on the left and move through the “machine.”

(a) The value 3 is assigned to X via channel 10

(c) The lower-left pipe Y is set to 5, the result of “+” is shown on channel 12 as 8, and 2 is entered on channel 13 for Z in the chat window

(b) The upper-left blue pipe representing X is now marked with 3.

(d) The result of “*” is calculated as (3 + 5) * 2 = 16 as placed on channel 14. The large green cylinder rotates at a speed proportional to 16.

Figure 6. A 3D machine toolkit for arbitrary algebraic expressions (Knight & Sadowski, 2007)

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similar to immersive 3D games—users wander around in the environment and are drawn toward virtual manipulatives, which can be juxtaposed to facilitate symbolic manipulation and numerical calculations. The second experiment involved creating functional machines to calculate, or numerically solve, algebraic expressions. Three-dimensional interfaces have a way to go to engender a “comfortable feel” to users within them. While moving around in a 3D game is fairly straightforward, extending the range of human interaction to encompass the ability to create and place arbitrary geometric primitives is still in its infancy. For example, interactively editing and selecting geometric primitives can be time consuming without prior experience. There is a significant learning curve to work in 3D compared with 2D or text. Moving beyond this phase will require more engineering work, thus easing the user’s task, and attracting researchers who are expert in empirical studies to see what works and what does not in terms of learning, memory, engagement, and holding student interest. One may create games within Second Life without much problem, and the environment and client software offer technically sophisticated ways that minimize the need for programming. In particular, making games from the example machines shown in this chapter would require only that the developer provide a goal and then present the user with puzzles to facilitate goalseeking behavior. For example, one of the functional machines could be partially constructed, asking the student to modify the machine to obtain a pre-specified computational solution. Popular graphics games have many attributes that are novel for algebra instruction aside from the need to goal-seek: creating mathematics in an immersive environment, creating mathematical symbols in 3D, permitting collaborative building of algebraic structure, and personalizing content via shape and texture mapping. These attributes are natural components found within Second Life. Other multi-user environments may also be suit-

able; however, there may be genre constraints on the types of characters, objects, and actions that can be employed for curriculum insertion. The use of Second Life is facilitated through a freely available software client and the ability to build on the mainland and on various islands. There are “sandbox” areas that allow anyone to build arbitrary structures; however, for permanent exhibitions, one is required to buy land. Linden Labs also provides educational discounts for purchasing and maintaining land. We encourage educators to investigate multi-user collaborative environments and place the curricular materials within these new spaces. One implication of this is to use the new environments in ways that go beyond traditional approaches. When teaching algebra in a multi-user environment, it is important to leverage the strengths of this environment—allowing symbols to be cast in three dimensions, using audio, video, and not simply transferring the traditional markup used in mathematics on blackboards placed in-world. There is a natural tension that educators should acknowledge when considering using Second Life. This tension is between needing to very gradually introduce new technological features to facilitate empirical testing on one hand, and needing to take advantage of the full capabilities these features offer to education on the other. A sensible approach is along both axes: we should engineer radically new forms of interaction in education, while simultaneously studying these interactions both incrementally and through analysis of the final engineering product.

rEFErENcEs Aguilera, M., & Mendiz, A. (2003). Video games and education (education in the face of a “parallel school”). ACM Computers in Entertainment, 1(1).

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Antonacci, D., & Modaress, N. (2005, April). Second Life: The educational possibilities of massively multiplayer virtual worlds (MMVW). Proceedings of the EDUCAUSE Western Regional Conference, San Francisco, CA.

Hopkins, J., & Fishwick, P. (2001). The RUBE framework for personalized 3d software visualization. In S. Diehl (Ed.), Proceedings of the International Seminar at Dagstuhl, Germany (pp. 368-380). Berlin: Springer-Verlag (LNCS 2269).

Au, W.J., Batstone-Cunningham, B., Ondrejka, C., Rymaszewski, M., Wallace, M., & Winters, C. (2007). Second Life: Official guide. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Ke, F. (2006). Classroom goal structures for educational math game application. Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Learning Sciences (pp. 314-320), Bloomington, IN.

Burn, A., Buckingham. D., Carr, D., Schott, G., & Thompson, J. (2006). Computer games: Text, narrative and play. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

Kelly, M. (1998). Encyclopedia of aesthetics. New York: Oxford University Press.

Carey, R., & Bell, G. (1997). The annotated VRML 2.0 reference manual. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley Professional. Clipsham, D., Huffman, B., Meissell, J., & Guimaraes, M. (1999). Turtlemania: A math game in a distributed environment. SIGCUE Outlook 32, 27(January). Cross, J., O’Driscoll, T., & Trondsen, E. (2007). Another life: Virtual worlds as tools for learning. eLearn Magazine, 2007(3), 2. Cyan, Inc. (2007). Myst games. Retrieved from http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myst Dieterle, E., & Clarke, J. (in press). Multi-user virtual environments for teaching and learning. In M. Pagani (Ed.), Encyclopedia of multimedia technology and networking (2nd ed.). Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Elliott, J., Adams, L., & Bruckman, A. (2002). No magic bullet: 3D video games in education. Proceedings of the International Conference of the Learning Sciences, Seattle, WA. Fishwick, P. (Ed.). (2006). Aesthetic Computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Ford, W.W., & Resnick, L.B. (1981). The psychology of mathematics for instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Kelly, R.V. (2004). Massively multiplayer online role-playing games. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company. Knight, D., & Sadowski, K. (2007). B.M.W project. Unpublished Project Report (part of the Aesthetic Computing class requirements for Spring 2007), University of Florida, USA. Krendl, K.A., & Lieberman, D.A. (1988). Computers and learning: A review of recent research. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 4, 367-389 Lesh, R., Post, T., & Behr, M. (1987). Representations and translations among representations in mathematics learning and problem solving. In C. Janvier (Ed.), Problems of representation in the teaching and learning of mathematics (pp. 33-40). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Livingstone, D., & Kemp, J. (2006). Proceedings of the 1st Second Life Education Workshop, Part of the 2006 Second Life Community Convention, San Francisco, CA. Manovich, L. (2002). The language of new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Moyer, P.S., & Suh, J. (2007). Developing students’ representational fluency using virtual and physical algebra balances. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 26(2), 155-173.

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Munster, A. (2006). Materializing new media. Hanover, NH: Dartmouth University Press. NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics). (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author. NLVM (National Library of Virtual Manipulatives). (2007). Grades pre-K to 12. Retrieved from http://nlvm.usu.edu/en Piciotti, H. (1998). Operation sense, tool-based pedagogy, curricular breadth: A proposal. In M. Blanton & J. Kaput (Eds.), Employing children’s natural powers to build algebraic reasoning in the context of elementary mathematics. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Simteach. (2007). Second Life education digest: SLED. Retrieved from http://www.simteach. com/wiki/index.php?title=Second_Life_Education_Wiki Stasko, J.T., Dominque, J.B., Brown, M.H., & Price, B.A. (1998). Software visualization. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Taylor, T.L. (2006). Play between worlds: Exploring online game culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Watson, J.M. (1993). The distributive property undersold. School Science and Mathematics, 93(6), 316-320. Wittgenstein, L., Anscombe, G.E.M., & Anscombe, E. (2001). Philosophical investigations. Blackwell.

KEY TERMS Aesthetic Computing: The application of methods in the humanities and fine arts to artifacts found in computer science. Engagement: The degree of physical interaction experienced by a human. Immersion: For sensory immersion: the sensory impression, primarily using sight and sound, of presence that one is inside of a space; for cognitive immersion: the mental impression that one is inside of a space. Manipulative: A physical object used for educational purposes. In mathematics, most prior work has used manipulatives in solution spaces and geometric proofs rather than for specifying syntax in mathematical expressions. Multi-User Environment: A simulated environment allows more than one user to simultaneously experience a virtual space. Representation: The subject of studying how a variety of objects and interactions can be presented, often employing analogy and metaphor. Second Life: An online multi-user threedimensional environment that caters to generalpurpose object creation, interaction, and dynamic script-based manipulation. Virtual Manipulative: A virtual equivalent of a manipulative having simulated physical qualities such as immersion, engagement, and interaction.

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Chapter XXXII

Surviving the Game Linda van Ryneveld Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa

Abstract A large body of research exists on the topics of computer-based educational gaming on the one hand and the role of playing traditional games in face-to-face learning environments on the other. Relatively few studies, however, have looked at the potential of technology to support traditional face-to-face games in an online educational environment. While some traditional games such as Tic-Tac-Toe, Hangman, Monopoly, and Chess have been ported over to an electronic medium, relatively little thought has been given to porting games where human-to-human interaction is a central component. This chapter reports on the use of a game in an online learning module that was presented to adult learners. It sets out to explore the complexities involved in teaching and learning in an adult online learning community that is based on a modified version of the television reality show, “Survivor.”

INTRODUCTION There is a widespread tendency in modernist culture to define play and fun as the opposite of work. In the conventional teaching environment that we have inherited over many centuries, the use of play, pleasure, and enjoyment as possible vehicles of education is frowned upon by many academics and practitioners even today. In the minds of many educators of the ‘old school’, suffering, silence, solemnity, and (above all)

deep seriousness are regarded as the outward signs of ‘real’ education. Any hint of pleasure or light-heartedness that might leaven the drudgery of education is regarded by such people as being somehow unsuited to the learning environment. Using the modified version of a game to teach adult learners is therefore to go out on a limb, especially since there seems to be consensus in the literature that adult learners do not particularly enjoy playing games (Nasseh, 1999). Even today there are still those who support Beach’s (1945) premise that ‘play’ is predominantly a character-

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Surviving the Game

istic of young, developing human beings rather than that of adults. Adult learners prefer not to be taught in a manner that may surprise them, or in a learning environment that might entail threats or uncomfortable challenges of some kind. Many of the techniques used in the teaching of children are ineffectual for teaching adults because adults are developmentally different and they bring into the classroom a wealth of life experience that the young do not possess. In addition, to present a course to adult learners that is based on a popular reality show on television, and that is presented exclusively over the Internet, is a pioneering venture for all concerned. Although online learning has been and is being extensively explored and researched, it is still such a new field of study that even though many studies address topics that are related to Web-based learning, experts are not in agreement about its true value. Teaching and learning over the Internet is characterized by its own unique set of challenges, and these include user computer literacy, resources, stable connections, bandwidth, and many others. This chapter combines the abovementioned areas of study in that it reports on the use of a game in an online learning module that was presented to adult learners. It sets out to explore the complexities involved in teaching and learning in an adult online learning community that is based on the television reality show, “Survivor©.” The CyberSurvivor module (with its focus on the value of e-learning in education) is central in this case study, which investigates the potential of the Internet to host a reality game such as “Survivor” in an educational context.

BACKGROUND Over the past two decades or so, electronic games have become an integral part of the suburban scene in many affluent societies, especially among younger people. While the obsession of the young

with these games initially alarmed both parents and educators alike, some far-sighted educational researchers soon began to wonder whether this intense motivation to play could be tapped and harnessed for educational purposes (Malone, 1981). Therefore, “not long after the birth of computer games, the first hopes for the potential of learning through games were expressed” (Smith, 2003). Experts hoped that the enthusiasm so obviously generated by playing games could be harnessed in the cause of sound learning. The CyberSurvivor module was consequently designed with this expectation in mind. If one considers that Nintendo’s Super Mario Bros. 3 has earned US$500 million worldwide, it becomes clear that the game industry is growing fast and may well generate more income than other kinds of media in the future (Smith, 2003). One research project on the media as used by sixto nine-year-old Europeans revealed that “79% of boys and 48% of girls play computer games” (Smith, 2003). In the CBS television program “60 Minutes,” the presenter opened the documentary on pro-gamer Jonathan ‘Fatal1ty’ Wendel with the following statement: Worldwide sales of video game consoles and software are expected to reach US$35 billion this year. That is more than twice the revenue of the NFL [football], the NBA [basketball] and Major League Baseball combined. It is therefore understandable that a lot of attention has been given to the relationship between information technology, playing, and learning over the last couple of years. Slogans such as “play-and-learn” and “learn-while-you-play” are typically found in advertisements that promote the use of software packages whose purpose it is to integrate a game with learning. However, the design and production of such games are not always based on research that has evaluated such games’ potential for learning. As Malone (1981) rightly states, the characteristics that make games fun do

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not necessarily make them educational. Keeping this in mind, the design of the CyberSurvivor module overtly integrated the fun elements of the game with authentic learning experiences. These authentic learning experiences were designed based on specific instructional design principles as they relate to educational gaming (Henderson, 1996; Rieber, 1996; Wild & Quinn, 1998). Early literature on the role of games and play focused mainly on animals such as rodents and mammals (Smith, 1984; Thorpe, 1966; Beckoff & Beyers, 1998; Tomasello, 2000), and children (Piaget, 1951; Vygotsky, 1978). Most of the earlier references to adult play show activities in gambling houses, casinos, racetracks, and lotteries as the defined areas of adult play. In the last few years, the potential of a powerful relationship between play and information technology and learning has been given a lot of attention. Branded as ‘edutainment’ and often sold under the banner of ‘learn as you play’, commercial games are commonly marketed as having the potential to promote learning (KDE, 2004; ESL Games, 2004). Much of the literature on game research centers on PC games such as action, adventure, strategy, arcade, and simulation games. These games are computer based in the sense that the interaction that takes place is mainly between a computer program and the individual playing the game. However, current growth in this sector (some of it on a national scale in countries like South Korea) is in the area of online gaming where players compete against each other in a virtual environment in real time. Communications Today (2002) reports: A new study from analysts DFC Intelligence predicts that there will be 114 million subscribers to online gaming services, and that overall usage will be nearly six times greater [than] what it is today. The potential of learning via the Internet is vast even though it is still relatively new and un-

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der-explored. There is a need for more research into online games that can be introduced into a virtual classroom as part of a formally defined educational strategy. When the literature refers to the role of games, it is usually in the context of corporate training rather than in that of higher education (Piskurich, Beckschi, & Hall, 1999; Thiagarajan & Jasinski, 2000). The fact that much has been written about the value of games such as icebreakers, role-playing, and brainteasers in corporate training has been acknowledged (Thiagarajan & Jasinski, 2000; Redden, 2003). Even so, many professionals in higher education remain skeptical of the notion that play and fun can actually enhance and facilitate the learning experience of adult students. In contrast, there seems to be a growing trend in some educators’ use of computer games for learning (Karaliotas, 1999; Asgari & Kaufman, 2004). Although this use of games is far from new, it has re-emerged in the last few years in a new guise. Thus transformed, they carry the potential to transform computer-based games to levels at which they could function far more creatively and usefully than the stereotyped, mind-numbing, and often violent games that are so ubiquitous on the commercial entertainment scene. This chapter discusses gaming in education, but not in the traditional sense as many may define the term. The focus is on an online learning module that was presented using an adopted version of “Survivor,” the well-known reality show on television. Using the Internet as medium of instruction (or construction, to be more precise), the game of CyberSurvivor was played as part of an elective module in a tutored master’s program in Education (see below). The design of the CyberSurvivor module and some of the resulting dynamics are discussed here. This chapter aims to show that it is possible to port a game that is traditionally played face-to-face successfully to an electronic environment.

Surviving the Game

THE CYBERSURVIVOR MODULE The CyberSurvivor module was presented in the context of a two-year tutored master’s degree in Computer-Assisted Education at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. The students (in this case mainly full-time lecturers, teachers, and training officers) were all working adults with an education background and ranging in age from 23-63. They were all completing the course on a part-time basis. The module addressed the theme of e-learning and aimed to expose learners to the potential and educational value of the Internet. The module was one of a number of electives that could be followed to complete the degree. In designing the module, the designers realized that the target audience would have varied entry levels. While some learners could enter with vast levels of Internet literacy, others could have had limited experience. The focus of the module therefore centered on raising learners’ levels of awareness, while at the same time improving their skills, knowledge, and attitudes relating to the potential and educational value of the Internet. The aim was firstly to introduce the educator who wanted to initiate an e-learning program with a variety of tools, services, and products that were available online, both commercially and as free/ shareware. Secondly, the aim was to ensure that a certain level of competence was acquired in using these tools in an educational setting. Thirdly, the module aimed to emphasize the importance of those fundamental instructional design principles that are relevant to teaching and learning in an online environment. Finally, learners were also given the opportunity to explore their own online facilitation skills through authentic ‘teaching’ tasks that were included as group and individual assignments. In order to reach these outcomes, the CyberSurvivor theme was employed to create a structured learning environment that created a milieu conducive for learning. It is important to note, though, that the CyberSurvivor game was

not, in itself, intended to be an educational game. The theme was rather used to provide the facilitator with particular structural and motivational elements, while at the same time it provided the learners with a fun context in which they could explore the educational value of the Internet. The module was run over a period of six weeks and was presented entirely online, with only one introductory contact session at the beginning of the course, a face-to-face ‘tribal council’ meeting (group get-together to discuss important issues) after the first week, and a debriefing session at the end of the six weeks. Pedagogically, the module was learner-centered and heavily grounded in a constructivist philosophy, although a number of behaviorist elements were also included. The presentation of the module simulated the spirit of the highly popular “Survivor” reality series broadcast on television in many countries across the globe. Apart from the location (which, in the television program, is an exotic site in some remote, often inhospitable but beautiful part of the Amazon, Africa, or some country such as Thailand, and in this case cyberspace), the same rules applied and comparable events took place throughout the module. The online module was therefore titled CyberSurvivor and included elements such as competing tribes, tribal and individual assignments, immunity and reward challenges, weekly voting sessions, a tribal council, and a grand prize for the final CyberSurvivor. While the reality show offers the final survivor a dazzling cash prize of US$1 million, CyberSurvivor managed to offer a rather more humble but nevertheless very appealing weekend away for a family of six at a local holiday resort, courtesy of the Dean of the Faculty. As the module was experienced as “six weeks of real torture” (anonymous survey response) and many of the learners spent a considerable number of hours behind their computers in order to complete their challenging assignments, they frequently experienced conflict at home with

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family members who felt neglected and abused because of the hours students had to devote to their projects. As one student put it: My wife is talking about divorcing me (money for my child’s clothes used for the online discussions…). The weekend away for a family of six at a local resort was therefore perceived as a most desirable incentive. Other significant incentives were the grades that were awarded for the module and the fact that the module earned the students credits as they worked towards obtaining the degree. All interactions for the duration of the module had to be carried out online (on ‘Cyber Island’), and interpersonal telephone calls or any form of face-to-face contact between learners were strongly discouraged. It is known, though, that learners who experienced technical difficulties in, say, ftp-ing their Web sites to the server on campus, got together with more experienced learners on a number of Saturday mornings in order to be able to meet deadlines and to achieve milestones. It is thus fair to say that most interactions took place online, even if this was not the only type of contact that took place. At a debriefing session at the end of the module, learners admitted to having had occasional face-to-face contacts and discussions of some kind behind the scenes, even though they knew this was not officially allowed. In the section below, a segment of important design elements relating to tribal formation, the weekly tribal and individual assignments, immunity and reward challenges, voting, shuffling of tribes, and cyber technology are discussed.

Tribal Formation Groups are often formed in the workplace in order to improve performance (Wageman, 1997). Because groups are thus an inevitable component of society and most work situations, they also

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feature in higher education teaching and learning. University teaching may therefore benefit learners by introducing them to the experience of working in groups (Anderson & Moore, 1998), a skill that they will be able to use for the rest of their lives. Since the study was based on the premise that “group assignments in a cooperative learning environment can improve student learning” (McDonald, 1995), the learners participating in the module were divided into groups (or “tribes,” to use “Survivor” terminology) during the first face-to-face contact session that was held for the module. Initially there were four tribes, each consisting of six learners with widely differing levels of computer and Web literacy. This was based on the fact “that shared knowledge and authority, and heterogeneous groups of students, are essential characteristics of collaborative classrooms” (Tinzmann et al., 1990). Whereas homogeneous groups place similar students together, heterogeneous groups emphasize diversity in groups. Thus, according to Tinzmann et al. (1990), a critical characteristic of a classroom in which learners are supposed to work cooperatively together is that learners “are not segregated according to ability, achievement, interests, or any other characteristic.” In theory, the differing levels of computer and Web literacy meant that each tribe had at least one learner with strong Web-based capabilities, and that this person could mentor and guide others in the team while fulfilling the role of Webmaster.

Weekly Tribal and Individual Assignments Literature (Wegerif, 1998; Galusha, n.d.) agrees that one of the most successful ways to eliminate isolation in the e-learning environment is to ensure that students work together on a group project that has an explicit artifact or product as its outcome. Moore (2001) also states that it is im-

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portant to engage learners in regular assignments to monitor progress and to be able to intervene when needed. CyberSurvivor was therefore designed to include weekly assignments. These weekly assignments typically included a tribal assignment that required tribe members to collaborate and cooperate with one another over the Internet. John Myers (1991) points out that “the dictionary definitions of collaboration, derived from its Latin root, focus on the process of working together and that the root word for cooperation stresses the product of such work.” In CyberSurvivor, collaboration and cooperation were equally important in designing the weekly assignments. It was in these tribal assignments that groups either found or began to lose their sense of cohesion and group identity. Those tribes who survived without competing internally and without serious conflicts among their members managed to create a strong sense of group cohesion, and they worked well together towards specified outcomes. The levels of peer support grew as inexperienced learners became more relaxed and began to feel secure enough to acknowledge their own limitations. The online community that evolved as a byproduct of the collaborative assignments had many positive spin-offs. One learner responded (in answer to a reflective exam question) that the e-learning community made it possible for them to share skills with each other that they did not even consciously know they had. Daniel and Marquis (1979) urge teachers to find the right blend of “independent study and interactive learning strategies and activities.” They argued that these two ways of learning have different “economic, pedagogical and social characteristics” and that each educational scenario would require a different mix to meet “all learner and institutional needs” in terms of “curriculum and content.” One of the aims of the master’s degree in Computer-Integrated Education is to combine the computer literacy abilities of the learners

with a solid foundation in educational principles. Therefore, CyberSurvivor was designed to include also, on a weekly basis, independent individual assignments that would strengthen learners’ technical capabilities. Individual assignments ranged from those that encouraged learners to improve their technical skills, to those that were more scholarly by nature. Instructions for the weekly assignments had to be accessed via the Internet, and all assignments had to be submitted electronically. For example, one of the learners had experienced several technical difficulties in setting up her own Web site. Nevertheless, she still gave her discussion board posting the subject line: Ah-hh-h. The body of her message stated: My personal Web site is now more or less working! What a struggle! I am just happy to say that I learnt the most I could out of it, as I received no help from any outside party. This message is representative of many others that also showed that, even though many peer support incidents were reported, learners often felt a sense of accomplishment when they acquired new skills by themselves.

Immunity and Reward Challenges In the spirit of the original “Survivor” game, immunity and reward challenges were also posted on a regular basis. The facilitator made use of these challenges to make learners aware of a number of related and important issues. For instance, at one point it became clear that learners had no idea what an IP address was. This problem area was then formulated into a question and posted as a reward challenge. As this module was presented in asynchronous mode, there were quite a number of legitimate objections to the fact that the award was presented to the first correct response. While some of the learners had access to their networked computers only at home, others could only connect

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to the Web at their places of work. This implied that, no matter when in any 24-hour period a reward challenge was posted, some learners were certain to read about the challenge before others could do so. On the television show, the prize handed out to the winner of the Reward Challenge was usually quite substantial, given the context. After weeks without a home-cooked meal, seeing a loved one, or a hot shower, these rewards were extremely powerful motivational factors. In the CyberSurvivor game, the rewards were by comparison rather insignificant. They were in fact of such little value (being a somewhat inane and symbolic pictorial attachment) that very little enthusiasm for the rewards was anticipated. The reward for this type of challenge was usually a picture attachment, depicting a mug of coffee, a slice of cake, or a bottle of beer. This proved to be an unfounded fear, as learners seemed to enjoy the silliness of the pictures, and competed fiercely in order to be in the running for this prize. As one student’s response (in a WebCT posting) shows: “Could not resist the reward!!” He then continued to post an elaborate response to the reward question that was asked. Approximately an hour later, another student demonstrated the value of intangible, intrinsic award and responded with his own explanation to the question, starting his posting with “Drat…Geronimo got to it before me!” The way in which the game worked was that members would be voted off on a weekly basis until only one final survivor (our CyberSurvivor) remained. Thus, at the end of each week’s activities, the tribes had to vote one member of the team off based on a number of predetermined criteria. This member then joined the other evicted learners in a separate tribe, called Tribe 5. Even though they were out of the running for the Grand Prize, all members of Tribe 5 were nevertheless required to complete all the tribal and individual tasks that were given to those who remained in the game.

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The Immunity Challenges in the television “Survivor” show were held so that one player could obtain immunity (exemption) from the next round of votes. A person with immunity could not be voted off, and thus remained in the running for the Grand Prize for yet another week. In CyberSurvivor, the same principle applied. The immunity challenges were not compulsory. They were intended to be enjoyable activities that might get one the coveted weekly exemption (immunity) from being voted off. The Immunity Challenges were designed to provide learners with a range of examples of various practical features, tools, and services that are available on the Internet and to provide a break from the other more serious and demanding tasks. These challenges were posted on a weekly basis. One of the Immunity Challenges, for example, aimed to assess the typing speed of learners in the course. The facilitator needed this information because she planned to set up an online test that included a large number of paragraph and essay-type questions that required learners to be able to type large amounts of text. She obviously needed to take into account the typing ability of the students because that variable would influence the amount of time allocated to the test. The learners were therefore asked to download a typing tutor from the Web that included a typing test utility. Learners then had to type a paragraph, obtain their scores, make screen dumps of these scores, and attach them to a bulletin board message for all to see. The learner with the highest typing speed and accuracy won this Immunity Challenge.

Voting In the “Survivor” reality game on television, the players conferred among themselves and built alliances in order to get powerful opponents voted off. The focus in the reality game was to get rid of any strong member who was seen as a threat in the race towards the Grand Prize. In our game, however, the strongest learners all remained in

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the game until the very end. On Cyber Island, a high premise was placed on active participation and so learners tended to vote off those members who failed to communicate regularly and who did not produce their fair share of work. It seemed that a high level of commitment, good quality contributions, regular availability online, and/or strong computer/Internet skills were the criteria that ensured learners a safe place in their various tribes. As one learner summed it up: Interesting to note that in the real game the strong ones fell first, and here the weaker ones got trodden on! [Anonymous survey response] Another person (in the anonymous survey) stated: I did not like voting people off who did their share of the work!’ He/she nevertheless continued to say that it was ‘nice getting rid of people who did nothing! In order to process these weekly votes, a Web-based voting station was created with PHP. Learners gained access to the station by utilizing a username and a password. It therefore became possible to limit each learner to only one vote and a vote for only one person. The voting station only allowed learners to vote for the members of their own tribes and they were not allowed to vote for themselves. The voting station usually closed on

a Thursday evening at midnight after which time the person with the most votes was automatically transferred to Tribe 5. If more than one person got the same number of votes, or if no one got any votes, the computer randomly selected a person to be voted off. Members of Tribe 5 did not have to vote, as they were no longer eligible for the Grand Prize. However, all these learners became part of the jury who, in the final week, had the opportunity to choose the winner of the Grand Prize from the remaining ‘survivors’. It is important to note, again, that members of Tribe 5 still had to complete all the scholarly assignments (tribal and individual) that were included as part of the module. The only difference was that they now did them for the love of learning and the associated grades only, since the carrot of the Grand Prize was no longer a consideration. Once the names of the evicted tribal members had been moved to Tribe 5, an animation would appear. The purpose of this was to recreate as much verisimilitude as possible to the features of the reality show. In “Survivor,” the torch of the person who has been voted off is ceremoniously extinguished while the presenter states dramatically that the tribe has spoken. On Cyber Island, this same effect was created by an animation that symbolized a dangling computer mouse that is cut loose with a pair of scissors, accompanied by the statement: “The tribe has spoken…” (see Figures 1 and 2).

Figures 1 and 2. Voting animation

©2007 Linda van Ryneveld. Used with permission.

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Shuffling the Tribes In the television version of “Survivor,” tribal members were often caught off-guard by a sudden and unexpected regrouping of all group members about halfway through the game. At one point, the number of active members in the CyberSurvivor tribes began to dwindle because more than half of the initial team members either had been voted off or had fallen out of the course for various other reasons. In line with the reality show, the facilitator introduced a new tribal division that elicited high levels of stress in some, while elevating levels of satisfaction in others. This action entailed a shuffling of the tribes so as to combine into two teams (Tribes 6 and 7 consisting of five and four members respectively) those members who were still in the running for the Grand Prize. Up to that point, some of the original tribes had been functioning efficiently, as those members who remained each contributed positively to the outcomes of the assignments. Other tribes, though, were ineffectual and ridden with conflict. It was therefore interesting to observe how various individuals interpreted the changes occasioned by the reallocation of existing members to new tribes. One learner commented: “My learning was encouraged by the new perspective added by the members of the group.” Another learner experienced the opposite: “Sadly, the collaboration wasn’t on the same level as in the initial tribe.” At that stage, a number of those who had been voted off expressed their dissatisfaction with the inability of Tribe 5 to obtain active participation from all its (evicted) members. They then started a new tribe (Tribe 8) that turned out to be highly functional after an additional shuffle had taken place. One learner commented: At last there was some participation…When the new tribes were formed I was in seventh heaven. It was wonderful to be able to work with real students and not just ghosts lurking in the back booing but

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doing nothing else. I could at last experience the joy of working in a functional tribe.”

Cyber Technology All the interactions among tribal members themselves, or between tribal members and the facilitator of the course, took place through the medium of a number of pre-selected Web-based communication tools such as Yahoo Groups, Yahoo Messenger, NetMeeting, WebCT, and InterWise. These tools were selected because they provided learners with a wide range of experiences in the use of a variety of e-learning applications. From their use of these tools, learners all obtained a useful representative knowledge of what the Internet has to offer in terms of synchronous and asynchronous communication. In addition, learners’ use of these forms of communication presented them with opportunities to evaluate the different functionalities that are offered by both expensive commercial learning management systems and those applications that are available free of charge on the Internet. One cost-effective application, namely Yahoo Groups, was used as ‘base camp’ throughout the duration of the module. This application required all learners to get a Yahoo ID, which is available at no cost. The drawback of this service is the fact that it is heavily supported (financed) by paid advertisements that are attached to all messages. This renders it less than ideal as an environment in which to learn. During the first week in which the module was presented, this service was the sole available medium of communication. While, from the second week onwards, other tools were introduced and integrated on a regular basis, it soon became clear that Yahoo Groups was going to be the more formal medium of communication, particularly if the message was intended for the entire group. Instant messaging by means of Yahoo Messenger proved to be a popular medium for making interpersonal contacts even across tribal boundaries.

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STUDENT PERCEPTIONS OF LIFE ON CYBER ISLAND During the first contact session, the facilitator asked learners to identify (by a show of hands) those who were familiar with the “Survivor” reality show on television. Most learners had either watched the show regularly or had at least seen a few episodes. These learners therefore understood the conventions of the game. A number of learners however indicated that they did not have prior knowledge of the concept at all. The facilitator thus had to explain how the game worked. In spite of this, it soon became clear that one could not make the assumption that those learners who were unfamiliar with the “Survivor” concept did indeed understand after the explanation what was going on simply because someone had verbally explained the concept as best as possible to them. Roleen1 (on the discussion list) was one of the learners who indicated that she still did not understand how the game worked: I do have another problemI do not watch TV, which means that I have no idea what ‘Survivor’ is. What is it all about? Catherine (another one of the learners) responded early the following morning with a simple instruction: “Watch the game tonight @ 19:00 on TV3.” Learners tended to provide all kinds of support (administrative, content-wise, general, etc.) to their fellow students. In fact, the survey results showed that learners identified peer support as one of the more helpful features of the game. Many learners said that they had been both encouraged and supported by other playerssometimes even by learners from different tribes. Others stated that the compulsory collaboration had affected their learning process positively. While the reward and immunity challenges created a competitive atmosphere between individual learners, these activities were not formally assessed for marks. In their survey comments,

quite a number of learners explicitly identified competition as one of the strong motivators that was introduced by the “Survivor” game. Others, in contrast, stated that they had been demotivated by the element of competition. It was thus clear that competition between learners could manifest both positive and negative consequences. Competition can be used as a motivating educational tool, or it can be abused. Research has “consistently found that competition induces performance goals and affects learning motivation” (Lam, Yim, Law, & Cheung, 2004). However, as this module shows, not all adult learners enjoy the competitive nature of games. While many of the learners enjoyed the friendly competition that the reward and immunity challenges sparked, most disliked the underlying competition that was rather too evident throughout the module. Failure to understand the possible negative impact of competition can lead to the introduction of competitive learning activities that alienate rather than attract learners. Among the negative elements of the game that learners identified were the voting process and the conflict that was engendered within some tribes. Learners also felt negatively about the exorbitant costs incurred by their having to be online for hours on end, the heavy workload, the asynchronicity, and the unavailability of certain members.

PERCEPTIONS OF THE SURVIVOR THEME There were obviously mixed feelings among the learners about the “Survivor” theme, and their responses to the survey question that dealt with this question manifested a variety of opinions. Gabrielle (in answer to a reflective survey question) identified the theme of the “Survivor” game as one of the strengths of the module: Although [an] adult learner in our group, I experienced one of the strengths of the module [as being] the game and competition element made

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possible by Internet-based learning. It inspired people to achieve technical difficulties as challenges and [they] probably succeeded above their own expectations. One learner simply stated “VERY GOOD GAME,” while another learner commented anonymously in a survey as follows: Metaphor or not, I have never learned so much in so little time and been so severely challenged in my life before. The game was actually the sweetener to six weeks of real time torture (meant in the best possible way). This is however the most relevant course and has left me with a new vision and a wish for time to explore the possibilities and nitty-gritty of online learning more…I came into it with no previous knowledge or experience, and walk away, limping, but informed. Some learners recognized the potential inherent in using games in an educational setting. Beatrice (in response to a reflective exam question) specifically applauded the incorporation of games into the e-learning environment as a device that could mitigate the sense of isolation and loss of social context that e-learning formats can sometimes engender. She advised teachers to “include relaxing exercises like games, immunity, puzzles, etc.” Not everyone however was appreciative of the fact that this module was presented in a game format. As one learner explained: I am not fond of playing games. It makes me feel insecure and not in control and I do not like the feeling. I felt that it was called a game so that we would not become so uptight and stressed. Perhaps it was also meant to cover the workload under the metaphor of it being a game…To me it was everything but a game it was a lot of hard work and asked for many a lonely night in front of my computer.

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Other negative responses included the following: Yes, I mentioned at the beginning that I dislike it, and I think I still feel that way. I watch very little television, and I don’t think that I am a competition person. I may actually have learnt more if it wasn’t for the game. But it [the “Survivor” metaphor] was…a separate dynamic from the rest of the process. At times it was distracting. Another learner also initially disliked the use of the game metaphor, but noted that it became irrelevant as he/she became more involved in the learning activities: I personally didn’t like this metaphor. It probably has to do with the T.V. show that I don’t like. At the beginning it made me nervous, but then I was doing the tasks and that metaphor was irrelevant. It is interesting to note that some of the students thought that the game metaphor had been introduced to offset the debilitating effect of the heavy workload that the module required. One learner commented: “The game was actually the sweetener to six weeks of real time torture.”

CONCLUSION This chapter focused on how the game elements of the television program “Survivor” influenced the workings of the CyberSurvivor module as it was presented at the University of Pretoria. We noted that learners responded diversely to a question that asked about their impressions of the CyberSurvivor metaphor. Some liked it and found it motivating while others, who even though they indicated that they found the concept fascinating, hated it. The learners also commented

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on the initial group composition as well as the tribal shuffling. Once again, there were diverse opinions. Those learners who experienced their initial heterogeneous tribes as fully functional found it hard to adapt to the change that meant that they shared similar skills with other tribe members. Other learners who initially found themselves in dysfunctional tribes flourished in the new composition. Many learners expressed feelings of isolation, and while some broke the rules and made face-to-face and telephonic contact with others, most learners used Yahoo Messenger to interact with the facilitator and fellow learners for muchneeded contact. A strong supportive learning community that crossed tribal boundaries evolved throughout the module and formed between those learners who shared similar outlooks in terms of their commitment to learning. This strong supportive learning community was available for synchronous communication by means of instant messages. While most learners indicated that although they were severely tested as they engaged with the individual assignments, they also found these tasks challenging and motivating. Learners went out of their way to support each other by sharing their knowledge and skills. Even those learners with limited prior Internet experience shared their ‘solutions’ to problems that other learners experienced. The collaboration necessitated by the difficulty and scope of the tribal assignments once again varied from tribe to tribe. Some functioned well. Learners accepted various roles and they contributed their particular skills. Other tribes, however, were ridden by conflict and experienced high levels of frustration. It became clear the facilitator had a role to play in teaching learners the basic skills that they needed to enable them to collaborate via the Internet. Most learners indicated that they found the immunity and reward challenges interesting and motivating, and that they actively competed with

their fellow learners to win. The competition element was enjoyed by most learners, although some learners indicated that they were not usually motivated by playing games or by competition of any kind. This study demonstrated a very different voting pattern from that which was evident in the “Survivor” game show. Learners voted off those individuals who did not participate actively or who did not contribute to the learning activities in a helpful and constructive manner. Voting in the first couple of weeks was therefore not a problem because tribal members used it as an opportunity to purge their tribe of non-participants. However, as numbers began to dwindle and all surviving learners were participating with enthusiasm, it became more difficult to vote. It was interesting to note that only a small number of learners actually voted during the last two weeks; most preferred to leave the decision to the computer that randomly selected someone to be voted off in those cases where no one had cast their votes. Learners also appreciated the fact that they could serve on the ‘jury’ on which they would have an opportunity to vote again, during the last round, for the sole CyberSurvivor. The tribal councils provided learners with opportunities to voice both their concerns and enthusiasm. The tribal councils became valuable formative feedback sessions from which information that influenced the design of the module was gathered. While some learners indicated that they worked harder because of the Grand Prize, most learners denied that the Grand Prize exerted any effect on their learning. Interestingly, some of the learners who did not experience the Grand Prize (a weekend away for a family of six) as a motivating factor in their learning, participated with high levels of enthusiasm when the prizes for the reward challenges (a graphic attachment) were at stake. This chapter began by stating that there is a tendency to regard learning situations in which

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learners appear to be playing and enjoying themselves instead of learning in a solemn and edifying manner with suspicion. Light-heartedness and pleasure are not traditionally recognized as appropriate attributes of a learning environment. This chapter introduced the metaphor of the “Survivor” game with the intention of experimenting with a creative and innovative approach to teachingone that many learners indicated they found both stimulating and motivating. The study of the CyberSurvivor module showed that games in an online environment are not always just fun and pleasure, nor are they modes that adult learners would automatically enjoy. As one learner commented in a personal discussion after the module was completed: “This was no game….” In summary, however, it seems fair to say that the game elements had a profound influence on learners’ levels of motivation and enthusiasm, and that they demonstrated how the power of comradeship could influence the morale of a group. The game elements seemed to inspire a spirit of friendly good-fellowship rather than one in which competition and rivalry dominated. In addition, the introduction of the “Survivor” game elements into the online learning process opened up previously unexplored avenues of incidental learning. One learner summed up the experience as “a steep learning curvealthough certainly unforgettable and worthwhile!!”

IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Educational games often struggle to find meaningful teaching and learning environments. While the CyberSurvivor theme was used in this learning module, it cannot be described as an educational game. The “Survivor” game is clearly extrinsic to learning about e-learning, and therefore it did not tie in closely with the content. Critics may question the value of such an extrinsic game, but

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in the case of CyberSurvivor, the case study demonstrated its motivational and structural value. It is, however, important to consciously make design decisions in this regard, as the interference of an overall extrinsic game may override its benefits if not handled carefully. Many educators spend their professional careers trying to create innovative interactive learning environments, but rarely do they manage to break away from the mould of traditional instructional methods. Most existing learning modules for adult learners have tried, largely unsuccessfully, to transfer traditional instructional methods into online interactions. The CyberSurvivor module, however, attempted to create an innovative interactive learning environment by introducing elements of the “Survivor” reality game. For some, this study would be a cautionary tale, convincing them that it is safer to stay close to basic pedagogical methods, while others may find it inspirational. Those who found the introduction of the gaming elements included in CyberSurvivor stimulating, may be encouraged to utilize similar popular game metaphors or other ‘outside the box’ ideas in designing their e-learning environments. Educators should be persuaded to explore the potential of elaborate game metaphors to create better learning environments. This study provided evidence that, while the radical redesign of an online course is not without serious complexities, its benefits can outweigh the risks. The findings of the CyberSurvivor study open up a number of possibilities for further investigation and exploration. It would seem that there is a gap in the field of knowledge concerning the use of technology to support traditional games. While a lot is being written about electronic gaming in education, much less has been reported on the topic of electronically supported conventional games. While some basic traditional games have been ported over to an electronic medium, relatively little thought has been given to porting games where human-to-human interaction is a central

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component. The CyberSurvivor study demonstrated that it is possible to successfully port a reality game (originally face-to-face by nature) to an electronic environment and to sustain, if not increase, learner participation, motivation, enthusiasm, and above all, learning.

cational Technology Research and Development, 44(4), 85-104.

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Anderson, M., & Moore, D. (1998). Classroom globalization. Working Paper 14/98, Faculty of Business and Economics, Monash University, Australia. Asgari, M., & Kaufman, D. (2004, September 6-10). Intrinsic motivation and game design. Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference of the International Simulation and Gaming Association (ISAGA) and Conjoint Conference of SAGSAGA, Munich, Germany. Beach, H.A. (1945). Current concepts of play in animals. Am:Nat. Bekoff, M., & Byers, J.A. (1998). Animal play. Evolutionary, comparative, and ecological perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Daniel, J., & Marquis, C. (1979). Interaction and independence: Getting the mixture right. Teaching at a Distance, 15, 25-44. ESL Games. (2004). Edutainment: How to teach English with fun and games! Retrieved October 14, 2005, from http://www.eslgames. com/edutainment/#redirect Galusha, J.M. (n.d.). Barriers to learning in distance education. Retrieved September 4, 2004, from http://www.infrastruction.com/barriers. htm Henderson, L. (1996). Instructional design of interactive multimedia: A cultural critique. Edu-

Karaliotas, Y. (1999). The element of play in learning: The role of synergetic playful environments in the implementation of open and distance learning. Retrieved August 30, 2004, from http://users. otenet.gr/~kar1125/proj99.htm

Kroft, S. (2006). Pro-gamer: Jonathan “Fatal1ty” Wendel. Retrieved July 10, 2007, from http://www. cbsnews.com/stories/2006/01/19/60minutes/ main1220146.shtml Lam, L., Yan, J.C., Yum, K., & Liu, S.B. (Eds.). (2004). Case studies of improving teaching and learning from the Action Learning Project (pp. 347-356). Hong Kong: Action Learning Project. Malone, T.W. (1981). Towards a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 4, 333-369. McDonald, D. (1995). Improving student learning with group assignments. Retrieved February 11, 2004, from http://fie.engrng.pitt.edu/fie95/2b5/ 2b53/2b53.htm Moore, M.G. (2001). Surviving as a distance teacher. American Journal of Distance Education, 15(2), 1-5. Myers, J. (1991). Collaborative learning. In T. Panitz (Ed.), A definition of collaborative vs. cooperative learning. Retrieved September 8, 2004, from http://www.city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/collab.learning/panitz2.html Nasseh, B. (1999). Internet-generation & adult learners higher education institutions in the 21st century. Proceedings of CUMREC ’99, The College and University Information Services Conference. Retrieved July 19, 2004, from http://www. educause.edu/ir/library/html/cmr9905/cmr9905. html.

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Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Piskurich, G.M., Beckschi, P., & Hall, B. (1999). The ASTD handbook of training design and delivery (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Redden, C. (2003). Andragogy: Hit and myth. Retrieved October 9, 2004, from http://www.ecollege.com/news/EdVoice_arch_0226.learn Rieber, L.P. (1996). Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44(2), 43-58. Smith, J.H. (2003). The 6 myths of computer gaming. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http:// game-research.com/index.php/articles/the-6myths-of-computer-gaming/ Thiagarajan, S.T., & Jasinski, M. (2000). Virtual games for real learning: A seriously fun way to learn online. Retrieved October 9, 2004, from http://it.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper41/paper41. html Thorpe, W.H. (1966). Ritualization in ontogeny: Animal play. Proceedings of the Royal Society Series B, 251, 311-319. Tinzmann, M.B., Jones, B.F., Fennimore, T.F., Bakker, J., Fine, C., & Pierce, J. (1990). What is the collaborative classroom? Retrieved October 15, 2007, from http://www.arp.sprnet.org/Admin/ supt/collab2.htm Tomasello, M. (2000). The cultural origins of human cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wageman. (1997). Critical success factors for creating superb self-managing teams. Organizational Dynamics, 25(1), 49-61.

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Wegerif, R. (1998). The social dimension of asynchronous learning networks. Retrieved September 8, 2004, from http://www.aln.org/alnweb/journal/vol2_issue1/wegerif.htm Wild, M., & Quinn, C. (1998). Implications of educational theory for the design of instructional multimedia. British Journal of Educational Technology, 29(1), 73-82.

KEY TERMS Asynchronous: A type of two-way communication that occurs with a time delay, allowing participants to respond at their own convenience. Literally not synchronous, in other words, not at the same time (http://www.tamu.edu/ode/glossary. html). In CyberSurvivor, learners relied quite heavily on asynchronous communication as they all worked at different times during the day and night, and it was difficult, if not impossible, to coordinate their time online. Collaboration: Focuses on the process of working together, and the word for cooperation stresses the product of such work (http://www. city.londonmet.ac.uk/deliberations/collab.learning/panitz2.html). In CyberSurvivor, both these constructs were employed. Cyberspace: “A term used in conjunction with virtual reality, designating the imaginary place where virtual objects exist” (http://www.answers. com/topic/cyberspace?cat=biz-fin). In the case of CyberSurvivor, cyberspace (Cyber Island) was the imaginary place where the game took place. CyberSurvivor: A module in a tutored master’s program that explored the complexities involved in teaching and learning in an adult online learning community that had adapted a metaphor of the television reality show, “Survivor.” Edutainment: Represents a combination of education and entertainment, and often represents the elements of play, information technology, and

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learning. Some commercial games are marketed as having the potential to promote learning and therefore are branded as ‘edutainment’. E-Learning: Any learning-related activity that is supported by the Internet. In the CyberSurvivor study, the focus of e-learning was predominantly on the Internet as a medium of instruction (construction), even though it is acknowledged that e-learning can utilize a much greater variety of technologies other than personal computers connected to the Internet. In essence, e-learning is therefore “the use of network technologies to create, foster, deliver, and facilitate learning,”

synchronously and asynchronously anywhere (http://www.synergy-learning.com/education/ Samples/SynergyLearning-PedagogyWhitePaper.pdf ). “Survivor”: A popular reality show produced in the United States by CBS and televised internationally.

ENDNOTE 1

For the purpose of anonymity, all names have been changed.

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Section IV

Educational Gaming Research Tools and Methods

Chapters in this section of the book focus on research studies or syntheses that provide discussion and direction related to the methods, methodologies, and tools used to study gaming in multiple contexts. Shaffer examines the relationship between games and assessment, particularly focusing on assessing the development of innovative and creative thinking through game play. Lewis & Weber offer a measurement for character attachment and the use of that construct as a moderator for learning in role-playing games. DiPietro & Black provide an introduction to visual analysis of avatars, including scenarios for avatar development and categories for analysis. Payne uses existential ludology to explain the mechanics of military video games, highlighting the flexibility of ludology as an interpretive instrument. The final two chapters in this section are related to choosing a game to use in the classroom or in research studies. Becker & Parker include a meta-analysis to discuss rationale for selecting games for multiple purposes. Moline discusses descriptors of quality teachers and dynamic resources as factors that might make a quality digital game. The purpose of this section is to provide readers with research methods, methodologies, and instruments for enhancing their experiments and investigations.

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Chapter XXXIII

Wag the Kennel:

Games, Frames, and the Problem of Assessment David Williamson Shaffer University of Wisconsin — Madison, USA

AbstrAct In this chapter, I look at the relationship between games and assessment—and more broadly at what that tells us about the relationship between educational reform and technological change. Research already shows that with their ability to provide rich, complex, and compelling virtual worlds, well-designed computer games can teach players innovative and creative ways of thinking, deep understanding of complex academic content, and valuable forms of real-world skills. But, in the end, even effective games can only take students as far as the tests will let them go. If we want to use games to prepare young people for life in a changing world, we need to change how we think about assessment first. To address this challenge, in what follows I examine one way to think about assessing the development of innovative and creative thinking through game-play.

Good education has always been about good testing. —U.S. Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings1

INtrODUctION In this chapter, I look at the relationship between games and assessment—and more broadly at what

tells us about the relationship between educational reform and technological change. The central issue is straightforward. Research already shows that with their ability to provide rich, complex, and compelling virtual worlds, well-designed computer games can teach players innovative and creative ways of thinking, deep understanding of complex academic content, and valuable forms of real-world skills (Adams,

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Wag the Kennel: Games, Frames, and the Problem of Assessment

1998; Barab, Hay, Barnett, & Squire, 2001; Gee, 2003, 2004; Shaffer, 2005, 2007; Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2005; Starr, 1994). But in the end, even effective games can only take students as far as the tests will let them go.2 Because in the deepest sense, Ms. Spellings is right: assessment drives instruction. Tests tell students and teachers what we value in education, and thus what they need to do to be rewarded for their efforts (Strickland & Strickland, 1998). Assessment is the proverbial tail that wags the dog of instruction.3 There is nothing wrong in principle with this kind of educational accountability, as long as the assessment that drives teaching and learning drives them in the right direction. But today, in practice, our tests are taking us in anything but the right direction. The problem is by now well known. Technology now allows companies to send any job overseas that can be done by a skilled worker according to some well-established process (Antráas, Garicano, Rossi-Hansberg, & National Bureau of Economic Research., 2005; Blunden, 2004; Burgess & Connell, 2006, 2005; Hagel & Brown, 2005; Hunter, 2006; Kanter, 2001; Kehal & Singh, 2006; Markusen, 2005). As a result, young people today need to learn to deal with problems that do not have ready-made, rote answers. They need to learn to solve problems that instead require judgment and discretion, creative thinking, collaboration, and complex problem solving. Unfortunately, today young people in the United States—and many other countries—are being prepared for standardized jobs in a world that is punishing those who cannot innovate. Nearly a third of the jobs in the workforce in the United States, for example, require complex thinking skills, and barely a quarter of all workers are up to the challenge (Autor, Katz, & Kearney, 2006; Autor, Levy, & Murname, 2003; Davenport, 2005). At the same time, the No Child Left Behind Act mandates standardized tests to ensure that all children make adequate yearly progress in basic reading and math skills. But we cannot

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“skill and drill” our way to innovation, because, by definition, standardized testing produces standardized skills. Because assessment drives instruction, it should come as no surprise that so many popular educational games, such as Math Blaster or Zombie Division, are little more than fancy wrapping around traditional skill-and-drill activities that are historically aligned with an industrial approach to education, in which schools bear striking similarities to factories. As long as we measure educational accomplishment by standardized test scores of basic facts, games—and, indeed, any new approaches to education—necessarily focus on teaching those standardized skills. As long as we continue to use ideas about assessment designed for schools of the industrial era, the games we develop and the curricula we write and activities we design to support them will all continue to reinforce the message that thinking means merely memorizing collections of facts and mastering specific skills, and that academic subjects are sets of unpleasant obstacles to be overcome rather than ways of thinking that are interesting, important, and empowering. It may be true that educational games designed to help players learn basic facts and skills can raise test scores. But in the process they do little to foster understanding, creativity, or interest in the subjects students need to master for success in the modern economy. If we want to use games to prepare young people for life in a changing world, we need to change how we think about assessment first. To address this challenge, in what follows I examine one way to think about assessing the development of innovative and creative thinking through game-play. There certainly can be other approaches, and rather than advocating for one specific solution to the problem, my purpose here is rather to describe one alternative as a way of illustrating the kind of change in thinking that is required.

Wag the Kennel: Games, Frames, and the Problem of Assessment

To be clear: this is not simply an issue of developing assessments that can show that games are better than traditional teaching. The issue is much larger and more important than that. Because without assessments that are aligned with the key skills, knowledge, attitudes, and ways of thinking that young people need in the digital age of global competition, there is no way to realistically evaluate either the current educational system or any viable alternative educational intervention, including computer games. Education lacks a reliable method for determining whether individuals have the abilities, understandings, inclinations, and habits of mind they need for success in the modern society and in the modern economy: Unless we develop such assessments, we can do little more than get better and better at preparing students for a world that no longer exists.

tHE GrAMMAr OF AssEssMENt To understand the kind of assessments we need, we must understand that while we tend to think of education as we practice it today as something necessary and inevitable, school as we know it was invented—deliberately created—during the Industrial Revolution. The social roots of our modern school system can be found in the years leading up to the Civil War. Hundreds of thousands of Americans moved from the farms and countryside to cities, where they were joined by new immigrants to form a workforce for urban factories (Tyack, 1974). The existing system of small village schools was not up to the task of educating multitudes of city children, and to deal with the problem, school leaders built what we now know as the modern school system: the egg crate school, with identical isolated classrooms, each with individual desks for individual students; age-graded classrooms filled with similarly aged students; the ninemonth school year and five-day school week; the 45-minute school period; and the Carnegie unit,

or standardized class of 130 hours of instruction in a single subject. Historians of education David Tyack and William Tobin have called this basic framework of the school system the grammar of schooling: the basic organizational forms of education in the United States (Tyack & Cuban, 1996; Tyack & Tobin, 1994). In developing the grammar of our modern schools, school leaders in the 1800s deliberately used the factory as a model for the orderly delivery of instruction. Just as theologians in the Enlightenment described God as a divine watchmaker and cognitive scientists today write about the mind as a computer, so factories in the late 1800s were a dominant model for explaining and organizing activity (Tichi, 1987). In St. Louis, for example, Superintendent of schools William Harris wrote: The first requisite of the school is Order: each pupil must be taught first and foremost to conform his behavior to a general standard…to the time of the train, to the starting of work in the manufactory….The pupil must have his lessons ready at the appointed time, must rise at the tap of the bell, move to the line, return; in short, go through all the evolutions with equal precision. (Tyack, 1974, p. 43) Reformers created this system of standardized schooling by developing the first standardized tests. They used these examinations to systematically show that the decentralized village schools, each run by its own board of overseers, were not educating students adequately (Tyack, 1974). These tests were based, of course, on an industrial view of thinking. As Dewey explained, in industrial schooling “facts, laws, information have been the staple of the curriculum….The entire range of the universe is first subdivided into sections called studies; then each one of these studies is broken up into bits, and some one bit assigned to a certain year of the course” (Dewey, 1915, pp. 101103). Reformers developed tests of basic facts, and

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armed with data on students’ performance (or lack of performance) they argued for the development of centralized and standardized school systems to teach the standardized skills that students needed for life in an industrial economy. In other words, a new industrial grammar of schooling was created using a new standardized grammar of assessment, which was in turn based on a “core knowledge” grammar of thinking that is still with us today. These inherited grammars of schooling, assessment, and thinking matter because unless we can assess meaningful development of innovative and creative thinking, there is no way to develop games as learning tools for the digital age of global competition. Games can provide students with authentic real-life learning experiences, with their attendant complexity and limitations, and stimulate students to more higher-order thinking processes and active learning. They can give students an opportunity to learn innovative and creative ways of thinking from activities that are personally meaningful, experiential, social, and epistemological all at the same time (Adams, 1998; Barab et al., 2001; Gee, 2003, 2004; Shaffer, 2005, 2007; Shaffer et al., 2005; Starr, 1994). However, changing only the instructional technique is not enough, because instruction and assessment both need to focus on the same ends (Biggs, 1996). Simply applying standardized tests constructed on a “core knowledge” theory of education will not provide useful data about the development of digital literacy and innovative thinking through games.

tHE GrAMMAr OF INNOVAtION One way to develop a theory of learning—and thus a theory of assessment—for innovative thinking is to look at innovation and creativity as it is practiced in the real world. Innovation is by definition something that cannot be standardized. That is why standardized tests of isolated

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pieces of knowledge—and the school classes that prepare students for them—are not a good route to creative thinking. But while innovative work cannot be standardized, the people who do innovative work are not simply “doing whatever they want.” Innovation doesn’t happen in a vacuum.(Dewey, 1934/1958; Gardner, 1982; Sawyer, 2006). Innovative and creative solutions to problems that matter in the world almost always come from working in and around some community of practice: a group of people working on similar problems in similar ways (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wenger, 1998). Creativity is a conversation—a tension—between individuals working on individual problems and the communities of practice to which they belong. Innovation is by definition new and different; therefore it has to be different from something (Gardner, 1982). But innovative ideas cannot be so new and different as to be unrecognizable and therefore unusable. As inventor Jacob Rabinow explained: You cannot only think of good ideas….To say what is beautiful you have to take a sophisticated group of people, people who know that particular art and have seen a lot of it, and say this is good art, or this is good music, or this is a good invention….A good creative person is well trained. (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, pp. 49-50) To be creative, a person must understand the system in which creativity takes place, including both knowledge of the domain in which he or she is working, and the professional judgment of the field of people who work in that domain (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). The word professional may seem a bit odd to use in a description of creativity. When we think of a professional, we usually think about one of the white-collar professions: medicine, law, architecture, engineering, accounting, and so on. But the reason that doctors, lawyers, architects,

Wag the Kennel: Games, Frames, and the Problem of Assessment

engineers, and accountants are professionals is not that they wear a jacket and tie to work, or that they belong to the American Medical Association, the bar, or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. A professional is anyone who does work that cannot be standardized easily and who continuously welcomes challenges at the cutting edge of his or her expertise (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993). Professionals work on problems that involve uncertainty and that therefore require discretion and judgment. For a professional (in this sense of the word professional), no two problems are ever quite the same, and no set of rules or routines tell a true professional what to do next. This is as much the case for a master carpenter as a transplant surgeon. By this definition, there are plenty of professionals who are not particularly professional in their work because they are merely repeating the same routines over and over. At the same time, factory workers (whom we usually think of as the prime example of workers in a standardized job) can be professionals if they think in innovative ways about the work they do. The doctrine of total quality management, for example, emphasizes constant improvement at every level of a company’s operation by organizing quality circles of assembly-line workers, giving them time in their workday to identify problems in the manufacturing process and potential solutions (Berry, 1991; Teare, 1997). Rose (2004) has similarly studied in depth what he calls the “intelligence of the waitress in motion, the reflective welder, the strategy of the guy on the assembly line” (p. 1). Professionalism is a state of mind and a way of working, not a job title, degree, or dress code. Put another way, innovation of the kind that is valued in a global economy always demands an understanding of how things work in the world. If being inventive means thinking outside the box, you have to understand something about the box to be an inventor. But how do people learn these ways of thinking?

A NEW GrAMMAr OF LEArNING One of the most significant issues in the study of learning is the problem of transfer: understanding how experiences in one context (such as a game or a classroom) change the way a learner thinks in other contexts. Transfer is currently conceived in two mutually exclusive ways: acquiring problem schemata or gaining membership in communities of practice. In the schema-based view, transfer occurs when a solution developed to address one problem is used to solve an analogically similar problem. The schema view is pervasive in the current education system, wherein isolated facts and problem-solving strategies are taught in classroom settings, with the expectation being that students will use those pieces of information and tools in other contexts (Anderson, 1980, 1993; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Bruner, 1973; Chi, 1997; Cobb, 1987; Light & Butterworth, 1992). However, nearly a half-century of research suggests that transfer in this sense is rare, difficult to achieve, and limited to problems that are very similar to the original context in which a solution is developed (the phenomenon of near-transfer) (Anderson, 1980, 1993; Van Merrienboer & Kirschner, 2007). In the communities of practice model, individuals learn by becoming members of a community, being mentored to perform more tasks in different contexts within which the community operates (Bransford et al., 2000; Bruner, 1996; Lave, 1991; Wenger, 1998). In this view, however, it is assumed that skills do not transfer between settings; individuals can only learn to accomplish particular tasks within particular settings. Thus, neither view accounts very well for how students might be able to take an experience in a classroom or a game and use it to accomplish meaningful ends in their lives outside of school.4 In my own work, I have hypothesized an alternative to these two views of learning: the concept of epistemic frames. These frames, when they are purposefully built into the structure of a game,

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provide players with a way of thinking innovatively within a domain of knowledge. Epistemic frames are structures that exist between microlevel schema for solving specific problems and macro-level induction into a community (Shaffer, 2004a, 2005, 2007, in press-a, in press-b). I suggest that they function as a mechanism for transfer between problems and contexts. The concept of epistemic frames begins with the idea that any community of practice has a culture, and that culture has a grammar of: skills (the things that people within the community do); knowledge (the understandings that people in the community share); values (beliefs that members of the community hold); identity (the way that members of the community see themselves); and epistemology (the warrants that justify actions or claims as legitimate within the community) (Rohde & Shaffer, 2004; Shaffer, 2004a, in press-a, in press-b). I have proposed an epistemic frame hypothesis (EFH), which suggests: (a) that an epistemic frame binds together the skills, knowledge, values, identity, and epistemology that one takes on as a member of a community of practice; (b) that such a frame is progressively internalized through the training and/or induction processes by which an individual becomes a member of a community; and (c) that once internalized, the epistemic frame of a community is used when an individual approaches a situation from the point of view (or in the role) of a member of a community (Shaffer, 2004a, 2004b). That is, when people become members of a community of practice, they are not merely learning to accomplish specific skills in specific situations (the community of practice view), nor are they developing templates for solving general classes of problems (the schema view). Rather, they are developing a particular way of acting, thinking, and being in the world: an epistemic frame that they can take on and use to think and act effectively in novel situations. The EFH builds on Goffman’s (1963, 1974) concept of frame analysis. Goffman argued that

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any activity is interpreted in terms of a frame: the organizational rules and premises, partly existing in the minds of participants and partly in the structure of the activity itself, that shape the perception of those involved in the activity. We always have some set of assumptions, understandings, beliefs, expectations, actions, justifications, and a sense of self that we use to make sense of what we are doing and what is happening around us. This set of organizing premises is the frame we are using to structure what we are doing at any given moment. Saying that someone is a particular kind of professional means that he or she interprets ongoing activities (or is able to do so) through a particular kind of frame: the epistemic frame of the profession. The term frame in this sense is an apt description, since the epistemic frame of a profession acts like a pair of glasses that color the world in particular ways: making some things seem more important and others less so; marking some concepts, events, and objects with relevant terms of art and leaving others unnamed; making obvious some courses of action and dismissing others as not relevant or productive; setting the terms by which actions, decisions, and claims are judged and justified; and ultimately identifying the wearer as someone who has and uses that way of caring, knowing, acting, and thinking in the world. The epistemic frame of a profession is the combination—linked and interrelated—of values, knowledge, skills, epistemology, and identity that people have when they become that kind of professional. For example, lawyers act like lawyers, identify themselves as lawyers, are interested in legal issues, and know about the law. These abilities, affiliations, habits, and understandings are made possible by looking at the world in a particular way: by thinking like a lawyer. This is a two-way street, of course. Thinking like a lawyer is made possible by these abilities, affiliations, habits, and understandings. This is not to say that epistemic frames are hegemonic any more than identities are. Individu-

Wag the Kennel: Games, Frames, and the Problem of Assessment

als have multiple identities, which can reinforce one another or compete and conflict (Stryker & Burke, 2000). Lawyers do not only think like lawyers, for example. They may also be parents, and video gamers, and sports fans, and amateur carpenters. They are able to take on these other epistemic frames and to think and act in these ways as well. The same is true for doctors and engineers—and army Rangers, plumbers, bricklayers, commodities traders, politicians, and drug dealers—but for different ways of thinking. A community of practice is always a group with a local culture, and the epistemic frame is the grammar of that culture—the ways of thinking and acting, the things someone knows and cares about—that individuals internalize when they become acculturated. Once an individual develops the epistemic frame of a community of practice, he or she can use that frame to see, think, and act in the world in other settings, including those outside the original community. The epistemic frame is what we get when we internalize the community and carry it with us (Rohde & Shaffer, 2004). Epistemic frames are thus a way of looking at thinking and learning that both combines and extends the schema-based and community of practice-based views. Epistemic frames describe how seeing oneself as a member of a community and learning to do what people in the community do requires learning what people in a community know and care about, and learning to decide, explain, and justify decisions and actions according to the norms of that community. The idea that cultures and communities have a common way of seeing the world is not new, of course. Knorr-Cetina (1999) uses the term epistemic cultures to describe places where new formal knowledge is created, such as particle physics or molecular biology laboratories. Kuhn (1963) argues that scientific disciplines have a shared paradigm that defines what questions to ask, what to observe, and how to interpret the results of such observation. Perkins (1992) has written

about epistemic understanding as knowledge to justify and explain ideas within a particular discipline. Collins and Ferguson (1993) describe a discipline in terms of epistemic forms (the forms of knowledge appropriate to a discipline) and epistemic games (the rules for manipulation of knowledge in these forms). Foucault (1972) argued that every era has an episteme: a particular relationship between discursive practices (how people interact) and structures of knowledge that exist at the level of the culture as a whole, across domains of knowledge and forms of practice in a particular era—the classical episteme, the modern episteme, and so on. Bourdieu (1977) described the non-discursive structure of a culture as habitus: the habits, tastes, preferences, styles, and other things that “go without saying” for members of a community. Describing the skills, knowledge, identities, values, and epistemology of a community as its epistemic frame is useful, however, because it emphasizes that these structures: (a) persist over time and across contexts and do not depend exclusively on their original context; (b) are impermanent in the sense that people can change epistemic frames and move between them, using different ones in different settings, or even seeing the same situation from two different points of view; (c) exist at the core of any community, not just cultures as a whole, and not just traditional academic disciplines or research communities; and (d) are about setting the terms by which actions, decisions, and claims are judged and justified. They are a particular way of doing and of thinking, of deciding what is worth knowing and doing and of making those decisions. In other words, epistemic frames are stable structures that explain how experience in the cultural context of one community can influence how people think and act in another. They explain how things we learn in one setting can help us work in another. From the schema point of view, we might say that an epistemic frame is just a set of facts and

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rules that can actually transfer across settings. Perhaps. But if so, then it is a very particular kind of schema, with elements that are not traditionally included in the description of how people solve the kind of word problems and puzzles usually associated with schema-based theories of learning. From the communities-of-practice point of view, we might say that identity always implies certain skills, and vice versa, and that both always require some kind of values, knowledge, and epistemology. Quite so; that is almost certainly true. But taking that as a starting premise assumes away the most important question from an educational point of view: How do these things get put together in one way and not another? Epistemic frames let us talk explicitly about what it means to think and work as a member of a community—and about how doing that means developing and integrating the skills, knowledge, identity, values, and epistemology of the community. By this definition, of course, any game has an epistemic frame, because the community of players of any game has some particular culture. To play a game well, you have to be able to do certain things, to know certain things, to see yourself as someone who plays the game, to care about the things that matter in it, and to be able to explain or justify things in terms that make sense in it. That is, to play a game well, you have to have its skills, knowledge, identities, values, and epistemology—its epistemic frame. So a game about innovative thinking is a game that creates the epistemic frame of some group of innovative thinkers. And this, in turn, suggests the power of the concept of epistemic frames for assessment in an age where young people need to learn creative thinking rather than rote facts. How do you know if someone has learned to be innovative? If they have learned the skills, knowledge, identity, values, and epistemology—the epistemic frame—of some group of innovative professionals. I will say more in a moment about assessing the development of an epistemic frame, but to do so we first

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need to look at how a game might develop such a frame in the first place.

ONE WAY My own work has looked at games for innovation in which players develop expertise by playing as novices training to be professionals such as engineers, urban planners, architects, or science journalists. In these games, players are working on challenging problems that have no standardized answer. But they are not solving those problems by “playing around” and doing whatever they want. Direct mentoring by experts is part of any professional training, thus explicit guidance is part of these games. But the mentoring is the kind of mentoring that professionals get in their training experiences, rather than the traditional direct instruction of school-based learning or the skill-and-drill in basic facts and skills that too many educational games currently provide. These games are developed through a combination of ethnographic study and design research. In this process, we: (a) conduct an ethnographic study to understand how professional training creates a particular epistemic frame of innovation, (b) design a game that recreates that process of frame development, (c) implement the game, and (d) assess the extent to which the epistemic frame of the profession has been created. Because of this close attention to recreating the epistemic frame of innovative professions, these games are sometimes described as epistemic games. More than a decade of research on epistemic games has shown that players can learn concepts and principles, and acquire practices and ways of thinking by learning to solve real problems the way professionals do. For example, in the epistemic game Urban Science, players become urban planners and redesign their cities. They use a geographic information system (GIS) model to propose land use changes (e.g., turning a parking lot into a neighborhood park and playground, or

Wag the Kennel: Games, Frames, and the Problem of Assessment

rezoning commercial lots for mixed commercial and residential use) to improve quality of life in the city. In the game they do what urban planners do in their training: They receive materials urban planners use, such as a city budget plan and letters from concerned citizens, that provide information about revenue, pollution, waste, housing, and other issues. They conduct a site visit and interview virtual stakeholders. They use a GIS model to create preference surveys and construct proposals for redevelopment (Beckett & Shaffer, 2005; Shaffer, 2007). Similarly, in the epistemic game Digital Zoo, players learn physics and engineering by working as biomechanical engineers to help design characters of the kind seen in computer-generated animation films like A Bug’s Life (Shaffer, 2007; Svarovsky & Shaffer, 2004, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c; Svarovsky & Shaffer, in press). To study the impact of these epistemic games, we have developed epistemic frame inventories (EFIs) that assess the extent to which players have developed the skills, knowledge, values, sense of identity, and epistemology of a profession. Players are given EFIs before and after they play epistemic games, and also several months later to see the ongoing impact of game-play. We develop EFIs to understand whether and how players acquire the elements of an epistemic frame—that is, whether they are able by the end to wear a new pair of glasses. These EFIs include the following measures of the development of a professional epistemic frame: •

•

Clinical interview questions asking players to explain concepts, discuss their understanding of professional practice, and talk about their own experiences in school and in other settings. (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Shaffer, 2003a, 2003b); Concept maps asking players to represent diagrammatically their understanding a complex domain of knowledge (Shaffer,

•

•

•

2003a, 2003b; Stoddart, Abrams, Gasper, & Canaday, 2000); Far-transfer problem scenarios asking players to analyze problem situations in the target domain of professional practice which assess change in innovative professional thinking using verbal protocol analysis (Chi, 1997; Shaffer, 2003a, 2003b); Design activities asking players to use professional skills to solve problems in the target domain (Beckett & Shaffer, 2005; Shaffer, 2007; Shaffer & Squire, 2006; Svarovsky & Shaffer, in press); and Traditional textbook problems (and justifications for their answers) (Shaffer, 1998).

For example, in the EFI for biomechanical engineering used as an assessment for the game Digital Zoo (Shaffer, 2007; Svarovsky & Shaffer, 2004, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c; Svarovsky & Shaffer, in press), clinical interview questions ask players to explain concepts like cross bracing and center of mass, as well as describe their understanding of what it means to be an engineer and whether, when, and how they see themselves thinking as an engineer. Far-transfer problem scenarios ask players to explain the physical principles at work in a photo of a gymnast perfectly balanced in a one-armed handstand or other physical situations. Design assessments ask players to build a cantilever with a specified overhang using a given set of materials. Players complete a concept map showing the design process they would use to solve a hypothetical design challenge. And the EFI includes traditional textbook problems (and justifications for their answers) that cover concepts and issues from the game. In this context, however, the specific items in any given EFI are less important than recognizing that the goal of an EFI is to assess the extent to which the player of a game has developed the epistemic frame of some community of innovation by examining not just the skills and knowledge measured by our current assessments, but also

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the values, identity, and epistemology that make up the culture of the community. As such, EFIs provide a mechanism for analyzing the extent to which a player of a game has internalized the forms of creative thinking that develop as people become part of a community of innovative professionals. EFIs are a tool for assessing the outcomes of game-play—and thus for designing game-based learning environments. In this sense, the concept of epistemic frames is a potentially powerful tool for developing games for teaching innovation and creativity. My purpose in describing epistemic frames, however, is not to suggest that this is the only way to rethink assessment for innovation and creativity in a global economy and society. Rather, my goal is to use this particular approach to highlight some of the features that any such rethinking would have to include. First, and perhaps most important, assessment for the digital age has to be about more than facts and skills. Tests that measure knowledge of basic facts and skills will surely play a role in any assessment of innovative thinking. Innovation requires mastery of a domain of knowledge and the skills required to put that knowledge into use. But knowledge and skills are not enough. Innovative thinking also requires knowing how to make decisions and justify actions that link knowledge and skill. Innovative thinking requires internalizing the values that guide the use of knowledge and skill. And innovative thinking requires seeing oneself as the kind of person who has these ways of knowing, of doing, of deciding, and of valuing. This combination of skill, knowledge, identity, values, and epistemology is explicit in the concept of an epistemic frame, but these same elements need to be accounted for in any robust model that assesses innovation and creativity. Second, new models of assessment need to have a clear relationship to real-world problem solving. Innovative professionals do not learn a generic form of “creative thinking.” Rather they learn to think in particular ways about real problems that do

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not have standardized answers. Assessments that will guide the development of games for innovative and creative thinking similarly need to measure the extent to which learners are able to solve real problems—and the extent to which learners are able to do so with the skills, knowledge, values, and ways of thinking of the communities of practice in which those problems are addressed in the real world. Epistemic frames are based on real-world problem solving because they form the grammar of the culture of some real-world community of practice. But any robust model that assesses innovation and creativity needs to establish clear linkages to real-world practices. Third, any assessment of innovative and creative thinking needs to be grounded in a theory of learning—which is, of course, not to suggest that all games need to grounded in the same theory of learning. As Mislevy (1996) and others (e.g., Biggs, 1996) suggest, instruction and assessment both need to focus on the same thing, and both need to be based on a particular hypothesis about how experiences in one domain (the instructional setting) transfer to another (later practice). Epistemic frames are based on an explicit theory of transfer, but any alternative educational assessment for innovation and creativity needs to articulate a coherent conception of education that is rooted in some appropriate theory of instruction, cognition, and learning. Finally, any practical assessment must necessarily be a validated proxy measure. Longitudinal studies of the impact of learning experiences over a lifetime of work, social relationships, civic action, and satisfaction are surely the “gold standard” for education. But if we are to develop and examine educational games, we need metrics that can assess innovation and creativity in a matter of days or weeks rather than months or years. It is difficult to compare educational interventions when assessment of the outcome is the rate-limiting step in the process of innovation. Any proxy measure has to establish construct validity—that is, show that outcomes on the assessment mirror

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the underlying skill, understanding, value, or way of thinking that is being assessed. An EFI is clearly a set of proxy measures, and because it purports to assess the extent to which an individual has internalized the epistemic frame of a real community of practice, the validity of an EFI can be established by showing that it can distinguish between real-world experts and novices in the target domain of innovative thinking. Similarly, any alternative educational assessment for innovation and creativity needs to be a proxy measure that can be validated against some meaningful external standard.

NEW tAILs We live in a time of social, economic, and technological change, but our schools are busy preparing students for the past—for jobs that will be long gone by the time they finish school. We are in danger of leaving all of our children far behind in the new global competition for innovative work. But the same technologies that are making it possible to outsource jobs make it possible for students of all ages to prepare for innovative work. Computer and video games can help us rebuild education for the postindustrial, high-tech world—but only if we first learn to think about assessment in a new way. One critical factor in any effort to use computer games to change educational practices will be the development of new metrics to evaluate innovative and creative thinking, designed to assess individual abilities in a way that generalizes to the evaluation of educational programs. Whatever form such metrics take, to be useful in guiding the process of educational game development—and educational reform more generally—they must be about more than just basic facts and basic skills. They must be relevant to real-world problems and issues. They must be based on a theory of learning. And they must be validated as reliable proxy measures for the kind of real-world exper-

tise that students need as they prepare for life in the digital age. The concept of epistemic frames, described here and in other studies, is one way to approach this process of rethinking (Shaffer, 2007; Shaffer & Gee, 2005; Shaffer & Squire, 2006; Svarovsky & Shaffer, in press). But whatever approach we take must be one that acknowledges the world is changing. If we want to change education to keep up—if we want to use the power of new technologies to help young people prepare for the world those technologies are creating—then it is imperative that we develop assessment practices using a robust theory of game-based learning. In other words, the tail of assessment does not just wag the dog of instruction, it wags the entire kennel of approaches to learning in the digital age that we might imagine, develop, and test. To get a kennel of games for innovative thinking, we need a more creative tail.5

ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was funded in part by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the Foundation for Ethics and Technology, the Macarthur Foundation, the Academic Advanced Distributed Learning CoLaboratory, and the National Science Foundation through a Faculty Early Career Development Award (REC-0347000). The opinions, findings, and conclusions do not reflect the views of the funding agencies, cooperating institutions, or other individuals.

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Shaffer, D.W. (1998). Expressive mathematics: Learning by design. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA. Shaffer, D.W. (2003a). Pedagogical praxis: The professions as models for learning in the age of the smart machine. WCER Working Paper No. 2003-6, Wisconsin Center for Education Research, USA. Shaffer, D.W. (2003b). When computer-supported collaboration means computer-supported competition: Professional mediation as a model for collaborative learning. Unpublished Manuscript. Shaffer, D.W. (2004a). Epistemic frames and islands of expertise: Learning from infusion experiences. Proceedings of the International Conference of the Learning Sciences (ICLS), Santa Monica, CA. Shaffer, D.W. (2004b). Multisubculturalism: Computers and the end of progressive education. In submission to Educational Researcher. Shaffer, D.W. (2005). Epistemic games. Innovate, 1(6). Reprinted in Computer Education (in press). Shaffer, D.W. (2007). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Shaffer, D.W. (in press-a). Epistemic frames for epistemic games. Computers and Education. Shaffer, D.W. (in press-b). Multisubculturalism: Computers and the end of progressive education. WCER Working Paper Series, Wisconsin Center for Educational Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA; also in submission to Educational Researcher. Shaffer, D.W., & Gee, J.P. (2005). Before every child is left behind: How epistemic games can solve the coming crisis in education. WCER Working Paper No. 2005-7, Wisconsin Center for

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KEY TERMS Assessment: Evaluation aligned with particular skills we value for students. Computer Games: Complex, virtual worlds that teach players innovative ways of thinking and can constitute a viable alternative educational intervention. Creativity: The ability to transcend traditional ideas, rules, patterns, relationships, or the like, and to create meaningful new ideas, forms, methods, interpretations, etc.; originality, progressiveness, or imagination. Epistemology: Study concerned with the nature and origin of knowledge. Epistemology asks the question “How do we know what we know?” Innovation: The creation or introduction of a new idea or artifact resulting from study and experimentation. No Child Left Behind: United States federal law that reauthorized a number of federal programs aiming to improve the performance of U.S. primary and secondary schools by increasing the standards of accountability for states, school districts, and schools. Standardized Tests: Assessments designed to evaluate students by comparing their work with a standard for skills and knowledge.

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“Ed Sec’y Sez Test Focus ‘Fine, Dandy’,” New York Daily News, (March 15, 2006). Parts of this chapter are adapted from the book How Computer Games Help Children Learn (Shaffer, 2007).

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3

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A thoughtful (though anonymous) reviewer of this chapter questioned whether this is true only in the ear of No Child Left Behind and other mandated, high-stakes, standardized tests. I hope it is clear that in what follows, I use the term assessment to refer to any means of deciding whether an instructional activity has achieved its goals. In this sense, the objectives of an activity are shaped by assessment: whether by the teacher, the parent, the school, the district, or a matter of state or national policy (or any combination of the above) instructional choices are shaped by whether decision makers believe that instruction is “successful”—which is, in turn, determined by the assessments used. In this broad sense of the term assessment, we are always “teaching to the test.”

4

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There is, of course, an extensive literature on the concept of transfer—in general and from these two perspectives on learning. My purpose here is neither to trivialize nor to summarize that work, but rather to suggest that neither approach on its own is sufficient to account for the kind of learning that matters in innovative thinking, and thus in game-based learning. The proposal that follows is compatible with both views, but has the virtue of incorporating both of these perspectives, and in so doing goes beyond either one as currently formulated. Canine cauda equine compression is a degenerative lumbosacral stenosis that generally involves a compression of the nerve roots in a dog’s lower back. It is similar to sciatica in humans, and results in a similar pain and lack of mobility. Surgical repair is indicated to make it possible for a dog to move with its characteristic leaps and bounds.

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Chapter XXXIV

Character Attachment in Games as Moderator for Learning Melissa L. Lewis Michigan State University, USA René Weber University of California Santa Barbara, USA

AbstrAct The Entertainment Education Paradigm (EEP) offers a new way to think about education by blending entertainment with educational experiences. Video games provide an excellent format for entertainment education because of both the prevalence and enjoyment of playing video games and the ways in which individuals of today learn. Role-playing games are one of the better game genres for entertainment education. They provide both high levels of entertainment and a strong connection between player and game characters (models) which lead to an increase in learning. Based on the theories of parasocial interaction, identification, and social learning, this chapter offers a measurement for character attachment and introduces this new construct as a moderator for learning in role-playing video games.

INtrODUctION The attractiveness of the ability to create and manipulate virtual characters (avatars) in a virtual world contributes to the growing fascination with video games, specifically role-playing video games. The impacts of this ability range from simply more time spent playing to greater enjoyment of game playing. There appears to be

a “mental link” between a player and his or her virtual representation in role-playing games that makes this game genre so unique, attractive, and enjoyable. Oatley (1999) hints at this phenomenon with his discussion of internalization and psychological merging of fictional characters’ and real persons’ minds. We refer to this “mental link” as character attachment (CA). In this chapter we present a new measurement for character

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attachment and suggest character attachment as an important moderating variable for learning in both entertaining and educational video games. The moderating effect of character attachment in video games on learning is framed by theories of identification, parasocial interaction, and social learning as well as the entertainment education paradigm.

ENTERTAINMENT EDUCATION: A NEW WAY TO EDUCATE? Using games to teach is not a new idea. We learn a great deal through games, both in and out of school. We learn social rules and norms, we learn information, we learn problem solving, and we learn cooperation (cf. Liebermann, 2006; Prensky, 2005). Education using interactive play can result in a number of positive outcomes that can enhance the learning process, such as reducing hierarchies between those involved, encouraging cooperative learning through the acts of questioning and interacting with other students and teachers, and presenting the idea of learning as being fun (Fredericksen, 1999). Reducing hierarchies and fostering an environment of play can reduce students’ fear of failure and encourage teamwork rather than competition. We also know that personal experience is important for learning (Vygotsky, 1997). Rather than just passively absorbing knowledge from an external source, being able to take a more hands-on approach (as in the form of a game) results in the active creation of knowledge. The Entertainment Education Paradigm (EEP) links the enjoyment of being entertained with the learning and processing of education, and is defined as “the intentional placement of educational content in entertainment messages” (Singhal & Rogers, 2002). There are three pathways for learning involved in the EEP: motivation, reinforcement, and blending.

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The motivation pathway uses entertainment as a “door opener” for learning. Individuals might be playing a game for entertainment, but at the same time, this necessarily allocates attention to the educational content, which then leads to an interest in the content and finally processing of the content (Ritterfeld, Weber, Fernandes, & Vorderer, 2004; Vorderer & Ritterfeld, 2003). While the content itself might not be enough to guarantee learning (processing), putting it in an entertainment frame enriches the experience. Learning within an entertaining frame is not prescribed, but occurs as a surplus from the voluntarily sought entertainment experience. Though individuals voluntarily seek out the pleasurable experience, they may also process material embedded in the entertainment experience that they would not normally seek out. The second pathway uses entertainment for the reinforcement of learning and hereby enhances the motivation to process educational content. Reinforcement is almost always integrated into interactive video games, be it through scores, feedback of progress in the game, adaptation to skill levels, or rewards in the form of obtaining money, new objects, and so forth. The sense of self-efficacy (the ability to achieve the desired outcome through one’s own abilities) and the enjoyment of playing reinforce learning and enhance the potential for a person to seek out more of these entertaining and educational experiences, thus leading to more learning opportunities (Ritterfeld et al., 2004). In addition, children are more likely to talk about games and fun experiences rather than information learned, which also has a reinforcing effect (cf. Ritterfeld & Weber, 2006). Both the motivation and reinforcement pathway use an additive approach, where education is added to an entertainment experience or vice versa. However, entertainment education is not successful (or not necessary) if a person learns or fails to learn a message regardless of the entertaining content. It may even happen that learning

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occurs despite the entertaining elements or that learning fails because a game is too entertaining. Thus, the third pathway for learning posits a blending of both entertainment and learningthat is, learners (in video games) cannot easily distinguish between the entertaining and the learning aspects of game-play. The greatest potential for entertainment education occurs when education becomes an essential part of the entertainment experience (Slater, 2002). Game design according to the EEP is not simply taking an educational game and adding entertaining elements; it is a game in which the entertaining experience is inseparable from the game’s educational goal. Successful learning under this paradigm has been noted regarding education about health, violence, and parenting, to name a few examples (cf. Singhal, Cody, Rogers, & Sabido, 2004). Research has demonstrated that turning learning into a game can encourage less interested students to take an active part in learning, as well as give the already motivated students a new and exciting way to study the material (Kafai, 1994; Liebermann, 2006; Ritterfeld & Weber, 2006). We will now focus on video games as a form of entertainment and why learners of today are especially attracted to this new medium.

VIDEO GAMES AND TODAY’S LEArNErs Different from traditional media such as books and television, video games are interactive. While players are in control of what happens in the game, video games adapt the challenges presented based on player performance and provide immediate reward and feedback. Further, video games are customizable and can “remember” a player’s progress; they therefore personalize game-play to each individual player. Considering that video games nowadays range among the most popular forms of entertainment, with predicted revenue from console and handheld video games

expected to increase from $6.5 billion in 2006 to $7.9 billion in 2011 (Szalai, 2007), they are highly enjoyable. Enjoyment of video games is a result of: (a) sensory delight; (b) feeling a sense of achievement, control, and self-efficacy; and (c) suspense, thrill, and relief (Vorderer, Klimmt, & Ritterfeld, 2004). At the same time, learners today are different from learners who did not grow up in a digital environment. Learners of the “digital age” need to be motivated to learn in different ways. Prensky (2005) discusses the various ways in which “digital natives” (those individuals who grew up with technology) differ from “digital immigrants” (those individuals who did not grow up with technology but have an interest in it and are trying to acculturate to it). Digital natives are used to processing information at a faster rate than digital immigrants, and natives can process many things at the same time while immigrants employ a more linear processing, only focusing on one activity. Similarly, digital natives possess a “hypertext mind,” which means they can access and process information from a number of different mental points. For digital natives, text serves to better explain graphics or other visual information rather than a picture elucidating the text (as for immigrants). Digital natives learn as they go, jumping headfirst into things and wanting immediate gratification. Digital immigrants are more likely to read the instructions first, and long-term payoff is acceptable. Finally, and most important for this chapter, digital natives do not see technology as something to be feared or merely tolerated, but as something that can be used for fun, relaxation, information, or learning, or for all of these together at the same time (Prensky, 2005). Given these differences and the characteristics of modern video games, it seems that video games and today’s learners are a perfect match. The entertainment education assumptionthe blending of entertaining and learning experiencesdirectly applies to the generation of digital natives if

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educational content becomes an essential part of a highly enjoyable and interactive game playing experience.

LEARNING IN ROLE-PLAYING GAMEs While literally any video game has the potential to deliver an educational message, we focus our perspective in this chapter on role-playing video games (RPGs). Role-playing games require players to take on the persona of a game character, and to create, customize, personalize, and play as one or more game characters. RPGs are character driven, involve a narrative in the game-play, and players’ choices affect both storyline development and game outcomes (Spector, 1999). Usually, an educational message is integrated in the game’s narrative and learned by vicariously experiencing game outcomes as a result of a virtual character’s actions. As an example, the role-playing and simulation game The Sims (http://thesims.ea.com/) allows players to create virtual characters and manipulate those characters, like a virtual dollhouse. The goal of the game-play is “survival” in a quotidian environment, and rules similar to real life apply. Players (mainly children for this specific game) are responsible for telling their “Sim” (the virtual character) when to eat, when to sleep, when to go to work, how to have fun, and how to interact with other Sims. If rules are violated (e.g., a Sim does not go to work or does not eat), the virtual character must suffer the negative consequences (i.e., runs out of money, becomes sick, etc.). If rules are not violated, the virtual characters prosper and are rewarded (i.e., make new friends, receive more money and resources, etc.). By observing rewards and punishments as a result of the virtual character’s actions, children vicariously learn basic life skills by playing The Sims. The learning experience is an essential part of the game design.

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Making History, a game developed by Muzzy Lane (http://www.making-history.com/), is a historical role-playing game that asks users to assume the role of world leaders during World War II (Making History, 2007). Players can choose from the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the USSR, the United States, or China (though a new patch for the game now allows them to play as the leader of any nation of the time), and integrated into the role-playing are characteristics of each nation, including economic and military strengths, diplomatic relations, ideology, and technical advancement. In addition to teaching players about history, it also offers them the chance to “redo” history with six separate scenarios to play through. Players get to take on historic roles, experience new perspectives, and ultimately understand the critical thought processes behind decision making as opposed to just learning the facts of World War II. Health behavior is another example of successful entertainment education with role-playing video games. Lieberman (2001) described the effectiveness of using video games to educate children on health behavior. Click Health, Inc., developed a number of games for children that provide players the ability to take on the role of the main character (with the same health condition as the child), and the ability to customize the game character’s self-care regimens so that they might mirror (model) those of the child, both aspects of traditional role-playing games. Findings included an equal amount of knowledge gained from the video game condition and the non-interactive condition (a 30-minute long videotape that participants viewed), a higher level of enjoyment for those in the video game condition, and an increase in self-efficacy among those in the game condition. Those in the video tape condition experienced a decrease in self-efficacy. Of course, learning of a role-playing game’s message is less likely if players do not care about their characterthat is rewards and punishments or the ups and downs that a virtual character

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must experience are meaningless for a player. It is reasonable to assume that the more players care about their character and become attached to their character, the more likely is it that a video game’s message is learned. This basic assumption of character attachment as a moderator for learning needs further elaboration.

cHArActEr AttAcHMENt IN ROLE-PLAYING GAMES AS MODErAtOr FOr LEArNING The character attachment construct (cf. Lewis, Weber, & Bowman, in press; Weber, Lewis, & Bowman, 2006) draws from two major theoretical backgroundsparasocial interaction and identificationas well as taking cues from research on social learning theory and suspension of disbelief. Additionally, attachment to a virtual character requires a sense of responsibility for and control over this character.

Parasocial Interaction Originally developed by Horton and Wohl (1956), parasocial interaction (PSI) attempts to explain the felt friendship developed with personalities in the media. According to Ashe and McCutcheon (2001, p. 125), PSI as it pertains to traditional media involves “one-sided relations in which one party knows a great deal about the other but the relationship is not reciprocal.” In classical mass media, the relationship is not reciprocal because the sender has no knowledge about the individual receiver. Though there is no direct contact between the two sides, media consumers come to believe that they “‘know’ the persona more intimately and profoundly than others do; that [they] ‘understand’ [their] character and appreciate his values and motives” (Horton & Wohl, 1956, p. 218, as cited in Ashe & McCutcheon, 2001). Integrated in the character attachment construct, PSI is conceptualized as a virtual

“friendship” or an alternate companionship that a player forms with video game characters. Klimmt, Hartmann, and Schramm (2006) explain three sub-processes of PSI: cognitions, emotions, and behavior. Cognitively, individuals may attempt to comprehend a character’s goals and attitudes, evaluate goals and actions, and compare events of a character to events they themselves have experienced in real life, as well as comparing the character to themselves. Emotionally, individuals may experience emotions of the character, as well as because of the character. Behaviorally, individuals may react physically to the character, mimic the character, and talk to the character. When playing a role-playing game, all of these processes are likely to be activated at one time or another, forming one of the layers of character attachment.

Identification Closely related to PSI is the notion of identification. Originating in 1960 with Sigmund Freud, identification is integral to the development of a sense of self (Freud, 1960; cf. Hollitscher, 1998). “Identification requires that we forget ourselves and become the other—that we assume for ourselves the identity of the target of our identification” (Cohen, 2001, p. 247). Identification is not merely an imitation, but a deeper, internal phenomenon (Wollheim, 1974). Individuals imagine what it would be like to be someone else, rather than just displaying the actions without giving thought to the reasons behind them. This becomes central to the idea of attachment to video game characters because games require players to think like the character and to put their minds into the mind of the character. Cohen (2001) conceptualizes the identification construct with four main dimensions. The first is empathy, which can be defined as the sharing person’s or character’s feelings. The second is the taking of a character’s perspective, followed by the internalization of the goals and motives

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of a character, and finally absorption into the medium, or the loss of self-awareness. When engaged in a role-playing game, it is nearly impossible for players not to experience some, if not all, of these aspects. Players must at the very least take the character’s perspective, as the game is presented thusly. By opting to play the game with a particular character, game-play and goals are usually tailored toward the character with which a player empathizes, and success in the game means meeting the character’s goals. Loss of self occurs more easily in a game that requires a player to take on a different role. Moreover, the ability to place oneself into the video game world is in part accomplished through identification (McDonald & Kim, 2001). In video games players are able to experience situations that they might not be able to in the real world. This immersion into a separate world then allows game players to perform and achieve without any of the real-world risks or limitations (either factual or self-imposed).

Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura’s (1989, 2001) social cognitive theory explains how individuals learn from watching others, which can include media characters. Bandura showed that human beings are not just a pile of reactions to outside, environmental forces, but have the ability to self-reflect, self-organize, and self-reflect, as proactive rather than reactive beings. However, human beings do react to the environment around them, but the relationship is a reciprocal one. “Personal factors in the form of cognitive, affective, and biological events, behavioral patterns, and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants that influence each other bidirectionally” (Bandura, 2001, p. 266). More importantly, humans have the ability to learn in various ways. Of course we learn by doing, seeing, and experiencing the effects of our actions, but we also learn by observation.

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Vicarious experience, either by live modeling or symbolic modeling, can, in addition to general learning, also transmit information about efficacy. If we see someone engage in a behavior and experience no negative effects, or experience positive effects, then we feel that we should be able to do it, too (Bandura, 1977). Because individuals observe media characters engaging in behaviors with certain effects, or certain absences of effects, we believe we should be able to do them and experience those same effects. There are several mechanisms guiding vicarious learning that are important for this discussion: attention, retention, and production processes. Attention processes determine to which things the individual pays attention. A game player would be much more likely to pay attention to a character with whom s/he was attached than to a character with which there was not such a connection. Retention processes explain what an individual remembers (or does not remember). Affective (emotional) states have an influence on retention: the stronger the (emotional) attachment to a video game character, the more likely a game player is to retain the information presented by and related to the model (character). From there, a strong connection with a game character may lead to the production of learned behavior that was vicariously experienced within the virtual environment.

Control and Responsibility: Self-Efficacy Bandura (1989) also includes the idea of self-efficacy in social cognitive theory, which we explain as a combination of control and responsibility in character attachment. Players in RPGs create and input themselves as characters into the virtual environment; in other words, players do not just play the character, they are the character. One implication of this is that players control every aspect of the character’s interactions in a given environment. However, even in interac-

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tive media, the degree with which players have complete control over their character’s actions can vary significantly, as players’ control over their game character is restricted by the game’s design. Although most RPGs are highly interactive, in that the player is offered much freedom of control over the character’s decision making as he or she progresses through the narrative structure of the game, the extent to which one can control the actual on-screen actions of their character varies from simple, menu-based combat systems (where the player controls the physical actions on screen with a series of command prompts) to highly immersive I/O systems (where the player has complete control over a character’s body movements). It is necessary to measure the degree of control felt by game players toward their characters in order to determine how much of an impact players feel they have on their characters, and the extent to which players feel they play an integral part in character behavior. This is part of the immersion into the game world: if players feel in control of their character, they experience a greater feeling of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), and less of a disconnect between their input and the character’s resulting behavior. Along with physical control of a game character, there is an element of responsibility that a player may have for the character’s actions, because he or she is the one pressing the buttons and inputting his or her own desires for the character’s ensuing actions and behavior. Responsibility is a necessary part of character attachment that stems from players having control over their characters; certain actions (or inactions) may cause either good fortune or harm to befall a player’s character. Because human beings are by nature self-regulating, individuals strive to reach certain standards and goals, and forethought allows them to imagine what the future would be like, what would happen, if certain behaviors were adopted (Bandura, 1977, 1989, 1997, 2001). Furthermore, game players know how the video game world works and act accordingly to accomplish their goals (or the

goals of their character). Game players who do not feel that they are responsible for their character’s behavior will not feel the connection between their own actions, motives, and desires, and those of their character, and therefore the emotional connection to the character will be lost.

Suspension of Disbelief In order for a player to become attached to a video game character, the player must accept the computer-generated being as an actual, relatable other. Character attachment will be inhibited if a video game player is unlikely or unwilling to see the computer-generated worldand the characters that populate itas real. Reeves and Nass (1996), as well as Moon and Nass (1996), found that when suspension of disbelief is reached, computers and computer programs and simulations can trigger human-like interactions from their users. Though realism and credibility are not necessary to form a parasocial relationship (Alperstein, 1991; Geraghty, 1991; Rubin, Perse, & Powell, 1985; Rubin & Perse, 1987), video game developers have continued to improve the realistic look and feel of game characters and environments, as well as to integrate personality features into game characters. This facilitates the suspension of disbelief process and likely improves the similarities that can be observed, thereby increasing the likelihood of attraction and finally relationship formation or character attachment. Thus, in a nutshell, character attachment can be defined as an individual’s feeling of (a) a sense of friendship as well as (b) a sense of identification with a character, if the individual (c) can believe that the digital image is a real being, (d) if the individual feels a sense of responsibility to the character, and (e) if the individual can reconcile the notion of control with both the friendship and identification aspects of the relationship (cf. Lewis et al., in press). It is this degree of self-inclusion in a video game in which the concept of character

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attachment differs from character interactions in non-interactive media and which might be a crucial factor for enactive learning experiences in interactive, character-driven virtual environments according to Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Players that are not attached to their character in role-playing games are less likely to learn the game’s educational message compared with highly attached players.

MEAsUrING cHArActEr AttAcHMENt We offer the 17-item character attachment scale as a way to measure character attachment as a moderator variable in educational role-playing video games. The CA scale consists of four unique dimensionsidentification/friendship, suspension of disbelief, responsibility, and controland has been found to be a valid and reliable scale (cf. Lewis et al., in press; Weber et al., 2006). Construct validation procedures were used and CA, as predicted by theory, was found to correlate with time spent playing video games, game enjoyment, game addiction, and self-esteem. Data for each item was collected by using rating scales with the following seven response options: strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), slightly disagree (3), neither agree nor disagree (4) slightly agree (5), agree (6), strongly agree (7). The CA index was calculated as an additive index. For more detailed information, including items, reliabilities, sample information, and validation procedures, see Lewis et al. (in press) and Weber et al. (2006).

EXAMPLEs, FUtUrE trENDs, AND IMPLIcAtIONs Using electronic games to enhance education has been a goal for educators and researchers alike, and in addition to the examples mentioned above, there

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are many successful demonstrations of integrating video games into learning environments. The University of British Columbia and Queen’s University, for example, collaborated with Electronic Arts, Apple Canada, Science World BC, and several elementary schools in the 1990s to create the EGEMS project: Electronic Games for Education in Math and Science. Disappointingly, EGEMS is no longer an active project but produced a number of reports on the effectiveness of electronic games in education, published on the EGEMS Web site and presented at several conferences including the Computer Support for Collaborative Learning conference. However, the EGEMS project branched out to the interactive science museum, Science World BC, in British Columbia, to determine how girls approach video games (cf. Inkpen et al., 1994). Researchers collaborated with game designers, educational specialists, and others to create the Electronic Games Research Lab, contained within Science World BC. Research from this project indicates that some girls clearly pretended that they themselves were the character in the game, which helped them to master the educational challenges in the game (Inkpen et al., 1994). Gorriz and Medina (2000), in a review of prior research about girls and video gaming, support this finding and report that girls prefer games that have characters with which they can identify. Amory, Naicker, Vincent, and Adams (1999), interested in the usefulness of video games as a form of teaching, set out to determine which type of game would be most suitable for education on the topic of biology. The researchers chose four video games: Red Alert (a strategy game), Duke Nuke ’Em (a shooter game), SimIsle (a simulation game with no player-controlled characters involved), and Zork Nemesis (an action-adventure game). Character-driven strategy and adventure games were preferred by students as opposed to shooters and simulations. It is likely that the combination of storyline and characters with the

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educational material made these types of games more interesting and engaging. Second Life (accessible online at http://secondlife.com/) is a virtual world that can be used as a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG), similar to The Sims Online, where players are responsible for creating not only their avatars but the entire virtual world in which they interact. Second Life then branched out to encompass the world of education, providing “a unique and flexible environment for educators interested in distance learning, computer supported cooperative work, simulation, new media studies, and corporate training” (Second Life, 2007), functioning as an extended environment from the typical online, Web site-based distance learning environments. Blending entertaining video games with educational content and recognizing the potential of video games for the education of today’s generation of learners seems to become more and more important for the future. Recently, several centers for educational game design have been founded. The Games for Entertainment and Learning Lab at Michigan State University (http://www.gel. msu.edu/), directed by Brian Winn and Carrie Heeter, functions as both a research lab and a design lab. Its goals are to create prototypes as well as full games for both entertainment and learning, and to advance research in the field. The Institute for Creative Technologies at the University of Southern California (http://www. ict.usc.edu/) works to create virtual experiences for training and learning purposes (Institute for Creative Technologies, n.d.). The Army Excellence in Leadership project is housed at the Institute for Creative Technologies (http://projects.ict.usc. edu/axl/) and uses interactive learning technologies to train military personnel. Our character attachment scale is no longer in its early stages of development, but has not been applied in a practical research setting as of yet, offering a number of opportunities to extend the scope of character attachment. The next

major step in the character attachment arena is to determine under which conditions character attachment is most applicable. Are there certain game topics that character attachment is better suited toward? Math, health, and other technical topics tend to be successfully taught using video games as we have already discussed, but what of the more complicated and/or subjective topics that might fit better with a role-playing game? Success stories such as Making History are few and far between; perhaps this is because educators and game developers have yet to understand the mechanics behind what makes players attracted to games about relatively dry, yet not abstract, topics. Instituting the character attachment scale as a means to measure the connection between players and game characters could give us a way to determine whether or not the educational game in question has an adequate draw—the character involved—to make learning with the game successful. Also, further research is necessary on the part of game creators to determine characteristics and options for character personalization which maximize character attachment, and to what extent each option increases (or decreases) the level of character attachment. By determining which choices have the most impact on character attachment, game designers can consider offering these options in various combinations, depending on the appropriateness of the choice for the game. For instance, if choice of occupation of a character has the same potential to affect character attachment as choice of gender or choice of age, then game designers can use this information to offer enough choices to maximize character attachment, but also to offer appropriate choices that may even support a video game’s educational content. Simply creating a video game with some sort of educational content may not be enough to ensure motivated learning. Creating appropriate options in a game to maximize character attachment should make the game: (a) more enjoyable for all students, and (b)

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more accessible to uninterested students. Thus, character attachment is important for educational video games because it ultimately gives players a way to connect with material in cases where the subject matter might not be of interest. But at the same time, character attachment is also useful for students already interested in the topics involved, as character attachment facilitates an even stronger connection to the game. And in both cases, the “entertainment” half of the EE paradigm is enacted, despite the initial level of interest, as higher levels of character attachment are associated with longer playing time as well as higher levels of enjoyment (Lewis et al., in press; Weber et al., 2006).

cONcLUsION We discussed in this chapter the viability of using entertaining role-playing games as a means to educate. We explained and defined the idea of character attachment in video games and argued that this new construct can be considered as an moderator for learning in character-driven roleplaying video games: those who have higher levels of attachment to their characters engage the game more (e.g., respond more sensitively to rewards and punishments as a result of a character’s actions), spend more time with the game, and ultimately come away with a richer learning experience and greater knowledge. We also provided a character attachment scale as a tool for creators and evaluators of educational games to determine the attachment players feel to their virtual character which, in turn, informs whether or not educational goals of a character-driven video game are moderated by character attachment. Interacting with virtual characters and even taking on alternate personas in role-playing games is becoming more and more popular, and educators as well as designers of educational games should not ignore this trend with regard to educational games.

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rEFErENcEs Alperstein, N. (1991). Imaginary social relationships with celebrities appearing in television commercials. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 35, 43-58. Amory, A., Naicker, K., Vincent, J., & Adams, C. (1999). The use of computer games as an educational tool: Identification of appropriate game types and game elements. British Journal of Education Technology, 30(4), 311-321. Ashe, D.D., & McCutcheon, L.E. (2001). Shyness, loneliness, and attitude towards celebrities [electronic version]. Current Research in Social Psychology. Retrieved March 20, 2005, from http://www.uiowa.edu/~grpproc/crisp/ crisp.6.9.htm Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191-215. Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44(9), 1175-1184. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman. Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3, 265-299. Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication and Society, 4(3), 245-264. Fredericksen, E. (1999). Playing through: Increasing literacy through interaction. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 43(2), 116-124. Freud, S. (1960). The ego and the id. New York: Norton & Company.

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Games for Entertainment & Learning Lab. (2006). Homepage. Retrieved July 14, 2007, from http:// gel.msu.edu/index.html Geraghty, C. (1991). Women and soap opera. Cambridge: Polity Press. Giles, D. (2002). Parasocial interaction: A review of the literature and a model for future research. Media Psychology, 4, 279-305. Gorriz, C.M., & Medina, C.M. (2000). Engaging girls with computers through software games. Communications of the ACM, 43(1), 42-49. Hollitscher, W. (1998). Sigmund Freud. An introduction. London: Routledge. Horton, D., & Wohl, R.R. (1956). Mass communication and parasocial interaction: Observations on intimacy at a distance. Psychiatry, 19, 215-229. Inkpen, K., Upitis, R., Klawe, M., Lawry, J., Anderson, A., Ndunda, M., Sedighian, K., Leroux, S., & Hsu, D. (1994). We have never-forgetful flowers in our garden: Girls’ responses to electronic games. Kingston, ON: Electronic Games for Education in Math and Science. Institute for Creative Technologies. (n.d.). Retrieved July 14, 2007, from http://www.ict.usc. edu/ Kafai, Y.B. (1994). Minds in play: Computer game design as a context for children’s learning. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Klimmt, C., Hartmann, T., & Schramm, H. (2006). Parasocial interactions and relationships. In J. Bryant & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Psychology of entertainmentz (pp. 291- 313). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Lewis, M., Weber, R., & Bowman, N. (in press). “They may be pixels, but they’re MY pixels”: Developing a metric of character attachment in role-playing video games. Cyber Psychology and Behavior.

Lieberman, D. (2001). Management of chronic pediatric diseases with interactive health games: Theory and research findings. Journal of Ambulatory Care Management, 24(1), 26-38. Lieberman, D. (2006). What can we learn from playing interactive games? In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing computer games: Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 379-397). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Making History. (2007). Homepage. Retrieved July 14, 2007, from http://www.making-history. com/edu/index.php Malone, T.W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 4, 333-369. McDonald, D., & Kim, H. (2001). When I die, I feel small: Electronic game characters and the social self. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 45(2), 241-258. Moon, Y., & Nass, C. (1996). How “real” are computer personalities? Psychological responses to personality types in human-computer interaction. Communication Research, 23(6), 651-674. Oatley, K. (1999). Meeting of minds: Dialogue, sympathy, and identification in reading fiction. Poetics, 26, 439-454. Prensky, M. (2005). Computer games and learning: Digital game-based learning. In J. Raessens & J. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of computer game studies (pp. 97-122). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Reeves, B., & Nass, C. (1996). The media equationhow people treat computers, television and new media like real people and places. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ritterfeld, U., & Weber, R. (2006). Video games for entertainment and education. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing computer games: Mo-

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tives, responses, and consequences (pp. 399-413). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Ritterfeld, U., Weber, R., Fernandes, S., & Vorderer, P. (2004). Think science!: Entertainment education in interactive theaters. Computers in Entertainment, 2(1), 1-58. Rubin, A.M., & Perse, E.M. (1987). Audience activity and soap opera involvement: A uses and effects investigation. Human Communication Research, 14, 246-292. Rubin, A., Perse, E., & Powell, R. (1985). Loneliness, parasocial interaction, and local television news viewing. Human Communication Research, 12, 155-180. Second Life. (2007). Second Life education. Retrieved July 14, 2007, from http://secondlife. com/education/ Singhal, A.S., Cody, M.J., Rogers, E.M., & Sabido, M. (2004). Entertainment education worldwide: History, research, and practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Singhal, A.S., & Rogers, E.M. (2002). A theoretical agenda for entertainment-education. Communication Theory, 12(2), 117-135. Slater, M.D. (2002). Entertainment education and the persuasive impact of narratives. In M.C. Green, J.J. Strange, & T.C. Brock (Ed.), Narrative impact: Social and cognitive foundations (pp. 157-181). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Spector, W. (1999). It’s role-playing, stupid. Game Developer, 5(9), 64-65. Szalai, G. (2007, June 21). Video game industry growth still strong. Retrieved July 14, 2007 from http://www.hollywoodreporter. com/hr/content_ display/business/news/e3if5f9e6af1f789e8c28399b0253e7b78d#

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Tafarodi, R.W., Mehranvar, S., Panton, R.L., & Milne, A.B. (2002). Putting oneself in the task: Choice, personalization, and confidence. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(5), 648-658. Vorderer, P., Klimmt, C., & Ritterfeld, U. (2004). Enjoyment: At the heart of media entertainment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 388-408. Vorderer, P., & Ritterfeld, U. (2003). Children’s future programming and media use between entertainment and education. In E. Palmer & B. Young (Eds.), The faces of televisual media: Teaching, violent, selling to children (pp. 241-264). Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Vygotsky, L.S. (1997). Educational psychology. Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie Press (originally published in 1926). Wayne, S.J., & Liden, R.C. (1995). Effects of impression management on performance ratings: A longitudinal study. Academy of Management Journal, 38(1), 232-260. Weber, R., Lewis, M., & Bowman, N.D. (2006, June). The creation of character attachment in video games. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association, Dresden, Germany. Weber, R., Ritterfeld, U., & Kostygina, A. (2006). Aggression and violence as effects of playing violent video games? In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing computer games: Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 347-361). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Wollheim, R. (1974). Identification and imagination. In R. Wollheim (Ed.), Freud: A collection of critical essays (pp. 172-195). New York: Anchor/Doubleday.

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KEY TERMS Character Attachment: An individual’s feeling of (a) a sense of friendship as well as (b) a sense of identification with a character, if the individual (c) can believe that the digital image is a real being, (d) if the individual feels a sense of responsibility to the character, and (e) if the individual can reconcile the notion of control with both the friendship and identification aspects of the relationship. Entertainment Education Paradigm: The intentional placement of educational content in entertainment messages. Identification: The act of putting oneself in the shoes of an “other,” and containing four dimensions—empathy, perspective taking, internalization of goals, and loss of self.

Parasocial Interaction: The one-sided, perceived relationship that a media consumer has with a media personality. Self-Efficacy: An individual’s belief in his or her abilities to achieve a desired outcome. Social Cognitive Theory: The theory that human beings acquire knowledge through interconnected, bidirectional relationships between personal, behavioral, and environmental determinants. Suspension of Disbelief: The point at which game players’ brains are “tricked” into believing that what they experience is not a simulation, but, in fact, a reality.

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Chapter XXXV

Visual Analysis of Avatars in Gaming Environments Joseph C. DiPietro University of Florida, USA Erik W. Black University of Florida, USA

AbstrAct A better understanding of virtual character avatars is needed in order to explore the underlying psychology that the avatar represents to the user. In addition to providing an overview and introduction to massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), this chapter provides an introduction to visual ethnographic analysis of character avatars in video game environments. The chapter details an example of mixed methodology for conducting visual analysis research specific to Linden Lab’s Second Life and details some of the methodological challenges that researchers will encounter when engaged in this type of investigation.

INtrODUctION A volume of research has developed in a relatively short period of time effectively legitimizing the study of video games in the academic world. Led by the work Gee (2003), Turkle (1995), Yee (2006), Gredler (1996), Kafai (1995), Prensky (2001), Squire (2003), and Castronova (2005), video game researchers have delved into areas

ranging from the economic systems that evolve in immersive gaming environments to learning outcomes associated with game-play. Few would argue that video games have emerged as a mainstream form of entertainment in today’s popular culture. Recent advances in graphics and home networking technologies have allowed gamers to step outside of their living rooms and interact with other gamers who could be half a world away. A new form of game, the

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massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG), is networked, persistent, online, real-time, and expansive. These games allow hundreds and even thousands of gamers to interact with each other in synchronous virtual environments. Millions of gamers now participate in these evolving virtual worlds simultaneously over the Internet. Several studies have investigated the concept of the social self online, with particular attention paid to the MMORPG genre and its predecessor, the multi-user dungeon (MUD). Turkle (1995) and Yee (2006) explored this phenomenon from both the perspective of gamers and from that of the average Internet user. The Internet provides us with the opportunity to, at times anonymously, interact and represent ourselves to other Internet users, effectively giving us the opportunity to assume new roles and identities when engaging in online interactions. In order for a player to interact within MMORPGs and many other forms of online game-play, a character must be created. This character personifies the physical representation of the self in virtual environments (Turkle, 1995; Markus & Nurius, 1986). Known as avatars, they have become icons that represent much more than the physical in-game features of the character. The avatar has become an in-game alternative self (Castronova, 2003). The avatar represents an evolution of the alternative identity, an evolution that began with authors creating pen names under which to write works and proceeding to the creative user names adopted by Web forum members. “Broadly defined, ‘avatar’ encompasses not only complex beings created for use in a shared virtual reality but any visual representation of a user in an online community” (Hemp, 2006, p. 50). The etymology of the term avatar finds its roots in the Sanskrit word for incarnation, Avatāra. The first documented usage of the term in regards to video games is somewhat malapropism. Origin

Studios’ Ultima IV was published in 1985. The game placed players in the role of an actual avatar returning to save the digital land from a great evil. The highly customizable nature of the character, in regards to other contemporary game titles, gave way for the evolution of the terminology to its modern and more commonly used definition. Through the experience of interacting in a virtual environment, the avatar’s appearance can evolve. Gamers can purchase or earn clothing or equipment that personalizes the avatar’s appearance, tailoring the look and characteristics of their online persona. While avatars’ anonymity is part of their appeal, many gamers take substantial efforts to tailor their avatars to aspects of their identity. “You can be whoever you want to be. You can completely redefine yourself if you want. You can be the opposite sex. You can be more talkative. You can be less talkative. Whatever…” (Turkle, 1995, p. 184). Players will often spend endless hours in an attempt to earn better armor or items to further customize the look of their online character. Entire bands of virtual adventurers may unite in a single goal, task, or quest that results in reward for only one member of the group. The avatar and its role in the psychology of its owner runs parallel to the concept of the possible self: the cognitive manifestation of enduring goals, aspirations, motives, fears, and threats (Markus & Nurius, 1986). The possible self provides a link to self-concept and imparts understanding as to how an individual thinks about his or her potential and future. With an understanding of the possible self in mind, the analysis of the avatar and comparison to its owner can provide a window into the individual, granting the opportunity to explore an individual’s conception of his or her own identity. This chapter will discuss a methodology for visual analysis of character avatars, presenting a possible framework for use in mixed methods research.

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BACKGROUND Until recently, online interactions were primarily textual in nature, involving technologies such as IRC (Internet relay chat), e-mail, message boards, and MUDs. While compelling to a vast number of users, the textual nature of these technologies limited their widespread mass appeal. Recent advances in graphics processing and increased access to affordable technologies has opened a portal to a new dimension built upon previously existing online technologies and themes. An entire computing niche market is centered on the development, advertising, and sale of ultra high-end gaming computers. Virtual environments and the expression of poly-modal visual representation by means of a character avatar effectively allow mainstream users to suspend disbelief and become one with their online character. These characters have the power and opportunity to participate in incredible adventures and experience events often impossible and implausible in everyday life. People are free to explore even the darkest segments of their psyches and are afforded a great deal of impunity in situations that could garner dire social consequences if they were to occur in the “real world.” In an effort to ascertain how users define, imagine, and project themselves as online entities, research must be undertaken to determine if specific personal characteristics and physical features found within the individual are also granted to the avatar. More information is needed regarding the complex relationship between character avatars and physical and psychological features of the game player. This new data will advance the existing body of knowledge regarding video game development, potentially impacting future online learning environments and the development of educational video games. The implications of research into the social psychology of the avatar and its creator have the potential for far reaching impact on the practice of participating in virtual worlds. Armed with

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a comprehensive understanding of the physical features that specific users adopt, it could become possible to predict behavior and better understand the motivations of the players behind the avatar. The implications fostered by a better understanding of the person behind the avatar touch on the various foundations of online societies. For example, armed with knowledge regarding the gamer demography relative to a specific character class and race in Blizzard Entertainment’s World of Warcraft, it becomes possible to engage in targeted marketing and advertising to avatars ingame (Chambers, 2005; Chaney, Lin, & Chaney, 2004) and raises ethical issues surrounding identity and disclosure of identity by both players and the corporations who create and manage virtual environments, not to mention the legal and property rights associated with ‘living’ a life online (Klang, 2004; Dibble, 1993; Turkle, 1995; Yee, 2006; Salazar, n.d.; Reynolds, 2003).

A Review of MMORPGs The idea of a participatory virtual environment is not unique to the 21st century. Internet pioneers experimented with text-based “multi-user dungeons” (MUDs) beginning in the late 1970s (Kushner, 2004), though the graphic realness and advanced narrative nature of the current generation of virtual environments continually pushes the envelope of home computing technology. Games of past generations often left much to the players’ imaginations when compared to the fully 3D environments found online today. Many titles from the days of MUDs have evolved into newer and repackaged versions of their former selves, relying heavily on loyal fans to take the incremental steps necessary to make the games successful. Online games have grown in popularity in a relatively short period of time: the number of active MMORPG player subscriptions worldwide doubled between July 2004 and June 2005 to a 500million player base (Chen, Huang, & Lei, 2006).

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Research by Griffiths, Davies, and Chappell (2003) indicates that the majority of MMORPG players are male (approximately 85%), over 60% of players are older than 19 years and players possess a wide variety of education. These data present a differing view from the conventional representation of an adolescent gamer. MMORPGs are generally thematically oriented, representing genres ranging from science fiction to knights of the roundtable-type fantasy. Players interact with the game and other players through a user interface more commonly called a UI. The UI typically consists of a viewing screen that allows for control of the player’s character and several rows of buttons that allow players to perform game-related actions such as casting a spell or utilizing a special ability. Players may map their keyboards to more efficiently perform actions or simply click their mouse in the desired area to achieve the same end. Communication between players is facilitated by typing text in a chat box located within the interface (Ducheneaut, Yee, Nickell, & Moore, 2006), but a recent trend is finding real-time, synchronous voice chat becoming more and more common. Chat channels in online worlds are often specific and varied. Special channels may be set up for players seeking other adventurers with whom to team up, the selling or auctioning of items or services, localized chat, or nearly any other imaginable category. Communication is a critical aspect of MMORPGs. A closer look at each of these terms may help clarify the special nuance of MMORPGs.

Networked Players connect to a central server (also referred to as shards or realms) in order to play. A character may exist in one world but not in another, at least not simultaneously. Multiple copies of the same virtual environment exist with completely different characters and interactions. Players choose their starting server and begin their online

journey contained to a digital world of their own choosing and permanently call this place home, barring server transfers (paid or otherwise) or merges.

Persistent Online worlds continue even when players are not logged in, similar to television (before the era of TiVO and DVRs). If you are watching a show and turn it off to run errands, different programming will be airing upon your return. Virtual environments operate the same way. If your character is not logged into the game, the world continues on without her. The presence of characters and character interaction drives the action, runs the economy, and directs the content of the virtual world.

Online Quite simply, content is accessed through the Internet. Gamers demand the highest of download speeds and reject packet loss, commonly referred to as latency or lag. Often times, the player with the better connection is more able to avoid an untimely demise at the hands of a virtual monster or competing player.

Real-Time MMORPGs are synchronous; a click of the mouse or the press of a button causes immediate action in the virtual environment. The ubiquitous nature and falling costs of high-speed Internet connections have greatly contributed to the acceptance of this aspect of online gaming.

Expansive Perhaps the greatest draw to MMORPGs is the nature of the content. Rather than a typical console or standard computer title, online gaming offers dynamic content to its users. Players are

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often charged monthly service fees in order to access their online world of choice. Developers implement changes to the game, bug fixes, and new content via downloads intermittently to subscribers in an attempt to keep content fresh and immersive. Video games of old become little more than repetition and memory exercises, causing many gamers to move on to different titles once they “beat” a game. MMORPGs truly have no way to be “beaten”; there is no “Game Over.” Through expansive content, gaming companies seek to keep their respective target audiences happy, at least until the next hot title is released.

A Review of Second Life Linden Labs’ Second Life is a MMORPG without much of the framework typically associated with online games. It has no overarching endpoint or goal, instead the virtual environment was designed as an environment to be constructed and personalized by its users (Jones, 2006). “From the shape of their avatars to the design of their homes, from how they spend their time to what types of affinity groups they form; Second Life’s design was focused on fostering creativity and self-expression in order to create a vibrant and dynamic world full of interesting content.” (Ondrejka, 2004, p. 1). Second Life’s lack of a central narrative theme makes it appealing to those who might not normally find themselves drawn to online gaming or simulations. Second Life advertises over five million residents, defined as “a uniquely named avatar with the right to log into Second Life, trade Linden Dollars and visit the community pages” (Linden Labs, 2007). According to the Second Life Web site, the game boasts an approximate average of 25,000 unique residents logging in daily. In addition, Second Life has a thriving economy, trading its own currency called the ‘Linden’. Many Second Life aficionados have created businesses or services that are offered for sale in the virtual world; entrepreneurs have created entire businesses and

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derive substantial income through virtual business. Within Second Life, users can create 3D artifacts, buildings, and social spaces for trade, interaction, and personal use. The ability to create items is only limited by the user’s imagination and programming skill.

AN OVErVIEW OF PrOPOsED RESEARCH METHODOLOGY By utilizing a hybrid methodology, it is theorized that research outcomes will aid the development of knowledge regarding character avatars and the physical and psychological features of the game player. The implications of these outcomes could have an impact on future online learning environments, the development of educational and recreational video games, and aid in the targeting of advertisements to avatars in game environments. Connected gaming technologies that support player-to-player interaction via the Internet or wireless networks make the visual representation of a gamer the object of study as well (DiPietro, Ferdig, Boyer, & Black, 2007). Social interactions in connected collaborative gaming spaces also provide opportunities for the development of personal identities (Bers, 1999; Frasca, 2001). The influence of social interaction is not surprising as they reflect those of the ‘real’ off-line world, where social norms, economic systems, and personal identities are based on interactions of and with an external world (Krotoski, 2005; Turkle, 1995). The exploration of these environments to support the development of social skills and behaviors in children and adults is just in its beginning stages. Raybourn and Wagner (2004) propose that these spaces can provide a space for users to test out and define appropriate social behaviors that could be transferred to off-line communities. The exchange of social, cultural, and game-based knowledge supported by online interactions is highly iterative of the role of schools.

Visual Analysis of Avatars in Gaming Environments

The proposed research methodology involves: 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

Developing a specific set of characteristics or categories that will be analyzed during the research process, Recruiting participants, Capturing a digital photograph of each participant, Developing a brief introduction to the Second Life character creation engine, Providing a narrative vignette that situates the student in a genre that would guide the creation of an avatar, Capturing a digital image of the avatar created, and Analyzing and interpreting results.

Characteristic or Category Selection Categories or characteristics, determined by the research team, should offer the opportunity for variability in both the participants and the avatars the participants would be developing (Helmers, 2006). The rationale for their selection should also be justifiable in the context of the study. It should be noted that categories are subjective continuous variables; there are an unlimited number of possible rating combinations that could be chosen for analysis. Eagly, Ashmore, Maskhijani, and Longo (1991) provide guidance on the selection of categories that emulate factors a person may use to evaluate meeting another for the very first time.

Research regarding conversation analysis and the concept of ‘unmotivated looking’ (Psathas, 1995) was also incorporated in order to aid in the selection of factors for this study. Initial discussion among the research team deemed it necessary to minimize bias and provide as cohesive a vision as possible in terms of subject evaluation above all else. Focusing on each selected characteristic in turn afforded a great deal of success with this study. No matter the number of categories selected for analysis, they represent only a small possibility of the entire range of subjective characteristics on which an analysis could have been conducted. It should be possible for the selected categories to be analyzed in a consistent, accurate manner, and a justifiable rationale for the inclusion of category is necessary.

Rationale for Selection Accessories consist of visible jewelry, piercings, tattoos, hats, handbags, backpacks, and sweaters. At some point or another, almost all individuals have observed passersby in public and immediately tried to categorize their level of accessories. Does the person have a nose ring? Are they wearing a necklace? Is there a dog in their purse? Is there any aspect of their level of accessories that tips societal norms as excessive? Considering accessorizing is such an important aspect of MMORPGs and Second Life in particular, establishing a baseline for comparison was initially deemed critical for analysis.

Table 1. Possible categories of analysis Accessories

Eye Color

Hair Length

Musculature

Body Type

General Appearance

Hair Style

Sex-Specific Characteristics

Clothing

Hair Color

Height

Skin Tone

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With body type, participants and avatars can be evaluated on an ectomorph-mesomorph-endomorophic scale. Naturally, some participants would not easily fit into one particular category. To compensate for this phenomenon, placement of ectomorphic on one end of a seven-point Likert, mesomorphic in the middle, and endomorphic at the other extreme would allow definitive categories for analysis. Clothing is the style of clothing, specifically regarding the nature of dress; for example, whether casual or formal. A tuxedo or uniform could be observed as formal. Sweatpants or a ripped and wrinkled T-shirt could be deemed casual. Eye color includes an investigation of both participant and avatar eye color. General appearance could gauge overall appearance of the subjects, from slovenly to wellrefined. A well-pressed and wrinkle-free outfit would be considered well-refined. A categorization of slovenly could include the opposite: dirty, wrinkled, or an overall unkempt look. Hair color includes an investigation of both avatar and participant hair color. A measure of the intricacy of the avatar and participants’ hair style was evaluated. Ornate hair could include multiple layers, the use of hair products, and basically was surmised by the time it would take to produce the look of the subject. The more time deemed, the more ornate the hair style was rated. One exception is the cleanly shaven bald head. Although no time need be spent in preparation, it would take a great deal of care and effort to maintain a hairless head, barring alopecia. Height includes a measure of avatar and participant height. Reliable and valid measure may necessitate the inclusion of a reference object or measuring tape. Musculature includes a measure of the visible musculature of the individual and avatar, ranked from frail to strong. The prototypical cartoon weakling comes to mind for the frail end of the

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Likert scale, and a muscle-bound gargantuan for the strong side of the scale. Male and female characters should be analyzed equally in the sense of comparing muscle mass vs. body mass and apparent body structure. Sex-specific characteristics include an evaluation of the emphasis placed on male or female sex-specific characteristics (e.g., breast size, makeup), ranked from under- to over-accentuated. Skin tone includes an evaluation of the participant and avatar’s skin tone, from light to dark. Second Life allows users to create a multitude of interesting, unnatural skin tones including, but not limited to, blue, green, and purple. In order to rate these tones, analysis is made easier by the use of a simple color wheel to determine the variance of light or dark.

Imaging the Participant Capturing a digital photograph of each participant provides a baseline for comparison of the avatar developed. Specific procedures should be developed in order to systematically capture images of the participants that include all physical features that will be identified. Consistent analysis across subjects may necessitate the inclusion of props in order to discern specific categories, such as height. A backdrop or green screen to normalize background may also aid in the removal of potential biasing extraneous elements.

Participant Recruitment Care should be taken to ascertain a participant’s level of familiarity with the character creation engine selected and with virtual worlds in general. There is a specific learning curve associated with complex character creation engines; for example, Second Life’s advanced functionality allows users to adjust an almost limitless number of physical features and create elaborate sets of clothing for avatars.

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Narrative Vignettes Narrative vignettes constructed to provide a background for avatar construction provide a key opportunity for situating the subject in a genre. These vignettes could consist of a variety of different themes; for instance, Campbell’s (1949) mythological themes provide a suitable background for the construction of the avatar. Utilizing Campbell’s themes as an example, several vignettes might situate the participant in one of the following thematic roles: the hero, the villain, or the ideal self. A forth vignette, the actual self, could serve as a control. Within the vignettes, mentions of parents, siblings, culture, or specific location should be avoided in an effort to elicit a response without the subjects’ preconceived notions of common thematic characteristics. The questions asked of the reader within each vignette should be vague and open ended so to avoid influencing the traits of the character. The terms you and your hero/villain/ideal should be intentionally chosen to reinforce the subject’s personification of the character. All gender and age references should be removed in an attempt to refrain from biasing the participants.

Examples of Situated Vignettes Separate narrative vignettes can be constructed to provide a background for avatar construction and serve as a guide for the construction of the avatar. For example, the three vignettes provided below situate the participant in one of the following thematic roles: the hero, the villain, or the ideal self. The forth vignette, the actual self, would serve as a control. Within the vignettes, mentions of parents, siblings, culture, or specific location are avoided in an effort to elicit a response without the subjects’ preconceived notions of common thematic characteristics. The questions asked of the reader within each vignette should be vague and open ended so to avoid influencing the traits of the character. The terms you and your hero/

villain/ideal are intentionally chosen to reinforce the subject’s personification of the character. All gender and age references are removed in an attempt to refrain from biasing the participants.

Vignette: Hero You have lived your life with wonderful people. The members of your community have always been supportive and helpful. Yet, life is not the same as usual. With each passing day you get a sense of an impending change in your comfortable life. Nobody has said a thing, but they seem to intuitively know. The safety and confines of this familiar existence are coming to an end. The nature of your challenge is unknown. Even the most direct questioning produces no answers from anyone. You can tell they know something, but they insist on remaining silent. Who do you turn to? How will you know what to do? Why will they not help!? These questions rage in your mind. One day an answer begins to form in your troubled soul. Over the days you begin to understand the dilemma. The others cannot help you. You are the hero this day; the unknown challenge must be met and it will be your burden. It is time to venture forth on the journey. You will save the day. It is your destiny. Your task is to make a representation of this person using the character creator provided.

Vignette: Villain You are the community outcast. The feeling has become part of your very being. A familiar separation, never understood, always outside looking in, your existence is marked by these thoughts. The furtive glances caught out of the corner of your eye. Their constant unjust suspicion hangs in the air. These people will never know you. Your life is an unceasing struggle for fairness. Confrontation is on the horizon. They have no idea what

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you are capable of. You will show them. The time is now! Your task is to create a representation of this person using the character creator provided.

Vignette: Ideal Self “Mirror, mirror on the wall, I am the luckiest of all.” Life is joyful, with safety and contentment your steadfast companions. Each day you arise and face the dawning new day. What joys will life bring this day? You lead the ideal existence. Your task is to create a representation of yourself under these conditions using the character creator provided.

Vignette: Actual Self You will be participating in an online course next semester. Use the character generator to build a visual representation of yourself that you will use to interact with other students in this course.

Imaging the Avatar Once the participant has completed his or her avatar, a digital image of the creation should be captured for use in the analysis process. Second Life makes this process simple by providing a means for photographing avatars and directly exporting the image via e-mail or directly to the desktop.

ANALYSIS Following avatar creation, avatarsmatched with their corresponding creator’s digital photographsare subjected to visual analyses across specific categories (e.g., gender-specific characteristics, height, etc). Once this matching procedure has occurred, statistical analysis of the data is possible. Analysis can be conducted utilizing a range of procedures including, but not limited

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to, linear and multinomial regression, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and chi-square tests. It is important to remember that measurement categories for analysis can be considered categorical or scalar, based on researcher preference. Categorical variables consist of one or more categories, while scalar variables are numeric variables with a true zero. Variable differentiation will affect the statistic procedures employed when conducting analysis. Regression analysis can be used both to provide an explanation of a phenomenon and to predict future behavior. Scalar measurement categories can be regressed using linear regression. Linear regression models relationships between a dependant variable and one or more independent variables. Categorical models fall into a specific type of regressive procedure, binomial and multinomial regression. These methods were constructed to deal with the unique mathematical issues associated with categorical responses. While chi square procedures are inferential procedures that offer the opportunity to test both goodness of fit and independence, goodness of fit tests explore whether the frequency of an observed variable deviates from a theoretical distribution. Independence tests provide an explanation for whether variables are related or unrelated. Finally, analysis of variance measures should enable the researchers to explore variation based on a chosen grouping variable. By utilizing appropriate methodology, researchers can apply visual analysis to answer countless questions relevant to understanding game-play, gamers, and interactions between both gamers and the gaming environment. Consider several examples: First, researchers working to discern discrepancy in avatar development between males and females could utilize ANOVA procedures to compare individuals grouped by familiarity with video games and gender. Second, individuals working to discern discrepancy in avatar development between males and females could utilize ANOVA procedures to compare individuals grouped by familiarity with video

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games and gender. As these two factors are often discussed in the context of the game-play and expert knowledge, it would be interesting to discern differences in avatar creation based on levels of experience with video games (DiPietro et al., 2007). Third, employing chi square procedures allows for consideration fundamental questions with regard to avatar analysis: Do individuals design avatars of the same gender as themselves? Do individuals explore different races when online? Do short individuals construct tall avatars? Finally, in-game advertising represents a growing avenue for revenue generation by the gaming industry which has yet to be innovatively investigated. Present advertising strategies utilized in video games do not take advantage of the dynamic affordances offered by game-play, specifically online gameplay (Yang, Roskos-Ewoldsen, Dinu, & Arpan, 2006). Because of the predictive power of regression procedures, they represent an opportunity to gain a better understanding of the user who creates and controls the avatar. Armed with a more accurate understanding of the player behind the character, game creators could target in-game advertisements to avatars that are representative of players in specific demographic categories. Given a large and diverse sample size, regression procedures could hypothetically inform that females ages 18-24, who are novice gamers and live in the Northeastern United States, are significantly more likely to choose to play Human Alliance Priests in Blizzard Entertainment’s World of Warcraft. Harnessing this data, Blizzard Entertainment could offer targeted advertising, seen only by a specific user, in a manner similar to Google Adsense. Adsense is capable of serving dynamic, content-specific advertisements to Web pages that embed Google’s advertising technology.

Potential for Bias Within Research Engaging in a subjective analysis of individuals and their avatar creations is an enormously complicated undertaking. Application of the

concepts of validity associated with quantitative research to the design and practice of qualitative researchnamely those validity typologies identified by Maxwell (1992)have revealed limited relevance in ethnography inquiry (LeCompte & Goetz, 1982; Evans, 1983; Yin, 1984; Norris, 1997). This is not to say the ethnographic inquiry is without relevance; rather, due to the situated nature of the research, it is appropriate to carefully consider outcomes. The following considerations are recommended to better substantiate ethnographic analysis with virtual characters: 1.

2.

3.

Participants should construct avatars in a private setting, free from distraction and observation by others. Order effects may impart bias. Providing participants with a private, secure area in which to construct an avatar should limit that the photographs taken of participants prior to the construction of their avatar may create a heightened sense of self-confidence within the subjects. Researchers should consider the implications of continuous vs. categorical measurement on the variables selected for analysis. It is important to recognize that in practice the delineation between discrete or categorical variables and continuous variables blurs (Agresti & Finley, 1997). Variable choice will have an impact on the type of analysis that can be performed after data collection. Consideration should be given to weighting analysis categories. All physical traits are not created equal (Tove´e & Cornelissen, 2001), thus the assignment of value to specific characteristics becomes an immensely complex task. Does eye color provide as much impact on an avatar’s appearance as body type? Existing research does not yet delve into the details concerning specific physical features of an avatar. Research by Mazur, Mazur, and Keating (1984) provides evidence that physical features play a role

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4.

in achievement or perceptions of achievement. Research in evolutionary psychology suggests individuals assign favorable identities (intelligence, wealth) to those they find physically attractive (Kanazawa & Kovar, 2004). Familiarity with the avatar creation system may impact characters created. The Second Life character creation engine is highly complex; true mastery of the engine is not easily achieved in the timeframe available to participants. In addition, a serious industry has emerged within Second Life providing highly detailed wares and goods that can be purchased in order to customize one’s avatar. This industry thrives on the opportunity to take non-descript characters built by others and advance their look and feel.

DIscUssION Thorough analysis of existing research revealed little, if any, ‘true’ research seeking to explore which types of people create which types of avatars. The need for gaming companies, researchers, and educators to place their collective fingers on the pulse of avatars is the next step in the logical evolution of authentic game creation. Banks (2001) provided for an excellent introduction to the paradox of visual ethnography. He confronts the issue of prime confound encountered during the methodological design. In a world where individuals are inundated with visual representations, how does one proceed to derive useful information from them? How does one decide what to do with the information? Perspectives and audiences are critical themes offered as guideposts for the qualitative researcher. Helmers (2006) and Prosser and Schwartz (1998) tackle these issues as well. Emmison and Smith (2000) highlight specifics within photographs to which researchers should

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pay special attention. Grimshaw (2001) provides the historical evolution of ethnography in modern anthropology and explains the reasoning behind the superlative nature of specific photographic features. While the main focus sides in the medium of film, a great deal of attention is paid to the characteristics of photographs. Additional insight and direction was discerned from Sarah Pink (2001a). Pink is a leading researcher in the field of visual ethnography; her works (2001b, 2004) offer even further insights into appropriate strategies and techniques. Pink elevates the level of inquiry from the photograph, digital or otherwise, to hypermedia and other digital presentation methods.

IMPLIcAtIONs AND FUtUrE trENDs Merriam-Webster defines physiognomy as “the art of discovering temperament and character from outward appearance.” This crucial component of interpersonal communication and information processing becomes nigh automatic for individuals as they accrue age and experience. We are trained to assess threats in public (e.g., where to sit safely on public transportation) and are socially ingrained to identify with those most like ourselves. Transferring this skill set to the classroom is dangerous business for an educator, leading to bias and favoritism. Rothstein (2004) notes that “it does not take a lot of discrimination for the effects to accumulate” (p. 35). Educators wishing to bridge the achievement gap must shed their preconceived notions and view the world, and their students, afresh. Gee professes, “The fact that people have differential access to different identities and activities, connected to different sorts of status and social goods, is a root source of inequality in society” (2005, p. 22). Transferring this logic to the digital domain, the classroom of today and tomorrow, is tricky business. In many online

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courses, students are represented solely by an avatar of their own choosing or design. Investigating underlying factors of both the representation and the creation of these avatars is paramount in order to provide equitable and comprehensible input to the diverse learners engaged in virtual learning environments. Future research into the psychology of the avatar’s construction will provide far-reaching implications on the construction of community in online environments, the facilitation of discourse on discussion boards and via Internet relay channels, and the willingness of individuals to exhibit aspects of themselves to others in both structure learning and entertainment environments. A natural first step toward creating future opportunities for visual analysis of avatars involves the creation of a standardized range of characteristics and methodologies for the analysis of these characteristics (e.g., how should avatar height be measured in different gaming environments). Inquiries like the one outlined in this study are in their infancy at best, and further studies must be conducted in order to gain the insight necessary to incorporate best practices into virtual learning environments. “Educators who propose new approaches or new efficiencies are treated with suspicion,” warns Hess (2004, p. 5). The struggle will not be an easy one, but educational technologists must pry the lid off this black box, and soon. Students are changing; it is time for educators and researchers to shed the shackles of routine and explore all possible avenues to aid in bridging the achievement gap.

cONcLUsION Visual inquiry studies such as the one described will encourage researchers to broaden the boundaries of analysis conducted with virtual environments. Visual analysis of character avatars is a continuation of the work of Turkle (1995), offer-

ing a new avenue for the exploration of virtual environments. The method described in this chapter should serve as the impetus for further conversation and experimentation regarding visual analysis of avatars in virtual environments. As increasing numbers of individuals join the ranks of participants in fantasy, futuristic, or even realistic virtual worlds, a better basis for understanding the relationship of the avatar to its owner needs to be established. The implications for such research are widespread and run the gamut from educational implications to advertising to therapy and beyond. Classrooms are becoming more digital each day. Online courses and interactions are transforming the responsibilities of educators, perpetuating the need for future studies such as the one outlined in this chapter. In order for future educators to best meet the needs of their diverse populations, they must first understand those populations. Avatar analysis and inquiry is the first step in bridging the gap between best practices of andragogy/pedagogy and the classrooms of tomorrow.

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Reynolds, R. (2003). Hands off my avatar! Issues with claims of virtual property and identity. Retrieved August 15, 2007, from http://scholar. google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&client=firefoxa&cluster=15976386757132855638

Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954-969. Maxwell, J. (1992). Understanding and validity in qualitative research. Harvard Educational Review, 62, 279-300. Mazur, A., Mazur, J., & Keating, C. (1984). Military rank attainment of a West Point class: Effects of cadets’ physical features. American Journal of Sociology, 90, 125-150. Ondrejka, C. (2004). Escaping the gilded cage: User created content and building the metaverse. New York Law School Law Review, 49(1), 81101. Pink, S. (2001a). Doing visual ethnography: Images, media and representation in research. London: Sage. Pink, S. (2001b). More visualising, more methodologies: On video, reflexivity and qualitative research. The Sociological Review, 49(4), 586599. Pink, S. (2004). Conversing anthropologically. In S. Pink, L. Kürti, & A.I. Afonso (Eds.), Working

Rothstein, R. (2004). Class and schools: Using social, economic, and educational reform to close the black-white achievement gap. New York: Teachers College Press. Salazar, J. (n.d.). “Online being” ontology to MMORPGs: Ethical, pragmatic, and epistemic issues of a non-gamer’s accidental journey into the “game studies”…discipline? Retrieved August 15, 2007, from http://salazarjavier.mindspages. net/gamestudiespaper.pdf Shavelson, R.J. (1995). Statistical reasoning for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Squire, K. (2003). Video games in education. International Journal of Intelligent Simulations and Gaming, 2(1). Tove´e, M.J., & Cornelissen, P.L. (2001). Female and male perceptions of female physical attractiveness in front-view and profile. British Journal of Psychology, 92, 391-402.

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Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the Internet. New York: Simon & Schuster. Yang, M., Roskos-Ewoldson, D.R., Dinu, L., & Arpan, L.M. (2006). The effectiveness of “ingame.” Journal of Advertising, 35(4), 143-142. Yee, N. (2006). The psychology of MMORPGs: Emotional investment, motivations, relationship formation, and problematic usage. In R. Schroeder & A. Axelsson (Eds.), Avatars at work and play: Collaboration and interaction in shared virtual environments (pp. 187-207). London: Springer-Verlag. Yin, R.K. (1984). Case study research: Designs and methods. London: Sage.

KEY TERMS Expansive Content: Gaming companies release dynamic game updates in order to fix bugs and introduce new content. Player communities have great say over the directions in which online games grow and evolve.

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Latency: Also referred to as “lag.” Packet loss can be experienced by online gamers due to network congestion or other hardware problems. The greater the lag, the greater the delay between a player’s input command in the real world and its desired effect in the virtual world. MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game): Game in which players immerse themselves in virtual worlds to collectively complete missions, tasks, quests, or other objectives. Networked Gaming: Players connect to other players via the Internet or local area network. This type of gaming can be particularly competitive even if players are working collaboratively. Online Games: Games played over the Internet. Persistent Games: Online worlds continue even when players are not logged in; the presence of characters and character interaction drives the action, runs the economy, and directs the content of the virtual world. Real-Time: MMORPGs are synchronous; a click of the mouse or the press of a button causes immediate action in the virtual environment.

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Chapter XXXVI

Interpreting Game-Play Through Existential Ludology Matthew Thomas Payne University of Texas at Austin, USA

AbstrAct This chapter introduces and operationalizes an innovative interpretive strategy called “existential ludology” to explain how the game-play mechanics of two tactical shooter video gamesAmerica’s Army: Rise of a Soldier (Microsoft’s Xbox) and Full Spectrum Warrior (Sony’s PlayStation 2)educate gamers on how to play militarily. These titles, both produced in part by the U.S. Department of Defense, engender strict, doctrinal learning opportunities by embedding official combat protocols into their game-play structures. By employing existential ludology as an interpretive tool we can understand these military-backed games from an experiential, player-centric perspective, while also recognizing how their seemingly innocuous game-play is located within, and linked to, larger networks of power. Moreover, existential ludology’s flexibility as an interpretive instrument encourages educators to recognize the educational affordances of popular video games so that they might adopt these popular media artifacts for their own pedagogical ends.

INtrODUctION On November 16, 2005, the United States Army, in association with interactive software publisher Ubisoft Entertainment, commercially released the first “Official U.S. Army Game” for home video game consoles—America’s Army: Rise of a Soldier—for Microsoft’s Xboxand Sony’s Playstation 2 lockstepping on the heels of its wildly successful and freely distributed 2002

PC predecessor, America’s Army. Video clips on the game’s Web site1 advertise the game’s realist aesthetic, declaring, “Our game developers don’t rely on imagination,” while inviting players to “Become one of the elite” and to “Experience the Army.” The release of Rise of a Soldier is a landmark moment in video game history because it is the first instance of the U.S. military co-developing a for-profit console game that also carries its seal of approval.2

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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The military and the private sector have been utilizing computer-based training technologies for decades precisely because they believe in the efficacy of media technology in educating their personnel to meet a range of work-related challenges. In the past, the armed forces have commissioned private firms’ production of training simulations for various in-house uses, and more recently commercial off-the-shelf PC titles—for example, Doom II (Id Software, 1994) and Unreal Tournament 2004 (Epic Games, 2004)—have been modified by the military’s modeling and simulation groups for training purposes. It is not entirely surprising then to see a military title like Rise of a Soldier emerge from this production network and enter the non-militarized, domestic realm of the home entertainment center.3 What is surprising about tactical shooter-style military games like Rise of a Soldier and Full Spectrum Warrior, however, is just how effectively they fuse the doctrinal training properties of simulations with the ludic rules and narrative themes of the well-established combat game genre, thereby producing para-educational leisure toys that are adopted by gamers in informal learning settings. As this collection demonstrates, there are a number of compelling ways to think about how video games and pedagogy intersect, and what these nexuses mean for educators and critics alike. Phenomenology, a twentieth century philosophical movement that interrogates the common structures of human consciousness, is but one qualitative research approach that offers insights on how learning occurs while one is busy at play. Moreover, since this chapter is interested in examining how the experiential structures of video game-play present gamers with varied learning opportunities, existential phenomenology—a variation of the movement that changes phenomenology’s central, organizing question from ‘what is knowledge?’ (epistemology) to ‘what does it mean to be human?’ (existentialism)—offers a generative and sound conceptual foundation

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from which to craft an original research program. If existential phenomenology asks about the possibilities and meaningfulness of human action in the lived world, then existential ludology, as this chapter conceptualizes it, asks similar questions about meaningful play in the virtual world.

BACKGROUND This chapter defines video game-play as an experiential relationship produced between a human and an electronic game device. And because all game-play experiences are the product of lived relationships between players and game technologies, the “philosophy of technology” camp of philosophic criticism emerges as a key literature for this discussion. Don Ihde, Bruno Latour, Donna Haraway, Andrew Feenberg, and Andrew Pickering are probably the best-known scholars of this interest group. Don Ihde’s work is particularly instructive because it fuses a phenomenological sensitivity with a view to how technologies are adopted by different cultures to “present a radically demythologized story of the structures and limits of human-technology relations, as well as a critical reflection on technologies and their uses” (Jorgenssen, 2003, p. 214). In the latter half of this chapter’s main section, I will follow Ihde’s lead (1977) in using phenomenology to forge my own self-fashioned program, and then apply this interpretive method to two military console games, thereby teasing out the titles’ similar educational logics. I begin first, though, by examining Ihde’s phenomenologically grounded view of human-technology relations to lay the foundation for existential ludology. Ihde describes the three variants of humantechnology relationality as embodiment relations, hermeneutic relations, and alterity relations. Technologies that become transparent or those that are forgotten through their successful use are embodiment relations. These tools appear to meld with, or become part of, one’s own body

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(e.g., hearing aid, walking cane). Ihde depicts this relationship as: [ (I-technology)  world ]. The subject and technology fuse together to experience the world. Next, hermeneutic relations are technologies that require reading or interpretation to be of use (e.g., clock, thermometer), and are symbolized as: [ I  (technology-world) ]. Here, the technology is only meaningful if it is symbolically interpretable. For example, a thermometer that only displays a Celsius reading means far less (though it may not be completely inscrutable) to someone who only comprehends Fahrenheit measurements. Ihde’s third techno-human alignment, alterity relations, is the most relevant for this discussion as it describes a human’s relation with, or to, a technological “other” (e.g., virtual reality, simulated game worlds). Ihde depicts alterity relations as: [ Human  technology-(-world) ]. The reason that technologies in alterity relations are experienced as quasi-other is that technologies on one hand possess a kind of independence and on the other hand can give rise to an ‘interaction’between humans and technologies (Verbeek, 2001, p. 131). While often appearing as an autonomous “other,” video games do not fit exclusively into Ihde’s alterity category, however. Yes, video games, as Ihde summarily describes them, engender alterity relations. However, Ihde’s characterization of video games is somewhat limited (Ihde, 2002, p. 81). That is, understanding video game-play as a single-player, off-line, domestic interaction unduly simplifies the varieties of this technosocial relationship, especially given the trend in

“next-generation”4 gaming towards increased multiplayer networkability, haptic feedback, and mobility. Ihde frames video games as something that gamers act against, and not as technologies that require reading or as mediating tools that players act through. Ihde’s concept needs expansion to accurately reflect the broad range of contemporary gaming technologies. Video game-play, properly defined, spans all three of Ihde’s relational categories.5 Yes, gameplay remains in alterity relations because games utilize artificial intelligence that works with and against the player’s agency. Video games also belong to hermeneutic relations because they require a cultural literacy to be read and played. The player must not only decode titles’ in-game interfaces to understand their differing operations (e.g., how to operate the game’s avatar, manage resources), but the user must also decipher and navigate the media conventions of different games; after all, narrative arcs and 3D worlds are not just virtual poetics and geographies, they are also literacies.6 Finally, video game-play also evidences embodied relations because the gamer plays through the controls. This indicates both a technological accomplishment (i.e., a correspondence between real-life motor actions and on-screen signs), as well as an existential achievement. Phenomenologically speaking, the player becomes what the player does. Jean Paul Sartre’s famous dictum, “existence precedes essence,” applies equally well to the played world as it does to the lived world. Since video game-play is the experiential product of a specific human-technology relation that occurs across the three aforementioned fronts—games must be physically controlled, decoded symbolically, and demand reactions to programming prompts—understanding the meaningfulness of these multifarious exchanges necessitates a holistic and systematic interpretive framework that can locate recurring experiential structures across vast differences in content. And while existential ludology aims to do just that,

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this embryonic approach does not and cannot provide a totalizing or exhaustive account because all participant game-play analyses are necessarily limited by the researcher’s time, skill, and in-game choices. Indeed, all phenomenological accounts of mediated experiences are necessarily relativistic and personal. Yet phenomenology offers educators “a way of looking at the same time at both subject and object in the cognitive act [or relationship] while maintaining the object of the act as existing independently” (Casabier, 1991, p. 4, quoted in Bennington & Gay, 2000). Existential ludology works by cataloging numerous game-play experiences to forward meaningful statements about how particular games evidence recurrent and stable experiential structures. Existential ludology is therefore a radically empirical methodology. Fortunately, Rise of a Solder and Full Spectrum Warrior both showcase strict rule structures and share similar narrative themes, making a phenomenologically inflected reading of these titles methodologically convenient and intellectually tenable.7 The following section begins with an overview of these two games, describing their similarities and differences. Then, my first-hand impressions and game-play experiences will be assessed through existential ludology’s five probes to suss out the educational import of these games’ play structures.

MAIN FOcUs OF tHE cHAPtEr Boot Camp 101 Tactical shooter titles are a sub-genre of the first-person and third-person shooter genres because they operate under similar spatial rules (a three-dimensional world, similar physics), share combat-oriented informational elements (ammo, player health, maps), and game-play goals (eliminate the enemy threat, rescue friendly forces). But unlike many first-person shooter games where indiscriminant killing, or “fragging,”

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rule the day, these titles are primarily concerned with teaching and testing military field tactics. Imprudent and cavalier gamers who disavow or ignore the official techniques presented in these games’ training levels are not likely to advance far in the mission stages. Although Rise of a Soldier and Full Spectrum Warrior are both military-supported tactical shooter titles, they are not entirely similar. As the title suggests, America’s Army: Rise of a Soldier focuses on a single, player-created persona (complete with nickname, birthplace, and military specialty) who ascends the military ranks after successfully completing missions. The player experiences a variety of squad roles (e.g., rifleman, sniper, grenadier) through this character while increasing proficiencies in key combat categories (e.g., marksmanship, observation, stealth, lifesaving, etc.). The instruction manual accurately characterizes the game as taking the player “through a career in the U.S. Army, from a rifleman in an infantry squad to a senior sergeant in the elite Special Forces” (Ubisoft, 2005, p. 3). All of the game’s levels begin with a quick flyover of the virtual terrain and then drop the player into the avatar’s skin. During this transition the player’s perspective shifts from an elevated camera to the embodied perspective common to the first-person shooter genre. This visual strategy moves the player from a remote, impersonal view of the game universe, to a personalized and limited perspective that encourages identification as the virtual infantryman. This design choice reinforces the production team’s goal of having players virtually experience combat as a single infantryman.8 By contrast, Full Spectrum Warrior’s thirdperson view is a disembodied, floating “chase” camera, which remains above and behind the four-person infantry squad. The only opportunities for embodied viewing come when targeting an enemy or objective through weapon sights, or when scanning the environment. Full Spectrum Warrior comes preloaded with a cadre of soldiers

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who have their own personalities, roles, and ranks, and does not allow players to generate self-fashioned soldiers or play independently of the group (as is the case in Rise of a Soldier). This design decision supports the production team’s task of crafting an Army game that focuses on teaching adroit team maneuvering in urban spaces, not one that promotes player-avatar identification.9 Video games commonly acquaint players with the title’s controls and major themes during lowstakes introductory levels. Rise of a Soldier and Full Spectrum Warrior are no different in this respect and come equipped with “boot camp” levels that introduce their respective narrative concerns, their informational interfaces, and differing joystick controls. What sets these preparatory stages apart, however, is just how thoroughgoing they are in their doctrinal specificity at this early juncture. It is reasonable to expect that tactical shooter games produced in part by the armed forces would faithfully simulate rigid training regiments. What is remarkable, though, are the variety of play prompts that are fused with these training exercises to generate militarized interactions from these games’ very beginnings. The boot camp levels, which are modeled after firing ranges and training courses at different U.S. military bases, familiarize gamers with basic training and game-play exercises, including: game controls, weapons (usage and ammunition ballistics), ethical conduct, communications protocol, infantry movement, and combat strategies.10 These titles coach players on quickly recognizing the proper situations for using particular weapons, including specialty arms like rifles, heavy machine guns, and smoke and fragment grenades, and then instruct players on how to use said weapons. For example, Full Spectrum Warrior’s voiceover teaches the player how to move and position his paired squads using bounded movement, and to keep the enemy at bay with suppression fire, thus underscoring the strategic value of coordinated team movement. These nuanced warfighting techniques also tacitly

censure the cavalier decision making that dominates and is rewarded in many combat games. In fact, Full Spectrum Warrior’s tutorial stages are so exacting that they are essentially a “Simon Says”-style exercise where the voiceover walks the player through the Army’s official protocols for military operations in urban terrain. One simply cannot advance through the tutorial without obeying the disembodied instructor. Rise of a Soldier’s focus on the single infantryman’s professional maturation and interpersonal role within the squad dynamic is underscored at the boot camp’s virtual firing ranges. For example, to access mission levels, the player must shoot a certain percentage of targets during the boot camp’s firing exercises to pass the exam, and an even higher percentage to pass with advanced marks. Proficient test taking results in acquiring additional skills points that can be distributed into key skills categories. Consequently, the more advanced the single player is, the more valuable he11 is to his fire squad. The training level not only rewards superlative players with extra skills points, but it also prevents players who have not passed training exercises from accessing advanced mission levels. Thus the game’s training level serves a disciplinary gate-keeping function. One simply cannot play particular missions without first passing key skills tests. This design choice reinforces the idea that the military does not send unskilled soldiers into the field, and that a player in her living room is not exempt from this same requirement. Yet both of these games are interested in teaching more than moving and firing. Modern communication devices are emphasized as key tools for fighting the War on Terror, and both games underscore the importance of using their in-game global positioning systems. Indeed, these games make it difficult (if not impossible) to complete missions without referencing these tools. A code of ethical conduct is actively afoot as well. For example, shooting a fellow recruit in Rise of a Soldier’s basic training levels will auto-

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matically terminate game-play, and the player’s avatar automatically lowers his weapon when facing a peer, simulating proper gun safety. The voiceovers stress the ethical imperative of finishing missions without sacrificing fellow soldiers’ lives, and points and accolades are issued accordingly for healing and/or saving fallen comrades during battle. As the training levels make abundantly clear, these two titles offer doctrinal playspaces where gamers can learn, emulate, and test their comprehension of approved combat protocols. They privilege strict procedural game-play over the free-form experimentation that is commonly rewarded in adventure and role-playing games. Moreover, the virtual boot camps function ostensibly, as do real-world training facilities. Players are introduced to the military skills and values that will keep them alive in combat, and in good standing within a military organization. The boot camp stages offer a wealth of interactive military education that must be faithfully executed in the games’ mission levels for incremental successes and narrative advancement. I will now introduce and use existential ludology to illustrate how the non-boot camp levels in Rise of a Soldier and Full Spectrum Warrior exploit the constitutive affordances of video games—a media form that is seemingly ready-made for educational applications—to teach gamers how to think and play militarily.

Towards Existential Ludology Player Freedom and Game Intentionality A player’s ability to make choices within an interactive game should be a primary concern of game studies and new media studies, since what a new media text is, or what a new media text becomes, is so often predicated on user choice. Textual indeterminacy should not be confused with structural open-endedness, however. In of-

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fering us a range of choices, new media artifacts necessarily delimit an open-ended horizon of action. Don Ihde’s “technological intentionality” is a useful way for appreciating just how the video game form simultaneously opens up and closes down these mediated opportunities. Intentionality is arguably the key concept in phenomenological thought. Simply put, intentionality means that every conscious act refers to, or is directed at, some object, be it real or imagined. Technological intentionality, therefore, means that technologies direct human choice at some end(s) insofar as they provide a framework for human action. “Technologies ‘want’ people to do things in particular ways, as it were: they have a certain ‘intention’ and promote this intention among their users” (Verbeek, 2001, p. 136). Video games, too, have a preferred trajectory. Games’ built-in goals and reward systems encourage particular game-play choices over others. If the gamer’s primary modus operandi is to win, and winning demands that the gamer engage in a series of precise responses to game prompts, then these actions are in-line with the technology’s preferred use (assuming one does not short-circuit this process by cheating). Film theorist and phenomenologist Vivian Sobchack tells us that intentionality is actualized for a being-in-the-world through gestures (1991, p. 41). The case could not be any truer for the gamer. One can interact with a game using any random button-pushing strategy, but one can only succeed by recognizing that game’s own ludological logic, and by satisfying its demands with correctly timed inputs. Preferred readings (hermeneutic relations) and inputs (embodiment relations) are rewarded with in-game accolades (e.g., higher score, leveling up, progressing through the narrative), while those inputs not recognized by the game are disciplined (e.g., player loses life, points are deducted). Moreover, it is only through an iterative trial-anderror process that players can deduce where, in phenomenological terms, a game’s facticity ends (its rule structure and play boundaries) and their

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transcendence begins (player’s relative freedom within the gamespace). In America’s Army: Rise of a Soldier, the player’s objectives are listed during the briefing period before each mission. After the missions begin, the player has the freedom to lock onto a variety of targets, fire at enemies and the environment using weapons appropriate to his military specialty (e.g., a sniper cannot select a heavy machine gun), and may position his avatar within a prescribed region. Failure to sufficiently eliminate or contain an enemy force, misusing limited specialty munitions, or losing teammates will result in failed goals, which may or may not compromise the larger mission. Furthermore, any action that radically deviates from basic protocols, such as venturing away from one’s squad without permission, shooting fellow GIs, or getting killed will result in immediate mission failure. So while minor mission objectives may be completed or neglected without exacting the disciplinary action of the game, any action that compromises a level’s primary objectives results in the immediate arrest of game-play. Full Spectrum Warrior’s goal of teaching players Army-approved team movements in hostile urban terrain is evident in the game’s ingenious dynamic cursor system. The squads move in strict formations to battlefield locations selected by the player’s cursor. This cursor changes shape depending on, first, where it is placed relative to battlefield objects (e.g., buildings, vehicles, debris) and, second, on the number of soldiers in the squad. For instance, four circles (representing four soldiers) align themselves in a line if the player wants the team to find cover against the side of a building; the circles become box shaped if the player wants the team to protect themselves behind an abandoned vehicle or statue; and the team assumes a wedge position if they are placed in open terrain without cover. These extremely prescribed formations are such a pronounced element of Full Spectrum Warrior’s core game-play (an element absent in Rise of a Soldier) that one

begins to see how these shapes fit into different battlefield landscapes, and what advantages and disadvantages each position has relative to the others. Armed allies and enemy combatants are not the only non-player characters in these two games, as civilians and non-combatants can also be killed. Both games aid the player in making the differentiation between friend and foe by marking these figures differently, encouraging players to value certain human targets over others. The freedom here is considerably limited though, because while players can kill non-combatants, the game’s design discourages trigger-happy gunplay via penalty points and through terminating game-play. Advancing successfully through video games requires players to refine their inputs to game prompts in increasingly sophisticated ways. The question before us regarding these games’ educational construction is: through what specific means do these particular titles teach gamers official values and protocols? The answer is to be found in the existential game-play structures themselves. That is, the productive tension between the player’s agency and the game’s technological intentionality enables us to see how repeated game-play experiences (both successes and failures) solicit players to refine their inputs so that these interactions align themselves with the military’s preferred mode of play, thus producing a sanctioned brand of militarized game-play. The following four phenomenologically inspired and non-hierarchical categories all speak to the educational implications borne out of the playergame relationship.

In-Game Affordances In Technology and the Lifeworld, Don Ihde (1990) discusses how a sardine can changes roles as its moves from an Australian society where it acts as a food container, to New Guinea, where it is incorporated into the local headgear, becoming a valued fashion object (pp. 125-126). The repur-

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posing of the sardine can is a testament to the pliability of material objects to different cultures. In “Affordances: An Ecological Approach to First Philosophy,” John T. Sanders (building on psychologist J.J. Gibson’s work) defines affordances as “opportunities for action in the environment of an organism” (Sanders, 1999, p. 129). The sardine can is an example of a human affordance. One society uses it to store food, while another elevates it to a status symbol.12 Affordance is a useful concept for phenomenology in general and existential ludology in particular because it underscores that “things in our experience are not just neutral lumps to which we cognitively attach meaning. The things we experience ‘tell us what to do with them’” (p. 129). An object’s affordance is based on its use-relationship status, then, and does not hinge on any transcendent, objective identity. Existential ludology looks to the player’s ingame affordances to ascertain what is and what is not possible within a particular title. For example, one might ask: How many different ways can a player use a car in a given adventure game? Can they drive it, hide in it, destroy it, sell it, disassemble it?13 Sanders contends that “the language of affordances relativizes ontology not simply to the physical body, but to what an agent can do” (italics in original, Sanders, 1999, p. 135). Therefore, “Affordances serve…as analytic units of embodiment” because they provide individual instances for discussing existential possibilities for game-play and return us not only to the larger issue about player agency vs. game structure, but they also signal what the game wants us to learn (the text’s technological intentionality). If military titles teach us how to act and react militarily, then they do so using certain in-game objects rather than others. Generally speaking, tactical shooter games entail dispatching enemies and remaining alive in a variety of environments while being subjected to a range of pressures (e.g., mission objectives, time

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constraints). The most obvious way of surviving in these games is not to get injured. To that end, Rise of a Soldier and Full Spectrum Warrior instruct the player on how to avoid injury by using his soldiers’ weapons, bodies, and environments appropriately. The foremost game affordances are the virtual weapons and many battlefield obstructions. Both titles affirm the need to find ideal firing positions, while blocking the opponent’s fire using any and all available objects. To this end, haystacks, cars, and rocks provide some manner of protection against oncoming fire. Interestingly, blocking bullets is often the only thing that these objects are good for. Haystacks cannot be searched, vehicles cannot be driven, and rocks cannot be skipped. These are obviously not the typical interests of foot soldiers caught in a firefight, but the singledimensionality of these objects signal how it is soldiers should use these battlefield articles. Similarly, the primary defensive affordances in Full Spectrum Warrior are the corners of buildings and other popular urban waste (e.g., wrecked cars, discarded couches, broken statues, etc.). The player is reminded repeatedly to move the teams from cover to cover, identifying and using whatever impromptu shields are available. The game underscores that these objects afford different degrees of protection by assigning them changing, floating icons as the soldiers move from one kind of destructible cover to the next. Rise of a Soldier’s interest in teaching individual survival techniques is supported by its lessons on the offensive and defensive advantages of strategic body positioning. Standing upright gives the soldier mobility but makes him more vulnerable, while laying prone has the inverse effect while facilitating accurate aiming. These sanctioned bodily and battlefield affordances are a clear reminder that one of the sub-genre’s major selling points is that it models sanctioned combat behavior. The net effect of these repeated game-play solicitations is that gamers must see the virtual battlefield,

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over time and through successive levels, as the military would like—namely, as a dynamic space with exploitable, contextual affordances. The realworld analog is that properly trained war fighters in the field have a military vision to see the most useful offensive and defensive opportunities that would remain hidden to untrained eyes.

Intentional Arc and Maximum Grip Game affordances lead us to French phenomenologist Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s twin concepts of intentional arc and maximum grip. Merleau-Ponty’s intentional arc is defined by Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1999) as the “tight connection between body and world, viz. that, as the active body acquires skills, those skills are ‘stored,’ not as representations in the mind, but as dispositions to respond to the solicitations of situations in the world” (p. 103). Maximum grip, meanwhile, describes “the body’s tendency to refine its discriminations and to respond to solicitations in such a way as to bring the current situation closer to the optimal gestalt that the skilled agent has learned to expect” (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1999, p. 103). These complementary ideas describe a human’s deliberate and repeated attempts to perform actions so one preferred situation obtains over another. Dreyfus and Dreyfus deftly observe that action and learning need not require a body in a literal sense, such as where a disembodied agent learns to play chess, but that said agent must have some means of apprehending feedback. They note: But to acquire a skill at all [the subjectivity] must have some kind of perception or imagination and some way to act in response to what is presented to it so as to change the presented situation. Thus, the intentional arc must at least be embodied in the sense that the know-how we acquire is reflected back at us in the solicitations of situations correlative with our dispositions to respond to them. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1999, p. 110)

The implications for game-play should be clear. A player need not literally identify with what it means to do any number of actions that video games are capable of simulating (e.g., lifting 300 pounds, flying a military jet) or fantastically representing (e.g., playing a fire-breathing dragon), but the player must comprehend, act, and react meaningfully to game prompts, and learn to overcome increasingly difficult obstacles to win. A video game’s valuation of certain virtual objects over others produces a context-specific feedback loop concerning objects’ preferred usages, which in turn teach players about gamespecific demands. In subsequent game-play experiences, interactions with similar objects engender a predisposition for using said objects to achieve certain ends. For example, a pile of rubble in Full Spectrum Warrior may not be meaningful to my game-play experiences until I have used it to protect my soldiers on several occasions. And after several exposures to similar situations, the debris evolves into something more than an urban eyesore, morphing from an obstacle into ad hoc armor, which I then incorporate into my defensive strategy and operationalize as part of my intentional arc. Maximum grip, meanwhile, is evident when the gamer is given the opportunity to customize their character or somehow change how they interact with the game world. For instance, the skills system that undergirds the promotional aspect of Rise of a Soldier (it is the “rise” in the title) allows the gamer to attain a personalized grip on their self-fashioned character.14 It is a game-play mechanism common to titles across game genres. In Rise’s case, these points permit the previously undefined and unskilled GI to specialize in different combat attributes. These points make it easier for experienced players to accomplish more extraordinary missions that are too difficult for novice players using unspecialized characters. This authorizes players to customize their game proxies to more faithfully reflect their own gameplaying interests. These twin phenomenological

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concepts explain how the design structure of Rise of a Soldier’s promotional ladder, and indeed innumerable other games, personalizes the learning process so game skills more closely reflect a player’s preferred manner of play.

Pre-Reflective Flow vs. Replay Consciousness Csikszentmihalyi’s (1979) notion of flow, an experiential state that is “like being carried away and yet being in control of the direction of the flow,” has been used in studying the phenomenology of play (p. 261). Csikszentmihalyi’s perspective is in line with this discussion and is a handy way of thinking about the pre-reflective, active moment of game-play. Proficient players who have attained a maximum grip of their game’s skill set (e.g., a Chess Master, NBA all-star) need not think about their choices in the same mechanistic way as novices do. Proficient players react and anticipate events based on their embodied knowledge from having faced a number of similar experiences with similar affordances. A strong intentional arc manifests itself as flow. “In fact some people describe [flow] as a transcendence, as a merging with the environment, as a union with the activity or with the process” (Csikszentmihayli, 1979, p. 261). There is a positive correlation, then, between a player’s game skills and attaining prolonged moments of flow. Rise of a Soldier and Full Spectrum Warrior come armed with in-game information conventions that provide a variety of real-time performance indicators to players so they can sustain their game flow. These devices tell gamers how well they are playing, giving them the tools they need to create an ideal, embodied gestalt.15 The most obvious, ubiquitous, and immediate indicator of game-play success in combat games is the player’s health meter, which is often displayed as a percentage or bar. Rise of a Soldier underscores the value of remaining uninjured in combat by hampering the player’s abilities after

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taking damage. Aiming becomes erratic, movement is slowed, and visibility is obscured after one’s avatar has been injured. Full Spectrum Warrior also emphasizes the tactical necessity of keeping fire squads healthy. When a player loses too many soldiers, the round ends. Mission success hinges on the gamer’s ability to control, manage, and maintain uninjured soldiers. Video game flow most frequently ends in these games when the system is turned off or when a player fails at some in-game task (indeed, the former is frequently motivated by the latter). Of course, making oneself into a proficient player that has attained a maximum grip of any game—real or virtual—demands time and energy. Jean Paul Sartre’s notion of reflective consciousness, or what I am calling replay consciousness for video game-play, includes the non-flow moments where the gamer reflects on her game-play, auto-critiquing one’s own performance. Replay consciousness can occur during any break in the game action, including when failing at game tasks, when pausing the game, during intermissions between levels, or after terminating a play session. Because game flow is always a pre-reflective state, gamers can only make sense of their flow experiences during these non-flow moments or think about what they have learned when the game is set aside. Rise of a Soldier and Full Spectrum Warrior’s in-game resting points, where game flow is paused, encourages the player to consider her recent choices and anticipate future actions. Rise of a Soldier manages its in-game objectives and game flow by interspersing waypoints (where the game is saved) and official Army ACE (for ammo, communication, and equipment) meetings throughout its levels. Players return to these mid-level checkpoints should they fail to achieve subsequent mission objectives. Full Spectrum Warrior’s missions also contain mid-level save points that grant players additional latitude for exploring different strategies without being penalized by starting over should they fail. Along with

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pausing and reloading the game from previous save points, players also have the ability to halt game-play indefinitely in both titles by referencing the satellite maps. ACE meetings, waypoints, and satellite maps give players moments of respite to reflect on their game maneuvers (i.e., their militarized flow) and to rethink any failed tactics that may have abruptly returned them to a previous waypoint. Other non-play moments worthy of note are the loading screens in both games and the instant replay mechanism in Full Spectrum Warrior. The former are title cards that appear as the system loads the game information from the disk. Both games use this interstitial moment to reinforce the tone and tactics of their games, and to advertise the armed forces through promotional materials. Full Spectrum Warrior also comes equipped with an instant replay function.16 It is not uncommon for video games to have some integrated replay tool whereby the player can review the action recorded during the previous round or session.17 The replay is but one more means to reflect on actions outside of game-play flow. These titles’ transitions from moments of play, where gamers are asked to react militarily, to moments of rest (e.g., maps, ACE meetings, instant replay), where they reflect militarily, shore up the gamer’s burgeoning prowess and identity formation as a properly educated virtual soldier.

Video Game as a Multistable Text Don Ihde is fond of using visual aids to illustrate how human perception works. For example, he uses the “Necker Cube” image to argue that a single object can produce a proliferation of interpretations. “What [the Necker Cube] ‘really’ is remains undetermined. It is many things at once; it is ‘stable’ in multiple ways” (Verbeek, 2001, p. 134). This visual concept is also used in the service of his cultural hermeneutics. “The

insight that technologies are indissolubly linked with humans-in-culture implies that technologies have no ‘essence’; they are only what they are in their use. Ihde names this ambiguity of technology multistability” (p. 134). Game-play is similarly ‘stable’ in many ways, as it is the product of a technology that comes into being when it is played, and video games are rarely played the same way twice. That is, even if titles do not change from one interaction to the next, games commonly generate a range of experiences from session to session, thereby complicating efforts to author any singular game-play account. Rise of a Soldier and Full Spectrum Warrior’s play structures are less multistable than other popular open-ended genres like “sandbox-style” games and massively multiplayer online titles. Of course, given the institutional goals and the design concerns of the military and their game producers, it not surprising that these games favor strict procedural game-play over an open, exploratory design. Yet despite their comparative austerity, procedural military games nevertheless produce varying ludic war experiences that require decoding and unpacking with some flexible, interpretive tool. Adequately assessing a game’s degree of multistability, therefore, requires: • •

•

A familiarity with the game, which usually requires numerous play sessions; A proficiency with the game, so as to advance through enough of it to make an informed analysis; and An appreciation of the genre, to contextualize these impressions within and across generic categories.

As this chapter has stressed throughout, video games are experienced during the act of game-play and therefore require interpretive programs that can make sense of play performances. Existential ludology offers one such approach.

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FUtUrE trENDs AND IMPLIcAtIONs Existential ludology’s interpretive utility rests on its commitment to understanding lived gameplay through a holistic, experiential lens instead of dissecting game-play into decontextualized elements. The educational implications of this nascent reading strategy are at least two-fold. First, existential ludology offers those who would use video games as teaching tools a critical hermeneutic that can form linkages between game-play demands to ideology and real-world politics. At its core, existential ludology holds that play matters, because play educates. The more difficult question that follows is, how exactly do video games educate? While this chapter is limited to examining how two specific games have been designed to train gamers to play militarily by way of complementary game-play structures—foregrounding militarily approved affordances, providing players with a way of attaining maximum grip of the text through character customization, and encouraging an auto-critique of game performance through waypoints and replay mechanisms—it remains but one application. Future game research might build on this work by employing existential ludology to ask similar questions about military-themed games in other genres, or by conducting reception research to check one’s own phenomenologically grounded reading against other players’ understandings of these same titles. The second implication for educators, and one that is at the heart of media education and media literacy, is the issue of student-centered media production. Yes, existential ludology is about media interpretation, not media production. Yet the hope of forging such a tool is that critical readings will engender critical responses. One salient response to a military-themed game is the counter-military graffiti crafted by the Velvet-Strike Team for the PC game Counter-Strike (2000).18 Players can spray paint surfaces in Counter-Strike using a set of signature marks, or tags (e.g., a smiley face, a

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letter, picture). The Velvet-Strike Team, wanting to create an anti-war game modification after the 2001 U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, designed a number of subversive tags that challenge the game’s values—namely, the propriety of taking pleasure in virtually killing others during a real time of war. The team’s sprays include hearts and no-bomb logos; an image of a wounded child with the caption, “we are all Iraqis now”; a “no more war” sign; and others that critique Counter-Strike’s textual complicity with the logic of contemporary militarism. Existential ludology gives gamer-students the tools necessary to describe how video games solicit their responses, to reflect openly on how these interactions make them feel, and to help them ground the meaningfulness of their virtual worlds by connecting their play to their pre-existing material world. Answering these questions allow students to grapple with how games touch their lives, appreciate what it is they learn (or do not learn) from games, and what constitutes an informed and even inspired response—be it a critical essay or media-based intervention.

cONcLUsION It is evident that the Defense Department presumes a fairly idealized relationship between its doctrinal games and its users; one where the games instruct players to do something and that command is executed. At almost every turn, the two games’ similar designs digitally inscribe the military’s non-negotiable, top-down instructor-centered pedagogical tenor. But we should remember that the usually implicit, preferred-use relationships between technologies and humans, while they may at times appear sacrosanct, are never preordained. Existential ludology explains why human-technology relationships are always in flux, and how this unfolding negotiation is shaped by humans who see new actionable opportunities emerge in their life-world, and by dynamic and multistable interactive media technologies that offer degrees

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of freedom within their limited horizons of action. So when interactive military game technologies are played, they may teach us to be better soldiers, just as they may be misread and misplayed. Indeed, players interested in learning something other than combat tactics may even disarm these doctrinal games, just as educators may use them to teach lessons other than warfighting.

rEFErENcEs Bennington, T., & Gay, G. (2000). Mediated perceptions: Contributions of phenomenological film theory to understanding the interactive video experience. Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, 5(4). Retrieved October 13, 2007, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol5/issue4/bennington_gay.html Casebier, A. (1991). Film and phenomenology: Toward a realist theory of cinematic representation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1979). The concept of flow. In B. Sutton-Smith (Ed.), Play and learning. New York: Gardner Press. Counter-Strike. (2000) Counter-Strike. Los Angeles: Sierra Entertainment/Vivendi Games. Dreyfus, H.L., & Dreyfus, S.E. (1999). The challenge of Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology of embodiment for cognitive science. In G. Weiss & H.F. Haber (Eds.), Perspectives on embodiment: The intersections of nature and culture (pp. 103120). New York: Routledge. Epic Games. (2004). Unreal Tournament 2004. Paris: Atari. Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave MacMillian. Id Software. (1994). Doom II. Paris: Atari.

Ihde, D. (1977). Experimental phenomenology: An introduction. New York: Putnam. Ihde, D. (1990). Technology and the lifeworld: From garden to earth. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Ihde, D. (2002). Bodies in technology. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Jorgenssen, J. (2003). A garden meeting: Ihde and Pickering. In D. Ihde & E. Selinger (Eds.), Chasing technoscience: Matrix for materiality (pp. 213-224). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Lenoir, T. (2000). All but war is simulation: The military-entertainment complex. Configurations, 8, 289-335. Mallon, B. & Weba, B. (2006). Applying a phenomenological approach to game analysis: A case study. Simulation & Gaming, 37(2), 209-225. Pandemic Studios. (2005). Full Spectrum Warrior. Agoura Hills, CA: THQ. Payne, M.T. (forthcoming). Manufacturing militainment: Video game producers and military brand games. In Schubart, Virchow, Thomas, & White-Stanley (Eds.), War isn’t Hell, it’s entertainment. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Sanders, J.T. (1999). Affordances: An ecological approach to first philosophy. In G. Weiss & H.F. Haber (Eds.), Perspectives on embodiment: The intersections of nature and culture (pp. 121-142). New York: Routledge. Secret Level. (2005). America’s Army: Rise of a Soldier. San Francisco: Ubisoft. Sobchack, V. (1991). The address of the eye: A phenomenology of film experience. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Stockwell, S., & Muir, A. (2003). The military entertainment complex: A new facet of information warfare. Fibreculture: Internet theory

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+ culture + research, 1. Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://journal.fibreculture.org/issue1/issue1_stockwellmuir.html

Intentional Arc: In phenomenology, the connection between perception and action that explains how skill acquisition takes place.

Ubisoft. (2005). Instruction manual for America’s Army: Rise of a Soldier. Packaged with Xbox game disk.

Intentionality: The always already directedness of human consciousness. Human thought must always be about, or be directed at, some object or thing (one’s own consciousness included). Intentionality is a core concept in phenomenological thought.

Verbeek, P. (2001). Don Ihde: The technological lifeworld. In H. Achterhuis (Ed.), American philosophy of technology: The empirical turn (pp. 119-146). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

KEY TERMS Affordances: Actionable opportunities in one’s environment. Psychologist J.J. Gibson coined this term in 1977 and stresses that affordances are limited both by physics (wishful thinking is not enough), and by an agent’s ability to recognize available opportunities for action. For instance, a stone can only be used as a weapon if one recognizes that prospect and can wield it accordingly. Existential Phenomenology: A thread of phenomenology that changes the direction of phenomenological inquiry from epistemology (study of knowledge) to ontology (study of being). The major figures of this derivative camp are Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and Martin Heidegger. First-Person Shooter Games: A popular video game genre that is distinguished thematically by its combat-oriented game-play, and is characterized visually by its three-dimensional gamespaces that players navigate by way of their avatars (their digital proxies). Well-known firstperson shooter game franchises include: Doom, Half-Life, Halo, and Unreal.

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Maximum Grip: In phenomenology, the tendency for a person to refine his or her actions so certain desired outcomes obtain more frequently and effortlessly than others. Phenomenology: A twentieth-century philosophical movement concerned with the question of how phenomena appear to human consciousness. Although the term has been used since the eighteenth century, it was not until Edmund Husserl systematized this descriptive method of creating objective structures for subjective observations that phenomenology gained traction as its own scientific movement. Tactical Shooter Games: Generally considered a sub-genre of the first-person and thirdperson shooter titles. These games stress combat realism; a fidelity to simulating real-world physics, ballistics, and armaments; and the utility of following tested battlefield protocols. These games also commonly emphasize the combat value of deft resource management, stealth, and reconnaissance. Well-known tactical shooter game franchises include: Full Spectrum Warrior, Tom Clancy’s Ghost Recon, and Rainbow Six.

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The game’s Web site is www.riseofasoldier. com (retrieved May 25, 2007). Full Spectrum Warrior, which will be discussed shortly, was released commercially before Rise of a Soldier. However, the Army

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did not officially endorse Full Spectrum Warrior, even though it was designed as a training tool for its soldiers. This intersection of militarism and entertainment has been labeled by media scholars as the Military-Entertainment Complex (Lenoir, 2000; Stockwell & Muir, 2003). For example, Microsoft’s Xbox 360, Nintendo’s Wii, and Sony’s PlayStation 3 are all considered to be the clumsily phrased current “next-generation” platforms, even though they are technically part of the seventh generation of home gaming technologies. Ihde’s three primary techno-social configurations are not mutually exclusive categorical groupings, but are a continuum of experiential possibilities. For an analysis of video games as a literacy, see Gee (2003). While phenomenology is underused as a critical methodology, this chapter is by no means the only game analysis to employ it. For example, Mallon and Webb (2006) take a phenomenological approach in studying players’ engagement with narrative design. For more information on this game’s production history, see Payne (forthcoming). For more information on this game’s production history, see Payne (forthcoming). This military education is relayed primarily via the voiceover instruction at the virtual boot camps. The characters in Rise of a Soldier and the disembodied voice in Full Spectrum Warrior communicate many of the same lessons that infantry soldiers receive in basic training.

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There are no female avatars in these two games. The masonry brick is another example. Humans can use bricks to build a house, or they might wield it to injure others. Bricks do not afford humans with nutrients or sustenance, however. An existential ludologist might also investigate game fissures where programming errors offer game-play experiences unintended by the game’s designers. What kind of play experience does one have if they find themselves stuck between levels as the result of a programming glitch? After all, affordances need not be purposefully programmed, they need only be recognizable and subject to experience. Full Spectrum Warrior does not have any customizable avatar options. “Embodied gestalt” is used here to indicate the player’s holistic, psychosomatic responses to a variety of game prompts that necessitate real-time and coordinated mental (e.g., interpretation of screen images) and physical (e.g., manual dexterity of game controller) responses. Rise of a Soldier does not have any replay mechanism. This convention is especially prevalent in sports games. The Velvet-Strike project is at http://www. opensorcery.net/velvet-strike/about.html (retrieved July 1, 2007).

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Chapter XXXVII

On Choosing Games and What Counts as a “Good” Game Katrin Becker University of Calgary, Canada James R. Parker University of Calgary, Canada

AbstrAct This chapter will discuss the growing importance of applying considered rationales to which games are chosen for study, whether it be for ethnography, classroom use, or anything else. A brief overview of how games are currently being chosen for study is presented through a meta analysis of studies with games that were published between 2003 and 2006 in order to demonstrate that most published games studies do not include a supported rationale for the games chosen. The chapter will then present various ways that game choices can be justified, and propose and explain a data fusion technique that can be applied to game reviews and other lists in order to facilitate representative and defensible game choices.

INtrODUctION Why is it important to justify the choice of games being used as an example in a scholarly article or for the purposes of study? In the early days of games studies, there seemed little call for careful scrutiny of one’s game choices. We studied what we had handy and wrote about the games we were already playing. However, if we want to make the case that the game in question is good by some

measure (however we decide to define “good”), then we really should have some evidence to back this up. When a single game or a small number of games are chosen as the subject(s) of study, they form part of the bounded system that is the case being examined, and also form part of what makes the case of special interest (Stake, 1995). If we are proposing the use of a game in the classroom or the study of some specific game to learn something applicable to our agenda, whether that agenda is to

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examine the educational potential of the game or to learn something else about the game that may inform other instruction, then as academics we have a responsibility to explain why that game is suitable for our purpose. One reason for putting thoughtful effort into justifying the choice of a game used in a study is that it helps to make the study itself more credible. This has implications for the increased acceptance of games studies academically as well as for helping to improve relations between academia and the games industry. In a recent article offering suggestions for how the Academy of Interactive Arts and Science could build stronger ties with the games industry, Hopson (2006) argues that we should: …(u)se examples from bestsellers. A good example from a popular game is more effective than a great example from something they’ve never heard of. Industry people often suffer from an ‘if-they’reso-smart-, why-ain’t-they-rich’ attitude towards smaller titles. Even if the small title is a perfect example of how the theory works, they’re going to be less likely to listen if they haven’t heard of the game ahead of time. Commercial success is one way of making sure that the audience will respect your examples, but you can also use titles that are well known or critically acclaimed but which weren’t necessarily huge blockbusters. It’s also important to keep your examples as current as possible, because many industry folks will see a three-year-old example as ancient history. Critical and commercial success are key recognizable and accepted (albeit subjective) measures of a game’s popularity, and that popularity in turn gives some indication of that game’s perceived quality as judged by players, developers, and game critics. When it comes to resources that are primarily creative or artistic in nature, subjective measures are often the only ones we have. In sports for example, such as sprinting, determining who the fastest sprinter is can be

done quite objectively—it is a matter of comparing competition times, and the runner with the fastest time wins; no such objective measure exists for most creative endeavors, and since games are creative designs, we can only produce subjective measures. To further compound the problem, lists of ‘top games’ tend to be quite unstable and change not only from year to year as new titles gain recognition, but sometimes from day to day as in review sites where players can contribute. One consequence of this is that no single list can reasonably be used to support claims about a particular game’s qualities. One solution is to combine multiple lists into one comprehensive one. By combining multiple lists, we can increase our confidence in the qualifications of games that end up on top. However, the challenge in combining measures from these various sources is that the criteria used to produce lists of ‘good’ games are often so divergent that they cannot be compared or combined directly. Categories and scores vary, the methodology used to rate and rank the games varies, even the contributors vary—in some cases they are paid professional critics; in other cases association members or even the public at large contributes votes and reviews. The data fusion technique described in this chapter offers a solution to this problem that is both verifiable and repeatable. Combining a number of different measures to come up with a single measure ensures that games that end up at the top of the final list qualify as successful by more than one measure and have been assessed by more than one source. Using a systematic approach to ranking games results in a list with which most (industry, gamers, and critics) could agree.

WHY DO WE STUDY GAMES? Game Studies continues to develop as a discipline just as digital games continue to evolve. While there remains an interest in examinations of specific games for various purposes, as the number

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and sophistication of titles released in a given year continues to rise, it is time to begin looking more closely at how we are choosing the games we study, the criteria we use for those studies, and how we support our claims about the suitability of the game for our purposes. Although commercial success as demonstrated by sales figures is an important measure of success, it is not the only one, and may not be the most important one for any particular study. Often, studies of individual games are conducted with the hopes of being able to generalize at least some of the conclusions to other games and/or other players. Given the number and variety of games with no cleanly defined delineations of genre, can it be assumed that it is possible to examine one game and make generalizations to other games? How should these generalizations be qualified or limited? Games are no longer trivial, nor frivolous, so this is not a straightforward question. There were approximately 2,500 game titles released in 2005. With so many titles released in one year, it becomes harder and harder to justify choosing a game based on personal preferences. Claims that a particular game meets certain criteria critical to the analysis should be supported by something beyond the author’s say-so. There will have to be some way of providing evidence supporting the claims we make about the qualities of the game that we have determined are necessary to our study. As studies on, with, and of games become more accepted and common in mainstream educational research, and as the number of games to choose from continues to grow, it will also become more important to justify the choices of subjects. This has not been common practice to date.

HOW DO rEsEArcHErs cHOOsE GAMES FOR STUDY? Digital games have been around for about 40 years now (Williams, 2006), and Game Studies as a recognizable discipline has been around for

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about 10 years (Wolf, 2001). While there remains an interest in examinations of specific games for various purposes such as Kurt Squire’s work with Civilization (Meier, 2001; Squire, 2003), as the number and sophistication of titles released in a given year continues to rise, it becomes important to look more seriously at how we are choosing the games we study and the criteria we use for those studies, how we support our claims about the suitability of the games for our purposes, and how generalizations to other games should be limited or qualified. Since the question of how games are selected by researchers has not previously been examined, the author conducted a qualitative meta-analysis (Delgado-Rodríguez, 2001) of what methods researchers reported using in choosing games for study. Papers and reports published primarily between 2003 and 2006 were examined with the goal of determining the reporting frequency of explanations of game subject choices. While it was not known if selection criteria were applied to the choices of games that did not get reported in the studies, it was not the goal of this analysis to offer a critique of the choices themselves, but simply to examine how they were made. Note that a lack of explanation in the publication does not prove a lack of consideration for the study. It is certainly possible that carefully considered reasons motivated the game choices in many of the studies presented here, but that these were simply not included in the publication. The worthiness of the choice that was made is also not being examined here, and indeed many well-known game scholars are included in the list of papers examined. In many cases there would be little controversy over the claim that the chosen game has the specified characteristics. In some cases there would also be no dispute that the particular type of game is a suitable choice (and perhaps even the most suitable choice) for the study as reported. Many of the reports have contributed to the body of knowledge in games studies in important and significant ways.

On Choosing Games and What Counts as a “Good” Game

A distinction was made in the meta-analysis between the description of the game (including game-play and any noteworthy features of the game) and a rationale for the choice of the game. Virtually all papers examined offer a description of the game(s) used. Fewer (37%) explained why this game meets the need of the study, and fewer still (15%) supported that explanation with citations. It is suspected that many game choices were at least in part opportunistic, as the researchers had access to or were already playing this game. Only one researcher actually stated that they were already playing the game as their explanation for choosing it. In other cases, the researcher states that they play the game, but it is not made clear whether the study began before or after that individual began to play that game, nor how much influence the author’s own game-playing preferences had on the choice. Comments such as, “I’ve been playing this game for years” places games studies in a somewhat unique position as both casual and avid gamers draw on their own playing experiences to inform their studies. This kind of connection places many games studies in the realm of what Glesne (1999) has called “Backyard Research,” which can make separating researcher roles from preexisting ones complicated and difficult. Generalizability of games studies is one issue that can be addressed by more rigorous justification of game choices. In a longitudinal study of violence in an online video game, Williams and Skorik (2005) raised questions about the generalizability of games that have implications far beyond their own study. The online database www.allgame.com lists descriptions of more than 38,000 different games across 100 platforms. To collapse this wide variety of content into a variable labeled ’game play’is the equivalent of assuming that all television, radio, or motion picture use is the same (Williams & Skoric, 2005).

As Dill and Dill (1998) have noted, “This is akin to lumping films like The Little Mermaid with Pulp Fiction, and expecting this combined ‘movie viewing’ variable to predict increases in aggressive behavior” (p. 423). One interpretation of this statement is that we are not currently paying sufficient attention to the great variety of games available. Such a large number of games means that we cannot assume that one game is as suitable as any other for the purposes of study (i.e., we cannot collapse all adventure games into one category for the purposes of study). Studying one game does not necessarily allow us to generalize our findings. While a suggestion to force all games researchers to use some sort of “scientific” approach to choosing games is clearly unreasonable, paying closer attention to how we choose games can certainly help address legitimate questions about a game’s fitness for purpose in the context of a study. It may not be necessary to explain why someone has chosen Shakespeare or Chaucer to study, but games have not yet attained the level of acceptance that classic literature has, and we should still be explaining our decisions. If we choose a game because it is one we personally like, that may be justified, but we still need to address how that makes that game a worthy candidate for study. If we choose a game because it is popular, then we should be able to support that with facts or citations that can stand up to scrutiny. The meta-analysis conducted by the author included 52 papers that were examined in detail. Ninety-one games were identified comprising 71 distinct titles (some studies used more than one game, but numerous studies used the same games such as World of Warcraft). Only one paper of the 52 reported having applied some systematic technique to identifying games for study; 19% offered no explanation for why they chose the game they did, and several offered the explanation that they were already playing it. In most cases (89%) claims that the game met the criteria described were not supported. Only one study described a rationale for the exclusion of one or more games from study,

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and one other report explained the methodology used to select the game for the study (they allowed the study participants to vote on a game, citing prior research that suggested participant interest was an important factor in the study’s success). The results of the meta-analysis indicate that a very small minority of game researchers currently report on the methodology used for the choice of a game in a study or use examples of excluded games to support their choices. Very few explain how or why their stated game requirements support the goal of the study. While some cite references to support at least some of their claims about why this kind of game is needed for this study, almost none cite any references supporting their claim that the chosen game actually meets those requirements. By far the most common attribute supported by other references is the claim about the game’s popularity and the most common outside reference is to sales figures.

tOWArDs A sOLUtION We need to begin supporting our claims about a game’s fitness for purpose which “equates quality with the fulfillment of a specification or stated outcomes” (Harvey, 2004). If a researcher claims that a particular game is an appropriate choice for a particular study, it is also appropriate to address the question, “Says who?” Given the great number of games available, it is no longer sufficient to claim that a particular game meets certain criteria without somehow supporting that claim in a verifiable way. A game that may be suitable for one sort of study may not be at all suitable for another. Even though critical and commercial success are both recognizable and accepted measures of a game’s popularity, and popularity in turn gives some indication of that game’s perceived quality as judged by players, developers, and game critics, these are also highly subjective measures. Combining a number of dif-

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ferent measures to come up with a single measure ensures that games that end up at the top of the final list qualify as successful by more than one measure and have been assessed by more than one source. If, for example, the main premise for examining commercial games in a study is to learn how games teach and otherwise support learning by ‘studying the masters’, there must be some way to convincingly determine that the games from which the final choices are made are of a stature that would qualify them as among the masterpieces.

MEAsUrEs OF crItIcAL sUccEss Critical success is typically thought to include acclaim by professional critics, which can also include winning various recognized awards. Critical success can come from many sources, and three different kinds are included in the approach described here. One includes the game developers who actually design and build the games, and that voice is heard through the two primary industry professional organizations: the Academy of Interactive Arts and Science (AIAS) and the International Game Developer’s Association (IDGA). Both hold annual award ceremonies where members nominate and vote for games in various categories. Another source of critical acclaim is the gamer-reviewer: someone who does not work for a games company or press agency, but plays the games and is willing to contribute publicly available reviews of individual games. The third source is the official press. There are now a great many Web sites and magazines devoted to gaming and most contain review sections. Most will publish gamer reviews alongside those written by paid correspondents. All three sources can be combined to create a more robust assessment than any single source can alone.

On Choosing Games and What Counts as a “Good” Game

MEAsUrEs OF cOMMErcIAL sUccEss There are many examples in literature, film, and other media of works that have achieved critical acclaim but not commercial success and vice versa. Both are measures of success, and with modern acceptance of player-reviews as one form of acclaim, both should be included in a list that claims to include ‘good” or ‘best’ games. Commercial success is typically defined by sales, which in games is measured as units sold in a given year. There appears to be only one source for this data in the U.S.: NPD®1 (http://www.npd. com/corpServlet?nextpage=entertainment-categories_s.html), which is also the source used by the ESA (Entertainment Software Association) and most other press agencies. NPD is the primary source of video game sales and consumer information. While it is acknowledged that commercial success is no assurance of quality, it is an indication of popularity, and inclusion in the top 10 or 20 games in any given year is a significant achievement. There are thousands of titles released each year, and nearly 230 million games were sold in the U.S. in 2005 (ESA, 2006). That means that less than 1% (possibly less than .05%) of these games make it onto this bestseller’s list.

cOMbINING DAtA There is evidence to suggest that word of mouth, game demos, and reviews are all important factors influencing a decision to purchase a game (Dobson, 2006), but there is also evidence to suggest that review scores do not significantly affect game sales (Boyer, 2006). One possible consequence of this is that since there is no statistically significant relationship between sales and reviews, both values should be included in the selection process, as neither one provides a complete picture alone. As already stated, we

also know from literature, theater, and film that popularity as evidenced through sales does not always match critical acclaim, yet both tell us something about that work’s quality. The sources of the values used to compile various lists are important, and some effort should be made to identify the primary data sources whenever possible. For example, all of the sales data the authors were able to find could be traced back to a single source: the NPD statistics. This means that there is no point in combining sales lists from multiple sources since they in turn all got their data from the same source—it simply amounts to counting the same data multiple times. This phenomenon should also be remembered when combining other data from multiple sources—we need to check where they got their data from.

DAtA FUsION MEtHODOLOGIEs FOr cOMbINING DAtA Coordinating Decisions Using Many Data Sources Humans generally make complex decisions by considering many factors. There must be a way for the human mind to assign some kind of value to the reliability of the many sources of information to which it has access, and to rank the relevance and significance of these sources for a particular choice that needs to be made. Unfortunately, self-reflection rarely makes available the actual mechanisms, and so researchers are left to use the methods of mathematics and systems analysis to devise algorithms for making decisions based on many data sources. Many of the methods for decision making in this context come from the field of artificial intelligence, specifically pattern recognition. Consider a computer program that examines an image and looks for faces. One way to do this is to look for elliptical areas of basically a flesh color. Imagine that this works about 80% of the

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time. Now imagine a program that looks for eyes in an image and draws a face around them. This may work 70% of the time. However, together, if one uses both of these methods on the same image, it may be possible to raise the success rate to 85-90%. Of course, the combination of sources of game rating information is a vastly different problem from the recognition of faces, but the same basic decision combination methods can be applied to both.

Data Fusion Methods Data fusion is the process of combining data from multiple sources into some form of coherent data set. Sources may be of similar types, such as multiple telescopes, or dissimilar types, such as optical, acoustic, radar, and infrared data. An important aspect of data fusion methods is the ability to deal with conflicting data. It is sometimes necessary to create temporary or interim results that the system can improve and change as the available data improves and changes. Much of the literature in this area discusses how to find targets (objects) using sensing devices. On the face of it, this sounds like the sort of solution that is needed for the problem at hand. There are many sophisticated methods for data fusion in engineering applications, where the different sources of data are discrete sensors. For example, a Bayesian network (Jensen, 2001), also referred to as a belief network, is a statistical model that can represent a set of values or variables and their probabilities. Some researchers use Dempster-Shafer theory (Shafer, 1976) for data fusion, in which we can also consider the confidence we have in the probabilities assigned to the various outcomes as well as the probabilities themselves. Fuzzy logic (Zadeh, 1965) is another method that has been used for data fusion. This involves sets and logic and the idea of a degree of membership. An item is either a member of a set or not, as a general rule, but in a fuzzy set,

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an object can be a member to a specific degree. Traditional probability can indicate the likelihood of a car being parked in stall 52 or in stall 53. In reality some people park partly in both, and with fuzzy sets this situation can be described as the degree to which the car is in stall 52 and the degree to which it is in 53. This is obviously a better way to represent the real situation. All of these methods deal well with data that is accurate to known likelihoods and tolerances. They do not, in general, handle unreliable data, decisions, or data from unknown sources with unknown properties. Thus, they will not be especially useful in dealing with the problem of using multiple sources of game success data (although they would be very good at tracking missiles).

Types of Decisions In order to devise a mathematical system for merging decisions from multiple sources, it is necessary to find a representation for the various kinds of decisions that exist, and to devise a formalism for manipulating these decisions. As it happens this is a very old problem, and it has some very old solutions (Farquharson, 1969; Straffin, 1980a, 1980b). There are basically three different forms of decision, which are referred to as Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3. As an example on which to create understandable examples, consider the following problem: There are three candidates for the chairman of a committee (C1, C2, and C3), and five people assigned the task of deciding which one shall be the chairman (P1 .. P5). A Type 1 decision is a simple choice. For example, P1 may choose C1 to be chairman—that’s a Type 1 decision. There are no options; there is no way to determine how significant the choice was, what the second choice might be, or how close the first and second choices were. The usual way to combine Type 1 choices is to treat them as votes, and usually a simple majority vote determines a winner. This means that whichever of

On Choosing Games and What Counts as a “Good” Game

the three candidates receives three or more votes wins (i.e., 3 is more than half of 5, and thus is a simple majority). So if the votes are: P1 chooses C1

classes below it in the ranking. The Borda winner is the selection with the largest count value. Considering the ongoing example of five people selecting a chairman, let each person rank the candidates first to last. An example would be:

P2 chooses C3 P3 chooses C1 P4 chooses C3 P5 chooses C1 the winner is C1, with three votes.

A Type 2 decision is a ranking of the set of options, from most to least acceptable. The basic idea is that each decider determines a relative order for the selections; for example, the first choice for chairman is person C2, the second choice is C3, and the last choice is C1. This example would be output as a list: (C2 C3 C1). It is not necessary to know the degree to which C2 is more popular than C3. There is obviously more information here than in the case of a Type 1 decision, and making use of it should yield a more reliable composite result—that is, a choice that represents a good melding of information from all sources. Type 2 decisions are what can be expected from game assessments, generally. The ‘PC Magazine Top 10’, for example, would generally list the best 10 games of a particular year in order, where the best game of that year would be first in the list. The problem to be addressed is easy to describe: given a collection of ‘top 10’ lists (where 10 could really be any number at all) from various sources, how can they be merged so that the overall top games can be identified? The Borda count (also called Borda’s method of marks) is an ancient scheme for resolving this kind of situation, in which each alternative is given a number of points depending on where in the ranking it has been placed (Black, 1958; Borda, 1781). A selection is given no points for placing last, one point for placing next to last, and so on, up to R-1 points for placing first in a list with R elements. In other words, the number of points (the weight) given to a selection is the number of

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5

C1, C3, C2 C3, C2, C1 C1, C3, C2 C3, C2, C1 C1, C3, C2

The count for Candidate C1 is 2 (from P1) + 0 (from P2) + 2 (from P3) + 0 (from P4) + 2 (from P5) = 6. However, C1 is not the winner anymore. The Count for C2 is 0+1+0+1+0 = 2, and for C3 is 1+2+1+2+1 = 7, so C3 is the winner. How did that happen? C3 had a higher overall level of support, never finishing last. However, it can be argued that a majority selection should always take precedence of a Borda count (Parker, 1999). This debate has been going on for centuries, and for the purpose of ranking and selecting games for experimentation is probably moot. In the general case, each potential selection i=1,2,...R receives some number vi1 of first-place votes, some number vi2 of second-place votes, and so on. These are combined to give a desirability index (or Borda Count) Di for each selection. The Borda method for computing Di is (Parker, 2001): R

Di = ∑ Wjvi j =1

(1)

The multipliers Wj are, in this case, just the number of selections having a lower rank than class j, or simply the value R-j. These values are sums across all lists/deciders to give an overall count, and the selection with the largest overall count is considered to be the best overall choice. If the lists are different lengths, then there is an obvious problem. The first-place game in a list of 100 is given a count of 99, whereas the first place in a list of 10 has a value of 9. Is the former

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instance really 11 times better than the latter? No, probably not. The way this can be handled is to always assume that lists have a standard length and then convert the scores into those for a list of that length. For example, assume that there are three ranked lists to be combined: one has 10 elements, one as 100, and the last has 20. Assume a standard list length of 100—using the size of the largest actual ranked list means that it is easier to calculate the new scores. For each element in the list of 10, do the following: 1. 2. 3.

Add 1 to the Borda count Multiply this value by 100/10 = 10 Subtract 1

This converts the count out of 10 into a count out of 100. In general, assume that the standard list length is L (100 in the above case) and the length of the list being converted is Lc (=10 above). For any Borda-ranked element in the Lc list, there is a Borda count for that list—call it Bi. Then the new count for the standardized length L would be:

B=

( Bi + 1) L −1 Lc

(2)

B is called the normalized count. So, the firstplace element in a list of 10, having a Borda count of 9, would have a new count of (9+1)*100/10 - 1 = 10*100/10 - 1 = 100-1 = 99. This is what we would expect. The second-place element, having a count of 8, would have a normalized count computer as (8+1)*100/10 - 1 = 90-1 = 89. Each successive element in the list has a Borda count that is 10 smaller than the previous. The distance between them is uniform, but is not 1, as in the case when the lists are all the same length. Indeed, the distance between adjacent elements in the new list is given by L/Lc. Finally, a Type 3 decision has a numerical value associated with it. This value indicates how much confidence can be had in that decision and so can be thought of as a probability or an acceptability

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value. It is rare in non-physical situations to have this form of information, and it is very unlikely indeed that game ratings will be associate with numerical values that can be normalized. Sales values, whether in dollars or units, are not easy to scale to a standard range, although raw values can be used if needed. The way to combine values in this case is to average the individual values from the sources.

Using More Than One Voting Strategy If the use of more than one data source can be merged into a single, more reliable, set of data, then is it possible to use multiple, distinct voting or merging techniques to create a more reliable composite decision? The answer is yes, but to pursue this line of exploration requires a brief foray into some theory behind voting and decisions. Why is this a useful thing to do? It was mentioned in the discussion of the Borda count that there can be disagreements between methods, such as when the majority vote gives one answer and the Borda count gives another. A secondary issue deals with ties: the Borda count can result in identical counts for multiple decisions, and there should be a way of breaking these ties. Using votes, Borda counts, and other methods to create a single result is a practical way to solve the problems. Using a secondary technique to resolve ties is an obvious thing to do. As a matter of policy, the majority criterion is adopted; that is (Straffin, 1980a): •

• •

If a majority of ranked lists have an alternative X as their first choice, a decision rule should choose X as the first ranked choice. This is a weaker version of the Condorcet (1785) Winner Criterion: If there is an alternative X which could obtain a majority of votes in pair-wise contests

On Choosing Games and What Counts as a “Good” Game

Table 1. List 1

List 2

List 3

Metroid Prime

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time

The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time

Soul Calibur

Soul Calibur

Goldeneye 007

Metroid Prime

Metroid Prime

Call of Duty 2

Tekken 3

Resident Evil 4

Resident Evil 4

Goldeneye 007

Goldeneye 007

against every other alternative, a voting rule should choose X as the winner. How do these pair-wise contests work? Simply by determining the rank of each choice in the relevant list and declaring the winner to be the choice of highest rank—indeed, the Condorcet criterion. Consider the following three rank lists from three different sources: Pair-wise contests between Metroid Prime and Goldeneye 007 are all won by Metroid Prime: in list 1, Metroid is first to Goldeneye’s third, and in lists 2 and 3 Metroid is third to Goldeneye’s fifth. In all cases, Metroid places higher than Goldeneye, and so Metroid is the Condorcet winner. The Condorcet method is the method of choice, but it unfortunately tends to result in many ties. So, why not combine Condorcet with Borda? The so-called Black (1958) strategy chooses the winner by the Condorcet criterion if such a winner exists; if not, the Borda winner is chosen. This is appealing in its simplicity, and can be shown to have other important mathematical properties (Parker, 1995). There are other choices for voting strategies, all of which have their own advantages and disadvantages. None have the simplicity and reliability of the Black scheme, in general.

A Specific Example Although the preceding discussion may give the appearance of being overly complex, the actual calculations and rankings need not be done by

hand. One way to do this is by using a spreadsheet or database application. Lists of games and their relative rankings can be gathered for various sources. The amount of information to retain depends on the needs of the study. The author conducted an analysis of several games identified as ‘masterpieces’ in order to determine how these games helped players learn the things they needed to learn in order to succeed in the game. The rationale for the study was the claim that the best games already do a good job of supporting learning (Becker, 2006) and that we, as instructional designers, can gain insight into the design of educational games by studying them regardless of their educational value. In a previous analysis conducted by the author, a popular but purely entertaining game (The New Super Mario Bros.) was compared to an educational game (Math Blaster, Master the Basics), and although both were platform games, the commercial game supported the required learning within the game better than the educational game (Becker, 2007). In that example it was not what was learned that was of value to the study, but rather how the learning was facilitated. The criterion for choosing a game for the masterpiece study was that the game indeed be one of the masterpieces, and so it was necessary to justify that designation. Whether or not the game could be considered ‘educational’ in the sense that what was learned had curricular value was not of interest in this case—the goal was to identify how the game helped players learn what they needed to learn to win or get to the end of the game. It

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was important to include genre, platform, and ESRB (Entertainment Software Rating Board) rating information in this study, but these values may not be needed in other studies. The lists were initially compiled using a spreadsheet because of the ease of sorting and inclusion of formulas for calculating normalized counts. The spreadsheet also allowed for fairly simple editing such as switching columns around when raw data lists differed. Once the raw lists were complete, they were copied to a database application because that allowed for simple production of reports that grouped, counted, and summarized values in various ways. Further, once the basic tables have been defined, they can easily be filled with new data. Once the final list was generated, only the top 100 games were kept. For the purposes of this study, only games rated ‘E’ for everyone or ‘T’ for teen were considered acceptable, as the ultimate goal was to be able to use techniques discovered in the games to help design educational games that would be used in schools. As a result, all ‘M’ (mature) rated games were eliminated—these games often contain violence or other mature themes that would not typically be suitable in a classroom environment. As the author sought to study learning support in top games, all multiplayer games were also ‘disqualified’, as the goal of this study was to discover mechanisms in the game that helped players learn, rather than how other players helped players learn. After all other qualifications specific to this study were met, the resultant list still included approximately 50 games. The study called for three games to be chosen, and it was then possible to choose three from this list with about as much confidence as possible that these games are indeed classed among the ‘masterpieces’. Although the specifics of which information to include on these lists will vary from study to study, the only information crucial to all is some way to uniquely identify a particular game, and a consistently calculated numeric value that can be associated with that game that indicates its rank in

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that particular list. In a different study attempting to discover something about learning communities for example, the number of fan sites or number of postings to the official Web site could be among the values used to help rank games for suitability. One of the advantages of this approach is that it becomes possible to develop ranking mechanisms on various criteria and then combine them in a structured way to produce a single list of games best suited to the particular criteria of that study, and to do so in a transparent and verifiable way. Once such a list has been generated, the researcher can then feel free to choose from that list on the basis of personal preference and still be confident that the game meets the stated criteria as well. The one exception to the ability to choose from the final list according to preference might be if the study were attempting to discover something about the use of a game to which players were not attracted. Such a study might yield useful insights in the design of educational games, as it can rarely be assumed that all learners will be equally motivated to engage with any particular game. For a study such as that, it might help to rank games in a demographic way and then match games with players who do not meet the demographic requirements. Once the ranking criteria have been developed and applied, the most time-consuming part of the collection process is ensuring that games in the combined lists will be recognized by their names (or other identifier), and a certain amount of ‘massaging’ will be necessary to ensure that all occurrences of The New Super Mario Bros., for instance, are recognized as the same game across all of the lists. Given that the compiled lists will be focusing on specific criteria such as “best of,” the number of individual games named will be a small subset of the total games released, so while tedious, this task is neither difficult nor particularly error-prone when done by hand. Once the individual lists have been created, the normalized count for each entry can easily be computed using a formula and then the

On Choosing Games and What Counts as a “Good” Game

final list can be compiled by generating a report. Lists should be limited in size, although the exact length is somewhat arbitrary. If for example the list length is set to 100, then only games appearing in the top 100 of any list need to be included. If a list is not sorted in its raw form, it can easily be sorted by whatever criteria the researcher has determined to be important. In the case of “good” games, the review rating would be a value used in sorting. As long as the sources and dates of collection are recorded, the final list can be verified by other researchers, thereby lending credibility to the results.

DIscUssION Do games have potential for use in educational contexts? Which games are best to use and under what circumstances should these games be incorporated into formal and informal learning settings? If we design educational games for specific contexts, what exemplars should we use for the design and how will we judge them? We are only beginning to scratch the surface of how to answer these questions along with a great many others, and the methodology described in this chapter is one part of the process towards creating studies that are rigorous and defensible. As long as aspects of quality are part of the selection criteria, there can be no truly objective method for choosing games likely to yield insights and results as required by scholarly study; attempts can still be made to ensure that the final list from which games are chosen includes those titles that a substantial number of informed individuals such as gamers and industry professionals would agree were games worthy of study. This not only helps to ensure scholarly integrity, but acknowledges industry expertise in a way that can help to foster improved communication between academia and game industry professionals. The categorization of games by genre is far

from clear-cut, yet if the genre of the game is important to a particular study, then that classification too should be supported by confirmation in addition to the author’s own claims. If a particular game cannot be placed easily in the required category (such as a first-person shooter, strategy, or role-playing game), then perhaps a less controversial candidate should be considered. When games are chosen that have particular features, effort must be made to show evidence that those games do indeed include the required features. If a particular game is identified as the ‘best’ or a ‘good’ candidate for a particular study, it is fair to expect justification. It is unlikely that it will be possible to eliminate subjective measures of fitness when choosing games as the subjects of study, but that should not deter us from using a structured process designed to rank potential candidates so we can have some confidence that the game we use is appropriate. The methodology here allows criteria important to a specific study to be quantified and provides a way of combining diverse measures to produce a single ranked list. While acceptance of research with and on digital games continues to grow, it is still not seen as mainstream research; one way to help ensure that our research is given the same scholarly consideration as more established fields is to pay attention to details. One of those details is in research design. Research design must include plans that are lodged in “ideas well grounded in the literature and recognized by audiences (e.g., faculty committees) that read and support proposals for research” (Creswell, 2003, p. 3).

rEFErENcEs Becker, K. (2006). Pedagogy in commercial video games. In D. Gibson, C. Aldrich, & M. Prensky (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning: Research and development frameworks. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.

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Becker, K. (2007, June 25-29). Battle of the titans: Mario vs. MathBlaster. Proceedings of the 19th Annual World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia & Telecommunications, Vancouver, Canada. Black, D. (1958). The theory of committees and elections. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Borda, J.-C. (1781). Memoire sur les elections au scrutin. Histoire de l’Academie Royale des Sciences. Boyer, B. (2006). Survey: Game score-to-sale theory again disproven. Retrieved November 14, 2006, from http://www.gamasutra.com/phpbin/news_index.php?story=10924 Condorcet, M. (1785). Essai sur l’application de l’analyse a la probabilite des decisions ren¬dues a la pluralite des voix. Paris. Creswell, J.W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Delgado-Rodríguez, M. (2001). Glossary on meta-analysis. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55, 534-536. Dobson, J. (2006). Survey: ‘Word Of mouth’ most important for game buyers. Retrieved November 14, 2006, from http://www.mi6conference.com/ Magid_MI6.pdf ESA. (2006). Essential facts about the computer and video game industry: 2006 sales, demographics, and usage. Retrieved June 25, 2006, from http://www.theesa.com/archives/files/ Essential%20Facts%202006.pdf Farquharson, R. (1969). Theory of voting. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Glesne, C. (1999). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (2nd ed.). New York: Longman.

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Harvey, L. (2004). Analytic quality glossary. Retrieved July 13, 2007, from http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/glossary/ Hopson, J. (2006). We’re not listening: An open letter to academic game researchers. Retrieved November 10, 2006, from http://gamasutra.com/ features/20061110/hopson_01.shtml Jensen, F.V. (2001). Bayesian networks and decision graphs. New York: Springer. Meier, S. (2001). Civilization III. Infogrames. Parker, J.R. (1995, November 27). Voting methods for multiple autonomous agents. Proceedings of ANZIIS ’95, Perth, Australia. Parker, J.R. (1999, April 6-9). Multiple sensors, voting methods, and target value analysis. Proceedings of the Signal Processing, Sensor Fusion, and Target Recognition VIII, SPIE Aerosense, Orlando, FL. Parker, J.R. (2001). Rank and response combination from confusion matrix data. Information Fusion, 2(2), 113-120. Shafer, G. (1976). A mathematical theory of evidence. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Squire, K. (2003). Replaying history: Learning world history through playing Civilization III. Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy, Indiana University, USA. Stake, R.E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Straffin, P.D. (1980). Topics in the theory of voting. Boston: Birkhäuser. Williams, D. (2006). A (brief) social history of video games. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing computer games: Motives, responses, and consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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Williams, D., & Skoric, M. (2005). Internet fantasy violence: A test of aggression in an online game. Communication Monographs, 72(2), 217-233. Wolf, M.J.P. (2001). The medium of the video game (1st ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. Zadeh, L.A. (1965). Fuzzy sets. Information and Control, 8, 338-353.

KEY TERMS Backyard Research: A term used to describe research conducted in an environment in which the researcher already holds another role. An example would be a classroom teacher conducting research within her own classroom. Borda Count: A well-known methodology for assigning scores to multiple ranked lists that can then be combined to produce a single ranked list that incorporates the results of the other lists. Data Fusion: The process of combining data from multiple sources into some form of coherent data set. ESRB (Entertainment Software Rating Board): A non-profit, voluntary regulatory body that assigns ratings and enforces advertising policies in interactive entertainment software. This is the body responsible for defining the ratings found on most commercial video games. The ratings are affected by the level of violence in the game as well as the subject matter. A summary of the ratings is included here, but for a detailed description, see the ESRB Web site at http://www. esrb.org/ratings/index.jsp: • • •

EC (Early Childhood), suitable for ages 3 and older. E (Everyone), content that may be suitable for ages 6 and older. E10+ (Everyone 10 and older), content that may be suitable for ages 10 and older.

• • •

•

T (Teen), content that may be suitable for ages 13 and older. M (Mature), content that may be suitable for persons ages 17 and older. AO (Adults Only), content that should only be played by persons 18 years and older. RP (Rating Pending), submitted to the ESRB and awaiting final rating. (This symbol appears only in advertising prior to a game’s release.)

First-Person Shooter: A game played from the first-person perspective where the game space is seen from a position slightly behind and over the shoulder of the character being played. The player takes on the role of one of the game characters, and the primary mode of game-play involves the use of weapons that are used to shoot opponents. Game-Play: The experience of playing a game. IDGA (International Game Developer’s Association): The premier association for people involved in the game development industry. See more at http://www.igda.org/. Longitudinal Study: A research study that involves repeated observations over long periods of time, usually including the same items, which are often correlated. Normalized Count: The count in a list divided by the total number of observations. In the method described in this chapter, the normalized count is the score associated with a game that relates to its position in that list. The number is normalized so that the first-place game of any list will have the same score, thereby contributing the same weight towards its total. In other words, it makes the first-place game in each list worth the same regardless of the actual length of the list.

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Qualitative Meta-Analysis: An analysis of the methods used in a collection of studies rather than the results found by those studies. Role-Playing Game: A game usually played from the first-person perspective where the player pretends to be one of the characters in an unfolding story. Roles may be assigned with little flexibility, for example playing James Bond in Goldeneye 007, or with a great deal of player input, such as in World of Warcraft where players may choose the gender, race, and profession of their characters as well as many other variables.

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Voting Strategy: A mathematical system for merging decisions about choices among several alternatives that come from multiple sources.

ENDNOtE 1

The NPD Group has redesigned its Web site since this chapter was written, and data is no longer as accessible as it was. In 2006, the section of PD where game sales data was available was called NPD Funworld®.

On Choosing Games and What Counts as a “Good” Game

APPENDIX: SOURCES OF GAME REVIEWS AND OTHER DATA •

The NPD Group (formerly National Purchase Diary): A leading provider of consumer and retail market research information. This is the primary source of game sales data in Canada and the U.S. Online at: http://www.npd.com/corpServlet?nextpage=entertainment-categories_s.html [sample data: http://www.npd.com/press/releases/press_070119.html]

Professional Industry Organizations •

•

Academy of Interactive Arts and Science (AIAS): Holds annual award ceremonies where members make nominations that are then voted upon in much the same way as the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. From the AIAS site: Interactive Achievement Award recipients are determined by a vote of qualified Academy members. As such, selection as an Interactive Academy award finalist or recipient represents the strongest possible peer recognition. No person may become a voting member of the Academy unless he or she can demonstrate a threshold level of experience and professional credits in the industry. Interactive Academy voting is secret, conducted on-line, and supervised and certified by our partners at eBallot. Online at: http://www.interactive.org International Game Developer’s Association (IGDA): This is the primary professional developer’s association, which holds an annual awards ceremony. Any IGDA member in good standing is eligible to nominate a game and vote for finalists. Five finalists are chosen by the advisory board in each category. Online at: http://www.gamechoiceawards.com/

Press and Gamer Review Sites •

•

• •

• •

Game Critics Awards: “An independent group of journalists from 36 leading North American media outlets that cover the videogame industry. Each year the Game Critics Awards present its Best of E3 awards.” Online at: http://www.gamecriticsawards.com/ Metacritic®: “Metacritic compiles reviews from respected critics and publications for film, video/ DVD, books, music, television and games. Our unique Metascores® show the critical consensus at a glance by taking a weighted average of critic grades.” Online at: http://www.metacritic.com IGN (Independent Game Network): Maintains a Top 100 list, as well as an Editor’s Choice list. Both lists focus on recent releases. Online at: http://www.ign.com/ GameSpot: A C|NET organization that provides both user and paid reviewer information on games. It maintains a Top Games list that rates games on a 10-point scale. Online at: http://www.gamespot. com/ Gamespy: Online at: http://archive.gamespy.com/ MobyGames: A community contributed site that is building a comprehensive list of all computer and video games. MobyGames maintains Best Of lists that are based on user votes. Scores are listed out of five and include a count of the number of votes that were cast. This list changes in response to user contributions. Online at: http://www.mobygames.com

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Chapter XXXVIII

Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games Teddy Moline University of Alberta, Canada

AbstrAct Quality teachers and quality digital games (video and computer) are dynamic resources that experience ongoing changes based primarily on their interactions with learners. Characteristics of these resources have been, and will continue to be researched and identified in order to discover ways to improve student learning. This chapter uses the descriptors of one of these resources, quality teachers, to illustrate how the same characteristics are integral to effective digital games. North American youth now spend more time on digital gaming activities than they spend watching TV or reading (Greenberg, 2004; Prensky, 2005), prompting educators to become familiar with the ‘quality teacher’ traits of digital games that keep learners on task and learning. By using the descriptors of quality teachers to evaluate digital games, educators will gain a better understanding of why digital games are effective learning tools.

INtrODUctION Quality teachers know that there is no panacea or magic bullet for excellence in teaching. They know that learning is more than the standard psychological definition of “a change in behavior that results from experience” (Lefrançois, 2006, p. 419). And they know that quality teaching is not just explanation, but rather, “more about

expanding the space of the possible and creating the conditions for the emergence of the as-yet unimagined” (Davis, 2004, p. 184). In accordance with the perspectives of psychologists Jerome Bruner and Robert Gagné, quality teachers also know that not just one learning theory underpins quality teaching, but that a combination of theories needs to be integrated into a teaching model that allows “for all the various kinds of learning possible in the wealth of circumstances under which

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Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games

learning takes place” (Lefrançois, 2006, p. 407). But at the same time, as teachers assimilate various learning theories into their pedagogy for their classrooms, they also understand that substantial learning takes place outside the classroom. In fact, time spent on informal learning, or out-of-school learning, is the largest block of learning time for our children. During recreational or leisure learning time, learners often construct and control their own activities. In particular, technologies such as digital games (video and computer) have expanded the potential for informal learning exponentially, and students at all grade levels bring the learning competencies developed through their gaming experiences with them to class. These recreational digital games, for the most part, demand “strategic thinking, technical language, and sophisticated problem solving” (Shaffer, 2006, p. 6). As Richard van Eck (2006) so eloquently points out, those of us who have advocated for decades that digital games are effective learning tools are rather taken aback that others now agree with this assessment, and are now shifting our focus from promoting digital games as effective learning resources to “why and how they are effective” (p. 18). The intent of this chapter is to illustrate that quality recreational digital games exhibit the descriptors of quality teachers. The identifiers described in this chapter are by no means inclusive of all the characteristics of quality teachers. Teachers possess and evince many, many more characteristics and descriptors than those included in this brief synopsis. Most of these others fall under the umbrella of the interpersonal and affective skills (sometimes known as communication skills in the business and corporate world) that will continue to be the crux of successful teachers (Berliner, 1992), and resources such as digital games cannot and will not replace the need for “humanity coupled with intellect” (p. 31). Yet while we recognize that digital games can never possess all the characteristics of quality teachers, many such traits can be used to help identify qual-

ity digital games, games that reflect high standards of pedagogy and enable learner success. Digital games can, of course, be used in educational settings, and other chapters in this book describe in detail applications and methodologies for doing so, but the primary purpose of this discussion is to promote a better understanding of why digital games are effective learning tools. How then, as educators and researchers, do we acknowledge the similarities between quality teaching and quality digital games, and capitalize on the latter’s characteristics that encourage learning? Just why are digital games so successful at getting children, youth, and adults to learn?

WHAt ArE DYNAMIC RESOURCES? Janette Hill and Michael Hannafin (2001), in their study of the changes in and challenges of resource-based learning, categorize resources as either static (e.g., print, video) or dynamic. Resources are assets in the environment that can support learning and are as diverse as books, media, humans, models, games, videos, manipulatives, toys, technologies, art works, pictures, and realia (real-life objects). Hill and Hannafin (2001) define dynamic resources as those that “undergo frequent, sometimes continual change” (p. 6), and include humans (especially quality teachers) and digital games in this category. I propose that descriptors of one kind of dynamic resource, quality teachers, are also descriptors of quality digital games, another dynamic resource.

WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT QUALITY TEACHING? Quality teachers can be found in every segment of society, including schools, post-secondary institutions, business, industry, health care, and recreation. They may be known by terms as

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diverse as instructors, professors, facilitators, team leaders, or managers, and they may have different academic qualifications, but the common outcome of their quality teaching is learning. And yet, determining quality in teaching can be an elusive effort. Definitions of quality teaching not only differ from individual to individual and jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but also vary from culture to culture. David Berliner (2005) cautions us that identifying quality teaching is a valueladen and long-term process that requires “good judgment and keen insight” (p. 207). Despite these caveats, Berliner proposes that quality teaching consists of two components: good teaching and effective (successful) teaching. Good teaching is teaching that incorporates high standards of pedagogy, and effective teaching is teaching that results in student success or achievement. Subsequently, quality teaching is pedagogy that results in good learning. In other words, quality teachers demonstrate high pedagogical standards and enable student success. Quality digital games must also incorporate high pedagogical standards and facilitate learner success. From the plethora of research on pedagogy, we know that there are many factors that contribute to the development of master teachers. We know that becoming a quality teacher is an ongoing and evolutionary process of continually developing and refining skills. We also know that there is no one template to follow to become a successful teacher, since teaching, learning, and human interrelationships are more complex than can be explained by a single, common framework. We have, however, been able to identify many components that contribute to what is perceived as quality teaching in the western worldview. For example, research by the National Training Laboratories (NTL) Institute for Applied Learning found that: …students who learn through the lecture method retain about 5% of their lesson—10% when they read along with the lecture. Multimedia presen-

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tations increase the retention rate to 30%, and discussion groups to 50%. The most effective approaches—resulting in 75% and 90% retention rates—are learning by doing and learning by teaching others. (Danielson, 2004, p. 24) In other words, engaging students in their own learning, a primary goal and hallmark of quality teachers, is the most effective way of increasing student learning. Meta-analyses and research continue to uncover and describe the building blocks of quality teaching and learning. In fact, researchers find an overwhelming body of research literature on effective pedagogy for the kindergarten to grade 12 educational sector alone. Analysis of such a volume of studies is therefore not usually undertaken by individual researchers, but rather by research teams or educational organizations that have both the time and support to conduct metaanalyses of these works. Government departments of education can be particularly reliable sources of generic descriptors of quality teachers. These departments are primarily concerned with improving education in their jurisdictions, whether local, state, provincial, or federal; have extensive research personnel; and expend reasonable budgets on research that will help them accomplish this goal. Specifically, in its pursuit to become the ‘best learning system in the world’, the province of Alberta, Canada, developed a Teaching Quality Standard that identifies the knowledge, skills, and attributes of quality teachers. Developed for elementary and secondary teachers, these criteria can also apply to quality teachers in areas other than basic schooling. The Teaching Quality Standard in Alberta is made up of 28 criteria that were derived from both an extensive meta-analysis of the existing research literature and lengthy collaborations with teachers, parents, communities, school districts, educational researchers, and teacher-educators, before being approved by the provincial government in 1997. Over 39,000 Alberta teachers (K-12)

Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games

are expected to meet this standard. The Teaching Quality Standard is based on the premise that “quality teaching occurs when the teacher’s ongoing analysis of the context, and the teacher’s decisions about which pedagogical knowledge and abilities to apply result in optimum learning by students” (Alberta Education, 1997). This concept of quality teaching aligns with Berliner’s suggestion that “the quality of teachers can be inferred through student performance” (2005, p. 205). Today, based on international test results, Alberta

ranks as one of the top three learning communities in the world (Council of Ministers of Education, 2003, 2005). Accordingly, I have chosen to use Alberta’s criteria for determining quality teaching as the primary source of descriptors of quality teachers. Twenty-six of the original 28 descriptors were consolidated into 10 core attributes of good pedagogy. The two remaining descriptors of the original 28 are specific to understanding the approved curriculum and legalities of teaching in Alberta and are not included in the summary shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Ten descriptors of quality dynamic resources Descriptors

Quality Teachers

Quality Digital Games

High Expectations

Are confident that all students can learn

Assume the learner will ‘beat the game’

Allow time for mastery

Allow time for mastery

Clearly articulate goals and objectives

Present overall goal through its genre and

Encourage students to set goals

introductory sequence

Purpose

Require gamers to set goals Content Credibility

Know and understand subject content

Contain content that is germane to its genre and

Flexible

Interact with learners

Provide more than one way of reaching a goal

Focus on continual improvement

Respond to gamer’s interactions

Respect learners

Respect targeted learners

the game itself

Inclusive

Actively listen to learners Contextual Learning

Relate concepts and activities to real-life

Embed learning within a meaningful game context

applications

Provide activities that build on prior learnings

Provide activities that build on students’ prior learnings Multiple Approaches

End-to-End Planning

Use a variety of instructional strategies

Use a variety of instructional strategies

Promote students’ ownership in their learning

Promote learners’ ownership in their learning

Plan activities within the overall unit/year plan

Plan activities within the overall goal of the game

Are inventive Redesign curriculum continually Intertextual Resources

Use different formats of resources and texts

Use a variety of texts; e.g., print, oral, and visual

Positive Feedback

Provide positive reinforcements on progress

Provide rewards and positive reinforcements for

Provide scaffolds and supports as needed to

accomplishments

assist students to reach their goals

Provide ongoing tips (scaffolds)

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WHAt ArE tHEsE DEscrIPtOrs OF QUALITY DYNAMIC RESOURCES? High Expectations Both dynamic resources, quality teachers and quality digital games, expect that every learner will succeed and focus on “what the learner/ user does” (Crawford, 2005, p. 3). That is, quality dynamic resources concentrate on how the learner interacts with the activity to build new understandings. Quality teachers know that “student achievement is enhanced when teachers communicate high expectations to their students” (Danielson, 2004, p. 25). Similarly, quality digital games expect learners to beat the game, and are designed so that learners can eventually, usually with hard work, succeed in reaching their goals. The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess provides a relevant example. In this popular teen-rated action-adventure role-playing game (RPG), the Player Character (PC) disappears when a task is not completed, only to reappear moments later, giving the gamer innumerable chances to successfully complete that activity. In the game world, if someone dies, they disappear and soon reappear, enabling gamers to practice and master their skills. This experience of mastery is regarded by the eminent psychologist, Albert Bandura (1997), as the most important component in developing confident learners, because personal practice and experience that results in mastery or success, breeds success. Quality teachers also create a learning environment that gives their students belief in their ability to succeed. Quality teachers and digital games both require the learner to master the material, and focus on task and effort, not on the innate ability or failure of the learner.

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Purpose Instructional theorists such as Robert Gagné and Madelaine Hunter stress the importance of “…informing the learner of the objective” (Lefrançois, 2006, p. 404) of the activity or learning moment. Quality teachers know that short-term and longterm goals must be introduced, reinforced, and summarized on an ongoing basis. They also ensure that students have opportunities to set their own goals, because goal setting contributes to success (Bandura, 1997). Likewise, the purpose of a digital game is also clearly discernible, since its genre typically indicates the overall purpose of the game. For example, genres such as role-playing games (RPGs) are based on a quest usually within a somewhat medieval-appearing context (e.g., The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion); first-person shooter games focus on overcoming enemies (e.g., Halo 3); simulation games like The Sims allow a gamer to create alternate realities; action-adventure games such as Grand Theft Auto focus on overcoming a million-to-one odds to achieve a goal; racing games and sports games are, of course, about winning the game or a series of games; and strategy games such as StarCraft are concerned with controlling an imaginary world. For novice gamers who are not familiar with digital game genres or categories, and for the increasing numbers of games that blur genres, the introductory sequence to the game, as well as ongoing tips and dialogues, also reinforce the specific objectives. Gamers can also set their own goals in a digital gamefor some, the goal is to win the game, while other players favor completing tasks that are not always critical to beating the game, socializing, or exploring every facet of the game. In summary, both resources, quality teachers and digital games, clearly identify the goals and objectives of the learning activity before and during the learning sequence.

Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games

Content Credibility Master teachers are competent and knowledgeable about the content they are teaching (Wayne & Youngs, 2003) and have the “ability to communicate the subject matter in a way that is learnable” (Berliner, 1992, p. 27). Content credibility is also crucial in digital games. Gregory Gargarian (1996), a gaming design theorist, emphasized that game designers must “look for the powerful ideas within a domain and build the system around them” (p. 151). That is, the content of a quality game must not only reflect both the genre and the subject, but must at least initially adhere to conventions such as general scientific principles (e.g., the laws of motion and gravity). Many sports games optimize this criterion, since a virtual hockey, basketball, soccer, or football game includes the same players and the same plays, and abides by the same rules and regulations as the real-life teams and game. In essence, quality dynamic resources are regarded as reliable sources of information.

Flexible Quality educators are flexible and interactive, strive for continual improvement both for themselves and their students, continually assess their effectiveness, and modify their approaches to meet the learning needs of their students. Yrjö Engeström (1994), an instructional designer, maintains that teachers must “flexibly reframe problem situations through seeing the whole to the parts perspective” (p. 28). In other words, teachers consider the overall objective of a learning event before building different learning pathways, both linear and non-linear, to that goal. This flexibility is enhanced when teachers engage in ongoing professional and personal development that expands their understanding of situated learning (learning within a meaningful context), their ability to make reasoned judgments and decisions, and their pedagogical knowledge. To be sure, quality teachers

constantly revise learning activities “…in light of the ever-changing context, new knowledge and understandings, and their experiences” (Alberta Education, 1997). Quality digital games are also by necessity flexible, since game developers know that learners approach games with different competencies. Players must be able to learn the game in a variety of ways, or the games will simply not sell, and sales of course drive the development of recreational digital games. According to James Newman (2004), a video gaming theorist, flexible games are those “…with greater open-endedness, non-linearity, and a focus on allowing increased player freedom of strategic or tactical exploration” (p. 41). Open-endedness and player freedom are certainly key characteristics of flexible games, but I also suggest that flexible games provide both linear and non-linear interaction opportunities for gamers. It is not unusual for gamers to sometimes take a sequential approach to a task (especially when figuring out a puzzle on Super Paper Mario) and sometimes to use random, erratic tactics. For instance, gamers playing Halo 2 on the Xbox console for the first time often comment that they let their PC “just run around and try not to get shot,” until they figure out how the game controls actually work. Gamers say that if the game-play is too difficult, they are “probably not doing it right,” and they search for other ways to overcome an obstacle or to reach their goal. In addition, digital games change according to the choices made by the learners, who can therefore experience a different game each time they play it. In NHL 08, for example, the opposing hockey team changes its playing style dependent on what the gamer, in the role of the home team, is doing. Essentially, the game appears to be learning as it continually revises the activity. In addition, some online and single-player computer games provide editing tools that allow gamers to revise, modify, or ‘mod’ the game. Players are able to craft their own extensions of the game’s virtual world. An exemplar is Neverwinter Nights, a 2002

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computer-based RPG set in a medieval-fantasy world. It includes a modding package that enables gamers to customize the game. Nora Paul and Kathleen Hansen (Berger, 2006) used this affordance and a few other third-party creations to design a modern-day educational game for their journalism class at the University of Minnesota. It proved to be “an engaging and effective way to teach and learn” (p. 2). Indeed, both quality dynamic resources demonstrate the flexibility necessary for effective learning to occur.

Inclusive Quality teachers and quality digital games respect their learners. Teachers, however, deal with general groups of learners, while digital games have targeted learners (i.e., those who purchase the game). Engeström (1994) advocates that teachers must “require a lot from students, but respect them as well” (p. 121). This ability of quality teachers to respect the culture and language that children bring to the classroom is intrinsic to building “a positive professional relationship with students that is characterized by mutual respect, trust and harmony” (Alberta Education, 1997). Accordingly, quality teachers embrace the diversity found within a classroom and its community, and create learning environments that are inclusive of society’s diversity. Digital games, though, have a specific rather than a general audience and are therefore respectful to their clientele, rather than to all learners. The catch is that game producers need their product to sell, and many are becoming increasingly aware that their market could be much larger than the normative target of male gamers if their games incorporated more than the stereotypical young, fit, bodacious male and female characters found in the majority of digital games. Who has not noticed the scantily clad and voluptuous female characters who seem to decorate every game? Some producers are beginning to expand their

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repertoire of characters, and games such as Oblivion now include remarkably detailed adult characters of all ages. Game developers such as Warren Spector (e.g., Wing Commander, Deus Ex, Thief: Deadly Shadows) recognize that overall, digital games are targeting too small a group of learners, and urge game designers to become more inclusive of “age, gender, and ethnicity” (Davidson, 2005) in order to capture a larger segment of the market. Granted, the majority of game designers and developers are young men, but a more inclusive approach to the characters found in virtual worlds must be encouraged. Suzanne de Castell and Jennifer Jenson (2006) experienced stereotype bias in their development of Contagion, an educational online game about contagious idseases. They found that convincing the male graphic artists to draw ‘real’, not Barbiedoll female figures was an unexpected snag. If an educational game runs into this resistance, then game designers in general need to reflect more carefully on developing more inclusive games. Over 70 years ago, Johan Huizinga (1938/2000) noted that the games of a society reflect its culture. Therefore it follows that many of today’s digital games reflect the militaristic cultures of the western, Japanese, and South Korean worldviews, since most developers are primarily males from those cultures. In those worldviews, argument and aggression are not only modeled, but encouraged, as both characteristics are seen as intrinsic to individualism, human rights, democracy, and the western way of life (Triandis, 1995). Generally, perspectives of women, older individuals, and other cultures are rarely included. Developers quite understandably design games targeted for themselves and for the customers who purchase and play the most games, males between the ages of 18 and 49. Recent statistics from the Entertainment Software Association (2008) continue to indicate that the majority of gamers are male (60%). However, in the one-year period between 2006 and 2007, the 38% of gamers who are female increased their playing time by an average of two

Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games

hours per week, a significant increase that almost equalizes their playing time (7.4 hours per week) with male average playing time (7.6 hours per week). Data such as this will not go unnoticed by the gaming industry, and it is almost certain that more inclusive digital games that reach a larger audience will be developed. Unlike the standard classroom, online digital games can be powerful playgrounds for cross-age play; a setting that often inadvertently fosters respect for learners. A 13-year-old playing the popular online game World of Warcraft, for instance, is a participatory member of a guild that is composed of gamers of different ages, from different cultures, and of both gendersand no one cares, since the game is about the group succeeding. Respect in a guild is earned by what you do, not who you are. Online gamers of all ages are generally accustomed to generating respect based on their performance, and they bring that expectation to their other learning experiences. Quality teachers, of course, have a more altruistic approach to inclusivity than commercial games, and already model respect and acceptance of divergent beliefs and worldviews to their students. This inclusivity, or the ability of quality teachers to acknowledge and respect diversity, is sometimes necessarily limited in digital games due to their genre; but often, these dynamic resources could be designed to be more inclusive of diversity.

Contextual Learning Allan Blanchard, an advocate of contextual teaching and learning, defines “contextual learning as learning that occurs in close relationship with actual experience” (2000, p. 1). Gee (2003) refers to such learning as situated action, and Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) call it situated cognition. Engeström (1994) concurs that learning must be “…connected to living practice by multiple threads…” (p. 14). Regardless of terminology,

quality teachers recognize the importance of integrating “current learning with prior learning and providing opportunities for students to relate their learning to the home, community and broader environment” (Alberta Education, 1997). Quality teachers analyze the context (e.g., culture, language, gender, past experiences, facility, community) of their classroom and relate it to the curriculum to make learning more meaningful. Similarly, gamers frequently comment that they “did something like that in another game” or “this game [series] always does it that way…”a clear indication that game developers also use and build on the skills learners have already acquired in previous editions of that game. Both dynamic resources recognize that learning comprehension is based on interactive contextualized activities, rather than on passive reception of information. Quality teachers provide opportunities for learners to participate in such contextualized learning through methods such as debates, interviews, research projects, discussions, field trips, wikis, performances, interviews, and group projects. These activities occur within the curricular framework, but relate learning to the everyday world of the students. In like manner, quality digital games present interactive activities within the context of the game world, where “the meanings of signs (words, actions, objects, artifacts, symbols, texts, etc.) are situated in embodied experience. Meanings are not general or decontextualized” (Gee, 2003, p. 209). For example, in Pokemon Diamond, a popular teen and preteen RPG played on a handheld console, the boy or girl protagonist attempts to collect as many Pokemon characters as possible within the context of the world of Sinnoh and its rules. The tutorial or introductory sequence at the beginning of the game, as in most digital games, provides just enough information about this virtual world to get the gamer started, but the real learning occurs as the gamer interacts with the game and learns how to learn in an imaginary world.

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Digital games generate their own milieu, and players are immersed in a virtual context. Van Eck (2006, p. 18) notes: What gamers must learn is directly related to the environment in which they learn and demonstrate it; thus the learning is not only relevant but applied and practiced within that context. Learning that occurs in meaningful and relevant contexts is more effective than learning that occurs outside of those contexts, as is the case with more formal instruction. The numerous mini-quests found in RPGs are examples of how digital games increase the contextual aspects of the game itself. These mini-adventures do not usually contribute to the success of the main quest, but do enrich the context of the narrative. To illustrate, in Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic (KOTOR), the PC can swoop-race hovercraft motorcycles against other characters and win money to purchase items that will aid in reaching the overall objective. So while swoop-racing is lots of fun and enhances Kotor’s virtual world for the gamer, it does not directly aid the gamer in ‘beating the game’. In addition, the audio texts in games are not simply sounds or dialogue (often voiced by wellknown actors), but often are musical scores that increase engagement with the storyline, since the music is used in a cinematic manner to set the tone and mood during game-play. Graphics are also of prime importance, as is evident when gamers say they prefer the hockey game NHL 08 to its competitor game mainly because the graphics are more life-like. In fact, teen gamers are particularly impressed with graphic images, commonly exclaiming, “Oh, wow!” as they scan the stunning “eye candy” (Gee, 2003) in games such as Oblivion or Jade Empire. Both quality dynamic resources recognize and promote the symbiotic relationship of learning and context.

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Multiple Approaches Quality teachers create “multiple paths to learning” (Berliner, 1992, p. 27). They apply and model many approaches to teaching and learning to help students become independent learners. “These strategies vary in keeping with contextual variables, subject content, desired objectives, and the learning needs of individuals and groups of students” (Alberta Education, 1997). Digital games also “provide multiple pathways to the same knowledge” (Gargarian, 1996, p. 152) since “learning is incremental and the pathways to knowledge are different for different people” (p. 139). It must be noted though that digital gamers, like all learners, have preferences for favored learning activities. To exemplify, some gamers prefer strategy games such as Civilization over puzzle games (e.g., Super Paper Mario) or puzzle games over sports games (e.g., Madden NFL 08), while others are eclectic in their choices and readily embrace a variety of digital game genres. One digital game cannot be expected to meet the preferences of all players, but most digital games, like quality teachers, provide alternative routes in the learning activity to accommodate the diverse learning approaches of individual gamers. Quality digital games, like quality teachers, provide visual, kinesthetic, and auditory experiences for gamers. Graphics have become increasingly more important as animators raise the bar in the creation of stunning visuals, of more life-like characters, and by empowering gamers to manipulate the graphics (e.g., designing costumes, colors, or the player character). Game controllers like the Wii allow players to project their bodies into the game-play (e.g., bowling, tennis, dance), while other consoles vibrate or provide other physiological feedback, and it is becoming more and more common for gamers to have the choice of listening to dialogue or reading it (e.g., Oblivion). Quality teachers and quality digital games integrate effective learning practices such as learner

Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games

control, exploratory learning, cross-disciplinary activities, experiential learning, the use of models, authentic learning, organizers such as spatial maps, physical interaction, recursive activities that allow ‘looping back’ or revisiting previous learnings, collaboration, personal creation, and non-linear activities. Such dynamic resources also foster a variety of cognitive processes such as generalization, discrimination, categorization, goal-setting, summarizing, pattern-based reasoning, sequencing, trial and error, cause and effect (e.g., consequences), transfer (application), concept learning, problem solving, and critical literacy. The adolescent gamers in my recent study on confidence and gaming repeatedly mentioned that their preferred way of learning a game was to figure it out by themselves. They knew how to get help or who to contact if they needed assistance, but all of them favored the satisfaction that comes from learning something on one’s own. Quality teachers also promote students’ ownership in their own learning. They encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning by designing activities that build on previous learnings and provide supports in an interactive manner. In sum, multiple approaches to learning are elemental to both quality teaching and quality digital games.

End-to-End Planning The concept of end-to-end planning is a cornerstone of effective teaching (Danielson, 2004) and quality digital games (Crawford, 2005; Gargarian, 1996; Lamb, 2003). Planning for both focuses on usability; involves the learner or community throughout the planning, development, implementation, and evaluation phases; and undergoes continual modifications. Quality teachers “plan their teaching with care” (Engeström, 1994, p. 121). They use end-to-end planning or designing to develop “short, medium and long term range

plans; and to organize meaningful, engaging learning activities that meet students’ needs for…social, cultural and psychological security” (Alberta Education, 1997). As practitioners know all too well from past experience, quality teaching is also a continual process of innovation building on innovation. Teachers who choose to stay mired in the quicksand of one teaching strategy are doomed to frustration and lack of student success, while those who modify and adopt strategies based on their learners’ needs encounter personal and professional satisfaction. Indeed, “the best practitioners…continually redesign their activities in the very act of practice” (New London Group, 1996, p. 73). In quality teaching, this process of innovation adheres to Carl Bereiter’s (2002) principles of quality educational design research; it is collaborative, is inventive, is constantly changing and adapting based on past and present experiences, is focused on learner success, and is focused on continual improvement. Digital game developers also stress the importance of meticulous planning. The game designer is viewed as a visionary who plans from the perspective of “the overall aim of the game” (Newman, 2004, p. 39). David Lamb (2003) suggests to designers that “incremental innovation often works best. [Digital games should] present existing ideas cleanly and simply while extending a few key concepts in new and interesting directions” (p. 3). Gargarian (1996) further supports the concept of innovations built on innovations when he posits that “a designer respects unanticipated problems and learns how to construct and use recovery strategies. This is why designing is always redesigning” (p. 130). Most popular digital games are planned as part of a series with new installments produced every three to five years or so. Games in The Legend of Zelda are produced almost every year, while StarCraft II, a strategy game that most South Korean gamers are eagerly awaiting, is forecast to appear eight years after

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the first production. Each new edition of any series is planned to provide improved graphics and game-play. Those digital games that are developed and marketed before the ‘game plan’ is completed are usually unsuccessful products, resulting in financial losses for the developers. But there are always exceptions to this generalization. Halo 2 (2004), a much hyped digital game that even the developers admitted needed more development, won many awards and sold million of copies. Graphics, audio, and game-play were enhanced, which pleased gamers and critics, but the game itself was short (could be completed in 6-12 hours) by gamer standards, and had an abrupt ending that had to be bridged with a comic book series and introductory cinematics in the sequel, Halo 3 (2007). As a general rule, though, digital game designers plan the storyboard in great detail with the intention of maximizing their earnings. Clearly, planning is a crucial element of quality dynamic resources.

Intertextual Resources In their learning activities, quality teachers and quality digital games also infuse different textsprint, oral, and visualto promote the development of multi-literacies (New London Group, 1996) and to increase learning opportunities for learners. Quality teachers “integrate multiple resources into a coherent learning environment” (Hill & Hannafin, 2001, p. 48), because using a variety of resources related to a common concept can lead to an awareness of the meaningful relationships amongst texts. This intertextuality (New London Group, 1996) can transform and enhance the learning process. In digital games, gamers must ‘read’ texts such as icons, charts, patterns, cinematic sequences, print text, and audio, often on the same screen, to learn and play the game. These learners require more than print literacy to be able to interpret the various “modes of representation” (New London

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Group, 1996, p. 64) found in digital games and their relationship to each other. Print text permeates most games, and gamers quickly learn which of those texts to read, re-read, or skip if they want to continue on their self-determined journey. Such gamers possess traditional literacy skills, but what about gamers who approach digital gaming without print literacy? One researcher/mother (Skogan, 2007) found that her 12-year-old son, a non-reader, taught himself to read by playing digital games. Using other game texts (e.g., icons, graphics, charts, images) that he could ‘read’ as a springboard, her son learned to decipher print text that was interrelated with these other texts. Undoubtedly, few non-readers will make the phenomenal gains experienced by this young gamer, but the case study nevertheless identifies a surprising and unexpected consequence of interacting with a variety of resources that are connected by common strands of meaning. The variety of texts in digital games is of course limited to that medium’s affordances, and a digital game cannot compete with the variety of resources and texts (e.g., realia, human, manipulative, 3D objects, and artifacts) that a quality teacher provides, but even so, the range of texts in digital games is diverse and increases player engagement. In some digital games, the print text is repeated in another format (e.g., audio), and sometimes a player can figure out a task by ‘reading’ icons, images, or actions without reading the script or print text. Providing a variety of texts that maximize intertextuality, then, can enhance the skills of learners, providing opportunities for them to learn how to interpret a variety of texts and to gain the multi-literacies essential for today’s and tomorrow’s world.

Positive Feedback And finally, quality teachers provide ongoing, authentic, and meaningful feedback to students by

Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games

gathering and using “information about students’ learning needs and progress” (Alberta Education, 1997). They scaffold children’s learning through extrinsic and intrinsic motivators, and capitalize on the important role of emotions in learning. Quality teachers know that ongoing positive, pragmatic, and timely reinforcements (verbal, tangible, emotional) are more effective motivators than aversive or negative reinforcements. They know that building confident learners results in increased learning and that facilitating “successive approximations” (Johnson, 2005, p.36), or incremental steps, will move students closer to the learning goal than giant conceptual leaps. Feedback, in the form of scaffolds and prompts, rather than lock-step procedures, moves learners closer to their goal and is also embedded in digital games. As Steven Johnson comments, “In the game world, reward is everywhere” (2005, p. 36); yet the reward is always closely related to the task at hand. These rewards “focus on a job well done and on the value of the learning itself, and not on extrinsic rewards such as points and prizes” (Lieberman, 2006, p. 391). Rewards often provide additional tools that the gamer needs to proceed, or provide opportunities to learn unusual skills. For example, in The Legend of Zelda series, gamers learn to play the ocarina, an ancient flute-like musical instrument, a skill that aids their progress later in the game. Such incidentals encourage gamers to keep on learning, and in the game world, learning is playing. Both dynamic resources embed just-in-time information or skills in their learning activities. Quality teachers recognize when students need additional supports or scaffolds to raise students’ skill levels necessary to complete a task. They provide these supports through various techniques including discussion, formal and informal instruction, modeling, questioning, practice, coaching, suggestions, or additional information. In a similar manner, digital games also provide cues that enable the learner to reach goals. Practice sessions and tips embedded in the game raise the

player’s skill level, enabling the gamer to advance further into the game. Additionally, many games provide ongoing status reports about the gamer’s progress. In RPGs, gamers interpret charts, icons, and other visuals to calculate when it is time to renew energy, increase skill levels, or acquire more items. Individuals, of course, require specific prompts or scaffolds. In response, quality teachers are continually adding to their toolkit of supports to address these individual learner needs. Digital games, on the other hand, include a predetermined toolkit of supports, and gamers typically choose games that provide their preferred scaffolds. Not all digital games are attractive to all gamers, and the way that the scaffolding is provided is one of the determining factors in enticing players. In summary, quality dynamic resources provide positive, practical, and applicable feedback.

WHAt ArE tHE IMPLIcAtIONs OF tHEsE DESCRIPTORS? As teachers we need to recognize that students come to our classes intuitively knowing the characteristics of quality teaching, since the majority of youth play digital games in their leisure time. Statistics from 2004 show that 92% of American children from ages 2 to 17 had regular access to video games, compared to 80% with computer access (Beck & Wade, 2004). Marc Prensky (2005), a well-known gamer advocate, estimates that Americans play more than 10,000 hours of video games before they turn 21. In Michigan, eighth grade “boys average 23 hours a week and girls 12 hours” (Greenberg, 2004). Little wonder that von Salisch, Oppl, and Kristen (2006) claim that in western nations, “playing computer and video games has become one of the favorite leisure-time activities for boys and (less so) for girls” (p. 147). Perhaps then, this chapter is a reminder to teachers of the core characteristics of quality teaching. Perhaps it reminds educators that learners need

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to play a role in their own learning, that learning takes time, that a variety of carefully chosen resources enhances engagement, that play and fun can be key components of learning, and that the unexpected can lead to new insights. Researchers and educators know that interpersonal and affective skills are the seminal characteristic of quality teachers. Regardless of class size, educational researchers acknowledge that “teacher-pupil interaction is the most important factor in student achievement” (Smith, Hardman, Wall, & Mroz, 2003, p. 396). Thus, ongoing synchronous and asynchronous interrelationships between learners and teachers, regardless of environment or age of learners, are key determinants of successful learning. The interpersonal communication skills required to develop these relationships cannot be added to digital games, at least at this stage of artificial intelligence. All the same, quality digital games attempt to establish a virtual relationship between the gamer and game through oral and print dialogue, extraordinary graphics that portray realistic facial expressions on game characters, mood-setting music, guest actor spots, audio clips that represent emotional responses, and human-like responses (such as disgust, happiness, sadness) from the game characters. Despite the lack of this core characteristic of quality teachersinterpersonal and affective skillsdigital games can be assessed and evaluated by the other identifiers of quality teachers. Both quality teachers and quality digital games engage learners; they encourage learners to learn and to keep on learning. The intent of this chapter is to illustrate that digital games exhibit the identifiers of quality teachers. But just as insight and good judgment are required to select a quality teacher, so too must we use insight and good judgment in selecting quality digital games. In short, teachers and digital games that incorporate these 10 descriptorshigh expectations, purpose, content credibility, flexibility, inclusivity, contextual learning, multiple approaches, end-to-end planning, intertextual resources, and

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positive feedbackare well on their way to becoming the best possible dynamic resource they can be. I propose that quality digital games are successful at getting children to learn because they embody so many of these characteristics of quality teachers. Digital games that display these indicators are also resources with potential for the classroom, but teachers must also factor in time, technological requirements, their philosophy of teaching, as well as curricular relevance and implementation factors before considering the use of digital games in the classroom. Recreational digital games are not targeted for bell-driven class periods, but rather are targeted for play and leisure time. Many RPGs, for instance, have elaborate storylines that may require up to 90 hours to complete, so their use in a classroom setting may be limited. Squire’s (2004) research on using the strategy game Civilization III to teach history to ninth graders found positive impacts on the adolescents’ learning, yet also emphasized the importance of timely and sufficient technical support for successful implementation. It takes years for enormous teams of designers, programmers, and other creators to develop just one quality recreational game. Developing games for the classroom is not a project to be taken on lightly, because quality educational digital games must also include the aforementioned descriptors. As already indicated, gamers have different game preferences, so it is also unlikely that one game will entice all learners. If recreational games are to be used in educational settings, their usage must be carefully planned to avoid student frustration over lack of time, to resolve licensing, access, inclusivity, and compatibility issues, to meet curricular goals, to provide technical support, and most importantly, to align with the teacher’s pedagogical orientation. Despite these cautions, I believe that digital games have the potential to be quality teachers. Adapting or modding a recreational game such as Neverwinter Nights has possibilities for situated

Descriptors of Quality Teachers and Quality Digital Games

practice, storyboarding, or innovative representations. However, I caution that digital game-based learning is not a panaceano one learning strategy ever is, was, or will be. The pragmatic hurdles of infrastructure, time, cost, integration, professional development, curriculum, pedagogy, and other factors that need to be addressed before games are integrated into classroom curricula can be onerous. Consequently, this chapter has not discussed the intricacies of integrating classroom learning and digital games. It has dealt merely with identifying characteristics that can be used to identify or evaluate quality dynamic learning resources. But as Don Koberg and Jim Bagnall point out in The Universal Traveler: Evaluations are not conclusions; they are commencements. They end one journey and carry us on to the more knowledgeable beginning of another journey. Just as commencement means both to complete and to begin, so evaluation is a link between our problem-solving journeys. (Cato, 2001, p. 257) And so too, understanding the characteristics that quality teachers and quality digital games share is yet another beginning. My original question asked how educators and researchers might acknowledge the similarities between quality teaching and quality digital games, and how we might capitalize on the latter’s characteristics that encourage learning. This discussion, in the end, not only describes those characteristics, but also leads to other queries for teachers and researchers. As researchers, we need to explore how these descriptors of quality can be applied to other learning resources, both dynamic and static, that are used in the classroom. We need to pursue how educators can develop and choose learning resources that embody these descriptors. We need to attend to and develop ways that quality digital games can be used to improve student learning. We need to lobby developers for more inclusive digital games that reflect multicultural

and diverse communities. And we need to find ways to bridge the gap between informal and formal learning, so that we maximize the skills and abilities students bring with them to class.

rEFErENcEs Alberta Education. (2004). Focus on inquiry: A teacher’s guide to implementing inquiry-based learning. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http:// www.education.gov.ab.ca/K_12/curriculum/bysubject/focusoninquiry.pdf Alberta Education. (1997). Teaching quality standard applicable to the provision of basic education in Alberta. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http://education.alberta.ca/department/policy/k12manual/section4/teachqual.aspx Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. Beck, J.C., & Wade, M. (2004). Got game: How the gamer generation is reshaping business forever. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Bereiter, C. (2002). Design research for sustained innovation. Cognitive Studies: Bulletin of the Japanese Cognitive Science Society, 9(3), 321327. Berger, A. (2006, January). “Neverwinter Nights” in the classroom. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http://www1.umn.edu/umnnews/Feature_Stories/ 22Neverwinter_ Nights22_in_the_classroom. html# Berliner, D.C. (2005). The near impossibility of testing for teacher quality. Journal of Teacher Education, 56(3), 205-213. Berliner, D.C. (1992). Current topics in teacher certification testing: Seven things on my mind about teacher evaluation. Retrieved June 17,

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2008, from http://www.pearsonschool.com/live/ assets/200727/1992_06Berliner_310_1.pdf Blanchard, A. P. (2000). Contextual learning: Series I: Principles of thought. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http://coe.csusb.edu/jscarcella/stc/ blanchard/index.htm Brown, J.S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42. Cato, J. (2001). User-centered Web design. Harlow, England: Addison-Wesley. Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. (2005). Science in Canadian schools 2004. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http://www.cmec. ca/pcap/science3/public/highlights.en.pdf Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. (2003). Measuring up: Canadian results of the OECD Pisa study. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http://www.cmec.ca/pisa/2003/highlights.en.pdf Crawford, C. (2005, June). Artists and technologists. Proceedings of the Artificial Intelligence and Interactive Digital Entertainment Conference, Marina Del Rey, CA. Danielson, C. (2004). Enhancing student achievement: A framework for school improvement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Davidson, N. (2005, November 3). Spector scolds industry. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http:// wham.canoe.ca/news/2005/11/03/pf-1291077. html Davis, B. (2004). Inventions of teaching: A genealogy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. de Castell, S., & Jenson, J. (2006, June). How content matters: Rethinking education games. Proceedings of the Ed-Media 2006: World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia, & Telecommunications, Orlando, FL.

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Engeström, Y. (1994). Training for change: New approaches to instruction and learning in working life. Geneva: International Labour Office. Entertainment Software Association. (2008). Game player data. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http://www.theesa.com/facts/gameplayer.asp Gargarian, G. (1996). The art of design. In Y. Kafai & M. Resnick (Eds.), Constructionism in practice: Designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world (pp. 125-159). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Greenberg, B. (2004). Children spend more time playing video games than watching TV, MSU survey shows. Retrieved June 17, 2008, , from http://newsroom.msu.edu/site/indexer/1943/content.htm Hill, J.R., & Hannafin, M.J. (2001). Teaching and learning in digital environments: The resurgence of resource-based learning. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 49(3), 37-53. Huizinga, J. (2000). Homo ludens: A study of the play-element in culture. London: Routledge. (Original work published in 1938.) Johnson, S. (2005). Everything bad is good for you: How today’s popular culture is actually making us smarter. New York: Riverhead Books. Lamb, D.A. (2003). Questions & answers about games and game design. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http://www.cs.queensu.ca/~dalamb/Games/ design/design.html Lefrançois, G.R. (2006). Theories of human learning: What the old woman said (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Lieberman, D.A. (2006). What can we learn from playing interactive games? In P. Vorderer & J.

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Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 379-397). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. New London Group. (1996, Spring). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 60-91. Newman, J. (2004). Videogames. London: Routledge. Prensky, M. (2005). Computer games and learning: Digital game-based learning. In J. Raaessnes & J. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of computer game studies (pp. 97-122). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Shaffer, D.W. (2006). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Skogan, R. (2007, June 4-5). Expanding concepts of text in schools. Proceedings of the Interacting with Immersive Worlds Conference, St. Catherines, ON. Smith, F., Hardman, F., Wall, K., & Mroz, M. (2003). Interactive whole class teaching in the national literacy and numeracy strategies. British Educational Research Journal, 30(3), 395-411. Squire, K. (2004). Replaying history: Learning world history through playing Civilization III. Dissertation, Doctor of Philosophy, Instructional Systems Technology Department, Indiana University, USA. Retrieved June 17, 2008, from http://website.education.wisc.edu/kdsquire/REPLAYING_HISTORY.doc Triandis, H.C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview. van Eck, R. (2006). Digital game-based learning: It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. EDUCAUSE, (March-April), 17-30.

von Salisch, M., Oppl, C., & Kristen, A. (2006). What attracts children? In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 147-164). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Wayne, A.J., & Youngs, P. (2003, Spring). Teacher characteristics and student achievement gains: A review. Review of Educational Research, 73(1), 89.

KEY TERMS Dynamic Resources: Resources that experience ongoing modifications. Such resources include humans, digital games, and Web pages. Intertextuality: Refers to meaningful relationships among different types of texts. Digital gamers make meaning from the relationships among many different kinds of game texts such as icons, graphics, print, audio, narratives, and cross references to other media. Multiliteracies: The ability to interpret and understand diverse forms of textoral, print, visual, or cultural. Pedagogy: Commonly known as the art or science of teaching; includes instructional skills, content knowledge, interpersonal skills, personal abilities, and the “moral and ethical aspects of working with learners” (Davis, 2004, p. 144). Quality Digital Games: Computer and video games that incorporate high standards of pedagogy and enable learner success. These share the characteristics of quality teachers. Quality Teaching: Consists of two components: good teaching and effective (successful) teaching. These share most of the characteristics of quality teachers.

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Realia: Artifacts or objects such as fossils, rock specimens, and insects that are commonly found in the environment. It is a term used primarily in the field of library science to refer to naturally occurring objects such as artifacts, objects, and specimens related to the real world.

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Resource-Based Learning: Learning that “actively involves students in the meaningful use of a wide range of appropriate print, non-print, digital, and human resources” (Alberta Education, 2004, p. 110).

Section V

The Pyschological Impact of Educational Gaming (Part 1):

Cognition, Learning, Play, and Identity

Chapters in this section of the book focus on the psychological studies of gaming and game use. This first of two sections on psychological aspects focuses directly on concepts like cognition, learning, play, and identity. Gibson begins the section with a four-part framework and a teaching simulation to discuss design considerations for building a computational model of learning. Bowers, Smith, & Cannon-Bowers summarize findings from social psychology to understand effective multiplayer environments for learning. Kalyuga & Plass address the concept of evaluating and managing cognitive load in games. The next two chapters in the section deal with self-regulated and self-educational learning. Zaparyniuk & Code discuss the role of self-regulated learning in video game environments and what impact that might have on the field of educational gaming. Fromme, Jőrissen, & Unger present the concept of selfeducation as well as analyses of single player and multiplayer games used for self-education. Dipietro examines the relationship of experience, cognition, and learning by looking at expert and novice gameplay. Schrader, Lawless, & McCreery discuss the concept of intertextuality and their survey of 745 World of Warcraft players. Chee & Lim consider the use of games to help students develop identity and dispositions. Heeter and Oliver both discuss play styles and types. Heeter describes player types found in MMOs in the context of play styles and learning. Oliver describes roles players created and how that might relate to classifications of players.

Buraphadeja & Dawson end the chapter with a discussion of the Sims and how players create personal myths and narratives in games. The purpose of this section is to provide readers with studies related to psychological aspects of gaming such as cognition, learning, play, and identity.

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Chapter XXXIX

Designing a Computational Model of Learning David Gibson CurveShift, Inc., USA

AbstrAct What would a game or simulation need to have in order to teach a teacher how people learn? This chapter uses a four-part framework of knowledge, learner, assessment, and community (Bransford et al., 2000) to discuss design considerations for building a computational model of learning. A teaching simulation—simSchool—helps illustrate selected psychological, physical, and cognitive models and how intelligence can be represented in software agents. The design discussion includes evolutionary perspectives on artificial intelligence and the role of the conceptual assessment framework (Mislevy et al., 2003) for automating feedback to the simulation user. The purpose of the chapter is to integrate a number of theories into a design framework for a computational model of learning.

INtrODUctION The key question of this chapter is, “What would a game or simulation need to have in order to teach a teacher how people learn?” The chapter assumes that it is possible and desirable to create such a computational model for several reasons. First, a groundswell of research indicates a wide range of interesting benefits of educative games and simulations (Prensky, 2002; Beck & Wade, 2004; Gee, 2004; Squire, 2005): why we should

build educative games (Galarneau & Zibit, 2006; Jones & Bronack, 2006), and what options and frameworks are available for building them with a technical and artistic balance of pedagogy, simulation, and game elements (Aldrich, 2005; Becker, 2006; Gibson, 2006; Stevens, 2006; Van Eck, 2006). Second, training needs in business, government, industry, and the military are already being addressed by a variety of games and simulations, but few if any efforts are addressing the need for effective training of the instructors. Third, teacher shortages and the lack of adequately

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Designing a Computational Model of Learning

prepared teachers who persist in the profession are perennial challenges of K-12 education—a situation that may be improvable through games and simulations. Fourth, teachers who learn by playing games may be more open to the motivational potential of games and more likely to use playful engagement strategies in their teaching. It is important to combine and to an extent equate digital games and simulations. While there is a difference in emphasis in the two approaches, they are united in that both utilize some kind of application engine that displays an interactive microworld to a user and invites “playing around” within the boundaries of that system (Gibson, 2006). As the user interacts with the application, expertise develops. The subtleties of whether there are clear goals, rewards, and an emotionally charged atmosphere embedded in the interaction (as found in many games) or whether the user sees and acts within a realistic microworld (as found in many simulations) are important considerations, but not essential to the exploration of the characteristics needed to build a game or simulation capable of teaching a teacher about how people learn. Recent efforts to research, design, and implement games to improve teaching have begun to surface. Classroom Sims, marketed by Aha! Process, Inc. is based on work by Dr. Ruby Payne. Cook School District, by Drs. Gerry and Mark Girod of Western Oregon University, is based in the “Teacher Work Sample Methodology.” simClass, in two versions developed by graduate students of Dr. Youngkyun Baek of the Korea National University of Education, is based on the ARC model of motivation, multiple intelligences, and other theories. simSchool, developed by me, Bill Halverson, and Melanie Zibit, is based on psychological models integrated with ideas from learning theory, cognitive science, computational neuroscience, complex systems, and artificial intelligence. This chapter will use simSchool as an illustration to help make the ideas more concrete.

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The characteristics of a game or simulation designed to improve teaching need to take into account four broad arenas of learning theory supported by cognitive science and the research on teaching and learning, outlined in a National Research Council report on the “How People Learn” (HPL) framework (Bransford et al., 2000). The HPL framework elements are: 1. 2. 3. 4.

The characteristics of the learner, The nature of knowledge, The role of a community in shaping expertise, and The role of feedback in shaping performance.

It is important to point out that the HPL framework, and the goal of computationally modeling it, is not a model of “transmission of knowledge to students.” Rather, it is a whole-systems perspective on how people learn, a subset of which learning takes place in traditional classrooms. There are aspects of the art and science of teaching that need more clarification in order to be computationally modeled, for example, how a teacher motivates students, how attitude changes take place, and how affective behaviors are shaped. The aspects offered in this chapter are a starting point, not the last word, on modeling how people learn in a classroom. A game or simulation that intends to improve teaching needs to take the HPL domains into account as a natural part of the “game-play,” not as didactic elements to be presented, reinforced, and tested in order to take advantage of the important difference between “teaching about something” using didactic methods and “teaching through action” using direct engagement and practice. Consider the difference between reading a chapter on flight and practicing in a flight simulator, then flying a real plane. The approach taken here concentrates on what it would take to create an engaging hands-on first-person experience that allows developing and practicing one’s teaching

Designing a Computational Model of Learning

Figure 1. The HPL (How People Learn) framework represented as a fully connected geometry. Folding the structure reveals that each facet is connected to all remaining facets

Assessment

Learner Knowledge

knowledge and skills on a virtual class and thus developing first-hand expert knowledge. The HPL framework (Figure 1) suggests that a game about teaching needs to be personalized and adapted for maximum effectiveness with many different kinds of prospective teachers. It needs to reflect how experienced teachers work with their own and students’ existing knowledge, and how students develop new knowledge through modeling and experimentation. The game needs to be contextualized within real situations and embedded in real communities of peers and experts who communicate and shape one’s thinking. Finally, the game needs to be laced with ample, timely, accurate, expert feedback to guide one’s development of knowledge-in-action. This chapter will take each of these four arenas as a starting point for a computational model of teaching and learning aimed at creating a game or simulation that teaches teachers how people learn.

Community

INItIAL UNDErstANDINGs A few definitions can help set the stage. A “game or simulation” is a computer code or application that embodies the rules, boundaries, and relationships of some system—in this case a system of teaching and learning that involves humans, a subject or knowledge area, a literate community, and a formative and summative assessment of knowledge. The exemplar digital game or simulation is, for the purposes of this chapter, assumed to be a single-person game for human and computer. This assumption is not meant to limit the simulation to only one human or computer, but to narrow the descriptive options as the framework is presented. On the machine side of the interaction, any representations of another human presented to the player, be it teacher or student, will be an “agent”—a computational representation utilizing artificial intelligence. On the human side, the player of the game will be a user who wishes to learn how people learn or improve their teaching. The game will take place in some virtual context

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such as a representation of an indoor or outdoor space, and it will need to model the transfer of information from the human to the agent and vice versa, and the subsequent influence on and accumulation of information in the agent. There is also an interest in tracking the user’s decisions and resource utilization to make inferences about what the user knows and can do as a teacher. With these preliminaries in mind, the narrative will now build a design framework for a simulation that represents different kinds of learners, how learning can occur within the agent, how the agent can be aware of others and the environment of learning, and how feedback from the game player can shape the agent’s experience and lead to the user learning about teaching.

cHArActErIstIcs OF tHE LEArNEr Anyone who has taught a class knows that learners come in a wide variety of types; some are highly engaged and confident, others are compliant and lackluster, others are hopeful but not adequately prepared or equipped to learn. Typologies have arisen to describe this variety in terms of degrees of complexity, the physical and psychological elements, and how differing forms of intelligence arise in cultures and communities of practice (Bloom et al., 1964; Gardner, 1983). There is wide agreement that learners have psychological, physical, and cognitive preferences and capabilities, and that these characteristics shape the way they learn. The simulation needs to reflect this knowledge base. A minimum set of typologies can be selected to represent important characteristics of the learner and can serve as a “first draft” of the complexity of a real learner. This model will undoubtedly be expanded and edited in time as operational games are implemented and cognitive and learning science theories evolve. The model developed here uses the terms “psychological, physical, and

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cognitive” as subheadings of a representation of “a learning personality” or set of primary lenses through which an agent learner develops knowledge and concepts.

Psychological Characteristics There are many psychological models to choose from ranging from neurobiological and pharmacological to socio-cultural levels of abstraction. It is possible to build a useful simulation from any of these levels, but each choice will dictate what content can be embedded in the game for discovery by the player. Since classroom learning is both an individual and group phenomenon, we need models from both individual and social psychology. Individual psychology or personality theory is a good starting point, and a selection can be made that reflects the consensus of the field that encompasses a wide range of theorists such as Jung (1969), Freud (1900), Cattell (1957), and others. The psychological characteristics selected for this chapter’s model are known as the “Five Factor Model of Personality” or “Big Five” (Digman, 1990; Ewen, 1998). Within psychology there are ongoing debates about the biological vs. cultural basis of the model, whether the five factors constitute a hierarchical or circular theory (or a theory at all), and the specific meaning of the components. These refinements within the theory are of minor concern, because the theory’s dominant role in research is evidence enough of its organizing and explanatory power. The theory is bolstered by empirical evidence in its broad outlines and can serve as a starting point for a computational model of agent psychology. A good candidate for a complementary model is the Cattell-Horn-Carroll psychometric model, which shares several variables with the OCEAN model and is dealt with below in the subsection on “Cognition.” One version of the Big Five is known as the OCEAN model (McCrae & Costa, 1996), which

Designing a Computational Model of Learning

provides an acronym of the five elements. An adapted terminology developed for business implementations (Howard & Howard, 2000) places a “work-friendly” tone on the Big Five (see Table 1). The Howard and Howard convention makes the language accessible to a wide audience. This may fall short of ideal for those with psychological and psychometric backgrounds, but serves the need to communicate with teachers and future teachers. Each of the OCEAN variables has a “high and low” end on a continuum—alternatively, the ends of each continuum can be represented with equal saturations in either a characteristic or its opposite. For example, the “O” stands for “Openness to new experience and a desire for originality.” Highly

open people tend to have a variety of interests and like cutting-edge technology as well as strategic ideas. Those who are low in originality tend to possess expert knowledge about a job, topic, or subject while possessing a down-to-earth, hereand-now view of the present. A learner low in “O” would prefer routines and would feel comfortable practicing well-known skills, whereas someone high in “O” would prefer novelty, challenge, and the unknown. As a taxonomy of variables that play a role in learning, the OCEAN model effectively and parsimoniously encompasses some of the important psychological characteristics of learners. The psychological variables represent a person’s learning characteristics as settings that

Table 1. Psychological characteristics (Adapted from Howard & Howard, 2000) O=

The degree to which we are open to new experiences/new ways of doing things. Highly open people

Openness or Originality

tend to have a variety of interests and like cutting-edge technology as well as strategic ideas. Those who are low in originality tend to possess expert knowledge about a job, topic, or subject while possessing a down-to-earth, here-and-now view of the present.

C = Conscientiousness or

Conscientiousness refers to the degree to which we push toward goals at work. Highly

Consolidation

conscientious people tend to work towards goals in an industrious, disciplined, and dependable fashion. Low consolidation people tend to approach goals in a relaxed, spontaneous, and openended fashion, and are usually capable of multi-tasking and being involved in many projects and goals at the same time.

E=

Extraversion refers to the degree to which a person can tolerate sensory stimulation from people

Extraversion

and situations. Those who score high on extraversion are characterized by their preference of being around other people and involved in many activities. Introversion at the other end of the scale is characterized by one’s preference to work alone and is typically described as serious, skeptical, quiet, and a private person.

A=

Accommodation refers to the degree to which we defer to others. Agreeable people tend to relate to

Agreeableness or

others by being tolerant, agreeable, and accepting of others. Low accommodation or disagreeable

Accommodation

people tend to relate to others by being tough, guarded, persistent, competitive, or aggressive.

N=

At one extreme of the need for stability continuum, highly reactive people experience

Emotional Stability or Need for

more negative emotions than most people and report less satisfaction with life than most people. At

Stability

the other extreme, highly stable people do not get emotionally involved with others and may seem aloof or stoic.

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Figure 2. Psychological characteristics of a simulated student in simSchool

lie somewhere on the continuum on each of the five scales, which suggests a computational model with a high and low end of a scale, and a center point that represents balance. For example, a scale of –1 to 1, with 0 at the midpoint, would allow a software agent to possess values on the Big Five variables that represent the full range in the psychological model. simSchool divides the model’s scale into .1 units, giving 21 positions from –1 to 1 (e.g., –1, -.9, -.8 … .8, .9, 1). This gives the psychological portion of the agent learning model a mathematical possibility of representing 21^5 or about four million personalities. The simSchool application (www.simschool.org) narrows the possibilities by clustering, for example it uses a five-position narrative representing clusters near –1, -.5, 0, .5, and 1. This provides 3,125 different clusters of the four million personalities. The simSchool narratives divide each of the psychological components into two extremes (e.g., extremely extroverted or introverted), two moderate positions (moderately extroverted or introverted), and one ambivalent or balanced position. Narratives are assembled from the database for each unique personality and presented to the user on demand (see Figure 2).

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Physical Characteristics The physical characteristics involved in learning entail both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) neural pathways. While you might first think of learning as primarily the organization of incoming sensory signals, recent work in artificial intelligence and robotics as well as constructivist learning theories suggests that pre-motor and motor systems—the body’s exploration and action in the world—play a major role in the development of intelligence (Pfeifer & Bongard, 2007). The important potential for action and feedback is addressed below in the sections on knowledge, assessment, and feedback. Here, the narrative concentrates on the sensory component of learning. The commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. For the game or simulation concerning typical classroom teaching, many writers and studies concentrate on vision, hearing, and kinesthetics, so for the time being we will ignore taste and smell. Note that a model of learning to cook would need these systems!

Designing a Computational Model of Learning

In the physical variables, unlike the bipolar psychological components that are always present to some degree, there is the possibility of a complete absence of an input pathway, such as in blindness or deafness. This presents a challenge about whether to use a threshold variable in addition to a range of organizational capability or preference. The concept of preference is useful for connecting the model to “learning styles theory” (Silver et al., 2000; Lemire, 2002), and that of capability is useful for connecting to theories of intelligence. For example, if someone is not blind, then to what extent do they tend to favor or prefer to organize learning through the visual pathway? For model simplicity, we can use the –1 position to represent complete absence of the pathway and all other positions to assume presence plus a degree of preference. Given scales similar to the above, 21^3 or 9,261 physically distinct personalities can be represented; or using the simSchool approach for narratives in the interface, 5^3 or 125 qualitatively different student sensory profile clusters can be represented. Combining the three physical and five psychological variables, we now have 21^8 or 37 billion personalities, or using the simSchool user interface model, we have 5^8 or 390,625 clusters of personalities.

Cognitive Characteristics The term “cognitive“ is used here to narrowly mean the components of learning that are not the physical nor the psychological components, even though we could argue that all the components are equally “cognitive” in that some kind of information processing and action is taking place in the brain and body. So what is left? There are a handful of general processes identified in psychometric modeling that seem to be involved across many domains of learning, such as memory span, working memory, broad verbal, general knowledge, processing speed, decision or reaction

time, and psychomotor speed. For a historical note on psychometric models, the Institute for Applied Psychometrics (McGrew, 2003) notes: The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of intelligence is the tent that houses the two most prominent psychometric theoretical models of human cognitive abilities (Daniel, 1997; Snow, 1998; Sternberg & Kaufman, 1998). CHC theory represents the integration of the Cattell-Horn Gf- Gc theory (Horn & Noll, 1997) and Carroll’s three-stratum theory (Carroll, 1993, 1996). There also seem to be specific “content knowledge“ processes unique to the subject area fields and primary sense modalities of a community of practice—for example, music, mathematics, visual arts, and so forth (Gardner, 1983). While the exact contents change with each specialized area of knowledge, there seem to be a few core content types held in common across subject domains, including concepts, principles, relationships, processes of inquiry and expression, general problem-solving approaches, and field-dependent applications to specific problems. How many more dimensions are needed for a game that teaches teachers how people learn? As we have seen above, each dimension being added to the personality exponentially increases the possibilities and computational challenge. In educational contexts, it is useful to consider the kinds of externally available data concerning students in order to make a selection of which dimensions will be most useful for a particular simulation. If we want to simulate “mathematics learning” for example, it may be enough in certain simulations to add a handful of dimensions specific to mathematics (e.g., computation, problem solving, communicating results) that are often measured by assessments. This opens the door to using these data sets to configure realistic student agents. For some simulation goals such as modeling classroom behavior, the subject area dimensions are less important than the underlying

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psychological dimensions. Pilot studies and field tests with simSchool, as well as considerations of the combinatorial challenges, have influenced the decision to plan for “swappable” cognitive dimensions, as needed for a variety of game or simulation scenarios. We can swap in and out as many dimensions as needed for each specific simulation purpose. For each cognitive dimension, we will adopt the valences we have developed thus far: either the dimension will be a bipolar continuum of qualitatively different capabilities or a combination of an off-on state integrated with a qualitative continuum. For example, in mathematics we might represent computation as a skill continuum where low numbers represent basic arithmetic and high numbers represent abstract or symbolic computations of higher orders. Or alternatively, we could choose a lower grain-sized dimension such as “the ability to add numbers” and set the continuum to mean a range of capability (e.g., from “cannot” to “exceeds mastery” of this skill). Let us stop and reflect on what the framework now provides for agents representing students in a game or simulation about teaching and learning:

•

• • • •

•

Agents possess psychological, physical, and cognitive preferences and capabilities, and these characteristics shape the way they learn. The OCEAN model comprises the five psychological variables. Vision, hearing, and kinesthetics comprise the three physical variables. Cognitive variables are divided into general and specific processes. Psychometric models and practical assessment models will determine the choices of cognitive variables for model versions. Each cognitive dimension will use either a bipolar continuum or an off-on state followed by a qualitative continuum.

We can describe thousands of different learners, and we will soon see that for each unique description, we have a set of internal variables that can be related to how that learner acts and appears in the learning setting. We can now call up a set of variables; assign the set to a gender, race, and body type (increasing the numbers of students modeled by these factors); and set the students into a learning setting (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. A simSchool learning setting with individualized personalities, attitudes, and behaviors

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What students can learn while in those settings will depend on the nature of knowledge being taught, to which we now turn.

NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE In order to teach a teacher to teach, the simulation must deal with knowledge acquisition by students; you will recall that the students are “agents” in our model. The simulation must represent how learning can occur within the agent, and also how much of it has occurred as a result of the user’s interactions. In addition, another challenge is to what extent the agent will be able to appear to know things. We will deal first with the process of acquiring, then the content and appearance of knowledge in agents.

KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITION Knowledge (e.g., a fact, a spatiotemporal sequence, a memory) is acquired incrementally over time and is integrated into what is already known, using dynamics and processes that are present in the evolution of all systems. We are confident of these features based on theoretical as well as biological grounds. On theoretical grounds we know that real evolving systems extend into the future based on immediate and irreversible past processes (Prigogine, 1996; Bar-Yam, 1997; Beinhocker, 2006). Who we are now is who we just were, with some slight change, and we cannot go back to who we were, ever. The one-way arrow of time is a crucial aspect of system evolution that is central to ideas about learning and means that knowledge is dynamic, transient, historical, and highly dependent upon context. On biological grounds we know that cortical functioning maps the spatiotemporal structure of reality (Braitenberg, 1984; Edelman & Tononi, 1995), which naturally leads to a hierarchical temporal structure of memory (Hawkins & Blakeslee,

2004). A computational bridge between biology and mathematics has been provided by Holland et al. (1986), who have shown how “default hierarchies” in a complex network of rules are involved in inference, learning, and discovery. A frog, for example, might have a set of rules it has learned, to stick out its tongue to catch all small, fast-moving, flying things except ones that (it learns later) fit a description for “wasps.” As the default rules are expanded to deal with exceptions, discoveries are joined with the existing hierarchy of rules, allowing for beneficial future predictions. So with respect to acquiring knowledge, the agent in our proposed game needs to use its immediate past state to create a new, slightly different state, using inputs from the environment organized according to the laws of physics and the statistical mechanics of complex networks (Albert & Albert-Laszio, 2002). Making incremental changes in the current state can be evaluated in relation to the immediate past state. “Am I more hungry or less, now that I ate my morning bagel?” This produces backwardlooking knowledge or reflection. Can the agent also look forward in time? Certainly autonomous agents do as they enact their lives in the real world (Holland, 1998; Kauffman, 2000; Baum, 2004; Hawkins & Blakeslee, 2004; Pfeifer & Bongard, 2007). In simSchool, a stand-in for autonomous planning and goal setting is used to attract the agent’s states forward through time. Something similar to this happens at the evolutionary time scale as the landscape of environmental factors shapes the species; the requirements act as de facto goals whether the agents are aware of them or not. As animals reach the goals, they develop expertise. “Most animals,” according to Brooks (1999), “have significant behavioral expertise built in without having to explicitly learn it all from scratch. This expertise is a product of evolution of the organism; it can be viewed as a very long term form of learning which provides a structured system within which individuals might learn more specialized skills of abilities” (p. 28). In

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the simSchool application, tasks and teacher talk form the goal environment or “problem space“ for the simulated student agents. One reason to use externally supplied goals instead of autonomous goals is that artificial intelligence researchers are just beginning to understand how planning and goal setting works in an evolutionary context, and it appears that long periods of time are required to develop autonomous goals. Because the teaching simulation needs to highlight the relationships among a student, a teacher, and the artifacts and evidence of learning in a classroom setting, it seems practical for our current state of knowledge to seed the system with high-level goals that short-cut the evolutionary timescale that would be needed if starting from scratch. There is a drawback to this choice. Our initial choice of external goals biases the model; however, all models, and the inductions they allow, have some kind of bias that simplifies the world (Holland et al., 1986; Holland, 1998; Baum, 2004), so the proposed framework is similar to all models in this respect. The bias concerning the acquisition of knowledge starts with the notion that everyone (and every living thing) is in the business of learning

throughout life. This innate striving to understand is a natural inner drive. As Art Costa (1999) once told a room full of educators, even a stored potato, plucked from its mother plant and tucked away in a dark root cellar on a shelf, sends out shoots trying to find light, soil, and water. Things want to live out their potential, and for humans that includes learning. The agents in the game of teaching (e.g., simSchool) are therefore seeking to adapt and trying to meet the requirements of the teacher’s tasks and intentions as signified in assignments and conversation. In simSchool, each assignment given by a teacher sets a goal for the student, and given enough time and support, that student can almost always adapt to the requirements of that task. Each task is a new “problem space: task model” for the agent. As the agent encounters new problems, it takes a series of small steps, tinkering, making tentative hypotheses, and seeking validation via evaluation functions that result in “hill climbing” toward its goals (Baum, 2004). Knowledge acquisition occurs as progress is made toward the task’s goals. The model has thus substituted external goals for autonomous goals. One of the signs of this dynamic is how students individually react

Figure 4. Conversation and body language differences in simSchool

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to each action of the teacher with body language and talking behaviors (see Figure 4). In the future, as AI improves, autonomous goals can enter the model; but note that in normal school settings, real students suspend many of their autonomous goals to do what the teacher says and the school requires. This leads to a state of affairs that has occupied socio-cultural theorists of education in the past concerning the balance of individual autonomy with the needs of enculturation of the next generation. The section on “community“ below takes up this theme in an abstract way, but for now, the idea of knowledge acquisition is focused on how the hill-climbing search (and other methods) for understanding leads to expertise—an internal mapping—of units of knowledge.

UNDErstANDING AND LAbELs What is the “what” of knowledge? Two broad categories of knowledge are “know-how” (procedural, tacit knowledge) and “know-that” (declarative, descriptive, propositional knowledge). Know-how, since it is tacit, cannot be talked about or represented nearly as well as it can be simply enacted. Some knowledge and skills (e.g., walking, playing a musical instrument, or riding a bike) seem to migrate from conscious efforts into know-how. Other knowledge (e.g., turning food into metabolic energy and nutrients) seems to be innate. An evolutionary view of knowledge that includes everything from DNA to culture would argue that all knowledge is fundamentally knowhow, some of which gets dressed up as know-that through the use of labels. For example, I say “cat” and you recall a series of your life experiences unlike anything that anyone else on earth has experienced; yet you understand what I mean (if you speak English and know what a cat is). You cannot possibly tell me or anyone else, including yourself, all of the experiences that combine to form your response to the word “cat,” so what

you do is tacitly accept the label from me, assuming that we probably share a large portion of similar experiences signified by that token. The philosopher Hilary Putnam (1992) calls this “the charity of interpretation.” Philosophers may quibble with me about the details, but in ordinary everyday terms, you and I would agree that we both understand what we mean by “cat.” Semantics and understanding enter in via compression and labeling of know-how (Baum, 2004). Know-how is the most abundant kind of knowledge, but being tacit, it does not appear in textbooks, lectures, and tests. Declarative knowledge on the other hand, while ubiquitous in teaching and assessment, is little appreciated as a label for know-how. As Kauffman (2000) says, “Know-that is a thin veneer on a four-billion-year-old know-how skill abundant in the biosphere” (p. 111). On that thin layer of labels (the knowledge that we can talk about) rests all of humanity’s cultural artifacts. It would be ideal if both kinds of knowledge could be evident in the simulation. The agents who are learning as a result of the actions of the user would then “know how” to react and act in the simulation, and if asked, the agents would be able to say something useful to the player to show that they “know that” something exists or is true. To lay a foundation for both kinds of knowledge in the game framework, the narrative will now review and integrate what has been explored thus far and connect it to know-how and know-that.

HIERARCHY, TEMPORALITY, AND AGENCY The process of acquiring knowledge is incremental, an expansion driven by evolutionary forces on agents seeking solutions or resolutions of goals. The narrative has indicated that the shape of the solutions is a hierarchical temporal structure. Several writers give a picture of what one level of a hierarchy “knows” about the levels

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below it, and what that level projects to the next level “up” or “down” in the hierarchy. This section explores these concepts as a foundation for knowledge and behavior exhibited by the agent. Games and simulations that teach teachers will have simulated students that behave like real students; they will seem to “know” and “learn” using a cognitive framework with hierarchy, temporality, and agency. Dennett (1995) and Braitenberg (1984) give two pictures of increasing complexity in independent agents or agency at several levels in a cognitive hierarchy. Dennett’s colorful image is of four kinds of “creatures,” and Braitenberg uses the idea of robotic “vehicles” to make many of the same points. Dennett’s creatures are Darwinian, Pavlovian, Popperian, and Gregorian. Darwinian creatures evolve by simple mutation, recombination, and selection made by fitness on a landscape that serves as the evaluation function. For those unfamiliar with evolutionary concepts outside of biology, see Platek et al. (2006) for an introduction to evolutionary cognitive neuroscience, and Cosmides and Tooby (2007) for evolutionary psychology. No behavioral learning is possible at the Darwinian level, so modeling of how people learn should not start at this level, although the model may need to account for this level of dynamics at some point. The model needs simulated student agents who can appear to learn. At the next level up, in Pavlovian creatures, there is a nervous system, and stimulus-response learning is possible. The behaviorist tradition in education takes its foundation here, but simulated students should be more complex than aplysia, so the model needs to be built higher up in the hierarchy to function more realistically for teacher education. Next is the Popperian level. Those unfamiliar with Karl Popper (1959) may find it interesting that he showed that scientific theories are never proven true, but are held tentatively until they are falsified—that is, until they are shown to

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be inadequate due to new knowledge, including better models. The possibility of falsification underpins the role of models and theory in science, as well as in the proposed cognitive framework for simulated students. Since we have already seen that models are incomplete simplifications of the world, the Popperian level is a good starting point for representing how people learn and what knowledge they possess. Creatures at this level have internal models and can simulate or run the models disengaged from the world. This appears to be a potential foundation for thought, reflection, and prediction. A Popperian agent learns and possesses incomplete simplifications of the world that are always ready to be improved with new information. The agents in the simulations of how people learn should be capable of this sort of learning and knowledge. Gregorian creatures at Dennett’s fourth level use tools to create a shared base of knowledge or culture. At the current stage of AI, it is hard to envision a day when software agents will create and use cultural artifacts. However, it seems to be a technical rather than a fundamental question. The Gregorian level would be ideal for a simulated student, because then the student could produce his or her own original work for teacher grading. Braitenberg (1984) gives much the same picture, but uses a synthetic constructive approach, building up from a concept of a simple vehicle at the lowest level. As he introduces more and more complexity, he names the vehicles for the primary activity allowed by each new level. For example, the simplest vehicle is “Getting Around,” which connects a single sensor directly to a single motor. The propulsion of the motor is directly proportional to the signal being detected by the sensor. Imagine that this vehicle is swimming around in water and the sensor detects temperature. You might find the agent speeding up in warm spots, slowing down in the cold (or vice versa). Given the existence of currents and friction, the vehicle

Designing a Computational Model of Learning

might behave erratically, giving an animated impression of “life” similar to the Brownian motion of pollen and dust particles in water. The next vehicle has two sensors and two motors connected in either a straight line fashion or crossed so that the left sensor operates the right motor and vice versa. The idea of crossing connections emulates the crossed fibers in the human corpus callosum that gives rise to our “left-brain vs. right-brain” cognitive architecture. This vehicle is called “Fear and Aggression,” because in the straight-line configuration, certain environmental sources (e.g., whatever the sensor detects) attract the agent to rush toward the source, while in the crossed-line configuration, the agent avoids those sources. An agent with several sensors and motors with both straight-line and crossed connections will seem to be attracted or repelled by a variety sources in the environmental landscape. This kind of modeling—with the agent attracted by some features of the learning task or environment and

repelled by others—is an essential feature of the simulated student. In simSchool, each individual student is attracted by the current features of the problem space, which gives rise to incremental improvements in performances in some variables and drops in others (see Figure 5). Braitenberg’s vehicles range from simple locomotion to trains of thought and even egotism. The sensorimotor network arrangements of the vehicles describe levels and kinds of agency possible within a hierarchical network by virtue of the configurations of connections between layers. To bring these metaphoric pictures into the simulated student’s knowledge, the creatures and vehicles can be thought of as nodes or groups of nodes within levels of a network hierarchy that change over time. In a neural net, the nodes are metaphorically called “neurons,” nodes, node complexes, or simply variables. A hierarchical temporal network embodies knowledge in a computational structure (Hawkins

Figure 5. A simSchool student gains or loses in performance in relation to problem space settings. Yael gains slowly in academic performance and loses ground in agreeableness based on the task settings for doing a team worksheet

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& Blakeslee, 2004). Results are computed from incoming information (e.g., integration, Piagetian equilibration), and decisions are computed, including updates and actions (e.g., retrieval from memory, coordination, communication). Cognitive and social constructivists (Bruner, 1960; Vygotsky, 1962; Piaget, 1973, 1985) are validated by this model because the semantics or meaning within all this signaling is constantly being constructed and shared across agent-community boundaries. Feminist theorists (Haraway, 1988; Weiler, 1991) will note that a multiplicity of perspectives and partial truths are vying for attention and control within the cognitive system. As the cognitive system reaches high levels of complexity, it includes cultural and social artifacts while preserving the dynamics of the structure of knowledge that emerge in the temporal hierarchy. Each node of the hierarchy is a semi-independent subagent or center of agency in that it operates automatically on all its incoming information but can be interrupted by a higher-level subagent subsuming its role. In Brooks’ (1986) “subsumption architecture” terminology, the intelligent system is decomposed into independent and parallel “activity producers.” Activity theorists (Engeström et al. 1998) would agree with the concept of agency arising from activity in the world. In particular, Brooks’ concept is that cognition is itself the intersection of perception and action and not an independent mediating structure between them. As a result of this insight, the model of acquiring

knowledge needed in the design framework is not separate from the perceiving of inputs and production of behavior of the student. If we achieve sufficient complexity in node-cluster agency in the hierarchical and temporal structure, then it will appear to an outside observer (even the “self”) as cognition. We do not have to build a separate cognition box, but instead allow for increasing levels of complexity emerging from a common core of functions. The concept of agency has two meanings to draw out: first, how a result is obtained or an end is achieved, and second, acting on behalf of or representing another. There may be another meaning of agency to bring in eventually, for example, the concept of “acting freely” or “on one’s free will.” For now, it suffices to think of a hierarchy of nodes where, in general, a “higher level” means fewer nodes receiving signals from and mapping back downward onto a larger number of “lower-level” nodes. Each node (e.g., a node in Level 2 in Figure 6) is an ambidextrous entity, linking upward as well as downward from its position in the hierarchy. Each node gets incoming messages from below and above, and sends outgoing messages to each. In the Hawkins model, the upward messages are beliefs and the downward ones are predictions (Hawkins & Blakeslee, 2004). For example in the design for a simulation of how people learn, the agent acting as a student builds up (evolves, remembers) a pattern that forms a foundation for

Figure 6. A single network hierarchy with different “up” and “down” flows Level 3 Level 2 Level 1

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future actions in the classroom. These built-up experiences partially determine how the agent will behave in a future game with the same player. The simulated student acquires a new label for a set of complex experiences (e.g., remembering that a player has come back to play again) and uses that label in current computations. To help with understanding the belief-prediction structure, Holland (1995) explains two basic concepts of agents that we can make use of at this point: aggregation (a property) and tagging (a mechanism). Aggregation occurs at each higher level in the hierarchy. A node aggregates features from the layer below it. Baum (2004) notes that an aggregating node creates a more compact description of the world—a label—which is equivalent to that layer’s understanding of the world below it, which is consistent with Hawkin’s “beliefs.” The node can then send a message to the next higher level as a compact description and use its understanding to control the layers below. The node’s compact description is interpreted by the level above as a tag, label, or belief (e.g., “cat”) for the complex composition of features below (e.g., all the “cat-related” associations you have made since birth, maybe since the beginning of time). The node also uses lower-level tags (e.g., things that are whisker-like, things that are furry-like) to select, categorize, and predict incoming features from below. Tagging or labeling thus facilitates aggregation by pointing out what things belong together, and it facilitates recognition and categorization by compressing information about the world below. As illustrated in Figure 6, the mapping of transitions up and down the hierarchy is more complex than 1:1. Nodes can classify the world in more than one category and can also direct behavior of more than one action. The tentative nature of the classification points out that the agent’s model of the world is not completely valid (recall Popperian falsification and the partial truths of Feminist philosophy). Holland et al. (1986) call the layers of transition “quasi-homomorphisms“ or

“Q-morphisms.” We can think of the world model available at any particular level of the hierarchy as providing default settings for making predictions about the incoming level from below; and the level below evokes exceptions that force reworking the model. Here is Piagetian constructivism in action at the atomic level—remodeling the world based on present needs given by new information. We now have a background to summarize how the simulation can represent how learning can occur within the agent. In summary, each student’s knowledge is represented by a set of node or variable complexes that are updated as the game-play moves forward in time. We can think of the nodes as computational processes or alternatively as simple or complex variables, depending on the “grain size” needs for modeling. “Grain size” sets a boundary that determines what a model can simulate and represent as well as what may be emergent and difficult to represent. For example, if the model is at a very high level of grain size (e.g., whole individuals interacting in an environment), then the internal lower-level details may be hidden from view (e.g., what is motivating each individual to interact). For example, to model learning theories such as behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism, the focus must be many levels distant from the neurophysiological level. The agent-based hierarchical-temporal cognitive network framework developed thus far implies that in such a high-level simulation, cognition amounts to dealing with labels that represent, stand in for, and call upon lower-level complex functions. Those labels are the understandings that the agent possesses that enable it to act in the world. This is how we as well as agents understand things. As an aside, a software agent is not presumed to possess human understanding, only that it can understand things in its own terms and that a sufficient level of complexity can be reached to utilize the agent as a model of student learning for the purpose of teaching a teacher how people learn. A rich and detailed philosophical history

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has unfolded around questions of artificial intelligence. The bias of this chapter is that AI is one of many forms of intelligence and can theoretically reach sufficient levels of complexity to pass the Turing test. However, it should not matter what side of the debate one is on (e.g., whether one believes that AI is intelligence at all or to what extent it is) in order to entertain the idea that a simulation of classroom learning might be possible that would improve upon the current methods of teacher preparation, mentoring, and professional growth. At this point, we have a knowledge structure and acquisition process that is one and the same thing—a constantly maintained hierarchical temporal complex network in which agents: •

• •

• •

•

•

•

Use immediate past states to create new, slightly different states, using inputs from the environment organized according to the laws of physics and the statistical mechanics of complex networks; Are attracted to and repelled by sources in the environment acting as goals; Acquire knowledge as incremental progress is made toward goals driven by evolutionary dynamics; Exhibit know-how and know-that types of knowledge; Know and learn things using a cognitive framework with hierarchy, temporality, and agency; Possess incomplete simplifications of the world that are always ready to be improved with new information; Use internal models and can simulate or run the models disengaged from the world; and Respond to attractors and repellors within the environmental landscape.

The simSchool application’s students embody many of these ideas in a rudimentary way, but the model needs much further development in

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order for the students to attain even a rudimentary level of autonomous agency. Ultimately, it would be ideal to have agents that not only know some things and learn other things, but know how to learn.

ULTIMATE KNOWLEDGE: HOW TO LEArN Hawkins and Blakeslee’s (2004) idea is that network nodes have four functions present at all levels of the hierarchical temporal cognitive complex—a “common algorithm” inspired by the human neocortex. The first two functions are required at every level; the last two are optional: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Discover causes in the world Infer causes of novel input Make predictions Direct behavior

Discovery of causes is accomplished by categorizing persistent patterns of incoming information, such as in the “cat” example. The structuring of this input into hierarchical and temporal chunks resonates with past knowledge (e.g., recognition, remembering) and incrementally updates the knowledge structure (e.g., learning new patterns and variations). To accomplish both functions, the node must classify its input. For example, in recognition: “IF I see a furry creature with four legs AND IF it has whiskers AND IF it also has a long tail, THEN it might be a cat.” Note the rule-based nature of classification and the tentative conclusion. Discoveries (new conclusions) are also tentative: “This is like a cat, but it is slightly different than any cat I’ve ever seen.” Note the need to adapt the rule in order to discover a new cause in the world. Classifier systems as developed by Holland and others (Holland & Reitman, 1978; Holland et al., 1986) contain mechanisms for adaptively generating new rules, processing rules in parallel,

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and evaluating the rules in relation to selection criteria. Rules classify input by matching and ordering input conditions (e.g., “IF such and such is happening”) with actions (e.g., “THEN do the following”). Among the items following “THEN” are optional externally observable behavioral actions when appropriate. For example, “IF the cat is huge and has big teeth, THEN get moving.” Note the similarity of the subsumption architecture (Brooks, 1999) and default hierarchy (Holland et al., 1986) in that the cognitive system uses ongoing parallel input processing of a hierarchy of rules, all of which are firing and presenting tentative recognitions that higher levels evaluate and use. Inferring causes of novel input builds upon classification and past experience and borders on prediction. One can see a relatively smooth transition from the “ah ha” of recognition of an input, to the consequent “that must mean that this is an example of x” and “In the past, the presence of x’s has meant y’s so I predict that the next thing I’m going to see is a y.” Baum’s view is that the compact description (the label) implies what is below it, and when the general schema almost fits a current situation, it leads naturally to inferences that what held true in past experience might then also hold now for this new input. If the resulting semantic import of that recognition involved past pain or pleasure (e.g., was rewarded or punished), then it might lead to behaviors such as fear and aggression (e.g., moving toward or away from something). Holland’s (1995) view is that exceptions to the rules in the default hierarchy are created to handle special cases when the default hierarchy needs fine tuning.

APPLYING THE KNOWLEDGE FRAMEWORK In the simSchool application an agent’s knowledge and acquisition of knowledge is represented by bundles of variables that contain current states.

There is no “memory” made up of representations so there is no “content of knowledge” in the sense of a collection of them. Instead, five variables code for the psychological state, using the OCEAN model of psychology (McCrae & Costa, 1996; Moberg, 1999). Another three variables code physical-perceptual states as noted in multiple intelligences theory (Gardner, 1983): visual, auditory, and kinesthetic perception and preference. A single variable represents general capabilities for academic performance. In the future, a revolving door of bundles of variables will be introduced to represent academic or other more purely cognitive capabilities, depending on the context. The research suggests also contemplating the addition of a bundle of general cognitive capabilities that come into play regardless of the subject area one wishes to teach: for example, language comprehension and abstract reasoning may be among the variables in that bundle. Each agent’s state of knowledge and personality characteristics of acquiring new knowledge is handled at a high level of abstraction as an intersection or computational composition of the psychological, physical, and cognitive variables. Tasks given by a teacher become a goal environment for each student. Simulated students attempt to meet the task requirements–progress that is enhanced or inhibited by differences between the students’ current states and the task’s characteristics. The student’s internal variables are incrementally updated on gradients that are more or less steep depending on how far the task requirement is from their current state, computationally implementing the theory of the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962, 1978). The current state of the student model is a lowlevel vehicle, to use Braitenberg’s term, or perhaps a Pavlovian creature, in that there is only local adaptive memory in each agent. Agents are created anew with each game or simulation. They exhibit states of knowledge and learning characteristics to the user through behaviors and heads-up displays, which show change of knowledge and learning

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characteristics over time in response to user moves (e.g., selecting tasks and selecting things to say). The agents are partially Popperian, in that the current state of variables is their world model, but the agents are incapable of operating on their models disconnected from the environment. This has one significant consequence helpful to teacher training in that all learning by the agents can thus only be a result of the actions of the user in selecting appropriate tasks and conversational stances. The model is thus not a simple set of a few paths based on “if, then” rules, but a dynamic evolving set of trajectories in a complex state space. Time is a factor in the evolution of results, and unexpected nonlinear behaviors can result since moment-to-moment changes by the user impact each student’s evolution. Formal research on simSchool is just beginning, under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education “Fund for the Improvement of PostSecondary Education” (FIPSE), which began in the Fall of 2006. Earlier pilot tests in 2005 and early FIPSE-funded field tests in 2006 and 2007 have shown that some users, based on teaching experience with an agent, develop an ability to plan a lesson strategy ahead of time and improve their ability to cause learning in that agent. Other results show that teams of users can develop a general theory of learning, test it through gameplay, and validate whether the model works the way they expected. Observers have also noted effects such as rapid formation of bias for certain agents and against others. Many users experience frustration with certain kinds of agents and are rewarded in their experience with others. Thus, the simSchool cognitive model seems to be holding up under the current contexts of use with users who are learning to teach. The general framework outlined above shows how far there is to go with a specific application like simSchool. The pathway of development is full of opportunity for the future, and the challenges are great. One area of particular importance in a socio-cultural theory of learning that is largely

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lacking in the current simSchool is the impact and effects of others in the learning community. The narrative now turns attention to extending the general framework to enable a role for community in simulating how people learn.

COMMUNITY = ENVIRONMENT The framework outlined thus far has included the environment in an integral way into the idea of cognition. There would be no cognition without acting within the environment, since cognition is itself a byproduct of perceiving and acting, and is not an independent entity. In the HPL framework (Bransford et al., 2000), the community—defined as a cultural hierarchy of classroom, school, town, state, nation, and world—acts as the environment for learning as well as a repository of norms, expectations, and expertise. This definition implies that knowledge is more than what an individual learns; it is what a community of individuals learns and maintains together while addressing common challenges. The simulation framework thus needs group effects based on interactions among individuals. This section will outline considerations for building a synthetic community for agents acting as students in a classroom. In the minimum game (e.g., one agent and one user), the agent needs to be aware of the user’s actions as part of the agent’s environment. As a foundation for expanded agent-to-agent awareness needed for community, the narrative will concentrate first on the user-to-agent interpersonal actions, as distinct from other actions of the user and environmental factors that may impact the agent, then extend those to other agents. In simSchool, the user has only one interpersonal action—selecting conversational phrases. A theoretical basis for interpersonal relationships is offered by the “interpersonal circumplex” (Leary, 1957; Kiesler, 1983; Plutchik & Conte, 1997), which posits that people negotiate relationships in terms of power and affiliation in complementary

Designing a Computational Model of Learning

relationship to the other person. The dynamics of the circumplex are driven by two transition rules: power attracts an opposing response (reciprocity) and affiliation attracts a cooperative response (correspondence). Dr. Robert Acton of Northwestern University notes: Elaborated by Robert C. Carson (Carson, 1969), the interpersonal principle of complementarity specifies ways in which a person’s interpersonal behavior evokes restricted classes of behavior from an interactional partner, leading to a selfsustaining and reinforcing system. The principle of complementarity is defined on the interpersonal circumplex such that correspondence tends to occur on the affiliation axis (friendliness invites friendliness, and hostility invites hostility), and reciprocity tends to occur on the power axis (dominance invites submission, and submission invites dominance). (Acton, n.d.) The circumplex model limits user-to-agent and agent-to-agent interpersonal interactions to eight bipolar (16 total) emotional stances that combine

power and affiliation (see Figure 7). Other emotional models are discussed below. The challenge in extending the interpersonal model to groups is how to make agents aware of each other and what to do about the states the agents detect in others. In addition, other variables come into play when multiple agents are interacting in a cooperative learning environment. For example, social expectations states theory (Berger et al., 1966; Cohen & Lotan, 1997; Kalkhoff & Thye, 2006) points out the role of tasks in creating status, with attendant impacts on both high- and low-status agents. The expected contribution of a peer to a shared task—one that is vital to mutual success in a larger organization (e.g., a small workgroup within a classroom)—leads to emergent status assignments by the group members, and that status categorization impacts who in the group is allowed to lead, talk, work, and learn. In contrast to much of the research on modeling emotion as a part of decision making (e.g., in high stress and combat situations), a cooperative group is not focused on achieving goals at the expense of others (e.g., enemies), but on maximizing the

Figure 7. Interpersonal circumplex

Dominant

Assured

E xhibitionistic Sociable

Cold

Friendly Warm

Aloof Inhibited Unassured

Deferent Submissive

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Figure 8. Activity theory and (game elements) overlaid on the HPL framework (Interfaces – User Trails - Models)

Assessment

Subject (Player)

Object (Control - Win)

Learner

Knowledge

Praxis (Rules, Strategies,

Community

Community (Gamers and Agents)

group’s output in order to obtain shared benefits. More study is needed to build a computational model of cooperative group dynamics that takes social expectation states into account. The framework for thinking about classroom community in a computational context has also been guided by sociocultural activity theory (Leontyev, 1977; Vygotsky, 1978; Engeström et al., 1998), as well as literature on situated agent behavior (Ortony et al., 1988; Gratch & Marsella, 2004; Van Dyke Parunak et al., 2006; Egges et al., 2007). Sociocultural activity theory is a model of artifact-mediated and object-oriented action, which you might notice is compatible with the nature of knowledge acquisition and agency outlined above. The theory, when applied to social groups and community, usually treats artifacts as cultural objects. In evolutionary cognitive systems, those artifacts may also be internal models of the world at a variety of cognitive levels. In the Engestrom enhancement of Activity Theory, there are six components—artifact (tool),

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Roles (Gamers and Agents)

subject, object, rules, community, and roles (division of labor)—involved in the transformation of activity into an outcome. Since games and simulations are human activity systems, there are relationships of game elements to these six components, as well as an aggregation into the HPL framework for how people learn (see Figure 8). The framework synthesized from the three different research traditions situates the community as part of a larger evolutionary cultural historical system in which digital games and simulations have arisen. It leads to a set of questions that can be raised when planning new game-based learning experiences or analyzing the impact of a simulation on learning (e.g., Who is the individual we are designing for? What tools will he or she need? What objects will be worked on? etc.). In this context, the questions about community naturally include other people as players (in the game now or who have ever played it)—the cultural artifacts encountered in the game space as well as software agents.

Designing a Computational Model of Learning

If the Activity-Games-HPL framework delineates the community structure, how will agents become aware of each other’s psychological, physical, and cognitive stances? Situated agent behavior researchers develop computational models to guide agent decision making in relation to other agents, players, and non-playing characters (e.g., objects in the environment). A core idea for social interaction of agents is the digital pheromone (Brueckner, 2000), which is a labeled scalar deposited in the environment that diffuses and evaporates. In the teaching simulation for example, if a teacher groups certain students together, those agents could be made more aware of each other’s observable variables and could be impacted to perform better or worse depending on the group’s localized social context within the larger community. The pheromone models can be combined with a framework for emotional reasoning to mediate the rule-based environmental monitoring and internal cognitive processes in an agent. Gratch and Marsella (2004) have provided a domain-independent framework for modeling emotions based on a general computational model of appraisal and copingtwo broad and complementary mechanisms underpinning how “emotion motivates action, distorts perception and inference, and communicates information about mental state” (p. 1). Appraisal monitors the relationship between an agent’s internal state and incoming variables representing the physical and social environment, and coping utilizes resources to adapt and maintain the relationship. Appraisal, it is important to point out, is not a higher-order cognitive function like reasoning. but rather “a reflexive assessment“ (p. 5) of significance of an event. Reflexive appraisal places it squarely in line with the behavior-based distributed cognition models we explored in the section on the nature of knowledge. It may be possible to align the various appraisal criteria for judging significance with the lowest level of sensorimotor reflexes outlined by the

subsumption hierarchical temporal architecture (see Table 2). The proposed alignment needs to be studied further and tested in real game systems. If a low-level reflexive appraisal is possible— that is, one that is at or near the boundary of the agent’s sensory system contacting the world—the Gratch-Marsella model (or its Q-morphism) might evolve naturally as part of the agent’s acting, roaming, discovering, and making sense of the world. This approach would avoid the inevitable biases and inflexibility of “designer preset emotions” that have been constructed for a particular application. This is somewhat speculative, but evidence exists for an agent learning to map new landmarks in its environment by assigning the new concepts to unused high-level nodes (Mataric & Brooks, 1999), thus constructing its own view of the community space. Ideally agents will learn about their community by acting with and in it. Pfeifer and Bongard (2007) have demonstrated that an agent can create a mental model of its own body image and use that to learn and then adapt the image after injury to a limb to re-learn how to move around in an environment. It seems to me to be a short step to agents building mental models of other agents and users, with emergent community results resting on fundamental interpersonal dynamics of social interactions. Other computational models that have been developed for social interactions (agent-to-agent and player-to-agent) include the OCC model (Ortony et al., 1988), which proposes 22 emotions in a framework of goals, standards, and attitudes. In OCC, agent behavior is initiated with a triggering event that is appraised in conjunction with an emotional state as well as inputs from the rest of the environment. Another model uses belief, desire, and intention (BDI) (Rao & Georgeff, 1991). Beliefs are formed from perceptions while desires are long-term goals. Both feed into an analysis that leads to an intention to act, which then changes agents’ relationship to the environment. Finally, the Disposition, Emotion, Trig-

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Table 2. Appraisal criteria in proposed subsumption HT architectural states Appraisal Criteria Relevance

Desirability

Key Question

Subsumption HT Architectural States

Does the event require attention or adaptive

Near and above some threshold, there is persistent

reaction?

input inconsistent with the current local world model.

Does the event facilitate or thwart what the

Signals inhibit output(s) when a higher-order world

person wants?

model controls the node, or signals suppress input(s) when a lower-order world model detects relevance or causal attribution.

Causal Attribution Agency

What causal agent was responsible for an event?

Causal Attribution Blame

Does the causal agent deserve blame or credit?

Persistent sensorimotor association patterns are established.

and Credit

Spreading (broadcasting) expectations from active nodes (see also back propagation in neural nets and credit assignment in genetic algorithms).

Likelihood

How likely was the event; how likely is an

High degree of hierarchical temporal alignment of

outcome?

input with the current local world model.

Unexpectedness

Was the event predicted from past knowledge?

Low degree of hierarchical temporal alignment of input

Urgency

Will delaying a response make matters worse?

with the current local world model. Far above some threshold, there is persistent input inconsistent with the current local world model. Ego Involvement

To what extent does the event impact a person’s

Degree of reorganization required to integrate the input

sense of self (social esteem, moral values,

with the current local world model.

cherished beliefs, etc.)? Coping Potential

To what extent can an event can be influenced?

Controllability

Degree of hierarchical temporal alignment of input with the current local world model.

Coping Potential

To what extent will an event change its own

Near and below some threshold of persistent input

Changeability

accord?

inconsistent with the current local world model.

Coping Potential Power

Does the power of a particular agent directly or

Degree of hierarchical temporal alignment of input

indirectly control an event?

with the current local world model.

Coping Potential

Can the person live with the consequences of

Degree of reorganization required to integrate the input

Adaptability

the event?

with the current world model.

ger, Tendency (DETT) model of emotion (Van Dyke et al., 2006) for situated agents captures the essential features of both the OCC and BDI models in a computational framework for combat simulations. Using digital pheromones, a representation of community from the perspective of any single agent involves building an internal model of

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other agents and users who share some element (e.g., proximity, a situation, interests, values). The agents’ mental model will lead to expectations of the others’ task performance and personality capabilities, and how those interact with the agent’s capabilities, in order to predict and enact behavior. Characteristics normally associated with communities (norms of behavior, cultural

Designing a Computational Model of Learning

artifacts, and other forms of collectivism) will then emerge.

FEEDBACK AND ASSESSMENT Assessment is a broad topic and will only briefly be outlined here in the context of feedback—not judgment “of learning,” but an assistant “for learning.” In a typical learning environment, assessment for learning is critical to gauging and adapting how well one is learning. Students need constant and timely feedback in order to learn new skills. Even when studying alone, repetition and rehearsal of new ideas assist memory and learning. This section concentrates then on dynamic assessment methodologies, including the emerging intelligence of software agents that organize game or simulation feedback so that the user can get the most out of the experience. Successful digital games employ effective timely feedback that help players gain expertise, know when they are gaining or losing ground, attain goals, and celebrate winning. The feedback concentrates on the authentic and critical variables of the game-play that track short- and long-term objectives and often simultaneously involve local and wide-angle views of the playing field. This in a nutshell is what good “assessment for learning” looks like. If teachers could learn these principles and design similar assessments embedded in learning experiences, students would stay on task, self-regulate, and learn more. So, the game of teaching should embody these principles in order to teach them to users. To provide the needed feedback, digital games and simulations have a great advantage over other forms of teaching in that a large amount of data is created during every second of use—too much data, in fact. Methods of data mining are needed to create smaller sets of highly relevant data for attributing meaningful patterns of activity to the user.

Data Mining and Automated Learning Two broad methods of data mining are top-down and bottom-up, which evoke an image such as the hierarchical temporal cognitive framework discussed earlier as well as the age-old distinction of deductive vs. inductive methods. In topdown approaches the analysis queries very large databases in order to test a hypothesis, and in bottom-up approaches it interrogates a database in order to find persistent correlations that can be used to generate new hypotheses. Some would say that persistent relationships would have to be “rigorous statistical correlations,” but let us also allow for fuzzy, incomplete, default hierarchies as discussed earlier. Data mining methods include both unsupervised and supervised machine learning approaches applied to very large-scale static and streaming data sets. For game and simulation-situated feedback to the user during game-play, the best choice is supervised learning that is subsequently encoded to enable real-time application to streaming data, otherwise the feedback might get to the player long after it is needed to guide decisions. This choice requires more pre-thought about relevance and attribution than the alternatives, since unsupervised methods that involve genetic algorithms, neural network analysis, and Bayesian algorithms can take many generations or examples (i.e., a lot of time) to evolve solutions. Relevance and attribution issues are discussed below. Supervised machine learning methods involve training the algorithm with examples or humans making decisions that help shape selections and computational processes. Then by encoding those decisions into algorithms, the “time to analysis results” can practically disappear. This allows rapid feedback to the user but with a cost. An increase in inflexibility or stiffness is an inevitable consequence of hard-wiring the human-guided decisions into code. In certain branches and

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kinds of declarative knowledge, the stiffness is insignificant (e.g., learning which facts are true or not or how to tighten a bolt in the right direction does not vary within the problem space), but in tacit and complex knowledge domains, it can be disastrous (e.g., learning to diagnose cancer has many more ways to be right and wrong within its problem space). When the audience for the assessment is the user’s “after action review” or an educational researcher or supervisor, then unsupervised learning methods on large static data sets may be useful as post-hoc analyses. Ron Stevens (Stevens et al. 1996; Stevens 2006), for example, has shown that self-organizing artificial neural network analysis can discover and model student problem-solving strategies. His post-hoc approaches have also allowed his team to use Hidden Markov Modeling to develop predictive learning trajectories across sequences of performances. These extremely important and powerful findings cannot provide immediate feedback to a user unless they are used to pre-structure algorithms for the analysis of streaming data. This implies that a cycle of learning in the research and development community can lead to better streaming feedback in games and simulations. In the early stages, approximate and intuitive use of streaming data to provide “heads-up” feedback to users can later become more finely tuned by post-hoc analyses’ inductive biases built into the feedback systems. A precondition of data mining is having data to work with, and if there is too much data generated by the game or simulation engine and user interactions, what should be collected. Here, the choice to go with supervised machine learning seems obvious, because the humans interested in the results already know what they are interested in tracking, analyzing, and reporting on. They have the criteria of relevance and attribution in mind.

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Data Relevance Assessment according to Mislevy et al. (2003) is a “machine for reasoning about what students know, can do, or have accomplished, based on a handful of things they say, do, or make in [a] particular setting (p. 1).” It is that handful I turn to now, keeping in mind the digital environment of games and simulations. The basic framework for data relevance in assessment rests on some kind of inference model that relates artifacts of the user to attributions of their meaning (e.g., are these artifacts of sufficient quality, do they indicate that the user has acquired new knowledge since the start of the game, are they indicators of prior knowledge, are they consistent with scientific knowledge, etc.?). The player, however, needs a different set of data to guide in-flight decisions, and the question for designers is what to do with both streams of data—that needed by players and that needed by assessment decision makers. The data relevant to the user might have to do with navigating the problem space; making headway on the goal; avoiding traps, misconceptions, and penalties; and knowing when useful information has been found that needs to be incorporated into an evolving solution. As the user interacts with the game or simulation to discover and utilize these markers of progress, the educational researcher wants access to the trail of user moves, resource utilization, timing and sequencing, and artifact production methods and quality to make substantive inferences or attributions concerning user learning. Both sets of data help refine what is relevant to whom and is needed at what time, and these refinements delineate which mix of methods is best to employ. A recent special edition of the Journal of Interactive Learning Research (Choquet et al., 2007) focused on usage analysis in learning systems and provides several examples of user tracking as the concrete implementation of data collection from the myriad possibilities streaming from a game

Designing a Computational Model of Learning

or simulation. Designers might utilize a specific modeling language such as the EML proposed by the IMS Global Learning Consortium (IMS, 2006) which then implicitly defines observations needed to match the learning design intentions. Or, in unstructured designs, the conceptual assessment framework (CAF) delineated by Mislevy and colleagues (Almond et al., 2002; Mislevy et al., 2003) can help guide decisions for a principled structure of attribution.

Attribution The three components of the CAF are the student model, task model, and evidence model (see Figure 9). In computational terms each model is a register of data that is updated at different time scales. The student model “specifies the variables in terms of which we wish to characterize students” (p. 6). We might think of the student model as the “perfect score” as well as “all the right actions” needed in the performance of the task. As a user plays a game, a performance instance is recorded by the task model and evaluated by the evidence model. The timeframe of updating the student

model tends to be between game instances, since any change during a game would invalidate or destabilize the measure of metric distance between the user performance and the idealized student performance characteristics. The task model defines the structure of the problem space, prompt, and schemas that “test” the user through the challenges of the game or simulation. The task model also specifies work products and other ways to collect data on the user—the “user trail” and “artifacts” for example. It is, according to Mislevy et al. (2003), “a design object that bridges substantive considerations about the features of tasks that are necessary to elicit evidence about targeted aspects of proficiency, on the one hand, and on the other, the operational activities of authoring, calibrating, presenting, and coordinating particular assessment tasks” (p. 27). In a multi-task problem space (e.g., a test with many items or a complex chain of tasks required in decision making, a complex game), assembly and presentation modules select new tasks and package them for the user experience. Each leverage point of the task model interface (e.g., what the user can do with this digital application) represents a potential channel of information

Figure 9. Three components of the conceptual assessment framework

analyzes

Student Model

E vidence Model

performs

T ask Model

documents

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for the evidence model. The evidence model has two roles. It extracts salient features of the user’s performance and measures the extent to which user inputs and artifacts lead to claims about the user’s learning and knowledge. It computes a relationship between the trails-artifacts and the task model. It can be updated on two time scales—immediately for user feedback during game-play, and post-hoc for more complex educational assessments. Mislevy et al. (2003) point out that the alignment of the three models takes place through “domain modeling,” in which a theory of the relationships between the three models is conceived of as a whole and integrated into an evidencebased model for attribution or claims about a particular user’s performance in relationship to a specific task.

Implications for Policy, Research, and Practice Three broad implications emerge from the work on computational modeling of teaching and how people learn. First, policymakers need new frameworks for considering the options that shape and focus the efforts of researchers, developers, and practitioners. The new frameworks must include the potential and impact of game- and simulation-based training and professional development methods if the field of education is to learn from and follow the lead of medicine, law, and the military. Second, researchers need new approaches to address: (1) the impact of the integration of intelligent agents playing roles in how people learn, for example through automated forms of communication, data collection, and analysis using artificial intelligence; and (2) how new computational frameworks may lead to clarification and unification of models of teaching and how people learn. Finally, practitioners such as teacher educators need to understand the increasing potentialities for technology to offer highly personalized approaches to knowledge, community, and assessment. The challenge for

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teacher educators is how to fulfill their roles as knowledgeable and experienced guides within dramatically different technology-enriched contexts for preparing educators.

cONcLUsION I have attempted to affirmatively answer the question of whether a game can improve teacher education by presenting a framework for simulation development that centers on how people learn. Since the question assumes the need to represent learning in a software agent, much of the discussion centered on agent-based concepts for personality, the nature of knowledge, community, and assessment. Using brief and undoubtedly incomplete surveys of recent cognitive science theories of learning and artificial intelligence, I have relied on the fact that major aspects of the framework have been developed and tested in separate fields, and I have tried to show both the potential and the need for a new synthesis to emerge in the near future. Research and development of simSchool, a Web-based flight simulator for teachers, was used to illustrate parts of the framework and highlight aspects of the work that remains.

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Kalkhoff, W., & Thye, S. (2006). Expectation states theory and research: New observations from meta-analysis. Sociological Methods & Research, 35(2), 219-249. Kauffman, S. (2000). Investigations. New York: Oxford University Press. Kiesler, D. (1983). The 1982 interpersonal circle: A taxonomy for complementarity in human transactions. Psychological Review, 90, 185-214. Leary, T. (1957). Interpersonal diagnosis of personality. New York: Ronald. Lemire, D. (2002). Brief report: What developmental educators should know about learning styles and cognitive styles. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 32(2), 177-182. Leontyev, A. (1977). Activity and consciousness. Philosophy in the USSR, problems of dialectical materialism. Progress. Mataric, M., & Brooks, R. (1999). Learning a distributed map representation based on navigation behaviors. In R. Brooks (Ed.), Cambrian intelligence (pp. 37-58). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. McCrae, R., & Costa, P. (1996). Toward a new generation of personality theories: Theoretical contexts for the five-factor model. In J.S. Wiggins (Ed.), The five-factor model of personality: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 51-87). New York: Guilford. McGrew, K. (2003). Cattell-Horn-Carroll CHC (Gf-Gc) theory: Past, present & future. Institute for Applied Psychometrics. Mislevy, R.J., Steinberg, L.S. et al. (2003). On the structure of educational assessments. Measurement: Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives, 1, 3-67. Moberg, D. (1999). The big five and organizational virtue. Business Ethics Quarterly, 9(2), 245-272.

Ortony, A., Clore, G. et al. (1988). The cognitive structure of emotions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Pfeifer, R., & Bongard, J. (2007). How the body shapes the way we think: A new view of intelligence. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Piaget, J. (1973). The child and reality: Problems of genetic psychology. New York: Grossman. Piaget, J. (1985). The equilibration of cognitive structures: The central problem of intellectual development. Platek, S., Keenan, J. et al. (Eds.). (2006). Evolutionary cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Plutchik, R., & Conte, H.R. (1997). Circumplex models of personality and emotions. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Popper, K. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. Prensky, M. (2002). What kids learn that’s positive from playing video games. Prigogine, I. (1996). The end of certainty: Time, chaos, and the new laws of nature. Putnam, H. (1992). Renewing philosophy. Rao, A., & Georgeff, M. (1991). Modeling rational agents within a BDI architecture. Proceedings of the International Conference on Principles of Knowledge Representation and Reasoning. Silver, H.F., Strong, R.W. et al. (2000). So each may learn: Integrating learning styles and multiple intelligences. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Snow, R.E. (1998). Abilities and aptitudes and achievements in learning situations. In J.J. McArdle & R.W. Woodcock (Eds.), Human cognitive abilities in theory and practice (pp. 93-112). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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KEY TERMS Activity Theory: A sociocultural historical analytic framework founded on the ideas of Leontyev, Engeström, and others. The framework has six elements: subject, object, artifact, praxis, community, and roles. Agent, Intelligent Agent, Software Agent: A computational representation of embodied thought and action utilizing artificial intelligence. A piece of software that acts for a user or other program with the authority to decide when (and if) action is appropriate. Braitenberg Vehicles: A conceptual system of evolutionary agents developed by Victor Braitenberg characterized by neural and motor connections that give rise to locomotion and higher forms of activity in the world. Computational Models: Abstract representations for investigating computing machines. Standard computational models assume a discrete time paradigm. A mathematical object representing a question that computers might be able to solve. Darwinian Creatures: A concept of evolutionary agency by Daniel Dennett in which creatures evolve by simple mutation, recombination, and selection made by fitness on a landscape that serves as the evaluation function. Game, Simulation: A computer code or application that embodies the rules, boundaries, and relationships of some system. Gregorian Creatures: A concept of evolutionary agency by Daniel Dennett in which creatures use tools to create a shared base of knowledge or culture.

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How People Learn (HPL) Framework: A review of research on “how people learn” produced for the Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education of the National Research Council, edited by John Bransford, Ann Brown, and Rodney Cocking. The framework has four broad themes, which organize the cognitive science literature: knowledge, learner, community, and assessment.

Pavlovian Creatures: A concept of evolutionary agency by Daniel Dennett in which creatures have a nervous system, and stimulus-response learning is possible. Popperian Creatures: A concept of evolutionary agency by Daniel Dennett in which creatures have internal models and can simulate or run the models disengaged from the world.

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Chapter XL

Social Psychology and Massively Multiplayer Online Learning Games Clint Bowers University of Central Florida, USA Peter A. Smith University of Central Florida, USA Jan Cannon-Bowers University of Central Florida, USA

AbstrAct The use of computer games and especially online games for educational purposes is growing in popularity. In this chapter we attempt to summarize findings from the area of social psychology as a basis to form propositions, guidelines, and research questions that will help develop effective multiplayer environments for learning. We are particularly interested in how to foster collaborative learning in multiplayer environments by exploiting the naturally occurring structures and features of popular massively multiplayer games. Where possible, we offer examples of how these features can be used to support learning and highlight areas in need of future research.

INtrODUctION It is often the case that people will attempt to create new applications for technologies developed for other purposes. This is especially true in education, where instructional designers have developed educational materials based on everything

from board games (Ogershok & Cotrell, 2004) to movies (Schank, 1994) to podcasts (Maag, 2006). It is not surprising, then, that a current trend is to try and leverage the recent, explosive popularity of computer games for educational purposes (Prensky, 2003; Squire, 2003).

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It is further not surprising that many instructional designers are also leveraging computer networks, the Internet, and tools resident on the World Wide Web such as search engines and wikis in the service of learning. These technologies have created new opportunities to incorporate collaboration and communication into group learning environments. In fact, a number of investigators have developed platforms to exploit this kind of online learning opportunity. For the most part, these applications have been text based (Hrastinsky & Keller, 2007). However, graphical, game-based platforms are starting to be used more frequently (Vogel et al., 2006). Unfortunately, many of these systems have been less than fully effective. Indeed, although it is tempting to assume that connecting people with computer networks will facilitate collaborative learning, the data is clear that obtaining the benefits of these technologies requires far more planning and thought than merely enabling the behaviors. For example, it has been demonstrated that poorly designed online learning environments can lead to feelings of isolation, which in turn lead to poor motivation to continue (Curry, 2000; Cereijo, Young, & Wilhelm, 2001; McInnerney & Roberts, 2004). Others have expressed concerns that exclusively text-based systems may thwart observational learning, an important aspect of complex learning (Tu, 2000a). It has also been noted that aspects of some online group learning systems may actually hamper interactions, defeating a key factor associated with the potential success of these systems (Fung, 2004; Tu, 2000b; Tu & McIsaac, 2002). Consequently, there has been a great deal of effort targeted towards designing more effective group learning systems. However, it is clear that effective systems require not just better programming, but a more sophisticated understanding of the complex social phenomena that are associated with collaborative learning, and how technology interacts with these behavioral phenomena (Reeves, Herrington, & Oliver, 2004).

Hence, our concern here is to link the literature in social psychology to the design of massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs). MMOGs are a genre of online games that are characterized by supporting very large numbers of concurrent players (usually in the tens of thousands or more), containing large-scale environments, and presenting team-oriented activities in a persistent virtual environment. Although not specifically designed for education, the application of MMOGs to educational tasks is certainly compelling, and several authors have described how to use these environments for educational purposes (e.g., Dede, Nelson, Ketelhut, Clarke, & Bowman, 2004; Steinkuehler, 2004, 2006). This research is in its infancy, however, and has been largely theoretical rather than empirical. It is clear that a considerable amount of research needs to be conducted before we know how best to use MMOG environments for optimum learning to occur (Bonk & Dennen, 2005; Steinkuehler, in press). While the potential of MMOG for education is exciting, it is likely that the application of these technologies will not automatically lead to effective group-based learning any more than did their text-based predecessors, unless they are designed specifically to promote group learning behaviors. In order to do this, we believe that a strong grounding in psychological theory is needed. Further, there is a danger that the “lessons learned” from earlier systems will be discarded as irrelevant due to advances in technology. This would be an unfortunate outcome because many past findings were based on theoretical positions that are often equally applicable to MMOGs. In fact, the consistent application of theoretically derived hypotheses to the design of technologyenabled learning systems is the only way that the science of technology-enabled learning will keep pace with advances in technology. With that in mind, the purpose of the present chapter is to assemble a set of guidelines for developing effective MMOGs for learning so that future development can advance without making

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the same mistakes that were made in the past. To do this, we first develop several theoretical positions drawn from social psychology and allied fields that can help provide a foundation for making both instructional and system design decisions. We then extract propositions from the previous research on the design of (primarily text-based) online group learning environments that are likely applicable to learning-oriented MMOGs. We then take these a step further by discussing how these guidelines can be integrated into MMOGs and delineating a set of research questions that stand between the present state of the art and fully explicated instantiations of optimal group learning environments.

THEORY AND MMOG GROUP LEArNING DEsIGN A variety of theoretical positions from psychology and education might be relevant to the design of MMOG-based group learning environments. For the purposes of the chapter, we have chosen to focus on theories that are primarily drawn from social psychology. We selected this approach because we believe that social psychological theories are particularly applicable to the notion of fostering group or collaborative learning. We also must highlight that what is of interest here is creating learning environments in which groups of learners can collaborate as a means to improve their individual learning. Hence, we are not addressing the challenge of training teams or teamwork in online environments as this topic is addressed elsewhere (Bowers, Smith, Cannon-Bowers, & Nicholson, in press), nor are we concerned with training individuals to perform team tasks. Rather, we are interested in how best to develop environments where the act of collaboration itself is beneficial to individual learning outcomes. Social psychological (and allied) theory actually has quite a bit to contribute in this regard. In the next sections, we will briefly

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review those theoretical positions from which design guidelines can be readily extracted, and then provide propositions and guidelines for the design of collaborative learning games based on these theories.

Collaborative Learning Environments As a fundamental basis for our argument, we must first explain the rationale for the underlying use of collaborative learning environmentsor more to the point, addressing the question: what is it about being in a group that may improve individual learning? For the most part, theorists in collaborative learning emphasize the importance of communication with other people as an important factor in how individuals construct meaning from complex environments (Dilenbourg, Baker, Blaye, & O’Malley, 1996). The process of explaining and understanding, which occurs naturally in these environments, is thought not only to accelerate learning, but to deepen it (Van der Linden & Renshaw, 2001). Thus, the aspects of an environment that facilitate these types of social interactions should also contribute to better learning by the group members (Kreijns, Kirschner, & Jochems, 2003). Given this line of reasoning, we believe that the general conclusion that a MMOG could provide a viable context for collaborative learning is justified. In fact, based on this assertion, the following propositions apply.

Propositions Based on Theories of Collaborative Learning Proposition 1: The learning environment should explicitly reinforce collaboration. Collaboration may not occur spontaneously in any group learning environment. That being the case, there should be a mechanism for instructors to reward group members when they help one another.

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Proposition 2: Tasks included in group learning contexts should include describing, explaining, predicting, arguing, critiquing, evaluating, explicating, and defining. Collaborative leaning is best suited to tasks that require deeper levels of cognitive processing. Constructing learning exercises that require these deeper levels of thought should be a requirement in most group learning tasks.

Guidelines for MMOG Design Based on Collaborative Learning Collaborative learning emphasizes the importance of the learning that occurs naturally when groups are placed in an appropriate learning environment. The success of group learning environments might be determined by the tasks that are chosen and the manner in which they are delivered. It is important that the environment reinforces collaboration within the group as well. For example, particular tasks lend themselves to collaborative learning. These include higher-order cognitive processes such as explaining. These can be accomplished in MMOGs by clever scenario development. For example many MMOGs will present tasks to groups that require a diverse population. Not only is it important for the player to find a group with which they are comfortable, the composition of the group is important as well. Players learn both what their own character can do, as well as what other characters can do, which may lead to a better appreciation for the collaborative process.

Social Learning Theory A very influential theory posited by Bandura (1977), called social learning theory, describes how individuals develop self-efficacy as their competence on a learning task proceeds. Social learning theory emphasizes specifically the role of observation and vicarious learning in the overall learning process (Bandura, 1977). Vicarious or observational learning refers to learning that

occurs as a result of observing a model perform a targeted task, along with the consequences of the performance. It typically refers to situations where the learner observes a model directly, either live or on videotape, performing in an environment that is very similar, if not identical, to the real world. To be successful, observational learning has several requirements. The first of these is accurately modeling and presenting relevant cues in the task environment since observational learning requires the learner to detect the appropriate connections between cue and response. This is, of course, more difficult to accomplish in complex cue environments. However, it is likely to be much easier to accomplish in MMOGs, which include a richer visual cue field, than in traditional textbased learning systems. In fact, modern MMOGs have the advantage of being able to demonstrate highly complex behavior due to the sophistication of graphics and the models that underlie them. A second important process associated with observational learning is the coding of new information. Learners must encode newly acquired information in such a manner that it facilitates later retrieval. As pointed out by Tu (2000a), this was a shortcoming of text-based learning systems. By converting all concepts to text, encoding might have been inappropriate when the learner was trying to apply the newly learned concepts in the real world. This is another area where MMOG-based learning systems might offer great promise. Not only do these environments offer the capability to present information visually (enhancing the opportunities to encode information differently), but they also can include appropriate models (such as physics), so that students can observe realistic cause-and-effect relationships. This allows the presentation of very complex material. The third condition for observational learning is retrieval and modeling, which concerns the opportunity for the learner to mimic observed behaviors of the model. This requires the learner to encode a process of action based on their

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observation. That is, the learner must observe (using the visual channel) and mentally translate the observation into an action to be performed by the learner. Learners often do this by mimicking the behavior that was just observed. Learners then adapt their mimicry and fine-tune their learning experience in accordance with the environment they are in. For this reason, MMOGs offer a tremendous opportunity for the training of concepts and processes that require a physical response from the learner. Rather than requiring the learner to translate a verbal (or textual) presentation to a mental representation of a physical action, the learner can watch a model (i.e., avatar) and encode the (physical) behavior as a visual representation, theoretically aiding the retrieval and mimicry of the event. This is clearly a hypothesis that requires further study. The final important concept drawn from observational learning is motivation to learn. It has been found that motivation can be increased by manipulating characteristics of the model. It has been demonstrated, for example, that modeling is more effective when the model is perceived to be similar to the observer. While it is difficult to communicate this similarity in text-based systems, it is somewhat easier using the graphical capabilities of today’s MMOGs. In fact, one might hypothesize that creating an instructional avatar (i.e., model) that is similar to the leaner would lead to more robust observational learning outcomes. Likewise, having members of a MMOG learning group each represented by a complex avatar would allow them to model targeted behaviors for others in the learning environment. In a similar manner, mentors or coaches can be created who can teach by example as well as discussion or explanation.

Propositions Based on Social Learning Theory Proposition 3: Observational learning requires the observer to notice crucial aspects of the

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model’s behavior. A crucial aspect of observational learning from the learner’s standpoint is knowing which things to model. In complex visual environments, this might be difficult for the learner to discern since the model is embedded in a rich context. Efforts must be made to ensure that targeted behavior is made salient enough so that it is noticed by the learner. Proposition 4: The model should be as attractive or interesting as possible, and perceived as similar to the learner. Research in observational learning has demonstrated that optimum learning occurs when the model is perceived or attractive or interesting. This effect may hold in MMOGs as well. Moreover, the finding that models who are perceived as similar to the learner are more effective could be uniquely exploited in MMOGs by deliberately manipulating the characteristics of the model displayed to any given learner (i.e., to be more similar to that particular user). Proposition 5: The learning system should allow both immediate and delayed imitation. The opportunity to imitate observed behaviors is a central tenet of social learning theory. This imitation should be possible both proximal to the observation and at some time after the observation to ensure that encoding and retrieval processes are accurate. Proposition 6: The learner should receive feedback about the overall group’s efficacy. Social learning theory also emphasizes the importance of collective efficacy. This is the degree to which group members believe in the ability of the overall group to complete its tasks. Collective efficacy can be increased by communicating information about the group’s successes to all members.

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Guidelines for MMOG Design Based on Social Learning Theory Social learning theory emphasizes the role of observational learning. This requires the learner to notice and encode important cue-pattern relationships. There are elements of MMOGs that might be useful in this regard. While this is not necessarily true of user-created MMOGs such as Second Life, professionally designed MMOGs tend to use very strict design guidelines throughout the world. The cues created by the unified design can help the user immediately understand what they are looking at and what it can do. For example, in World of Warcraft, non-player characters that have a quest for a player have an icon displaying that floating over their heads. This is true throughout the entire game world. As players begin to notice these things, they can quickly find new quests. Other design elements such as architecture and character models are stylized such that a player can quickly get their bearings in an unfamiliar location. For example all elfin villages have the same buildings just in different configurations. Designers can take advantage of these conventions by cuing learners about when important information is being conveyed—that is, when they should be modeling a targeted behavior. In this sense, MMOGs actually have an advantage over other media because they avail themselves of the opportunity to readily direct learners’ attention. As noted, another important aspect of social learning theory is imitation; the learner builds a knowledge structure by trying observed behaviors. MMOGs are naturally equipped to foster imitation. Because the worlds are persistent, no problem or quest can be solved forever, or all of the quests would get finished once and there would be nothing for the other players to do. As such, things constantly reset after some period of time. While this is not a firm rule, it is true in most popular MMOGs. Because of this feature

(constantly resetting quests), it is inevitable that players who have not yet completed a quest can see other players in the process of doing so. As such, a player could watch a quest get completed and then imitate the previous player’s actions. Finally, social learning theory emphasizes that group learning environments should maximize collective efficacy. This might be accomplished by communicating information about the group’s successes. Examples of this in existing MMOGs include larger group-level rewards for accomplishing hard-to-achieve tasks. In a MMOG like World of Warcraft, players organize into guilds, which are the game equivalent to a team. Guilds can become known within the server they play in for accomplishing certain tasks together as a team. They usually display these trophies externally from the game so that everyone can see their team-level accomplishments. Some guilds grow to a level of notoriety that they even get recognition by players on other servers.

Social Presence Social presence is a construct that has meaning within a virtual space or world. It can be thought of as the degree of salience of other people in virtual interactions (Tu, 2000a). In fact, being aware of the others in an online learning group has been a challenge for traditional asynchronous, text-based group learning systems. This is rather obvious, since learners typically cannot see or hear one another, and are not even online for live chat as a matter of course. However, developing a sense of social presence appears to be an important aspect of group learning environments. Researchers have demonstrated that a greater sense of social presence is associated with greater satisfaction with the learning experience, for both the learner and the instructor (Moore, Masterson, Christophel, & Shea, 1996). Social presence has also been associated with higher perceived learning (Richardson & Swan, 2003).

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Given the apparent importance of social presence, researchers have dedicated a great deal of thought to how it can be maximized in group learning environments. In this regard, Tu (2000a) suggests that social presence is the product of two interacting processes. “Technological immediacy” refers to the degree to which the technology affords communication among group members. Social immediacy refers to the content of the communication, both verbal and non-verbal. The net effect of these processes creates the perception of social presence. Tu (2000a) argues that it is the nonverbal cues such as eye gaze and physical expressions that are crucial to this process. Hence, increasing social immediacy appears to be one area where MMOGs offer considerable promise. Advances in game development have enabled a variety of social behaviors in MMOG characters, including gazes, expressions, and gestures. Further, it seems that these virtual behaviors work in a fashion similar to real life. For example, Yee, Bailenson, Urbanek, Chang, and Merget (2007) recently demonstrated that eye gaze behaviors in virtual environments mimic those seen in face-to-face transactions. While this finding is exciting, it is important to investigate whether similar results are obtained for more complex nonverbal behaviors. Other factors in MMOGs might also influence the perception of social presence. For example, Tu (2000a) suggests that social presence can be increased by the addition of an introductory training session. Typically, such a session would include simple tasks that hold little bearing on the outcome of the MMOG, but force the user to learn the basics of using and navigating the MMOG environment. In World of Warcraft for example, players are sent on simple quests that can be completed individually before being sent out on more complex quests requiring other players. In other, less game-centric MMO environments such as Second Life which do not have a quest system, users are introduced to a more explicit

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tutorial on how to use the environment before they are expected to actually enter the world. Similar sessions have been effective for environments such as teleconferencing (Johanses et al., 1977). Finally, social presence might be increased by designing the learning environment so that it fosters interactivity. This might be accomplished by arranging groups such that their task accomplishment is interdependent. That is, no member of the group should be able to accomplish the learning goal or mission without interacting with another group member. Furthermore, it is important that the system be designed so that communication is fluid and natural. Technology-related delays or interruptions can decrease the sense of social presence (Tu, 2000a).

Propositions Based on Social Presence Theory Proposition 7: Social presence can be increased by providing nonverbal cues such as eye gaze, dress, and posture. It is believed that social presence is influenced by the degree to which the learner is aware of the emotions and attentions of his group members. Because text-based communication often fails to provide these nuances, it is hypothesized that the addition of these cues will increase the degree to which learners perceive the presence of their colleagues. Proposition 8: Immediacy (e.g., the social distance between communicators) also affects the sense of social presence experienced by members. Similar to the above, social presence might be increased by the nonverbal behaviors in social communications that indicate interest and understanding since these appear to be important in creating a sense of presence. Proposition 9: Opportunities for private conversations and exchange also increase social presence. The ability to hold private conversations within the larger social space has been shown to

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increase social presence (Ryan, 1976; Tu, 2000a). It is likely that this effect will also hold true in a MMOG environment.

Guidelines for MMOG Design Based on Social Presence The essence of social presence is to minimize the perceived psychological distance among members of the learning group. This might be achieved by increasing the nonverbal cues in the learning environment. It has been shown that eye gaze and other social norms stand up in virtual worlds (Yee et al., 2007). Social presence can also be increased in Second Life and many other MMOGs by allowing the players to customize their clothes or uniforms to display that they are in the same group. Even in MMOGs where this is not explicitly allowed, players will find ways to display their alignment to a group. For example players have begun to voluntarily change their costumes to the same color in City of Heroes to show their alliance, although the game does not naturally reflect this as an option (Emmert, 2006). Immediacy also affects the sense of social presence of members of a team. MMOGs by design provide immediate responses to actions carried out by their players. Animations, conversations, and environmental responses are all carried out with a sense of immediacy in the MMOG environment. For example, virtual worlds provide more options for players to communicate nonverbally. World of Warcraft includes a large number of useful animations as well as superfluous dances and cheers. Similarly, Second Life provides a multitude of built-in animations for the player to use to add emotional depth to their avatar. From cheers to tears and everything in between, players can express their current state in an animated form of the emoticons commonly used in instant messenger application. More elaborate animations can even be introduced into the world by the players, and these can be rather elaborate including

full dance routines or the actions required for cooking a meal. Also, opportunities for private conversations can increase social presence in a MMOG. Most MMOGs provide multiple levels of chat. Second Life provides public chat in a localized area or private chat via an instant messenger-like program. World of Warcraft allows players to select public chat, limited group chat, or even private chat between players. Voice chat is also becoming more popular among MMOGs, including There.com, which charges a monthly fee to use the feature in its otherwise free environment.

Self-Organizing Social Systems In other work, Burgos, Hummel, Tattersall, Brouns, & Koper (2007) have invoked the construct of “self-organizing social systems” to describe how learning groups come together to achieve their goals. In general, they describe groups as wandering (virtually) through an environment, looking for cues about how to accomplish their goals. In the absence of cues or information, they construct rules, roles, and/or approaches “on the fly.” Burgos et al. argue that a completely open environment such as this may be too chaotic for effective group processes to emerge reliably. To remedy this, Burgos and his colleagues describe a variety of approaches that can assist groups in “doing the right thing.” One approach is to build overt cues about group behavior into the learning space. Therefore, providing clearly labeled collaboration tools, along with communicating how they should be used, is a recommend strategy. For example, in building their learning system, Burgos and his colleagues created a message board and “seeded it” with examples of appropriate, useful communications. Similarly, they provided a clear set of policies to guide group processes rather than allowing faulty processes to emerge.

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Propositions Based on Self-Organizing Social Systems Theory Proposition 10: The learning environment should enforce individual accountability. An important aspect of self-organizing systems is individual accountability. Both the individual and the group should experience consequences when a group member fails to accomplish his or her task. Proposition 11: Externally structured communication can lead to better learning. Self-organizing systems must respond to the challenge of creating their own rules about how to communicate information required to accomplish their learning task. This extra workload can be reduced by creating a structure that suggests appropriate communication strategies as part of the learning environment. Proposition 12: Group policies should be articulated when possible. Similar to the above, structures that can assist the team in organizing their work should reduce the overall workload, allowing them to concentrate their resources on the learning task at hand.

Guidelines for MMOG Design Based on Self-Organizing Social Systems Theory Self-organizing social system theory suggests that the learning environment should enforce individual accountability. In MMOGs individuals are rewarded for what they bring to a group they are playing with. For example World of Warcraft provides individual players with XPs, or eXperience Points, for accomplishing tasks within the virtual world, providing them with a sense of selfaccomplishment while participating in achieving a team goal (Riegle, 2007a). Furthermore, there is a famous video from World of Warcraft in which

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a player named Leeroy Jenkins does not follow his team’s plan and gets everyone killed. His team singled him out and expressed their disdain for his actions within the game, although they all died (Jenkins, 2005). Self-organizing social system theory also suggests that group learning will benefit when groups are assisted by imposing an externally structured communication system on the ambiguous social environment. Historically MMOGs began as massively multiplayer role-playing games or MMORPGs. This structure forces the player to group with other players to role-play in teams made up of diverse characters, and subsequently the player is forced to first pick a character class, alliance, race, sex, and many other choices that commonly they will have to use for the duration of the game. Players will then have to group in ways that they can leverage the skills of other players in order to pass areas in the game. So, a player whose class is good at opening doors may need to team with a player whose class is good at fighting in order to get to the door in the first place. According to self-organizing social system theory, group policies should be articulated when possible. While most MMOGs force a grouping policy on their players, they can further refine the rules in order to maintain membership in the group. They can even form more permanent teams called guilds, which often have formal policy documents that their members must agree to. While not a steadfast rule, this is a common feature in most MMORPGs.

Social Exchange Theory Burgos and his colleagues (2007) also leveraged social exchange theory to derive design guidance for their software. Specifically, they tried to use these principles to increase the degree of collaboration among learners. One such principle was anticipated reciprocity, the expectation that the individual would receive something useful in exchange for their contribution to the group. A

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second principle was enhanced reputation; Burgos and his colleagues argue that the learning system should create a mechanism for people to enhance their reputation and influence due to their contributions to the group. The third principle was social altruism. This involves giving the individual contributor feedback about the overall group’s improvement so that they can adjust their estimate of the group’s efficacy and, in term, obtain reinforcement for their contribution. Finally, they included tangible reward, or receiving something of value for their collaboration. Burgos and colleagues have also tested the advantages of facilitating face-to-face meetings as a way of fostering better collaboration in the virtual world. Researchers have reported that these types of meetings lead to better collaboration and performance transferred to the online environment (Gunawardena, Lowe, & Anderson, 1997; Gunawardena, Carabajal, & Lowe, 2001; Meyer, 2003). Burgos and his colleagues hypothesize that this is because face-to-face meetings allow participants to quickly compare schemas about the group and its task. These researchers created face-to-face encounters designed to facilitate these comparisons. They report dramatic gains in the frequency and the quality of subsequent online collaborations.

Propositions Based on Social Exchange Theory Proposition 13: Group learning environments should include the opportunity for friendship and camaraderie to occur. The learning environment should be designed to increase the likelihood of collaborative behaviors. One manner in which this can be accomplished is by allowing learners to develop personal relationships with others so that they have a personal stake in their success. Proposition 14: Collaboration can be reinforced using a task that requires positive interdependence. Another way to encourage collaboration

is to construct exercises that assign roles to group members such that no one member can accomplish the entire task. This interdependence encourages group members to communicate so that they all benefit. It might have the additional benefit of helping group members to build relationships that also encourage them to collaborate later. Proposition 15: Learning systems should provide a mechanism for the learner to enhance his reputation for being a good team member. Another way to encourage collaborative behaviors is to increase the group member’s sense of esteem for performing such behaviors. Enhancing a person’s reputation through recognition of these behaviors might increase their importance to the learner.

Guidelines for MMOG Design Based on Social Exchange Theory Social exchange theory emphasizes the “giveand-take” that occurs in social systems. Group learning is thought to benefit when it is clear what users can expect in exchange for their collaborative efforts. Thus, maximum benefit to group learning might be expected when the benefits of collaboration are made very clear. Of course MMOGs are designed from the ground up with the idea of fostering collaboration between players. While collaboration is usually desired for less philanthropic reasons then fostering education (such as creating a social structure that compels the player to continue playing and paying their monthly fee long after the game ceases to be fun by itself), providing a compelling reason for players to form groups and even “guilds” is a natural part of most MMOGs. As part of a guild, players no longer have to wander about looking for other players to group with them in order to play a game. According to the World of Warcraft (2007) Web site, players with no guild or even a weak guild will not be able to access all of the areas that the world provides. Furthermore the guild structure built

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into many games provides a kind of family like structure for players. The newer players rely on the expertise and knowledge of the higher-level players, whose experience earns them sage-like status within the guild. Social exchange theory reinforces that collaboration should be reinforced using a task that requires positive interdependence. The main task in MMOGs is usually raiding, attacking, and pillaging an opponent or the environment. Raiding puts the player in an environment in which he or she must collaborate and use the skills of other players to accomplish a shared goal (Riegle, 2007b). In MMOGs like Second Life, the environment supports team building and selling of objects and land. The natural group form in this type of MMOG is a company as opposed to a guild. Finally, social exchange theory suggests that the environment should provide a mechanism for the learner to enhance his reputation for being a good team member. While the XP reward system was already discussed above, players are also rewarded with a character level. High-level characters are often the most valuable to a guild and also the hardest to keep around. Many times these players are ready to move on to a new game. However, the guild system sets these players up as elders or sages in the guild. The reward of being needed by the guild may not seem that compelling to the uninitiated, however it has even been observed that players will feel a real responsibility to the guild and will reschedule their real-world lives around the schedule of their virtual world life (Taylor, 2006). Furthermore, they will continue to play the game long after accomplishing the highest-level player rank and playing all of the available content in order to continue to support the guild that helped them achieve that rank (Taylor, 2006). This also reinforces the notion of social altruism.

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Social Support Social support refers to the resources that are exchanged in social relationships. These resources may be emotional, informational, or physical (Cohen, 1985). It is believed that these resources can be brought to bear to reduce the effects of various stressors, such as the frustration incumbent in learning new concepts. Further, it is suggested that receiving emotional support can also be a motivating factor for learning. These hypotheses seem to be widely held beliefs, and increasing social support has been described as an important goal for computer-supported group learning (e.g., Zimmerman & Tsikalis, 2005). It would appear that there are many opportunities to enhance social support among members of a MMOG-based learning environment as compared to a text-based system. While no empirical data are available to support this contention, the notion that social interactions in general are enhanced in MMOGs provides reason to hypothesize that learners are better able to understand when fellow learners are in need of support and also to provide it when it is deemed necessary.

Propositions Based on Theories of Social Support Proposition 16: The learning environment should facilitate promotive interaction (i.e., encouraging one another). Social support assists learners by reducing the stress on them when they are confronted with learning challenges. One way to reduce this stress is to receive encouragement from other learners. Proposition 17: The learning environment should allow group members to share resources. Another way that social support can reduce learner stress is by facilitating the sharing of resources.

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Group learning environments can facilitate this process by allowing learners to share notes, tips, and other resources.

Guidelines for MMOG Design Based on Theories of Social Support Social support is thought to reduce the stress associated with learning. This support is facilitated by the exchange of useful resources and by having emotional support. In MMOGs, a similar exchange can be accomplished several different ways. First, players could provide encouragement to each other through chats or emotive animation displays. For example, in Second Life it is common to belly laugh at jokes and applaud a job well done. Social support also encourages the ability for players to share group resources. In Second Life, groups can co-own items together. Also, many items can be freely given between players. In World of Warcraft, guilds will often pool their earned resources and disperse them to equip members as needed. They will also provide rare items that they do not need to members who would benefit from them.

rEsEArcH NEEDs IN MMOG-bAsED GrOUP LEArNING To this point, we have attempted to be pragmatic and extract propositions and guidelines from the literature. However, there is actually quite a bit of empirical research needed to firm up our contentions. Some of these areas are highlighted in the following.

Collaborative Learning It is hypothesized that cooperative learning environments will be most effective for those tasks that require deeper levels of cognitive processing. The notion is that the information shared in social interactions lends itself to more complex learn-

ing, such as critiquing and explaining. However, there is a need to more fully explicate the types of content that are better served by MMOG-based group learning. To date, there is little research to guide the selection of tasks best taught in computer-supported group learning. Further, as new technologies develop, there is a need to further research which types of learning are best suited to each.

Social Learning Theory The recommendations drawn from social learning theory emphasize the importance of observational learning and collective efficacy. Although observational learning has been demonstrated to work effectively using videotaped actors (Mochizuki et al., 2005), it is less clear whether observational learning is equally robust in the visual environment associated with MMOGs (Dyck, Pinelle, Brown, & Gutwin, 2003). It is also not clear which characteristics of the virtual model lead to the best learning. It might well be that characteristics that seem useful in live models do not apply in virtual worlds. An entire program of research to investigate the particulars of observational learning using virtual models could be very valuable.

Social Presence Social presence is hypothesized to improve group learning through the reduction of social distance. This decreased distance presumably makes the social interactions required for collaborative learning both easier and richer. Although some positive results of social presence have been reported, there is a need to more clearly test the relationship between the conditions thought to increase social presence, the perception of social presence, and the resulting behaviors. For example, we have suggested that the use of eye gaze and gestures in MMOGs will increase social presence, which will lead to greater collaboration behaviors, in turn leading to better group learn-

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ing. Each of these hypotheses should be tested empirically.

Self-Organizing Social Systems Self-organizing social system recommendations are geared towards reducing the ambiguity associated with the open system found in computermediated learning systems. It is believed that by imposing structure, there will be less process loss associated with the creation of group norms. There is a need, however, to test this set of hypotheses carefully for the following reason. While this structure might make learners more comfortable, it does not necessarily lead to better learning. For example, a recent article by Strijbos, Martens, Jochems, and Broers (2004) demonstrated that assigned roles in a group learning task lead to greater perceived efficiency, but not better learning. Similarly, Baker and Lund (1997) demonstrated that a structured communication interface led to better collaborative learning behaviors, but not better learning outcomes. There is a need for further exploration of this relationship, as well as for empirical tests of other recommendations drawn from this theory.

Social Exchange Theory The recommendations drawn from social exchange theory are aimed at reinforcing the collaboration behaviors that are an integral part of group learning. Many authors in the area of collaborative learning describe the importance of reward structures to reinforce collaborative behaviors (e.g., Hummel et al., 2005). There are some data to support this assertion, but the findings are less clear than one might hope (Brewer & Klein, 2006). There is a need to investigate which particular aspects of MMOGs are effective in increasing collaborative behaviors, and whether those behaviors lead to better group learning in a virtual world.

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Social Support It is suggested that facilitating supportive behaviors in the group learning environment will lead to a decrease in the stress of learning, resulting in improved knowledge acquisition. That social support can reduce stress is well established (e.g., Cohen & Wills, 1985; Thoits, 1995). It also seems to be the case that social support in computer-mediated communication environments can reduce stress in a manner similar to that observed in face-to-face communications (Dunham et al., 1998). The link between social support and learning in these environments is not clear, however, and requires additional study.

cONcLUsION In this chapter, we have attempted to lay out a series of short-term guidelines and longer-term research questions that we believe would guide the development of effective MMOGs for learning. We believe that an important feature of our approach is that we deliberately tried to use established psychological theory as a basis for generating propositions, guidelines, and research questions. It is our belief that this sort of systematic extension and extrapolation of theory is essential if a true science of game-based learning is ever to be realized. In fact, if this type of approach is not followed, there is a real danger that MMOGs for learning will be designed haphazardly, with some features being effective and others not. Overall, this will lead to sub-optimized learning, a problem that has traditionally plagued efforts to infuse technology into learning programs. We should also note that we limited our interpretations to primarily social psychology literature; indeed there are many other areas of psychology, cognitive science, and education that would serve equally well as a basis for generating propositions about MMOG design for learning. We

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hope that others will follow with summaries from other areas and associated guidelines as propositions. We also hope that learning researchers conduct the empirical studies needed to support and refute the literature-based propositions.

rEFErENcEs Baker, M., & Lund, K. (1977). Promoting reflective interactions in a CSCL environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 13(3), 175-193. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bonk, C., & Dennen, V. (2005). Massive multiplayer online gaming: A research framework for military training and education (Technical Report No. 2005-1). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Defense (DUSD/R) Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL) Initiative. Bowers, C., Smith, P.A., Cannon-Bowers, J., & Nicholson, D. (in press). Using virtual worlds to assist distributed teams. In P. Zemliansky, (Ed.), The handbook of research on virtual workplaces and the new nature of business practices. Hershey, PA: IGI. Brewer, S., & Klein, J.D. (2006). Type of positive interdependence and affiliation motive in an asynchronous, collaborative learning environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(4), 331-354. Burgos, D., Hummel, H.G.K., Tattersall, C., Brouns, F., & Koper, R. (2007). Design guidelines for active participation in blended learning networks. In L. Lockyer, S. Bennet, S. Agostinho, & B. Harper (Eds.), Handbook of research on learning design and learning objects: issues, applications and technologies. Cereijo, M.V.P., Young, J., & Wilhelm, R.W. (2001). Factors facilitating student participation

in asynchronous Web-based courses. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 18(1), 32-39. Cohen, S., & Wills, T.A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310-357. Curry, D.B. (2000). Collaborative, connected and experiential learning: Reflections of an online learner. Proceedings of the Annual Mid-South Instructional Technology Conference (pp. 2-9). Dede, C., Nelson, B., Ketelhut, D.J., Clarke, J., & Bowman, C. (2004, June 22-26). Design-based research strategies for studying situated learning in a multi-user virtual environment. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Learning Sciences (pp. 158-165), Santa Monica, CA. Dillenbourg, P., Baker, M., Blaye, A., & O’Malley, C. (1996). The evolution of research on collaborative learning. In E. Spada & P. Reiman (Eds.), Learning in humans and machine: Towards an interdisciplinary learning science (pp. 189-211). Oxford: Elsevier. Dunham, E.J., Hurshman, A., Litwin, E., Gusella, J., Ellsworth, C., & Dodd, P.W.D. (1998). Computer-mediated social support: Single young mothers as a model system. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26, 281-306. Dyck, J., Pinelle, D., Brown, & Gutwin. (2003). Learning from games: HCI design innovations in entertainment software. Proceedings of Graphics Interface. Emmert, J. (2006). Designing for behavior in massively multiplayer games. Proceedings of the Serious Games Summit DC 2006 Conference. Fung, Y.H. (2004). Collaborative online learning: Interaction patterns and limiting factors. Open Learning: The Journal of Open and Distance Learning, 19(2), 135-149. Gunawardena, C.N., Carabajal, K., & Lowe, C.A. (2001). Critical analysis of models and methods

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used to evaluate online learning networks. Seattle: AERA.

thinking. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7(3), 55-65.

Gunawardena, C.N., Lowe, C.A., & Anderson, T (1997). Analysis of a global online debate and the development of an interaction analysis model for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17(4), 395-429.

Mochizuki, T., Hatono, I., Tachibana, S., Fujimoto, M., Kamiyama, S., & Yamamoto, T. (2005). Emotional effects of observational learning in science experiments using video clips recorded by network cameras. In G. Richards (Ed.), Proceedings of the World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2005 (pp. 375-380). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.

Hrastinski, S., & Keller, C. (2007). Computer-mediated communication in education: A review of recent research. Educational Media International, 44(1), 61-77. Hummel, H., Burgos, D., Tattersall, C., Brouns, F., Kurvers, H., & Koper, R. (2005). Encouraging contributions in learning networks using incentive mechanisms. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(5), 355. Jenkins, L. (2005). World of Warcraft Leeroy Jenkins video. Retrieved from http://www.leeroyjenkins.net Johansen, R., Vallee, J., & Collins, K. (1977). Learning the limits of teleconferencing: Design of a teleconference tutorial. Proceedings of the NATO Symposium on Evaluation and Planning of Telecommunications Systems, Italy. Kreijns, K., Kirschner, P.A., & Jochems, W. (2003). Identifying the pitfalls for social interaction in computer-supported collaborative learning environments: A review of the research. Computers in Human Behavior, 19(3), 335-353. Maag, M. (2006). Podcasting and MP3 players: Emerging education technologies. CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing, 24(1), 9-13. McInnerney, J.M., & Roberts, T.S. (2004). Online learning: Social interaction and the creation of a sense of community. Educational Technology & Society, 7(3), 73-81. Meyer, K. (2003). Face-to-face versus threaded discussions: The role of time and higher-order

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Moore, A., Masterson, J.T., Christophel, D.M., & Shea, K.A. (1996). College teacher immediacy and student ratings of instruction. Communication Education, 45, 29-39. Ogershok, P.R., & Cottrell, S. (2004). The pediatric board game. Medical Teacher, 26(6), 142-159. Prensky, M. (2003). Digital game-based learning. Computers in Entertainment, 21. Reeves, T.C., Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (2002). Authentic activities and online learning. In A. Goody, J. Herrington, & M. Northcote (Eds.), Quality conversations: Research and development in higher education (vol. 25, pp. 562-567). Jamison, ACT: HERDSA. Richardson, J.C., & Swan, K. (2003).Examining social presence in online courses in relation to students’ perceived learning and satisfaction. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7(1), 68-88. Riegle, R. (2007a). Earning XP: MMOGs and educational assessment. Essays on the Use of MMORPGs in Education, MMORPG University. Riegle, R. (2007b). Trying things: Collaborative critical thinking and MMORPG raids. Essays on the Use of MMORPGs in Education, MMORPG University. Ryan, M.G. (1976). The influence of teleconferencing medium and status on participants’ perception

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of the aestheticism, evaluation, privacy, potency, and activity of the medium. Human Communication Research, 2(3), 255-261.

Tu, C.H. (2000b). Critical examination of factors affecting interaction on CMC. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 23, 39-58.

Scha n k , R.C. (1994). Act ive lea r n i ng through multimedia. Multimedia, 1, 69-78. Squire, K. (2003). Video games in education. International Journal of Intelligent Simulations and Gaming, 2(1), 49-62.

Tu, C.H., & McIassac, M. (2002). The relationship of social presence and interaction in online classes. American Journal of Distance Education, 16(3), 131-150.

Steinkuehler, C.A. (in press). Cognition and literacy in massively multiplayer online games. In D. Leu, J. Coiro, C. Lankshear, & K. Knobel (Eds.), Handbook of research on new literacies. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Strijbos, J.W., Martens, R., Jochems, W., & Broers, N. (2004). The effect of functional roles on group efficiency. Using multilevel modeling and content analysis to investigate computer-supported collaboration in small groups. Small Group Research, 35, 195-229. Steinkuehler, C.A. (2004). Learning in massively multiplayer online games. In Y.B. Kafai, W.A. Sandoval, N. Enyedy, A.S. Nixon, & F. Herrera (Eds.), Proceedings of the 6th International Conference of the Learning Sciences (pp. 521-528). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Steinkuehler, C. (2006). Games as a highly visible medium for the study of distributed, situated cognition. In S.A. Barab, K.E. Hay, N.B. Songer, & D.T. Hickey (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Conference of the Learning Sciences (pp. 1048-1049). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Taylor, T.L. (2006). Play between worlds: Exploring online game culture. Boston: MIT Press. Thoits, P.A. (1995). Stress, coping, and social support processes: Where are we? What next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 53-79. Tu, C.H. (2000a). On-line learning migration: From social learning theory to social presence theory in a CMC environment. Journal of Network and Computer Application, 23(1), 27-37.

Van der Linden, J., & Renshaw, P. (Eds.). (2001). Dialogic learning. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. Vogel, J., Vogel, D., Cannon-Bowers, J., Bowers, C., Muse, K., & Wright, M. (2006). Computer gaming and interactive simulations for learning: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(3), 229-243. World of Warcraft. (2007). Homepage. Retrieved from http://www.worldofwarcraft.com/index. xml Yee, N., Bailenson, J., Urbanek, M., Chang, F., & Merget, D. (2007). The unbearable likeness of being digital: The persistence of nonverbal social norms in online virtual environments. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10(1), 115-121. Zimmerman, B.J., & Tsikalas, K.E. (2005). Can computer-based learning environments (CBLEs) be used as self-regulatory tools to enhance learning? Educational Psychologist, 40, 267-271.

KEY TERMS Avatar: A player’s physical representation of themselves in any massively multiplayer online game. Guild: A group of players who form a team in order to have greater success in a MMOG.

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Massively Multiplayer Online Game (MMOG): A game that provides a persistent environment in which large numbers of players can play and interact together. Quest: A task that a player is given within a MMOG.

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Second Life: A unique MMOG that provides an open virtual world in which players can create, own, and sell their own virtual objects. Virtual World: The environment in which a MMOG takes place. World of Warcraft: The most successful MMOG developed so far, currently running over nine million players.

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Chapter XLI

Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games Slava Kalyuga University of New South Wales, Australia Jan L. Plass New York University, USA

AbstrAct This chapter provides an overview of our cognitive architecture and its implications for the design of game-based learning environments. Design of educational technologies should take into account how the human mind works and what its cognitive limitations are. Processing limitations of working memory, which becomes overloaded if more than a few chunks of information are processed simultaneously, represent a major factor influencing the effectiveness of learning in educational games. The chapter describes different types and sources of cognitive load and the specific demands of games on cognitive resources. It outlines information presentation design methods for dealing with potential cognitive overload, and presents some techniques (subjective rating scales, dual-task techniques, and concurrent verbal protocols) that could be used for evaluating cognitive load in electronic gaming in education.

INtrODUctION The field of gaming and play-based virtual environments as a new educational technology and research area is rapidly expanding (e.g., Gee, 2003; Nelson, Ketelhut, Clarke, Bowman, & Dede, 2005; Shaffer, 2006). If we expect this technology to be efficient in helping students to acquire new, complex

knowledge and skills, its design should be based on knowledge of our cognitive architecture and its role in learning and problem solving. Processing limitations of working memory represent a major factor influencing the effectiveness of learning and performance, especially for novice learners. For example, committing limited cognitive resources to processing irrelevant, non-essential, distract-

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ing information; on searching for inadequately located references; or on trying to make essential connection between sources of information that are artificially separated in space or time due to poor interface design could substantially slow down learning and performance. Considering these limitations is particularly important for educational gaming technologies because games usually require simultaneous performances of several cognitive and motor activities. For example, in the game Peeps, designed as part of the RAPUNSEL project to teach middle-school girls how to program, players have to navigate the 3D virtual environment, search for objects of value, communicate with other players, avoid gobblers who try to steal from them, and collect peaches to maintain their energy level (Plass, 2007a). The educational portion of the game, aimed at learning a Java-like programming language in order to design outfits and dances for their avatar, makes additional requirements on the players’ cognitive resources. Efficient information designs therefore must focus on substantially reducing cognitive stress in order to enhance learning outcomes. Levels of learner prior knowledge and experience in a domain represent another important related factor that may significantly influence learning from educational games. Performance and learning characteristics of experienced learners differ considerably from those of novices. Wellorganized and often fully or partially automated schematic knowledge structures allow more experienced learners to rapidly recognize and categorize familiar patterns of information without overloading working memory, thus avoiding cognitive stress (Sweller, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998; van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005). The information design in educational games should support the rapid acquisition and use of such knowledge structures by reducing or eliminating unnecessary cognitive overload that may otherwise prevent the allocation of sufficient cognitive resources required for efficient learning and performance. It should be noted that cognitive load—that is,

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the demand on cognitive resources during problem solving and reasoning—is always associated with conscious cognitive processes that take place in the learner working memory while performing a current cognitive task. Therefore, the issue of cognitive overload is different from (although it may be related to) problems of general information content overload over longer periods of time or perceptual overload that is traditionally considered in interface design and usability evaluation procedures (e.g., Nielsen, 1995). Cognitive load theory is dealing with factors that influence conscious information processing as we perform a specific task in real time on a scale of seconds or minutes rather than hours or days (in other words, we are dealing with micro- rather than macro-level analysis). Many games have procedures in place that have the potential to overcome high cognitive load for critical tasks, for example, by explicitly providing critical information to solve a task on demand and just in time (Gee, 2003), though the effectiveness of these strategies in reducing cognitive load has not yet been tested empirically. Evaluation of general usability characteristics of various software applications, including educational games, is traditionally aimed at ensuring that interface components are understandable and recognizable (e.g., have clear meanings and interpretations, employ simple and consistent color-coding schemes, use recognizable and consistent metaphors, use simple and clear language, and provide help if required), and are functionally efficient (e.g., have clear functional roles, provide fast feedback and response times, are easy to recover from errors, and provide clear exit paths) (Nielsen, 2000). Evaluation of cognitive load has not been considered as part of such procedures yet, although there have been some clear indirect indications of possible cognitive overload in the gaming environments. For example, Lim, Nonis, and Hedberg (2006) noted that while being motivating, multi-user virtual gaming environments may also distract from learning because of their high levels of immersiveness and interactivity. In

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such environments, users could become heavily involved in interactions that are not related to learning processes, although such activities obviously consume cognitive resources that become unavailable for meaningful learning. Evaluation of cognitive load characteristics of electronic gaming applications should become an important part of their usability studies. Experience accumulated in this area is very limited (if at all available), since most related research studies have been conducted using multimedia learning environments with relatively low interactivity, such as diagrams with on-screen and/or narrated text, instructional animations, and so forth (see Mayer, 2005, for a recent comprehensive overview of the field). In addition, there have been some preliminary studies of cognitive load issues in the closely associated area of instructional simulations (Lee, Homer, & Plass, 2006). Whereas most gaming environments involve lower-level drill-andpractice activities, such as the honing of skills in the MMPORG World of Warcraft, the goal of educational gaming technology applications is the development and practice of higher-level cognitive skills. In many cases, lower-level drill-and-practice activities and higher-level cognitive processing will compete for learners’ limited cognitive resources, making educational games a prime candidate for research in evaluating and managing learners’ cognitive load with a high ecological validity. This chapter begins with an overview of a contemporary model of human cognitive architecture, and its role in performance and learning. The chapter then describes different types and sources of cognitive load, design methods, and techniques for dealing with potential cognitive overload. Cognitive load factors that could potentially influence efficiency of interactive gaming applications are analyzed (e.g., levels of element interactivity, their spatial and temporal configurations, redundant representations, representational formats used for input parameters, levels of learner prior experience in a task domain, levels of provided instructional support). General methods for evaluating cognitive

load are discussed and the application of concurrent verbal reports for evaluating sources of potential cognitive overload is described.

cOGNItIVE ArcHItEctUrE FOr LEArNING AND PErFOrMANcE IN EDUcAtIONAL GAMEs Games in general, and educational games in particular, pose unique requirements on the perception and processing of information by gamers/learners. Some of the attractions of the different types of games—for example, the immersive nature of the environment, the discover-type nature of game-play, or the strong emotional impact that games can have—all pose requirements on learners’ cognition. An understanding of the way we process information in learning and performance is critical in order to leverage the game paradigm for educational purposes. Existing theoretical models of human cognitive architecture and available empirical evidence regarding its functioning in learning and performance indicate several major characteristics that underline operation of this system (Sweller, 2003, 2004; Sweller et al., 1998; van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005). Firstly, our cognitive architecture includes a large store of organized information with effectively unlimited storage capacity and duration. The concept of long-term memory (LTM) as an organized knowledge base that contains a massive amount of schematic knowledge structures is a specific manifestation of this feature. Secondly, our cognitive architecture has a functional mechanism that limits the scope of immediate changes to the above information store (that could otherwise be potentially disruptive and damaging for the store). The concept of working memory (WM) and the available associated empirical evidence support this feature (e.g., Baddeley, 1986; Miyake & Shah, 1999). Some models consider WM a separate component of an information processing system, while other models regard WM as an

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activated part of LTM. Nevertheless, the essential common attribute of most existing models of WM is its severe limitation in capacity and duration when dealing with novel information. Thirdly, considering the very restrictive conditions of slow and incremental changes to our knowledge base, most of the information in the long-term knowledge store is borrowed from other sources by being actively reconstructed in WM, reorganized and integrated with available knowledge structures in LTM (rather than being completely rediscovered individually). When suitable sources of knowledge are not available, only partly available, or when the information is truly new, the major mechanism for the generation of new knowledge is a random search for information or solution moves followed by tests of their effectiveness (e.g., see Newell & Simon, 1972, for theories of human general-problem solving mechanisms in unfamiliar situations and corresponding empirical evidence). Finally, an essential characteristic of our cognitive system is its ability to organize complex situations or tasks, appropriately direct our attention, and coordinate different cognitive activities under conditions of severe WM limitations. It is assumed that information structures in LTM are capable of performing this organizing and governing (executive) role for the cognitive system, and there are effectively no limitations on the amount of the organized information in LTM that can be used for this purpose within WM. The concept of long-term working memory (Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995) provides theoretical and empirical underpinnings for this assumption. In the presence of the relevant organized knowledge base in LTM, WM can effectively handle an unlimited amount of information, organize very complex environments, and govern very rich cognitive activities. In the absence of such knowledge structures, the system must employ search-and-test procedures that require significant WM resources. Our cognitive system tends to minimize cognitive resources involved in performance of a

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cognitive task, applying what could be considered a “cognitive economy principle.” Using available knowledge structures to guide cognitive activities is a more resource-efficient and preferable option than relying on alternative search procedures with associated cognitively taxing chains of reasoning. This tendency to minimize cognitive resources may cause the system to select for this guiding role incorrect knowledge structures that may seem suitable for the task but are inappropriate. For example, misconceptions are usually well-entrenched, durable, and relatively simple structures (for example, scientific misconceptions, etc.) that may require less WM resources when governing cognitive processes.

cOGNItIVE LOAD IN LEArNING Processing limitations of our cognitive system are a major factor influencing learning and performance. Educational games can, depending on their specific implementation, impose a heavy requirement on the cognitive system due to resources required, for example, for navigational tasks, searching for and processing of hidden cues, or processing of complex narratives and contextual information. Working memory is limited in duration and capacity when dealing with unfamiliar information, and it is easily overloaded if more than a few chunks of new information are processed simultaneously (e.g., Baddeley, 1986; Miller, 1956; Peterson & Peterson, 1959). On a very simple level, we all are experiencing this limitation vividly when trying to dial an unfamiliar phone number that we have just heard (if it contains more than seven or eight digits). Prior knowledge structures held in LTM allow us to effectively reduce these limitations and eliminate WM overload by encapsulating many elements of information into larger, higher-level units that could be treated as elements in WM (Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982). To continue the above simple phone number example, if a subset of digits in that number coincides with one’s year of birth or other familiar

Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games

number, the task would be noticeably simplified because that familiar combination of digits would represent a single chunk in WM. Cognitive load could also be reduced by practicing skills until they become automated and do not require conscious controlled processing in WM (Kotovsky, Hayes, & Simon, 1985; Shiffrin & Schneider, 1977). For example, we can carry on a meaningful conversation while involved in a familiar game on a handheld computer when our computer skills are highly automated due to extensive practice. In this case, the basic computer-operating and game rules do not require explicit conscious processing in WM, and cognitive resources (WM capacity) become available for attending and responding to other people. This may not happen when we just start learning how to use the device. All cognitive resources will be devoted to learning. Thus, available LTM structures and levels of their acquisition define the characteristics of WM: its actual content, capacity, and duration. Accordingly, the characteristics of learning and performance change significantly with the development of learners’ expertise in a specific domain. In the absence of relevant prior knowledge, novices are dealing with many novel elements of information that may easily overload their working memories. These learners require considerable external support to build new knowledge structures in a relatively efficient manner. In contrast, experts may rely on retrieval and application of available long-term memory knowledge structures to handle situations and tasks within their area of expertise. There are no working memory limitations for knowledge-based performance of more proficient learners. Available knowledge structures not only allow us to chunk incoming information, they also perform executive function when we construct new knowledge and guide our performance. For example, in our everyday life, we easily handle many familiar situations by having acquired knowledge about a variety of types of situations that are recognized, activated, and used to govern our

performance (buying groceries, paying bills online, using a DVD player, etc.). Each type is associated with a set of cognitive representations (schemas) that are stored in LTM and provide an executive guidance when activated in a specific situation. Similarly, when involved in an educational game, we construct and continuously update a situation model, based on our prior schemas for the task, recent moves, and incoming information. This situation model directs our attention and governs our performance in real time. In the absence of an appropriate knowledge base in LTM, we would resort to random search processes and trial-and-error attempts to handle the situation. Although such strategies usually allow us to eventually reach the goal in most cases, they are cognitively extremely inefficient because they are associated with high levels of cognitive load (Sweller, 1988). Alternatively, direct instructions and guidance can perform an executive role by providing a partial substitute for the missing knowledge-based guidance for novices by telling them exactly how to handle the situation or solve a task. In fact, many games provide players with just-in-time critical information on how to perform a task or solve a problem, or allow players to receive this information on demand (Gee, 2003). According to fading effect (Renkl, Atkinson, & Große, 2004), more help should be provided initially when players are less experienced, and this help should be faded out as the players progress and acquire new skills. However, in a recent study comparing the effectiveness of the exploration of computer simulations for science education to direct instruction, using a worked-out version of the simulation that did not require exploration, Plass et al. (2007b) found that simulation exploration was overall more effective than the direct instruction materials. This research provides preliminary evidence that with the right design, the educational value of simulations and, by extension, the value of educational games may exceed the value of direct instruction. The relative share of available LTM knowledge structures and optimal direct external guidance for

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a task depends on the level of learner expertise. While for novice learners, external guidance may provide the only available executive function, for experts in the domain, all necessary knowledge structures could be available in LTM. At intermediate levels of expertise, these two sources of information need to complement each other. In a situation where no executive guidance is provided for dealing with new elements of incoming information by either of these providers, users must resort to general search strategies, which are very inefficient as learning means. This may happen, for example, when minimally guided exploratory gaming environments are used with learners who have no prior knowledge in the task domain. However, the immersive environments of games have the potential to provide contextual information and situate the learning task in a way that makes it easier for learners to identify related LTM knowledge structures than traditional direct instruction approaches are able to achieve. On the other hand, there could be an overlap between LTM knowledge structures and external guidance when both are available for dealing with the same situation, game moves, or units of information. In this case, a user would have to relate and cross-reference the overlapping components of the executive guidance. This process of reconciling the related components of available LTM knowledge base and externally provided guidance would likely impose an additional WM load. Consequently, less capacity could be available for new knowledge acquisition and performance improvement, resulting in a phenomenon that has been referred to as the expertise reversal effect (for recent overviews, see Kalyuga, 2005, 2006b, 2007). For example, presenting experienced users with detailed guidance (e.g., “how-to” instructions or detailed game rules explanations designed for novice users) that they do not need any more may hinder their performance relative to other similar experienced users who have not been instructed. Therefore, as levels of learner expertise in a domain increase, relative effectiveness of different design formats may

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reverse. Presentation formats that are optimal for novices may hinder relative performance of more experienced users. A major design implication of this effect is that information presentation formats and instructional procedure need be tailored to different levels of learner expertise in a specific task domain (Kalyuga, 2006a).

MANAGING cOGNItIVE OVErLOAD IN EDUcAtIONAL GAMING APPLIcAtIONs We have established above that educational games and simulations impose demands on learners’ information processing that go beyond that of many direct instruction approaches. However, there are important cognitive benefits of using simulated environments (including games) as learning tools compared, for example, to experimenting with actual objects in real-life situations. Simulated game environments may help to present only the most essential features of the systems or environments under investigation, and thus allow formulating and testing specific hypotheses and receiving immediate feedback in otherwise very high-load situations. It is also believed that simulated (including gamebased) environments enhance learners’ abilities to apply acquired knowledge in complex real-life situations because such environments allow students to learn the specific context in which to use their domain-specific knowledge. For example, Taylor and Chi (2006) compared learning effects from reading a text and using a computer simulation in the domain of project management. Results of pretest to post-test gains for abstract deep structural and decontextualized knowledge indicated that participants in both conditions improved equally. In contrast, a contextualized case-based assessment of implicit domain knowledge demonstrated significantly improved learning outcomes for the simulation group only. Tennyson and Breuer (2002) noted advantages of using complex task-oriented simulated environments in learning a task as a

Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games

complete whole rather than successive parts with a focus on improving and elaborating cognitive problem-solving abilities. On the other hand, if designed inappropriately, game-based educational environments may contain many sources of high-level cognitive load that prevent effective learning. There are different types and sources of cognitive load in learning. A major type of cognitive load is caused by cognitive activities that are essential for establishing key connections between elements of information, integrating them with available knowledge structures, and building new (or modified) knowledge structures in WM (i.e. cognitive activities associated with comprehension of the situation and knowledge-based response actions). This type of load is referred to as intrinsic cognitive load. It is caused by internal intellectual complexity of the task that is determined by the degree of interactivity between individual elements relative to the specific level of learner expertise in the domain. An element is a highest-level chunk of information for a particular person. The content of various chunks is determined by the schemas the user holds in her or his long-term memory knowledge base. One of the aspects of the game paradigm that is most appealing to educators is that the educational content can be presented in an integrated, systems-based form rather than in isolation and disconnected from contextual information. However, this integrated representation means that the elements related to a learning task need to be processed simultaneously. Even if the number of elements is relatively small, the material still could be high in element interactivity and may impose a high intrinsic cognitive load. For example, understanding a gaming simulation of a complex environmental system is much more difficult than figuring out the type of each individual element of this system. Even if all elements of the system are well known to a person in isolation (assuming that he or she has pre-acquired schemas for each of those components), when combined in the system they become interconnected and need to be

considered simultaneously as a whole in order to understand the simulation. Once the interactions of the components of the system have been learned, lower-order schemas become the elements of a higher-order schema that can further act as a single element reducing the required cognitive effort. Because intrinsic cognitive load is essential for comprehending a situation or performing a task, it is vital to provide all the necessary resources to accommodate the intrinsic cognitive load without exceeding limits of working memory capacity. In contrast, extraneous load (wasteful, non-constructive load) is traditionally described as a diversion of cognitive resources on activities irrelevant to performance and learning (Sweller et al., 1998). This load is caused by cognitive activities that a user is involved in because of design-related factors (e.g., poor interface design, presentation format, or task sequencing). For example, when related textual, graphical, or audio elements of a gaming application are separated over distance or time, their integration might require intense search processes and recall some elements until other elements are attended and processed. Segments of text need to be held in working memory until corresponding components of a diagram are located, attended, and processed; or images need to be maintained in active state until corresponding fragments of the text are found, read, and processed. Such processes need additional resources and might significantly increase demands on working memory. Searching for suitable solution steps may also involve keeping a large number of interacting statements in working memory and require significant cognitive resources that become unavailable for other essential cognitive activities. For example, high cognitive demands of familiarization with game rules, evaluating game states, and making specific next-step decisions may leave no cognitive resources available for generalizations and acquisition of meaningful knowledge structures. These cognitive demands are irrelevant to the learning goals and should be considered as an extraneous cognitive load.

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In general, extraneous cognitive load could be imposed by one or more of the following sources (brief labels in capital letters will be used later for classifying these sources for evaluation purposes): 1.

2.

3.

4.

Separated (in space and/or time) related representations that require users to perform extensive search and match processes (SPATIAL SPLIT-ATTENTION, TEMPORAL SPLIT-ATTENTION); An excessive step-size or rate of information change that introduces too many new elements into working memory and/or introduces them too fast to be successfully incorporated into long-term memory structures (EXCESSIVE INFORMATION); An insufficient externally provided guidance that does not compensate for limited available knowledge, thus forcing users to search for solutions using random procedures (SEARCH); and/or User knowledge base overlaps with provided external guidance thus requiring learners to mentally co-refer different representations of the same information (REDUNDANCY).

The interesting challenge of applying the game paradigm to educational materials is that the previously established definition of extraneous load does not readily apply to games. Although the information design and interaction design of educational games must be informed by the above principles, games often deliberately violate these principles. For example, games routinely separate related objects and information in time and space, and expect the user to find and connect them (item 1, above), use excessive step-size or rate of information change to solve a problem or reach the next level (item 2), or purposefully provide insufficient guidance (item 3). The difference to traditional, direct instruction approaches is that each of these strategies can contribute to achieving an educational goal, in which case they would not

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be considered wasteful or non-constructive (extraneous cognitive load), but would be strategies to cognitively engage the learner (which is referred to as germane cognitive load). The intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load results in the total cognitive load imposed on the learner cognitive system. For efficient performance and/or learning, total cognitive load should not exceed limited working memory capacity. When a task does not require high levels of intrinsic cognitive load (e.g., because it is low in element interactivity relative to the current level of learner expertise), the extraneous cognitive load imposed by poor design may not do much harm because total cognitive load may not exceed working memory capacity. In contrast, when the task is characterized by a high degree of element interactivity relative to the person level of expertise, it might require a heavy intrinsic cognitive load. In such situations, an additional extraneous cognitive load caused by an inappropriate design can leave insufficient cognitive resources for efficient performance and/or learning because total cognitive load may exceed the user working memory capacity. Elimination or reduction of extraneous cognitive load by improving interface design, presentation formats, or task procedures may be critical for performance. In correspondence with the above sources of extraneous cognitive load, the general guidelines for minimizing extraneous cognitive load in gaming applications suggest providing direct guidance and access to required knowledge base, avoiding diversion of cognitive resources on redundant and/or irrelevant cognitive activities, managing step-size and rate of information changes, and eliminating spatial and temporal split of related sources of information. In cases where educational games deliberately deviate from these approaches, designers need to assure that such a deviation is required by a specific learning strategy that contributes to an educational objective.

Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games

EMPIrIcAL stUDIEs OF cOGNItIVE LOAD FActOrs IN EDUcAtIONAL GAMING APPLIcAtIONs As was mentioned in the introduction, direct studies of cognitive load effects in game-based learning environments are extremely rare and mostly limited to the role of instructional guidance as an important factor in reducing high-load situations. Providing sufficient levels of instructional guidance and support for learners is an important means of reducing extraneous cognitive load and improving learning-effective engagement in interactive gaming environments. Just providing learners with higher levels of control that allow them to potentially access additional assistance (e.g., hints) may not be sufficient. For example, it was established that many learners in virtual environments simply did not use the available hint system (e.g., Nelson, 2007; Nelson, Ketelhut, Clarke, & Dieterle, in press). Moreno and Duran (2004) investigated benefits of guidance in discovery multimedia game- based learning environments in elementary school mathematics. Two representations of the arithmetic procedures were used for addition and subtraction problems: a traditional symbolic representation of the number sentence and a visual representation. The visual representation used a number line and an animated bunny moving along the line according to the number operations performed (facing the left or right sides of the screen if the corresponding numbers have the minus or plus signs). If learners answered a problem correctly, they could see an animated sequence demonstrating major steps in solving the problem. In the guided group, the learners also could hear explanations for each step of the animation. It was assumed that combining symbolic and visual representations could help learners (especially less knowledgeable novice learners) to build connections between formal procedures and their informal intuitive conceptual knowledge (moving along a path). The results demonstrated that learning new mathematical procedures could

be overwhelming for novice learners when no guidance is provided. The verbal guidance is an important means to enhance learning in gamebased multimedia environments using multiple representations. Another important result of this study was that students’ lower computer proficiency could undermine the potential benefits of learning in gamebased environments: high-computer experience learners, especially those with verbal guidance, outperformed low-experience learners in similar conditions (see also Clarke, Ayres, & Sweller, 2005, for a similar conclusion based on studies of learning mathematics using spreadsheet applications). High cognitive demands of familiarization with gaming hardware and corresponding functional procedures may leave no cognitive resources available for acquisition of meaningful domain-specific knowledge structures. A practical implication of this result is that, from a cognitive load point of view, it is important to bring students to a sufficiently high level of computer proficiency prior to involving them in exploring complex interactive environments. The instructional effectiveness of games could be low (especially for learners with low levels of prior knowledge) if no sufficient instructional support is provided and students are involved in pure discovery learning. A discovery-based computer game may have positive learning effects only when students have sufficient cognitive resources to process multiple representations and sources of information in working memory. Such resources can only be available if the learners have good prior familiarity with the corresponding knowledge domain. Mayer, Mautone, and Prothero (2002) demonstrated that students learned better from a geology game when they received explicit guidance about how to visualize geological structures. Moreno (2004) found that students benefited more from explanatory rather than merely corrective feedback in a multimedia game about environmental problems.

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Leutner (1993) investigated learning effects of two forms of instructional guidance—systeminitiated adaptive advice and learner-requested non-adaptive pre-tutorial background information—provided in an exploratory computer-based simulated game environment built around the economical situations of small farms for geography high-school classes. Students without any support learned how to play the game but acquired hardly any domain-specific knowledge. On the other hand, with adaptive advice, students were able to acquire a substantial degree of domain knowledge (as measured by an immediate post-test), but limited functional knowledge of how to play the game. In relation to background information, the results indicated that if permanently available, it increased the acquisition of domain knowledge (as measured by a delayed memory retention test). Generally, the available results provide evidence that guided game-based learning environments are more instructionally effective than pure discovery-based games, especially for low-knowledge learners. There are few studies of cognitive load factors in learning from instructional simulations. Since in most cases educational games are a form of simulated interactive environments, results of these studies could also be applied to educational games. Plass et al. (in press) investigated an interaction between two different modes of visual representations in a gas law simulation for high-school chemistry students and different levels of learner prior knowledge. Essential gas characteristics were presented either in symbolic form only (words ‘temperature’, ‘pressure’, and ‘volume’ with corresponding numerical values) or by adding iconic information to the symbolic representations (e.g., burners for temperature, weighs for pressure). The study indicated that whereas low prior knowledge learners benefited more from added iconic representations, high prior knowledge learners benefited more from symbolic-only representations. Iconic representations were redundant for these learners and interfered with their knowledge-based cognitive processes. Similar to other studies of expertise-

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related reversals in effectiveness of different verbal and pictorial representation formats (Kalyuga, 2005, 2007), low prior knowledge learners benefited more from integrated multiple (verbal-pictorial or symbolic-iconic) representations than from separated or single representation formats. On the other hand, more knowledgeable learners benefited more from minimal representations. Additional representations were redundant for these learners and interfered with their learning processes. In another relevant study, Schnotz and Rasch (2005) compared effects of two different formats of animated visualizations of time phenomena related to the Earth’s rotation on learners with different levels of learning prerequisites (a combination of pre-test scores of prior knowledge and intelligence measures). One format displayed an animated visual simulation of changes over time when circumnavigating the Earth (simple simulation). Another format represented an interactive visualization that allowed students to manipulate the display by defining specific day and time for specific cities (interactive simulation). The post-test results indicated that students with high learning prerequisites performed significantly better after learning from the interactive simulation, while lower learning prerequisite students performed better after learning from the simple animated simulation. In this expertise reversal pattern, interactive manipulations could have imposed high levels of extraneous cognitive load on novice learners but were optimal for more experienced learners.

MEtHODs FOr EVALUAtING cOGNItIVE LOAD The low number of published research studies on cognitive load in games is in part due to the limited number of methods available to measure cognitive load. There are several indirect methods available that use indicators such as learning outcomes, physiological measures, and behavioral measures in order to determine cognitive load (Brünken,

Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games

Plass, & Leutner, 2003). Among the more direct measures that could apply to the measurement of cognitive load in games are subjective and objective approaches to load measurement. A very rough relative measure of cognitive load could be obtained by using subjective ratings of mental effort, for example, by asking users How easy or difficult was the game to understand? or How hard did you have to think to understand how to play the game? with answers on nine-point Likert scales from extremely easy (1) through neither easy nor difficult (5) to extremely difficult (9). Previous research has indicated that such simple measures could be sufficiently sensitive to variations in cognitive load conditions (Paas, Tuovinen, Tabbers, & van Gerven, 2003). However, as there is no an absolute scale for subjective ratings of mental effort, they are more useful for comparing cognitive load levels involved in alternative applications or interface designs rather than evaluating a single game application. This approach could nevertheless be used for comparing cognitive load imposed by sequential versions of an application in the iterative process of the redesign of components that could contribute to increased cognitive load conditions. The same users could be asked to rate mental effort involved in using the application after each modification stage. Another method for comparative evaluation of cognitive load that can be used in laboratory settings is the dual-task technique. This method uses performance on simple secondary tasks as indicators of cognitive load associated with performance on main tasks. Various simple responses can be used as secondary tasks, for example, reaction times to some events (e.g., a computer mouse click), counting backwards, or recalling the previous letter seen on the screen of a separate computer while encoding the new letter appearing after a tone sounded. An important requirement is that a secondary task should affect the same working memory processing system (visual and/or auditory) as the primary task; otherwise, it may not be sensitive to changes in actual cognitive load.

Dual-task techniques for measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning environments were studied by Brünken et al. (2003, 2004) and Brünken, Steinbacher, Plass, and Leutner (2002). In these studies, the secondary task represented a simple visual-monitoring task requiring learners to react (e.g., press a key on the computer keyboard) as soon as possible to a color change of a letter displayed in a small frame above the main task frame. Reaction time in the secondary monitoring task was used as a measure of cognitive load induced by the primary multimedia presentation. The studies demonstrated the applicability of the dual-task approach to measurement of cognitive load experienced by each individual learner. In order to evaluate cognitive load characteristics of a single gaming application (without comparisons to a variant of the same application), concurrent verbal reports (think-aloud protocols) with audio and video tracking could be used. Although verbal protocols can hypothetically increase cognitive load, there is no evidence that they actually interfere with cognitive processes (Ericsson & Simon, 1984). The generated qualitative verbal data may reflect different types of cognitive load as expressed through the participants’ own language (Kalyuga, Plass, Homer, Milne, & Jordan, 2007; Plass, Toler, & Kalyuga, 2007). In these studies, verbal data from think-aloud interviews was coded using rubrics based on expected learners’ verbal expressions or remarks for different types of cognitive load (see examples below). For each rubric, sample keywords and phrases were set and served as a coding scheme for classifying participants’ remarks into different categories of cognitive load. Verbal data from the protocols can be analyzed by screening digital recordings of each interview. Such records include the synchronized audio and screen captures with screen and audio recording software (e.g., TechSmith’s [2007] Camtasia Studio 5) using the samples of expected responses. Before commencing the procedure, participants were instructed to think aloud (e.g., “It would really help me to understand what you are thinking while

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playing the game. I am particularly interested in knowing what you find clear and what you find unclear. If you get quiet, I will ask you to keep talking”). Participants were given only a brief general overview of what the game is about; they were not specifically instructed on how it should be played. Throughout the interview, general probes were used to elicit relevant remarks (e.g., What is your strategy for playing? What you are learning? What is familiar to you? What is unfamiliar? What information are you paying most attention to? What do you ignore?). The probes did not explicitly mention difficulty, effort, and other concepts directly related to the notion of cognitive load (Kalyuga et al., 2007; Plass et al., 2007). The analysis of verbal protocols for indicators of cognitive load consisted of locating relevant words, remarks, and expressions and relating them to different sources of cognitive load. The following rubrics were used for this purpose, with samples of participants’ remarks: •

•

•

•

•

•

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Does the application provide sufficient explanations (guidance)? (can’t get an idea, too complex to understand, don’t know what to do, need some hints) Are users involved in extensive search processes (e.g., trial-and-error)? (let’s try and see, just enter anything, play with numbers) Does the application activate relevant prior knowledge? (don’t know anything about it, never heard about it, it doesn’t ring a bell, thought it was something else) Does the application explain things that are already known to the learner? (know this stuff, we did it differently, studied this before) Do the unnecessary explanations distract from learning? (it is annoying, need to go through this again, it doesn’t tell me anything new) Are too many new elements of information introduced too quickly? (can’t catch it, the information is changing too fast)

•

•

•

Does the application proceed by too large step-sizes? (plenty of new things, can’t grasp them all, a lot of unknown information) Does the application include related verbal and/or pictorial components that need to be studied simultaneously and are located in different parts of the display or not synchronized? (need to jump across the screen, it is over there, this has changed earlier) Does the understanding of the interrelated components require extensive co-referencing and temporary holding of much information in memory? (need to go back to the diagram or text, too much to remember, already forgot about that)

The concurrent verbal reporting method for evaluating cognitive load was tested with two versions of an interactive simulation of gas laws for science education similar to those used in the above-mentioned study of Lee et al. (2006). The following are samples of actual learners’ remarks, indicating various forms of extraneous cognitive load (see Table 1). Based on the total number of extraneous cognitive load-relevant remarks for each condition obtained from 12 participants (university students with very limited knowledge of chemistry), symbolic versions (simulations using text labels for important concepts) were more cognitively demanding (34 remarks) than iconic versions (simulations using icons in addition to text labels for important concepts) (12 remarks). This relative cognitive load standing of conditions coincided with the reversed order of similar conditions based on low-knowledge learner post-test performance obtained in a study with 64 high-school students (Kalyuga et al., 2007), thus providing preliminary evidence for the validity of the suggested evaluation method. Adding dynamic iconic images helped to alleviate cognitive overload by providing a relatively less cognitively demanding interactive learning environment.

Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games

FUTURE TRENDS: TOWARDS ADAPtIVE EDUcAtIONAL GAMING Building adaptive educational gaming environments with optimized cognitive load based on flexible and learner-tailored support is an important future trend with clear educational benefits. There are different general approaches to building complex adaptive learning environments that could also be used in game-based learning. For

example, Federico (1999) suggested combining a macro-treatment pre-training adaptation approach based on pretest results with a micro-treatment approach based on within-training measures taken while students are in the instructional situation. Macro-treatments could be selected based on initial pre-task measures, then instructional procedures could be refined and optimized using micro-treatments based on continuous monitoring of learning behavior. An approach proposed by Tennyson and

Table 1. SPATIAL SPLIT-ATTENTION

Watching them all at the same time could be difficult. Confusing, not sure what to do. A little hard to isolate things. I didn’t pay attention to see the actual change on the graph. A lot of things to look at at once. I look at the numbers, but try to look at the graph too. It’d be easier if there was one graph instead of two, so I’d focus on it. A lot is going on at once, numbers are changing. This is really hard. Paying attention to gas particles, and now trying to pay attention to the graph.

TEMPORAL SPLIT-

I must go back to see previous pressure results.

ATTENTION

Clickingeverything that was before disappears. I forgot what I did at the previous one [step]. Need to refer back to previous step to see the change. Diagram shows past trials, container shows this moment. It would be easier if my old graphs stay on top of the screen. It’s difficult to keep track of previous simulation. I’m manipulating and seeing, but I keep storing it. It’s difficult to look back. I think I missed something, I go back to see pressure-temperature relationship.

REDUNDANCY

Repetitions, I’ve already realized the relationship from first two [steps]. Extra stuff; flames get in the way (no need to show six flames to show temperature rising).

EXCESSIVE INFORMATION

Everything’s moving at the same time. It is difficult to figure out what’s happening. It’s difficult because of storing everything in my mind. I have to remember that I’m moving Temperature or Pressure [sliders]. Lost track what I am doing. A lot of things. I checked the solution but did not remember. Looking at text, not seeing visuals (so fast). Too much going on the screen; extra things, like a flashy show.

SEARCH

I’m just picking numbers.

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Breuer (2002) consists of two main components: a curriculum (macro-) component that maintains a student model and an external knowledge base, and an instructional (micro-) component that adapts the instructional strategies according to current learning progress. An adaptive approach that has been developed within the cognitive load framework is based on the expertise reversal effect (Camp, Paas, Rikers, & van Merriënboer, 2001; Kalyuga, 2006c; Kalyuga & Sweller, 2004, 2005; Salden, Paas, Broers, & van Merriënboer, 2004; Salden, Paas, & van Merriënboer, 2006; van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005) and assumes the initial selection of an optimal level of learner support based on pre-task measures, and then refining and optimizing instructional procedures using continuous monitoring of learning behavior. According to cognitive load theory, optimizing learning processes requires presenting appropriate and necessary instructional guidance at the right time and continuously removing unnecessary redundant information as the level of learner expertise in a domain gradually increases. Detailed direct instructional support should be provided (preferably in integrated verbal-pictorial and dual-modality formats) for novice learners. Changes in the task-specific knowledge base need to be dynamically tracked and specific instructional procedures tailored accordingly. The described adaptive approach has mostly been realized in experimental computer-based tutorials in a system-controlled format: a computer program dynamically selects an instructional method that is most appropriate for the current level of learner expertise. The learner-controlled approach could be an alternative to dynamic system-controlled tailoring of instruction to learner characteristics. Despite some expected advantages of learner control (e.g., positive learner attitudes and a sense of control), research findings have been more often negative rather than positive in relation to learning outcomes (Niemec, Sikorski, & Walberg, 1996; Steinberg, 1989). According to cognitive load theory, the level of learner expertise

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is a defining factor: students could have control over the content and instructional sequences if they have sufficient knowledge in the task domain. Low-knowledge learners, on the other hand, require appropriate assistance. This assistance could be provided as advice to learners to make their own decisions (Tennyson, 1981). An advanced form of this approach is an adaptive guidance strategy that provides learners with information on the current level of their knowledge, what to study or practice to achieve mastery, how to sequence learning tasks for gradual transition from basic to more complex strategies, and how to allocate cognitive resources (Bell & Kozlowski, 2002). The available research on cognitively optimized adaptive strategies within a cognitive load framework is very limited. Optimal adaptive methodologies and conditions of their applicability need to be established in controlled experimental studies. In the absence of evidence-based recommendations, most existing adaptive online environments are based on monitoring navigational patterns, learning styles, preferences, and other external learner characteristics rather than deep cognitive characteristics, such as available knowledge structures.

cONcLUsION AND IMPLIcAtIONs This chapter makes a first contribution to apply cognitive load theory to the design of educational game environments. Research in cognition and instruction has substantially expanded our understanding of mental processes involved in learning, limitations of our cognitive system, and the role of learner prior knowledge. Applying this knowledge to the design of educational games is a necessary condition for their effectiveness. Games have unique features that place higher demands on learners’ cognitive resources than more traditional direct instruction approaches. Examples for sources of these demands are the need to navigate immersive 3D environments, the

Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games

use of discovery-based approaches to the gameplay, the manipulation of learners’ emotions, the need to find hidden cues, or the use of narratives to provide situational context. In addition to the cognitive demands of these features, educational games require the learner to invest cognitive resources in the processing of the content that is to be learned. Therefore, special attention must be devoted to eliminate all sources of unproductive processing of extraneous information. Sources of excessive extraneous cognitive load that may inhibit performance and learning from educational gaming applications are: spatially and/or temporally split elements of information that need to be integrated in order to achieve understanding; an excessive step-size and/or rate of information presentation that introduces too many new elements of information into working memory too quickly to be organized and comprehended; insufficient user support or guidance, especially for low prior knowledge users; and excessive redundant support overlapping with available knowledge of more experienced users. It is important to recognize that in educational games, design decisions that in traditional direct instruction approaches would have been considered sources of extraneous load may in fact be contributing to the educational objectives of the game, and would therefore be categorized as generating germane load—that is, engaging users in the learning process. For example, games can represent educational content embedded in a rich context, which requires resources to be processed but makes the presented information more meaningful to learners and allows them to connect it to existing knowledge structures. Recent research indicates that in some cases, exploratory environments may indeed be more effective than direct instruction (Plass et al., 2007b). This is an indication that when designed to meet a specific educational purpose, the higher cognitive demand of game-specific features may result in increased mental effort, and as a result in increased learning.

In addition to established techniques of measuring cognitive load (subjective rating scales, dualtask methods), concurrent verbal reports with audio and screen capture of learners’ online behavior may be used for evaluating and comparing levels of extraneous cognitive load in educational games as an important part of their usability studies. Based on such evaluation procedures, educational games could be improved to better match the nature of the human cognitive architecture. For example, direct guidance could be provided to low prior knowledge users at the appropriate time (or on request), unnecessary redundant support could be timely removed as a learner becomes more experienced with the task domain, step-sizes and rates of presentations could be limited to ensure that the learners’ cognitive capacity is not exceeded, split-attention effects could be eliminated or reduced by integrating graphics and text or using auditory modality for presenting verbal elements, and information presentations could be dynamically tailored to changing levels of learner proficiency in the domain. Ultimately, adaptive educational games could expand current fading techniques to allow dynamic tailoring of presentations to changing cognitive characteristics of individual learners to work in harmony with human cognitive architecture. Given the growing research in cognitive load issues in learning, researchers and game designers should be aware of these developments and their implications, as well as methods for evaluating and managing cognitive load in educational games.

AUtHOr NOtE The research presented in this chapter was supported in part by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES), U. S. Department of Education (DoEd) through Grant R305K050140. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of IES or DoEd, nor does any mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

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Association (AERA), Division C-5: Learning Environments, Chicago, IL. Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., Milne, C., Jordan, T., Kalyuga, S., Kim, M., & Lee, H. J. (in press). Design factors for effective science simulations: Representation of information. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 1(1). Plass, J.L., Homer, B.D., Milne, C., Jordan, T., Kim, M., & Barrientos, J. (2007b, October). Representational mode and cognitive load: Optimizing the instructional design of science simulations. Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the Association for Educational Communication and Technology, Anaheim, CA. Plass, J.L., Toler, T., & Kalyuga, S. (2007). Evaluation of learner cognitive load in interactive learning environments using concurrent verbal protocols. Submitted for publication. Renkl, A., Atkinson, R.K., & Große, C.S. (2004). How fading worked solution steps works—A cognitive load perspective. Instructional Science, 32, 59-82. Salden, R.J.C.M., Paas, F., Broers, N.J., & van Merriënboer, J.J.G. (2004). Mental effort and performance as determinants for the dynamic selection of learning tasks in air traffic control training. Instructional Science, 32, 153-172.

Shiffrin, R., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190. Steinberg, E.R. (1989). Cognition and learner control: A literature review, 1977-1988. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 16, 117-121. Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257-285. Sweller, J. (2003). Evolution of human cognitive architecture. In B. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (vol. 43, pp. 215-266). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Sweller, J. (2004). Instructional design consequences of an analogy between evolution by natural selection and human cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32, 9-31. Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, F. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251-296. Taylor, R.S., & Chi, M.T.H. (2006). Simulation versus text: Acquisition of implicit and explicit information. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 35(3), 289-313. TechSmith. (2007). Camtasia Studio 5. Retrieved from http://www.techsmith.com/camtasia.asp

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Van Merriënboer, J., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 147-177.

Evaluating and Managing Cognitive Load in Games

KEY TERMS Cognitive Architecture: A general cognitive system that underlies human performance and learning. The understanding of human cognition within a cognitive architecture requires knowledge of corresponding models of memory organization, forms of knowledge representation, mechanisms of problem solving, and the nature of human expertise. Cognitive Load: Working memory resources required for processing specific information by an individual user. Cognitive load theory distinguishes between the essential (intrinsic) and wasteful (extraneous) forms of cognitive load, and suggests a variety of techniques and procedures (cognitive load effects) for managing essential and reducing extraneous load in learning. Cognitive Load Theory: An instructional theory describing instructional implications of processing limitations of human cognitive architecture (capacity and duration of working memory) and evolved mechanisms for dealing with these limitations (long-term memory knowledge base and its role in cognition). Expertise Reversal Effect: Reversal in the relative effectiveness of information presentation formats and procedures as levels of user knowledge in a domain change. For example, extensive external support could be beneficial for novices when compared with the performance of novices who receive a low-support format, but is disadvantageous for more expert users when compared with the performance of experts who receive a low-support format.

Long-Term Memory (LTM): A major part of our cognitive architecture, an organized knowledge base that stores a massive amount of hierarchical knowledge structures. Sources of Cognitive Load: Features of external information structures or cognitive characteristics of individual users that determine required working memory resources. Intrinsic cognitive load is caused by levels of interactivity between elements of information that need to be processed simultaneously. Extraneous cognitive load is imposed by the design of information presentations (e.g., separated in space- and/or time-related elements; an excessive step-size or rate of introducing new elements of information; limited user knowledge that is not compensated by provided support; user knowledge base that overlaps with provided external guidance). Working Memory (WM): A major part of our cognitive architecture, a functional mechanism that limits the scope of immediate changes to long-term memory. Depending on a specific model, WM is considered either as a separate component of our cognitive system or as an activated part of LTM. The essential attribute of WM is its severe limitation in capacity and duration when dealing with novel information.

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Chapter XLII

Self-Regulated Learning in Video Game Environments Nicholas Zap Simon Fraser University, Canada Jilliane Code Simon Fraser University, Canada

AbstrAct Video games engage players in rapid and complex interactions of self-regulatory processes. The way individuals regulate their cognitive, affective, and behavioral process while playing electronic games, relates to their ability to cope with the onslaught of information that electronic games require for their mastery. The psychological factors that produce self-regulated learning are explored as they relate to a player’s intentionality, interest, aptitude, motivation, goal-setting, and affect while playing games. A discussion of video games as authentic learning environments looks at the roles of student initiated learning in authentic contexts and specific design strategies are outlined. Practical learning strategies that promote SRL are presented to facilitate the use of conscious self-regulatory skills that students can implement in these authentic learning environments. This chapter opens the discussion of the role of self-regulated learning in video game environments and its impact in the field of educational gaming.

INtrODUctION Video games engage players in rapid and complex interactions of self-regulatory processes. The way individuals regulate their cognitive, affective, and behavioral process while playing electronic games, relates to their ability to cope with the onslaught of information that electronic games require for their mastery. As a player interacts

within the gaming environment, the game responds forcing the player to adapt and react. The responsiveness, adaptability, and interactivity of electronic games are unique in that they initiate self-regulatory processes through their inherent design. This responsiveness also serves as a conduit in which game players can explore, discover, and reveal new abilities before they are actualized in other contexts (Johnson, Christie, & Wardle, 2004). The transfer of declarative, procedural,

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Self-Regulated Learning in Video Game Environments

conditional, and self-regulation strategies are situated in learning approaches that game players use for learning. These strategies are developed through the unique characteristics in games that promote self-regulated learning. Video games possess at least eight characteristics that make them ideal environments for facilitating and promoting self-regulated learning. Games are: (1) interactive, (2) repetitive, (3) adaptive, (4) cumulative, (5) scaffolded, (6) affectively situated, (7) intrinsically oriented, and (8) based on both player-centered and game-based goals. These characteristics, whether in the classroom, online, or through play, are recognized qualities of enriched learning environments. As electronic games can also be recognized as enriched learning environments, we now have the ability to evaluate video games as an educational tool. This recognition allows researchers, educators, and students to exploit these key features to promote self-regulated learning (SRL). Self-regulated learning, while both implicit and consequential in most recreational gaming, provides a grounded context in which both tacit and conscious learning can be studied. Although implicit learning in games does not represent an efficient environment for learning curricular objectives, there are strategies that can be implemented that make the implicit content of the game explicit. Facilitating game players’ abilities to regulate their motivation, goal achievement, engagement, and emotions while playing games, promotes conscious and reflective student learning. These practices and strategies are needed for educational gaming to make an impact in the classroom. Although there has been much promotion of the idea of games in education (see Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001; Schaffer, 2007), few researchers have addressed the wide ranging psychological issues involved in marrying recreational games with learning. Addressing the psychological aspects of gaming as it relates to

the psychology of the player, interactions in the game, and the players’ ability to learn in a gaming environment, provide some reference as to why the psychological logistics of educational gaming are greater than the technological limitations. As video games have profound implications in the study and facilitation of the self-regulatory processes for learning, this chapter opens the discussion of the role of self-regulated learning in video game environments and its impact in the field of educational gaming. In this chapter, we address the unique psychological challenges of implementing video games as environments for learning. We start with a brief overview of self-regulated learning (SRL) based on current research, models, and frameworks. Due to the space constraints of the chapter, this is not intended to be a comprehensive review of the psychology of self-regulated learning (for a review, see Baumeister & Vohs, 2004; Boekaerts, Pintrich, & Zeidner, 2000), but rather an integrative review and orientation to the concept of self-regulation as it applies to video games for learning. Next, the psychological factors that produce SRL are explored. Aspects of intentionality, interest, aptitude, motivation, goal-setting, and affect are discussed to draw some inferences about the psychology of the player within this new learning context. A discussion of video games as authentic learning environments looks at the roles of student initiated learning in authentic contexts and specific design strategies are outlined. Finally, implications and applications of SRL in electronic gaming environments are formulated. Practical learning strategies that promote SRL are presented to facilitate the use of conscious self-regulatory skills that students can implement in these authentic environments. The overall aim of this chapter is to explore selfregulated learning in the context of electronic games and to promote a critical dialog and evaluation of the complexities of implementing both recreational and educational games as tools for learning.

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sELF-rEGULAtED LEArNING Self-regulated learning is an active, effortful process in which learners set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behavior (Pintrich, 2000b). Learners consciously manipulate on-going psychological activities, such as cognition, affect, and behavior to situate meaning in any learning event. Working in concert with other self-processes, such as self-efficacy, self-determination, self-awareness, and volition, SRL serves as a type of ‘executive function’ that coordinates and manages the psychological processes required for learning. Integrating related fields in psychology, such as motivation, cognition, and emotion, SRL attempts to formulate a process for understanding the complex and dynamic nature of learning. Self-regulated learning as a system assimilates many different models and processes, each with a slightly different emphasis. Some models focus on the social nature of self-regulation (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998), while others focus on the information-processing (Winne, 1995; Winne & Hadwin, 1998), and cognitive activities required to make self-regulation happen (Boekaerts, 1997). While these models present different perceptions of SRL, all theorists agree that students who self-regulate actively and constructively engage and adapt their thoughts, feelings, and actions to shape their goals for learning (Boekaerts & Corno, 2005). For a student to be considered a self-regulated learner, they must actively and constructively evaluate and adapt their internal and external environment to suit their learning requirements. For example, if a student is aware that they need a quiet place to study in order to be able to read, they use attention-monitoring strategies, such as earplugs or finding an environment that presents suitable conditions for learning. Similarly, when a student seeks out educational tools for learning, such as a calculator for math, a study skills book for learning, or a video program for a different perspective of physics, they are all

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actively regulating their academic competences through the regulation of their learning needs. As games provide both the tools and techniques for individuals to pursue new environments for learning, they provide an exciting opportunity to understand how and why students learn with such tools. As these processes are initiated by the individual, they are functions in the regulation of the “self.” Self-processes such as self-efficacy, self-determination, self-awareness, and volition provide a base in which students evaluate their knowledge, values, beliefs, and abilities. Self-efficacy, defined as the belief in one’s capability to organize and execute a plan of action required to achieve a desired outcome (Bandura, 1997), is a powerful determining factor in a student’s beliefs about their capabilities to learn. A students beliefs, in this regard, has a profound impact on their choice of learning activities, effort, motivation to learn, persistence, metacognitive monitoring and control, and overall self-regulated learning (Bandura, 1997; Pintrich, 2000a; Schunk, 1990). Research in relation to video games and self-efficacy has found that prior game knowledge, and perceived skills in playing games, significantly affects a student’s enjoyment and motivation (Smith, 2007). As self-efficacy greatly affects SRL, before a student can use video games for learning they must feel competent in their abilities to both play and succeed in learning with games. To accomplish this, parents and educators have to promote the use of electronic games both in and outside the classroom. Convincing parents and educators to embrace the fact that their child’s comfort with using electronic games is necessary to promote learning, however, is beyond the scope of this chapter. Other regulatory mechanisms of SRL can be recognized when teachers, peers, and parents direct or facilitate an individual’s development and learning process (Boekaerts & Niemivirta, 2000). As the learner interacts with these regulatory “others”, they use their self-regulatory competence to

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select context dependent goals to work toward. Environmental, task, and contextual features also promote individual self-regulatory processes using feedback, evaluation, and cues. Thus, selfprocesses form an interface where individuals act, interact, and respond to the outside world. Concerned with such fundamental questions as to one’s knowledge, beliefs, and freedoms, selfprocesses can contribute to or hinder any learning event. The complex nature and use of electronic games, paired with the content and subject matter for learning, raises interesting questions about a learner’s perceptions and beliefs in their ability to learn in these environments. Contextual variables must be considered when trying to understand the role of self-regulated learning in gaming environments. Students’ reactions, reflections, and evaluative judgments of the task and environment provide feedback for entering into SRL. Evaluative judgment is a critical decision-making process as students strategize to continue toward winning the game. For example, if a game player is aware that a particular score is required in order to advance to the next level, they are more likely to adjust and self-regulate their behavior, to achieve the desired goal. Similarly, in the context of educational games, the student will have to regulate multiple goals in regards to the curriculum objectives and the game objectives to be successful. It is in the failure of conscious self-regulation that educational gaming becomes a break or distraction from the goal of learning. Active conscious self-regulated learning is what is necessary for students to both enjoy and learn in these highly complex environments. Although SRL is largely a conscious process, it is recognized that there are self-regulatory processes that take place in recreational gaming are not necessarily conscious. Game players can be observed while playing recreational games to make quick physical and mental actions, to take opportunities, ignore distractions, show flexibility in response to game situations, to overcome obstacles, and manage

conflicts (Fitzsimmons & Bargh, 2004), all while remaining in an opposing state of leisurely relaxation and dissonance. Game players also engage in complex cognitive tasks such as symbol recognition and memory retrieval without much conscious effort. As players’ actions and reactions in the game are situated within a dynamic between the game and player, the game player must actively and consciously make inferences, judgments, and decisions to modify and interpret goals during play (Zaparyniuk, 2006). This synergy of both tacit and conscious self-regulation highlights the complexity of self-regulated learning in video game environments. More explicit to these processes are the tacit and conscious choices learners make when approaching a learning event in regards to their interest, intent, and perceived aptitude.

INtErEst, INtENt, AND APtItUDE Personal interest, intent, and aptitude are factors that greatly influence a student’s ability to learn. If a student has an interest in a particular subject matter, they have an inherent intent to learn. Once this intent is established, a student uses their situational aptitudes to achieve academic goals and master the learning material. As a student’s appraisal of a learning event brings about positive or negative assumptions and perspectives based on these factors, their interest in a learning event greatly influences their ability to learn. Personal interest also plays a part in our selection and engagement within genera’s and contexts of gaming. Players with interests in first person shooters, flight simulators, or puzzle adventures are more likely to seek out these particular contexts of play due to their orientation. Similarly, a student’s interest in any particular subject matter, whether being math, science, or history, will greatly affect their orientation in engaging in an educational game, regardless of their intentionality to play the game for learning or to have fun. A student, who has no interest in math or video games, will be no

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more engaged to play a video game about math, than in learning or interacting with math in any other context. Intentionality is the power to originate actions for a given purpose (Bandura, 2001). The students goal intention (goals) as well as their implementation intention (process) are important for understanding the learning process (Gollwitzer & Brandstatter, 1997). In educational games, conflicting intentions between the teacher (learning outcomes) and the student (to play the game) make the achievement of either goal unlikely. Most game players play games for purely pleasurable and recreational purposes (Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004). Fun, leisure, and entertainment are all intentional reasons why game players engage in games for long periods. Intentionality draws them in, not the context of play. Even for puzzle games, in which the riddles and puzzles are contextual and cognitively complex, the player must find enjoyment in the cognitive dissonance or challenge that these scenarios pose, in order to continue engaging in these activities at their own volition. As most students see learning as work (Elkind, 2001), there is a discrepancy between the intentionality of the teacher and those of the student. To combat this, students must be situated in environments where the recognition of play and learning is not contradictory, but complimentary. Once this perspective is initiated, students may gain some personal interest in engaging in these new novel environments for learning. As a result of a heightened sense of personal interest, student motivation in gaming contexts becomes authentic (self-instigated), which both enhances performance and persistence (Ryan & Deci, 2000). In addition, interest in the domain being studied is necessary for the intentional development of aptitudes for learning. Video games enable students to utilize different types of aptitudes normally observed in the context of an everyday classroom. Critical to the expression of these particular aptitudes, and

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in the development of new aptitudes, a motivation to learn is ultimately driven by the student’s skills and abilities. Game players can be seen to readily transfer aptitudes of twitch speed movements and gaming heuristics from one game to another. Similarly, student’s aptitudes in a subject matter such as physics, along with their aptitudes in playing electronic games, should be situated so that neither is neglected. Both the content and context situated aptitudes of the student in regards to game difficulty, subject difficulty, and playability, have to be considered when educational games are developed and implemented. When a student’s skills and abilities are not challenged or are too difficult, the student will lose interest and motivation in both the game and the subject matter.

MOtIVAtION Committed effort, willingness, and desire to be engaged in and completing a task (Wolters, 1998), typifies student motivation. Students who are self-regulated learners have adaptive motivational beliefs and cognitive strategies that they can readily use in varying learning contexts (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Pintrich, 2000a; Wolters, 2003). Strategies students use to maintain their motivation are often categorized according to self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000), as being either intrinsic or extrinsic and having characteristics of either autonomous or controlled behavior (for a review see Murphy & Alexander, 2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are distinguished by the different reasons and goals individuals attribute to an action. A plethora of evidence exists in motivation research which demonstrates that individuals differ in their level of motivation (how much) and in the orientation of that motivation (type of ) (cf. Elliot, 1999; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Intrinsic motivation is when something is inherently interesting or enjoyable and

Self-Regulated Learning in Video Game Environments

extrinsic motivation occurs when someone feels externally propelled into action (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Game players in most instances are intrinsically motivated. They engage in the act of play for their own reasons. However, there are situations, such as wanting to win the World Pac Man championship or beating a friend in a game of FIFA Soccer, that the motivation is driven by external events. These external challenges can in turn, facilitate intrinsically motivated actions. Arnold (1996), in an exploration for motives for video game use, found four general dimensions for player motivation: verisimilitude, problem solving, control, and competition. Verisimilitude is the player’s desire for authenticity and realism of gaming graphics, sound effects, and interactions. Problem solving is the test of being presented with a puzzle or challenge that the gamer must solve. Control is a game players desire to engage in environments that allow exploration, and are non-intrusive. Finally, is the desire for competition, to gage one’s skills and performance against an opponent. While each of these motives represents intrinsic motivational properties, there are also wide ranging extrinsic motivational rewards that educational games can offer; one of which is the ability to learn while playing video games. Although student motivation is widely cited as one of the main reasons for using games in learning (Jayakanthan, 2002; Jenkins & Squire, 2003; Kafai, 2001; Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004; Prensky, 2006), research has shown that embedding games in learning environments do not motivate students merely by their presence (Sandford, Ulicsak, Facer, & Rudd, 2007; Squire, in press).

GOAL ORIENTATION AND TASK OrIENtAtION Goals provide a framework for understanding how individuals perceive, interpret, and approach

learning events (Elliot, 1999). As goals serve as points of reference, directing our actions and motivations, learners dynamically orient their goals based on the context and environment in which they act. While in one situation, a student’s goal may be to learn as much about calculus as possible, in another situation it may be to get the attention of the cute girl or boy across the room, or sometimes both. Student’s abilities to pursue multiple goals simultaneously during learning, holds the key to understanding the complexity of educational games. Task goals represent the specific outcomes an individual is trying to accomplish; in other words, what an individual is trying to accomplish. In a game, this would represent a gamers’ objective of collecting all of the game pieces on given level or in getting the highest score. In contrast, purpose goals or goal orientations reflect why an individual is trying to achieve a particular goal. Purpose driven goals, then, are used as a means to evaluate the merit of task specific goals. It is paramount that students are aware of both task specific and purpose (goal) orientations in educational games so that they understand both what they need to achieve, and why they need to achieve it. The scope of interaction in educational games creates situations in which different goals compete for students’ attention. The goals for learning, goals for leisure, and goals for enjoyment, all compete for the students’ attention. Through the use of self-regulation, students can regulate their learning approach to serve different goals in different contexts (Vermetten, Lodewijks, & Vermunt, 1999), as long as the goals are explicit to the learner. Environmental triggers and activity cues within educational games can direct the learners to achieve particular goals, while not interfering with game play (Bargh & Barndollar, 1996). These metacognitive cues serve to remind the player that there are goals that need to be achieved. As a student’s goals, motivation, and self-regulation reach a point of flux between

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challenge, discovery, and immersion, the student can experience a sense of flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). Widely sighted in educational gaming literature as a reason for implementing games in education (Kiili, 2005), the theory of the flow experience is based on a balance of personal challenge and reward. This, however, cannot happen until the conscious strategies for SRL in gaming environments are automatized to allow the players to immerse themselves in the game. The extrinsic goals of learning, in most cases, are a distraction to the immersive elements of games that promote the flow experience. It is for this reason that the conscious processes that regulate cognitive mechanisms of learning must become rote. Directly related is that the content and subject matter of the game must be an integral part of play as to not become a distraction. As most educational games implement curricular objectives as an evaluative function, the subject matter becomes a distraction. As the flow state is related to self-initiated concentrated effort, it is the students own goals for learning and interacting in the gaming environment, and not the extrinsic goals of meeting particular curricular objectives, that will ultimately decide whether a player reaches flow. In this case, there are significant differences between providing opportunity and seeking opportunity (Boekaerts & Niemivirta, 2000). When a student seeks games as an immersive environment where the challenges of the game and the subject matter meet and exceed their expectations for immersion and challenge, the flow experience will take place (Rheinberg & Vollmeyer, 2003; Schiefele & Roussakis, 2006). The challenge is to design games where the spectrum of learner’s abilities, skills, and subject aptitudes meets their optimal experience for learning. It is when this balance is reached, that the flow experience recognized in immersive play becomes the flow experience in immersive learning.

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MEtAcOGNItION Conscious awareness of our abilities to reflect on our own thoughts, feelings, and consciousness is metacognition. A process that involves both knowledge and experience, metacognition allows game players the ability to continually evaluate their cognitive, motivation, and affective thoughts and feelings (Flavell, 1979). Metacognitive experiences are most likely to occur when the situation explicitly demands or elicits them. Flavell (1979) describes several situations in which metacognitive experiences are most likely to occur. Experiences when something is completely novel or when emphasis is placed on correct inferences, judgments, and decisions, cue metacognitive events. Such metacognitive experiences are characterized by judgments of contradiction or discrepancy with existing knowledge where one knows enough to be puzzled and to formulate questions. This is recognized in self-reflective talk that takes place during games. “Oh I should have moved left” or “I was thinking about grabbing that sword, but I didn’t” represent metacognitive awareness of one’s thoughts and actions. Metacognitive knowledge assumes that we also have an acute awareness and control of our own cognitive system (Brown, 1987). Although games and situations cue metacognitive events, games do not significantly affect overall metacognitive awareness (Ke, 2007). These findings, however, do not diminish the role of teaching students to become metacognitively aware of their thoughts, feelings, and actions while learning. Students who are metacognitively aware of the self-regulatory strategies in specific learning contexts are better prepared to become competent learners (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996; Rosenshine, Meister, & Chapman, 1996). The overall goal of metacognitive awareness allows a student or game player the ability to approach situations with conscious planning and activation strategies. Students, when approaching gaming environments, have three general types of planning or

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activation strategies: (1) target goal setting, (2) activation of relevant prior content knowledge, and (3) activation of metacognitive knowledge (Pintrich, 2000b). In target goal setting, students set task specific goals, which they use to guide, monitor, and regulate their cognition. Meaning, the students use the target goals to determine how well they are doing in the game and whether or not they need to adapt their cognitive strategies to achieve their target goal. As goals act as a criterion against which to assess, monitor, and guide cognition, goal setting can occur at any time during the performance and is a function of ongoing monitoring and control. Self-reflection is a critical component in the self-regulatory process and involves the continuous comparison of present levels of achievement with personal goals and standards. These comparisons are often called judgments of success (Zimmerman, 2004). The activation of prior knowledge happens when one approaches any situation. Self-questioning activities, such as “what do I know about this content area or genre of game?” occurs as a player approaches the given game situation. A game player focuses on what they are familiar with, and what is most likely to be familiar in the current game, and then uses this knowledge to explore the game setting and identify what strategies are needed to achieve their target goal. This activation is necessary to cue metacognitive strategies and knowledge that will advance the player in the game. The activation of metacognitive knowledge occurs when individuals cue the use of cognitive strategies that can be used for learning. Strategies such as memorizing, reasoning, reviewing, and problem solving are a few examples of strategies that students use in general learning contexts. Related to this, are specific heuristics that gamers learn through interacting within any one genre of game. Heuristics are deemed appropriate when they help or promote strategies that support the learner (Corte, Verschaffel, & Eynde, 2000). Heuristics are specific to both the content

knowledge of the game and the genre of play. Game players use specific heuristics in playing first person shooters just as they have different heuristics in playing war strategy games. The specific context-based strategies of each comes from the players experience and exposure to different contexts of play. Similarly, heuristics that can be used to solve mathematical problems will be helpful in an educational gaming context, but for the students to immerse themselves in the game, they must also have game-based problem solving heuristics. When students do not have these subject or context dependent heuristics, they must be given many opportunities to practice under the guidance of peers, teachers, or in observing what other players do. Hints and feedback within the game can also be helpful in executing subject and game based heuristics (scaffolding) during play. In this process, a student will become more self-regulated in their ability to problem solve and use heuristics to solve a given problem in a game without external interference. Once a student has the tools and abilities to interact with the game in a self-situated matter, they will find that learning event more enjoyable and emotionally satisfying.

AFFEct AND EMOtIONAL sELF-rEGULAtION Emotion is a core element of attention, motivation, memory, and learning. Enriching environments that situate students in emotionally driven spaces using interactivity, narratives, and emotional dissonance lead to improved engagement, motivation, and learning. Game elements that stimulate and provoke emotional reactions from their users such as graphics, animations, music, sound effects, competition, exploration, narrative, interaction, conflict, violence, sex, and humor engage the user to emotionally relate to the simulated environment. In regards to self-regulation, affect, which is superordinate classification of implicit and explicit

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moods, emotional states, episodes, and feelings (Gross, 1998), facilitates learning prior to, during, and following a learning event. Elements that greatly impact a students’ perception of learning with electronic games are affective appraisals, perceived affective quality, and attributed affect (Russell, 2005). Affective appraisal is perception of the emotional qualities of an event, stimuli, act, situation, environment, or entity. As perception, evaluation, and judgment are all affective and cognitive faculties of human awareness, they have the distinction of being both conscious and tacit in their application. These perceptions are largely unconscious appraisals that precede recognition and perception. The appraisal may lead to the conscious awareness of the evaluation, however, this is not always necessary (Ledoux, 1995). As a game player moves into any gaming space, they will evaluate whether that particular game has the qualities to meet their emotional needs. In some cases, the player will engage in fast action paced games, while in another they may play a turn based strategy game. It is the affective appraisal of environments that effects our perception of how well they will meet or not meet our affective goals (Russell & Lanius, 1984). Perception of affective quality is the individual’s perception of the object or environment’s ability to change their core affect (pleasure/displeasure, engaged/disengaged) (Russell, 2005). Perceptions of how exciting or boring, pleasant or unpleasant something is influences self-regulatory processes including cognition, motivation, and behavior. A students’ perception of the usefulness of a game, its ease of use, and engaging qualities contribute to whether or not they will consider playing the game again. The impact of a player’s perception of affective quality of a game effects their performance, cognition, and behavior (Conati, 2002). Attributed affect is a post hoc attribution based on our emotional experiences. The more pleasurable a learning experience a student has

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the more positive emotions they will attribute to this event. An interactive property of attributed affect is the generation of interest. If a student has a positive experience, and they attribute that to the learning environment, they are more likely to show more interest in that learning event in the future. Thus, if a game elicits a positive core affect (pleasure, engagement) then a gamer is more likely to return to this game in the future. From an educational gaming perspective, learners are more likely to attribute a positive effect to the game and thus the learning experience if the game is both engaging in the interaction and pleasurable in context of play. When these games meet our emotional needs, we are highly motivated to continue to play and to engage with these games in an on-going, self-initiated, and intrinsically motivated manner. The seeking of such environments for learning and experience promotes contexts for authentic learning.

AUtHENtIc LEArNING ENVIrONMENts Video games provide natural environments that promote authentic learning. Self-initiated, spontaneous, cumulative, ongoing, socially situated, and most importantly driven by personal intrinsic goals, video games represent an ideal environment for authentic learning. As the game determines the declarative, procedural, and strategic knowledge needed for its mastery, students must find a method in which to situate, organize, and regulate their learning (Zaparyniuk, 2006). In authentic learning situations, as in games, students benefit from discovering the rules themselves (Boekaerts, 1995). A situation where a learner is invited, coached, and coaxed to display context-specific and goal-directed behavior does not fit the learners’ perceptions of what makes games or learning fun. Authentic self-initiated learning and game play demonstrates a learners’ awareness of their

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cognitive, motivational, and affective needs (Boekaerts, 1997). As designers attempt to create environments where users navigate and master the game framework as naturally as possible, users ultimately learn to achieve their own personal, intrinsically motivated goals, which are simultaneously linked to the context of the game. Thus, designers must construct learning episodes in which content and context are considered simultaneously, and in so doing, make video games a purposeful mediator for the engagement of learning in a gaming context. As a result, students will readily immerse themselves in these environments to achieve both their learning goals and the authentic objectives for game play.

cHArActErIstIcs OF AUtHENtIc LEArNING IN VIDEO GAME ENVIrONMENts Characteristics of authentic learning environments involve dynamic interactions among the learner, task, and environment (Barab, Squire, & Dueber, 2000). Based upon an instructional design framework for authentic learning proposed by Herrington and colleagues (Herrington & Herrington, 2006; Herrington & Oliver, 2000), video game environments provide a foundation for designers and educators to implement these principles and situate self-regulated learning in authentic educational gaming.

Provide an Authentic Real-Life context To enable sustained exploration of a complex learning environment, authentic real-life contexts provide purpose and motivation for learning. Close to real-life situations can be simulated within the video game environment to provide a context in which students can make decisions and enact on their decisions without extreme or dire consequences. The conscious manipulation

of psychological activities, cognition, and affect to situate meaning is a central consideration of self-regulated learning. Traditional learning contexts often lack an integration of functional areas (e.g., accounting, management, and marketing). Simulation games are able to introduce the complex nature and interdependencies of functional area characteristics of a real setting (Lainema & Nurmi, 2006). In a study by Lainema and Nurmi (2006), a simulation game was used to provide realistic and complex models of business functions, facilitate continuous problem solving and meaningful learning, embed learning in social experience, and support student’s learning. Findings support the notion that the simulation game used in this study helped the participants discover how different business processes elaborated, emerged, and linked together ultimately providing support for the development of competence through representing the complexity and continuous processing of real world business. Thus, within a gaming context that is authentic, the learners are provided with simulated real-life situations and activities in which they can gain self-regulatory competence and skills.

Authentic Activities Self-regulatory competence by nature requires authentic activities in which students develop and explore their SRL skills. Authentic activities have real-world relevance and present tasks that are completed over a sustained period. In a virtual reality computer game designed to teach safety skills to children diagnosed with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS), Padgett, Strickland, and Coles (2006) aimed to use the VR game to help generalize home safety procedures to help prevent unintentional traumatic injury often characteristic of children with FAS. Results of the study indicate that the children were able to transfer the skills they learned in the computer game to a real-world setting. In video game settings, authentic activities such as those in the VR

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safety game involve tasks that connect the present state of game play with an overall objective that users need to achieve to advance their status, or in this case remain safe in their homes. Competence and strategies developed by users during these activities are often modeled after game experts or the performances of other game players (e.g., Kriz, 2003; Robinson & Mania, 2007; Schilling, Mulford, & Geiger, 2006).

Expert Performances and Modeling Successful academic learners acquire self-regulatory skills derived from modeling, observing, emulating, and interacting with their environment, teachers, and other students (e.g., Azevedo, Cromley, Winters, Moos, & Greene, 2005). Modeling is the process in which learners pattern their thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors after one or more models (Bandura, 1986, 1997; Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007). An individual’s capacity to learn by observation enables them to reduce the effort required through trial and error, and to learn and develop rules for regulating behavior. Through this vicarious capacity, learners watch the model, remember the details of the model’s behavior, evaluate and replicate the behavior, and continuously motivate themselves to complete the action (Bandura, 1986). These dynamic interactions ultimately enable the student to demonstrate proficient self-regulation and attain academic goals (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997; Zimmerman, 2004). As a student interacts and models, observes, and emulates the regulatory capabilities of other students and teachers, they begin to understand that to achieve their goals they need to function according to particular standards (e.g., Hadwin, Wozney, & Pontin, 2005). In video game and simulated environments, users often learn how best to achieve their gaming goals from other players or experts of the game. From modeling decision making in organizations

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(e.g., Devine, Habig, Martin, Bott, & Grayson, 2002; Kriz, 2003; Schilling et al., 2006) to surgical procedures in medical education (e.g., Lane, Slavin, & Ziv, 2001), simulation games provide environments to develop expert performance through modeling and emulation. In a recent study by VanDeventer and White (2002) on expert behavior of children in video game play, when asked to model their behavior to adults less experienced in the game, the child experts consistently displayed higher ability to perceive patterns, make complex qualitative judgments, and employ such self-regulated activities as planning, strategizing, self-monitoring, and critical thinking. These findings are consistent with the literature on experts and expert performance (see Chi, Glaser, & Farr, 1988). Ultimately, in video games as a learning context, students can effectively take the role of the “other” (Mead, 1934), mentor, or teacher to develop and express self-regulatory competence.

Multiple Roles and Perspectives Encouraging students to explore different points of view by taking on multiple roles and perspectives enables the exploration of different ideas and promotes empathy for others. Through role playing and perspective taking, students actively work through problems and consider several sides to an issue. In a recent study by Bos, Shami, and Naab (2006), a multi-player online simulation game was used to expose students to ethical dilemmas in international business. Results demonstrated that students were able to take on multiple perspectives, consider trade-offs between profitability and social responsibility, and were able to come up with creative solutions to difficult trade-offs. Gaining multiple perspectives from student interactions and collaboration allows students to construct knowledge that is authentically situated.

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Collaborative Construction of Knowledge The collaborative construction of knowledge promotes reflection, articulation, coaching, and scaffolding and can be encouraged through appropriate tasks and communication technology. During the collaborative construction of knowledge, students are able to reflect socially and engage in meaningful discussions on issues presented. Self-reflection is a critical component of the self-regulation process, providing ongoing feedback to learners. Video game environments that encourage the collaborative construction of knowledge through other game players (i.e., massive multi-player online games, MMOG) or within the game itself (i.e., through interactive avatars) provide opportunities for self-reflection. In their review of issues in collaborative game design, Zagal, Rick and His (2006) identified four factors that should be present to encourage optimal cooperation, collaboration, and active communication among players. These four factors include a requirement for competitiveness introduced through tensions in perceived individual and team utility, enabling individual decisions and actions without the consent of the team to highlight collaborative problems, connect payoffs to decisions and actions, and encourage selflessness by bestowing different abilities or responsibilities upon the players. Although their review focuses on multi-player board games, the authors demonstrate that the principles of collaboration in this context also apply to MMOGs. Through complex environments such as MMOGs, self-regulated processes are encouraged through competitiveness, cooperation, collaboration, and active communication among players thus, promoting the articulation of ideas, which enable formation, awareness, and refinement of thought.

Coaching and Scaffolding Scaffolding involves assisting students through the use of tools and strategies to facilitate the development of understandings beyond their immediate grasp (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). Through the collaborative construction of knowledge, learning partners assist with scaffolding and coaching, where the interactions of students occur mainly at a metacognitive level and peer mentors provide the skills and strategies to assist a learner in completing the task. A common mechanism for making comparable or common problems more salient to learners is through analogies and by comparing examples (analogical encoding). Williams, Ma, Feist, Richard, and Prejean (2007) have designed a game-based virtual learning environment modeled after MMOGs that engages players in a guided scientific inquiry. Mentoring the students are two non-player characters that prompt the use of a “library tool” (an analogical encoding tool) that enables the students to compare relevant scientific cases. As a user becomes competent in the domain and in performing the task through various levels, cues, and signals are gradually faded (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989) as the complexity of the environment increases. In the Williams et al. (2007) example, the scaffolds are readily removed enabling the students to become more independent and self-regulatory in regards to their learning similar to traditional settings (e.g., Hadwin et al., 2005). Scaffolds have the potential to promote deeper cognitive engagement and understanding and ultimately leads learners to improve their comprehension and meaning construction within subject contexts (Reiser, 2004). The ultimate goal of a video game (and instruction) is to make the user (and learner) competent in performing a particular skill and to develop an understanding of the subject matter.

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IMPLIcAtIONs AND cONcLUsIONs Strategies that promote self-regulated learning are a part of the authentic curriculum of learning. The importance of teaching students strategies for “learning-to-learn” promotes a students’ ability to become a self-initiated learner. As these strategies are context dependent, for students to succeed in using video games for learning they must develop the skills to do so. As technology and potential of games to promote learning has taken center stage in much of research surrounding educational games, the following discussion serves to remind designers and educators that fostering the development of students’ skills also advances learning, not just the environment. Students must be taught cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management strategies for learning within electronic games (McKeachie, Pintrich, Lin, & Smith, 1986; Weinstein, Husman, & Dierking, 2000; Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). Video games as authentic learning contexts enable the application of rehearsal, elaboration, and organizational strategies that help students take the implicit content of games and make it explicit, which enables learning (e.g., Devine et al., 2002; Kriz, 2003; Schilling et al., 2006). This process enables the student to recognize that the learning content of the game is as important as winning the game. Planning, comprehension, and affective monitoring strategies that promote metacognitive self-awareness (McCombs, 1988), need to be taught to help learners recognize and discriminate between learning objectives, game objectives, and self-initiated goals of winning the game. Resource management strategies, such as of time on task, give students the ability to monitor their progress and goal-orientation to ensure that learning takes place and that they enjoy the experience of learning at the same time (e.g., VanDeventer & White, 2002). To develop cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management strategies, designers need

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to provide opportunities for students to orientate and practice SRL strategies in authentic gaming environments. It is not enough for students to be taught strategies for self-regulated learning; they must have guided practice and feedback to become competent. As students use these strategies enough in educational gaming environment, they become tacit. Incorporating scaffolds into games to prepare and cue students for strategies for reflective learning, will also promote active learning (e.g., Williams et al., 2007). Educators and designers must embrace all the attributes and aspects of recreational games that make them fun and engaging. Competition, violence, humor, and exaggerated characters, are all characteristics that are widely embraced by those who play video games (Crawford, 2003), however are largely neglected when games enter the domain of education. Educators need to find ways to implement these gaming features in ways that are conducive to learning (e.g., Choi, Lee, Choi, & Kim, 2007). Using a first person shooter as a means to explore human immunology, using sexist and racial stereotypic characters to teach about history and racism, and graphic violence to teach about the genocide, are a few suggestions of how to embrace and use these highly affectively charged features for learning. Games must be designed so that their inherent worth as a learning tool is so evident that students seek them for learning. As educational games currently represent an adjunct to traditional teaching, the power of games has not been widely recognized or developed. Educational games must be developed as a tool that parallels the use of the calculator for mathematics and the Internet for information searching. Although mathematics can be done without a calculator, and information searching can be done without the Internet, these tools have become pervasive because of their inherent advantages of use. Once games are developed that address these fundamental needs, students will seek them out to augment the learning that takes place in the classroom. In

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order to facilitate the need for games for learning, leading researchers need to shift their focus from the promotion of electronic games for learning, to the synthesis of new paradigms, designs, and approaches that will make electronic games the learning tool of the twenty first century. Electronic games hold the potential to become significant environments for the facilitation and promotion of self-regulated learning. Harnessing the inherent motivational power of video games for educational purposes, enables educators to bring fun, play, and genuine engagement back to learning. There are significant psychological differences between recreational and adult-functional gaming spaces that produce dissonance in the learner. Understanding the psychology of the player in gaming spaces allows educators the ability to address these issues through the adoption of learning strategies that promote self-regulated learning. Learning strategies that promote selfregulation in video game environments influence the learner’s ability to select, acquire, organize, and integrate new knowledge (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). As these skills hold the potential to transfer into new learning domains, there are wide ranging implications for teaching context-based learning strategies for learning with electronic games. This chapter explored the topics within selfregulated learning research that have implications for educational gaming. There are, however, many other aspects of SRL in educational games that have not been fully addressed, due to the complexity and breath of the subject. Questions and topics on how to measure SRL in games, social aspects of SRL in games, game cues that promote SRL, as well as game design features that promote SRL, are a few topics that need to be addressed in further research. The directions and breath of research for the study and promotion of self-regulated learning in electronic gaming environments provide an exciting opportunity to understand the complex and dynamic nature of learning with electronic games.

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flight instructor assessments of perceived fidelity. Simulation & Gaming, 38(1), 112-135. Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research, 66, 181-221. Russell, J. A. (2005). Emotion in human consciousness is built on core affect. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 12(8-10), 26-42. Russell, J. A., & Lanius, U. F. (1984). Adaptation level and the affective appraisal of environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 4, 119-135. Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Self-determination and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well being. American Psychologist, 55, 68-78. Sandford, R., Ulicsak, M., Facer, K., & Rudd, T. (2007). Teaching with games. Learning, Media & Technology, 32(1), 101-105. Schaffer, D. W. (2007). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Schiefele, U., & Roussakis, E. (2006). Experimental conditions for experiencing flow in computer games. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie Zeitschrift fur angewandte Psychologie und Sprache & Kognition, 214(4), 207-219. Schilling, M. S., Mulford, M. S., & Geiger, I. R. (2006). Collective bargaining as a two-level game: Direct learner-expert interactions. Simulation & Gaming, 37(3), 325-338. Schunk, D. H. (1990). Goal setting and self-efficacy during self-regulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 25(1), 71-86. Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Social origins of self-regulatory competence. Educational Psychologist, 32(4), 195-208.

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Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Selfregulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice. New York: Guilford. Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2007). Influencing children’s self-efficacy and self-regulation of reading and writing through modeling. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 23, 7-25. Smith, B. P. (2007). Flow and the enjoyment of video games. USA: University of Alabama. Squire, K. (in press). Civilization III as a world history sandbox. In Civilization and its discontents. Virtual history. Real fantasies. Milan, Italy: Ludilogica Press. VanDeventer, S. S., & White, J. A. (2002). Expert behavior in children’s video game play. Simulation & Gaming, 33(1), 28-48. Vermetten, Y., Lodewijks, H., & Vermunt, J. (1999). Consistency and variability of learning strategies in different university courses. Higher Education, 37, 1-21. Weinstein, C. E., Husman, J., & Dierking, D. R. (2000). Self-regulation interventions with a focus on learning strategies. In M. Zeidner, M. Boekaerts, & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation. New York, NY: Academic Press. Weinstein, C. E., & Mayer, R. E. (1986). The teaching of learning strategies. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching. New York: Macmillan. Williams, D., Ma, Y., Feist, S., Richard, C. E., & Prejean, L. (2007). The design of an analogical encoding tool for game-based virtual learning environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 429-437. Winne, P. H. (1995). Inherent details in selfregulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 30, 173-187.

Winne, P. H., & Hadwin, A. F. (1998). Studying as self-regulated learning. In D. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in theory and practice (pp. 277-304). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates Inc. Wolters, C. A. (1998). Self-regulated learning and college students’ regulation of motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 224-235. Wolters, C. A. (2003). Regulation of motivation: Evaluating an underemphasized aspect of selfregulated learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(4), 189-205. Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 17(89-100). Zaparyniuk, N. E. (2006). The exploration of video games as a tool for problem solving and cognitive skills development. Unpublished Masters Thesis, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada. Zimmerman, B. J. (2004). Sociocultural influence and students’ development of academic self-regulation: A social-cognitive perspective. In D. M. McInerney & S. Van Etten (Eds.), Big theories revisited (Vol. 4, In Research on Sociocultural Influences on Motivation and Learning, pp. 139-164). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

KEY TERMS Cognition: Cognition refers to the conscious and unconscious mechanisms in which one uses to understand and make sense of the world. Goal-Orientation: Goal orientation concerns the underlying attitudes that give rise to certain actions. For example, a performance goal-orientation occurs when one focuses on the demonstra-

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tion of competence to others, whereas a mastery goal-orientation occurs when on focuses on the development of competence within a task (Elliot, 1999). Learning Strategies: Learning strategies are tactics students use to assist them in the learning process. Metacognition: Metacognition is a knowledge or cognition about cognitive phenomena, or more commonly, thinking about thinking or cognition about cognition. Metacognition involves and awareness that one is an “actor in their environment” (Flavell, 1979). Motivation: Motivation is a willingness or desire to be engaged in completing a task (Wolters, 1998). Self-Determination: Self-determination involves self-directed, motivated action to achieve a particular outcome. The self determination theory distinguishes between different types of motivation based upon the different reasons or goals that give rise to an action. Intrinsic motivation is when something is inherently interesting or enjoyable and extrinsic motivation occurs when someone feels externally propelled into action (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

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Self-Efficacy: Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s capability to organize and execute a plan of action required to achieve a desired outcome (Bandura, 1997). Learners’ beliefs about their capabilities to learn has a profound impact on their motivation to learn, their metacognitive monitoring and control, and overall self-regulated learning activities (Bandura, 1997; Pintrich, 2000a). Self-Reflection: Self-reflection is a critical component in the self-regulatory process and involves the continuous comparison of present levels of achievement with personal goals and standards. These comparisons are often called judgments of success (Zimmerman, 2004). Self-Regulated Learning: Self-regulated learning (SRL) involves an active, effortful process in which learners set goals for their learning and then attempt to monitor, regulate, and control their cognition, motivation, and behavior (Pintrich, 2000b). Learners manipulate on-going activity to situate meaning development through self-regulation. Volition: Volition is strength of will exercised through conscious choice. When a student embodies volition, they have the capacity to utilize their cognitive resources and strategies to enact on choices to achieve academic goals (Corno, 1993; Corno & Kanfer, 1993).

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Chapter XLIII

(Self-) Educational Effects of Computer Gaming Cultures Johannes Fromme University of Magdeburg, Germany Benjamin Jörissen University of Magdeburg, Germany Alexander Unger University of Magdeburg, Germany

AbstrAct The goal of this chapter is to emphasize a certain notion of self-induced education, to discuss it in the context of digital games and to provide the means for assessing digital games as well as to give hints on their educational use. In the first section, the concept of “self-education” is introduced and distinguished against less complex learning phenomena. The second section discusses and analyses the different layers of “educational space” inherent to gaming software, providing the analytical means for the further sections. The third section presents and analyses educational aspects of single-player games, while the fourth section adds the socio-cultural impacts implied in multi-player communities. In conclusion, a synopsis is given, which sums up the main educational dimensions and connects them to aspects and analytical criteria, allowing a pedagogical assessment of digital games.

INtrODUctION Digital games are still predominantly assessed critically in public discussions because of certain (presumed) negative impacts. At the same time,

computer gaming cultures often represent an avant-garde of socio-technological developments in the field of new media. Since the late 1990s, the study of computer games, their possible effects, and their role as new cultural as well as social

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phenomena has increased (e.g., Fritz & Fehr, 1997; Fromme, Meder, & Vollmer, 2000; Greenfield & Cocking, 1996; Raessens & Goldstein, 2005; Vorderer & Bryant, 2006). Additionally, there seems to be “a renewed awareness of the potential of simulations and games among researchers interested in learning and cognition” (Arnseth, 2006), which is related to discussions and projects regarding the “serious” use of digital games in education, training, health, and similar contexts.1 We want to join this discussion, but to take a specific perspective. Computer games provide educational potential, which is overlooked to a great degree in current discussions about serious games or games for learning. We want to address this potential as self-education. To learn more about emergent social structures and gaming practices means to gain important insights into the limitations as well as possibilities and opportunities of educational uses of digital games. It also means to realize the predominance of informal learning and self-educational processes within this field, and to become aware of the social dynamics these processes form part of. In this chapter, we will first introduce and discuss our understanding of the notions of learning and self-education, the latter focussing, on the one hand, on the active and constructive role of the learner and, on the other hand, on the idea of a broader change of world views and general framing of recognition (1). Secondly, we will discuss different kinds of educational spaces found in the scope of digital games (2). We shall then exemplify pro-educational structures, first in single-player games (3), and afterwards in community-driven multi-player games (4). The summary recapitulates the main issues of this chapter, offers means for assessing the educational value of digital games, discusses some implications for using games (single-player as well as multi-player games) in educational contexts and arguments for bridging the gap between formal and informal learning environments (5).

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LEArNING Vs. “sELF EDUcAtION” According to the latest report of the Council of Science and Public Health [CSAPH] (2007), about 70 to 90% of North American youth play digital games. The broad dissemination and great popularity of computer and video games have made digital gaming part of everyday culture, especially—although not exclusively—for children and youth (also see Entertainment Software Association [ESA], 2007). It is therefore not really astonishing that some people are considering the possibilities of taking advantage of this development by adapting and applying digital games for training or instructional purposes. And there are some encouraging results, too. For example, “video games have been shown to have beneficial effects as learning aids within the health care sector” (CSAPH, 2007, p. 3). However, while considerable attention is being paid to this instrumental approach—for example, using digital games for pedagogical purposes—the informal educational relevance of entertaining games is barely ever mentioned. Our suggestion is to transcend a mere instrumental perspective and strive towards a better understanding of informal learning and self-educational processes in digital gaming cultures. This implies a two-fold extension of how teaching and learning are commonly looked at. The first aspect is to emphasize the active and constructive role of the individual in any process of learning, including changing his relation to the sociocultural world. Pragmatist philosophers and educational theorists such as John Dewey (1925) and George Herbert Mead (1934; 1938) have developed a notion of “experience”, which provides a qualified theoretical foundation for this approach to learning and identity development, resulting in new habits and attitudes, in new ways of seeing and interpreting the world. Much of this pragmatist idea resembles the concept of Bildung as developed in German idealist philosophy, especially in G.W.F. Hegel’s understanding of the individual as being involved

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in a constantly ongoing process of confrontation and negotiation with his socio-cultural environment, thus developing a unique, but nonetheless culturally specific personality (Hegel, 1977). Similarly, Wilhelm von Humboldt’s concept of Bildung is based on an active individual. He forms his individual intellect and mind in a permanent process of encountering different cultural worlds (Humboldt, 1993). To place emphasis on the active and constructive role of the learner also implies conceding that formal and institutionalized settings for learning (such as schools) are (only) one special type of learning environment. The second aspect of extension is to broaden the common understanding of Bildung, which is often reduced to something like being well-educated or having good general knowledge. The very core of the scientific concept of Bildung, as educational theorist Winfried Marotzki pointed out (Marotzki, 1990), is the idea that individuals gain and grow into cultural worlds only through social participation and the experience of difference, of resistance, and of otherness. This includes creative forms of action, such as play or the creation of artefacts, as well as the confrontation with one’s own and foreign languages, cultural forms, and manners. Put shortly, Bildung is all about a form of experience that leads towards a decentralization or transformation of the individual’s former world view. It involves a kind of deep, orientational knowledge that cannot simply be acquired by learning in the sense of adding new information to a stock of knowledge. What we address as processes of “self-education” thus transcends the horizons of the common everyday world and is bound to change the way an individual makes sense of his world as well as of himself. Far from being a plain learning process, self-education points at the reframing of former world views, thus leading towards a more reflexive, flexible, and complex relation to the world and others. We have chosen the uncommon term “self-education” to accentuate the important difference that the processes outlined can only be

conducted by the individual himself, and cannot be directly enforced by someone else (e.g., teachers or parents). However, any encounter—school experiences included—may prompt the individual to reorganize an attitude or a perspective. With regard to the extraordinary importance that forms of personal competence, such as reflexivity, the ability to recognize others and otherness, and a flexibility of world views and thinking, have gained in post-modern, post-traditional, and globalized societies, it is evident that every opportunity that helps achieve a tentative attitude towards the world must be recognized as a valuable resource and educational opportunity. Although there is no opportunity directly to control or bring about self-education, it is well within the realms of the possible to enable, facilitate, and provoke such processes by creating suitable environments for the kind of experiences mentioned previously. In the following, we will try to demonstrate that digital games and gaming cultures as new parts of the everyday world of children, teenagers, and adults can be regarded as environments for selfeducation because they bear manifold potential for supporting self-educational processes.

cOMPUtEr GAMEs As cULtUrAL AND EDUcAtIONAL sPAcEs For a considerable period of time now, the statement that we are living in a world permeated by technology, which has become the backdrop of our society, has been indisputable. However, there is still an ongoing discussion in social science about the role of new media in this process and how they affect social and cultural life. One major difference between old and new media, which is emphasised in this discussion, is that the effects of new media on our social and cultural life significantly differ from those of traditional media. Most traditional media, and mass media in particular, such as film, broadcasting or newspapers, are—to a greater or lesser degree—implementations of

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a one-way communication model. The user is part of an audience and receives messages. We may claim that receiving messages is an active process of decoding (Hall, 1980), which is only partly pre-assigned by the sender (or encoder), but the user’s role still remains that of a recipient. Hence, traditional media have, on the one hand, greatly enlarged our access to the world in terms of quantity, but on the other hand, they only allow limited access in terms of quality. We may see pictures from and read articles about parts of the world we have never visited and gain considerable knowledge about these places, but it is a different (more holistic) experience to actually be there. In this respect new media establish new possibilities. Their simulative abilities allow user experiences that come closer to what we regard as real experiences. To summarize, two outstanding characteristics of new media are the abilities to simulate and further interactive processes and, by using network technology, to establish new forms of communication and interaction in virtual spaces. In this sense, new media have created interactive worlds—worlds that are characterized by tentativeness and often playfulness. These selfcontained “worlds” can bear their very own (sub)cultures. While new media increasingly enwomb social and cultural life (Jenkins, 2006; Poster, 2006), the experiences we gain from virtual worlds become increasingly important, virtual and real spaces become increasingly connected the social and cultural phenomena are spreading into new media worlds that have become interactive (cf. Fromme, 2006). In this sense, new media function as a transformative space between new and old social practices and rituals, renewing and restructuring traditional forms (Gamm, 2000; Jones, 1997). Hence media gain an ambivalent character because the creation, transformation, and framing of social practice can result in more freedom and possibilities, but also in the restriction or elimination of former options (Unger, 2007, p. 215). A careful analysis

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of these new cultural spaces is thus essential for the understanding of socialization and identity, as well as for new forms of learning and (self-) education (cf. Turkle, 1997). These new spaces are software-based virtual environments that can provide two different forms of software-“framed” interaction that must be distinguished: user-to-software interaction on the one hand, and user-software-user interaction on the other (cf. McMillan, 2002a, 2002b). The latter often goes hand-in-hand with the emergence of more or fewer local interaction (sub-)cultures. The term “virtual” bears a double meaning in this context. First, it points to the fact that interaction is bound to a computer-generated environment, thus lacking bodily presence. Second, with reference to the mode of user-to-software interaction, it also implies that one’s social partner can be simulated by the software (such as “NPCs”—nonplayer-characters). As these two aspects are also relevant to the field of e-learning systems, it is interesting to look at some findings gained in this field. Schulmeister (1997) proposes generally to distinguish three different educational layers or spaces of software. 1.

2.

When interacting with software, we are first of all exposed to a presentational space, that is, the user interface with interactive icons on the one hand, and content on the other. We will discuss the difference between content and interface later in the article. Incidentally, when computer games are criticized by the mass media and public opinion, this is the space they refer to, while the following two spaces are regularly ignored. At a deeper level, the action space emerges once the user begins to use the software, and only exists for the period of interaction. Although the action space is somewhat elusive, it represents the moment when the software becomes a socio-technological artefact that can yield certain effects. With the emergence of network technology, this space also gains

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3.

a social dimension. The user can interact with other users in a software-based and framed environment, like in multi-player games or distance-learning applications. If we chose a wider perspective, even virtual communities that emerge around certain applications and games can be regarded as a part of the action space. As we have shown, these effects depend partly on the user’s ability to handle and transform the attained experience and partly on the interaction frame of the software. This frame provides the options and barriers for the interaction and is inscribed in the deep layer of the software, the code space. This space bears the “roots” of the “flowers” seen on the surface of the screen (cf. Schulmeister, 2007). It contains the stored content, its relations (metadata) as well as interaction scripts.

While this concept was originally developed for e-learning software, it can (because of its abstract level of analysis) usefully be assigned to computer games and their virtual environments. Based on this model, we can pose the thesis that whether software is a “facilitating environment” (Winnicott, 1990) for self-education or not strongly depends on the following four aspects: 1. 2. 3. 4.

The code space with the implemented scripts, The openness of this space, The provided content and its educational or irritating potential, and finally “Transcending” forms of user-to-user interaction and cooperation, such as gaming and modding communities (Unger, 2007).

As this analysis shows, the exposure to a virtual environment is a complex process that involves selections, interpretations, and transformations. No simple one-way direction of influence can be

found. The educational implications of software are closely connected to the options of usage, such as moving and navigating through pre-structured environments. From an educational point of view, restrictive environments can be as disadvantageous for individual development as excessively complex ones that overburden the learner. At the same time, dealing with complexity (in the sense of multiple rationalities and perspectives) is essential for higher forms of learning, such as self-education. However, we must bear in mind that the “cybernetic” transformation of social spaces and interaction into a program code shows a tendency to reduce and to blind out context (Unger, 2006, p. 92). Reduction is a well known didactic strategy, but if the complexity and diversity of communication and interaction is reduced too much, considerably less complex forms of learning (such as the acquisition of simple stimulus-response patterns) will result. On the whole, virtual environments hold a wealth of potential in relation to self-education. Whether this is released or not depends on their design, on the implemented structures and interaction options, as well as on the user’s predispositions. This is why one cannot make an overall judgement about the educational value of a digital game. Instead, a close reading of its structural aspects is necessary in every single case.

SINGLE-PLAYER GAMES AS “strUctUrAL GENErAtOrs” OF INFOrMAL LEArNING AND sELF-EDUcAtIONAL PrOcEssEs We can now take a closer look at the educational and self-educational potential of single-player digital games as a special form of virtual environments. “Self-education”, as we pointed out, can be understood as a complex kind of informal learning process. The notion of informal learn-

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ing embraces intended as well as unintended and even unconscious forms of learning, which can lead to the acquisition of special competence as a second-order effect. While the contribution of informal learning to education has been underestimated considerably for a long time (although clearly articulated in Edgar Faure’s UNESCO report, cf. Faure, 1972), recent discussions on this issue encourage the opinion that informal learning processes play a major role in education as well as socialization (Coffield, 2000; Foley, 1999; Harrison, 2003; Overwien, 1999). What are the means by which computer games contribute to informal learning and even transgress the sphere of “in-game”-related learning towards self-educational processes? In the short history of digital game research, three different approaches to the issue of “learning through gaming” have come up. The first approach conceptualizes computer games as agents of accommodational processes and socialization, the second one sees them as environments provoking the development of certain cognitive skills, while the third approach analyses computer games as self-referential environments in which creative processes of acquisition and transformation of rules take place. 1.

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The first approach has led to a rather critical assessment of the educational effects of computer games. An early example is Behn (1984) who argued that computer games would cause accommodation to what he considered to be a “reductive logic” of the computer. Learning occurs solely by means of trial and error that leads to simplistic stimulus-response associations, but not to higher and more valuable forms of learning. Applying a more complex theoretical research framework than Behn, Rogge (1985) conceptualized the effects of computer games on the basis of symbolic interactionism. He emphasized the relevance of interpretation and meaning that individuals

2.

3.

actively assign to media, creating their own individual (media) reality. Empirically based on interviews with young gamers, he found out that digital games play an important role for the development of independent youth cultures, in particular because the games allow the setting of distinctive signs, distinguishing them from the adult world. While these findings demonstrate that games can be used to discover and unleash creative potential, Rogge still questions whether the technology would provide the means of gaining the distance required for metacognition and reflection. In opposition to these approaches, researchers such as Patricia M. Greenfield emphasized the relevance of computer games for the acquisition of cognitive skills. In her book “Mind and Media” (Greenfield, 1984), she already showed that even playing simple games such as Pac Man could facilitate inductive learning processes and potentially enhance the development of cognitive skills—especially “inductive discovery skills”, which designate the process of accumulating knowledge about the game, its rules, and strategies from within the game. In this sense, digital games have been regarded as valuable media of “informal education” (Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 1996, p. 95), enhancing the computer literacy of players. Thus, with regard to in-game learning processes, computer games serve as self-referential virtual environments for these processes. In his current research, Jesper Juul integrates and extends some of the main aspects of the other approaches. According to Juul, playing a game is basically a learning process, in which the user acquires the skills he needs to play. Gamers accumulate a repertoire of special skills, which they revert to when playing a new game: “Improving skills at playing a game involves expanding and refer-

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ring the repertoire” (Juul, 2005, p. 96). The ability to discover rules, to transform them into new patterns and adapt them further must be regarded as a meta-skill that can be assigned to other contexts. While the current state of research strengthens the view that computer gaming involves a multiplicity of (informal) learning effects, the authors mentioned previously do not refer to more complex and reflexive forms of learning. Furthermore, they tend to describe computer game-related learning as something that happens at a more unconscious level. Some explicitly argue that computer games are highly immersive environments—also because of their intense interactivity—and therefore inhibit the player from developing a critical distance to what he is doing and experiencing. In opposition to this viewpoint we want to argue that interactive media such as digital games may also facilitate or provoke (reflexive) self-education. The following two directions of consideration aim to substantiate this claim: 1.

Computer games are playful “semiotic domains”: Following the semiotic approach of James Paul Gee (2003), the experience of a new “semiotic domain” requires the corresponding acquisition of a new literacy in order to be able to act appropriately. Gee explains that computer games with their specific modes and rules of action, interaction and communication are a new semiotic domain (or a family of semiotic domains). New semiotic domains provoke reframing of former world views, because they call for new cognitive patterns of perception and interpretation. In order to assess critically the “educational capacities” of a particular game, its demands for new and different ways of acting and thinking have to be taken into account. A “close reading” of a particular game is suitable for revealing whether the required patterns of actions, the

structure of the gaming environments, the involved characters, and so forth, bear the necessary potential of irritation, demands of creative action, or identification with new roles—playfully experiencing new identities and learning to take perspectives from other in-game characters bear valuable educational potential. Although the educational capacities of a game can be discovered fairly easily by means of a structural analysis in this sense (which may be supported by contrasting it to different games of the same genre), one must be aware that even games that will not facilitate educational effects by themselves may be taken as a starting point for self-education (depending on the literacies of their particular user and the circumstances in which the games are experienced). Because Bildung in general is not exclusively bound to contact or confrontation with representations of so-called high culture, any aspect of social environments and everyday culture—including (seemingly) questionable computer games such as first-person shooters— may, often unexpectedly, provoke new experiences of and insights into the issues they involve. Because of their very quality as narrowly defined semiotic domains, they represent cultural aspects and contexts, and may focus them like in a looking glass. A shooter game like the infamous Postal 2 (2004, Running with Scissors), for instance, may rightly be assessed as an extremely violent, racist, and sexist game, which most likely overstrains the capacities of younger players (the game features a red-haired white male randomly torturing and killing persons predominantly displayed as inferior, such as high-school girls, a black beggar, etc.). On the other hand, it may enable more mature players to experience the raw brutality of racist and sexist violence in the mode of an ‘aesthetic shock’ (Walter Benjamin) and to

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2.

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gain new insights into racist world views, especially through their stereotypical modes of representing and constructing what they consider to be “the other” (Hall, 1992; Law, 1996). Computer games enable the maintenance of a reflexive distance: As the small and (relatively) less complex worlds they are, computer games provide the possibility of immersively entering their realm while simultaneously maintaining a certain reflexive distance. The second point we would like to discuss is aimed at specific structural aspects of digital games, which are suitable for increasing the odds of a critical distance towards in-game action. Digital games can be seen as performative spaces, staging the dramas or comedies of their heroes. A certain structural analogy to theatre—with actors playing characters, narrative framings, acting schemes and scripts, a decorated stage full of cues allowing contextualization of the play, and so forth—allows Bertold Brecht’s influential distinction between dramatic vs. epic performances in theatre to be related to the realm of computer games. While the immersive dramatics of classical theatre tried to achieve an optimum of identification of spectators with protagonists, Brecht’s “epic theatre”, on the other hand, intended to disturb and irritate processes of identification by means of “alienation effects”, thus achieving or at least enabling critical reflection of the staged issues. Even if computer games usually do not intentionally aim to break the produced immersion (in the sense of “breaking the fourth wall” in theatre), there are multiple structural elements that can cause a similar effect. Without any claim to providing an exhaustive list, we will outline the following examples:

• • • •

In-game tutorials, Ironic play with meaning, Tension between rules and fiction, and finally Questioning conventional ways of perception.

Tutorials Current games do not only provide tasks and quests for the player, but they also integrate techniques to impart the skills to solve them. Some games, such as Silent Hill 2 (Konami, 2003), provide learning aids that are hidden in the staging and plot (Bopp, 2004). The player, for example, finds a paper with useful information that is needed later, or he encounters an NPC, which provides useful hints for the next mission. Other games provide complex tutorials that are sometimes organised in modules, starting with simple tasks and moving on to more complex ones. Because the techniques are disguised and integrated, their “immersive didactics” are not recognized as pedagogical interference. However, the tutorial and integrated advisors produce a tension between immersion into the gameworld and the necessity to look at it from a distance.

Ironic Play with In-Game Elements Ironic play with meaning is another strategy also found in digital games (we cannot discuss the issue of irony here in detail; with regard to the importance of ironic skills to handle contingencies in complex societies, cf. Rorty, 1989, p. 73). The use of irony can be discovered in many games. We have chosen the example of Doom 2 (id-Software, 1994). In this game, the player may discover a room where the main character from a different game—Billy Blaze, well known to players of Commander Keen (id-Software, 1991)—is hanging from the ceiling, ready to be shot by the player. While the surface of the “presentation space”, that is, shooting down a

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child character, must be assessed as unacceptable, experienced players of computer games would be able to decipher this situation as an odd, yet black humorous way of “saying goodbye” to a hero of their childhood (and the early days of computer gaming). The citation of Billy Blaze is a reference that points beyond the game to another medial text or semantic domain and refers to the plurality of given medial worlds. But this reference does not destroy the game, even if it provokes a short “mental interruption”. Another form of transcending the boundaries of the game is that “virtual” characters (NPCs) act or communicate “out of character”, for example, by referring to the rules of the game or by addressing the player directly. In Warcraft 3 (Blizzard Entertainment, 2002) for instance, units that are normally used as objects rather than “persons” may become angry and complain when they are activated repeatedly without getting an order. This surprising behaviour also exceeds the boundaries of the game and its rational logic. These are just a few examples of the manifold ironic elements that can be found in digital games. What they all have in common is that they create a second level of meaning, while players are still integrated into the game experience.

Tension Between Rules and Fiction Jesper Juul (2005) has described digital games as a specific combination of rules and fiction. The monitor or display thus presents two different kinds of information. On the one hand, it shows the (fictional) game world with its characters, landscapes, objects, and so on. On the other hand, it informs the player about his (or his avatar’s) status, about possible actions and accessible resources. This means that much of the interface is placed on-screen where it has to be distinguished from the game world itself. The interface of games such as World of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment, 2005), for example, contains numerous small symbols representing different interaction

options with the in-game world (such as icons for interaction with other players, for conjuring spells, etc.). They somehow disturb the presentation of the game world, or at least belong to a different layer of information, which the player has to pay attention to as well. In almost every game, we find elements of this kind that do not fit into the fictional world. Common examples are displays that provide information on the player’s health status, remaining ammunition or armour, tools for navigation (such as maps and compasses), tools for equipping or designing one’s character, or golden coins hanging in mid-air waiting to be collected for a high score. Jesper Juul refers to this specific feature of digital games as an unavoidable “incoherence of fiction and rules”. It creates a second layer of meaning that is not just present for a short period, but for as long as the game is played. The player constantly switches between the game and the symbolic layer created by icons, maps and navigation tools.

Questioning Conventional Ways of Perception Science fiction films often stage worlds where conventional ways of perception (as well as our common everyday physics) are suspended and, in consequence, scrutinized. The same applies to computer games. Max Payne 2 (Remedy/Rock Star, 2003), for example, allows the player to switch to a so-called “bullet time” mode, in which all movements are displayed in extreme slow motion while the player can continue to play in real time, thus gaining a great advantage over his opponents. This uncommon aesthetic element is well known from the movie The Matrix (Warner Brothers, 1999). Modes like “bullet time”, breaking with conventional perception, can delimit trust in pictures as a medium displaying an “authentic truth” and emphasize their constructive character. Moreover, the limited possibilities of everyday physics are visually and imaginarily transgressed, which may plant, for example, an

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idea of relativity of time, as is the case for the Matrix series, which has been recognized as containing veritable elements of a philosophy of time, as discussed by several philosophers (Chalmers, 2003; Sandbothe, 2004). The given examples show that we can observe techniques and elements in games, which facilitate a state of reflexive immersion, where the player recognizes the in-game action and, at the same time, a meta-game layer of meaning, thus creating distance to the in-game action itself. This phenomenon is suitable to show that diving immersively into a game world does not per se mean to lose a critical state of consciousness. At the same time, games integrate techniques and elements that hold potential for self-education, which are vastly underestimated and disregarded.

tHE EDUcAtIONAL IMPActs OF MULTI-PLAYER GAMES: FINDINGS OF A CASE STUDY OF THE COUNTERSTRIKE COMMUNITY While computer games provide opportunities for learning and self-education as has been shown, these opportunities are expanded further when it comes to community-involved online gaming. A field study conducted in the realm of Counterstrike players in 2002/2003 revealed a surprisingly broad range of learning and education effects and potential. In the case of Counterstrike, we discovered game design and gaming sociality to be deeply intertwined (Bausch & Jörissen, 2004; Jörissen, 2004). Involvement in community activities is tied to growing into a community of quite “serious” (even if fun-seeking) gaming clans demanding recognition of high social and moral standards at a meta-game level (which is inherent in every single in-game action). The introduction of Counterstrike, a community-generated freeware modification of the famous single-player shooter Half-Life (Valve Software, 1998), at the end of the last century

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marked the beginning of a very particular online gaming culture. Three passionate computer game players, who were unsatisfied with commercial shooter games, programmed the game Counterstrike as a modification based on the graphic engine of Half-Life. The story, original setting, and single-player option were removed. A pure multi-player game remained, which inherited the possible movements of the avatars, possible architectures, and landscapes as well as Half-Life’s comparably sparse visual performance of fight scenes. The creators of Counterstrike removed anything that would prevent the game from being a fast, straightforward multi-player shooter. Because Counterstrike was designed for team play and can hardly be won without the collaborative interaction of team members, this game, unlike any of its predecessors, gave rise to dedicated online gamer communities, which began to meet regularly as a permanent team (online and often even off-line). So-called clans are the smallest social units of about five up to 50 or more members. Exchange in or between the various clans is mediated by servers dedicated to coordinating community activities as well as providing a common public space for discussions. The Counterstrike community is a dense, complex conjunction of players based on social organizations and interactions taking place at a clan level, mostly through the internet.

Social Organization of the Counterstrike Subculture Clans display various, mostly democratic, forms of self-organization, but all the clans we got to know had given themselves explicit statutes. These include positions of clan leaders, deputy leaders, treasurers, squad leaders, full members, junior members, and trial members. Clan members usually live in different regions, and the odds are that they have never all met face-to-face at the same time. Clan members usually meet online where they join the clan’s

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own (rented) server at fixed training times, and talk through a voice chat system. Strategies and tactics are practised, and player skills and internal organizational issues are discussed. After training, or even when there is no training scheduled, clan members often join together, to “simply chat” about everyday problems, as if they were in a local pub. For reasons that have yet to be portrayed, social relationships within one clan are often characterized by solidarity and even emotional ties. It is intriguing to observe how clan members who have hardly ever met face-to-face welcome each other at a LAN party with warm and friendly gestures, signalizing strong social ties. Although there are several levels of ambition a clan may aspire to—from “just-for-fun” clans to “pro-gaming” (i.e., clans that reach a professional level, sponsored by firms and taking part in international CS gaming championships)—even the less ambitious clans regularly measure themselves against other clans either in so-called “fun wars”, or in organized official tournaments. This allows for closer contacts between clans that may result in further social activities, such as hosting a LAN party together. The use of online tournaments facilitates an extremely widespread social network without which the substantial cohesion of the Counterstrike community, which consists of tens of thousands of clans and millions of players, would be unthinkable. The players who participated in our group discussions told us that they knew or could recognize at least a hundred “clan tags” (abbreviated clan names) and that they could remember particular online encounters even after years. This underlines the importance of role names within this subculture.

Deeply Involved: The Emergence of Community Values and Cheating as a Taboo Clans usually take special care that their members do not negatively affect the clan’s reputation. This refers primarily to appropriate manners and

members who misbehave verbally, for example, are warned by fellow members. However, a clan’s reputation relies above all on its members not cheating. Cheating tools are small pieces of software that allow a player to look through walls, never miss an enemy, never lose, or lose fewer than a normal number of “health points” when injured, and so on. The development of cheating tools and the corresponding anti-cheating software resembles a continuous arms race, which reveals that cheating is obviously a common phenomenon that seems to serve the needs of certain elements of the Counterstrike community. It goes without saying that cheats and cheaters are never liked, regardless of the game. But in this case we found this to be a highly emotionalized issue, leading to strong rejection. Cheating in the Counterstrike community is literally a taboo. In terms of the constitution of the Counterstrike community, it takes the place of the untouchable, the sacer (which can mean both sanctity and its opposite). One administrator of a clan server, whose tasks included being acquainted with available cheating tools, stated that under no circumstance would he install cheating tools on any of his computers. He acquired his knowledge of cheats by studying videos demonstrating several cheating tools. In this way, he could remain totally untouched by the taboo. Whoever gets caught using cheating tools must expect to be banned from game servers, to be expelled from his clan, and to lose his whole online existence. Someone who cheats thus touches the untouchable, so to speak, and is literally sacrificed as a scapegoat. An anti-cheating trailer, which is available over the Internet2 and highly appreciated by the players we interviewed (who were of course aware that this was a staged scene), presents the sacrificing of a cheat, and clearly demonstrates the amount of mimetic violence involved in the act of exclusion (to follow Girard’s thesis; cf. Girard, 1977), as well as the union of

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the community as a “clean” (cf. Douglas, 2001) community of non-cheaters. What in particular makes cheating such a taboo? Cheating discourages the efforts of other players. Furthermore, whoever cheats takes on god-like power that no single individual is entitled to within this gaming culture. Like in every team-based game, players achieve the power of their team by handing over the power of their own actions to the collaborative demands of the team as a whole. It is this experience of emergence, of becoming part of a whole, of entering into a flow of integration into team coordination that defines the appeal of Counterstrike for the vast majority of players. Cheating is a direct assault upon this experience, upon the community itself, and upon the integration of the individual into this greater whole.

Seeing Things Differently: The Subcultural Construction of the Game’s Imagery Because computer games consist essentially of images—albeit virtually 3-D, moving, interactive images—the analysis of computer games has to draw on their visible contents. This is where the different spaces mentioned previously—the code space of the game, its interaction space as well as its social space—intersect to create the particular semiotic structure that we found to be a social and subcultural domain in the first place. To make educational use of multi-player games requires awareness of this complex and emergent conjunction of social meaning rather than isolation of just the visible surface of the gaming action. The imagery of multi-player games is constituted by the actions of several people at any one time. The algorithmic dimension of the game’s software on the one hand and the pragmatic dimension of people’s actions and reactions on the other form an indispensable socio-technological conjunction.

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We thus consider the performative dimension of the game, or the execution of playing the game, as an essential element for the interpretation of a computer game’s iconological content. In the case of Counterstrike, the representation of body, death and space turned out to be key aspects for understanding its iconological content. Even if, at first sight, the action of killing appears to be predominant in Counterstrike, a comparative analysis of the body model and the presentation of dying and death as they appear throughout the course of the game showed that it is more of a “suspended death”. Properties of real mortality such as vulnerability, bodily malfunctions, the indefinability of dying as a state somewhere between life and death, and the finality of death, are almost completely missing within the pictorial presentation (Bausch & Jörissen, 2005). In comparison to other, more realistic shooter games, the representation of death and dying is withdrawn, to the benefit of concentration on gameplay, but is still sufficient to present the body of a hero who sacrifices himself for the victory of his team, now collapsing in death with a single manly moan. Counterstrike performs the suspension of death by means of survival of the team, and this could be the secret of its strength in evoking a high degree of social involvement. Clarity, strategy, and control are further properties of the virtual environment of Counterstrike. Despite their vast number, the gaming areas—socalled “maps”—remain aesthetically interchangeable. Yet the term “maps” already signifies the reduced perception of the various landscapes and arrangements. The strategic possibilities a map offers are all that counts. The point of this team-play shooter is that players have intimate knowledge of virtual fighting arenas. The environment of Counterstrike is recognized, as was revealed in the group discussions, not so much as a rich visual experience but rather as a strategic space that allows smooth coordination of the team, which ideally acts as one body. Counterstrike, as

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the players stated, takes place in “the mind”, on a map internalized by all team members, in a hidden, virtual room, inhabited only by the community of players and their team spirit. Whether in an egoshooter game or any other kind of digital multi-player game, the experience of collaborative achievement in the layers of shared interpretation of in-game meanings and meta-game rules is the key to a new framing of self-views and world views. The notion of “mind” that was central to the pragmatist view of sociality (cf. Mead, 1934) was not meant as a single isolated individual mind but rather as a common symbolic (or semiotic, as we would say nowadays) space that enables true individuality in the first place. We achieve and extend our identities through the very experience of being a part of a greater social collaborative context (without being absorbed by it, of course, as would be the case in “total institutions”, cf. Goffman, 1961). The collaborative “mind”, taken as a social and subcultural space in which the meanings of a game are constructed and passed on to new members, makes sense of a game, but at the same time, its semiotic domain is far from being subject only to the social constructions of a group of players. It must be taken into account that the structural elements of digital games (as discussed previously) are of much greater complexity than is the case for any “traditional” game known throughout cultural history. Thus, the structural elements of a game—its interface, pre-programmed rules, gestures, actions, navigational organization, visual design, and so forth—have a great impact on the kind of sociality it enables (the kind of social “mind” it evokes, so to speak). What pragmatists such as Mead discovered about the nature of game playing seems to be of growing relevance to our game-oriented post-modern culture, while transformations from purely social to socio-technological interaction spaces must, at the same time, be recognized and closely observed. What makes Counterstrike and its community so special in this respect (as a field of research) is

the earlier-mentioned fact that most of its structural elements stem from the gaming community itself. Thus, Counterstrike is—probably like any structurally “modded” game to a greater or lesser degree—an example of a digital multi-player game that shows double-sided social determination because it is community-driven in respect of its very game design as well as in respect of the gaming subcultures that develop concrete gaming practices and interpretations. We discovered that the rationality, emotional disengagement, clarity and controllability of Counterstrike’s models of body and space leave out contingency, and that the game presents a suspended death, divorced of existential connotations. Counterstrike enables a performance of teams as “companions in distress” who share a common fate and act in solidarity until their very “end”. It provokes an existential experience to be gained within the community—or rather the simulation of such, but a simulation that is tied to the “real” flow experience of being a part of a team, so that everyone knows without reflecting who he is and what place he has to take within the commonly shared maps of the game. To sum up, the educational impact of online gaming cultures such as the Counterstrike culture takes place in an intermediate space between the educational in-game spaces mentioned previously on the one hand and the social meta-game space on the other. This intertwinement of in-game and off-game spheres, as shown in the example of this community, could likewise be explored in other multi-player-cultures such as MMORPG subcultures. Educational projects providing the ability to alter and modify games within a collaborative group could be of special interest in this respect. In general, the self-educational values of multi-player games can be characterized by the emergence of meta-game negotiations, rules, and identities, which are regularly connected to in-game issues such as:

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•

Organizing and structuring the community (defining roles, group identities, modes and rules of interaction, and conflict management), Defining fair play (discussing permitted exploitation of software bugs, permitted modifications of the gaming software, how to handle the issue of cheating, etc.), and last but not least, Developing community-driven norms about how to assess the game itself, and how to interpret or transform its visual properties (e.g., visual elements of violence).

•

•

cONcLUsION Beyond the visual surface of a game, the deeper structures of an action space, a code space and a game-transcending social space define important areas of observation. Educational effects are generally found through an analysis of these levels (cf. the second section), which accommodates the two dimensions presented of the meta-game, namely (a) the dimension of the interface and interaction structure and (b) the dimension of the

social interactions taking place in the off-game environment. In terms of the first dimension, a close reading of software layers, interface elements and modes of interaction is necessary. In terms of the second dimension, an analysis of the involved gaming (sub-) cultures (if currently in existence) is indicated. In Table 1, the main pillars of our approach to the educational analysis of digital games are represented by the dimensions of: (1) self-reference (identity), (2) world reference (culturality and sociality), (3) reframing skills (e.g., irony), and (4) the experience of difference in form of imaginative, alternate worlds. In order to help assess the educational values of games, the contents of the two columns on the right can be used as a catalogue of criteria (although this is not intended to be exhaustive), for example, by turning them into questions such as “To which extent does the game support roletaking and perspective-taking?”, and so forth. Likewise, we believe that the aspects mentioned in Table 1 can also serve as valuable suggestions for the design of educational games.

Table 1. Elements of an educational analysis of digital games Dimensions of educational relevance:

Educational values at the interface/ interactional level (cf. third section):

Educational values of the social “offgame” sphere (cf. fourth section):

1. achieving and extending identities in a playful way

- role-taking of in-game characters; - taking the perspectives of other players; - playful “acting-as-if”

- obtaining and negotiating in-group and in-game identities

2. gaining and extending world views and relations

- recognizing in-game citations from other games, films and media; - in-game tutorials and information; - “immersive didactics”

- participating in new social environments (clans, tribes, the particular gaming community as a whole)

3. obtaining reframing skills

- ironic play with meanings; - visual frames through on-screen menus and icons

- reframing of visual meanings according to the community norms; - active reworking of the game’s visualities (often ironic, cf. machinima)

4. decentralization: experiencing different world versions

- alternative modes and ways of perception (e.g., “bullet time”)

- experiencing alternative views, habits, social and/or cultural differences of peers and community members

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IMPLIcAtIONs The emergence of digital games and their integration in our lifeworlds is connected to new standards the individual has to meet. In terms of new media and virtual environments in particular, with their unique social and cultural structures, part of this is an advanced “media literacy” that includes the ability: • • • •

To navigate in virtual spaces, To participate in various forms of online sociality, To design and develop media content and medial environments, and To integrate virtual experiences into the individual world of experience.

This is an extensive task, which the educational system can help to carry out by integrating virtual spaces such as computer games, multi-player games and virtual communities into their real environments. To this end, it is urgently necessary: •

•

•

To extend educational (pedagogical) discussions about digital games as self-educational phenomena, including gaming cultures, To analyse digital games as environments for informal learning processes and as possible facilitators of meta-learning and self-education, and last but not least, To consider playing computer games as a performative practice that comprises complex social and sub-cultural structures, as well as discourses and power relationships.

The current debates about educational use of electronic games put a strong emphasis on the development of educational or serious games, thus mainly focusing on how digital games could contribute to convey curricula (or at least pre-defined pedagogical aims) to pupils or other target groups. With respect to the (self-) educational

potentials of electronic gaming as pointed out in this article, we plead to significantly broaden the perspective and to recognize the educational opportunities and practices of informal/non-formal learning and self-education in the context of digital gaming. Thus, the current practice of making pedagogical offers in the form of didactically designed games should be complemented by a pedagogical approach that appreciates, enhances, and accompanies those educational processes involved in “everyday gaming” and gaming cultures.

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Marotzki, W. (1996). Neue Konturen AllgemeinerPädagogik. In J. Ruhloff & M. Borrelli (Eds.) Deutsche Gegenwartspädagogik (pp. 67-84). Baltmannsweiler: Schneider Verl. Hohengehren. McMillan, S. J. (2002a). A four-part model of cyber-interactivity. New Media & Society, 4(2), 271-291. McMillan, S. J. (2002b). Exploring models of interactivity from multiple research traditions: Users, documents, and systems. In L. Lievfrouw & S. Livingstone (Eds.), The handbook of new media. Social shaping and consequences of ICTs (pp. 163-182). London: Sage. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self and society from the standpoint of the social behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mead, G. H. (1938). The philosophy of the act. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. Overwien, B. (1999). Informal learning and popular education. Adult Education and Development, 52, 165-178. Poster, M. (2006). Information please. Culture and politics in the age of digital machines. Durham: Duke Univ. Press. Raessens, J., & Goldstein, J. (2005). Handbook of computer game studies. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Rogge, J. (1985). Über die Bedeutsamkeit des Video- und Computerspiels im Medienalltag

Schulmeister, R. (1997). Grundlagen hypermedialer Lernsysteme. München: Oldenbourg. Subrahamanyam, K., & Greenfield, P. (1996). The effect of video game practice on spatial skills in girls and boys. In P. M. Greenfield & R. R. Cocking (Eds.), Interacting with video (pp. 95-114). Norwood: Ablex Publ. Corp. Turkle, S. (1997). Life on the screen. Identity in the age of the Internet. London: Phoenix. Unger, A. (2006). Umgebungsanalyse—Nachhaltige Gestaltung von virtuellen Lernumgebungen. In W. Sesink (Ed.), Subjekt—Raum—Technik. Beiträge zur Theorie und Gestaltung neuer Medien in der Bildung (pp. 91-117). Münster: Lit. Unger, A. (2007). Technological transformation of education. In R. Heil, A. Kaminski, M. Stippak, A. Unger, & M. Ziegler (Ed.), Tensions—technological and aesthetic (trans)formations of society (pp. 213-224). Bielefeld: transcript. Vorderer, P., & Bryant, J. (2006). Playing video games. Motives, responses, and consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Winnicott, D. W. (1990). The maturational processes and the facilitating environment. Studies in the theory of emotional development. London: Karnac.

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KEY TERMS Interactivity: Interacitity can be regarded as a key term for the discussion of the new media. In a technical sense, interactivity designates the ability of a system to respond to an input through a certain output (which depends on the inner structure of the responding system). This ability can be implemented in forms of varying complexity. The reception of a mediated message can be regarded as a very simple form of interaction. E-learning software usually displays more complex HCI designs, such as interactive forms of testing, branched courses or systems that are able to adapt to the learner’s abilities. Computer games implement a slightly different form of interaction, while providing a more or less open interaction environment offering a broad range of interaction facilities not limited by didactic strategies. Advanced games can be regarded as highly explorative interactive environments. LAN Parties: Local area network (LAN). LAN parties are emergent forms of social interaction where online gamers meet each other in real life, connecting their computers to a local area (wired) network. LAN parties may be as small as a handful of participants, but can also involve up to several thousand gamers meeting in one place (“Giga-LANs“). While the history of LAN parties reaches back to the 1980s, the phenomenon became widely recognized in the late 1990s when multi-player shooters such as Counter Strike and Quake hit the mass market. MMORPG: Massively multi-player online role-playing game, such as World of Warcraft (2005, Blizzard Entertainment). Online Gaming Communities: Unlike classical forms of online communities or the newer phenomenon of social network sites, community structures of online gamer communities tend to be diverse, highly complex socio-technological structures centred around the organization, (meta-)

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communication, exchange (e.g., of virtual items) of game-related issues and events. Depending on the type of multi-player game, online gaming communities can vary from relatively small online interactions (e.g., in one dedicated discussion forum) to huge interconnected network activities encompassing clan homepages, clan networks, Weblogs, gaming zines, online forums, gaming league sites and so on. So-called → “LAN parties” are offline events directly linked to online gaming communities, giving them a real-life representation. Self-Education (Bildung): In analogy to the pedagogical core idea of Bildung as developed by German idealist philosophers, especially Wilhelm von Humboldt, in the 19th century, the term self-education describes a process of changing world references and self-references, that is, transformations of framings or world views as a whole. Structurally, self-education can be seen as a highly complex and reflexive form of learning (cf., e.g., the higher stages of learning in Gregory Bateson’s learning theory) and as a result of a certain form of “experience” (in the sense of John Dewey). Self-educational processes cannot be forced by other persons (i.e., parents or teachers). Thus, didactic strategies to provoke and facilitate self-educational processes have to aim on the one hand towards achieving appropriate, stimulating situations, opportunities and environments, and on the other hand towards assisting and encouraging informal and non-formal processes of learning and self-education. Serious Games: The idea of using games or game technologies for “serious”, e.g., educational purposes is as old as the idea of “learning games”, but is not limited to those forms. As opposed to games designed for entertainment, serious games can be defined as computer games aiming towards an underlying second “off-game” goal that differs from in-game goals such as finishing a level or gaining high scores. Beyond the surface of gaming actions—or embedded into those—, serious

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games try to evoke learning processes or even complex experiences (e.g., through taking the perspective of political refugees, trying to bring them out of a danger zone). Computer game art can be seen as a related form of serious games, aiming, for example, towards open aesthetical experiences rather than following didactic concepts and defined learning goals. Simulation: Basically, simulations are formalised models of real processes, objects or environments. These models can, when implemented in computer software, respond to an input in real time, simulating the behaviour of a certain object. Because of this ability and advanced computer graphics, simulations can provide a form of virtual experience that—on the level of sensory perception—is quite similar to “real” experiences. Simulations are also known for the creation of a so called flow effect (Czikszentmihalyi) in the sense creating an immersive experience within a → virtual environment. Whether this form of immersion prevents or facilitates learning or selfeducational processes remains controversial.

(Virtual) Environment: New media, especially software-based applications, differ from traditional media. While traditional media have been regarded as a channel that provides certain content that can affect a (passively) receiving user, software applications offer more active forms of participation (→ interactivity). This is mainly due to the fact that software functions as a structured space, an environment with which the user is enabled to interact. To talk of a software program as an “environment” accentuates the fact that software usage always requires navigation through a pre-structured space. From this perspective, not only is the content of the software relevant to learning and self-education, but also the structures and layers of software that limit, frame or expand possible forms of interaction.

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cf., e.g., the Serious Games Initiative: http://www.seriousgames.org. h t t p: // w w w.yo u t u b e .c o m / watch?v=nwF1zGrNriI (July 15, 2007).

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Chapter XLIV

Experience, Cognition, and Video Game Play Meredith DiPietro University of Florida, USA

AbstrAct There is current interest from the field of education into the value of video games to support learning. Research investigating outcomes associated with video game play has just begun to scratch the surface of their educational potential. Further exploration needs to focus on the internal processes of the play, specifically the relationship between the utilization of cognitive skills, the learning process, and a player’s experience with playing video games. Drawing support from the field of expertise, the research presented in this chapter looks at this relationship by comparing the processes used by video game players based on their level of experience. Results from this study add to the understanding of the relationship between experience, cognition, and learning from video game play. The results of this research also have implications for educational game design and the pedagogical techniques used to make effective learning opportunities available to all learners.

INtrODUctION Video game research has emerged as a topic of interest in many fields of study, drawing particular interest from those in education seeking to explore its potential value for learning. Current gaming research substantiates the educational value of video game play, indicating a relationship between their use and positive learning outcomes (Gee, 2004; Squire & Jenkins, 2003). Research into the educational value of video games also

identifies opportunities for informal learning during video game play which involve the use of mediating cognitive skills to analyze and navigate the game environment (Blumberg & Sokol, 2004; Pillay, 2003). Although the educational outcomes of video game play has been studied, the internal processes associated with video game play is still in need of research. Exploring variances in the utilization of cognitive skills during video game play and their role in the learning process, relative to

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characteristics of the player’s can provide a deeper understanding for the potential of video games with diverse populations, such as in a classroom (Ko, 2002). Research on expert performance denotes experiential level as a critical factor of consideration for addressing variances in how individuals use cognitive skills to perform a task (Chi & VanLehn, 1991; Ericsson & Charness, 1994). Based on expertise research, experience and practice lead to the formation of domain based knowledge that influences the types of cognitive skills used when learning new information (Elio & Scharf, 1990; Snyder, 2000). Considering video game play as a domain of expertise provides a context for investigating the role of experience on the types of cognitive processes player’s use when navigating a game environment (VanDeventer & White, 2002). The defined categories of expert and novice provide a framework for looking at the relationship between experience, cognitive skill use, and the process of learning during video game play (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981). Understanding the relationship between experience, cognition, and learning from video game play can provide a basis for determining best practices associated with their use in educational environments. This chapter reports results of a research study investigating this relationship, looking at the cognitive processes participant’s use during game play relative to their level of video game play experience. Considering video games in this context, as demonstrated by the results of this study, can inform the design of educational games and pedagogical techniques used to make the opportunity for learning through game play available to all learners.

LItErAtUrE rEVIEW From an educational perspective, the learning process requires the consideration of several factors, the most important of which is the utilization of prior knowledge to support new knowledge

acquisition (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Bransford & Johnson, 1972). It is the quality and quantity of prior knowledge that accounts for the performance differences between experts and novices on domain-based tasks (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986; Ericsson & Charness, 1994). The quantity of knowledge and experience an expert has achieved through deliberate practice forms foundational knowledge structures associated with a specific domain. The experience-based knowledge structures of experts directly impact their ability to perform domain-related tasks quickly and efficiently by guiding their attention processes to identify relevant information in an environment. Extensive domain-based experience not only directs the actions of experts, but also guides how they learn new information. When presented with new information, an expert’s prior knowledge will direct attention toward patterns and cues that facilitates the integration of newly acquired knowledge into their existing structure (Allard & Starkes, 1991). As a result of the automatic nature of performance and learning associated with expertise, when confronted with a domain-based problem, cognitive processes are unburdened and available to process contextual information to facilitate resolution (Anzai, 1991). Conversely, the cognitive processes of novices are burdened in comparison to an expert when performing a domain-based task. Lacking extensive experience and knowledge, novice processes are focused on superficial elements in order to develop and implement rules to guide action (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986). This is evident in the learning process associated with novices, which is driven by a course of analysis involving the application of trial and error strategies to direct action (Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reiman, & Glaser, 1989; Chi & VanLehn, 1991). Consequently, novices experience cognitive interference which hinders their perception of contextual cues and critical information needed to deal with obstacles encountered during the completion of a task. The ability to derive contextual information from an

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environment to complete a task is a cornerstone of expert performance, and designates extensive experience as a critical component for problem solving (Groen & Patel, 1988). Comparing expert and novice performance illustrates basic differences in the ability to quickly and accurately learn new skills, make judgments, and apply strategies (Genter, 1988). The differences exhibited between experts and novices are indicative of the differing cognitive processes used by each. Experience is the linchpin of expertise, supported by research demonstrating prior knowledge to be the main factor influencing the use of higher order cognitive skills such as the ability to perceive large meaningful patterns, extend long- and short-term memory, qualitatively analyze problems, and demonstrate meta-cognition (Bloom, 1956; Glaser & Chi, 1988). Consistent with expert performance, video game players with high levels of experience exhibit the same traits and characteristics as experts in other domains. Expert video game players demonstrate their use of a developed knowledge structure to identify cues in the environment (VanDeventer & White, 2002). The encoding strategies required during video game play is the basis for the development of internal representations for the game scenario and directs navigation through the environment. The use and development of these knowledge structures is demonstrated through the changes in the visual capabilities of players that back the refinement of perceptual and attention processes to direct action in video game play (Green & Bavelier, 2003). The influence of prior knowledge extends to motor skill capabilities evident through the ability of players with high levels of experience to use different styles or types of controllers without significantly impacting their performance (Allard & Starkes, 1991). The evident connection between performance and existing knowledge structures illustrated in expert and gaming literature will serve as a beginning point for understanding the relationship

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between experience, cognition, and learning from video game play. The need for understanding this relationship is critical for determining the effectiveness and potential learning outcomes resulting from game play. The research presented in this chapter investigates this interplay, examining differences in expert and novice video game players’ performance to illustrate the relationship between the cognitive skills a player uses during game play and their experience with video game play. Contrasting expert and novice processes utilized during game play can provide insight for understanding the relationship between experience and a video game player’s ability to learn content delivered in a game environment. Based on expert literature, novice video game players would direct attention and cognitive resources toward the basics of learning to play, deterring focus away from learning the content. Implementing a study design that examines expert and novice video game player performance will illustrate the variation of cognitive skills used. Outcomes of such a comparison may also provide a basis for understanding video game play in terms of its effectiveness as a mode of content delivery. Finally, the results of this study indicate several design strategies that can build into a game during the development process to further support student learning in educational settings.

MEtHODs Materials A Sony PlayStation II video game console, a monitor with built in VCR, and the video game Lego Star Wars (Eidos Interactive Inc., 2005) were used in this study. Three directives influenced the selection of the video game Lego Star Wars for use in this study. First, the narrative structure of Lego Star Wars ensures all players not only begin at the same point in the game but are also presented with the same scaffolding information, such as textual

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instructions displayed on the bottom of the screen. Lego Star Wars scaffolds learning during the first stage of the game as part of a non-explicit training level that players cannot bypass. These attributes facilitate a more direct comparison of expert and novice game play. Second is the viability action/ adventure games have for educational settings because of the skills they require players to use. The narrative underlying the games of this genre often requires players to use such skills as memory and visualization (de Freitas & Oliver, 2006), which engage and motivate the player (Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell, 2002). Finally, it was expected that the games action/adventure genre and two nostalgic elements, Lego and Star Wars, would foster interest and motivation to play, particularly for novice participants. Lego Star Wars contains moderate cartoon violence and has a rating of E (Everybody), identifying it as appropriate for ages 10 and up (http://www.esrb.org).

Participants Video game experience guided the selection and categorization of participants as expert or novice. The criteria for novice selection required that the individual had never completed a video game and did not engage in regular game play. The criteria for expert selection required that the individual had independently completed at least one video game and played video games on a regular basis, defined as over 10 hours a week. The results of the study confirmed the selection criteria used to identify and select participants as expert or novice, the performance of each participant group was consistent with the expertise research reviewed for this study. All participants met the final requirement of having never played the video game Lego Star Wars before. Four adults, each over 18 years of age, participated in the study. The researcher sent out an e-mail to a group of individuals identified as potential participants, based upon knowledge of

their prior experience level with video games, inviting them to participate in the study. The participants accepted into the study replied to the e-mail and met the qualifications of either an expert or novice. Adult participants were selected as the target age group to acquire a richer, more detailed description of the user experience. Criteria for selection also required the inclusion of at least one male and one female expert, and one male and one female novice to address potential gender differences in expert/novice performance during video game play.

Procedure Each participant in the study played the video game Lego Star Wars independently for a period of 30 minutes and then answered a series of interview questions. The selection of a 30-minute play period was to accommodate the participant’s schedules as the study was conducted during business hours and all four of the individuals were employed. A recording was made of each participant’s game play using a VCR built into the monitor. The researcher was in the room during each participant’s 30 minutes of game play to observe and take notes on obstacles encountered. For the purposes of this study, the researcher made a record of an obstacle anytime a participant’s character died and they had to repeat a series of events, or used multiple trial and error sessions to move forward in the game. Before starting to play the game, each participant was asked a series of questions to gather information about their prior gaming experience (not limited to console video games). After playing the game, each participant was asked to talk about his or her general experience playing Lego Star Wars. The remainder of the interview focused on the obstacles the researcher noted while participants played the game. The video tape of participants’ game play was used during this portion of the interview to cue participants’ memory and facilitate their description of the

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thought processes engaged while they dealt with an obstacle.

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS The introductory questions and follow-up statements made at the end of the interview provided contextual information about the player. Participant’s elaboration on the thought processes used while overcoming an obstacle during game play was the majority of the interview sessions and served as the basis for identifying the cognitive skills used during game play. The talk aloud protocol is a method associated with researching expertise. The value of this method for researching expertise is the access it provides to expert’s processes of thinking by asking them to verbalize their thoughts while performing a domain-based task. However, the interference effect experienced by participants as they describe what they are doing while they are doing it is a point of critique for using this method (Ericsson & Simon, 1998). In order to overcome this effect the video tape of participant’s game play was used to cue their memory and elicit descriptions for how they dealt with an obstacle encountered in the game. This technique produced four transcripts that were then qualitatively analyzed and interpreted using the analytic methods described by Rossman and Rallis (1998). The initial step in the process was to code each line of the four transcripts based on the type of cognitive skill participant’s descriptions demonstrated. Coding was an ongoing process during analysis, responsive to the word-usage patterns and themes that indicated the skills participants’ used while dealing with obstacles during game play emerged. This process resulted in the identification of ten cognitive skills representative of the thought processes participants used while overcoming an obstacle. A second step of analysis involved recoding each line of the four transcripts to identify the type of task participants descriptions demonstrated.

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The grouping of themes repeatedly identified in participant’s description for the type of task required for dealing with obstacles resulted in the formation of three task categories. The three task categories were identified and then triangulated by the points of comparison used in the research literature on expertise (Glaser & Chi, 1988). The three categories to describe the tasks participants demonstrated during game play are: 1.

2. 3.

Skill acquisition: How players learn to use the tools and abilities available in the game. Judgments: How players make determinations and choices about a situation. Strategy: How players implement a process or combination of processes to navigate through the game environment.

The final step of analysis involved synthesizing the results of the two coding procedures to categorize the cognitive skills participants used in relation to the task they were performing for each transcript. In order to understand the relationship between skills used while performing a task-based experience, the concluding step to analysis involved comparing expert and novice transcripts based on the categorization scheme developed for each transcript. The following section presents how participants varied in the use of cognitive skills in relation to the three task categories. Segments of data from the interviews are included and used to illustrate the connection between cognitive skill use, experience, and how participants learned to play the game (Rossman & Rallis, 1998).

Skill Acquisition The process of acquiring the skills to play a video game involves learning the controller in relation to on-screen action. This development of controller-based skill is a major focus of how novice participants describe the process of learn-

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ing how to play the game. Learning the skills required to play the game involved the use of various cognitive skills including association, analysis, and rule formulation. Consistent with the literature, initial learning of the game for both novice participants in this study is directed by a sequential, rule guided process of thought (Daley, 1999; Snyder, 2000). Novice participants identified steps related to learning the skills to play, first developing an understanding for how to manipulate the controller and then how to use the controller within the context of the game. The physical manipulation of the controller emerged as a focus of attention as novices described their learning process, identifying the importance of “getting used to the controller” and “learning the coordination of the controller”. Based on participants’ descriptions, learning the controller involved not only understanding which buttons produced a specific on-screen action but also the best way to physically hold the controller and use both hands. Another element of novice participants’ process of learning to play the game was developing rules and associations in relation to the controller and the resulting screen action. Novices formed rules by making associations between on-screen action and a specific manipulation of the controller, as stated by one participant: “It happened a few times I thought it was random and then I realized that if I looked at another character and pressed, I think it was the triangle or something, it would swap bodies with another character.” In this instance the participant is making an association between a button on the controller and on-screen action, then developing a rule for the circumstances of when such an action would occur. Novices formed rules throughout their game play to guide the use of the controller to produce action within the context of the game environment. How participants implemented a rule development process is also evident through their use of the “light saber” weapon. After learn-

ing the key combination to draw the light saber both participants used it indiscriminately to smash and attack all objects and characters encountered. As participants continued to play the game it was observed that their use of the light saber decreased. During the review of participant’s video tapes they were asked to talk about how they used the light saber. Participants discussed the development of a rule resulting from an analysis of their experiences, determining that “only some objects give out rewards” and its use did not always produce positive effects. This is illustrated by a statement made by one novice participant in the following segment, illustrating their formation of a rule to guide the use of the light saber weapon in response to their experience while playing the game: I learned to use light saber and then realized you could smash things and sometimes get stuff ... I didn’t realize at first that you could hurt your partner in the game and have points were taken away … that came as a quite a shock, you couldn’t just go around smashing all the time you had to kind of do it with a certain tact otherwise it could be self-destructive. The participant is articulating how they learned and then refined their use of the light saber weapon. After making the initial association between the controller and screen action, the participant applied a process of analysis to determine the consequences of its use within the game environment. Through a process of analysis, the participant formed a rule to direct how they used this weapon in the future. Novices focused on the random application of the controller to learn and develop game-based skills, progressing during game play toward the application of the controller in direct response to the context presented in the game. Novice participants skill acquisition is consistent with the research literature on expertise, demonstrating a sequentially based process and the focusing of attention on

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the superficial characteristics of the game such as the controller (Chi et al., 1981). The role of prior knowledge in widening a player’s attention becomes evident through the analysis of expert participants descriptions of acquiring game-based skills. The descriptions provided by expert participants indicate a holistic perception of the gaming environment, using analysis, assessment, rule formation, and evaluative skills to direct action. Their use of a general game play strategy illustrates this, described by both participants as beginning with a quick analysis of the controller and then developing corresponding rules for its use. As stated by one expert participant in while describing their process of learning the skills to play Lego Star Wars: “Learning to play a game involves immediately working out the constraints in a game beyond the controller, like what is possible in the game and seeing what kind of area you are in.” This application of a general strategy requires a dual focus on both the controller and the screen, indicated through the adjustment of controllerbased skills based on game’s context. In addition to applying a general strategy, both participants discuss their ability to refine their general strategy in response to a situation encountered in a game. Participants discuss the need to be able to “read a game” and “figure out what you can do within the constraints of the environment” in order to navigate the new game successfully. Consistent with the research on expertise, participants in this study exhibit the ability to quickly respond to the conditions of the environment and adapt their action accordingly. Expert’s existing knowledge structures drive this ability, directing attention to those cues presented in the environment to guide appropriate action.

make game-based judgments they rely heavily on their ability to analyze and categorize elements of the game. Novice participants use analysis processes in their application of trial and error strategies to determine a “best fit” solution. Participants discuss how they made judgments about obstacles encountered during game play and both address going through a process of elimination, illustrated by the following statement: When I had to make a decision about what to do I used a process of elimination … I tried something and if it didn’t work would eliminate it; if it worked I tried to remember what I did and do it again. For novice participants the process of making a judgment involves an analysis of the situation that does not draw from any of the contextual cues presented in the environment. Novices also indicate their context free evaluation of game-based situations in their descriptions for categorizing characters they encounter in the game. The game involves the players’ interaction with two types of characters, ones that may provide assistance and those that attempt to hinder progression. Judgments made by participants in categorizing these characters as friend or foe indicates the use of the same trial and error analysis process used to direct action. The researcher observed that when confronted with another character, novice participants would attack them immediately without determining their status as friend or foe first. One novice participant describes their thinking in this scenario:

Judgments

I began smashing one of these guys that I thought was an enemy and then I realized that he was a friend because he didn’t fight back, I didn’t pick up on that immediately, you have to pay attention to all of the details.

The basis for making a decision in a video game environment is the player’s judgment of a situation informed by the context of the game. As novice’s

The comment made by this participant indicates the lack of attention toward the environmental cues in the games, demonstrating another

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instance of novice’s method for making decisions. How novice participants describe making judgments as based on a context free analysis of the environment and reliance on controller-based skills, such as attacking a character with the light saber, is consistent with the directed focus of attention demonstrated in their skill development. While novice participants made judgments regarding specific situations encountered within the game, expert descriptions reflected their holistic interpretation of the game environment. Expert participant’s descriptions of the judgments made during the game indicate the use of evaluation, justification, inference making, analysis, assessment, and meta-cognitive skills. The determinations expert participants made during game play, using cues derived from the environment, illustrated the use of these skills. Expert participants describe making judgments by going through a process of analysis to assess and make inferences about the situation, basing decisions on an “analysis of the obstacle for what needs to be done”. Both participants describe this process of analysis as dependant on the ability to read visual cues in the game. Expert participant’s ability to describe the corrective action they took when an initial judgment was determined to be incorrect illustrates this ability, as described by one participant:

cues used to direct their corrective action alludes to the positive role of experience. This participant’s justification demonstrates the need to broaden the scope of attention to take corrective action in order to “see what was missed”. At times expert participants are willing to make incorrect judgments in an effort to derive meaning from a specific scenario presented in the game. One participant demonstrates this while talking about a decision they made to use money they had collected while playing to make a purchase from the game’s store. The participant purchased a companion droid, which was removed almost immediately from the player’s inventory after it was fatally injured. The participant justifies their purchase of the droid while watching the video recording of their game play in the following statement:

I kind of got stuck with the two little guys with the shields, I made a false assumption that I had to do something to turn their shields off but actually you could just wear their shields down by hitting them in kind of the normal way. I realized this when the shields started going red when it reflected the hits from the light saber.

This statement is representative of how expert participants are able to utilize information from correct, as well as incorrect, judgments to inform their action. The decision to purchase the droid was justified in relation to the environment, as a means of deriving more information about it. The references made to prior knowledge of video games in relation to the judgments while playing Lego Star Wars demonstrates the influential role of experience on attention and its influence on the interpretations made to direct action during play.

In this description, the participant justifies their performance in terms of the negative influence their prior knowledge had on how they interpreted the situation, identifying the basis of his incorrect judgment as a false assumption. The participant’s ability to identify and describe the environmental

I know that the first time I play I won’t be particularly good but will improve with practice, so am more in the mode of determining the parameters of the game than being overly concerned with how well I am doing. Buying the droid was an example of this—I didn’t really know what its purpose would be or how I could use it but there was only one way to find out. Often in games you can use some sort of money system to buy things that will be useful to you in certain ways.

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Strategy The use of a strategy during game play provides support to a player as they navigate the game environment. Novice participants develop strategies in relation to specific elements of the environment, consistent with how they focus attention while learning skills and making judgments. The strategies used by novice participants to support the development of rules and guide their interaction with the environment involve a process of analysis and assessment in order to identify recurring patterns within the game. As novice participants did not employ any broad strategies, their descriptions focus on specific situations they encounter during game play. Novice participants identify the abilities of “trying to think logically to rationalize the scenario”, “thinking logically vs. just doing it “, and “using evidence presented to find clues in the game” as strategic processes. With processing resources directed toward the analysis and assessment of the environment, they overlook the contextual information presented in the game to assist navigation. The inability to apply a comprehensive strategic process results from their lack of prior experience, and influences their dependence on the analysis of the specific elements presented in the game. Expert participant’s strategy is highly dependent on prior knowledge, as both participants address the application of general processes associated with game play that support their navigation through the environment. Expert participants’ descriptions indicate the utilization of categorization, analysis, assessment, inference making, anticipation, and evaluation skills in the application of strategy. Referencing their prior experiences participants discuss strategy in relation to all video games they play. In their descriptions participants are able to discuss how the implementation of specific strategies such as “systematically exploring areas” and “reading the environment to see ahead” to help them make inferences that allow them to anticipate events

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in the game. Expert participants also discussed their categorization of situations encountered in a video game, such as navigational or battle. The following interview segment is representative of the statements expert participants made that demonstrates their ability to make on the spot adjustments to the strategies they use: I normally try to hide from enemies or wait to see what they’re doing or wait for them to walk into you so you can attack them, usually it’s not good to attack enemies straight on because that’ll do damage to you. Here I sneaked around behind them. The description provided by this participant indicates their use of prior experience to apply battle strategies. Drawing from their existing knowledge this participant describes their ability to apply a general strategy and then modify it in response to a specific situation. The expert ability to apply strategies based on prior experience and make adjustments to them during game play indicates the availability of attention and processing resources that novice participants are not able to access. Based on the research in expertise the existing knowledge structures of these expert participants are what fuels this ability, allowing them to direct attention and processing resources toward the novel elements presented in a game (Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995; Ericsson & Lehmann, 1996).

DIscUssION AND cONcLUsION Video games require the player to engage in a learning process in order to have success navigating and responding to the environment (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). The results of this study indicate the relationship between experience and a player’s cognitive interaction with the learning process. Understanding this relationship leads to conclusions regarding the role of experience

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on an individual’s ability to learn through video game play. The results of this study have six implications regarding the use of video games to support learning.

Implication #1: The Use of Cognitive Skills During game play expert and novice participants utilized cognitive skills as they learned to play the game and navigate its environment. Based on the interviews, 10 key skills emerged in association with participants descriptions of learning to play and navigate the environment. Table 1 lists the 10 skills identified. Identifying the cognitive skills used by individuals during the learning process and during video game play has been undertaken by others in the field of educational research, each adding to the understanding of the broader picture for their use (Bloom, 1956; Pillay, 2003; VanDeventer & White, 2002). Acknowledging the variations in how researchers identify and describe cognitive skills raises a point for consideration from the field of educational gaming research. Developing an understanding for the internal processes

associated with video game play is a focus of current research in the field; this is why it may be beneficial to establish a commonly agreed upon set of skills that represent a synthesis of existing research. The negotiation of a commonly agreed upon list that provides a context and definition for the cognitive skills used during video game play will be a starting point for future research that seeks to investigate the educational value of video games. Establishing this common understanding could prevent research in this field from falling into a holding pattern that fixes upon the identification of cognitive skills and pushes research forward toward understanding the pedagogical or design-based strategies to support the development of these skills.

Implication #2: Experientially-Based Variations in the Use of Cognitive Skills The number of cognitive skills and their utilization to deal with obstacles encountered during the game varied in relation to the type of task it required. Novice participants used association, assessment, rule formation, categorization, and

Table 1. Cognitive skills Skill

Description

Anticipation

Player predicts future events in the game based on an evaluation of the current state.

Analysis

Player examines the elements of a situation in order to understand the whole.

Associations

Player establishes a relationship between two independent elements.

Assessment

Player determines necessary action based on the specific situation.

Categorizing

Player establishes groups and assign members to groups based on the distinguishing elements of a character, environment, or action.

Evaluation

Player draws conclusions from the environment as a whole.

Inference Making

Player reasons based on knowledge gained from the environment.

Justifying

Player rationalizes actions in relation to the situation encountered.

Meta-cognition

Player reflects on their own thought processes and evaluate them, making corrective adjustments to thought processes if necessary.

Rule Formation

Player generates rules for using skills and interacting with environment based on their interpretation of the environment.

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analysis skills while learning to play the game. Expert participants used nine of the skills identified in Table 1. While the analysis did not reveal expert’s use of associations in their descriptions, the references made and connection drawn between playing Lego Star Wars and prior experiences indicate its inherent use. Table 2 illustrates how expert and novice participants differed in their use of cognitive skills in relation to the three task categories. Looking at the relationship between participants, task categories, and cognitive skills reveals a continuum that signifies the important role of experience on how a player learns and navigates through a game environment. It is not surprising that expert participants used a greater number of cognitive skills while accomplishing tasks. Experts prior knowledge supports their automatic performance on the common elements of game play, such as controller manipulation, allowing attention and processing resources to be directed toward the novel elements presented in the current gaming experience (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986; Glaser & Chi, 1988). How consistently experts use the cognitive skills identified during game play while acquiring skill, making judgments, and applying strategy in non-gaming environments is an area that needs further exploration. Framing expert’s use of cognitive skills within the context of the task categories can serve as a starting point

for this research and support further investigations related to their development through video game play. Forming this type of understanding can also provide direction for designing video games that develop cognitive skills and the identification of pedagogical strategies that can support the transfer of these skills outside of the video game environment.

Implication #3: Instructor Must Prepare for Encounter Based on the research on expertise, the results of this study conclude that a student’s level of experience has direct bearing on their potential for learning content presented through an educational video game (Chi et al., 1981; Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995). Instructor’s deciding to use video games to support learning can implement pedagogical strategies that can compensate for the varying levels of learner’s experience. If a learner has prior knowledge related to the content and experience with video games their processing resources will be unburdened by learning the nut and bolts basics of playing and available to engage the content presented within an educational video game. Conversely, a student who sits down to play and has the same amount of prior content knowledge but no experience playing video games will suffer an interference effect with the content to be

Table 2. Cognitive skill matrix

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Skill Acquisition

Judgment

Strategy

Novice

Association Assessment Rule formation

Analysis Categorization

Analysis Assessment

Expert

Analysis Assessment Rule formation

Evaluation Justification Inference making Analysis Assessment Meta-cognition

Analysis Anticipation Assessment Categorization Evaluation Inference Making

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learned as their attention and processing resources will be directed toward learning the nuts and bolts of game play (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986). The pedagogic strategies an instructor uses can prepare learners for their encounter with the video game, providing them with a base level of prior knowledge that covers the basic elements of game play. A base element of knowledge about video game play can be provided through the formal introduction of controller, game environment, and tasks of the game to learners before they sit down to experience it on their own. In addition, contextualizing the game for learners by talking about its story line, associated goals, and methods to achieve the goals can build up prior knowledge, preparing learners for the gaming experience.

Implication #4: Designers Need to Accommodate Aside from the implementation of pedagogical strategies, video games designers can help accommodate for players with varying levels of experience. Designing with players prior knowledge in mind requires understanding the learning process of those with no video game play experience. Developing educational games that use training levels and explicit prompts during the first stages can scaffold students knowledge for video game play (Oliver & Pelletier, 2005). Using training levels to develop game-based skill also supports players ability to transfer skills between game play experiences. In regards to those with high levels of experience, the training level and explicit prompts could serve to establish a general interest in the game that can fuel motivation to engage with it. Accommodating for prior knowledge is not the sole responsibility of the instructor; developers and designers of video games need to support their educational use by keeping the varying characteristics of their target audience in mind.

Implication #5: The Design of Educational Video Games should be consistent with those that are Non-Educational The design-based strategies used to accommodate students low levels of experience should not be the only considerations of game developers. It is important to consider those with high levels of experience as well. An element of game design that could create an inference effect for learners with a high level of experience is its consistency with non-educational or recreational games. If the associated knowledge structures of learners with high levels of experience is linked to noneducational video games, then prior knowledge may limit or inhibit success in an educational game environment that does not demonstrate similar design principles (Blumberg & Sokol, 2004; Garris et al., 2002). Designing educational video games that draw on the same principles and elements of non-educational video games can reduce this type of interference. An educational video game design that accounts for the prior knowledge of its players has the greatest potential for supporting learning as well as inspiring the same levels of interest as non-educational games do while channeling it towards educational goals.

Implication #6: Embed Content in Design The way content or information is presented in an educational video game must also be considered. To best support learning the design of educational games should be consistent with those that are non-educational, embedding content within the games narrative structure (Squire, Giovanetto, & Devane, 2005). Content embedded within the structure of a games narrative supports learning by tapping into the newly created and existing knowledge structures to assist the learner in making sense of the new information presented

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in the game. The presentation of content related information in this way may also increase opportunities for transfer. Using pedagogical strategies that connect the game, the content, and the educational environment can support students in their development of knowledge that can be accessed in game and non-game based scenarios (Squire & Jenkins, 2003). Identifying the cognitive skills used during game play offers teachers and game developers insight toward the use and design of educational games to provide maximum learning opportunities for all players.

FUtUrE rEsEArcH This chapter presents the results of a study investigating the interplay between experience, video game play, and learning. The identification of cognitive skills used by participants based on their level of experience has implications for the design of educational games that best support learning. The critical role of experience in supporting the learning process has implications for the use of video games in educational settings and can lead to the development of pedagogical strategies that best support their use. Future investigations need to look at the development of cognitive skills and correlate their development with specific tasks contained within a video game. This research should also explore the use of skills in relation to the varying video game genres. Exploring other genres would not only provide further insight for the types of cognitive skills elicited by game play, but also for the role motor skills has on their formation. This research can inform designers and support their creation of educational games that have the intent of developing these skills in players. The educational potential of developing cognitive skills in relation to video game play needs further investigation, focusing on game design and the pedagogically-based strategies used to support their transfer to non-video game environments. As existing research has been

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successful in making the case for the educational potential of video games, the time has come for researchers to move beyond validating their use and push toward a synthesis with design-based research to make this technology accessible to all students.

rEFErENcEs Allard, F., & Starkes, J. L. (1991). Motor-skill experts in sports, dance, and other domains. In K. A. Ericcson & J. Smith (Eds.), Toward a general theory of expertise (pp. 126-152). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Anzai, Y. (1991). Learning and use of representations in physics. In Towards a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (p. 29). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. Blumberg, F. C., & Sokol, L. M. (2004). Boys’ and girls’ use of cognitive strategy when learning to play video games. The Journal of General Psychology, 131(2), 151-158. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Presso. Bransford, J. D., & Johnson, M. K. (1972). Contextual prerequisites for understanding: Some investigations of comprehension and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 61, 717-726. Chi, M. T. H., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reiman, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). Self explanation: How students study and use worked examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive Science, 13, 145-182.

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Chi, M. T. H., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive Science, 5, 121-152.

Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation Gaming, 33(December), 441-468.

Chi, M. T. H., & VanLehn, K. A. (1991). The content of physics self-explanations. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 1(1), 69-105.

Gee, J. P. (2004). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Daley, B. J. (1999). Novice to expert: An exploration of how professionals learn. Adult Education Quarterly, 49(4), 133-147.

Genter, D. R. (1988). Expertise in typewriting. In M. T. H. Chi, R. Glaser, & M. J. Farr (Eds.), The nature of expertise (pp. 1-22). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

de Freitas, S., & Oliver, M. (2006). How can exploratory learning with games and simulations within the curriculum be most effectively evaluated? Computers and Education, 46(3), 249-264. Dreyfus, H. L., & Dreyfus, S. E. (1986). Mind over machine: The power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer. New York: The Free Press.

Glaser, R., & Chi, M. T. H. (Eds.). (1988). Introduction: What is it to be an expert? Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modifies visual attention. Nature, 423(534537).

Elio, R., & Scharf, P. B. (1990). Modeling noviceto-expert shifts in problem-solving strategy and knowledge organization. Cognitive Science: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(4), 579-639.

Groen, G. J., & Patel, V. L. (1988). The relationship between comprehension and reasoning in medical expertise. In M. T. H. Chi, R. Glaser, & M. J. Farr (Eds.), The nature of expertise (pp. 287-310). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 49(8), 725-747.

Ko , S. (2002). An empirical analysis of children’s thinking and learning in a computer game context. Educational Psychology, 22(2), 219-233.

Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102(2), 211-245.

Oliver, M., & Pelletier, C. (2005). Activity theory and learning from digital games: Implications for game design. Paper presented at the Digital Generations Conference.

Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaptation to task constraints. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273-305. Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1998). How to study thinking is everyday life: Contrasting think-aloud protocols with descriptions and explanations of thinking. Mind, Culture, and Activity, 5(3), 178-186.

Pillay, H. (2003). An investigation of cognitive processes engaged in by recreational computer game players: Implications for skills of the future. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 34(3), 336-350. Rossman, G. B., & Rallis, S. F. (1998). Learning in the field: An introduction to qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge: MIT Press. Snyder, J. L. (2000). An investigation of the knowledge structures of experts, intermediates and novices in physics. International Journal of Science Education, 22(9), 979-992. Squire, K., Giovanetto, L., & Devane, B. (2005). From users to designers: Building a self-organizing game-based learning environment. TechTrends, 49(5), 34-42, 74.

KEY TERMS Cognitive Skills: The mental processes associated with thinking and problem solving in a domain. Expert: An individual who demonstrates proficiency in performing a task or tasks associated with a specific domain as a resulting from an extensive amount of practice. Judgments: How players make determinations and choices about a situation.

Squire, K., & Jenkins, H. (2003). Harnessing the power of games in education. Insight, 3(1), 5-33.

Knowledge Domain: The cumulative body of information associated with a specific area of performance, or profession.

VanDeventer, S. S., & White, J. A. (2002). Expert behavior in children’s video game play. Simulation Gaming, 33, 28-48.

Knowledge Structure: The mental constructions representing a body of knowledge developed in relation to a domain. Novice: An individual with little or no experience in relation to performing a specific task. Skill Acquisition: How players learn to use the tools and abilities available in the game. Strategy: How players implement a process or combination of processes to navigate through the game environment.

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Chapter XLV

Intertextuality in Massively Multi-Player Online Games P. G. Schrader University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA Kimberly A. Lawless University of Illinois, Chicago, USA Michael McCreery University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA

AbstrAct This chapter describes the manner in which gamers engage in multiple text comprehension and intertextual practices within the context of the World of Warcraft (WOW). It describes the nature of and issues associated with multiple text comprehension in a knowledge-based society, intertextuality as it relates to massively multi-player online games, and grounds this discussion in survey results from 745 WOW players. This context is highly complex, rich in information, and supports multiple modes of communication. The literacy skills used by gamers in this environment provide us with a more complete understanding of multiple text comprehension overall and within similar complex environments. The authors hope that the chapter will provide valuable insights into the development and application of 21st century skills and help direct the design of future games and the implementation of games in education.

INtrODUctION There is little dispute that technology has become ubiquitous in our day-to-day lives. We shop online, receive news on mobile phones, communicate via

text and video, take digital photos, make movies, and more. While these technologies have afforded new opportunities to increase efficiency and expand the notion of global citizenship, they have also caused many researchers and educators

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to rethink what and how we should be teaching students in this post-typographic world (Leu & Kinzer, 2000). These new and ever evolving technologies require students to develop skills and strategies in addition to those previously required (Kozma, 1991). Citizens in the 21st century must not only know how to decode and comprehend information as they have in the past, but are also now responsible for efficiently and effectively finding and evaluating information as well as quickly adapting goals in response to the varied structures and complexities of the environment (Alexander & Fox, 2004; Dieberger, 1997; Grabinger, Dunlap, & Duffield, 1997; Lazar, 2003). Research has indicated that the process can be a daunting task, particularly for individuals with low domain knowledge, interest, or motivation (Lawless & Kulikowich, 1996, 1998). Unfortunately, our understanding of these skills in contemporary, information rich environments is extremely limited (Coiro, 2003; Coiro, Knobel, Lankshear, & Leu, 2007; Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, & Cammack, 2004). This is particularly true of formal educational environments that typically focus on basic literacy skills rather than the complex skills that are necessary in today’s marketplace (Gee, 2006; Harrison, 2006). However, members of various virtual communities around the globe have demonstrated the application of these skills within informal environments, like the World of Warcraft (WoW). These players locate, evaluate, and apply information linked to WoW while simultaneously burdened by the challenges associated with play (e.g., navigation, communication, etc.). Understanding how these skills develop and what strategies players use to understand multiple texts will be valuable for educators and designers in the future.

MULtIPLE tEXt cOMPrEHENsION In order for readers to understand multiple texts and draw connections across them, they must

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first be able to understand individual texts. The skills associated with understanding text in an information society are complex and based, in part, in the manner in which readers interact with texts. Historical models have described reading and literacy in a variety of ways, from a set of basic skills to a highly complex and inherently social process (see Alexander & Fox, 2004). Most models along this spectrum vary primarily in their underlying assumptions about meaning (e.g., existence, location, construction, etc.) and have been the source of great debate. Early definitions of reading presumed that meaning existed and was inherent to a text. Reading was therefore a skill-based process in which the reader was responsible for “getting the author’s message” (Alexander & Fox, 2004; Leu & Kinzer, 2003). From this viewpoint, reading was reduced to a mechanical process in which the reader applied decoding skills to infer meaning and reading instruction involved training skills (e.g., phonics instruction) (Alexander & Fox, 2004; Leu & Kinzer, 2003). By contrast, more contemporary views describe meaning as being informed by the social, cultural, and personal histories of the reader. Models of reading based on this assumption describe it as a constructive, interactive, and socially cued process (Alexander & Fox, 2004; Leu & Kinzer, 2000; Rosenblatt, 1994; Ruddell & Unrau, 2004; Shanahan, 1990). This latter perspective depicts the reader as an interactive member of the reading process, rather than a recipient of information (Leu & Kinzer, 2000; Rosenblatt, 1994). Collectively, contemporary theorists define reading and comprehension as a rich process that involves the reader’s experiences, the author’s intent, and the context in which reading takes place (Leu & Kinzer, 2003; RAND Reading Study Group, 2002). However, digital texts (e.g., hypertexts) differ from traditional texts in a number of ways (Kim & Kamil, 2003). For example, traditional texts are predominantly linear in their structure. By contrast, digital texts are inherently

Intertextuality in Massively Multi-Player Online Games

non-linear. A number of reviews have described the cognitive constructs and challenges associated with learning in non-linear, hypertext environments (Chen & Rada, 1996; Dillon, McKnight, & Richardson, 1990; Lawless & Schrader, in press). Most of these reviews link navigation to learning in hypertext and describe cognitive challenges in terms of understanding your conceptual location (i.e., where you are, where you are going, and where you have been). However, navigation accounts for only a portion of the complexity innate to a modern, knowledge society. Leu and Kinzer (2000) argued that 21st century students will need to develop a new set of literacy strategies and approaches in order to successfully negotiate emerging technological environments. As a result, “being literate” will take on additional meaning. In a knowledge-based society, information regarding virtually any topic can be attained from a vast number of sources and from a variety of media (e.g., television, online news outlets, papers, magazines, blogs, forums, and/or podcasts). When compared to an industrial society, this difference is considerable and implies an entirely different set of skills to be productive (Goldman, 2004). To be successful in this increasingly complex, technological environment, readers must use more efficient use of reading, writing, and evaluation strategies (Goldman, 2004; Leu, 2000; Leu & Kinzer, 2000). These strategies will include information access, understanding the relationship of information across sources, and the manipulation and control of information (Bruce, 1997, 2002; Society of College, National and University Libraries, 1999). Termed “new literacies” by some, the skills are linked to collaborative, social approaches to understanding multiple texts (see Hartman & Hartman, 1993; Orr, 1986). With respect to traditional sources, multiple text comprehension has been a focus of literacy research for several years (Bloome & EganRobertson, 1993; Hartman & Hartman, 1993; Hoesterey, 1987; Orr, 1986; Selber, 2004; Shuart-

Feris & Bloome, 2004). According to Orr (1986), no literary text is written in or exists in a vacuum. Good readers do not read individual texts in isolation (Hartman & Hartman, 1993). Instead, they draw connections across a variety of texts using their reading experiences over time. Hartman (1995) described this process as a form of intertextuality. Intertextuality is the socio-cultural link among texts as they conceptually relate to one another as the result of the reader’s cognitive interaction with the ideas and construction of meaning (Hartman, 1995; Hartman & Hartman, 1993; Orr, 1986). Based on this definition, many contemporary learning environments (e.g., the WWW) are highly intertextual. They contain integrated, associated, and interrelated information for which readers must apply a unique set of skills to construct meaning. Although research on multiple text comprehension has typically been conducted in more traditional environments (see Selber, 2004; Shuart-Feris & Bloome, 2004; Smagorinsky & O’Donnell-Allen, 1998a), this perspective provides an interesting framework from which one might examine comprehension across multiple digital resources the likes of which prevail in our knowledge society (Smagorinsky & O’DonnellAllen, 1998b). In expansive information spaces, learners must determine the relevance of a particular resource and also make this evaluation in relation to other resources. Competing sources may afford alternate perspectives or provide conflicting information, challenging the learner to critically evaluate and compare these points of view. In complex, digital, intertextual environments, multiple text comprehension demands that the learner link information to current and previous resources, drawing on their knowledge of the domain involved. Verification of information and resource evaluation is increasingly important. In some cases, the authorship of resources has been distributed across community members (e.g., Blogs, Wikis, etc.) and cannot be verified with ease.

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Regardless of the context in which these skills are applied, researchers have argued that these new literacies are essential in a post-typographic, knowledge-based society (Goldman, 2004; Leu, 2000; Leu & Kinzer, 2000; Leu et al., 2004). Unfortunately in many countries like the U.S. and the UK, education has focused less on these skills and more on producing outcomes as measured by standardized tests as a result of political trends, legislation, and funding (e.g., No Child Left Behind, NCLB), (Gee, 2006; Harrison, 2006; USDOE, 2007; Wickens & Sandlin, 2007). In general, however, we are failing students with regard to problem solving, critical thinking, and new literacies in a technological, knowledge-based world (Apple, 2007; Gee, 2006; Leu, 2000). This problem prevails in American classrooms and beyond. Although there are currently less than four students for every computer in American classrooms (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007), educators are faced with the reauthorization of NCLB and a lingering question, “Are today’s schools preparing our children for tomorrow’s world?” (Gee, 2006; Foreword). Based on the chasm between what students will need to do and what they are trained to do, we are not preparing them well—at least not formally (Apple, 2007; Gee, 2006; Leu, 2000; Squire, 2006). Overall, schools have not acknowledged or implemented new literacies into practice and have thus remained disconnected from societal demands imposed upon students (Apple, 2007). Because of this policy-based reluctance, there are few educational opportunities in which students might engage with 21st century literacy skills. Researchers have had correspondingly few opportunities to observe, document, and examine the application of multiple text comprehension strategies in intertextual environments situated within formal instructional settings. However, there exist a number of informal environments in which highly complex reading practices, including multiple source comprehension, are

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required. Specifically, massively multi-player online games (MMOGs) are highly dynamic, rich in information, and support multiple modes of communication. Within these environments, players must regularly locate and evaluate information across a multitude of resources in order to advance, collaborate, and/or solve game-related problems. As such, MMOGs like the World of Warcraft (WoW) provide an interesting context to examine multiple text comprehension. While there has been some discussion of “good” readers and their ability to draw connections across traditional texts (Hartman, 1995; Hartman & Hartman, 1993; Orr, 1986), much less is known about the skills involved with the selection, filtering, and evaluation of information within a context as nebulous as WoW.

INTERTEXTUALITY AND MMOGs Since their creation, video games have been the source of considerable debate (Schrader, 2004). The properties of games have been linked to a variety of positive and negative consequences ranging from simple behaviors (e.g., eye poking; Kennedy & Souza, 1995) to complex cognitive dynamics (Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005). These studies cover a wide range of outcomes and behaviors, partly because they define games in radically different ways. Squire (in press) established that there are multiple genres of games, from simple, linear games to highly complex, open-ended persistent worlds. While this distinction may seem obvious, it frames how MMOGs are described, defined, and examined as a research context. Ultimately, the characterization of games directly influences the manner in which they are applied in education. Research in education has offered many views on how MMOGs relate to learning and how they might be applied in education. Gee (2003) described 36 salient, instructional attributes that

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can be thought of as educational affordances that games have the potential to support. Once the “problem of content” (i.e., the notion that most games are designed for entertainment) is acknowledged, it is then possible to shift attention to the nature of learning. In games like EverQuest, Gee argued that learning was inherently social. EverQuest is a complex world that has its own governing structure, economy, and embedded set of objectives. More importantly, EverQuest and similar MMOGs have their own implicit set of rules that is both dynamic and socially defined. This system is enacted when players interact. Sometimes they will be publicly “flamed” for behavior that is inconsistent with the set of rules. A common reason for flaming is to admonish players for not reading, researching, or trying to find information about quests, objectives, monsters, or strategies. As a result, it becomes a socially governed “rule” to regularly and continually learn from multiple resources. From a more focused perspective, Young (2004) and colleagues (Young, Schrader, & Zheng, 2006) described MMOGs as a form of embodied cognition. This perspective uses the board game Scrabble as a metaphor for how players negotiate the virtual world via their avatar. They argue that Scrabble is played not by simply thinking of all possible words formed by your tiles, but by constantly interacting and rearranging your tiles. This active process of interacting with the environment creates a feedback loop that is instrumental in the game. Similarly, MMOG players manipulate their avatar using a series of mouse movements and keystrokes to provide continual feedback about the virtual environment. In this way, the principles of embodied cognition describe the way a user interacts dynamically within an engaging, immersive environment (Young, 2004; Young et al., 2006). From this view, multiple text comprehension is the recursive process of interacting with the environment and related texts. Collectively, these views describe the immersive, dynamic nature of MMOGs and the raw

mechanisms by which gamers interact within the system. However, researchers have also noted that games vary widely in their ability to scaffold interpersonal collaboration, communication, and exchange of information (Barab et al., 2005; Steinkuehler, Black, & Clinton, 2005; Young et al., 2006). The social and text-based characteristics of “persistent worlds” (see Squire, in press) are embodied by the experience in many ways. Socially, MMOGs incorporate customizable chat interfaces, complex mail systems, and multiple forms of collaborative grouping options. With these text-based tools, players can communicate and collaborate with other players within the confines of the system. However, players regularly access other resources not necessarily limited to the game itself, including fan sites, guild forums, and strategy pages. In terms of these external resources, researchers have argued that MMOGs like WoW are cultural phenomena (Hayes, 2007; Steinkuehler, 2006; Steinkuehler et al., 2005). In these games, rich social networks and communities are formed that often extend beyond the programmed virtual world into other outlets like Allakhazam, a thirdparty resource for multiple MMOGs (Taylor, 2006). Similarly, the “play-space” of WoW extends far beyond the designed experience and includes a tremendous number and variety of resources created, populated, and moderated by members of that particular culture. With respect to WoW, resources take the form of databases, strategy forums, guild forums, and a wide range of media (e.g., video, artwork, etc.). From a social perspective, guild forums and official game forums function as collaborative spaces and support the public exchange of ideas, information, and strategy or non-information focused socialization. Players often use voice applications to moderate and coordinate complex encounters. However, it is not uncommon that people use these tools to continue to chat after they have stopped playing. In education, systems exhibit similar social traits. Quest Atlantis is entirely designed with

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social affordances and collaboration in mind (Barab et al., 2005). Students work together to solve quests off- and online. River City is based strongly in social dynamics, using a sociallydistributed information approach (Dieterle & Clarke, in press). From this perspective, information is too complex for any single participant to master within the given time frame. As a result, knowledge is shared across the social distribution of perception, learning, and reasoning using the affordances of the system. The social support systems in Quest Atlantis and River City are integrated into the environment and help scaffold the learning experience. As a result, students in these environments sometimes interact with one or more systems (e.g., text system, social system, navigation system) simultaneously. Similarly, MMOG players are an interesting population to study because they often co-opt strategies linked to “new literacies” during active play. Specifically, they leverage these skills while actively engaged in complex processes associated with the game. They locate and evaluate material from different sources while simultaneously working toward any number of goals (e.g., fighting monsters, dueling other players, solving problems, etc.). Additionally, MMOG players demonstrate high levels of success (i.e., character level, encounter success, domain knowledge, etc.) in both areas (Schrader & McCreery, in press). As a result, educators and researchers might use the integrated literacy practices and domain achievement of MMOG gamers as a model for high levels of performance in other complex environments. Although some researchers have addressed literacy as it relates to technology and the 21st century (see Leu, 2000; Leu & Coiro, in press; Leu & Kinzer; 2000), there are few that examine these skills or models of reading and comprehension that account for this degree of added complexity within MMOG environments. Unfortunately, there are relatively few educational MMOGs (e.g., Quest Atlantis, River City, and Whyville) when compared to other genres

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of educational games. As a result, work in this area is typically conducted using commercial MMOGs designed to entertain and amuse (e.g., Steinkuehler, 2005). When compared to their educational counterparts, more expansive and complex networks of information typically surround commercial MMOGs. However, there are some challenges associated with using these MMOGs as a context for research. In terms of motivation and engagement, users who play commercial MMOGs self-select into the game environment. Play is always a voluntary act rather than a task prescribed by an instructor. Second, commercial MMOGs are not necessarily designed with respect instructional objectives or focused on learning outcomes. One might argue that learning content is incidental to a principal goal, entertainment. Lastly, the content in and around any commercial MMOG evolves constantly as developers strive to maintain their customers’ interest. In extreme cases, entire plot histories, game mechanics, and relevant information can become obsolete, overwritten, or significantly altered. Learning associated with MMOGs is a “moving target,” unlike content in even the most highly evolving fields (e.g., genetics). Because of these issues, some caution is necessary when generalizing findings to educational contexts. As such, we do not examine outcomes or skills from MMOG environments as they might transfer to educational contexts. Rather, we seek to leverage WoW as a research environment because the system is a highly social, tremendously diverse network of information. Ultimately, this deeper knowledge base will allow us to better develop instruction in existing and emergent environments that share similar salient features (e.g., social scaffolds, diverse networks of information, etc.). To this end, four research questions were generated: 1.

Do MMOG players report using multiple sources of information to facilitate their

Intertextuality in Massively Multi-Player Online Games

2.

3. 4.

growth in game, knowledge, strategy and actual play? When they engage in multiple text behavior, what sources of information do players draw upon? What strategies and criteria do the players use when finding/evaluating information? Are there any differences between experts and novices with regard to their multi-text behavior?

MEtHODs AND PrOcEDUrEs In response to these questions and in an effort to describe comprehension in multi-text environments, an informal survey of gamers was conducted during the spring of 2007. Data were collected from gamers who actively play WoW. This context and population were chosen because WoW players regularly exhibit high levels of domain competence and apply skills linked to multiple text comprehension. General descriptive trends were used to address research questions one through three. Non-parametric comparisons between experts and novices were used to respond to research question four.

Participants Participants were recruited from the official WoW forums during the spring of 2007. A total of 745 participants completed the survey. The sample included 630 males (84.6%), 110 females (14.8%), and 5 (0.7%) who did not report a gender. More than half of the respondents (51.1%) indicated that they fell between the ages of 18 and 22 and 83.5% reported they were 30 years or younger. The mean age of participants was 24.4. Nearly all players (96.2%) reported high levels of skill with their main character suggesting that this population excelled within this context. These demographic data reflected nearly identical trends

when compared to existing data from more than 30,000 MMOG players (Yee, 2006). As such, this sample is representative of the general population of MMOG gamers.

Instrumentation Two separate scales were administered to participants inquiring about behaviors performed simultaneous with game play (i.e., out-of-game resource use and information and resource quality). The “out-of-game resource use” scale employed a 5point scale from 1-never to 5-always and pertained to behaviors associated with locating information while actively playing WoW. The “information and resource quality” scale employed a 5-point scale from 1-not at all useful to 5-very useful and pertained to the criteria used to evaluate the quality and usefulness of resources. Appendix A presents a set of sample items excerpted from each of these scales.

rEsULts Research Question One Collectively, all participants reported several activities linked to locating, exchanging, and evaluating information from venues external to the WoW environment. Players indicated that they seek information from a variety of resources while they actively play the game. Most (69.0%) participants reported that they always or almost always access external Web sites containing information about game items and most (64.6%) access external sites about specific quests encountered during play. Although there exist multiple mechanisms to share information within the game environment (e.g., item links, quest logs, NPC dialogue, etc.), these findings suggest that players have a propensity to accrue game-related information from sources outside of the WoW environment.

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Research Question Two In addition to information from external sources, these results indicate that gamers have a higher propensity to select sources that are generated by their local communities of practice when compared to sources provided by the general gaming community at large. Gamers reported using guild forums (51.0%) and communication software like Ventrilo (74.8%). However, the majority of respondents (58.7%) reported that they do not use any other online forum than those hosted by their guild. WoW players also value social criteria to determine the quality of resources. They typically attend to cues like peer recommendations (75.6%), moderator markers (or “stickies,” 65.9%), and whether a resource is “well-known” by the community (65.2%). This would suggest that gamers value resources that are provided by known entities within the gaming culture rather than resources provided by socially unverified, unknown contributors. One might conclude that the multi-user aspect of MMOGs causes users to seek resources with similar (i.e., social) affordances.

Research Question Three In addition to social indicators, players also use a number of cues inherent to the resource to determine whether the information is valid and reliable. A majority of participants (77.5%) reported that they found the presence of data in a resource useful in determining its quality. Further, a majority of players (72.3%) indicated that the quality of writing is an indication of a resource’s value. Similarly, players pointed out that a focused, clear intent was useful in determining the quality of a resource (64.3%). Collectively, these findings suggest that although participants use social input to filter an otherwise overwhelming amount of information, they also consider the content of a resource on a deep, meaningful, and individual level when evaluating its quality. One would not

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expect participants to value data, writing, and intent as factors in resources quality if social cues were the only mechanism by which information was located and evaluated.

Research Question Four To explore the development of multiple text comprehension, the sample was divided into two groups. The first group included the most competent individuals who rated themselves as experts (67.2%) and the second group included the remaining participants who did not rate themselves as highly competent (i.e., non-experts). Nonparametric contrasts (i.e., independent sample Mann-Whitney U) revealed that in nearly all cases, experts reported actively seeking information external to the system concurrent with game play more frequently than non-experts. For example, experts reported accessing videos (U = 39333.500, p = .001), posting to online forums (U = 32790.000, p < .001), and accessing Web sites for strategies while engaged in the game (U = 40151.000, p = .004) significantly more often than non-experts (see Table 1 for a complete list of contrasts). This trend persisted even in situations for which the general community reported that they did not regularly use a resource (i.e., using non-guild forums; U = 38071.500, p = .001). While it is evident that all gamers in our sample use a variety of tools to locate and evaluate information from multiple texts, experts attended to the characteristics of resources above and beyond those used by less skilled players helping them to more efficiently locate and evaluate valued resources. Overall, experts appear to be highly focused in their searches, valuing only the most recent information (U = 39220.500, p = .001). They appear to leverage social cues to this end referencing the number of “views” (U = 41882.500, p = .035) and whether the resource is well known (U = 41518.500, p = .021) to be more important than non-experts. In terms of the content and message, experts also reported a higher

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appreciation for resources that contain data (U = 41917.000, p = .029) than other less skilled gamers within the sample (see Table 2 for a complete list of contrasts in terms of resource quality).

DIscUssION Overall, the findings of the current study suggest that the multi-textual skills MMOG players exhibit follow a few notable trends. First, players use a

Table 1. Out-of-game resource use: Experts vs. non-experts Item

Mann-Whitney U

Z

Sig. (2-tailed)

View the official World of Warcraft Forums:

37324.000

-4.178

< .001**

View your guild’s online forum:

32312.000

-6.487

< .001**

View other online discussion forums:

38071.000

-3.866

< .001**

Access websites about game items:

39369.000

-3.322

.001**

Access websites about strategies:

40151.000

-2.887

.004**

Access websites for quest information:

43706.500

-1.274

.203

Use an instant messenger-type program:

38307.000

-3.812

< .001**

Use voice programs like Ventrilo:

33195.000

-6.332

< .001**

Access videos:

39333.500

-3.263

.001**

Use an external email program:

38100.500

-3.892

< .001**

Post to online forums:

32790.000

-6.242

< .001**

* Significant at the p = .05 level. ** Significant at the p = .01 level.

Table 2. Information and resource quality: Experts vs. non-experts

Item

Mann-Whitney U

Z

Sig. (2-tailed)

Resource has a recognizable authorship:

45054.000

-.635

.526

Resource contains high quality writing:

43033.500

-1.617

.106

Resource is new:

39220.500

-3.398

.001**

Resource has been “stickied” by a moderator:

43962.500

-1.160

.246

Resource has a high number of “views”:

41882.500

-2.111

.035*

Resource has a high number of replies:

43698.000

-1.270

.204

Resource includes data:

41917.000

-2.182

.029*

Resource uses game lingo:

44974.500

-.681

.496

Where the resource is posted is “well-known”:

41518.500

-2.313

.021*

The resource has a clear intent (e.g., to amuse, mislead, inform, etc.):

46122.000

-.144

.886

Resource was recommended:

44100.000

-1.118

.264

* Significant at the p = .05 level. ** Significant at the p = .01 level.

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Intertextuality in Massively Multi-Player Online Games

variety of resources to access information while they actively play the game. For the full sample, these resources include Web sites pertaining to items and information as well as forums and communication tools like Ventrilo. In terms of what criteria gamers use to evaluate resources, the full sample valued social markers as well as content cues to locate and evaluate information. Unlike their systematic, objective driven educational counterparts, gamers develop complex literacy skills and strategies in the absence of any standardized instruction. Therefore, these findings indicate that MMOGs are an informal venue that provides a naturally occurring context for the study of multiple text comprehension skills and their development. The data presented here also illustrate that experts use nearly every type of game-related resource with greater frequency than non-experts. However, experts relied on slightly different cues including currency, familiarity, popularity (views), and the presence of data when selecting and evaluating a particular resource. The behavior of the most skilled members of the community might be explained in a few key ways. The literature on expertise suggests that experts have significantly higher amounts of domain knowledge that is well organized and easily accessed (Glaser, Chi, & Farr, 1988). With respect to WoW players, research has supported this notion and indicated that experts within the domain of WoW develop their expertise using a number of social mechanisms like online forums (Schrader & McCreery, in press). One might conclude that because experts already possess high levels of domain knowledge that is equally structured and developed, they are concerned only with the emergent, cutting-edge content. Only the most current information stands to increase an already established knowledge base. Further, experts value resources with data more than non-experts. Additional research is needed to determine of experts value data because they are able to directly and critically evaluate the

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evidence, or if they value data simply because its presence implies that the resource is valid. Although we feel these findings are of significant value, it is recommended that they be interpreted with caution. One principal concern is that the data were collected using a self-report survey. Although surveys are a pragmatic approach to data collection, particularly with respect to large samples, there are known issues with the accuracy and validity of these data. Specifically, it is impossible to determine the extent to which participants behaved as they indicated. Similarly, it is impossible to determine their motivation for participating in the study. Although it is difficult to examine literacy behavior as it evolves, future investigations may overcome these limitations by using objective means to observe and evaluate multiple text comprehension in practice (e.g., direct observation, log files, or path analysis).

IMPLIcAtIONs There are several trends apparent within our knowledge-society. The number and popularity of resources that are highly social (e.g., MySpace), dynamic (e.g., Blogs), and draw information from multiple sources (e.g., Wikipedia) are increasing dramatically. Although direct educational analogs might not yet exist in all cases, educators and researchers will need to develop a better knowledge base associated with these 21st century tools and the skills students need to have in order to interact with them. Although we are aware of the challenges associated with intertextual environments such as these, we neither fully understand all that is involved in making meaning across text nor are we capable of preparing students to succeed in these tasks. This void in our knowledge base exists, at least in part, due to a paucity of instructionally salient environments that immerse students in these information rich situations. However, MMOGs provide alternate venues

Intertextuality in Massively Multi-Player Online Games

that are equally complex and rich in networked information, even though they are not necessary educationally minded. As such, MMOGs may be appropriate proxies for the study of new literacies and their development. As a designed experience, MMOGs provide such an immersive, engaging environment (Squire, 2006; Young et al., 2006). Players leverage multiple information venues to share strategy, socialize, locate objectives, and solve problems. Beyond the immediate landscape of the game environment, the MMOG culture produces a limitless number of “texts” from which players may also draw game-related information. These resources include Web sites, forums, interface modifications, databases, images, videos, instant message chats, voice applications, and more that relate directly to the game but are not an immediate part of that context. Advanced users do not simply interact within the virtual “space” of the game. Rather, they orchestrate a highly complex interaction across multiple intertextual resources simultaneously with game play. The findings from the current study illustrate that when they need to use multiple resources to learn new information and strategies, players of MMOGs like WoW develop these skills in the absence of a formal curriculum. Typically, education is not well equipped to address the complexity of immersive environments (Apple, 2007; Gee, 2006; Harrison, 2006). Moreover, because the strategies and approaches adopted by experts differ from those enacted by non-experts, these new literacy strategies appear to develop and become more refined over time as a player’s knowledge base and experience grows. In order to capitalize on what is occurring in MMOGs, researchers need to begin to document more that just the existence of these skills as this study did, but also how these skills become a more fluid part of game play, how they become more sophisticated over time, and if these skills persist outside of the immediate gaming context (WoW).

Further, the findings of this study indicate that players rely heavily on the indirect social footprints left behind by members of their virtual communities when locating and evaluating resources (e.g., number of views and who posted). Designers of commercial Web sites (e.g., Amazon. com) have already begun to incorporate similar types of metadata into their sites. Socially relevant navigation cues like these have also been discussed in the computer science literature for the past decade (Lawless & Schrader, in press). However, although the data present here and the rich design history from other fields exists, there are relatively few examples of these scaffolds in educational environments. Significantly more research is needed to explore the potential of these data forms in facilitating learning in more formal instructional settings, particularly as they relate to expansive information networks like those associated with WoW. Simultaneously, we will also need to re-examine the ways in which we approach formal instruction. If inclinations continue toward evaluating multiple sources of information, immersion in dynamic environments, and social scaffolds to support learning, then we will need to carefully reconsider the policies that govern education. The knowledge gained from research efforts like this one is in line with current societal trends; however, we remain at odds with formal, policy-driven approaches. Although practitioners are using more complex, networked resources in their instruction, their efforts are often constrained by institutional demands and high-stakes testing. As a community of educators, we need to eliminate disconnect between what students do in classrooms and what it means to function in a knowledge society. In terms of research, the new literacy skills necessary for productive citizenship in the 21st century are already visible in MMOGs. Understanding how those skills develop and are applied in vast information landscapes provides valuable insight into more formal instructional

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settings, especially those aligned with what students will need to do in their future.

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KEY TERMS Affordances: According to Gibson (1986), “the affordances of the environment are what it offers the animal, what it provides or furnishes, either for good or ill” (p. 127). With respect to MMOGs, affordances are most closely related to the rules and systems in place that allow users to interact with the game environment and each other. MMOGs are interesting in that they typically present unconstrained sets of affordances in terms of geographic motion and interaction.

Emergence: Game developers constantly update the mechanics and software rules while regularly adding content and expansions. Emergence as it relates to MMOGs is the notion that game content and the players’ understanding of that content develop through regular play and interaction with others. Flame: Flaming is a social act usually involving insults or sarcasm by which one or more members of the community attempt to admonish, belittle, or humiliate another player. Because MMOGs are inherently social, flaming is one mechanism to keep social behavior in check. Behavior such as spamming (repeated sequences of text) or questions the community perceives as basic usually results in a “flame.” Massively Multi-Player Online Games: The term massively multi-player online game (or MMOG) is a class of multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) that is entertaining and game-based. MUVEs in general are virtual environments in which many users, often thousands, simultaneously interact. MUVEs are typified by 3-D graphics, open-ended navigation through the world, and engaging, interactive content. Multiple Source Comprehension: Multiple source comprehension is a term used to describe the complex process of developing understanding from many and various “texts.” Traits like authorship, voice, reliability of the information, and so forth, vary across sources and it is ultimately up to the reader to construct meaning from them. NPC, Non-Player Character: NPCs are used in a variety of ways by developers. Functionally, they serve as a mechanism for users to interact with game content. NPCs provide quests, directions, or standardized help with basic game-related concepts. The majority of this information is conveyed using text and is usually stored in the player’s logs. NPCs exist to facilitate play and are not to be confused with MOBs (mobile objects, or

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monsters) that are designed to provide a challenge, whether via combat or other means. Persistent Worlds: A persistent world is a virtual environment that functions independently of direct user interaction or involvement. These environments remain even after the user has logged off and is no longer present in the environment. Persistent worlds typically have their own clock and calendar that functions independently

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APPENDIX A Survey Sample Items Noobie

Competent

Proficient

Expert

Please rate your expertise with respect to your current Main Character:

Out-of-Game Resource Use: How often do you do the following while you are ACTIVELY playing the World of Warcraft? Never

Always

View the official World of Warcraft Forums:

1

2

3

4

5

View your guild’s online forum:

1

2

3

4

5

View other online discussion forums:

1

2

3

4

5

Access websites about game items:

1

2

3

4

5

Access websites about strategies:

1

2

3

4

5

Access websites for quest information:

1

2

3

4

5

Use an instant messenger-type program:

1

2

3

4

5

Use voice programs like Ventrilo:

1

2

3

4

5

Access videos:

1

2

3

4

5

Use an external email program:

1

2

3

4

5

Post to online forums:

1

2

3

4

5

Information and Resource Quality: Given the following criteria, what do you find useful in determining the quality of a resource? Not at all Useful

Very Useful

Resource has a recognizable authorship:

1

2

3

4

5

Resource contains high quality writing:

1

2

3

4

5

Resource is new:

1

2

3

4

5

Resource has been “stickied” by a moderator:

1

2

3

4

5

Resource has a high number of “views”:

1

2

3

4

5

Resource has a high number of replies:

1

2

3

4

5

Resource includes data:

1

2

3

4

5

Resource uses game lingo:

1

2

3

4

5

Where the resource is posted is “well-known”:

1

2

3

4

5

The resource has a clear intent (e.g., to amuse, mislead, inform, etc.):

1

2

3

4

5

Resource was recommended:

1

2

3

4

5

807

808

Chapter XLVI

Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning Yam San Chee Nanyang Technological University, Singapore Kenneth Yang Teck Lim Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

AbstrAct This chapter considers the use of computer games to help students construct their personal identity and develop dispositions that become active and responsible citizenship. It argues that the construction of identity requires both performative and narrative components and that these elements can be realized in a learning environment that affords students the opportunity to engage in a dialectic interplay between role playing in a game world and dialogic interaction outside of the game world. Research findings from an initial data set showing how students project their identities onto in-game characters are shared. The findings suggest that role playing in computer games can be effective in fostering attitudes, values, and beliefs desired of citizenship education.

INtrODUctION There is widespread interest in the use of games for learning today. Although computer-based educational games have been widely available since bit-map graphic displays heralded the multimediacomputing era, the current resurgent interest in “serious games” marks an important milestone in the continuing evolution of games for teaching

and learning (Abt, 2002; Gee, 2003; Michael & Chen, 2005). The term “serious games” is used today to refer to games that carry an educational purpose or training intention. Before this term achieved widespread currency, such games were referred to as “games to teach.” The term “games to teach” is somewhat unfortunate because it connotes early work on computer-aided instruction and students learning through drill and practice,

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Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning

a mode of learning that is less favored today (Gee, 2004; Prensky, 2006; Shaffer, 2006). The focus of our research, however, is on game-based learning; that is, games for students to learn with, as opposed to games for students to learn from. This distinction is important. It directs attention to the pedagogical commitments one adopts when utilizing games for learning. At the same time, it draws attention to the fact that computer games are not a unitary thing. There is actually a whole spectrum of different game types, including puzzle games, adventure games, strategy games, first-person shooter games, and role-playing games. Different game genres give rise to quite distinct opportunities for learning. As educators and researchers, we must therefore approach the use of educational games with clarity as to: (1) what role games are to play in the teaching and learning process, (2) what we regard as worthwhile educational goals in the 21st century (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL), 2003), and (3) how we harness the potential power of games to achieve the desired educational goals. We must also be clear about the underlying motivations for the adoption of games. These could range from cost savings arising from efficient dispensation of instruction to effective learning through problem solving. Oblinger (2006) suggests that the following different types of games may be used to promote different learning outcomes as listed in the following: • •

•

•

Card games to promote memorization, concept matching, and pattern recognition Jeopardy-style games to encourage quick mobilization of facts, labels, and concrete concepts Arcade-style games to improve speed of response, automaticity, and visual processing Adventure games to promote hypothesis testing and problem solving

The previous suggestions represent genuine options for utilizing game-based learning. As educators, however, we should seriously reflect on whether a 21st century educational agenda is better served by, say, promoting memorization or promoting problem solving. The New Media Consortium and the Educause Learning Initiative is a research-oriented group that seeks to identify and describe emerging technologies likely to have a major impact on teaching and learning in higher education. In the Horizon Report 2007 (New Media Consortium, 2007), authors from the group predict that the time-to-adoption horizon for massively multiplayer educational gaming, and educational gaming more generally, is in the order of four to five years. It is imperative, therefore, that current research clarify and establish directions for the principled design and effective utilization of games for learning, whether in schools or other institutions of learning. The effectiveness of learning with electronic games is a major theme in this research handbook. Keeping this concern in view, we share in this chapter our research efforts related to Space Station Leonis (SSL), a computer game that we have developed. In what follows, we first provide an overview of student learning with the game SSL. Next we explicate the developmental approach to learning that we have adopted in our work on citizenship education. We then situate our work on citizenship education in the research on identity and its development. Then we share findings from empirical research on students’ empathetic responses arising from projecting player identities onto game characters. These findings help illuminate students’ underlying attitudes, values, and beliefs related to everyday social situations relevant to National Education. We then consider the implications of our research findings. In the Conclusion, we summarize the key issues raised in this chapter.

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GAME-bAsED LEArNING WItH SPACE STATION LEONIS Mead, in his 1927 Class Lectures in Social Psychology (see Mead, 1982, p. 145), wrote as follows on the subject of role taking, play, and games: All mental activity consists in assuming roles, just as much as in the play or games of the child: all is an organization of roles. The difference between play and a game is that in a game the roles are so organized that all are there controlling the entire action. The player’s gesture is aimed to call out different responses. [. . .] In a certain sense the child takes the role of all the others, of the generalized other. In this instance, that is, where there is a generalized other involved in the activity, there is a great difference from mere play. The insight of Mead, based on the passage cited earlier, is remarkable as it dates back to 1927, a time when computer and video games were unknown. Today, computer games constitute one medium

through which students can learn to think about and understand themselves through the construct of the generalized other (see also Ricoeur, 1992). This game-play affordance provides us with an opportunity to use games to develop students’ understanding of themselves. Game playing inherently involves the taking of roles. These roles are always enacted as first-person experiences, regardless of whether the game is a role-playing game (where views may be switched between first- and third-person) or a real-time strategy game (where the player adopts a “God-like” view and has no in-game avatar representation on-screen). As Gee (2007) argues, role playing and role taking hold the key to players developing a sense of identity. Within the game, the blended character comprises a conflation of the player’s own talk and actions with the intrinsic capabilities of the in-game character, constrained in what actions it is able to perform by virtue of how it was programmed. Reflection on the experiences of the externalized, in-game other provides the basis for students to develop an understanding of themselves as the generalized other. This understanding develops as students

Figure 1. Screen snapshot of the game Space Station Leonis in role-playing mode

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reflect on and reflect back the consequences arising from actions taken by the externalized other in the game world on themselves. This process of reflection is facilitated through dialogic interplay in the social context of the classroom. Figure 1 provides an illustration of the game SSL in role-playing mode. The scene takes place in the final episode of the game where the citizens of the space station have been mobilized, as part of a reservist force, to deal with an emergency: an impending attack by enemy forces to de-orbit the space station so as to use it as a weapon to prevent the Moon colonies from achieving independence. (A passing reference is made here to the 9/11 attacks.) Playing through this episode creates an authentic, experiential context for students to grapple with issues such as what it means to sacrifice oneself in order to preserve one’s country, when is self-sacrifice really justified or merited, and what causes are worth dying for. These social conversations take place in the classroom and are facilitated and guided by a teacher. The hands-on time required to play through SSL is in the order of 16 hours. Additional details of the game may be found in Chee (2007).

ADOPtING A DEVELOPMENtAL APPrOAcH tO cItIZENsHIP EDUcAtION The fundamental issue of “what counts as learning and what learning counts” (Green & Luke, 2006) remains keenly debated today. Following from post-colonial independence movements arising after the Second World War, citizenship education has been a feature of formal educational curricula in many countries, especially during the latter half of the 20th century. In Singapore, citizenship education is strongly regarded as learning that counts. Marshall (1950) was one of the first to attempt a delineation of the scope of the concept of citizenship. He characterized it as encompassing a

civil sense of basic rights and protections, political rights (voting and public assembly), and a right to social citizenship (employment, housing, healthcare, and other social-welfare benefits). During the 1990s, citizenship education became a mandatory component of school curricula in countries such as Australia and the United Kingdom. In Singapore, the launch of the Thinking Schools, Learning Nation (TSLN) vision in 1997 led to a revamp of the national curriculum toward greater emphasis on critical thinking skills and information and communication technologies (ICT) literacy. Closely associated with the TSLN vision was National Education, which made its debut a year later. Although not the first manifestation of citizenship education in Singapore, National Education was directed at deliberately developing knowledge, values, and attitudes of Singaporean students that would foster a sense of national cohesion, the instinct for survival, and confidence in the future of Singapore (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2003). Crucially, National Education was conceptualized to develop in students “an awareness of facts, circumstances and opportunities facing Singapore, so that they will be able to make decisions for their future with conviction … [as well as nurture] a sense of emotional belonging and commitment to the community and nation, so that they will stay and fight when the odds are against us” (Lee, 1997). Given that our research related to SSL deals with National Education, it quickly becomes apparent that traditional goals related to learning such as reproducing content (e.g., historical facts related to the birth and development of the nation) fail to address appropriate and meaningful learning objectives. In the UK, the goals of citizenship education include helping students to: (1) acquire knowledge and understanding related to becoming informed citizens, and (2) develop skills of participation and responsible action (Selwyn, 2006; italics added). These goals highlight the need to cast citizenship in the context of literacy; that is, learning in support of acquiring a form

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of lived practice. In the context of Singapore, the Ministry of Education has articulated the objective of National Education in Singapore schools as being the development of: (a) national cohesion, (b) the instinct for survival, and (c) confidence in the future through the following means: • •

• •

Fostering a sense of identity, pride, and self-respect in Singaporeans Knowing the Singapore story: how Singapore succeeded against the odds to become a nation Understanding Singapore’s unique challenges, constraints, and vulnerabilities Instilling the core values of preserving Singapore’s way of life and the will to prevail to ensure continued success and well-being

Based on this, two issues are worth noting. First, an appropriate sense of “what counts as learning” must revolve around students learning to be and to become certain kinds of people: in short, on being (Heidegger, 1953/1996) and becoming. The goal does not primarily revolve around acquiring content knowledge. Instead, the goal is to develop a set of attitudes, values, and beliefs that underlie dispositions to act in certain culturally preferred ways. Examples include the attitude of capitalizing on cultural and racial diversity and the values of vigilance and collaboration. The second issue relates to the goal of active, rather than passive, citizenship. Selwyn (2006) describes passive citizenship as being “the product of an education which seeks to develop knowledge, understandings and behaviours of citizenship.” In contrast, active citizenship is one that “augments this passive model with an ability to critique, debate and propose alternative models of the structures and processes of democracy” (p. 2). Consistent with the first issue raised then, a disposition toward participation and action, grounded in a critical understanding of national context, together with a readiness to enact that participation and action constitute key elements of what we would regard

812

as indicators of “learning success” in the context of our research investigation. In light of the foregoing, we have adopted a developmental perspective on learning. This perspective aligns with the goals of a National Education program and helps to focus teachers’ attention on authentic and desirable learning outcomes. In alignment with the position advocated by van Haaften, Korthals, and Wren (1997), we wish to enact learning as development in a strong foundational sense; that is, learning that transforms an individual’s understanding of the world and impacts (or at least potentially impacts) everyday thought and action. Such a form of learning is inherently cultural as Rogoff (2003) emphasizes. Given these commitments, Widdershoven (1997) suggests that we may conceive of three broad models of human development: (1) the mechanistic model, (2) the organismic model, and (3) the narrative model. The mechanistic model revolves around the metaphor of mechanism, suggesting that the parts of the model can be separately described and explained. These explanations imply causeeffect relationships that conform to universal laws. It should be evident that the mechanistic model is ill-suited to the needs of a model of human behavior because human thought and action is situated and contingent in nature, never being entirely predictable. The second model, the organismic model, is based on the metaphor of the biological organism. It assumes the existence of a structure or organization that allows the organism to orient itself toward the joint goal of maintenance and reproduction. Although different parts of the organism have their own function, and these contribute to the attainment of the joint goal, they cannot be described or explained apart from the whole. In this model then, explanation serves a functional purpose. One does not ask for the cause of the phenomenon to be explained; rather, one asks for its purpose.

Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning

Finally, the third model, the narrative model, is founded on the metaphor of the story. It is characteristic of stories that they present themselves as a meaningful totality where various elements refer to one another. This cross-referencing is the element of intertextuality in Bakhtinian terms (Bakhtin, 1981) and is also referred to as citationality in post-structuralist terms (Belsey, 2002). Different passages in the story refer to one another and must be understood as a whole because they not only contribute to the meaning of the whole story but also derive their meaning from it. In this model, explanation takes the form of interpretation. It is based on hermeneutic understanding. Such an explanation reveals the meaning of a phenomenon by illuminating the context in which it is to be understood. A powerful interpretive explanation stresses the rationality of the interpretandum. As Widdershoven explains, “[i]n the narrative model the subject of development plays an important role. When a person is seen as a self-expressing subject, emphasis is laid on individuality and rationality” (p. 38). In the narrative model, every story interpretation is also an application in the sense that, in interpreting a story, we also take into account what it says to, or about, our present situation. In the narrative model, there is no room for exact predictions. A critical evaluation of the organismic model and the narrative model suggests that they both have something to offer as candidates for theorizing about learning national education. The former model foregrounds the element of the whole person acting and adapting for survival, while the latter model foregrounds the life stories and associated meaning making that individuals engage in to construct a coherent account of their life. From a theoretical perspective, however, it appears that the narrative model offers richer possibilities for insightful research and its attendant implications. Therefore, we adopt the narrative model, and it is to this topic that we now turn.

DEVELOPING NOtIONs OF sELF AND IDENTITY In an important paper published in 2005, Sfard and Prusak highlighted the statement made by Hoffman (1998) that “[i]dentity has become the bread and butter of our educational diet.” They also make a strong claim that identities are stories about persons, period. That is, identities are not “things” that find expression in stories; they are stories. Sfard and Prusak also reject the notion of identities having any extra-discursive elements, rather, identities consist of narratives only. In response to the critique by Juzwik (2006), Sfard clarifies that the stance adopted against extra-discursive elements was intended to be an admonition against objectifying talk in a mentalistic manner. To illustrate the point, she cites the following two sentences: 1a. Two of my students constructed similar conceptions of fraction. 1b. Two of my students constructed similar Lego towers. Sentence 1b carries a sense of unambiguity because the constructed objects referred to are concrete, real-world objects. We are not so clear, however, as to what exactly was constructed when a person utters sentence 1a. This is because the “object” constructed is a mentalistic element, not a real-world object. Sfard argues that this form of linguistic objectification reifies real-world processes by converting them into mental objects. At the same time, objectification gives rise to alienation because it presents “phenomena in an impersonal way, as if they were occurring of themselves, without the participation of human beings” (p. 24). Although we grant the theoretical point made by Sfard, we nevertheless find the stance of rejecting all extra-discursive elements over-strong and

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somewhat problematic for our work. While Sfard and Prusak had the benefit of graduate students, capable of sharing extended and rich narratives of themselves, as their subjects, the context and culture of classrooms in which we work restrict our access to such elaborated student narratives. In order to draw evidence-based conclusions related to students learning National Education with SSL, we have found it both necessary and useful to also consider what students do as an indicator of their evolving identity. A willingness to consider what students do carries two significant advantages. First, it provides a validity requirement for both self as well as other (i.e., the non-self) discourses about who we are and what we are. In the absence of this requirement, discourses, especially of other, could degenerate into rumor, fantasy, even lies, that circulate, propagate, and get socially elaborated despite having little basis in “fact.” Reliance on such discourses would be prejudicial to the individual being studied given its lack of empirical basis. Second, including what students do recognizes and preserves the concept of students as agentive subjects who have the means to influence the unfolding trajectory of their lives by their

talk, actions, and behavior. Preservation of this sense of first-person agency in the theorization of the individual (i.e., the self) is, we believe, essential to embracing the sense of who we are as individuals: our identity (see also Stevens, 1996; Zahavi, 2006). Figure 2 reproduces the conceptual framework from Chee (2007) that guides our research investigation. We view student learning as taking place in two complementary domains. On one hand, they derive personal experiences through trajectories of game play that can unfold in many different ways depending upon the choices they make and the actions they take in the game world (depicted in the lower middle section of the figure). With respect to the figure, Type 1 projective identity refers to the projection of self, the student, onto the character that the student plays in the game (Gee, 2003, 2005). On the other hand, students also learn dialogically with one another in a teacherfacilitated classroom where the teacher draws upon individual student experiences in game play to distill important National Education messages by comparing and contrasting individual student actions and their attendant consequences, by asking what-if questions, by relating abstractions from

Figure 2. Conceptual framework for game-based learning research

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game play to the context of the real-world, and by synthesizing the themes and messages into a coherent whole. Over time, through participatory appropriation (Rogoff, 1993) and as part of a trajectory of developmental learning, students begin to “see” and understand the world in which they live in a new light. The acid test of successful learning, as exemplified in the framework, revolves around how students will behave at some unspecified time in the future when they are faced with a real crisis (e.g., a terrorist attack on a subway station); that is, how would they project themselves, through their talk, actions, and behavior, into the material world (denoted by the label “Projective identity (Type 2)” in Figure 2). As educators we face a dilemma because, limited by the context of the present, we cannot really know the answer to the question posed. The next best thing that we can do is to rely on surrogate indicators of likely behavior as revealed by elicitations of students’ attitudes, values, and beliefs related to National Education issues. Hence, in our work, we have relied on these indicators as a means to gauge the effectiveness of student learning. Attitudes, values, and beliefs, however, are not the only indicators that we choose to look at. Like most identity researchers, we also believe in examining the narratives that students produce. Such narratives may derive from interviews, blogs, and other forms of self-expression that are not necessarily textual in nature (e.g., students have been asked to design posters to convey their meanings and messages). A careful consideration of the literature on discourse and identity (see, for example, de Fina, Schiffrin, & Bamberg, 2006) reveals that this work has many different origins with their associated traditions. Juzwik (2006) identifies research on identity as having been conducted in the fields of linguistic anthropology, educational psychology, literacy, mathematics, philosophy, political science, situated cognition, and sociology. Benwell and Stokoe (2006) identify six distinct types of identity that are based on discourse

analysis: conversational, institutional, narrative, commodified, spatial, and virtual. They note that early treatments of identity treated it as something personal: an internal project of the self. This approach essentialized identity as something within or part of a person. The turn to post-structuralism in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s “led to a rejection of ‘internal’ accounts in favour of ‘constructionist’ approaches” (p. 8). One particular approach, based on discursive psychology (Edwards & Potter, 1992), analyses identity as a discursive performance connected to wider systems of cultural meaning making. From this perspective, identity is an intersubjective product of the social. In tracing the evolution of research on discourse and identity, Benwell and Stokoe (2006) also identify two dualisms that surface in the field. The first dualism relates to the “essentialist” versus “constructionist” orientation discussed earlier. The second dualism relates to the tension between “agency” and “structure”: “the issue here is to do with whether people are free to construct their identity in any way they wish (the ‘agency’ view, in which the individual has agency, is an agent or agentive), or whether identity construction is constrained by forces of various kinds, from the unconscious psyche to institutionalized power structures (the ‘structure’ view, in which ‘subjects’ are restrictively positioned within existing ‘discourses’ . . .)” (p. 10). We have earlier indicated our preference for an agentive notion of identity. This preference leads naturally to a consideration of the element of performativity in a theory of identity. Like the identity theorist Butler (1990), we prefer to address identity construction as being both discursively produced as well as performative. According to Butler (as described in Benwell and Stokoe, 2006), identity is not only a discursive practice, a discourse that we both inhabit and employ, but it is also a performance, with all the connotations of non-essentialism, transience, versatility, and masquerade that this implies. To cite Butler (1990)

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in the context of gender identity: “ [T]here is no gender identity behind the expressions of gender; that identity is performatively constituted by the very ‘expressions’ that are said to be its results” (p. 33, italics added). The expressions, of course, are the signs and acts that people manifest when they talk, act, interact, and behave in everyday social life. This emphasis on performativity derives from Goffman’s (1959) work on the interactionally-produced self, a notion that is also related to the writings of Blumer (1969) on symbolic interactionism. The writings of Goffman and Blumer can, in turn, be traced back to ideas from the social psychologist Mead (1934) who wrote about the contingent nature by which the self is produced through interaction. From the viewpoint of intelligence and cognition, it is interesting to also note that Newell, in his 1980 inaugural address as the first President of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence, characterized knowledge not as something stored in memory, but as “a competence-like notion, being a potential for generating action” (Newell, 1982, p. 100). This emphasis on competence, or action, and the potential for action are aligned with our own orientation to the study of identity, encompassing narratives, actions, and dispositions to act. In summary, we argue that this approach provides us with a more encompassing and more effective handle on the study of identity as it applies in the context of our research investigation.

EMPIrIcAL rEsEArcH AND FINDINGs In the United States, the National Council for the Social Studies has created a set of standards that describe parameters of successful interventions for citizenship education (National Council for the Social Studies, 1994). The goals of these standards include encouraging students to support the common good, adopt common and multiple

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perspectives, and apply knowledge, skills, and values to civic action. Widdershoven’s (1997) narrative model, referenced earlier in this chapter, provides a useful lens through which we can analyze the performative understandings of students who participated in the SSL research intervention. As part of the curriculum designed for the program, students were requested to complete a series of activities in an Activity Book that was designed using comic-style graphics. One of these activities involved the adoption and subsequent elucidation of the perspectives of two characters in the Leonis story, namely Meiling Soesanto and her younger brother, Ken. The following section offers an analysis of the work done by 38 students in the same class for this particular activity. This analysis is directed at answering the research question: To what extent can the device of role playing in computer games help foster desirable attitudes, values, and beliefs of students with respect to citizenship education? In the part of the game-narrative referenced by this perspective-taking activity, Meiling Soesanto is the player-controlled protagonist (cf. Gee’s Projective Identity (Type 1)), while Ken Soesanto is a non-player-character in his pre-teens. Meiling is only a little older; she is around the age of the student players themselves. The game-narrative describes the adventures that Meiling, Ken, and their father encounter as they join other members of their residential community on a trek to safety, through abandoned areas of the space station, because of an environmental hazard precipitated by wanton and covert use of precious energy supplies. Meiling’s adventures consist chiefly of a series of decision-making tasks that arise out of the arduous nature of the trek. The general thrust of her decisions centers on the nature of community and civic consciousness. Examples of situations that students have to deal with range from Meiling’s reactions to a restless and demanding child of Ken’s age to ostensibly more grave decisions

Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning

following an injury to a member of the traveling party. In the game, Ken is generally scripted to have a rather immature and self-centered disposition, being the younger of the two siblings. As the Leonis curricular program was designed to offer schools and teachers a high degree of flexibility with respect to implementation, the supporting materials accompanying the game—the students’ Activity Books—were designed to be used in situations where some time might have passed between actual game play and attempting the written activities. Because of this, the students’ activities were designed and presented so as to trigger memory of earlier game play, in order that students might be in a stronger position to recall as well as reassume their respective projective identities, with a view to having them enact their thus-developed identities in the “real world” (Projective Identity (Type 2) in Figure 2). For the written task reported in this analysis, students were asked to write brief descriptions and explanations of the affective reactions and cognitive rationalizations of their respective projective identities. In order to do so, they had to assume the first-person perspectives of both Meiling and Ken, as applied to four incidents from the game narrative. The main objective of this written task was to permit an assessment of students’ ability to present contrasting perspectives between the more mature projective identity of Meiling and that of her younger brother, Ken. The activity was designed so as not to denigrate the less mature view of Ken. There were two main reasons for this. First, as the students in the participant population were themselves only fourteen- and fifteen-yearolds, we could not necessarily assume that their personal responses to the situations presented in the game narrative would be aligned more closely to Meiling than to Ken. It was important that students did not emerge from this activity feeling that their own personal responses had been “put down” by a sanctimonious (hypothetical or otherwise) elder sibling. Second, given that the

design goal was to allow a variety of perspectives to be appreciated (and, by implication, respected) regardless of the degree to which one subscribes to any particular view, it was essential that no role be implausible or trivial. To achieve this goal, a classical literary device was used, namely, that of the “idiot figure”. Found in literary and dramatic works as broad-ranging as Akira Kurosawa to Gene Roddenberry’s Star Trek (Halliwell, 2004), the idiot figure is an effective way of surfacing views and assumptions that the audience (in this case of the SSL program, the students) might otherwise prefer to keep tacit or might not otherwise even be aware of. In order that the fictional conceit of the game narrative be honored and not broken, we also decided to let the idiot-figure in the written task emerge as naturally as possible from within the story. An opportunity presented itself in one of the objects that the student (through his or her projective identity of Meiling) had to decide whether or not to take along in the trek to safety, namely, her brother’s favorite teddy named Mr. Sillybear. Therefore, in the written task that we focus on in this chapter, Mr. Sillybear, a talking teddy, is used as the superficial motivation for each of the four situations that students are presented with. The teddy bear helps students to recall the situations they experienced through its inane banter with them. Thanks to the foil presented by the limited artificial intelligence of Mr. Sillybear, Ken Soesanto’s feelings and views on the respective situations thus do not appear so silly after all. The four situations from the game-narrative comprising the written task that is the focus of this chapter are: (1) an incident during the trek when a young boy falls into a river and has to be rescued, (2) a juncture in the game where Meiling has to undertake an arduous and extremely timeconsuming climb up a pipe so that the traveling party might reach safety, (3) the time when the boy who had earlier fallen into the river keeps pestering Ken for his handheld game console, and (4) the occasion when Meiling has to decide how

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Situation A: A Boy Falls into the Water

Curiosity

6

5

2

Selfish response 8

The expected frequency for this dataset was 16.00 with 1 degree of freedom. From the data, the Chi-square test statistic was 8.00. This value compares to a critical value of 3.84, and thus the null hypothesis was rejected. The results from Situation A indicate that students who attempted this exercise manifested distinctly different reactions to the predicament they faced—as Ken or Meiling—when the boy fell into the water. This was especially so in the case of the projective identity expressed through playing the role of Meiling. It is evident from the more strongly polarized reactions for the Meiling persona than for that of Ken.

Situation B: Meiling’s Tiring Climb

Selfishness

Critical response

Encouraging response

n

Sympathy

Ken’s response:

The expected frequency for this dataset was 7.60 with 4 degrees of freedom. From the data, the Chi-square test statistic was 19.64. This value compares to a critical value of 9.49, and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.

818

24

n

Unsupportive, discouraging response

7

Unkind response

18

Selfish response

Sympathy, no action

n

Compassion translated into action

Ken’s response:

Meiling’s response: Responsibility translated into action

to allay Ken’s fretfulness about the predicament in which the traveling party finds itself. For each of these situations, students were required to give expression to their understanding of how both Ken and Meiling reacted in the game. Two researchers analyzed the students’ written responses independently, and these responses were subsequently classified into a series of categories jointly derived through the inductive process. One-sample Chi-squared tests were run to determine the extent to which students were able to demonstrate differentiated perspectivetaking, significant at the 95% confidence level. The null hypothesis was that students were unable to differentiate the range of construed responses from Ken and Meiling. Results of this analysis are presented in the following tables.

10

9

7

6

4

Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning

Situation C: That Same Boy Wants My Game Console Ken’s response:

A Chi-square test could not be performed on this dataset because there were fewer than five observations in 50% of the observed cells. The results from Situation B (Meiling’s tiring climb for the sake of others), as well as Situation C (the boy who fell into the water wants my game console) and Situation D (what does it mean to trust somebody?) that follow, are less clear. For Situation B, acceptance of the null hypothesis for the Ken Projective Identity suggests that students were highly divided as to how they felt Ken would have reacted to the situation. This outcome may be due, in part, to the fact that Ken was a non-player game character. Hence, the degree of projection might have been weaker compared to the Meiling character. Although the Chi-squared test could not be performed with respect to students projecting themselves as Meiling, it is perhaps noteworthy that the dominant response of persevering in the arduous climb in order to save others is altruistic, suggesting a willingness to place the interest of others above self-interest.

Wanting to discipline

Sympathy

28

4

3

A Chi-square test could not be performed because there were fewer than five observations in 50% of the observed cells. Meiling’s response:

n

16 14

Compassion

4

Annoyance

34

n

Frustration

Self-satisfaction

n

Persevering to save others

Meiling’s response:

Anger

The expected frequency for this dataset was 7.20 with 4 degrees of freedom. From the data, the Chi-square test statistic was 3.06. This value compares to a critical value of 9.49, and thus the null hypothesis was accepted.

5

The expected frequency for this dataset was 11.67 with 2 degrees of freedom. From the data, the Chi-square test statistic was 5.89. This value compares to a critical value of 5.99, and thus the null hypothesis was accepted. For Situation C, students appeared to find it easier to adopt the Projective Identity of Ken (compared to Situation B), as reflected in the fewer number of response categories that applied. Their reactions of annoyance, wanting to discipline the boy who envied Ken’s console, and having sympathy for the boy were consistent with those that might be expected of a boy Ken’s age. Students’ projective identities through Meiling are also worth noting despite the null hypothesis being

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Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning

accepted. Although students knew that Meiling was the older and more civic-minded sibling, they still empathized with the emotions of frustration and anger that a projective Meiling might feel, given the stressful situation being caught up with a bothersome child in an environmentallyuncomfortable situation.

Situation D: What Does it Mean to Trust Somebody?

Love

Protection

n

Mutual faith

Ken’s response:

19

8

3

A Chi-square test could not be performed because there were fewer than five observations in 50% of the observed cells.

Helpfulness

Cynicism

n

Mutual faith

Meiling’s response:

14

7

5

The expected frequency for this dataset was 8.67 with 2 degrees of freedom. From the data, the Chi-square test statistic was 5.15. This value compares to a critical value of 5.99, and thus the null hypothesis was accepted. For Situation D, students appeared to experience difficulty expressing themselves, as evidenced by the lower number who attempted this particular exercise (30 and 26 for Ken and Meiling respectively). Although a seemingly simple concept, the notion of trust appears to be somewhat abstract for some students (at least in

820

this particular sample population) such that some did not possess the confidence, or the linguistic wherewithal, to articulate their understanding of it. Notwithstanding, more than half of the students who attempted this exercise gravitated toward the reaction of having faith in one another. Several students also anticipated that, in their projective identities as Ken and Meiling, they would emphasize love and helpfulness in discussions of the nature of trust. Our interpretations from the analyses presented earlier receive corroboration from other metrics obtained during the research intervention associated with the Leonis program (Lim & Chee, 2007). One-tailed t-tests were performed on survey data obtained from the pre- and post-tests that sought to identify changes in attitudes and values that resulted from learning with SSL. Survey questions were scored according to a five-point Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree, unsure, agree, strongly agree) with answers recoded to reflect a higher mean as a more positive response, as appropriate. Analysis of student responses to statements related to social ethics and responsibilities showed the clearest improvement across the sample. Statements in this category included: • • • •

“Problems between people are best handled by working together to find a solution.” “I think about how my decisions will affect other people.” “No matter how angry someone makes me, I am still responsible for my own actions.” “Other people’s problems don’t bother me.”

Results from the pre-test/post-test comparisons indicate improvements in terms of students’ views and professed actions in situations involving social ethics as well as civic and political responsibilities. These changes in response are consonant with acquiring a deeper sense of social

Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning

empathy and responsibility. In this situation B, for example, a large majority of students expressed that they acted, through Meiling, to persevere in climbing the pipe in the interest of the other members of the community. From a Heideggerian perspective of learning through being-in-the-world, our data from the pre- and post-tests together with the partial data analyzed to date from the activity books provide initial indications that students in our research intervention were beginning to develop dispositions that would help them grow into active and responsible citizens (Selwyn, 2006). We therefore argue for further research that explores how identities develop through learning with computer games and begins to unpack how emergent in-game identities can have a translational impact on personal belief systems and real-world behavior.

IMPLIcAtIONs As a nascent field of research, evidence for the effectiveness of “serious games” is still somewhat sparse. Gee (2003), Shaffer (2006), Prensky (2006), Johnson (2005) and others have articulated the reasons why computer and video games not only engage and motivate students but also get students to stretch themselves both cognitively as well as metacognitively. Complex games require students to plan ahead, solve problems, make decisions in the face of incomplete information, and learn through the consequences of decisions they make and actions they take in the game world. This form of learning places real demands on students to integrate knowledge, build upon previously developed competencies, and develop skills based on authentic practice. Our particular student learning objectives with the Leonis program revolve around developing attitudes, values, and beliefs that are becoming of informed and active citizenship. Our research investigation has thus sought to determine how, and to what extent, game-based learning environ-

ments can be successfully instantiated in schools to help teachers achieve the goals of citizenship education. Through the medium of the game, complemented by dialogic and reflective learning activities, we seek evidence for the kinds of dispositional change in students that signal not only a heightened awareness of issues that surround social ethics and civic responsibility, but also dispositions to act in socially sensitive and responsible ways. In this chapter, we have reported our first analysis of data drawn from the Activity Books that accompany use of the game SSL. While the findings are partial and incomplete, they do suggest that, through the device of role playing that involves students making critical decisions as the game context unfolds, students demonstrate the capacity to project themselves onto their in-game characters. They also derive a sense of affinity and empathy for the characters that they play. Furthermore, the combined evidence to date suggests that, through the course of game play, students’ attitudes, values, and beliefs related to citizenship shift in the preferred direction—that is, one that manifests positive development of attitudes as well as dispositions to act in a manner consistent with those attitudes. By careful design of role-playing scenarios that afford students the opportunity to learn by being a virtual person in a game world, we find that students empathize readily with the character being played. We caution, however, that considerable thought and careful design effort are required to construct the kinds of scenarios and contexts that will successfully engage students affectively, cognitively, and metacognitively. Our experience suggests that iterative design is essential in trying to narrow the gap between theoretical conception and practice. Placing students in situations where their virtual personas risk their life is one device that often strengthens empathy. When design succeeds, the heightened sense of being in the immersive game world and of learning through first-person experience can lead to improved

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memorability of the learning experience as well as deep and lasting learning. It should be noted that the work reported here was carried out in a typical neighborhood school. As students in such schools tend not to be very articulate, we were challenged in trying to encourage them to “speak their mind.” Part of the research challenge in this respect is cultural in nature. In the generally didactic climate of teaching that pervades in schools, students in the school where we did our research were unaccustomed to having and sharing personal views on matters related to citizenship education. The demands placed on them were thus unexpected, and students had to become comfortable with the idea that this mode of learning was not about producing correct answers to narrowly defined questions. Notwithstanding the challenges we faced, the indications of positive change in the attitudes and beliefs held by students in respect of their place, role, and responsibility in society are very promising.

cONcLUsION In this chapter, we have shared our work on game-based learning using the game Space Station Leonis that we developed at the Learning Sciences Lab. We have sought to direct attention away from learning that carries no significant transformative impact for the individual. Instead, we have argued that foundational learning that is capable of fostering deep conceptual understanding based on a form of “lived knowing” (as opposed to “head knowing”) is that which carries lasting educational value. In view of this stance, we have adopted a developmental approach to learning. As part of this entailment, we have investigated the issue of identity development in the context of a program of learning related to National Education in Singapore. We agree that, in line with current research on identity and discourse, narratives

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provide a key means through which such study should be conducted. However, we also argued that narratives, by themselves, are insufficient. They need to be complemented by performatives based on talk, interaction, action, and behavior that can provide justification for, and thus validity of, narratives. Furthermore, we argued for the value of dispositional data, as manifested by attitudes, values, and beliefs that can serve as useful indicators for evaluating the outcomes of our research intervention on National Education in a classroom context. We provided a glimpse into the game Space Station Leonis and highlighted the importance of role playing/taking in gamebased learning. We also shared some empirical research based on students learning with the game and presented initial findings from a learning activity centered on empathies that derive from projecting player identities onto game characters in the game. The findings indicate that students can indeed empathize with the in-game characters in reasonable ways. The empathetic categories, in turn, provide a metaphorical window through which we, as researchers, can gain insight into their affective dispositions which may one day be manifested in action and over which narratives can then be further constructed.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The work reported in this chapter is funded by a Learning Sciences Lab research grant, number R8019.735.NG03. In a project of this scope and diversity, a multi-disciplinary team is indispensable. We acknowledge the contributions of all team members: Nathanael Ng, Liu Yi, Loi Hui Min, Yuan Tao, Eric Chan, Eric Salim, Henry Kang, Chen Jieyang, Rave Tan, Ahmed Hilmy, Ho Wing Foo, Billy Tan, and Isaac Ho.

Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning

rEFErENcEs Abt, C. C. (2002). Serious games. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination: Four essays. Austin: University of Texas Press. Belsey, C. (2002). Poststructuralism: A short introduction. NY: Oxford University Press. Benwell, B., & Stokoe, E. (2006). Discourse and identity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Butler, J. (1990). Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. NY: Routledge. Chee, Y. S. (2007). Embodiment, embeddedness, and experience: Game-based learning and the construction of identity. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 2(1), 3-30. de Fina, A., Schiffrin, D., & Bamberg, M. (Eds.). (2006). Discourse and identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Edwards, D., & Potter, J. (1992). Discursive psychology. London: Sage. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J. P. (2004). Situated language and learning: A critique of traditional schooling. NY: Routledge. Gee, J. P. (2005). Why video games are good for your soul: Pleasure and learning. Melbourne, Australia: theLearner.com. Gee, J. P. (2007). Good video games and good learning: Collected essays on video games, learning and literacy. NY: Peter Lang.

Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. NY: Anchor Books. Green, J., & Luke, A. (Eds.) (2006). Rethinking learning: What counts as learning and what learning counts (Review of Research in Education, Vol. 30). Washington, DC: AERA. Halliwell, M. (2004). Images of idiocy: The idiot figure in modern fiction and film. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Hoffman, D. M. (1998). A therapeutic moment? Identity, self, and culture in the anthropology of education. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 29(3), 324-346. Johnson, S. (2005). Everything bad is good for you: How today’s popular culture is actually making us smarter. NY: Riverhead Books. Juzwik, M. M. (2006). Situating narrative-minded research: A commentary on Anna Sfard and Anna Prusak’s “Telling Identities”. Educational Researcher, 35(9), 13-21. Lee, H. L. (1997). Developing a shared sense of nationhood. Speech given by then Deputy Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong at the Launch of National Education, 17 May 1997, Singapore. Lim, K. Y. T., & Chee, Y. S. (2007). In stable orbit: An initial assessment of dispositional changes arising from learning using the citizenship education videogame Space Station Leonis. Paper to be presented at the International Conference on Computers in Education, Hiroshima, Japan, November. Marshall, T. H. (1950). Citizenship and social class and other essays. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self & society: From the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Mead, G. H. (1982). The individual and the social self: Unpublished work of George Herbert Mead

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(D. L. Miller, Ed.). Chicago: Chichago University Press.

Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development. NY: Oxford University Press.

Michael, D. & Chen, S. (2005). Serious games: Games that educate, train and inform. Boston, MA: Thomson.

Selwyn, N. (2006). Literature review in citizenship: Technology and learning (Report No. 3). Bristol, UK: Futurelab.

Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2003). National Education Web site. Retrieved May 6, 2007, from http://www.ne.edu.sg/

Sfard, A. (2006). Telling ideas by the company they keep: A response to the critique by Mary Juzwik. Educational Researcher, 35(9), 22–27.

National Council for the Social Studies. (1994). Expectations of excellence: Curriculum standards for social studies. Silver Spring, MD: National Council for the Social Studies.

Sfard, A., & Prusak, A. (2005). Telling identities: In search of an analytic tool for investigating learning as a culturally shaped activity. Educational Researcher, 34(4), 14-22.

Newell, A. (1982). The knowledge level. Artificial Intelligence, 18, 87-127.

Shaffer, D. W. (2006). How computer games help children learn. NY: Palgrave Macmillian.

New Media Consortium (2007). The Horizon Report, 2007. The New Media Consortium and the Educause Learning Initiative. Retrieved July 11, 2007, from http://connect.educause.edu/library/ abstract/2007HorizonReport/37041

Stevens, R. (Ed.). (1996). Understanding the self. London: Sage.

North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL). (2003). enGauge 21st century skills: Literacy in the digital age. Naperville, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. Oblinger, D. (2006). Simulations, games, and learning. Educause Learning Initiative White Paper, May 2006. Retrieved July 11, 2007, from http://connect.educause.edu/library/abstract/ SimulationsGamesandL/39338 Prensky, M. (2006). Don’t bother me Mom—I’m learning! St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. Ricoeur, P. (1992). Oneself as another (K. Blamey, Trans.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Rogoff, B. (1993). Children’s guided participation and participatory appropriation in sociocultural activity. In R. H. Wozniak & K. W. Fischer (Eds.), Development in context: Acting and thinking in specific environments (pp. 121-153). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

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van Haaften, W., Korthals, K., & Wren, T. (Eds.). (1997). Philosophy of development: Reconstructing the foundations of human development and education. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Widdershoven, G. (1997). Models of human development. In W. van Haaften, K. Korthals, & T. Wren (Eds.), Philosophy of development: Reconstructing the foundations of human development and education (pp. 31-41). Dordrecht: Kluwer. Zahavi, D. (2006). Subjectivity and selfhood: Investigating the first-person perspective. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

KEY TERMS Agency: The capacity of an individual to make decisions and to act in the world to realize those decisions. Being and Becoming: A dimension of human development that focuses on how an individual learns to be and to become a certain type of individual.

Development, Identity, and Game-Based Learning

Discourse: A form of human communication that has the characteristic of ongoing exchange.

Narrative: An idea, account, or story that describes a sequence of events.

Disposition: An inclination to act in a certain way based on a particular world view.

Performative: Embodied enactions in the world of which an individual is self-aware.

Human Development: The study of progressive psychological change in individuals as they grow older.

Projective Identity: The identity that arises when an individual imposes his or her agency on an avatar in a game.

Identity: An individual’s sense of self as a certain kind of person.

Space Station Leonis: A hybrid role playing and simulation game developed for citizenship education.

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Chapter XLVII

Play Styles and Learning Carrie Heeter Michigan State University, USA

AbstrAct This chapter reviews player types found in commercial MMOs and educational games and a palette of play styles and learning is proposed from which game designers and educators can more easily imagine (or perhaps “paint”) their target audience. Two studies show how the palette might be applied. Study 1 examines the impact of different in-game reward schemas on player types. Study 2 compares classroom play with one child per computer versus paired play of the same educational game. Educational game design and the way a teacher structures in-class educational game play both influence emergent play and learning. Player archetypes (more commonly called player types) help game designers imagine the needs and interests of potential players. Considering learner types would be similarly useful. Learning styles relevant to educational game design and classroom use are described, including intrinsic and extrinsic achievement orientation, motivation, individual traits, and competition and other social factors.

INtrODUctION Different players play in different ways. Players are often characterized as either achievers or explorers (Bartle, 1990, 2006; Heeter & Winn, 2008; Klug & Schell, 2006; Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). Multi-player games introduce a social dimension, enabling pro-social and anti-social play styles. If their preferred play style is not available in a game, players must adopt a less preferred, available play style.

Different learners learn in different ways. Learners are often characterized by whether they learn better through visual, auditory, or kinesthetic channels (Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1984). Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning styles are based on two axes, a preference for learning from concrete examples versus abstract concepts and from reflection versus action. If their preferred learning style is not available in a lesson, learners must adopt a less preferred, available learning style. Many factors encourage or inhibit learning, such

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Play Styles and Learning

as achievement orientation, self theories about learning, individual abilities, and the pleasures and complications of competition and other social dynamics of the circumstance of play and learning context. Interface design guru Alan Cooper (1999) decries the vague goal of designing software for “the user.” The word “user” is generic. It encompasses novice and expert users, children and the elderly, computer phobics and computer geeks. User is such an elastic concept it can “bend and stretch and adapt” (p. 127) to justify almost any design decision. Cooper’s solution is to design for personas. Personas are tangible, carefully constructed archetypal users with particular needs and expertise, so specific they are even given a name and photograph. Design teams plan how their software will meet the needs of one or more specific personas. Instead of asking, “how would I use this software,” personas help a design team ask “how would Mary [the primary persona] use this software” (Spool, 2007). Personas provide a common vocabulary for discussing, understanding, and designing for a tangible, less elastic target user. Designing a game for “the player” is just as vague as designing software for “the user.” The word player is amorphous, elastic, and each designer tends to imagine her or his own self as the player. Some entertainment game design teams have begun to work with player archetypes (more commonly called player types) to focus the design process and to ensure that the game includes enough elements to appeal to each important player type (Klug & Schell, 2006). Entertainment player types are useful but not sufficient for educational game design. Because educational games have learning as well as entertainment goals, learning game player types need to incorporate player-learner characteristics such as learning styles, abilities, and achievement orientation. In this chapter I review research on player types and learning to generate a palette of play styles and learning. The palette serves as a reminder of

the many different types of players and learners who might play an educational game. Designers can use the palette to focus in on the subset of player types and learning styles they want to consider, accommodate, and encourage in their game. Following the philosophy of persona analysis, it makes sense for a game to aim to please certain player types and learning styles very well rather than pleasing every type a little. Like an oil painter’s palette, the play styles and learning palette can be used to “paint” a vivid picture of specific target players. The palette can help educators as they plan to use a game in their classroom. Reviewing the palette can be a reminder of player types and learning styles for whom the game is not optimal and who may need special attention. The circumstance of play can include pre-game activities, plans for playing in pairs or individually, and follow-up activities to address needs and interests of different kinds of learners. The palette helps to focus my own research agenda and may be useful to other educational game scholars. I close the chapter by describing results from two studies that show how game design features including in-game rewards and circumstance of play can adapt to and even influence player types and learning styles.

BACKGROUND Play Style and Player Types Psychologists describe child play behavior based on laboratory observations of toy selection, rough-and-tumble play (or lack thereof), and activity level (for example, Alexander & Hines, 1994; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987). Play style can be characterized as masculine or feminine. A feminine play style includes choosing feminine toys, an absence of rough and tumble play, and limited physical activity (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987). But play style can be fluid. A child may

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move from one play style to another in a single period of play and may engage in different play styles on different days or in different contexts. Girls exhibit feminine play styles more often than boys do and vice versa, but both sexes engage in masculine and feminine play styles. Like toys, digital games can be designed to offer more or less gendered game experiences by drawing upon masculine, feminine, neutral, or mixed themes, game goals, and player interactions. How a child actually plays with a toy is not always consistent with designers’ intentions. One can practice juggling using three Barbie dolls or play house using marbles to represent family members. Toy and game design restricts or enables different play styles, but ultimately the players decide how they will play from moment to moment. Game research has looked at player types more so than play styles. Play style emphasizes behavior during play and tends to be viewed as fluid. Player types combine play style and player motivation, describing the player rather than transitory behavior. Player types are useful archetypes. Designers can consider game features and mechanics likely to appeal to a particular player type. Player types have primarily been studied in the context of massively multi-player online games (MMOs). Bartle (1990, 2006) was the first to develop a digital game player taxonomy, grouping players of an online “MUD” (a early form of multi-player online role play game, typically text-based) into four player types based on the kinds of pleasures they sought from playing. Two of the four player types (socializers and killers) are primarily driven by social interactions with other players. Socializers like to interact with other players, and killers like to frustrate and harm other players. Achievers and explorers are more interested in interacting with the game than with other players. Achievers seek to improve their power and status. Explorers delight in figuring out underlying game mechanics. They take pride

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in unearthing esoteric game features and bugs (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). Yee (2006) extended the study of MUD player types to look at types of motivations for playing MMOs. Collecting survey data from more than 30,000 players, he identified five underlying player motivations for their MMO play: achievement, relationship, immersion, escapism, and manipulation. Most MMO players were adults and 85% were male. Male players scored significantly higher on achievement (the desire to become powerful in the game) and manipulation (objectifying and using other players for one’s own gain) factors, and female players scored significantly higher on relationship (the desire to develop meaningful relationships with other players in the game). Squire and Steinkuehler (2006) classified players in the Star Wars Galaxy MMO as role players and power-levelers. Power-levelers were motivated by achieving a-priori goals, often acquired through rote mechanical labor known as “grinding,” while role players cared about moment to moment enjoyment in the game and tried to maintain the illusion and integrity of the virtual world and their character. Klug and Schell (2006) describe nine player types used by some commercial game companies. An individual player often embodies a mix of two or more of these player types. Design teams creating massively multi-player games work to ensure that different types of players can find enough to do in the game to keep them interested. (Note that designers are more likely to try to inhibit rather than accommodate killers or griefers.) • • • • •

Competitor (be better than the other players) Explorer (experience boundaries of the play world) Collector (acquire the most stuff) Achiever (championship over time, not just this round) Joker (fun and social)

Play Styles and Learning

• • • •

Director (thrill of being in charge) Storyteller (create or live in alternative worlds, build narrative) Performer (puts on a show) Craftsman (build, solve puzzles, engineer constructions)

What happens in a game is a result of the affordances and constraints of the game and the goals of the player. By practical necessity, design decisions often end up privileging the goals of some player types and serving other player types less well. Squire and Steinkuehler describe tensions between players with opposing goals when they posted feature requests about how to improve Star Wars Galaxy. Players with power-leveling, achievement goals wanted more pre-set story and clearly stated, fairly enforced standards for advancement. Players with a role play goal valued emergent play and freedom to invent their characters and actions. Although narrower in scope and usually lacking the social dimensions of MMOs, educational games can elicit different play styles. Klawe, Inkpen, Phillips, Upitis, and Rubin (2002) observed that boys playing computer games in a museum exhibit hall were more interested in completing or winning and would “rush to beat the game” (similar to achiever player types in MMOs). Girls took a more exploratory approach (akin to the MMO explorers). Ko (2002) looked at individual differences in how young people played an inferential problem solving game. He observed that some players appeared to be “random guessers” whereas others approached the game as systematic “problem solvers.” Random guessing was not good for learning. The random guessers failed to improve over time, while the problem solvers’ performance did improve. Our own research (Heeter and Winn, 2008) looked at player types in a single player educational game, based on data collected by the game during play. We created an online game for

middle school students that teaches national science standards on evolution. Players earn points for each correct match and they lose points for each incorrect match. Players can be quick and efficient problem solvers, learning the minimum necessary to successfully complete each match. Or they can take their time and explore a wealth of interesting, related information not essential to matching correctly. It is possible to complete the game without paying any attention to the content by random guessing, although doing so would result in a poor score. Based on what is known about player types we can expect to find achievers and explorers. Achievers want to succeed at the game. They probably also “rush to beat the game,” playing quickly to finish before other students do, or even when playing alone, to make the experience more competitive. Explorers probably take their time and explore interesting content above and beyond what is necessary to complete the game. When an educational game is a required classroom activity rather than a chosen leisure time pursuit, some students may go through the motions of playing without feeling motivated to achieve or explore. Lack of engagement with the game or lack of problem-solving ability could result in random guessing rather than problem solving play. Ko (2002) classified players as problem solvers or random guessers. We divided problem solvers into achievers and explorers based on how quickly they finished the game. We also used speed of play to divide random guessers into two player types. Those who played quickly and made many mistakes might be considered careless players. Those who played slowly and made many mistakes might be thought of as lost. Table 1 shows the four player types (achiever, explorer, careless, and lost) and how those player types would be classified based on their score in the game and how quickly they finished. Table 2 shows actual play behavior of the four player types, using data collected online from 90

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Table 1. Learning game player types ACHIEVER

EXPLORER

CARELESS

LOST

SCORE

High

High

Low

Low

TIME

Fast

Slow

Fast

Slow

Table 2. Play behavior by player type Achiever

Explorer

Careless

Lost

p

ANOVA

PLAY STYLE Minutes

7.0

13.0

7.0

13.0

.000

F=45.50; df=3,86

# Mistakes

3.8

5.6

18.9

19.4

.000

F=19.61; df=3,86

Click Rate

10.1 per minute

5.7 per minute

10.0 per minute

5.5 per minute

.000

F=15.38; df=3,86

N

25

23

19

23

seventh graders’ in-class play of Life Preservers, a science education game we created for play style research (Life Preservers, 2006). The fastest 50% of players were classified as fast. The slowest 50% were categorized as slow. The 50% who made the fewest mistakes were high scorers. The bottom 50% were low scorers. As would be expected based on how the categories were constructed, achievers and careless players finished much faster than explorers and lost players. Achievers and careless players played the fastest, finishing in an average of 7 minutes. Explorers and lost players took almost twice as long to play, an average of 13 minutes. Achievers and careless players clicked much more often—an average of 10 clicks per minute of play versus explorers and lost players’ rate of about 5.6 clicks per minute. Explorers and achievers made similarly few mistakes in the game (an average of 3.8 to 5.6) while lost and careless players averaged nearly four times that many mistakes (around 19). Careless players clicked quickly but may not have stopped to read. Lost players seemed to take time to read

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but still made many mistakes. Based on their play behavior, lost players appear to be the least engaged with both game play and content of the four player types. Which of those four player types learned the most? Does a high score in the game equate with more learning? Before answering those questions, we will consider research on learning that might be relevant to game design in general and educational game design in particular.

Learning Orientations and Learning Styles Gee (2007) marvels about how directly great games resemble great pedagogy. Among other parallels he points out that games are “action-andgoal-directed preparations for, and simulations of, embodied experience” (p. 26). He explains that players gain competence through trial, error, and feedback. Game design for player enjoyment and instructional design for student learning both deal with motivation, challenge, individual differences, and social interactions. This section

Play Styles and Learning

reviews some of the cognitive psychology and learning research, which has direct implications for learning game design.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Achievement Orientation Achievement or goal orientation refers to how individuals perceive and respond to achievement situations (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). People who have a high achievement motivation enjoy challenges much more than those with a low achievement motivation (Lee, Sheldon, & Turban, 2003). Students’ motivation to achieve at school can be based on extrinsic goals external to the learning content such as earning good grades or teacher approval. Intrinsic goals internal to the act of learning can also motivate learning, such as the pleasure of mastering a new topic or content being learned, curiosity about the subject matter, or the sense of expertise as knowledge grows. Intrinsic rewards arise from the process of learning or play and extrinsic rewards from results (grades, points, winning, approval). Chang (2004) found males and females are equally high on the intrinsic motivation to achieve (i.e., mastery of skills and knowledge), but females also tend to work for grades for social purposes. Unfortunately, researchers observe a steady decline in intrinsic motivation as children progress through school, and some developmental decrease in extrinsic motivation. Lepper and Henderlong (2000) reviewed decades of research examining the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Under some circumstances, offering extrinsic rewards reduces intrinsic motivation, particularly if the extrinsic rewards are unrelated to the learning task. For example, teachers who overemphasize grades may reduce their students’ intrinsic motivation. But studies have also shown that extrinsic rewards do not necessarily interfere with intrinsic motivation and can in fact complement them. Rewards tend to enhance motivation when

they provide information about competence but undermine motivation when they serve only to assign status (Lepper & Henderlong, 2000). For example, there is a positive correlation between curiosity about a topic (intrinsic) and attempting to please the teacher (extrinsic). Achievement orientation dovetails with achiever and explorer MMO player types, and also explains the underlying motivation why players exhibit one or the other play style. Achievers and power-leveler player types clearly are driven by extrinsic rewards defined by the game rewards. Explorers and role players are more motivated by intrinsic aspects driven by personal interest and curiosity. Extrinsic rewards in a game include points, leveling up, completing quests, and collecting items. Intrinsic rewards in a game are based on player interests and feelings, such as curiosity, exploring the world, and mastering challenges to enjoy the process of mastery. Learning motivations and game play motivations may or may not be closely aligned. This depends in part on the game design. When learning how to play and playing an educational game are closely tied to the desired learning outcomes, then a player’s learning goals and game goals can likewise be closely aligned. For example, in a game designed to teach about microbial antibiotic resistance, the player is challenged to find ways to reduce hospital transmission. Winning requires players to learn about microbes and apply their new knowledge. Conversely, if game play and learning content are weakly linked, the player may have separate intrinsic or extrinsic goals for game play and for learning. For example, if a math game involves shooting the right answer a player may find intrinsic pleasure in shooting within the game (game mechanics) but may feel no intrinsic interest in math (learning goals). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in an educational game have implications for play style and game design. Beswick (1971, 1974) found that intrinsically motivated individuals need time to explore. He explains that intrinsically motivated

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individuals “tend be more aware of a wide range of phenomena, while giving careful attention to complexities, inconsistencies, novel events and unexpected possibilities. They need time and freedom to make choices, to gather and process information, and have an appreciation of well finished and integrated products, all of which may lead to a greater depth of learning and more creative output” (Beswick, 2007, p. 1). Players who are intrinsically motivated will notice more detail and need more time to explore. Extrinsically motivated players seek external rewards such as winning and achievement. Games, which force all players to hurry or which require them to follow only a single prescribed path, are at odds with intrinsically motivated learning and play style.

Mindset and Self Theories Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations can both fuel learning. However some goal orientations inhibit learning. Dweck (2000, 2006) studies the impact of mindset on academic achievement and reaction to challenge. Mastery goals refer to a focus on skill development and task mastery and an attempt to meet personal standards of accomplishment. By contrast, performance-oriented goals focus on obtaining favorable evaluations from others. VandeWalle, Brown, Cron, and Slocum (1999) found that a mastery goal orientation (but not a performance goal orientation) resulted in skill building, which led to greater performance. Elliot and Church (1997) considered two quite different reasons individuals may have for pursuing performance goals. Performance-approach goals involve displaying competence and earning a favorable judgment. Performance-avoiding goals focus on trying to avoid failure. Elliot and Church found positive outcomes for both the performance-approach and mastery goals including positive emotions and absorption in the given task. Performance-avoidance prompted efforts to escape potential consequences of failure and was associated with anxiety. Performance-avoid-

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ance interfered with mental focus, blocking the individual’s ability to concentrate and become absorbed in an activity. The performance-approach and the mastery goals approach enhanced mental focus. Dweck (2006) found that about 42% of the population has a growth, or mastery mindset. These people believe that intelligence is malleable, that they are capable of improving. Another 42% of the population holds a fixed or helpless mindset. They believe that intelligence is fixed and cannot improve. A fixed mindset “creates an urgency to prove yourself over and over” (Dweck, 2006, p. 6). A fixed mindset can undo a natural love of learning. In contrast, effort and learning make incremental students feel good about their intelligence; easy tasks waste their time rather than raising their self-esteem. Those with a helpless mindset fit Elliot and Church’s classification of performance-avoidance. They avoid situations that they cannot easily do well at. Failure undermines their confidence and they become depressed and ineffective. Dweck (2006) suggests females may be more vulnerable to criticism because they encounter less of it during childhood. People can have different mindsets in different areas. They may have a mastery mindset in some domains and a helpless mindset in other domains. Players with a mastery mindset related to games will enjoy challenging games and be motivated by feedback including failures. Players with a helpless mindset, if they play games at all, will shrink from hard challenges and try to avoid situations in the game where they might fail. They likely also will prefer to play alone, where failure is not as public. Mindsets can change. Dweck (2006) proposes that the nature of feedback and rewards can encourage or discourage a mastery mindset. This advice applies both in the classroom and in games. Teachers and game designers should emphasize learning goals and encourage learners/players to view both gaming and subject matter as domains they can master.

Play Styles and Learning

Gee (2007) points out that the role of failure in video games is much different than the role of failure in schools. Failing in a game is part of the learning process—the player can start over, take risks and test hypotheses, all contributing to their learning. Learning through failure is great for players with a mastery mindset and problematic for players with a fixed mindset. In-game messages could be designed to help foster a mastery mindset, reinforcing the idea that every player’s skill and “intelligence” can improve through play.

on learning research. Each has implications for learning game design. Steps to promote curiosity include:

Inhibiting or Enhancing Intrinsic Motivation

4.

Research on learning points to ways of teaching that should improve a learner’s intrinsic motivation to learn. These methods apply equally well to designing engaging games as to motivating classroom learners to learn. As Gee (2003, 2005, 2007) explains, game design in many ways parallels cutting edge research on learning. Here are four suggestions for increasing motivation and learning in the classroom, based

1.

2. 3.

Personalize an educational activity in terms of themes, objects, and characters of high prior interest to students should enhance intrinsic motivation Tap an existing interest outside of the classroom Situate the learning in meaningful and interesting contexts Structure an appropriate level of challenge (not too much, not too little) increases motivation, a state Csiksentmihalyi (1990) refers to as “flow” and Gee (2007) describes as “pleasant frustration.”

Learning Style Theories Various learning style schemas can be applied to analyze the match between how learning opportunities are presented and what would be ideal for

Figure 1. Adaptation of Schaller, Boron, Allison-Bunnel, & Chambers’ adaptation of Kolb’s experiential learning theory

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Play Styles and Learning

individual students. Dunn, Dunn, and Price (1984) classify learners as preferring to learn through visual (seeing), auditory (hearing), or kinesthetic (doing) channels. Educators are advised to include teaching materials that address different senses, to reach diverse learners. Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning theory considers the intersection of two constructs: perception and information processing. The perception axis ranges from a preference for concrete experience to its opposite, a preference of abstract conceptualizations. The processing axis ranges from active experimentation to reflective observation. The coordinate system yields four learning styles. Schaller, Borun, Allison-Bunnel and Chambers (2007) applied Kolb’s theory to online learners’ preferences for, and responses to, different types of activities (Figure 1). They renamed the axes “doing” or “watching” and “feeling” or “thinking.” Some players prefer to learn by watching, others by doing. Some seek concrete experiences; others prefer abstract concepts. When learning game affordances (possible ways of playing and learning) match the preferred learning style of the player, there may be a stronger learning outcome or at least a more pleasant, easier learning process. Because different players have different preferred learning styles, games for a diverse audience should consider incorporating learning content and activities suited to more than one learning style.

Individual Traits Individual traits such as gender and age have implications for creation and use of educational games. For example, Piaget’s (1954) stages of cognitive development in children and teenagers include the sensory motor period (0 to 24 months), preoperational (2 to 7 years), cognitive operational (7 to 11 years), and formal operational (11 to 15 years). Educational games target age-appropriate cognition. Hundreds of studies have found gender

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differences related to gaming or computing (for a recent review see Kafai, Heeter, Denner, and Sun, 2008, and for an extensive collection visit the “investiGaming” online knowledgebase, 2007). Game designers can anticipate and design for gender differences. A challenge to teachers and game designers is optimizing learning experiences for individuals with differing abilities and experiences. Gardner (1983, 1993, 2000) introduced the concept of multiple intelligences: linguistic, logic-mathematical, visio-spatial, body-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and natural (of nature). Fitting challenge to ability is one of the keys to both learning and engagement. Each player-learner brings a unique mix of abilities to the game or class. Van Eck (2006) discusses the potential for creating intelligent games that adapt to individual players’ needs. Another way individuals differ is along Vygotsky’s (1978) concept of a learner’s “zone of proximal development” (ZPD). Some activities (physical or mental) are completely within the ability of the learner to accomplish on their own. Some activities are completely beyond the ability of the learner to accomplish regardless of whatever assistance might be given them. Somewhere in between these two extremes lie tasks the learner is capable of doing with some assistance from adults, from more competent peers, or perhaps from characters in a game. Vygotsky believed that this area, or zone, is where learning occurs. To guide, encourage, and keep pace with players’ constantly evolving ZPDs, games often include carefully constructed levels of progressive difficulty so that players must master one subset of skills before advancing the next level. Games also often provide hints to help advance the game, either directly (through characters or game hints) or indirectly. Hints and levels serve as scaffolding for new learning (Lepper, Aspinwall, Mumme, & Chabay, 1990).

Play Styles and Learning

Competition and Other Social Impacts on Play Style and Learning The social dimension of gaming is central to two of Bartle’s four player types (killer and socializer) and to five of Krug and Schell’s nine player types (competitor, director, performer, storyteller, and joker). Social aspects of multi-player games are far from universally positive. Bartle’s “killers” or what Yee called “griefers” refer to anti-social players who take sociopathic pleasure in interfering with the play and enjoyment of others. Cyberbullies and killer players are not motivated by learning goals themselves, and they impede learning for other players. Krug and Schell’s joker may be harmless in a commercial MMO, but in a classroom or learning game their goal of being funny or silly may get in the way of their own learning and may distract others. Playing with other people is an important part of the fun in many games. Lazzaro (2004) identified “people fun” as “the enjoyment from playing with others inside or outside the game coming from the social experiences of competition, teamwork, as well as opportunity for social bonding and personal recognition that comes from playing with others.” Lazzaro’s advice to game designers is to “create opportunities for player competition, cooperation, performance, and spectacle.” Social interaction around classroom games can occur in different ways. Massively multi-player learning games such as Quest Atlantis assign each student to a computer (Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005). Learners solve quests together within the game world. The Great Solar System Rescue is played in five-person teams, with one computer per team (Jackson, 1997). Single player learning games can be played in teams or pairs, with players sharing a single computer and planning game play moves together. Social interaction before and after a game can build upon people fun, cooperation, and competition.

Pro-social, people fun sometimes contributes to learning and sometimes detracts from learning in school settings and in games. Those who are motivated by extrinsic, performance-approach goals are likely to enjoy a social context where they perform learning. Sherry, Lucas, Greenberg, and Lachlan (2006) found one of the most frequently cited reasons for playing video games was to prove to other people who has the best skills and can react or think the fastest. This response typically came from male respondents, “paralleling the dominance display among males most often seen in sports to establish a relative position in the person’s group hierarchy” (p. 217). Durkin (2006) reports similar gender differences: boys like to share games with their peers, and girls’ reactions range from lack of interest, through spectator roles, to enthusiasm. Competition in multi-player games adds motivation and enjoyment for some players but interferes with motivation and enjoyment for others. Playing games in a mixed gender classroom setting can exacerbate the impact of gender, presenting girls with potential barriers to learning (Heeter & Winn, 2008). Bertolozzi (2006) found males seek to play with males and females with females in part because single gender playgrounds are arenas in which players feel somewhat freed from having to deal with the complexities of cross gender interactions which affect every other area of their lives. Several experiments have showed competition improves performance relative to a non-competitive environment for boys, but not for girls, with the result that competition increases the performance of males relative to females (Gneezy, Niederle, & Rustichini, 2003; Gneezy & Rustichini, 2004). Girls playing games in a mixed gender group experience not only the complexity of competing against males but also negative stereotypes about their gaming prowess. Both computers and games are predominantly masculine-associated domains. Boys tend to dominate the technology

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(Ching, Kafai, & Marshall, 2000) while girls tend to deprecate their own competence and abilities (Jensen & de Castell, 2005) in mixed gender, computer gaming environments. Jensen and de Castell (2005) found girls and women characterized their own game play as being inadequate and/or less competitive for reasons which made little or no sense in relation to their own lives and experience. Young women constructed similar excuses as to why the boys in their classroom tended always to monopolize the best machines Steele (1997) developed the term “stereotype threat” to describe the experience of when stereotypes about a group’s abilities affect their intellectual identity and performance in certain social situations. Other researchers have documented this impact. Dweck (2006) found “when stereotypes are evoked, they fill people’s minds with distracting thoughts—with secret worries about confirming the stereotype. People usually aren’t even aware of it, but they don’t have enough mental power left to do their best on the test“ (p. 75). Self-consciousness about negative stereotypes reduces mental focus and interfere with concentration and performance. Of course, there are many positive aspects of group play and collaborative learning. Looking at commercial games, Lim and Lee (2007) found that co-playing led to a significant increase of the player’s physiological arousal during non-violent game play. Furthermore, co-playing enhanced the player’s sense of presence and identification. Some learning games are designed as multi-player experiences. Pedagogical arguments in favor of team rather than individual learning games derive from collaborative learning research which shows that “students working in small groups tend to learn more of what is taught and retain it longer than when the same content is presented in other instructional forms” (Gross Davis, 1993). When students are put in learning situations where they must explain and discuss their beliefs, some of their thoughts become more clear and others

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may be challenged by peers or a teacher (Linn & Burbules, 1991).

A Palette of Play Styles and Learning Figure 2, play styles and learning, presents a palette integrating all 52 elements discussed in the literature review. Seventeen player types appear in round rectangles; 13 outside of 4 within the outer (mindset) ring. Two motivation axes, achievement orientation and social orientation underlie player types and learning styles. Player-learners may have strong or weak motivations along any combination of intrinsic and/or extrinsic achievement orientation and pro-social or anti-social people orientations. Player types are archetypes. Real players often adopt two or more styles. Not all possible play and learning styles are effective for learning. Anti-social goals interfere with the player’s own or other players’ learning and enjoyment. Also, a helpless mindset hinders engagement with challenge and inhibits learning. Six game-related motivations are in the palette, placed close to the motivation axes they are most often associated with. Bullying and negative cultural stereotypes about a player-learner’s abilities interfere with learning. Reluctance to be singled out as the winner and social distractions also get in the way of learning. On the bright side, enjoying competition contributes to extrinsic achievement, cooperation is associated with prosocial enjoyment, and imagination is one form of intrinsic pleasure. Three rings and an inner core highlight 24 important learner characteristics. Mindset, the outer ring, can be helpless or mastery. Learning styles include visual-auditory-kinesthetic predilections as well as concrete-abstract and reflective-active experiential learning preferences. Engagement is influenced by prior knowledge, personal experience, and personal relevance, a learner’s ZPD and arousal during play and the appeal of the story/content. Player traits likely to be relevant

Play Styles and Learning

Figure 2. Play styles and learning palette

to game design and learning include age, gender, cognitive abilities, and multiple intelligences.

RESEARCH ON PLAYER TYPES, EDUcAtIONAL GAME DEsIGN, AND cLAssrOOM GAME UsE Learning motivations and styles have been studied for decades but research on player types and learning from games is sparse. The play styles and learning palette is intended for game designers and teachers who want to teach with games, to focus attention of important design features, player-learner behaviors, and learning. The palette can also help focus and target research. To close this chapter I will describe two of my team’s own experiments, which examine the impact of in-game reward structure (game design) and

paired play (structuring classroom use of a game) on player types and learning.

Manipulating Play Style Through Reward Structure In my review of player types, I proposed four educational game player types (achievers, explorers, careless players, and lost players). Game designers decide how points are awarded, how players compete and win, whether and why bonus points, or other rewards are awarded. Our study looked at the impact different reward conditions had on player types and learning. We created three versions of the Life Preservers game which were identical except for bonus points. The “plain” version had no bonus points. A second version rewarded speedy play. A countdown clock was shown for each round.

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Players who finished before the clock ran out won “speed bonus points.” The third version rewarded exploration. A “critters explored” counter kept track of how many different critters the player explored for at least seven seconds each during a round. Bonus points were awarded for each critter explored. Data was collected as 270 seventh graders played LP online, with one child per computer, during part of normal class activities. When a player logged in, they were randomly assigned to one of the three versions of the game. Ninety players played the no bonus version, 92 played the Reward Speed version, and 98 players played the Reward Exploration version. (For more detail about the game and the research please see Heeter & Winn, in press.) Online survey data, including a post-test and attitudinal measures, was also collected for 230 of the 270 participants. (Technical problems interfered with survey completion from 40 students.) To classify player types, the same method and cutoff percentiles described for Table 2 (which presents only the 90 players in the No Reward condition) were applied to players of all three versions. Table 3 combines all three reward conditions and shows perceived fun, gender, mistakes, and performance on a knowledge post-test by player type. Players rated how fun LP was to play, on a scale from 5 = very fun to 1 = not fun at all. Achievers and explorers rated LP as significantly more fun than did careless and lost players. Sixty-eight percent of lost players were female, despite a 50-

50 gender split in the study sample. Females were proportionately underrepresented in the achiever and careless player types. Gender differences were statistically significant. Looking only at mistakes made during play (the mistake averages in Table 4 combine players in all three reward conditions), Achievers and explorers made far fewer mistakes. Achievers and explorers would seem to be the best learners. An 11 item post game knowledge test was based on items from standardized tests to assess national science standards related to evolution and adaptation. The questions assess general concepts, rather than specific details about any of the creatures included in LP. Achievers scored the highest (7.5 out of 11), and lost players the lowest (5.7). Explorers and careless players scored almost the same on the knowledge post-test, despite vastly different numbers of mistakes during play (6.8 and 6.5, respectfully). Unfortunately the knowledge test failed to measure any of the interesting facts and observations Explorers may have learned, for example, facts about actual prehistoric creatures, that went beyond the broad concepts tested by the exam. My own goals as a teacher are to inspire learners’ intrinsic interest in the topic, and my hope is they go beyond only learning what will be on the test. On the other hand, we have a K-12 system oriented towards “teaching to the test” (Posner, 2004). Based on goal of maximizing scores on standardized tests, achievers appear to be the best player type for learning, slightly, although not significantly, better than explorers. By both

Table 3. Learning, fun and gender by player type Achiever

Explorer

Careless

Lost

n

p

ANOVA

Perceived Fun

3.1

3.2

2.6

2.7

230

.029

F=3.07; df=3,227

% female

41%

49%

44%

68%

270

.008

F=3.99; df=3.265

# Mistakes

4.5

5.4

21.1

19.2

270

.000

F=64.41, df=3,266

Learning

7.5

6.8

6.5

5.7

230

.002

F=5.02; df=3,227

838

Play Styles and Learning

Table 4. Player type by reward condition REWARD STRUCTURE

Achiever

Explorer

Careless

Lost

N

No Bonus

28%

26%

21%

26%

90

Reward Speed

26%

15%

28%

30%

92

Reward Exploration

25%

34%

21%

21%

98

N

71

67

63

69

270

measures (in-game errors and post game knowledge), lost players learned the least. Reducing the number of lost players, either through game design or classroom intervention, could benefit learning. Table 4 shows the percent of achievers, explorers, careless, and lost players in the three reward conditions. Comparing the No Bonus condition to the Reward Exploration condition, the most notable and predictable difference was an increase in explorer player types. Comparing the No Bonus condition to the Reward Speed condition, fewer players (only 15%) were classified as explorers and increases in the number of careless and lost players were observed. This makes sense. Rewarding speedy play causes players to play faster. Achievers DID NOT increase. In other words, playing faster did not equate to playing better. Rewarding speedy play seems to interfere with learning for some players. Rewarding exploration resulted in the lowest percentage of low scores. Learning games should try to minimize lost play. The results from the knowledge post-test suggest more research is needed on learning by careless players. Mistakes made within the game may or may not be a good measure of learning.

Play Styles and Learning in Solo vs. Paired Play Game design can influence play style and learning. So can the circumstance of play (the context in which educational games are played). We conducted an experiment with Life Preservers to increase social interactions during this single-

player game. Paired play introduced a social dimension, increasing the likelihood of pro-social and anti-social play. Benefits for learning could come from competition or cooperation. Potential drawbacks include bullying, added distractions, stereotypical expectations (such as girls being self consciously aware of an expectation that girls are bad at games) that interfere with concentration, and what the palette labels “fear of winning,” when competition instills a desire not to win. Extensive research points to gender as an important consideration in group play (for example, see Jensen & de Castell, 2005). Williams and Kessler (2002) studied paired programming assignments in computer science. Pairing programmers of roughly the same ability was most beneficial in part because it reduced disagreements over irrelevant details. In general homogenous pairings were best, including pairing extroverts with extroverts and introverts with introverts. There were too few female computer science students to analyze gender. Werner, Denner, and Bean (2004) structured paired programming among middle school girls. Their work found strong benefits for paired programming among girls, with ground rules to facilitate teamwork. One hundred fifty-six seventh graders (79 girls and 77 boys) from one Indiana city and one California city played in teacher-assigned pairs. The teacher randomly assigned each child to either a same gender or mixed gender team, seeking an equal number of boy-boy, girl-girl, and girl-boy teams. Werner, Denner, and Bean’s (2004) guidelines for paired programming were adapted to paired play. One player was assigned

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Play Styles and Learning

Table 5. Play styles influenced by solo or paired play (plain reward structure) Achiever

Explorer

Lost

Careless

n

Solo

16.7%

23.8%

42.9%

16.7%

42

Pairs

20.0%

25.0%

40.0%

15.0%

21

Solo

37.5%

16.7%

18.8%

27.1%

48

Pairs

19.0%

47.6%

19.0%

14.3%

20

8.3%

25.0%

50.0%

16.7%

24

Solo

27.8%

20.0%

30.0%

22.2%

90

Pairs

15.4%

32.3%

36.9%

15.4%

65

Girls

Boys

Mixed Pairs Overall

(F=3.31, df=4,150, p=.022)

to control the mouse for the first round. The game then instructed the pair to switch seats and hand off the mouse for the next round. The partner who was not controlling the mouse was assigned to watch and provide guidance and help minimize mistakes. In total, online play data was recorded for 21 all girl pairs, 20 all boy pairs, and 24 mixed gender pairs who played the game. Play style data from each pair was compared with individual play style from the 90 seventh graders (42 girls and 48 boys) in the earlier solo play study, looking only at those in the no bonus rewards condition. Table 5 compares solo and paired play by gender and player type. Looking at click rate (clicks per minute), the average click rate for solo boy players was 9.8 clicks per minute, and for solo girls it was 6.8 clicks. Paired play click rates were the same for girls whether they played in girl-girl pairs or alone (6.7 or 6.8). Boy-boy pair click rates were much slower than boys playing alone (6.9 compared to 9.8). Mixed girl-boy pairs had the slowest click rate (5.7 clicks per minute). Girls playing alone and girls playing in girlgirl pairs each exhibited a similar distribution of play styles (see Table 5). The most common player type for girls was lost (slow play with many

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errors) accounting for 43% of solo and 40% of paired girl players. The second most common girl player type was explorer, accounting for 24% of solo and 25% of paired girl players. Boys playing alone were most often classified as achievers (37.5%). When boys played in boyboy pairs, their style was different, most likely to be explorer (47.6%). Playing in pairs slowed boys down. Careless play dropped from 27% among solo boy players to 14% among paired boy teams. Differences in play style were significant based on crosstab analysis, with Chi-square=23.38, df=12 and p=.025. Mixed girl-boy pairs showed the highest proportion of lost play. Half of all mixed gender pairs fit that classification. Paired play appeared to have beneficial impacts on some players’ attention to the game’s learning content. Under solo play conditions, a subset of players made more mistakes than correct matches; a different subset explored very few creatures. Paired play resulted in less variance for mistakes (as well as significantly fewer mistakes) and less variance for creatures explored (as well as slightly, but not quite significantly, more exploration). Paired play was particularly good for boys paired

Play Styles and Learning

with another boy. On average boys playing together scored higher, and played a little slower than boys playing solo. Paired play was neither particularly good nor bad for girl-girl teams. Play style of two girls playing together strongly resembled play style of one girl playing solo in terms of play style, mistakes, and exploration. Girl-boy pairs seemed to suffer rather than benefit from the pairing. This combination resulted in more Lost play style than other pair groups.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE PLAY STYLES AND LEARNING PALETTE The palette serves as a reminder of many dimensions of play and learning. It can be used like an artist’s palette of colors from which to paint a picture of target player types for a game at early stages of development. (The diagram can be downloaded from http://gel.msu.edu/palette/) Designers, teachers, and playtesters are invited to print out a copy or download and modify the source file. Use it to highlight learning styles and player types the game will be designed to serve and to envision and prioritize primary and secondary target players (player personas). How might secondary player goals also be met to some extent? Looking at achievement orientation, can achievers achieve and explorers explore? Are ingame rewards and feedback presented in a way that promotes a mastery rather than performance mindset? Playtest researchers might use prioritized palette printout for each player they observe, using it to focus observations on areas of concern during design. Educators who structure the circumstance of play for classroom learning with games could use the palette to consider how to build upon the game experience through pre- and post-activities to enhance learning for different learner needs and interests.

Using player types and learning styles as a lens for designing, teaching with, and studying games for learning draws attention to underlying reasons for effective games. Doing so could help designers and theoreticians envision what effective play styles for learning might look like, and imagine tangible ways to encourage desired kinds of play. Use the palette to evaluate the type of players that you need to design for and what designing for those player-learner types means. Think about and create a persona for your target player-learners using the palette as your guide. As found in the Life Preservers examples, game design can influence play style and learning. For our player-learners, it was found that the game would encourage more learning if there were no speed incentives. Achiever player types naturally motivated themselves to be fast and adding mechanisms to motivate speed did not have a great impact on how the achievers played. However, adding speed incentives did negatively impact other player types, in terms of both the learning the player got out of the game and their perceived fun. Rewarding exploration in the game helped to decrease the number of lost player types in the game and resulted in the lowest percentage of low scores. Learning games should try to minimize lost play. Use the palette to think about the player-learners of your game and design it with features that will help them to learn more and enjoy it more. The palette’s use transcends the game design phase and can be used to create a better experience for the player-learners using the game. The Life Preservers study found pairing students together in same-gender teams can be beneficial. On average boys playing together scored higher than boys playing solo and there was no effect on girls performance when comparing all-female paired play versus solo female play. Mixed-gender teams hindered the students performance, as this combination resulted in more lost player types than other pair groups.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT Brian Winn was co-PI, lead game designer, and a close collaborator. Jillian Winn played essential roles in data collection, analysis, writing, and editing as a graduate student and full-time employee. I wish to thank Ruta Sevo from NSF and to acknowledge invaluable research, game design, and art support by graduate students Patrick Shaw and Amanda Flowers and Art Direction by Darcy Drew Greene. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. 0217197. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

rEFErENcEs Alexander, G., & Hines, M. (1994). Gender labels and play styles: Their relative contribution to children’s selection of playmates. Child Development, 65(3), 869-879. Barab, S., Thomas, M., Dodge, T., Carteaux, R., & Tuzun, H. (2005). Making learning fun: Quest Atlantis, a game without guns. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(1), 86-107. Bartle, R. (1990, December). Interactive multiuser computer games. MUSE Ltd, British Telecom. Bartle, R. (2006). Hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades: Players who suit MUDs. In K. Salen & E. Zimmerman (Eds.), The game design reader (pp. 754-787). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Bertolozzi, E. (2006). “You play like a girl!” Cross gender competition and the uneven playing field. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://road.uww. edu/road/bertozze/BertozziPlayGirl.pdf

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Beswick, D. G. (1971). Cognitive process theory of individual differences in curiosity. In H. I. Day, D. E. Berlyne, & D. E. Hunt (Eds.), Intrinsic motivation: A new direction in education (pp. 156-170). Toronto: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Beswick, D. G. (1974). Intrinsic motivation in senior secondary school students. Education Research and Perspectives, 1, 15-25. Beswick, D. G. (2007). Management implications of the interaction between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards. Beswick recent psychological research home page. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://www.beswick.info/psychres/management.htm Chang , W. (2004, January). Learning goals and styles by gender—A study of NUS students. cDTL Brief, 7(1). Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http:// www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/brief/v7n1/sec2.htm Ching, C. C., Kafai, Y. B., & Marshall, S. (2000). Spaces for change: Gender and technology access in collaborative software design. Journal for Science Education and Technology, 9(1), 67-78. Cooper, A. (1999). The inmates are running the asylum. Indianapolis, IN: SAMS: A division of Macmillan Computer Publishing. Csiksentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: HarperCollins. Dunn, R., Dunn, K., & Price, G. E. (1984). Learning style inventory. Lawrence, KS: Price Systems. Durkin, K. (2006). Games and adolescent development. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games (pp. 415-428). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Dweck, C. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Essays in Social Psychology, Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia, PA.

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Dweck, C. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House: New York.

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Elliot, E. S., & Church, M. A. (1997). A hierarchal model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218-232. Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic. Gardner, H. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J. P. (2005). What would a state of the art instructional video game look like? Innovate, 1(6). Retrieved October, 3, 2007, from http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=80

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Lee, F. K., Sheldon, K. M., & Turban, D. B. (2003). Personality and the goal striving process: The influence of achievement goal patterns, goal level, and mental focus on performance and enjoyment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 256-265. Lepper, M. R., Aspinwall, L. G., Mumme, D. L., & Chabay, R.W. (1990). Self-perception and social perception processes in tutoring: Subtle social control strategies of expert tutors. In J. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Self inference processes: The Sixth Ontario Symposium in Social Psychology (pp. 217-237). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Lepper, M. R., & Henderlong, J. (2000). Turning “play” into “work” and “work” into “play”: 25 years of research on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. In C. Sansone & J. M. Harackiewicz (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: the search for optimal motivation and performance (pp 257-307). San Diego: Academic Press. Life Preservers [Serious Game]. (2006). Retrieved from http://lifepreservers.msu.edu/ Lim, S., & Lee, J. R. (2007). Effects of coplaying on arousal and emotional responses in videogame play. International Communication Association Conference, San Francisco. Linn, M. C., & Burbules, N. C. (1991). Construction of knowledge and group learning. In K. G. Tobin (Ed.), The practice of constructivism in science education (pp. 91-119). Washington, DC: AAAS Press.

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Posner, D. (2004). What’s wrong with teaching to the test? Phi Delta Kappan: The Professional Journal for Education. Retrieved September 18, 2007, from http://www.pdkintl.org/kappan/ k0406pos.htm Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). The rules of play. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Schaller, D., Borun, M., Allison-Bunnell, S., & Chambers, M. (2007). One size does not fit all: Learning style, play, and online interactives. In J. Trant & D. Bearman (Eds.), Proceedings from Museums and the Web 2007. Toronto, Canada: Archives & Museum Informatics. Retrieved July 7, 2007, from http://www.eduweb.com/OneSizeDoesNotFitAll.pdf Sherry, J., Lucas, K., Greenberg, B., & Lachlan, K. (2006). Video game uses and gratifications as predictors of use and game preference. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games (pp. 213-224). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Spool, J. (2007). Three important benefits of personas. User Interface Engineering Research Articles. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from http://www.uie.com/articles/benefits_of_personas/ Squire, K., & Steinkuehler, C. (2006). Generating CyberCulture/s: The case of Star Wars Galaxies. In D. Gibbs & K. Krause (Eds.), Cyberlines2: Languages and cultures of the Internet (2nd ed.). Albert Park, Australia: James Nicholas Publishers. Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629.

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VandeWalle, D., Brown, S. P., Cron, B., & Slocum, J. (1999). The influence of goal orientation and self-regulation tactics on sales performance: A longitudinal field test. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 249-259. Van Eck, R. (2006). Building intelligent learning games. In D. Gibson, C. Aldrich, & M. Prensky (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning research & development frameworks. Hershey, PA: Idea Group. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Werner, L., Denner, J., & Bean, S. (2004). Pair programming strategies for middle school girls and boys to reduce the gender gap. 7th Annual Computers and Advanced Technology in Education Conference Proceedings. Kuaui, HI: International Association of Science and Technology for Development. Williams, L., & Kessler, R. (2002). Pair programming illuminated. Boston: Addison-Wesley Professional. Yee, N. (2006). The demographics, motivations and derived experiences of users of massivelymultiuser online graphical environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 15, 309-329.

KEY TERMS Achievement Orientation: Achievement or goal orientation describes how individuals perceive and respond to achievement situations such as learning, classroom performance, or game play. Individuals may be intrinsically motivated by the pleasure of mastering a new topic or content being learned, curiosity about the subject matter, or the sense of expertise as knowledge grows. Or they can be extrinsically motivated by grades, teacher

approval, earning points or money, finishing first, or being recognized as the best. In-Game Rewards: The payoffs a player can earn during a game such as points, leveling up, acquisition of special powers, or collecting objects are means by which game designers can encourage or discourage player behaviors and attitudes. In-game rewards can be designed to encourage growth mindsets and facilitate intrinsic motivation, or they can inhibit exploratory play and reinforce a helpless mindset. Learning Game Affordances: Learning game affordances are the kinds of actions and perceptions a player-learning recognizes as being available at any given time within a game, including available learning styles and available play styles. Affordances are based on how the game was created (intended affordances) as well as player knowledge, experience, and imagination and how clearly what is possible is communicated to the player. In addition to intended affordances, some games also enable player-generated content and goals whereas other games are much more narrow in what is possible. Learning Game Player Types: Four player types of educational games are proposed, based on speed and accuracy of play. Achievers are problem solvers who play quickly and make few errors. They enjoy playing and winning are motivated by extrinsic achievement goals. Explorers play slowly and make few errors/problem solve but are more focused on their own curiosity and imagination than on the game requirements. They enjoy exploring ideas, role play, and game mechanics more than earning top scores. Careless players play quickly and make many errors. They tend to be random guesses interested in finishing quickly and enjoy playing but are not particularly motivated to learn. Lost players play slowly and make many errors. They are random guessers who tend not to enjoy either playing or learning from the game.

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Personas: Personas were developed by user interface designers to overcome problems associated with designing for the vague, elastic construct of “the user.” A persona is a user or player archetype, conceptualized as if he or she were an actual person, with a name, goals, needs, and experience (or lack thereof). Personas are used by design teams to conceptualize and discuss a shared vision of a tangible primary and secondary target audience. Player Types: Player types are archetypes of extreme player behavior characterized along observable, meaningful dimensions. Play styles are different ways of playing (such as masculine and feminine play styles). Player types are different kinds of players. Player types embody essential, prototypical player behaviors. This

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chapter links player behavior and underlying motivations in describing different player types, as a means to facilitate game design for different player types. In practice, individual players often exhibit characteristics of two or more player types at different times. Social Player Types: The social to anti-social dimension of player types describe individuals whose predominant pleasure from playing stems from interactions with other people. Anti-social players include “Killers,” “Griefers,” and bullies who find pleasure in frustrating other players or interfering with their experience. Pro-social players include “socializers” and those who enjoy “people fun.” They find pleasure in cooperation, competition, and communication as well as developing or exercising meaningful relationships with other players.

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Chapter XLVIII

Playing Roles in the MMORPG Kingdom of Loathing Martin Oliver London Knowledge Lab, Institute of Education, UK

AbstrAct This chapter explores the roles players created, and how these structured their online relationships, in an online massively multi-player role-playing game, Kingdom of Loathing—a low-tech browser-based game with a satirical, humorous style. Existing research has often sought to understand players’ actions by classifying them into “types”, determined by motivations for play or patterns of behaviour. However, such typologies are shown to be problematic, particularly in the way that they might be interpreted as predicting behaviour. Instead, a phenomenographic exploration was undertaken, looking at players’ experiences, the roles they took up, and how they learned to perform these. This exploration shows that classifications of players are an over-simplification. Instead, the classification should apply to examples of play—not least because the game itself was not “fixed” but was constantly re-designed in response to play. This has implications for research methodology, but also for the (ongoing) design of games.

INtrODUctION

Although there is a lot of interest in the social aspects of online games, our understanding of this remains limited. In this chapter, a study is presented that explored the roles players of a massively multi-player online roleplaying game (MMORPG), an online game in a fantasy setting with thousands of simultaneous players, created for themselves. This is used to critique existing research on player classifications, and implications for research methodology are identified.

BACKGROUND Role-playing games achieve their success by blending play and narrative, and massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) supplement this by adding social elements (Carr, Burn, Schott, & Buckingham, 2003). This motivational aspect of role-playing games, and of MMORPGs in particular, has become a recurrent research focus. Previous studies have identified motivations that players can hold. Fine (1983),

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for example, talks about escapism (from self or conventions), sense of control and sociability, as well as play for educational benefit and for fun. Although useful as a starting point, however, these seem to be very different kinds of motivations, and a list does little to explain their interactions or their effects. It remains a list, rather than forming a framework for further studies. A different way of conceptualising motivation is needed to account for the observed complexities of players’ actions, and it is this problem that will be addressed here. Other studies have worked to develop firmer theoretical foundations for discussions of motivation. For example, Carr et al.’s (2003) study of the MMORPG Anarchy Online revealed various styles of play—such as collaborative, role-play intensive scenarios, or power-levelling. They identify three kinds of motivation for play. The first are ludic motivations, concerned with mastery of the game. The second are representational, focusing on presentational, narrative and performative aspects, such as being “in character”. The last are communal, addressing the desire to be part of a social grouping. These motivations clearly relate to Fine’s list, but provide a more analytic taxonomy. The communal element is worth further consideration. In Carr et al.’s study, communal elements played out primarily in the context of clans—self-organised groups of players that collaborate to achieve complex goals, provide mutual support, overcome challenges too large for individual players, and so on (Lin, Sun, & Tinn, 2003). Clans raise interesting questions about in-game and out-of-game socialisation, and about how to enforce agreed codes of behaviour (ibid). Interestingly, however, Lin et al. concluded that the primary purpose of clans “is not for social purposes but for character survival and success […] since slaying monsters or capturing castles are impossible tasks for solo players” (p. 297). This idea will be returned to later.

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Moreover, the ludic and representational elements can also be hard to separate. There is a tradition in the games studies literature that proposes that the construction of characters is shaped by the features of games—what the game “affords” thus provides players with a repertoire from which to construct a particular character (e.g., Carr et al., 2003). Thus “good” games are argued to provide richer opportunities for such expression than other kinds of game (e.g., Gee, 2003). Fine (1983) also considered social motivations, but focused more on the interactions around games rather than within them, such as between the game creator and publisher. For pen-and-paper role-playing games, he discussed differentiation within groups of players, for example, by leadership role or specialisation. He also talks about motivations for play (essentially, ludic and representational), differentiating players who wish to immerse themselves in strange settings and hence “play themselves”, from those who play an extension of their character, and those who play a character consistently, even when this goes against their own best interests in making progress through the game. (Using Carr et al.’s terminology, for these players, the representational motivations overwhelm the ludic ones.) However, this discussion remains very general. Although more has been written about motivation (e.g., the classic works by Malone & Lepper, 1987), much of what remains addresses game structures (assumed to cause motivation in players) or is reminiscent of what is reviewed here. All this reveals little about styles of play. Carr et al.’s study goes some way towards this, although they primarily contrast role-players (seeking narrative immersion) with “roll players” (seeking to power-play). Similarly, Lin and Sun (2005) use Rieber’s four categories of motivation to differentiate play as power, as progress, as fantasy, and as self. They also illustrate how the boundaries between acceptable and deviant play are contested—for example, whether some

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is a “griefer” if they spitefully, dispassionately, or accidentally kill another’s avatar in the game, or if they automate play using “bots”. Such work supports the idea that there are “types” of gamer—characterisable groups who can be planned for and supported. The classic reference for this is Bartle’s work (e.g., Bartle, 1996), which classifies players as “hearts” (socialisers), “clubs” (“killers”), “diamonds” (achievers), or “spades” (explorers), although this is self-acknowledged as anecdotal. Academically, Taylor (2003) discusses “the power gamer” (or “roll player” or “munchkin”), who derives satisfaction from the ludic elements of the game and values “efficiency” (knowing how to get the best rewards from the least time playing), often developing technical expertise in order to “script” an encounter, producing algorithms for successful play. While it is often assumed that power gamers pursue these ludic motivations at the expense of communal ones, Taylor argues that things are more complex: in-game socialisation is often neglected (as unproductive), but collaboration around the game, for example in dedicated discussion fora, is common. Even in-game, such players may form social relationships (e.g., through guilds) to increase the efficiency of their play. This complexity is interesting, because it begins to recast “motivation” in a different way. Rather than being something a player has, or being an hidden cause that drives their play (as it is for Fine, and for Bartle, 1996), motivation can be seen as contextual and situated (Pelletier, 2006). It becomes performative, being reflected in what players do, rather than an internal characteristic. This resists the temptation to sort players into “types”—powergamer, escapist, etc.—and recognises complexity in the way that people play games. This position highlights how players’ create subject positions, and the links between motivational claims and styles of play. For example, expressed ludic motivations seem to have an affinity with the skillful play of power players (Taylor,

2003); representational motivations seem closely related to processes of identity construction (Gee, 2003); and communal motivation seem to be associated with activities such as clan membership (although Lin et al., 2003, call this into question). Carr et al. and Lin et al.’s studies aside, empirical examples that substantiate or challenge such assumptions are lacking. To summarise, then, investigations of players’ motivation has provided some useful concepts, but for the most part, these are either assumed to arise from features of the game or else to denote “types” of players. Neither of these positions explains the complexity of roles that people choose to create in this kind of game. It is this gap—the link between performances in play and players’ reasons for these—that this study addresses. Given that neither studying games nor players seems entirely satisfactory as a way of exploring motivation, the chapter will also try and identify what might be an appropriate focus.

“AN ADVENTURER IS YOU!” PLAYING KINGDOM OF LOAThING The online game Kingdom of Loathing (KoL; www.kingdomofloathing.com) was selected as an opportunity to study players’ roles and motivations in a MMORPG. KoL is typical of many aspects of the MMORPG genre, in that it combines a central narrative with options for exploration, socialisation, player-vs-player conflict, and trade. There are typically around 700-1,200 players online at any given time. Several things make it distinctive. It is a lowpresence game; drawings and textual descriptions are presented to the player, and the “avatar” is simply a picture (little more than an elaborate icon) above the status pane. Figure 1 is a screenshot taken from the game. However, the degree of presence builds incrementally through play, as avenues for interaction become available. Players can complete optional

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Figure 1. A sample screen from the game (© Asymmetric Publications, LLC; used with permission)

tasks to enter the game’s chat channels (textual, in a browser pane). Additional channels are opened by completion of feats: channel haiku after completion of the Extreme Haiku Challenge; trade, once the avatar purchases a shop in the mall; Valhalla, after completing the game and “ascending” (to play through again), and so forth. Trading becomes possible after accessing the flea market, accessing the mall (level five), and being able to buy a mall shop (level nine). Clans can be joined at level three, and formed once players reach level seven. Clans provide their own chat channel, announcements, a stash for exchanging items, inter-clan wars, and, in some cases, additional services such as Buffbots (to cast status-enhancing skills on avatars). There is optional player-vs-player competition (a mini-game rather than as an instance of in-game combat), either on a friendly basis (for rank or to collect flowers as tokens of victory), or in a more mercenary way (stealing food, meat—the game’s

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currency, equipment, or stat points). Players can also create a display cabinet for collections (of rare objects or of excessive amounts of mundane ones), customise their profile, buy unique avatar icons, and earn trophies to display to others. Additional channels also exist without the game itself, such as the KoL Shoutcast radio station, fan sites, a visual Wiki, fan fiction, eBay, and so on. The game is free, and runs on the basis of voluntary player contributions and some revenue from KoL-branded merchandise. This rather unusual economic model is, perhaps, one of the reasons for the technically simple interface and low use of bandwidth. Time in-game is also managed by a daily quota of adventures (turns), which can be supplemented through eating, drinking, and by possession of certain items. Perhaps most importantly, however, the game is parodic and celebrates linguistic virtuosity. From item descriptions to encounters, it refer-

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ences popular culture and, in particular, other computer games. (For example, avatars may be seal clubbers, turtle tamers, pastamancers, saucerors, disco bandits, or accordion thieves, rather than warriors, mages, rogues, etc.; adventuring in locations such as the Penultimate Fantasy Airship might lead to an encounter with a MagiMechTech MechaMech or an Irritating Series of Random Encouters; in a section parodying “1337” culture, avatars might face a Flaming Troll or a Lamz0r N00b.) It also abounds with palindromes, haiku and other forms of verbal dexterity, and players are not allowed to access the chat panel until they have proved themselves at the Altar of Literacy (a test of reading, grammar, etc.). Finally, while it supports exploration, it is organised around a central narrative (the Quest to defeat the naughty sorceress). Rather than offer expansion packs, it encourages re-play by “ascending” and re-incarnating as a first-level avatar, optionally increasing the difficulty level by preventing any trading with others (Hardcore), adopting additional penalties (Bad Moon ascensions), or restricting access to food and drink (Tetotaller, Boozetafarian or Oxygenarian paths)—making progress considerably slower and harder, and earning special recognition and rewards.

METHODOLOGY Players’ perceptions of their roles, including how and why they took these up, were elicited using a series of in-game mailings (treated as a proxy for interviewing). Initially, a theoretical sampling approach was used. Players were invited to participate in the study based on the visibility of their involvement in different areas of the game, reflecting the motivational constructs identified in the literature review (mall traders, clan leaders, power players, etc.). This strategy worked well for recruiting established players, but new players did not respond; consequently, new players were recruited through an in-game advert (on the town’s “graffiti wall” message board). All participants were offered 10,000 meat for participation—an in-game reward. Only the newer players, for whom such a sum was a sizable, wished to take this up. It should be noted that no claim is made about the typicality of the group under consideration; the sampling was designed to support theoretical exploration and development, not a map of the prevalence of the roles. Thirteen participants took part in the study. This was deemed adequate to provide diversity in terms of age, extent of participation, and gender. Since this study was designed to generate categories of motivated play, and no claims are made about the prevalence of these categories, there was

Table 1. Experienced players

•

•

A player chosen for their visible presence in mall trading, but also known to the development team as a bug finder and tester of new features. [Participant 1] A player with multiple ascensions, currently ascending as an Hardcore Oxygenarian, selected for their visibility in Chat. [Participant 2] A top-ranked player on the Hardcore speed ascension rankings. [Participant 3]

Established players

• • •

A clan leader. [Participant 4] A mall trader. [Participant 5] A player on their third ascension [Participant 6]

New players

• • • •

Players with a month’s experience [Participant 7, 10] A player with 2-3 weeks’ experience [Participant 8] Players with two weeks’ experience [Participants 11, 12] Player with a few days’ experience [Participant 9, 13]

•

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no need to map this sample to a wider audience, and so conventional statistical concerns about power are irrelevant. Briefly, the 13 participants who took part can be characterised in Table 1. “New” players were considered to be people whose accounts had been created within the last month, and who identified that they had no alternative avatars. Established players had played for several months. Experienced players had played for months and, in addition, had established a very visible profile in one area of the game. Participants 5 and 7 identified themselves as female players with female avatars; the others either identified themselves as male or else did not disclose their gender but had made avatars. Few players disclosed information about their ages, although those that did ranged between 16 and 42. Participants were given information about the study by e-mail and asked to give their informed consent to participate in a reply. They were then asked two opening questions: “What do you see your role in the game as being, and how did you go about creating it?” The initial replies were read and responded to with follow-up questions. In some cases, four iterations of question and response were completed, although for most participants, three iterations were sufficient to reach agreement that sufficient information about their play had been provided. The complete exchanges were then analysed to explore the extent to which motivations and roles intersected. Quotes are included here to illustrate the discussions and ideas; these have not been corrected grammatically or for expression. They are not linked to particular participants, except where this was helpful in understanding the context of comments. The first analytic step was to list the roles that players described, and to cluster those that were similar. Then, each role category was explored to discover variations that helped scope the meaning of these roles.

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FINDINGS: rOLEs AND tHEIr crEAtION In this section, the roles that players identified are described. These descriptions include information about how players created these roles. It should also be noted that most players—especially the experienced players—described themselves as having multiple roles. As such, these should not be seen as exclusive or exhaustive.

Class as Role Although one participant speculated that “player” was a role, this idea was quickly dismissed as being too vague to be coherent. However, a very new player did express their role purely in terms of game mechanics—specifically, character class and equipment. In RPG games I’ve always opted for a thief/ rogue-esque character, and even in a game like KoL, where many things aren’t serious (i.e., the colloquial language and parodies) I’ve tried to retain those characteristics. I’ve tried to do that by choosing the “Disco Bandit” character, although “Accordian Theif” was another option. As I progress further into the game, I hope to outfit my character with gear and items befitting of a rogue. Another new player explained their role in their clan as being a consequence of their class—only certain classes are able to create particular kinds of food, and they were providing this for others—and one more talked about how gaining levels was a necessary pre-requisite for them taking up a role (mall trader). However, this linking of role to mechanics was unusual—almost exceptional. It was notably absent from the discussions with more experienced players.

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This was not a role players described themselves as being motivated to take up.

their life, and they felt comfortable behaving this way in this environment too.

The Good Citizen

I’m not just this sort of person in my online RPG’s, but I’m somewhat like it in real life. […] Its not something I really decided to do, its just something that I’ve always done.

Almost without exception, participants described a role that involved advising less experienced players (and in some cases, helping them by providing items). These players took pride in being helpful, and many worked to get themselves known (either through networking or a formal clan role) so that they were in a better position to provide help. Their motivations were thus social, even altruistic. I’ve always helped the community throughout my time here in KoL, whether if it was back in the old days, supplying well established 10-meat sales with hordes of items, helping newbies in their early days, or buffing players free of charge […] or now, how I help people adapt to different situations in the game, using information others and myself have found. As I’ve helped people, others have heard and asked, players both new and old, for my advice. Some actively worked to build their knowledge in order to provide this role; others found themselves in it as a side effect of expertise they had developed anyway. As a consequence, relatively new players recognised that they would be less able to help others. I guess I got to this role by going out of my way to learn everything I can about the game, by showing what I know (to get myself known out there), and by being able to adapt to how the game has changed. When asked why they took on this role, some people said they fell into it by accident; for one player, though, this was a “natural” role to take up. It was how they performed in other areas of

Why am I helpful (to a fault) in real life? Were I a psychiatrist or psychologist, I might talk about deep-seated problems of self-esteem that drive me to seek approval. And I must admit that a good part of what I do is rewarded by the thanks and praise of others. I am gratified by gratitude. For some, there was an element of social duty in it. Having been helped themselves, they felt it only right to help others in turn. I have always subscribed to the notion that good deeds must be “paid forward.” So a lot of what [my avatars] do is motivated by that ideal. For others, the role was almost inevitable: they saw little alternative, given the structure of the game. I don’t think there’s much else one can do […]. Everyone goes through the same process of gaining meat, collections, trophies, rare items, which I consider more in line of “powerplaying”. The roles are more on the social/community side, so I’m working out what kind of social role I want to take on as I progress through the game. There is a kind of status associated with such a role, however. Celebrity (insofar as folks in Kol are “ famous”) is connected to compelling public discourse (ideas and style) in the forums and generosity and discourse style in chat. Those who

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are most visible in KoL are the articulate and the generous. [And later:] I evoked Noblesse Oblige earlier, and it is not an accident that one of the top clans in the game has that name. There is a culture of largesse in KoL. And to some degree, it is by helping others that one affirms one’s own value and dominance. The role-played out in a more precise way within the context of players’ clans, largely due to the consistency of interaction that can take place within the relatively bounded group. Within my clan, I would say i also play the following roles: Empathy. I am very attuned to my clanmates, listening carefully. I am concerned and caring. Clownishness. I serve as the butt of jokes at times and it’s a role I don’t mind. Doing “ feel good” support. I try to encourage and support my clanmates. I sometimes stroke the egos of clanmates. This kind of social influence can be instrumental in shaping not just an avatar’s role, but also their character. The role I play is strongly shaped by the context and content of my interactions with others. Certainly, there are strong traits in all of my characters that come largely from “me” […]. However, they are different in part because they “developed” in different contexts. Had [Participant 2] not had a certain amount of encouragement from certain regulars in the /haiku channel and in [the clan]... and had he not had the kind of positive feedback he has received over time, he would not be relatively flamboyant, well-liked /haiku citizen he is now.

Bad Citizen No one in this study claimed to be a bad citizen, or identified someone else as being so. However, there were indirect comments that suggested

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such a role exists—for example, clan looters, vindictive player-vs-player gamers and those that delight in disrupting chat channels. Such avatars can receive visibility, but were not respected. It was suggested that such roles were motivated by a desire for attention. PvP-oriented players who do not simultaneously engage in compelling public discourse and acts perceived as being “ for the common good” may be infamous, but hardly famous. And certainly they will not be lauded for their personae.

Clan Leader Although clans only have one leader, many avatars take up roles of responsibilities within them. These roles are often administrative—processing applications, ensuring clan looters are spotted and “booted” from the clan, distributing high-quality food as a form of charity work, and so on. Although this sort of role carries status and tends to garner respect, it can take time, interfering with other elements of play. [Avatar name] created his own clan [which] would accept newbie players, […] nurture them, then send them on to [another clan]. [Avatar name] largely disappeared from chat and focused on running the clan. So I would say that [Avatar name] is the least developed “persona” of the three. When playing [Avatar name], I focus largely on administrative matters, answering clan members’ questions, devising contests to stimulate participation in the clan, etc. Although players can just create a new clan, these are often hard to populate; people seeking to create this role in a meaningful way therefore often rely on existing out-of-game social networks (they recruit their friends) or else have to work through the ranks of being a good citizen within a clan in order to earn the chance to lead it.

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Motivations here were mostly social and altruistic. Little power or ludic advantage accrued from such a position.

Beneficent Demigod One player described a role that, while clearly related to the “good citizen”, was quite different in tone. Whereas the good citizen might be a peer, the “beneficent demigod” was simply so incomparably powerful that they stood apart by virtue of what they could achieve. I suppose you could say my role in the kingdom is to amaze the n00bs, and I achive this goal by being aloof, mysteriously powerful, mindnumbingly rich and randomly generous. (: Although this is not a role many players can take up (not least because it has taken years of play to create), it would be interesting to see if others aspire or progress to it.

Mall Trader Anyone eligible to buy a store in the mall can influence in-game prices of items. Doing so often depends on being able to buy up existing supplies so as to control their prices. However, such a role was also social; repeat custom and customer loyalty were also important. Some stores also sold over-priced items but gave away gifts as incentives, or ran lotteries (with purchases as tickets). My pricing policies are actually fairly chaotic. Booze I price as cheap as it will go (loss leader pricing to bring in a steady clientele) and the rares I tend to price near the bottom of the market to drive the price where I want it to go, so I can stir things up. It’s more for my amusement than anything else. In-game activities were also important. For example, one player described their financial

strategy as accessing and successfully adventuring in new locations as they were implemented by the design team, then “selling what I found there at absurdly inflated prices.” Although some became mall traders in order to gather in-game resources (a ludic motivation), players’ reasons were not always so obvious. Participant one, for example, explained how this was a way of asserting his presence in the game. I picked the mall because at the time, that’s the one place I could make my mark. (In those days, stat-boost bugs were being exploited, but not turned in by the leaderboard players, and this was before I got into bugfinding.) For another, being a mall trader was their primary aspiration, partly because it was fun but also because it allowed them to rehearse skills and ideas they wanted to use in the rest of their life, in this case, practicing applied economics in a low-risk setting. However, even for this participant, they claimed that their primary motivation to do this was social. One of the main reasons that young people, such as myself, connect to internet games is so that they can interact with their peers. Trading and bargaining is a great way to do this.

Virtuoso Player This role found its in-game expression in many different ways. For some it was being incredibly rich, or amassing quantities of rare items; however, most players who described this role expressed it in terms of a position on the game’s leaderboards. These describe, for example, the quickest ascensions, highest statistics, pvp ranking and so on. Thus although this role might seem to be ludically motivated, there were also communal reasons for playing in this way.

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I show what I know through things like breaking game records. Not all achievements are equal. Some leaderboards, for example, can be dominated simply by repeating patterns of action. I just […] statwhored (shoring and basement) every day for around 6 months. There was difference of opinion about whether the leaderboards are a symptom or cause of virtuoso play. For the most part, the speed board just something I’ve fallen into, I don’t really care to be there. I never expected to have the speed I have comparative to other players, so I’ve fallen into it, but I don’t mind aiding them on getting to the same speed =) In spite of this protestation that their position was accidental, falling from a position on the leaderboard would spur this player into action, even if more from a sense of personal pride than competitiveness. Its not so much defending it from a challenge, moreso something I haven’t found/thought of has been devised, and I try to find it/beat it using my knowledge and tactics. I see it as a chance (and a reason, at times) to do some serious exploring. So, yeah, proving that I have the knowledge and skill that person does would be the reason. There was some discussion of “multis” —extra avatars. These are discouraged, and many players consider them to be a form of cheating. However, the discussions made it clear that the developers are well aware of this and tolerate “parallel” play, where a player has more than one avatar but these do not interact. Use of a multi to “farm” items to send to the main avatar, however, is considered multi-abuse; it would certainly discredit someone

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who sought to be seen as a virtuoso player to use avatars in this way. High performance on the leaderboards could also be used for other purposes. At that time, I had found some stat-boosting bugs (or more accurately, legit game mechanics that had certain imbalances when taken to extremes), and even after reporting them, Jick didn’t think it was worth fixing because it wasn’t a problem. So, myself and 2 other players happened to coincidentally pick the same Moxie stat day to demonstrate that it *was* a problem, by example. The next day, I was on the top of the leaderboard, with Arbitrage and Hotstuff close behind. The bug was fixed that day. (:

Distinctive Character There was great difference in players’ interest in creating a persona for their avatar. One participant said they had found “no opportunity” for roleplaying and so questioned whether KoL was, in fact, a role-playing game. Another added: I don’t think there are many roles in a game like KoL. The fact that there isn’t a RP (hey, look at the “role” in roleplay!) element greatly limits the variety of roles the players can branch out and become reknowned in. I mean, I’ve played in a game where a particular guild/clan can take on the duty of protecting a territory, becoming an exclusive club for one class (e.g., wizards) and store lots of knowledge about wizardry skills, or providing services to other players. There doesn’t seem to be the same breadth in KoL as I’ve seen in other games. Interestingly, both of these were new players; the first changed their position slightly after accessing the chat channels for the first time. Other players managed to create in-game personas. Not all did; the game’s slogan (“an adventurer is you!”) echoed the feeling expressed

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by many that their avatar was just their own presence in the Kingdom. Nonetheless, for some, performing a character was an important part of play. One participant explained how “I made a conscious decision on completing the haiku quest that [Participant 2]’s character would be defined by haiku, that he would not speak publicly in Kol except in haiku form.”

“pwn,” to get a laugh, to put in a “bon mot,” to have the last say. Indeed, it is quite tiring to be [Participant 2]. Hence, the voice of biological person actually typing these words can best be heard in [a secondary avatar’s] KoL discourse (mostly clan chat). But the creative writer and lover of literature that I am can be heard in [Participant 2].

I actually play three principal characters in KoL and each of has a well-defined social role. [Participant 2] is the most public of the three, at least for a certain small audience in KoL (regulars of /haiku), which seems to be why you contacted [Participant 2] by kmail. Were I to answer in [Participant 2]’s voice, the answers would be in haiku form, and that would be cumbersome.

This shows that the performance elements of role-playing are not only possible within this environment, but can be developed to quite sophisticated lengths.

Performance, however, was more a style of communication than of game play. I entertain, particularly through haiku dialogues or conversations often characterized by heavy doses of double entendre, punning or other wordplay. This is what I call “haiku dancing.” However, the role was more than just representational; there was clearly a specialist version of the “good citizen” social role, in that the player took pains to help others develop their Haiku skill and defuse conflicts (within that specialist chat channel), as well as offering more conventional advice about the game. Importantly, the player made clear the kinds of distinctions drawn between himself and his avatar’s character: When I say “[Participant 2]’s voice,” yes, I meant stylistically. […] [Participant 2] is an idealized and exaggerated me. [Participant 2] flirts in a way I have never done in real life. He plays with double entendre in a way that I would be embarassed to do in most social or work circumstances. […] [Participant 2] always seeks to

Bugfinder and Tester A rare but important role was the “dev tester”. Some players had made a mark on the game by systematically identifying in-game problems. I […] graduated to Bugfinder in 2004 (finding exploitable bugs in the game code and turning them in to Jick back when such bugs were relatively rampant). [Subsequent message:] I was one of the first bugfinders who turned in every bug i found (the rule back then was, you report it and then you were allowed to exploit it until Jick fixed it. things were a lot looser back then). Bugfinding was relatively common in the earliest days of the game, but is less common now that the development process has become increasingly professional. However, trusted bugfinders were invited to become part of a development team, testing out new content before general release. (This suggests that acting as a bugfinder—rather than an exploiter—is a communally motivated role.) It’s still theoretically possible, but unlikely. Jick has a dev team now (of which i am a member) who go over all new code before it rolls out. We’re pretty thorough.

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The status conferred by being a tester is considerable; however, it can be incompatible with some other roles—for example, Ascension re-sets avatar statistics, taking players out of some of the leaderboard competitions and limiting opportunities for that kind of virtuouso play.

DIscUssION There are several striking features about the accounts summarised previously. First, the findings provide a more sociable picture of MMORPG motivations than existing literature. All players emphasised the importance of socialising, respect, and building communities. Even those whom other identified as lacking social motivations (e.g., the virtuoso players, the aloof beneficent demigod) saw social roles as a core part of their identity. This supports Taylor’s conclusions (2003) about the social life of powergames, but undercuts his “typing” of players—and the work of researchers such as Lin et al. who down-played the importance of the social. Second, all the players described multiple roles. While communal roles were universally discussed, representational ones were also common. Some players managed these by using multiple avatars, others simply performed in complex or inconsistent ways. None of them was easily characterised as one neat “type”, however. Thus the picture emerging here is of individuals with complex lives and motivations engaging with each other, not of individualistic, isolated players driven solely by progressing through the game. In Carr et al.’s terms, for these players, ludic motivations were secondary to communal ones. The relationship between ludic and representational motivations is more complicated, varying considerably from player to player—and even from avatar to avatar. Third, the idea that “good” games provide richer opportunities for expressing character than others do is called into question, at least in the

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context of MMORPGs. Less-experienced players indeed saw avatar roles in terms of class, equipment, and other expressions of game mechanics. Rapidly, however, these players identified other possible roles, and experienced players did not talk in terms of mechanics or rules at all. One possible interpretation of this is that the game’s constraints became naturalised, taken-for-granted and thus were no longer visible, but still remained in effect. However, more plausible is that the rules simply become less important. For experienced players, the rules were visible a social constructs, malleable and arbitrary. They were simply things that the development team have made up, and—as the role of Bugfinder and Tester illustrates—trusted players (or massed popular opinion) could influence them. The “constraints” of the game are therefore not fixed, but respond to player actions and opinions, as the development team seeks to improve and extend what they have created. Even for moderately experienced players, there was a negotiation of what counted as skillful play (i.e., play within rules) and what should be classified as cheating (i.e., breaking or subverting rules), making it clear that the boundaries between rule and convention were negotiated, not fixed. This supports the position that treating “games” as a given object of study, rather than an historically and culturally produced artefact, is over-simplistic. Fourth, players conceptualised their relationship with their avatar in a range of different ways. “In character” could echo “normal” behaviour, extend it or even challenge it—although most players treated their avatar as “them” in the game world. I do both sides, for sure. I have a whole “[Participant 3]” persona, which is somewhat different to me, but I dont really use it a lot, compartitive to being myself. I’m more of the avatar thing, I find this game is easier like that, the community seems to favor it more, although the persona does creep through now and then =)

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Again, this highlights the difference between describing instances of play and the attribution of a “type” (e.g., “powergamer”) to the player who performed it. Play was seen to provide opportunities to rehearse identities that they wished to use elsewhere, such as the comments about learning economics from mall trading, or the expressive adventures of Participant 2: What I get from playing [Participant 2] is a certain feeling of freedom to verbalize in a way that I cannot in most circumstances of my life. It can be exhilirating. Online flirting is “safe” and requires no “ follow-through”, no commitment. There is no danger of disappointing, except in the present moment of the discourse. So... I try, I experiment. I let fly what comes to mind with minimal editing for form. And I have great fun doing so. This challenges the assumptions underlying the work of Bartle, Fine, Taylor, and others, that studying play can be understood as revealing stable characteristics of players; things were not so simple for the players here. Motives were plural, unstable, and whimsical, and some participants found them hard to explain even in retrospect. The analytic categories of ludic, representational, and communal motivation were useful in understanding this complexity, but these terms did not define types of players and were often intermingled in examples of play. Finally, it is worth reflecting on the limitations of this study. The data used were accounts of play; as with all self-reported data, it would be interesting to contrast this with observations of play, or analysis of artefacts produced through playing, so as to provide a critical perspective on players’ comments. Moreover, no claims are made to the prevalence of any roles or motivations, except to note the patterns within this particular sample. This caution is particularly important given the low level of participation from players identifying

as female; this is something that would benefit from further exploration. While it is plausible that some of patterns identified here would be repeated elsewhere (e.g., for other players), no evidence has been gathered about this. Moreover, the roles performed here might differ from those in other games. However, it would be reasonable to expect the emphasis on social roles to surface in many massively multi-player games, since these are commonly predicated on social interactions.

cONcLUsION The review of the literature identified several problems with existing work that sought to relate motivation, roles, and play. These included simplistic “typing” of players, attributing motivation to game features, and confusion about what the unit of analysis in such studies should be. These cases allowed the relationship between players’ motivations and roles to be re-examined. The narratives of players suggests that instead of classifying players by categories of motivations, they should be seen as having complex and inconsistent motives, many of which are influenced by their sense of community, and each of which prompts a particular kind of performance. Roles were social achievements, and players performed multiple roles simultaneously, often with an ambiguous relationship to their roles in the rest of their life. As a tangible outcome, this study has identified a series of roles taken up within this game. Although further work is needed to see if these also occur in other MMORPGs, or indeed other kinds of game, the general way in which some of these are framed suggests that they may be found elsewhere. For example, communal motivations dominated ludic or representational ones, particularly for experienced players, and this might recur in other social games (such as other MMORPGs), in contrast to Lin et al.’s findings (2003).

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IMPLIcAtIONs The implication of this for research studies is that the unit of analysis in game studies methodologies should be reconsidered. Rather than making claims about the player or the game, analyses such as this concern instances of play. These data should thus been seen as historically and socially situated. This complicates matters for game designers, but does highlight the importance of communal elements. The other implication for research—and for designers—concerns the assumption that there is a coherent object (the game) being studied. Some important roles were unrelated to the game (understood as a set of rules) —such as narrative role-play, altruism, and so on. Moreover, the game mechanics were negotiable—popular opinion and/or the actions of influential players led to ongoing revisions being made. The “game” (as text; for example, as understood as a body of code) changed constantly. This was one of the features that has marked Kingdom of Loathing out as a success; indeed, the primary motivations of all the experienced players were communal, highlighting how important the sense of community is to successful games design. It might be assumed that this situation is relatively novel, but patches, downloadable content, player-generated content, and so on, suggest that this situation is becoming increasingly common. Understanding the ongoing relationship between the practices of game design thus becomes a priority, for researchers and designers alike.

rEFErENcEs Bartle, R. (1996). Hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades: Players who suit MUDs. Retrieved from http:// www.mud.co.uk/richard/hcds.htm Carr, D., Burn, A., Schott, G., & Buckingham, D. (2003). Textuality in video games. In M. Copier

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& J. Raessens (Eds.), Level up: Digital games research conference proceedings, Utrecht, November 4-6 (pp. 108-119). Fine, G. (1983). Shared fantasy: Role-playing games as social worlds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Lin, H., & Sun, C. (2005). The “white-eyed” player culture: Grief play and construction of deviance in MMORPGs. In S. de Castell & J. Jenson (Eds.), Changing views: Worlds in play. Selected papers of DiGRA 2005, Canada, June 16-20. Lin, H., Sun, C., & Tinn, H. (2003). Exploring clan culture: Social enclaves and cooperation in online gaming. In M. Copier & J. Raessens (Eds.), Level up: Digital games research conference proceedings, Utrecht, November 4-6 (pp. 288-299). Malone, T., & Lepper, M. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations of learning. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction: Vol. 3. Conative and affective process analyses (pp. 223-253). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Pelletier, C. (2006). Re-configuring interactivity, agency and pleasure in the education and computer games debate—Using Zizek’s concept of interpassivity to analyse educational play. E-learning, 2(4), 317-326. Retrieved from http://www.wwwords. co.uk/elea/content/pdfs/2/issue2_4.asp#2 Taylor, T. (2003). Power gamers just want to have fun? Instrumental play in a MMOG. In M. Copier & J. Raessens (Eds.), Level up: Digital games research conference proceedings, Utrecht, November 4-6 (pp. 300-311).

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KEY TERMS Clan: A self-organised group of players of a particular game. Ludic: Referring to the game rules and mechanics. Motivation: Something attributed to people that explains the reason for their actions; in this context, often broken down into sub-categories such as ludic or representational.

Phenomenography: A research tradition that seeks to understand and represent experiences of some phenomenon. Player Type: An attempt to categorise people as having stable character traits that determine the way in which they prefer to play. Representational Aspects: Referring to the imagery used to create a sense of the fictional setting, characters, and events. Role Playing: Taking on and acting as a fictional persona; in this context, participation in a role-playing game. This may include narrative, representational, and ludic elements to different degrees.

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Chapter XLIX

Exploring Personal Myths from The Sims Vasa Buraphadeja University of Florida, USA Kara Dawson University of Florida, USA

AbstrAct Many game scholars claim that the emergent authorship opportunities provided within The Sims may lead to positive game play outcomes. This study hypothesizes that narratives told by game players may be similar to narratives told in real life and explores 66 Sims narratives via McAdams criteria of a good myth (1997). Results suggest that most people who play The Sims do not naturally adhere to the criteria of a good myth when developing their narrative, however, over half the narratives met some of the criteria. Our results suggest that The Sims has the potential to serve as a narrative studio for personal myth development but that some kind of intervention or scaffolding may need to be provided. The concept of psychosocial moratorium (McAdams, 1997) is suggested as one possible strategy professionals in multiple disciplines may use to promote The Sims as a narrative studio for myth development. Suggestions for future research are also provided.

INtrODUctION The Sims 2 is an electronic game that requires players to direct a Sims1 citizen over a lifetime. The players set Sims’ life goals (i.e., popularity, fortune, family, romance, or knowledge), create personalities, build homes, organize social lives,

and take responsibility for nurturing a Sims from birth to death. The Sims gives players an opportunity to participate in emergent authorship via a story kit, or set of game features, that allows them to craft their own stories through game play (Pearce, 2005). This is in direct opposition to many games integrating spatial narrative in

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Exploring Personal Myths from The Sims

which players reconstruct an existing story via game play (e.g., Indiana Jones series by LucasArts, or Blade Runner by Westwood studios) (Pearce, 2005). Games integrating emergent authorship such as The Sims often provide a deeper level of immersion because players create their own characters rather than taking on the role of a pre-determined one. Many game scholars claim that the emergent authorship provided within The Sims may lead to positive game play outcomes. For example, some claim it offers rhetorical (Frasca, 2003), narrative (Jenkins, n.d.), creative (Wright, 2006), and reflective possibilities (Jansz, 2005). Some claim that playing The Sims allows players to explore and make sense of life. For example, Consalvo (2003) argues that The Sims offers a wide range of possibilities in exploring sexual orientations while others believe it may be used to help health professionals understand their potential patients (Atkinson & Gold, 2002) or as a therapeutic tool by those who are dealing with addictions or abuse (Terdiman, 2003). Nutt and Railton (2003) believe that playing The Sims helps individuals to examine society because of the way it requires players to develop “understandings of real-life family practices” and “rely on assumptions about shared knowledge and understanding of relationship patterns” (p. 579). There is, however, no research to support these claims. This study aims to investigate them by examining similarities between the narratives told by The Sims players and Dan P. McAdams criteria for a good myth or life story (1997).

Experiencing The Sims Imagine having a chance to create and control a digital doll in a digital town. You design the doll’s appearance (e.g., hairstyle, makeup, and clothing) and traits (e.g., gender, age, aspirations, and a zodiac sign that reflects its personality). In addition, you must satisfy your doll’s basic needs such hunger, social interaction, and comfort, man-

age its desires and fears, build its personal skills such as cooking, and coordinate all aspects of its life which may include finding a job, dating, starting a business, attending a university, having pets, or going out at night. You are responsible for your digital doll from birth to death and the way you satisfy its basic needs, develop its skills, and make decisions determines the type of life it will lead in the digital town. You can receive support from or provide support to other game players via The Sims Online Exchange Community, and you can also connect with other game players by sharing your Sims story online via the Story Exchange. Players can take in-game snapshots and tag captions which users can upload to the Story Exchange using one of The Sims features called Family Album. Many people have done more than simply imagine this; more than 200,000 Sims have been created, and The Sims is the best-selling PC game in history with more than 70 million copies sold (Burman, 2007).

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The Sims has been touted as a promisingly unique game genre that may yield a variety of positive outcomes via the narratives produced by game players. This study hypothesizes that narratives told by game players may be similar to narratives told in real life. McAdams (1997) claims that individuals develop personal myths as a way to continuously explore and make sense of their lives. The proposed positive outcomes of Sims play are also related to exploration and meaning making. Thus, the criteria for a good myth or life story (McAdams, 1997) may be an effective tool to analyze virtual narratives told within The Sims. The purpose of this study is to examine 66 Sims narratives via McAdams criteria of a good myth (1997) to determine if attributes associated with good real life stories appear in virtual stories.

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Narrative told by game players may be similar to narrative in the traditional media, especially narrative in movies. Video game and movie industries have long been tied together. Many game developers make use of main protagonists from movies (e.g., Alien, Gundam, Indiana Jones, James Bond, Jurassic Park, Star Trek, Star Wars, The Matrix, and Top Gun), and movie producers adopt leading characters in video games (e.g., Final Fantasy, Lara Croft: Tomb Raider, Mortal Kombat, Resident Evil, Silent Hill, and Street Fighter). The two industries not only frequently exchange the protagonists but also build upon the storylines from one another. This implies the compatibility of the two media forms. Based on this perspective, narrative in games can be considered as a tool with which players can create their own narrative in a contemporary narrative fashion. Cinematic narrative structure (Branigan, 1992) provides a theoretical lens for this study and consists of the following stages: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Introduction of setting and characters Explanation of a state of affairs Initiating event Emotional response or statement of a goal by the protagonist Complicating emotions Outcome Reactions to outcome.

In addition to identifying important narrative traits, this framework also supports the notion of player as director who actively interacts with actors. Games that build on movies typically embed what Pearce (2005) refers to as spatial narrative, predefined narratives, or narrative pieces that players manipulate. In other words, this type of games usually prepares the first three stages in cinematic narrative structure for players. The Sims, on the other hand, gives players an opportunity for emergent authorship (Pearce,

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2005). That is, players start from scratch, swap their roles between player and director throughout their game play, and negotiate with the game to build their stories. Based on the cinematic narrative structure, The Sims game play allows players to choose or tailor their own early stages and to react in the later stages. In other words, players are given a studio where they can create protagonists, set scenes, and have complete control of the potential narratives. The Sims, then, serves as a narrative studio that offers players a chance to design their own avatars, initiate settings and events, walk their protagonists through a series of events, and react and reflect on these events in game play and online. Whether conscious of it or not, players assume a player/director role while playing the game and imaginatively construct a personal narrative that reflects part of their experiences in life. Thus, it is not extravagant to say that The Sims gives players a showcase to compose their personal myths. McAdams’ (1997) concept of a good myth provides the lens through which we analyze The Sims narratives.

MEtHODs This study analyzes 66 narratives from the Story Exchange on The Sims 2 official website via McAdams’ criteria of a good myth (1997) to determine if attributes associated with good real life stories appear in virtual life stories.

Data Collection Data was collected from the Story Exchange of the Sims 2 Web site. This Web site is the place where players retell the story of their game play experience. There are three views in the Story Exchange Web page; story view is a brief profile about the album (i.e., narrative) including album name, owner, country, language, rating, date created, number of entries, album’s description, family and lot name, and categories.

Exploring Personal Myths from The Sims

The Album view is a gallery-style page that allows audiences to view an in-game snapshot with one caption at a time. The blog view allows audiences to read through all entries with thumbnail snapshots. Since data from the album and blog views are identical, data was collected from story views for profile information and blog views for data about album entries.

Data Selection Sixty-six (66) narratives were analyzed from the Story Exchange in The Sims 2 Web site. Players may assign up to three categories of the following 15 categories to their narratives: (1) romance, (2) comedy, (3) tragedy, (4) action/adventure, (5) scifi/fantasy, (6) mystery, (7) horror, (8) historical, (9) how to/tutorial, (10) satirical, (11) Sims life stories, (12) true stories, (13) designer diaries, (14) documentaries, (15) pondering and observation. Two categories are clearly irrelevant to real-life situations (i.e., how to/tutorial and designer diaries). Thus, stories in these categories were not considered for our sample. Stories were selected based on the following criteria: (a) stories written in English and (b) stories under one of the 13 categories mentioned earlier (no stories with these categories overlapped with how to/tutorial or designer diaries categories). Within a span of three weeks, the first author randomly visited the Story Exchange page and selected recently uploaded stories. This selection strategy helped obtain information from activities in this site used on a regular basis. The 66 stories selected within this phase were saved in a separate Word document, and a matrix was developed to keep track of frequency of rating, number of entries, and categories.

Data Analysis We reviewed multiple sources that provide guidance in examining life stories.

The Foley Center2 has various instruments for examining life stories. Most of these instruments, however, require interviews and questionnaires. Our data sources are stories collected from the album at The Sims 2 official Web site. Thus, using questionnaires or interviews is inappropriate. Other instruments include coding guidelines that delineate how to detect themes from events in life stories. These coding guidelines, such as Coding Autobiographical Episodes for Themes of Agency and Communion (McAdams, 2002), are too specific for our purposes because they require clear guideline for certain episodes of life. McAdams’ criteria for a good myth (1997) provides a data analysis protocol that is suitable for our purposes because it provides a framework for life stories or narratives that is concrete enough to allow for analysis but flexible enough to account for the wide variation associated with narratives in The Sims. McAdams (1997) argues that individuals consciously and unconsciously develop personal myths throughout their adult years and continuously explore alternatives to make sense of their lives. McAdams (1997) further explains that the good myth is a personal myth created via a progressive and sequential process that involves following trends: coherence, openness, credibility, differentiation, reconciliation, and generative integration (See Table 1). Each entry, or statement in an entry, in the narratives was considered an expression of a single idea, a statement about a topic, or a motif (Smith, 2000). To assist with data analysis, five of the six major trends in the good myth criteria (McAdams, 1997) were broken down into specific attributes (see Table 1). Credibility is irrelevant to the study since stories may not refer to actual events. Each entry was coded for the presence (score 1) or absence (score 0) in a certain trend or attribute of the trend. In order to earn a score of 1 (e.g., presence), the entry must present a clear statement regarding a certain trend. For example, an entry such as “I moved into the new house” is

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Table 1. McAdams’ good myth definitions (Adapted from pp. 109-113) Trend

Attribute

Description

Coherence

Context Motivation

Making sense in the context of the story Motivation agreeing with how we generally behave

Causal

Events occur in a causal manner

Openness

Flexible

Being able to change

Credibility* Differentiation

Develop NA Facets Complex

Being able to develop and change Regardless of interpretation, the events must really happened Gathering more experiences and take more facets Becoming richer, deeper, and more complex Seeking reconciliation among conflicting forces in the story Functioning as a productive and contributing member of society

Reconciliation Generative integration

* Not being use in this study

Table 2. Example of coding protocol Trend Differentiation

Attribute Complex Complex Complex

Reconciliation

not considered reconciliation. Rather, there must be some clear statement that the protagonist was facing complex situations and decided to reconcile the conflict (see Table 2). Multiple scores in a trend or attribute were not coded because the good myth protocol focuses on the development rather than the frequency of the trends presented in a story. The more a story develops, the higher score it should earn—in other words, a story should increasingly develop according to trends in McAdams’ good myth (1997).

rEsULts This study analyzes 66 narratives from the Story Exchange on The Sims 2 official Web site. First,

866

Entry I saw [my husband] muscular hands gripping [my daughter’s] back and her legs were turning blue. Was he suffocating her? I woke later to find [my daughter] shaking me and sobbing... She sniffled and buried her face in my shirt nodding. Then I dyed it with fruits to make it reddish. Then I cut her hair, too, and called for a taxi... We went inside this new home and were finally ready to start new lives.

we present background information on the narratives analyzed. Then, we discuss several findings related to the narratives and McAdams’ good myth criteria. Of the stories analyzed from the Story Exchange, 55% were multi-episodic in nature with broad range of one to more than 100 entries (see Table 3). Although the average value equals 33 entries, more than half of the stories fall into the lower end with a median of 25 entries. Game players typically categorized their narratives within four categories: Sims life stories (40), romance (26), tragedy (18) and comedy (16). Interestingly, only six stories were categorized as true stories (see Table 4). This suggests that players tend to construct stories with a specific theme using their imagination or that players are

Exploring Personal Myths from The Sims

Table 3. Frequency of entries in the story exchange Entry Range 1-10 11-20

Number of stories 13 16

21-30

14

31-40

5

41-50

1

51-60

8

61-70

2

71-80 81-90 91-100 More than 100 Total

1 3 1 2 66

Table 4. Number of stories in each category in the story exchange Category

Number of stories

Sims life stories

40

Romance

26

Tragedy

18

Comedy

16

Pondering & Observation

9

Action / adventure

7

Mystery

7

True stories

6

Scifi / fantasy

5

Horror

4

Documentaries

2

Historical

1

Satirical

1

unwilling to admit that their stories are based on real life. The narratives analyzed demonstrated some of McAdams’ narrative standards, however, most of them failed to meet all his criteria for a good myth. Approximately 60% of the narratives exhibited lower trends such as coherence and openness. On the other hand, far fewer exhibited higher trends such as reconciliation and generative integration (see Table 5). For instance, only 16.7% of stories described characters gathering experiences and

developing various facets in their lives. Moreover, only 6% described characters seeking reconciliation among conflicting facets. Likewise, writing narratives in good myth format within the Story Exchange appears to be an incremental process. Typically, stories moved from lower to higher trends of the good myth format. That is, stories tended to include at least one attribute in a trend before moving to the next. The four stories scoring in the two highest trends, reconciliation and generative integration,

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Table 5. Percentage of stories scoring in trend in McAdams’ good myth Attribute Context Motivation

Trend Coherence

Openness Credibility* Differentiation

Number of stories 39 38

Percentage 59.09% 57.58%

Causal

34

51.52%

Flexible

38

57.58%

Develop

24

36.36%

Facets Complex

13 11 4 3

19.70% 16.67% 06.06% 04.55%

Reconciliation Generative integration

* Not being use in this study

Y

Y

Y

28

4

N

Y

Y

5

3

1051

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

55

4

1

1059

Y

Y

Y

Y

N

Y

Y

Y

N

8

4

1

1

1

1

True stories

Y Y

Tragedy

Y Y

Sims life stories

Y Y

Romance

Y Y

Comedy

Y Y

Episode

Y Y

Rate

Entry

1014 1044

Diff-facets

Generative

Reconciliation

Diff-complex

Open-develop

Open-flexible

Cohere- causal

Cohere-motivation

Cohere-context

Story Number

Table 6. Matrix of four stories that reach higher trends

1 1

1

1 1

1

1

868

Entry

Rate

N

N

88

4

1032

N

N

N

N

Y

N

N

N

N

99

4

1049

N

N

N

Y

N

N

N

N

N

17

3

1 1

1 1

1

1

1 1

1

True stories

Generative

Y

Tragedy

Reconciliation

N

Sims life stories

Diff-complex

Y

Romance

Diff-facets

Y

Mystery

Open-develop

N

Horror

Open-flexible

N

Comedy

Cohere- causal

N

Episode

Coheremotivation

1008

Cohere-context

Story Number

Table 7. Matrix of three stories that did not follow the narrative trends

Exploring Personal Myths from The Sims

demonstrated some lower trend attributes as well (see Table 6). Three stories scored in openness but not coherence, however, they did not score in the higher trends; two reached the openness trend while the other reached differentiation (see Table 7). This was most likely due to players not providing context and/or causal trends in their stories. In the cinematic narrative aspect, they did not construct backgrounds for their Sims (the first stage) nor did they begin their stories by initiating events (the third stage). This suggests it is possible to skip trends but doing so makes it more difficult to attain higher trends. However, we cannot say this for certain since some players may have not completed their narrative. For example, the author of story #1049 concluded by saying that part two of the story will be available later. Future studies may benefit from following narratives from conception to completion. Members in The Sims online community can rate narratives with a five-point scale, where five is the highest rating. However, this rating system seems to relate to the quality of writing rather than criteria for a good myth. In the coding process, we did not plan to look at the writing quality per se. We then later felt that it was worthy to keep a note of well-written stories. We determined a

well-written story, in part, based on its use of vivid and expressive language as exemplified by a Sims Life entry categorized as romance from story #1051: The full moon basked cobbler’s bridge in a faint bluish-glow. The sweet smell of wild flowers and the bitter taste of ragweeds permeated the air. [John] casually picked up a stone and tossed it into the pyramid of brown-beer bottles. Of the five stories that we found to be well articulated; all received peer rating of four or five. However, they did not necessary reach the higher trends in the good myth protocol with the correlation of 0.253 (see Table 8). Only story #1051 reached the highest trend, while the story #1042 demonstrated only the lowest trends. Likewise, the number of entries had no correlation with the trends reached. For example, a five-entry story (#1044) demonstrated two trends in the first entry: This is our beautiful daughter Tessa, ahhh… she’s grown so fast! Soon she’ll be going to college and what am I going to do without her, since, well, mom died. Next thing you know she’ll have a boyfriend, and she be married with three children.

1051

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

1058

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

Y

1

Y

Y

N

N

16

5

N

N

N

N

14

4

1

Y

Y

55

4

1

N

N

59

4

1

1 1

1

1

1

1

1

1

True stories

N

4

Tragedy

Y

N

37

Sims life stories

Y

N

N

Romance

Y

Y

N

Mystery

Y

Y

Y

Comedy

Y

1042

Y

Action / Adventure

1036

Episode

Y

Rate

Open-develop

Y

Entry

Open-flexible

Y

Generative

Cohere- causal

Y

Reconciliation

Cohere-motivation

Y

Diff-complex

Cohere-context

1030

Diff-facets

Story Number

Table 8. Matrix of five well-articulated stories

1 1

1

1

1

1

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Exploring Personal Myths from The Sims

I love you so, my wonderful daughter, thank you for being…you. This entry scored in context and causal attributes in coherence trend and in openness trend because it introduced a story that makes senses, occurs in a causal fashion, and refers to the coming opportunities. The fourth entry of this story scored in differentiation and reconciliation based, in part, on these words, “this is my new business—Ramirez Furniture—what a great investment. I am so excited but yet so terrified. I hope this place doesn’t drive me in the ground.” This entry showed how the main protagonist opened up a new facet of life and tried to reconcile past events. The last entry, which was accompanied by a snapshot of a daughter pretending to be a seller in a lemonade kiosk, mentioned the main protagonist’s daughter again in a generative manner, “How sweet is that? My little Tessa starting her business skill building at such an early age, she will take the business over when I die….” Stories with many more entries never reached the high trends exhibited in this five-entry narrative. This suggests a well conceived personal myth is more important than a lengthy narrative. In summary, the narratives analyzed demonstrated some of McAdams’ criteria of a good myth. Over half of the narratives met some of the lower trends while few met all the trends. Reaching higher trends appeared to be incremental in nature. This parallels McAdams notion of myth development in real life. Many of the narratives we analyzed may have been in progress so it is premature to suggest they would never reach higher trends. Likewise, there was no correlation between peer ratings of these narratives, the number of entries and whether they reached the higher trends of McAdams (1997) criteria. Stories in the Story Exchange were undoubtedly diverse and interesting. Although many of them did not portray higher trends from a personal myth development standpoint, our findings show

870

that The Sims can potentially become a narrative studio. We discuss the implication and potential use of this game in the next section.

IMPLIcAtIONs This research suggests that most people who play The Sims do not naturally adhere to the criteria of a good myth when developing their narrative. However, several outcomes of this study suggest that game players could use The Sims as a narrative studio to develop good personal myths. First, the fact that 55% of the stories were multi-episodic suggests The Sims provides an environment that could support the progressive, sequential nature of storytelling required for good myth development (McAdams, 1997). Second, we found that many players took on the cinematic narrative structure as they began their stories by introducing characters and their backdrops, and by initiating events. Initially, we did not intend to observe whether these stories demonstrated any unifying themes related to cinematic narrative structure so we did not integrate it into our coding protocol. Nonetheless, we believe these anecdotal observations strengthen our notion that The Sims could be used as narrative studio. That is, players draft their own protagonists and set up scenes within their personal studio. Moreover, they have potential to completely control their stories and interact with their protagonists. Finally, while only 9% of the narratives analyzed were categorized as True Stories, we suspect that many of the narratives were created as representations of real life. The ability to create narratives that represent real life also provides support for our belief that The Sims could be a narrative studio for personal myth development. In fact, the very nature of The Sims provides opportunities for players to immerse into different scenarios of life. They can take on many different roles and assume several personas. Given the fact that avatars in The Sims progress through a

Exploring Personal Myths from The Sims

complete life cycle, players can craft alternative ways of living and get a glimpse of how to live by certain lifestyles. For example, creating an avatar in The Sims that is a single parent challenges players to keep their career while raising their offspring. Specifically, players must develop particular skills, keep up a certain number of friends, and maintain daily working hours to continue their career part. To guarantee the successful development of a Sims child, parenting activities such as playing and helping with their homework are a necessity. To maintain these two roles, players may need to reflect on their goals in life. Being good parents, like in reality, might not necessarily be compatible with climbing up the career ladder. Parents and educators may take advantage of this narrative studio by supporting youngsters as they engage in the psychosocial moratorium, or a process through which people actively explore new alternatives in life (McAdams, 1997). Parents and educators may foster the exploration of different identities and allow for their children/students to reflect on their game play experiences in the Family Album or Story Exchange. Expansion packs open up additional opportunities for young adults to experience many different roles such as that of a college student with The Sims 2 University or entrepreneur with Open For Business. These activities serve not only to help young adults safely explore alternative identities but also to strengthen the relationships among members in the community.

FUtUrE rEsEArcH This research suggests that The Sims may serve as a narrative studio. However, claims about the positive outcomes of game play were not supported through our data. Nonetheless, several factors in our research design may contribute to our results. First, the anonymity of the data collected from the Story Exchange restrained our analysis. We

could neither study the players’ demographics nor their attitudes toward their narratives. Exploring the narratives told by players in other ways, such as through interview or questionnaire, may reveal deeper results. We also recommend a more longitudinal analysis of narratives and the integration of the cinematic narrative structure with our existing coding protocol based on McAdams’ good myth (1997). Furthermore, researchers may intervene or foster the scaffolding of the game play to streamline the potential of life exploring tools as claimed by scholars. We suggest that researchers interested in using The Sims in this way embrace the process of psychosocial moratorium. By adopting this approach, players begin their stories by designing their Sims avatars to resemble their actual selves in order to be more immersed in the game play and to have more authentic reflections from game play experiences. This approach, which is similar to Consalvo’s study on sexual orientations (2003), would also allow players to explore other possible selves in The Sims. Professionals in fields such as mental health care, education, cultural studies, psychology, and English language learning may benefit from this approach. Given the fact that avatars in The Sims progress through a complete life cycle, researchers may also use The Sims to serve as a narrative studio for personal myth development in later adulthood and the end-oflife stages.

cONcLUsION The primary objective of this study was to study positives outcomes of game play. We hypothesized that narratives told by players may be similar to narratives told in real life. Our coding protocol which is based on McAdams’ criteria of a good myth (1997) looks through 66 Sims narratives from the Story Exchange and suggests that the majority of narratives reflect lower trends in good myth development. We also found that most nar-

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ratives follow the cinematic narrative structure as proposed by Branigan (1992). We were unable to show that The Sims can serve as a tool for introspective exploration as is claimed by scholars. We believe that it has the potential to do so but that it will only serve for personal myth development with some kind of intervention or scaffolding. Nonetheless, these findings seem to provide encouragement that future studies may help us further understand The Sims players’ demographics and attitudes toward their narratives, thus contributing more insight into the field of game research. We put forward the notions of psychosocial moratorium (McAdams, 1997) and narrative studio to open up more opportunities for positive game play outcomes.

rEFErENcEs Atkinson, N. L., & Gold, R. S. (2002). The promise and challenge of eHealth interventions. American Journal of Health Behavior, 26(6), 494. Branigan, E. (1992). Narrative comprehension and film (Sightlines Series) (1st ed.). New York: Routledge. Burman, R. (2007, January 16). The Sims lapping it up. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://pc.ign. com/articles/755/755538p1.html Consalvo, M. (2003). It’s a queer world after all: Studying the Sims and sexuality. GLAAD. Retrieved from www.glaad.org/documents/csms/ The_Sims.pdf Electronic Arts. (2004). The Sims 2 [Computer Software]. Foley Center. (n.d.). Guided autobiography. Foley center Web site. Retrieved August 20, 2007, from http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/foley/instruments/guided/

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Frasca, G. (2003). Simulation versus narrative: Introduction to ludology. In J. P. Mark et al. (Eds.), Video/game/theory. Routledge. Jansz, J. (2005). The emotional appeal of violent video games for adolescent males. Communication Theory, 15(3), 219-241. Jenkins, H. (n.d.). Game design as narrative architecture. Henry Jenkins Web site. Retrieved December 1, 2006, from http://web.mit.edu/cms/ People/henry3/ games&narrative.html McAdams, D. P. (1997). The stories we live by: Personal myths and the making of the self. New York: The Guilford Press. McAdams, D. P. (2002, October 17). Coding autobiographical episodes for themes of agency and communion. Foley center. Retrieved June 11, 2007, from http://www.sesp.northwestern. edu/foley/instruments/agency/ Nutt, D., & Railton, D. (2003). The Sims: Real life as genre. Information, Communication & Society, 6(4), 577-592. Pearce, C. (2005). Theory wars: An argument against arguments in the so-called ludology/ narratology debate. Proceeding Digital Games Research Conference 2005. Retrieved April 12, 2006, from http://www.gamesconference.org/ digra2005/ viewabstract.php?id=114 Smith, C. P. (2000). Content analysis and narrative analysis. In H. T. Reis & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 313-335). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Terdiman, D. (2003). Every Sims picture tells a story. Retrieved November 26, 2006, from http:// www.wired.com/news/games/1,59461-0.html TheSims2.com. (n.d.). About The Sims 2. Retrieved April 1, 2006, from http://thesims2. ea.com/about/ index_ts2.php

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Wright, W. (Guest). (2006). The Colbert Report [Television broadcast]. Comedy Central. Retrieved June 6, 2007, from http://www.comedycentral. com/motherload/index.jhtml?ml_video=79040

KEY TERMS A Sims: A Sims is a digital avatar that carries many attributes that replicate a human being including personality traits, needs, aspirations, and skills. A Sims has five changeable personality traits including sloppy or neat, shy or outgoing, lazy or active, serious or playful, and grouchy or nice. It behaves according to the traits. For example, a neat Sims always cleans up, washes dishes, and flushes the toilet. A Sims has its own basic needs including food, energy, fun, socialization, hygiene, comfort, bladder, and environment. Fulfilling these needs is a primary goal of the game; ignoring them makes the Sims unhappy and tormented, and eventually the Sims dies. A Sims also possesses one of these aspirations: family, romance, fortune, knowledge, or popularity. These aspirations reflect the Sims wants throughout the game play. Finally, a Sims possesses some levels of seven skills including cooking, mechanical, charisma, body, logic, creativity, and cleaning. A Sims learns skills through activities it engages in. Emergent Authorship: Pearce (2005) coins this term to refer to computer games that allows players to craft their own stories through game play. Pearce contrasts this term with a spatial narrative. Family Album: Family album is a feature in The Sims that allows players to take in-game snapshots, tag captions, and later upload the album to the Online Exchange community on The Sims official Web site.

Good Myth: Good myth is a developing personal myth that shows improvement in certain trends in the story. These trends are coherence, openness, credibility, differentiation, reconciliation, and generative integration. Narrative Studio: This term refers to games that allow players to create their own avatars, initiate settings and events, and play with openended game play. This term implies a role of player/director who continues to interact with avatars and reflect on their ongoing story. Online Exchange: Online Exchange is an online community in The Sims official Web site that allows players to share Sims, living lots, pets, and objects to be used in game play. It also allows players to upload their stories created from the Family Album feature in The Sims to Story Exchange—a part of the Online Exchange. Personal Myth: According to McAdams (1997), a personal myth is a life story that individuals, usually in late adolescence or young adulthood, construct in order to give meaning to their life and to make sense of the world. Player/Director: Player/director is a role of game players that involve in structuring the avatars, and initiating the settings and events. Players then direct their avatars and continuously interact with their avatars to carry on the story while playing the game. Psychosocial Moratorium: Coined by Erik Erikson, this term refers to a process that individuals suspend their responsibility and commitment in search of their new identities. Spatial Narrative: Pearce (2005) coins this term to refer to computer games that deconstruct storylines, allowing players to reconstruct the story throughout the game play. The examples of computer games that fall into this genre are Indiana Jones series by LucasArts, and Blade Runner by Westwood studios. Pearce contrasts this term with an emergent authorship.

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ENDNOtEs 1

2

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A Sims or the Sims refers to digital avatar or character while The Sims refers to the PC game. Foley Center, School of Education and Social Policy, Northwestern University: http://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/foley/instruments/

Section VI

The Pyschological Impact of Educational Gaming (Part 2): Violence, Emotion, Race, Gender, and Culture

Chapters in this section of the book focus on the psychological studies of gaming and game use. This second of two sections on psychological aspects focuses on issues like violence, emotion, race, gender, and culture. Swing, Gentile, & Anderson discuss the idea that video games can produce undesirable outcomes like aggression; they focus directly on learning processes and violent games. Felicia & Pitt argue that using educational theories, personality traits, and increased emotional depth can improve learning through games. Carr & Pelletier explore gender and gendered game preferences in relation to the cultural framing of the gaming audience. Mou & Peng suggest that gender and racial stereotypes are relatively understudied; they describe a content analysis of popular video games. Leonard examines the silencing and resistance to questions about race and racism in video game culture. Swain introduces readers to the notion of using culturally responsive teaching strategies as a method of expanding the effectiveness of electronic games and simulations. Jones concludes the section with a chapter on using videogames for political expression when teaching students about civic duty. The purpose of this section is to provide readers with studies related to psychological aspects of gaming such as violence, emotion, race, gender, and culture.

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Chapter L

Learning Processes and Violent Video Games Edward L. Swing Iowa State University, USA Douglas A. Gentile Iowa State University, USA Craig A. Anderson Iowa State University, USA

AbstrAct Though video games can produce desirable learning outcomes, such as improved performance in school subjects, they also can produce undesirable outcomes, such as increased aggression. Some of the basic learning principles that make video games (particularly violent video games) effective at teaching are discussed in this chapter. A general learning model is presented to explain how video games can produce a variety of effects in their users. This model explains both the immediate, short term effects and cumulative, long term effects of video games. Implications of these principles are discussed in relation to education. The issue of addressing violent video games’ effects on aggression is also examined.

LEArNING PrOcEssEs AND VIOLENt VIDEO GAMEs Video games have become an immensely popular medium in the 35 years since their introduction. The annual sales of video games and their accessories in the U.S. reached $10.5 billion in 2005, exceeding the $9 billion grossed by films in the

U.S. box office that same year (ESA, 2007; MPAA, 2007). Though the growth in popularity and sales of video games has been driven more by their ability to entertain than by their ability to teach, many groups, including teachers, businesses, the U.S. military, and researchers, have recognized the value of video games as effective teaching tools. On one hand, video games are effective teaching

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Learning Processes and Violent Video Games

tools because they take advantage of several basic learning principles and instructional techniques, such as the use of effective forms of reinforcement and an adaptable level of difficulty. On the other hand, it has come to the public attention that most popular video games, 89% of video games by one estimate, contain violence (Children Now, 2001). This has led to considerable social concern over the potential negative effects of video games, especially the potential of such video games to increase aggression. When examined within the framework of the general learning model (GLM), it is apparent that these divergent outcomes (education and increased aggression) are not competing explanations of video game effects. Rather, both the often intended, positive effects of video games and the unintended negative effects result from the same short-term and long-term psychological learning mechanisms. The success of violent video games as teaching tools suggests ways that education could be improved, both with and without video games. Parents, educators, and policy makers should be aware that video games can teach a wide variety of information and skills and even produce personality changes in their users, for good or ill. What outcomes a particular video game produces depends primarily on its content, regardless of the original intent of the creators or users. This chapter describes some of the principles and mechanisms underlying violent video game effects, as well as some of the societal implications.

What Do Video Games Teach? Positive Effects Many groups, including educators, businesses, and military personnel, use video games to teach information and develop skills. Video games have been developed and used effectively to teach a variety of traditional school subjects, such as algebra, geometry, and biology (Corbett, Koedinger, & Hadley, 2001; Ybarrondo, 1984). Other

video games are used to teach children skills such as photography and computer programming (Abrams, 1986; Kahn, 1999). Educational video games are effective at improving the development of early math and reading skills in children (Murphy, Penuel, Means, Korbak, Whaley, & Allen, 2002). Video games also have proven effective in helping children with asthma and diabetes to manage their own health behaviors (Lieberman, 1997; McPherson, Glazebrook, Forster, James, & Smyth, 2006). Simulation video games have proven effective in teaching some of the skills that they model as well, from those that teach people with severe learning disabilities how to shop for groceries to games teaching teamwork to pilots (Brannick, Prince, & Salas, 2005; Standen & Cromby, 1996). Many businesses use educational video games to teach their employees job skills. Cisco teaches their employees about the basic tools of network security with a video game. Volvo uses an online computer game to teach financial and regulatory information to their car sales employees (Flood, 2006). The Mayo Clinic uses a video game called “Name That Congenital Abnormality” to teach residents medical information (Yaman, 2004). Canon reports improvements in training speed due to the use of a video game to teach printer repair skills to their employees, compared to traditional training methods. Video games are not just used by technologically oriented businesses; the icecream manufacturer Cold Stone Creamery created a video game to teach employees how to serve ice cream quickly and without errors (Business Week, 2007). The U.S. military extensively uses video games in training. The U.S. Army’s Program Executive Office for Simulation, Training, and Instrumentation (PEO STRI) now spends over $2 billion each year creating simulators to train members of the branches of the armed forces (Blake, 2007). These simulators train military personnel for a variety of roles, such as flying helicopters, using weapon systems, and firefighting. The Marines developed

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a version of the commercial first-person shooter video game Doom to teach coordination, communication, and teamwork in combat (Prensky, 2001). Along with this wide variety of deliberate uses to which video games have been applied, some unintended benefits of playing video games have also been observed. Researchers also have found other beneficial effects of video games that were not intended or even known to most of those playing the games. Most notably, some video games can improve certain types of perceptual skills. Video game players are able to pay attention to more cues across their visual field than are nonvideo game players (Green & Bavelier, 2003). Similarly, laparoscopic surgeons who have played more video games are not only faster at surgical skills, but make fewer mistakes (Rosser, Lynch, Haskamp, Gentile, & Yalif, 2007). Laparoscopic surgery is also called minimally-invasive surgery, in that it involves making several small incisions, and inserting a camera into the body along with surgical instruments on long sticks. The surgeon thus does not see directly into the body, but views the instruments inside the body on a video monitor. Given the nature of laparoscopic surgery, it is perhaps not surprising that there is some transfer from video games. This finding also suggests the potential of video games to be deliberately used to improve laparoscopic surgical skills.

Negative Effects Of course, not all video game effects are desirable. In particular, much recent research has examined the potential of violent video games to increase aggression in their players. Video game violence research is a subset of the broader area of media violence research. Media violence research began decades before the introduction of video games, much of it examining the effects of television and film violence. The research evidence shows a clear causal link between exposure to media violence and aggression (Anderson et al., 2003).

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The findings from the video game research are consistent with those from the older television and film violence research. As demonstrated previously, it should not be surprising that video games are capable of teaching aggression given the broad range of knowledge, skills, and behaviors that they can teach. The effects of violent video games on aggression and aggression-related variables has been observed using experimental, cross-sectional, and longitudinal studies. Cross-sectional studies have been valuable in testing some alternative explanations of the violent video game/aggressive behavior link, such as differences in socioeconomic status, aggressive personality, and other family environment factors. The experimental studies are particularly important, as these provide the strongest evidence that the effect of violent video games on aggression is causal (rather than being due entirely to a preference for violent video games by aggressive individuals, for example). For ethical reasons, laboratory experiments rely on relatively mild forms of aggression (e.g., setting noise blasts for an opponent) as the outcome measure. However, research has demonstrated that such measures are good predictors of how aggressively a person behaves outside of the laboratory and that the same factors that increase aggression in daily life (e.g., heat, provocation) also increase laboratory measures of aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 1997). Though there has been very little longitudinal research on video game effects, the findings are, thus far, consistent with those of other methods in confirming a causal video game violence/aggression link (Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007). Though public concern for violent video game effects tends to be greatest for children and adolescents, in part because younger children may have difficulty distinguishing fantasy taking place in a video game from reality, the ability to make fantasy and reality distinctions does not seem to make players immune to the effects of violent video games. In fact, research on young adults shows the same pattern of violent video

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game effects as research done with children (Gentile & Anderson, 2003). Research has yet to identify a group (in terms of age, sex, or any other factor) that is completely immune to the effects of video game violence. Meta-analytic reviews of studies have revealed that regardless of the research design type (experimental or cross-sectional), video game violence exposure increases aggressive cognition, aggressive behavior, hostile affect, and physiological arousal, and decreases prosocial behavior (Anderson, 2004; Anderson & Bushman, 2001). The effect sizes observed for these different measures range from small to moderate (rs of .15 to .30). To put those in perspective, the effect of video game violence on each of those outcome variables is larger than the effect sizes of many other public health concerns: the effect of asbestos on cancer, calcium intake on bone mass, lead exposure on decreased IQ in children, second hand smoke on lung cancer, and condom use on HIV (Anderson, Carnagey, Flanagan, Benjamin, Eubanks, & Valentine, 2004). In recent years, research has also demonstrated that video game violence exposure produces physiological desensitization to violence in terms of heart rate, blood pressure, and brain activity (e.g., Bartholow, Bushman, & Sestir, 2006; Carnagey, Anderson, & Bushman, 2006). Like desensitization to specific phobias, in some circumstances this desensitization may be adaptive. For example, soldiers and combat medics are certainly better served by limiting their physiological reactions to violence in order to effectively perform their job. However, there is reason to be concerned about general societal desensitization to violence, as it increases willingness to engage in aggression and decreases empathy for the victims of violence. Recent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) research demonstrates that video game violence exposure increases activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) while decreasing activity in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) and amygdala, a pattern of brain activation

that is consistent with aggression (Weber, Ritterfeld, & Mathiak, 2006). There is evidence of other negative effects of video game exposure, such as a link between attention deficit hyperactivity (ADHD) symptoms (Chan & Rabinowitz, 2006). Similar associations have been found for television exposure. Though this research has already ruled out a variety of individual and family characteristics as potential alternative explanations for this relationship, more research is needed to test whether the ADHD link is causal.

What Makes Video Games Effective Teachers? Many commercial video games, including those which are not designed with learning in mind, make use of numerous established instructional principles. A review of these principles, as they relate to video games, not only shows why video games may be more effective than many other forms of instruction or training, but also helps to explain why video games are capable of exerting other powerful effects on their players as well. One feature found in many video games that improves the ability of players is the choice of multiple difficulty levels. This means that players of varying experience and skill can learn at a pace that matches their ability. This feature is an essential characteristic of many instructional models. Glaser (1962) and Hunter (1982) consider specifying objectives of an appropriate level of difficulty to be important in education. This feature is important in many domains because the pace of learners varies so greatly. In the case of some memory tasks, the pace of the fastest third of children can be over three times as fast as the slowest third, which means that setting a single level of difficulty for all learners is not practical (Gentile & Lalley, 2003; Gentile, Voelkl, Mt. Pleasant, & Monaco, 1995). In the case of violent video games, the difficulty setting generally means that more skillful game players can elect to fight enemies that are more powerful, numer-

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ous, or intelligent than those faced by players of lesser ability. Further, many video games gradually increase the difficulty of the challenges presented as the player progresses through the game. Many firstperson shooter games, such as Halo and Call of Duty, begin with a training mission that serves not only to establish the story of the game, but gradually introduces players to the controls of the game, gives them an opportunity to practice these controls to execute abilities, and provides immediate feedback on their performance. In the case of Halo, the game can even adapt to the individual preferences of the player. For example, noting that the player is trying to pull back on the joystick to look up and push forward to look down (which does not correspond to the default control settings) the game can invert the controls to match the preference of the player. As many video games progress, the skills learned at earlier points in the game serve as prerequisites that, once learned, facilitate the learning of more advanced skills. This means that, rather than simply learning a skill and moving on, as is the case in many educational contexts, players continue to apply the skills they have learned earlier as they progress. This design conceptually matches the educational model of the spiral curriculum (Bruner, 1960). Similarly, this repeated use of skills and information in video games does not stop players at the point of mastery; once mastered, they continue using those skills until they are overlearned. That is, the skills one learns become automatized with further practice, requiring fewer cognitive resources. This means that the player becomes able to focus their conscious effort on more effectively learning, organizing, and applying new information. This overlearning concept has been illustrated in educational contexts, such as reading. A new reader must automatize the recognition of letters and their corresponding sounds before recognizing whole words, and subsequently automatize a number

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of sight words before focusing attention on the meaning of sentences (Bloom, 1986). Another advantageous property of video games is that learning is active. That is, a player practices a skill, receives feedback on their performance through the consequences in the game, and then practices the skill again until that skill is mastered (Gee, 2003). This method differs from the outdated (yet still used) practice of having a teacher demonstrate a concept or skill, answering questions, and then moving on to cover another concept. This classroom practice can be problematic in some contexts, because learners cannot ask good questions until they have attempted to use a demonstrated skill. Often, it is not until later, on an exam, that students attempt to demonstrate the concept and subsequently receive feedback. By this time it may be too late for the feedback to be helpful to the learner, because the class has already moved on to learning something else. One of the most important reasons video games are powerful teachers is their effective use of reinforcement to shape the thinking and behavioral skills of the player. The player is reinforced both intrinsically and extrinsically. The extrinsic rewards can be fairly obvious game features, such as points that a player receives for killing an enemy. However, this also includes less obvious game features, such as the impressive or amusing graphics and sound effects that the player experiences while killing that enemy. Intrinsic rewards occur outside of the game, as a result of having played it. For example, video game players can experience personal satisfaction, a sense of accomplishment and competence, or even increased self-esteem as a result of playing a game (Lieberman, 1998). Video game players may also gain the respect of their peers for accomplishments or skill in playing a video game. Many violent video games (especially multiplayer games, such as Halo 2 or World of Warcraft) are designed in a way that facilitates such social comparisons, rewarding large time investments in the

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game. Rewards are not given for every effort in the game. Rather, efforts are intermittently reinforced, a reinforcement schedule which further intensifies the drive to play and progress in the video game. The combination of such extrinsic and intrinsic rewards ensures a high level of attention, repetition, and learning from video games. Another result of the effective use of reinforcement by video games is that many players devote considerable amount of time to games. Research has shown that in elementary and middle school, girls spend about six hours per week and boys spend about 13 hours per week playing video games (Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007; Gentile, Lynch, Linder, & Walsh, 2004). These data were collected several years ago, so the present rate of video game playing is almost certainly higher. One recent national online sample of 8- to 18-year-olds put the estimate at 9 and 16 hours for girls and boys, respectively (Gentile, under review). The large number of hours spent playing at one sitting can be described as massed practice. Although massed practice can produce learning, it eventually begins to have diminishing returns, so a balance in which a large number of hours are played over several days a week should be ideal for learning. For many video game players, their playing time is spread throughout the week in a balance of mass and distributed practice that is close to optimal for learning. There now is empirical evidence that distributed practice with violent video games is associated with a greater increase in aggression, as compared to those who play video games less frequently, even when the amount of time spent playing video games is statistically controlled (Gentile & Gentile, 2008). This finding indicates that many video game players follow a practice schedule, in terms of number and distribution of hours, that maximizes their learning from the video games. A final educational principle of relevance to video games is that knowledge and skills learned in multiple contexts is more easily transferred and recalled than knowledge or skills which have been

learned or practiced in a single context. This may in some cases be due simply to a greater number of cues for recall, making the information less dependent on cues specific to the original context. It may also be due to the ability to develop a more clear and flexible representation of concepts when they are learned in multiple contexts (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). For example, learning multiple representations of dividing fractions improves comprehension and transfer to novel situations, compared to spending the same amount of time learning a single method. In the context of violent video games, this principle also suggests that engaging in violence in multiple contexts (e.g., modern, historical, futuristic) and with multiple methods (e.g., shooting people with guns, running them over with cars) should lead to the best transfer of the learned aggression into their lives. There is some evidence that this is the case (Gentile & Gentile, 2008).

How Do Video Games Influence Learning? The general learning model (GLM) is a useful model for specifying how video games produce a broad range of outcomes in their users (Buckley & Anderson, 2006). This model is an expanded form of the more specific general aggression model (GAM). GAM itself integrates previous aggression theories, such as cognitive neoassociationism (Berkowitz, 1990), affective aggression (Geen, 1990), script theory (Huesmann, 1986), and excitation transfer (Zillman, 1971), with more general social learning and social cognitive theories (e.g., Bandura, 1971, 1973; Mischel & Shoda, 1995) and social information processing models (e.g., Crick & Dodge, 1994). GLM differs from GAM in that the learning processes it describes are not specific to aggression; they can apply to other person environment interactions such as learning from educational video games (Buckley & Anderson, 2006). GLM explains learning through both the short term processes that occur in individual learn-

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Figure 1. The general learning model, simplified view (Copyright 2006 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Used with permission)

Person

Situation

Present Internal state

Learning Encounter

Appraisal, Decision, & Behavior ing episodes, as well as the cyclical process by which these episodes produce long term changes in the learner (see Figure 1 for a representation of a single learning encounter from the GLM). Though GLM is not specific to learning from video games, it is useful for understanding video game learning outcomes.

Input Variables There are two broad types of input variables in a learning encounter: person variables and situation variables. Person variables are the existing characteristics of the learner: mood state, past experiences, prior knowledge, beliefs, goals, attitudes, and other personality traits. Many of these variables tend to be somewhat consistent over time and in different situations, as the same knowledge structures (e.g., scripts or expectation schemata) will generally guide behavior. Situation variables are the characteristics of the

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environment in which the learning encounter is occurring. Situation variables include the location, other people present, and media (such as video games) that are present during the encounter. It should be fairly obvious that situational variables vary greatly over time, yet for each individual are likely to show some consistency, as people tend to be in similar situations across time. For example, a college student will find themselves in classroom situations more frequently than non-students. Learning encounters involving video games are subject to many of the same person variables that affect other sorts of learning, for example, age, intelligence, income level, and self-esteem (Lieberman, 1998). However, other person variables are more specific to learning from video games, such as the individual’s media exposure history. The extent to which aggression is learned from violent video games can be influenced by factors such as the player’s sex, age, social problem

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solving ability, experiences of victimization, prior aggressiveness, and level of parental supervision (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Some situational variables can be specific to learning from video games as well, most notably characteristics of the video game itself. The amount of interest a game creates, the amount of time it is played (both the frequency and duration), how the game is structured, reinforcement contingencies, and game content all influence what is learned and how well it is learned. The style of game play is also important to learning from a video game. Some games rely on drill-and-recall of facts while other video games attempt to simulate reality, and different types of video games can lead to different things being learned (Murphy et al., 2002; Squire, 2003). Situational variables such as frustration, pain, or aggressive cues (e.g., the presence of a weapon) can affect how violent video games influence aggression (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). These person and situational input variables can even combine in interactive ways to facilitate or impair learning. For example, when children with low self-esteem play a video game of appropriate difficulty that features a character similar to themselves, their self-esteem tends to improve (Lieberman, 1998). Individuals who are higher in trait hostility tend to show a disproportionate increase in aggressive cognitions in response to pain (Anderson, Anderson, Dill, & Deuser, 1998). In these examples, person factors (low self-esteem or trait hostility) interact with situation factors (similar video game character or pain), yet the result is either increased self-esteem or increased aggressive cognitions, depending on the specific input variables.

Present Internal State The effect of the person and situational input variables on learning and behavior occurs through the individual’s present internal state, consisting of cognition, affect, and arousal states. Cognition,

affect, and arousal are each influenced not only by the input variables, but also by both of the other two types of present internal state variables. Cognition. A variety of cognitive variables can be influenced by input variables: attributions, conscious thoughts, beliefs, perceptual and expectation schemata, and behavioral scripts. In the case of behavioral scripts, when a particular script becomes activated, it influences which behaviors are likely to occur (Huesmann, 1986). For example, the presence of other students sitting in a classroom very quietly (a situational variable) could lead to the activation of a script for listening to a boring lecture (a behavioral script), subsequently influencing the learning that occurs by leading the individual to ignore the instructor. In some cases, the activation and influence of such knowledge structures can occur automatically and completely outside conscious awareness (Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977; Todorov & Bargh, 2002). In other cases, the cognitive processes are initially conscious and become automatized with repeated practice. Affect. Personal and situational variables can also influence an individual’s affective state. This principle is demonstrated by phenomena such as mood-congruent cognition, mood dependent memory, and the mere exposure effect. Moodcongruent cognition means that people are better able to process information that is consistent with their present mood. In other words, angry people process aggression-related information more easily. Aversive stimulation, such as heat, can increase negative affect (Anderson, Anderson, Dorr, DeNeve, & Flanagan, 2000). Consequently, the ability of violent video games to teach aggression could be intensified by playing the game in a hot room. Mood dependent memory, on the other hand, describes people’s ability to recall information better when they are in the same mood as when they originally learned that information. This explains why depressed people can recall negative information more easily than positive information (Berry, 1997). The mere exposure

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effect describes the tendency for an object’s attractiveness to increase simply through repeated exposure to it. One need not even be aware of that exposure to be affected by it (Kunst-Wilson & Zajonc, 1980). Though this principle often occurs with stimuli that are initially slightly positive or neutral, it can also occur with stimuli that initially produce a negative reaction, as is the case with systematic desensitization. Presenting a stimulus that is initially fearful or disturbing (e.g., images of graphic violence) within a positive context (e.g., a fun video game) can produce desensitization to the stimulus (Carnagey, Anderson, & Bushman, 2006). Arousal. Playing video games, whether they are violent or not, tends to produce physiological arousal. This is useful for learning from video games, as players who did not experience arousal might be too bored to pay attention and learn from the game. On the other hand, if a player is too physiologically aroused, learning can be inhibited (Deshpande & Kawane, 1982; Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). Increased arousal more easily disrupts the learning of less familiar information, as compared with well-learned material (Berkowitz, 1990). This suggests that video games have an optimal level of arousal for stimulating learning, though the effects of excessive arousal may be less of an issue in cases where the video game is sufficiently familiar for the player. Interactions. Though GLM specifies three distinct internal state properties (cognition, affect, and arousal), these are not entirely separate routes of influence on learning. Both cognition and affect can potentially influence arousal (Schachter & Singer, 1962), and cognition and arousal can likewise influence affect (Bower, 1978). For example, if a violent video game makes the player angry, this could lead to the activation of a hostile expectancy schema. That schema could further increase the likelihood of an aggressive behavior in response to some sort of provocation occurring outside the video game.

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Immediate Outcomes The present state of cognition, affect, and arousal lead to an appraisal process, which in turn determines the immediate behavioral outcome (see Figure 2). The appraisal process may be thoughtful or impulsive. A thoughtful appraisal will take place only when the individual finds the result of the initial appraisal sufficiently unsatisfying and has sufficient resources (i.e., attention and time) for further consideration. Note that in most violent video games, the player will often not have sufficient time or attentional resources for reappraisal in violent encounters. Although, if the player makes a poor decision and loses in the game, that is likely remembered when the player tries again. In either case, the decision making process will potentially produce some type of learning. The outcome of this learning trial will then have an impact on the inputs of subsequent learning encounters. Playing a video game represents a series of successive learning encounters, each one lasting perhaps only a few seconds or even hours.

Long Term Effects The different stages of the general learning model discussed so far, from the personal and situational input variables to the immediate outcome, represent a single learning encounter in which a person might learn a fact or experience short-term changes. Similar, repeated learning encounters can produce a variety of long-term changes in an individual over time. One of the long-term changes that playing video games can produce is increased factual knowledge. Most educational software of the drill-and-recall variety is intended to meet this goal. Video games, especially those that are designed to simulate reality, can also teach behaviors. One of the most important long-term effects of video games is the potential for these games to alter the knowledge structures (beliefs, attitudes,

Learning Processes and Violent Video Games

Figure 2. The general learning model, expanded causes and processes (Copyright 2006 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Used with permission)

behavioral scripts, perceptual and expectation schemata, and affective traits) of their users. Changes in knowledge structures also leads to changes in personality (Mischel & Shoda, 1995; Sedikides & Skowronski, 1990). For example, repeatedly playing violent video games in which disagreements are settled with violence can lead to the development of a behavioral script of disagreement that includes physical aggression. As this script is activated from repeatedly playing such video games, it should become strengthened to the point where it becomes more easily activated in general. This could make an individual more conflict prone and willing to resort to physical aggression in situations of conflict. On the other hand, if the same individual were to instead play video games in which conflicts are settled with peaceful discussion and compromise, this could

eventually lead to a more prosocial personality. Not only do such changes in personality alter the personal variables that an individual brings to future learning encounters, but it can influence the situational input variables as well. For example, if a person develops an expectation of hostile interactions with peers, they may begin to seek out or even create such situations (Anderson, Buckley, & Carnagey, under review), and their peer group also is likely to change in ways that provide them with more opportunities to behave aggressively and confirming their expectations when those situations arise. To the extent that educational video games improve school performance, they could lead to better relationships with parents and teachers and change their peer group, leading to more opportunities for educational advancement.

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Where Do We Go From Here? Apply Effective Teaching Principles of Video Games One potential benefit provided by awareness of properties that make video games effective teaching tools is that these properties can be more systematically applied. Many of these points can be applied not just with educational video games, but in other educational contexts as well. Rather than trying to cover every concept, educational games tend to focus on fewer concepts but make learners practice them not just to the point of mastery, but to the point of overlearning. Even when a high initial standard of recall is used, learners tend to forget much of what they learn over time. Overlearning can help reduce this decline. This goal of overlearning can be achieved by teaching the same concepts in multiple ways within a video game. Similarly, new concepts should be explicitly connected to previously learned concepts, as in the spiral curriculum (Bruner, 1960). Another property of violent video games that is worth applying further is effective reward systems. Though it is popular in some educational contexts to reward any effort with praise, many video games utilize a more effective system of reinforcement. Though the initial difficulty level is adjusted to the individual, the extrinsic rewards (e.g., points, new abilities, better weapons) are given based on the increased level of competence the player achieves. This helps the player monitor their competence in the game, rather than undermining the intrinsic reinforcement that comes from developing greater competence by giving praise without regard to the quality of their performance.

The Issue of Video Game Violence That violent video games increase aggression is well understood by psychologists. Future research will continue to reveal more details about the

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mediating processes (e.g., physiological desensitization), corresponding brain activity, and brain substrates (e.g., the ACC and amygdala). However, the collective research to date on video game violence and aggression is sufficient to warrant public concern and efforts to address this problem. Such efforts are unlikely to be successful until these conclusions are more widely accepted. Resistance to the research findings results from multiple factors, some of which are beyond the scope of the present work. This resistance is startling, because many of the most vocal nay-sayers also promote the positive educational benefits of video games. As we have attempted to demonstrate, the psychological learning mechanisms are identical regardless of whether the game content features math or violence. Therefore, learning is likely to occur in both cases, not simply the one we prefer. In this section we address two factors: lack of understanding of the scientific meaning of “causality” and fear of the implications of accepting the conclusion that violent video games increase aggression. We also suggest some reasonable steps to reduce the effects of video game violence. The implicit definition of causality is relevant because the argument is often made that “many people play violent video games without demonstrating aggression, so therefore violent video games cannot cause aggression.” This argument presupposes that researchers are using the necessary and sufficient form of causality. To support this narrow and extreme form of causality, all people who play violent video games would have to behave aggressively and all aggressive people would have to play violent video games. No media violence researcher has made this argument. Instead, researchers use causality in the more modern, probabilistic sense. In other words, playing violent video games is one of many variables (risk factors) that increases the probability of an individual behaving aggressively. No single risk factor is sufficient to produce violent behavior, just as no single risk factor will be present in all acts of aggression.

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Reluctance to accept the conclusion that violent video games cause aggression can also be based on the fear that, if it were true, it would become necessary to ban violent video games. Such a fear appears to underlie both the industry’s and violent game players’ denials of the conclusions by the research community. This is a misunderstanding of the role of science in determining public policy. Scientific facts are just one of the factors that contributes to effective public policy (Anderson & Gentile, 2008). Public policy must also be based on legal issues, personal values, and political realities. Also particularly relevant to this question of public policy are personal values of legislators and of the general public. Just because something is known to be harmful does not mean it must be banned. Just because certain foods contribute to heart disease does not necessitate banning those foods, though it does suggest being careful about what you eat. Similarly, if people gave more attention to their media diets and the media diets of their children, the potentially harmful effects could be reduced. There are reasonable steps that can be taken to reduce their negative impact on children without resorting to a legal action. These have been described as the three pillars of responsibility (Gentile & Anderson, 2003). The first pillar is that the video game industry should accurately label their products to indicate their content, and explain this rating system to parents. This industry should also ethically market their products (e.g., avoid marketing violent games to children and adolescents) and should explain why it is important that parents use the ratings (i.e., because there is evidence of games having harmful effects as well as positive effects). The second pillar of responsibility is that the retail and rental industries should make reasonable efforts to enforce appropriate restrictions based on the content labels. The third pillar of responsibility lies with parents, who should educate themselves about the meanings of the media ratings systems, should learn why they need to monitor the con-

tent and time spent playing video games by their children, and then should act on that knowledge. For a broader discussion of public policy options about media violence, see Gentile, Saleem, & Anderson (2007).

cONcLUsION It is evident that video games teach a variety of types of information, skills, and behaviors. Some of this learning is intentional and beneficial (e.g., software designed to teach school subjects), but other forms of learning, such as increased aggressiveness from playing violent video games, occurs even though it is not intended by the creators or players of these video games. The specific outcomes are dependent on the content of the video game. Those who create and use video games in education should be aware that a single video game can have multiple effects on their users. For example, a video game in which the player must solve math problems in order to destroy enemies might simultaneously increase math knowledge and aggressive attitudes. Popular video games frequently make use of a variety of effective teaching principles that make them powerful at teaching whatever their content happens to be. Those who wish to create effective educational video games would do well to consider these principles.1 Specifically, an effective video game will allow players to choose the difficulty level of the video game and gradually increase the challenge as a player’s skill increases. Skills learned in the beginning of a game should be practiced to the point of automatization and continually utilized as new skills are practiced. Educational video games should be made to take advantage of the ability to provide immediate feedback. The system of reinforcement is a critical component of an educational video game. The most effective games at motivating players will make use of both extrinsic reinforcement (e.g., points or impressive visual effects) and intrinsic

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reinforcement (e.g., a sense of accomplishment or competence). The GLM provides a useful framework for understanding how video games exert short term and long term effects on their users. This model shows that learning does not simply mean acquiring information, but potentially changing behavior and personality as well. Video games are clearly a powerful tool and, like any effective tool, care should be taken in how they are used.

rEFErENcEs Abrams, A. (1986, January). Effectiveness of interactive video in teaching basic photography skills. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the Association for Educational Communication and Technology, Las Vegas, NV. Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of violent video games. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 113-122. Anderson, C. A., Anderson, K. B., Dorr, N., DeNeve, K. M., & Flanagan, M. (2000). Temperature and aggression. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 63-133. Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., Malamuth, N. M., & Wartella, E. (2003). The influences of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 81-110. Anderson, C. A., Buckley, K. E., & Carnagey, N. L. (under review). Creating your own hostile environment: A laboratory examination of trait aggression and the violence escalation cycle. Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (1997). External validity of “trivial” experiments: The case of laboratory aggression. Review of General Psychology, 1, 19-41. Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive be-

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havior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12, 353-359. Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2002). Human aggression. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 27-51. Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., Flanagan, M., Benjamin, A. J., Eubanks, J., & Valentine, J. C. (2004). Violent video games: Specific effects of violent content on aggressive thoughts and behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 199-249. Anderson, C. A., & Gentile, D. A. (2008). Media violence, aggression, and public policy. Chapter to appear in E. Borgida & S. Fiske (Eds.), Beyond common sense: Psychological science in the courtroom. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., & Buckley, K. (2007). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: Theory, research, and public policy. New York: Oxford University Press. Anderson, K. B., Anderson, C. A., Dill, K. E., & Deuser, W. E. (1998). Th e interactive relations between trait hostility, pain, and aggressive thoughts. Aggressive Behavior, 24, 161-171. Bandura, A. (1971). Social learning of moral judgments. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 11, 275-279. Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: A social learning analysis. Oxford, England: Prentice-Hall. Bartholow, B. D., Bushman, B. J., & Sestir, M. A. (2006). Chronic violent video game exposure and desensitization to violence: Behavioral and event-related brain potential data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 532-539. Berry, G. E. (1997). Information processing in anxiety and depression: Attention responses to

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Bower, G. H. (1978). Emotional mood as a context for learning and recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 573-585. Brannick, M. T., Prince, C., & Salas, E. (2005). Can PC-based systems enhance teamwork in the cockpit? International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 15, 173-187. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L, & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.) (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. New York: Vintage. Buckley, K. E., & Anderson, C. A. (2006). A theoretical model of the effects and consequences of playing video games. Chapter in P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing computer games: Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 363-378). Mahwah, NJ: LEA. Business Week (Business Week Online.) (2007). On-the-job video gaming. Retrieved February 28, 2007, from http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/06_13/b3977062.htm Carnagey, N. L., Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2006). Th effect of video game violence on physiological desensitization to real-life violence.

Crick, N. R., & Dodge, K. A., (1994). Social information-processing mechanisms in reactive and proactive aggression. Child Development, 67, 993-1002. Deshpande, S. W., & Kawane, S. D. (1982). Anxiety and serial verbal learning: A test of the Yerkes-Dodson law. Asian Journal of Psychology and Education, 9, 18-23. ESA (Entertainment Software Association). (2007). Retrieved July 12, 2007, from http://www. theesa.com/files/VideoGames-Final.pdf Flood, S. (2006). All play and more work. Computing. Retrieved June 20, 2007, from http://www. computing.co.uk/computing/analysis/2152597/ play-work Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Geen, R. G. (1990). Human aggression: Mapping social psychology series. Belmont, CA: Brooks/ Cole Publishing Co. Gentile, D. A. (under review). Pathological video game use among youth 8 to 18: A national study.

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Gentile, D. A., & Anderson, C. A. (2003). Violent video games: The newest media violence hazard. In D. Gentile (Ed.), Media violence and children (pp. 131-152). Westport, CT: Praeger. Gentile, D. A., & Gentile, J. R. (2008). Violent video games as exemplary teachers: A conceptual analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. R., & Walsh, D. A. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent aggressive attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 5-22. Gentile, D. A., Saleem, M., & Anderson, C.A. (2007). Public policy and the effects of media violence on children. Social Issues and Policy Review, 1, 15-61. Gentile, D. A., & Stone, W. (2005). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: A review of the literature. Minerva Pediatrica, 57, 337-358. Gentile, J. R., & Lalley, J. (2003). Standards and mastery learning: Aligning teaching and assessment so all children can learn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Gentile, J. R., Voelkl, K. E., Mt. Pleasant, J., & Monaco, N. M. (1995). Recall after relearning by fast and slow learners. Journal of Experimental Education, 63, 185-197. Glaser, R. (1962). Psychology and instructional technology. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Training research and education (pp. 1-30). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2003). Action video game modifies visual selective attention. Nature, 423, 534-537. Huesmann, L. R. (1986). Psychological processes promoting the relation between exposure to media violence and aggressive behavior by the viewer. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 125-139.

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Hunter, M. (1982). Mastery teaching. El Segundo, CA: Tip Publications. Kahn, K. (1999, June). A computer game to teach programming. Paper presented at the National Educational Computing Conference, Atlantic City, NJ. Khoo, A., & Gentile, D. A. (2007). Problem based learning in the world of games. In O. S. Tan & D. Hung (Eds.), Problem-based learning and elearning breakthroughs (pp. 97-129). Singapore: Thomson Publishing. Kunst-Wilson, W. R., & Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Affective discrimination of stimuli that cannot be recognized. Science, New Series, 207, 557-558. Lieberman, D. A. (1997). Interactive video games for health promotion: Effects on knowledge, selfefficacy, social support, and health. In R. L. Street, Jr., & W. R. Gold, (Eds.), Health promotion and interactive technology: Theoretical applications and future directions. LEA’s communication series (pp. 103-120). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Lieberman, D. A. (1998, July). Health education video games for children and adolescents: Theory, design, and research findings. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association, Jerusalem, Israel. McPherson, A. C., Glazebrook, C., Forster, D., James, C., & Smyth, A. (2006). A randomized, controlled trial of an interactive educational computer package for children with asthma. Pediatrics, 117, 1046-1054. Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1995). A cognitive-affective system theory of personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynamics, and invariance in personality structure. Psychological Review, 102, 246-268. MPAA (Motion Picture Association of America). (2007). Retrieved July 12, 2007, from http://www. mpaa.org/US%20Theatrical%20Snapshot.pdf

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Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology & Psychology, 18, 459-482.

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KEY TERMS

Squire, K. (2003). Video games in education. International Journal of Intelligent Simulations and Gaming, 2.

Automatize: Making a cognitive process relatively effortless and requiring few or no cognitive resources, usually achieved through repetition.

Standen, P. J., & Cromby, J. J. (1996). Can students with developmental disability use virtual reality to learn skills which will transfer to the real world? In H. J. Murphy (Ed.), Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Virtual Reality and Persons with Disabilities. Northridge, CA: California State University Center on Disabilities.

Knowledge Structure: Packet of organized information about the world, held in long-term memory.

Todorov, A., & Bargh, J.A. (2002). Automatic sources of aggression. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 7, 53-68.

Aggression: Behavior which is carried out with the intent to harm another individual who is motivated to avoid that harm.

Overlearning: To continue studying or practicing a perceptual, thought, or decision process, or a skill after initial proficiency has been achieved, in order to reinforce or ingrain the learned information or skill.

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Schema: A pattern or template used to understand real-world experiences, to mediate perception, or guide response. A type of knowledge structure. Script: A schema containing an expected sequence of behaviors used to attain a particular goal. Violence: Extreme physical aggression, such as severe physical assault or murder. All violence is aggression, but not all aggression is violence.

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ENDNOtE 1

A different level of analysis suggests that there are at least four dimensions on which video games have effects, including amount, content, structure, and mechanics (Gentile & Stone, 2005; Khoo & Gentile, 2007). We have focused almost entirely on the content dimension here, but software developers should also consider the others if the goal is maximally effective games.

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Chapter LI

Harnessing the Emotional Potential of Video Games Patrick Felicia University College Cork, Ireland Ian Pitt University College Cork, Ireland

AbstrAct This chapter explains the importance of acknowledging users’ personalities, learning styles, and emotions in the design of educational games. It argues that the application of educational theories combined with knowledge of subjects’ personality traits and an increased emotional depth offer a substantive approach to understand and improve the nature of learning in educational games. The authors hope that understanding the underlying motivation and behaviors of learners through the use of personality profiles will not only inform researchers of a better design of educational games, but also assist in understanding the intricate relationship between game design, instructional design, and users’ personality at both cognitive and emotional levels.

INtrODUctION Background and Motivation for the Study Since the 1970s, a new generation of students has emerged: the digital natives (Prensky, 2001). They are technology-savvy, use digital devices, process information in parallel, and play games

frequently. For this generation, video games have become a medium for entertainment, for socializing, performing collaborative activities, and also for learning (Gallardeau, 2005). On the other hand, traditional teaching does not always acknowledge the needs of this new generation and, as a result, learning in traditional settings is often perceived as boring or unappealing. Furthermore, digital natives develop skills that

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are not always acknowledged or measured by traditional instruction. For example, the Flynn effect suggests that young children’s IQs are constantly increasing but their academic results in mathematics are still poor. The development of educational games has served the purpose of creating content that is both appealing and educational for this new generation. Using these games, players learn by doing and by experimenting in a constructivist manner. Indeed, video games represent ideal learning environments in which users can improve their skills and learn in a safe and controlled manner. They often implement well-known instructional strategies such as social learning, discovery learning, or zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). According to Gee (2004), a variety of learning principles are built into good video games. Such skills include critical learning, design principles, semiotic principles, and semiotic domain principles. Despite an unsuccessful start with edutainment technology (education + entertainment), serious games are now much more appealing and can compete with commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games thanks to more affordable and manageable technology (of e.g., game engines). They are increasingly accepted as a truly potential educational medium (Van Eck, 2006). However, despite promising features, there is a lack of experimental studies on their effectiveness at both motivational and educational levels. The findings on their effectiveness are often contradictory and the evaluations anecdotal, descriptive, or judgmental (Leemkuil, De Jong, & Ootes, 2000), and there is no consensus on a common standard for the design of educational games (Squire, 2002). The authors suggest that one of the reasons for the discrepancy in the design techniques used and the results collected is that users differ in their personalities and learning styles. They believe that, because users’ personalities dictate the way they interact in the game and ultimately the way they learn, there is a need to tailor the content in

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a way that appeals to each user and that promotes learning activities. Because video games represent a highly emotional experience as well as a structured problem-solving system, their potential can be employed in a “user-centred” approach, to provide educational content that individually stimulates users’ emotions and cognitive skills. The expectation is that by “reaching” students and adapting to their needs, the learning activity will be seamless and more effective.

User-Centred Approaches to Improve Educational Games Design For a long time, traditional teaching methodologies focused on the content and educational objectives rather than the user. Because students have different expectations, preferences, and learning styles, a given educational content might not be effective across a wide range of students. Usercentred learning offers a shift from traditional methodologies; it allows tailoring of teaching methods and content to users. In such environments, users’ preferences, abilities, and reactions are evaluated and accounted for to maximise the learning outcomes (Levine, 1999).

Students Have Different Needs and Abilities Students often differ in their predisposition for particular topics. These different approaches to learning can be illustrated by the theory of multiple intelligences, introduced by Gardner (1993), who proposed the existence of eight (initially seven) autonomous intelligences: linguistic (e.g., reading and writing), logical (e.g., problem-solving and mathematics), musical, visual/spatial (e.g., arts and map reading), bodily/kinaesthetic (e.g., sports), interpersonal (interpersonal skills), intrapersonal (knowing about one’s strengths and weaknesses), and more recently naturalistic (e.g., enjoy learning about plants and animals). This theory has been gradually accepted in the edu-

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cational system as a means to provide different approaches to teaching. The eight intelligences allow educators to “reach” students more easily, to adapt to their learning styles, to allow them to “grow”, and is particularly relevant for students with disabilities or special needs. The introduction of ICT and multimedia technology in schools has provided a means to accommodate different learning styles and to apply this theory. For instance, the use of video accommodates students with visual/spatial intelligence, whereas storytelling accommodates students whose primary intelligence is linguistic. Throughout their childhood, children can possess and develop special abilities for topics such as sciences or languages. Research has found that infants have a clear understanding of basic biological and physical concepts or early numbers. For instance, they understand that objects need support not to fall, or that animated objects have the potential to move but inanimate ones don’t (Bransfor, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). They can also see a difference in the number of items represented. Children develop an early attention to language and gradually distinguish language differences. They actively attempt to understand the language spoken around them by making sense of what they are told in a particular environment. However, they need to practice actively to improve their language skills. Yet, if children’s abilities for “preferred subjects” can improve and speed up the way they learn, these abilities can prove to be problematic for topics that they do not prefer because their perception needs to adapt to new concepts (e.g., whole numbers and fractions).

ICT Should Accommodate Different Learning Styles Children regularly use digital technologies that allow for a high degree of personalisation, and they ought to avail of learning environments that also meet their personal needs and expectations

(Green, Facer, & Rudd, 2006). Focusing on users’ needs can help improve educational outcomes because effective teaching strategies are those that focus on the learner. Therefore, the focus of modern education should be on meeting and respecting each student’s diversity and unique talents (Lambert & McCombs, 2002). Learnercentred teaching methodologies can prevent common problems encountered by traditional teaching such as boredom, fear of failure, lack of relevance, or lack of interest in the topic taught. Such methods are effective because they address users’ needs at both cognitive and meta-cognitive levels, but they also account for their motivation, emotions, and individual differences (Lambert & McCombs, 2002). User-centred learning can promote students’ motivation and achievements. More importantly, it can help in the design of better educational games by addressing some inherent designs difficulties such as the use of intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, linear/open/ended content, and so forth. For example, on the one hand, it is felt that serious games should be developed so that players enjoy learning with no need for extra motivation (intrinsic learning). It is believed that rewards do not always guarantee motivation and they won’t make-up for an uninteresting game (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Becta, 2001). Mitchel & SavillSmith (2004) support this view and believe that the structure of a video game is likely to have more impact on players’ motivation than the game content itself. On the other hand, Rouse (2001) believes that users’ accomplishments should be rewarded (extrinsic motivation) to keep them both confident and motivated. However, the motivation to play an educational game, be it learning, fun, socialisation, and so forth, varies across users, and the correct use of extrinsic or intrinsic motivation should be based on the player. As suggested by Rouse (2001), the ideas associated with winning the game should appeal to each user and fulfill their motivation for playing: competition, learning, associating

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oneself with a character, working in teams, or being part of an imaginary group. This suggests that knowing a user’s motivation and personality can help to create a learning environment in which they are willing to stay. The following section explains how psychology can be used to understand players’ motivations and allow the game content to be adapted accordingly. It also explains how emotions improve the cognitive process.

ADAPTING CONTENT TO USERS’ PErsONALItIEs cAN IMPrOVE EDUcAtIONAL OUtcOMEs Players’ Personalities Affect Their Behaviour in Video Games New Understanding of the Relation between Games and Personalities When video games first appeared as a mass-entertainment medium, they suffered from many stereotypes and it was believed that they had a negative influence on players’ behaviours and health (eyestrain, neck pains) and to cause isolation (players reluctant to engage in social activities), violence (game as a motivation and vector of violent behaviours), sexist and homophobic behaviours, and the inability of the players to dissociate themselves from the content of the game. Some of these assumptions were unfounded. Studies showed that children are able to distance themselves from the game they are playing and that they can also decipher the games’ goal and main components (Howard, 1998). Additionally, it was revealed that games, like any other activity, could be damaging if they were used beyond a reasonable period of time. Health issues might arise but mostly because of inappropriate use (Mitchel & Savill-Smith, 2004). As noted by Jenkins (1993), it was felt that educators and parents needed to understand the

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potential of games at a less superficial level and to situate games in a social and educational context. There has been a shift from the initial preconceptions, and some researchers have been focusing on harnessing the emotional and psychological effects of video games for therapeutic or educational purposes. For the latter, the idea is that students’ personalities dictate their preferences for games and also determine their objectives within the game. Knowing how players might react to stimuli at a cognitive or emotional level might help to customize their experience and hence make the educational game more effective. It is now agreed that playing video games is a very personal experience, and that motivations for playing, as well as goals and source of enjoyment in video games, can vary across users (Griebel, 2006). Users play video games to prove themselves, for social interaction, for acceptance, to exercise, to improve their skills (Crawford, 2003; Salen & Zimmerman, 2003) but also to fulfill emotional needs (Lazzaro, 2004). However, as suggested by Freeman (2003), games often lack the emotional depth found in movies. He has therefore designed a set of techniques, borrowed from the film industry, aimed at improving the emotional experience in games so that users feel more engaged and emotionally fulfilled. Techniques to improve emotional depth include: dialogues, characters, relationships, game moments, and plots. Even if this approach has the potential to increase users’ experience, it was suggested that it should be applied more systematically in order to offer an efficient yet easy-to-follow framework for deeply emotional video games (Kane, 2004). Creating emotions in games also raises the issue of determining the state of users’ emotions to adapt emotions accordingly (Perron, 2005).

Profiling Players Some recent studies have tried to categorise users’ profiles (Rosewater, 2006) to understand

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their motivation and predict their actions. Bartle (1996) identifies four types of players in MUDs (multi-user dungeons): • • • •

Achievers strive to gather points and progress to higher levels. Socializers are interested in people and interplayer relationships. They often sympathise and empathize with other players. Explorers are willing to understand the game mechanics and to discover new ideas or locations. Killers enjoy imposing themselves on others and particularly causing distress or pain to other players.

It was suggested that this categorisation lacked accuracy because the four types may overlap and also because the factors associated with each of the traits might not be describing the full spectrum of motivations behind MUD players’ actions (Yee, 2002). In a study based on the work of Bartle, Yee (2002) identified five factors that could explain players’ motivation in MMORPG (massively multi-player online role playing game): relationship, immersion, grief, achievement, and leadership. This categorisation was further refined (Yee, 2007) as “achievement” (advancement, game mechanics and competition), “social” (socializing, relationship, and teamwork), and “immersion” (discovery, role-playing, customization, and escapism). It proved that, contrary to the ideas of Bartle, players could belong to more than one category; the study also showed that the tendency for socialization is gender independent but that the goals behind socialization differ between genders. Video game players’ profiling is at an early stage and evidence suggests that traditional psychological personality models such as MBTI (Myer-Briggs Type Indicator) and 5-Factor can be used for user profiling. They can be applied to explain and predict some of the user’s behaviours in games and in particular in educational games.

According to Hopson (2001), psychology can offer a framework to help understand players’ reactions in video games. Conati and Zhou (2003) show that pupils’ personalities, as measured in the light of the Big-5 model, influence their behaviour, goals, and actions within educational games (e.g., some want to have fun and to learn whereas others strive to avoid losing). Griebel (2006) shows that some players project part of their personality in their player character (PC) and that their playing style is directly affected by their dominant personality trait.

About Personality Traits The field of personality addresses human individual differences and uniqueness. It accounts for consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving (Pervin, Cervone, & John, 2004). It helps to explain individuals’ characteristics, their origins, and consequences for their behaviour. In psychology, individuals can be analysed and categorised through personality types or personality traits. For the former, people can be classified under a number of personality types, while for the latter, individuals are assigned to a position in a 5-Dimensional space.

Introduction to the 5-Factor and MBTI Models The MBTI and 5-factor models are two of the most well-known personality models. They provide a way to measure personality and also provide a framework to predict associated behaviours. Studies have focused in particular on how users learn and seek information based on their personality traits. Such findings could be directly applicable to educational games should they account for player’s personalities. In the 5-factor model, researchers try to find basic units of personality by analysing the words that people generally use to describe themselves. It includes five personality traits: openness (eager

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to learn and open to new experiences), conscientiousness (hard worker), extraversion (enjoys social interaction), agreeableness, and neuroticism (prone to stress). The 5-factor model is also referred to as the Big-Five, because each of the five factors or traits includes a number of more specific traits. Goldberg et al. (2006) initiated this model and McCrae and Costa (1992) then developed a personality test called the NEO-PR-I to evaluate the Big-Five personality factors. The NEO-PR-I can easily be transferred to an online personality test in the form of the IPIP (International Personality Item Pool). The IPIP (2006) provides a means to obtain personality profiles based on 50 or even 20 questions (Donnellan, Oswald, Baird, & Lucas, 2006). The former format provides relatively accurate results, while the latter is less precise but easier to include within an educational game (e.g., questions asked by a non-player character). The MBTI (Myers Briggs Type Indicator) categorises personalities as: extraversion-introversion (E-I), sensing-intuition (S-N), thinking-feeling (T-F), and judgment-perception (J-P). It has been the subject of a wide range of studies, especially those establishing links between personality traits and learning styles. It is less practical to use for online questionnaires, but there is a correlation between the two models (McCrae & Costa, 1989): E-A and S-N are strongly related to extraversion and openness (respectively -0.74 and 0.72) whereas T-F and J-P are more weakly related to agreeableness and conscientiousness (respectively 0.44 and -0.49). The emotional stability dimension of the Big-5 is largely absent from the MBTI. Also, this model does not account for the emotional state of the user, which is represented by the neuroticism trait in the 5-factor model.

Learning Styles A significant amount of literature has been dedicated to predicting behaviours, learning styles, and

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preferences linked to specific personality traits (Briggs-Myers & McCaulley, 1985; Heinström, 2003; Keirsey, 1998). The following summarizes the state of the research so far and draws some conclusions for the design of successful usercentred educational games: •

•

•

•

Neuroticism: Users with a high level of neuroticism often consider lack of time as a barrier. They need to increase their control and it is better to show them documents that confirm previous knowledge or ideas. Extraversion: Users with a high level of extraversion tend to privilege social activities but find solitary activities difficult and seek information through peers. They learn better by explaining to other students, they have a preference for thought-provoking documents and discussions and visible results. However, extraverted students do not tend to be systematic and often don’t perform deep analysis of the material given. Introversion: Introverted students seek to interconnect knowledge relevant to the subject in hand. They like chunking, grouping, and interconnecting data. They learn best through quiet mental reflection and prefer reading, lectures and written work to oral work. Also, they prefer independent work and need sufficient time to process information. Openness: Users with a high level of openness are naturally curious and have a critical mindset. They are eager to find information (ideally from different sources), enjoy discovery learning, and as a result are open to accidental discovery. They focus on general concepts (they see the “big picture “) and tend to forget about the details unless they relate to a pattern. Users with a high level of openness enjoy new material, and find repetition boring once they have understood the pattern. Ideal environments for this type

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•

•

•

•

•

of student should allow for creativity and provide them with different ways to solve problems. Conservatism (Low levels of Openness): Conservative students prefer clearly and recently written documents recommended by teachers and they like linear, structured and organized information. They learn through their senses, and because they are very practical, they like to learn material related to real-life situations. Agreeableness: Users with a high level of agreeableness enjoy working in harmonious groups, they feel rewarded when they can help others but they can have difficulty when the material does not relate to people, human values, or relations. Competitiveness: Users with a high level of competitiveness like clear course and topic objectives. They are usually good at problem solving and enjoy feedback on their objective and achievement. They show a base for sceptical and critical thinking but can easily become impatient during learning activities. Conscientiousness: Users with a high level of conscientiousness are often willing to work hard to achieve their goal. They are ready to seek, analyze, and reconsider information. Easy Going Students (Low Level of Conscientiousness): Easy going students tend to be impulsive, easily distracted, careless, and hasty. They have a predilection for information that confirms their previous knowledge and their choice is often guided by a need for a quick answer. Because they reach conclusions too quickly, it is advisable to challenge their knowledge, to encourage them to consider pros and cons of the answer and to consider alternative solutions.

Users’ Emotions Can Affect Learning Before the appearance of formal education, learning was often passed through generations thanks to storytelling; This format was more engaging for learners as it often triggered an emotional response and hence more involvement from the audience (Decastel, 1999; Kort, 2005). However, for many years, learning in formal education has been perceived as a purely cognitive activity where emotions were interfering with rather than helping the learning process. It is only in recent literature that the impact of emotions on learning has been acknowledged and built into learning models and strategies. Emotions can increase our receptivity to information; they keep us focused, interested, and durably linked to the information we are processing. They affect our memory and our cognitive process and can also be used for self-motivation. The next section describes how emotions can affect the cognitive process and memory.

Emotions and Memory Research suggests that stimuli that create emotional responses tend to be more easily remembered than those that don’t (Rapaport, 1950). Emotions can have a positive or negative impact on memory depending on the learners’ emotional state and on the emotional content of the learning material. According to Parrott and Spackman (2000), there are three factors that govern the link between emotions and memory: • • •

The quality of the material to be remembered (content); The emotional state of the user when encoding information (encoding); and The state of the user when recalling information (recall).

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There is an interaction between these three characteristics. Users’ existing emotions and emotions elicited by the content can interact to impact positively or negatively at encoding or recall. This gives raise to three types of interaction: •

•

•

Mood-congruent encoding: Learning is increased when emotions conveyed by the content match user’s emotions and moods. At the time of encoding, intense emotions can improve memory for central details. Mood congruent recall: Learning is increased when the user’s emotions match the emotions conveyed by the content to be recalled. Recall is usually better for positive moods than for negative moods (Singer & Salovey, 1988). Mood-independent recall: Memory is increased when the mood of the user at the time of recall matches their mood at the time of encoding. This is particularly efficient for users with relatively stable moods.

It is also interesting to note that individuals tend to prefer stories that match their present mood (Green, 1997).

Positive and Negative Emotions Emotions can facilitate thinking, and it was shown (Salovey, Bedell, Detweiler, & Mayer, 2000) that: (1) addressing a problem while in different moods might enable individuals to consider this problem from different perspectives, and (2) emotions create different information processing styles. Positive moods promote creativity and an openminded approach whereas negative feelings are usually characterised by a slow problem-solving process associated with more focused and deliberate strategies. The influence of emotions on cognitive tasks depends on the task in hand (Isen, 2000). For example, positive emotions tend to promote exploration and openness especially in safe situations

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whereas in dangerous situations, individuals tend to act more cautiously. It has been accepted for a long time that positive emotions had a positive bias on perception and memory whereas negative moods resulted in negative distortions. Being in a good mood does not necessarily lead to better cognitive performance, and it was shown that tests or activity requiring executive functions (forward planning and sequencing of events) was disrupted by a positive mood (Carlson, Buskist, & Martin, 2000). Furthermore, according to Stege, Tergwogt, and Koops (1994), positive moods have a more important impact on cognitive processes than negative moods. This asymmetry in the effect of emotions tends to level off as people grow up because they learn strategies to cope with negative feelings (mood repair).

Using Emotional Intelligence to Increase Cognitive Efficiency Whereas emotions are often a reaction to our environment, some persons have the ability to use these emotions for motivation purposes. For example, while some students might strive to remain positive about an exam and reassure themselves about the outcome, other students who often work better under pressure use the idea or prospect of failure as a motivation to meet deadlines (Salovey et al., 2000). Such persons can be described as emotionally intelligent because they use their emotions strategically. Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to perceive, appraise, and express emotions, the emotional facilitation of thinking, understanding, and analysing emotional information and regulating emotions. Individuals create strategies that affect their emotions and learning abilities, and their motivation as a result. Individuals’ abilities to control their emotions increase as they mature. EI is considered to be an important factor for academic success as it helps with self-motivation and mood management (Goleman, 1994).

harnessing the Emotional Potential of Video Games

A Review of Educational Models Based on Emotions As emotions have become more accepted for educational applications, several instructional design methods that include emotions have been developed such as: FEASP, ARCS, or CEO. They acknowledge the effect of emotions on learning and propose theoretical frameworks for sound emotional educational environments. •

•

•

•

The ARCS model is an instructional model based on motivation. Its core component covers: attention, relevance (intrinsic motivation), confidence, and satisfaction. It aims at encompassing the necessary conditions to motivate learners. It is more relevant in a corporate setting and, as opposed to the flow theory, the motivation is extrinsic rather than intrinsic. The CEO model is developed for Web-based education and emphasizes safety, challenge, and new thinking (MacFadden, 2000). It develops support for safety (support, acceptance), challenge (confusion, anxiety, frustration, disequilibrium), and new thinking (“ahah” moments). The FEASP model (fear, envy, anger, sympathy, pleasure) (Astleitner & Hermann, 2000), promotes the creation of instructional experiences based on positive feelings. It aims at reducing negative feelings (FEA) and at increasing the positive ones (SP). Regardless of the learner’s initial emotional state, a learning experience is often emotionally dynamic because the learner feels various emotions: curiosity, fascination, surprise, anxiety, confusion, bewilderment, frustration, anguish, chagrin, hope, perplexity, elation, satisfaction, and confidence. Experiencing a mix of feelings is necessary to progress, to make sense of our experience and to accelerate the learning process (Kort, 2005). The idea of experiencing a mix of

positive and negative feelings and the ones developed in the FEASP model are, however, not contradictory. The FEASP model focuses on the learning environment (not on the content), providing safety, collaboration opportunities, a reduction in users’ frustrations and a feeling of fairness. It allows learners to experience a mix of feelings but in a safe and controlled environment. More recently, attempts have been made to create educational games models that combine instructional design, game design, and also account for user’s emotions. Kiili (2005, 2006) offers a model for educational games that combines both instructional design and the flow theory. It provides players with both meaningful challenges and educational tasks. Amory and Seagram (2003) and Amory (2007) believe that educational games should be based on sound educational theories and have developed an object-oriented model that combines game development and instructional design. The GOM (game objective model), POM (personal outlining model), and the GAM (game achievement model) address students’ motivation and educational goals. They help to develop nonlinear games and to meet educational objectives. However, this approach seldom accounts for a user’s preferences and learning style.

Video Games as Sound Emotional Experiences Video games can be described or analysed through the instructional models mentioned in the previous section, and as such provide an emotional dimension that can help learning. As described by Crawford (2003) they can be compared to an emotional rollercoaster where users experience a wide range of emotions but always in a safe environment. They are in-line with the FEASP model because they reduce the negative feelings linked to the environment (ease of use, interface, computer crashing, etc.) and increase positive

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feelings such as sympathy and pleasure. They also provide attention, relevance, and confidence by means of easy learning curves.

Consequences for Game Design: Guidelines for User-Centred Educational Games The following section interprets the findings reviewed previously and discusses the consequences for educational game design. It contrasts user-centred approaches with traditional game design techniques.

Using Emotions to Improve the Cognitive Process In the previous section, the authors have explained how emotions can impact on the cognitive process and how some strategies can be applied to accommodate students. However, detecting user’s emotions can be very difficult. Despite the existence of techniques to detect facial expressions, very few studies have successfully managed to detect emotions based on standard devices (mouse, keyboard, colour-selection, icon selection, keystroke intensity, etc.). Inducing an emotional state in a user can prove to be difficult. However, evidence has shown that when presented with visual and audio information, the latter was predominant (Anderson & Casey, 1997), suggesting that audio information could be use effectively to induce an emotional state in a user. Freeman (2003) also suggests that the use of symbols or dialogues within the game can be used to elicit particular emotions. Emotions in educational games could be used as follows: •

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Increase memory retention: Mood-independent encoding and recall might be efficient for users with a low level of Neuroticism (stable mood). Inducing in them a particular mood at the time of encoding and recall

•

• •

•

•

should improve memory (recall). Using NPC dialogues, users can be either reassured about their results (users with a high level of Neuroticism) or challenged to do better (users with a high level of Competitiveness). Use positive emotions to support creative activities (open-ended strategies). Spend a considerable amount of time playtesting so that frustrating issues are avoided (e.g., game crashing often, game not adapted to the platform). Demonstrate the game in the classroom and provide helpers that can explain the game if needed. Design the game with the target population in mind (age group, gender, skills, etc.).

Customizing Information Content and Structure to Players Information in video games can be managed in many different ways: •

Information “flow” and feedback: By managing the flow of information in a game it is possible to inform users and increase their motivation. Four types of information can be provided to users: accurate, misleading, partial and false (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Teem, 2001). If designers want to increase challenge and motivation for users with a high level of openness or competitiveness, they can provide misleading, partial or even false information. Students with a high level of openness will find an opportunity to use their critical thinking abilities and curiosity. This is particularly effective in games where the player is investigating as a detective. However, in this case, players should be made aware of the possibility of the computer using false information. For students with a high level of neuroticism, accurate information that conforms to their previous knowledge

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•

will be more effective. Feedback should be given to users in obvious forms to enable them to reflect, reconsider, discuss options, and develop successful strategies (Becta, 2001). Players should be made aware of their progress, and information such as ranking should be used, especially for users with a high level of competitiveness. Learning about the game using booklets and built-in demo levels: Game designers often proscribe the use of booklets, as they believe that users ought to learn solely by playing (Rouse, 2001). On the other hand, Alessi and Trollip (2001) advise that booklets be available to players. In the light of educational theories, students with a high level of neuroticism, conservatism, or introversion would benefit from booklets that refer to information previously learnt during classes and provides them with a sense of control. However, students with a high level of extraversion might prefer to ask their peers instead. In this case, referring students to booklets might prove inefficient. Moreover, students with a high level of openness will enjoy a demo level where they learn the game mechanics. The same applies to students with a low level of openness because they are very practical.

Customizing the Game Play Using Linear and Open-ended Content The game structure plays a significant part in players’ involvement and motivation. According to Alessi and Trollip (2001), the game structure is one of the keys to a good educational game. Aldrich (2001) identifies three types of content: linear, cyclical (drill and practice), and openended. Non-linearity provides more interaction and allows players to reach their objectives in different ways, giving them more choice and hence making the game more fun (Rouse, 2001). One

of the best ways to achieve an entertaining game is to implement interactive storytelling mixing linear and open-ended content so that the players enjoy both an interactive/immersive experience but also the dramatic qualities of the story. Linear content might be especially suitable for users with a low level of openness because they like clear objectives and structured material. On the other hand, open-ended content might appeal more to users with a high level of openness who show a high degree of creativity and enjoy exploration. Techniques to implement non-linear game-play can apply to both game structure and content. They include: • •

• •

•

Storytelling, multiple solutions (different ways to achieve a goal). Dialogs with NPCs: This option might be especially suitable for users with a high level of Agreeableness if the NPC relates to people and if the player is asked for help. NPC behaviours Books: Finding a book (or any written material) within the virtual world might be best appreciated by users with a high level of introversion because they enjoy written work. Computer terminals

Although repetition drills can be useful, especially for users with a high level of neuroticism (it increases their confidence), users with a high level of openness might rapidly find them boring. Alternative learning opportunities based on exploration and discovery should be put in place for these users.

A Case Study on the Effects of Users’ Personalities in Educational Games In March 2006, the authors conducted a study in two Cork secondary schools in order to evaluate

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the impact of student’s personalities on the design of educational games. It was aimed at assessing two hypotheses formulated by the authors: 1.

2.

Displaying time in educational games impacts negatively on users with a high level of neuroticism; and Displaying ranking information impacts positively on users with a high level of competitiveness.

The authors developed an educational game called MathQuest using Java3D. This game was designed to teach mathematics. It featured a 3-Dmaze in which players had to navigate and find the exit to the next level in less than 12 minutes. Each level included a set of doors that players had to open to progress further in the game. To open a door, players had to solve a linear equation. Solving an equation consisted of 5-6 steps. While progressing through each step to solve equation, information was recorded such as time to solve the equation, success rate, and so forth. The game included a tutoring system that followed student’s progress throughout the game and that provided them with feedback. In the first level, the system assessed students’ skills in solving a linear equation and determined what skills needed improvement. Data recorded in the game were saved on a remote server for further analysis. The game was designed to change its content (time displayed, feedback, and ranking information) according to players’ personality and to record their progress. Points were awarded to players based on: •

•

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Their proficiency at solving equations (each successful step in solving an equation was rewarded); and The number of levels achieved (bonuses were given at the end of each level based on how fast they completed the level; the faster the more points were awarded). The

score for each user was updated regularly on the remote server and the ranking was updated accordingly. Eighty 1st and 2nd year secondary school students took part in the study. They were identified with a unique ID composed of the initials of their teacher, a number corresponding to their class, and another random number (e.g. RF_01_02). This ensured that the results of the study would be totally anonymous. The pupils initially took an online personality test developed by the authors and based on the IPIP. It consisted of 50 questions. The students were identified only with their ID and the results were stored in a remote database. Results for the test were assessed for their validity and reliability and proved to fulfil both criteria. Reliability of each personality test (Lumsden, 1976) was evaluated using the split halves method (P(23)>0.648; p<0.05). Validity measurement (overuse of the same answer and social desirability) showed that only two students overused the same answer, and two students answered in a socially desirable manner. Following the personality test, pupils were divided into four groups according to their personality profile: one experimental group (A) and one control group (B) for each of the hypotheses. •

•

Students with a high level of neuroticism were used to assess the first hypothesis [Displaying time in educational games impacts negatively on users with a high level of neuroticism] and were assigned to either group A1 or B1. Students with a high level of competitiveness were used to assess the second hypothesis [Displaying ranking impacts positively on users with a high level of competitiveness] and were assigned to either group A2 or B2.

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Conducting the Study The study was conducted as follows: • • •

Users did a 10-minute written test on equations Users played the game for 25 minutes Users did a 10-minute written post-test on equations

Both pre- and post-tests were created in accordance with the Irish curriculum. The game was initially demonstrated to the pupils so that they could gain a basic understanding of what was expected from them and how to use the different controls in the game. Helpers were available during the game. They were composed of the teacher, the authors and 3-4 5th year students who had been previously acquainted with the game. Users were equipped with headphones and played the game individually (one computer per student). They were asked to raise their hand should they have a question. As mentioned in the previous section, the game adapted the content according to the user’s personality: • •

•

•

•

At the start of the game, users were asked to enter their ID. The game would then connect to a remote database, retrieve the users’ personality traits and group (A1, B1, etc.). For the students belonging to the group A1 (experimental group for the first hypothesis), there was no time limit and as a result no time was displayed on the screen during the game. For the students belonging to the group B1 (control group for the first hypothesis) a countdown was displayed at the top left corner of the screen. For the students belonging to the group A2 (experimental group for the second hypoth-

•

esis), no information on their current rank was displayed on the screen. For the students belonging to the group B2 (control group for the second hypothesis), player’s rank was displayed on the screen in real time (e.g. 2/80).

Results of the Study The data recorded and used to assess the two hypotheses were as follows: • • • •

Pre-test Post-test Average time to solve an equation in the game Number of equations solved in the game

In the light of the data collected, the results were as follows: •

•

The first hypothesis (displaying time in educational games impacts negatively on users with a high level of neuroticism) was not supported. Instead the results showed that, on average, students for whom time was displayed in the game had improved their academic results more significantly than students for whom time was not displayed (respectively 81% and 43%). Moreover, a statistical analysis of the results using the Mann-Whitney test showed that displaying time in MathQuest had increased players’ proficiency at solving equations (U(14,12)=39; p<0.05) as well as their confidence (U(8,5=1;p<0.05)). The second hypothesis (displaying ranking in educational games for subjects with a high level of competitiveness increases their proficiency in solving mathematical equations) was partially supported. Raw data showed that on average, subjects for whom ranking information was displayed

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had improved their test results more significantly than students for whom ranking was not displayed (respectively 15% and 11.3% improvement). Also, the former seemed to have become more proficient at solving equations than the latter as the average time to solve an equation in the game was lower for the former than for the latter (respectively 41.92 seconds and 82.37 seconds). These results, however, were not supported by a statistical analysis probably due to the small number of subjects available to assess this hypothesis.

Discussion Whereas the first hypothesis was not validated, the authors noticed that more than 65% of the subjects (17 out of 26) who belonged to both group A1 and group B1 and who had played the game also possessed a high level of competitiveness. It suggests that when subjects possessed high levels of both competitiveness and neuroticism traits, displaying the time for these students acted as a motivating factor rather than a constraint. This study has shown that user profiling can be difficult due to the fact that users have several prominent personality traits rather than one. It has also illustrated that traditional personality models and educational theories offer a good starting point to understand how users learn and behave in educational games, but further research is needed to refine these models when applied to educational games.

cONcLUsIONs AND IMPLIcAtIONs General Implications Students have different learning styles and needs due to their different personalities. ICT should accommodate these learning styles with tailored educational content. By doing so, students’ moti-

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vation can be increased as well as the educational outcomes. Despite pre-conceptions about the negative effect of games, it is now clear that games can have a positive impact on users’ behaviours and emotions. They help users to feel better about themselves and also to engage in creative, educational and social activities. Developers need to harness this potential to create software that is both entertaining and educational. However, since the field of educational games is still at an early stage there is a lack of models to increase both educational effectiveness and emotional depth. User profiling allows the creation of a more personalized and engaging experience by predicting users’ behaviour and adapting the content to their emotional needs. Models created by Yee offer a promising start; however, educational game development could benefit significantly from the use of existing psychological models such as the MBTI or the Big 5. Serious game developers can also benefit from existing research dedicated to user-centred teaching and learning. By combining these two approaches, we can obtain educational games that are firmly grounded in both educational and psychological theories and that offer reliable and reproducible results. Furthermore, since games represent rich interactive and emotional experiences, emotions should be used to increase not only enjoyment but also the cognitive process through NPCs, sound, and dialogues. More emphasis should be put on developing frameworks to increase emotions in games, and use them as a cognitive support tailored to individuals needs. Games are systems that provide information, emotions, a high level of interaction and a story line that can be delivered in many different ways. All of these should be tailored to users’ personality and needs at both emotional and cognitive levels. Studies should be designed not only to evaluate user’s motivation and learning outcomes but also to draw correlations between users’ personalities, game design features and educational outcomes.

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However, as suggested by Rittel and Webber (1973), learning is a “wicked” problem; many factors can contribute to or interfere with the learning process and cause inconsistent results across experiments. Such inconsistencies can be caused by experimental design flaws, as suggested by Brown , Fisher, and Brailsford (2007): •

• •

•

• •

Questionnaires on learning styles lack reliability and validity and can invalidate results collected during the experiments. Control groups are not always used but doing so would limit placebo effects. Studies do not always employ “real users” and, as a result, the findings cannot reliably be generalized. Observation time is too small (longitudinal studies are preferable for long time effects). Subjects are not always naives and they should be selected at random. Models usually adapt to user’s previous knowledge but should focus on their learning style.

Consequences for Researchers Researchers need to focus on longitudinal studies using well-known reliable and valid tools to assess users’ personalities and learning styles so that results are consistent and easily reproducible on a larger scale. Further studies need to be carried-out to categorise more accurately game players and learners. However, traditional psychological personality tests such as the MBTI or the Five-star model and the work of Yee (2007) offer a good starting point.

Consequences for Policy Makers Policy makers need to consider video games as an effective tool for education. Time should be set aside for teachers to become familiar with this technology so that they can play, explain the game,

and animate de-briefing sessions which offer an opportunity for pupils to relate their experience and share their understanding of the concepts explained in the game. Multi-disciplinary teams that include teachers, developers, and psychologists should be formed to provide an approach that provides a better understanding of the learning process at motivational, cognitive and emotional levels.

Consequences for Developers Developers should offer games with a wide range of educational opportunities and diversity to motivate players and accommodate different learning styles (Becta, 2001; Mitchel & SavillSmith, 2004). They should offer a combination of both linear and open-ended content, a choice of interfaces (e.g., various combinations of video, audio and text, use of colour, etc.), and a choice of character (both female and male). Serious games should account for ethnicity differences, offer a range of themed activities relevant to a wide range of interests and skills, and include alternative input/output for people with special needs. Serious games should also include built-in processes to detect and accommodate user’s preferences. At a cognitive level, this can be implemented using intelligent tutoring systems; however, at an emotional level, traditional gaming techniques such as dialogues, sound, and video, should be used to provide a more convenient approach than questionnaires.

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Rouse, R. (2001). Game design: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Wordware Publishing. Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2003). Rules of play. MIT Press. Salovey, P., Bedell, B. T., Detweiler, J. B., & Mayer, J. D. (2000). Current directions in emotional intelligence research. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Singer, J. A., & Salovey, P. (1988). Mood and memory: Evaluating the network theory of affect. Clinical Psychology Review. Squire, K. (2002, July). Cultural framing of computer/video games. International Journal of Computer Games, 2(1). Stege, H., Tergwogt, M., & Koops, W. (1994, October). Positive and negative mood effects in children: The mediating influence of task characteristics. Journal of General Psychology. Van Eck, R. (2006). Digital game based learning: It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/erm0620.pdf Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Yee, N. (2002). 5 motivation factors for why people play MMORPG. Retrieved from http://www. nickyee.com/facets/home.html Yee, N. (2007). Motivations of play in online games. Journal of CyberPsychology and Behavior, 9, 772-775. Zhou, X., & Conati, C. (2003). Inferring user goals from personality and behaviour in a causal model of user affect. International Conference on User Interfaces, Miami, Florida, 2006.

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KEY TERMS Big-5: The Big-5 is an instrument used in psychology to measures subjects’ personality traits in a 5-D space. E I (Emotional Intelligence): Refers to the ability to perceive, appraise, and express emotions, the emotional facilitation of thinking, understanding, and analysing emotional information and regulating emotions. ICT (Information and Communication Technology): In the context of education, it includes any communication devices and applications such as: radio, video, mobile phones, computers, and network hardware and software used to enhanced the learning experience. ITS (Intelligent Tutoring System): Used in educational software to replace a human tutor. MBTI (Myer-Briggs Type Indicator): The MBTI is an instrument used in psychology to measure subjects’ dominant personality type. NPC (Non-Player Character): Character in a computer whose actions are not controlled by a human player. User-Centred Learning: Learning environment that accounts for users’ preferences, abilities, and reactions to maximise the learning outcomes.

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Chapter LII

Gamers, Gender, and Representation Diane Carr University of London, UK Caroline Pelletier University of London, UK

AbstrAct The issue of gender reoccurs in debates about the introduction of computer games into formal learning contexts. There is a fear that girls will be alienated rather than engaged by games in the classroom. There is also concern over sexist imagery, and thus about representational aspects of computer games. In this chapter, particular aspects of these issues are addressed in turn. The authors explore the issue of gender and gendered game preferences, in relation to the cultural framing of the gaming audience. Attention is then directed at the issue of representation, with a consideration of the tensions between representation, meaning, and playability. These issues are considered primarily through perspectives drawn from media studies, and with reference to recent work from the emerging field of computer game studies.

GAMErs, GENDEr, AND rEPrEsENtAtION There is a growing willingness to consider the use of commercially produced computer games in classrooms, yet there is also lingering and understandable concern about the popular associations—or “cultural baggage”—that such games

might bring with them to formal learning contexts. One persistent concern is that the introduction of games into classrooms might alienate female students. A related concern hinges on imagery in games, and issues of representation. In this chapter, which is based on a colloquium article first published in the British Journal of Eduction and Technology (Carr, 2007), we will discuss

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gender and the gaming audience, and gendered representation in games in turn, while drawing on research from within the field of game studies.1 Computer games in the classroom, it has been proposed, have the potential to motivate and reengage disenfranchised male students. These same games, it is feared, may alienate female students (BECTA, 2001; Ellis, Heppell, Kirriemuir, Krotoski, & McFarlane, 2006). Frequently, in discussions of this issue, attention is paid to the structural or generic features of games, and the links between these factors and the purported preferences of gendered user-subjects. Here, rather than discussing “what games girls like”, we would like to draw attention to the notion of the “gamer”, and the cultural, social, and economic construction of gaming audiences. These factors—at least as much as the particular attributes of specific games or genres—continue to influence how players and especially non-players regard games, and their relationship to games. Concern about the representation of bodies in commercial computer games has also been a feature of debates about the introduction of commercial games into classrooms. According to Ellis et al. (2006, p. 25), research “indicates that both students and teachers are sensitive to the cultural representations in games and believe that they can reinforce stereotypes and have other similar negative effects.” Such concerns are warranted. Questionable bodies in fictional forms, popular culture, or games should not be ignored. This is not a trivial issue, yet neither is it straightforward, because the playability of games complicates attempts to account for the meaning of games and representations in games. In this chapter, our aim is to contribute to debates on games in classrooms, player motivation, and problematic imagery, by drawing attention to the work that is being done in recent computer game studies on relevant issues; by situating issues of gender and player engagement in cultural contexts, and by considering the representation of bodies in games in a “media-specific” manner.

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GAMING cULtUrE AND GAMEs IN tHE cLAssrOOM Discussions about gender and computer games in learning contexts tend to frame both players and games in particular ways. It might be assumed, for example, that children are the primary audience for games (which is not always the case), and that males play more than females, which is not necessarily the case (Krotoski, 2004). Scholars and educators have focused on the figure of the young, female (non-) player, in part because of concerns about girls’ lack of engagement with mathematics, the sciences, and technology. There has been a tendency to propose remedial steps, such as the engineering of “games for girls” or further research into girls’ gaming preferences (see various contributions to Cassell & Jenkins, 2000). The implication in some reviews of this research is that insufficient “games for girls” are available—and that “games for girls” and “games for boys” are very different entities (see Gorriz & Medina, 2000; Gurer & Camp, 2002; Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 2000). Due to rapid shifts in the commercial games market, even recent research into these areas is dating fast. It is not the case now (if, indeed, it ever was) that commercially available games fall neatly into “male” and “female” camps. In the decades since computer games arrived in arcades, and then homes (in numerous genres, on a range of hardware), the cultural framing of game play has continued to shift. Certain genres achieve visibility or even notoriety while others, such as sports management games, receive little in the way of media or academic attention, despite their being among the most played of all genres (ESA, 2006). Similarly, clichéd depictions of gamers (the “alienated male adolescent”; the shy bearded “geek”) persist, while other players, such as the numerous middle-aged female players of online puzzle games, for instance, have never caught the media’s attention or fired the public imagination to the same degree.

Gamers, Gender, and Representation

These issues are relevant to questions of games, gender, and learning contexts because when games appear in classrooms, pervasive notions of “who plays”, and why, will influence how students respond to (or deliberately distance themselves from) computer games. When discussing games, motivation, disinclination, and gender, we need to incorporate a consideration of the ways that “the gamer” is locally perceived, and associated notions about the intended, assumed, or “normal” audience for games. These factors impact on how games are regarded, and how players and especially non-players perceive games (Kerr, 2003). At the time of writing (mid-2007) games are well on their way into the mainstream. Nintendo in particular has pushed a “games for all” message in its marketing of the Wii console and the Nintendo DS in the UK.2 Change is evident, but it does not follow that gaming has altogether shed its earlier associations. Gamers, for example, are still regularly pathologised or stereotyped (Cover, 2006). It is significant, also, that the marketing of this new generation of “family friendly” games continues to associate specific genres with certain genders in a normative fashion. Once genres are associated with a particular gender, “inappropriate” play potentially becomes socially problematic. Likewise, a subject’s expert play could be validating, so long as it accords with his or her peers’ shared notions of what is gender appropriate. Neither marketing nor peer groups will fully determine how or if we play games or participate in gaming culture, but it is also clear that gendered gaming preferences cannot really be understood in isolation from these phenomena (Bryce & Rutter, 2005; Carr, 2005). The idea that a subject’s participation might be regarded as legitimate (or not) also connects to what could be described as the “gate-keeping” discourses that circulate in and around gaming culture. There is no reason to assume that attaining high scores, or identifying as a “hard core gamer” are prerequisites of (a more) legitimate participation and yet such notions are

pervasive, and they often connect with territorial comments about who can or should play games.3 We would like to discuss this further, beginning with a short anecdote. Recently we taught a small, all male class of game design undergraduates. During a discussion about genre, the class were shown images of girls playing racing and fighting games with concentration and enthusiasm. The girls were playing genres commonly associated with a male audience—and obviously enjoying themselves. The majority of the students were accepting but one of the students declared, with some irritation, that the girls’ gaming was void and their pleasure irrelevant. He explained that the girls’ play was not significant, because they “don’t get high scores”. His confident assumption that the girls did not attain high scores was not based on observable evidence. What is interesting is that he found images of girls engrossed in fighting and racing games so disturbing that their engagement had to be immediately framed as meaningless and dismissed. What is interesting, also, was his certainty that particular kinds of participation are legitimate, while others are not. As a researcher we can note that for this particular young man high scores are the mark of a “real gamer”. It would be wrong to dismiss the importance of such evaluations for this particular subject. It should also be clear that it would be an error to assume that this man’s notions of what constitutes legitimate gaming are disinterested, or any more “authentic” or credible than those held by the girls that he dismissed, regardless of his skills as a gamer, and however long and intense his commitment to games has been. His comments are significant here, not so much because of what they reveal about him, but because related attitudes are not uncommon. Such evaluations are often at least implied when terms such as “real players” or “hardcore gamers” are employed. Various personal, historical, cultural, and social factors informed this particular young man’s comments. It is not our intention to propose

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the specific nature of these various factors or to determine how they combined in the context of the aforementioned lesson, to motivate him to speak out as he did. However, we would like to indicate some possible precursors to these debates within computer games culture more generally, by referring to aspects of computing history and histories of play. First, we would suggest that distinctions between “real” games and other gamers, or between hardcore and regular players recall the schism that ran through computer science research and education during the 70’s and 80’s, in the U.S. These tensions were a result of conflicting perspectives concerning the legitimacy of two different approaches to computer programming: “hard programming” verses experimental simulation. Sherry Turkle documented the emergence and the ramifications of these debates in her important book-length study into identity, computer culture, and online practices, Life on the Screen (1996). The debates that revolved around this schism continue to resonate, and it is interesting to speculate about the degree to which earlier struggles in computer culture over issues of legitimacy and expertise, may have fed into an equivalent “hard/soft” dynamic in perceptions of computer gaming. Second, we would point to Brian SuttonSmith’s (1997) The Ambiguity of Play, in which the rhetorics associated with play and gaming are identified. Sutton-Smith defines rhetoric as “a persuasive discourse, or an implicit narrative, wittingly or unwittingly adopted by members of a particular affiliation to persuade others of the veracity and worthwhileness of their beliefs” (1997, p. 8). Sutton-Smiths’ rhetorics of power and identity, for instance, seem present in the “gate-keeping” tone that occasionally issues from gaming communities to reiterate the supposed links between expertise, intense commitment, high scores, and credibility. The point that we are making in relation to games in classrooms and the potential alienation of some students is that cultural and historical

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factors will feed into the reception of games. The game and the subject/player do not encounter one another in a social, cultural, or historical vacuum. This is why it is inadequate to focus on game structure, content, or genre alone when examining an audience’s supposed preferences. We want to emphasise that the cultural dynamics that surround games impact on student responses to games in the classroom, but, of course, it does not follow that such dynamics will determine students’ engagement. Whatever “cultural baggage” games bring with them to the classroom will have to contend with context, and compete with other investments in self-representation (as “good student”, for instance) that might be active at the time. This process of negotiating self-representation on the basis of different kinds of knowledge and cultural experiences was evident in field work carried out in a UK school in 2003, in which a mixed class of 12-13 year olds studied games in English (Pelletier, 2005). This field work was part of a research project developing pedagogic approaches to teaching games in terms of contemporary forms of textuality (Pelletier, 2005a). Researchers worked with a media specialist teacher, taking part in lessons over a period of six weeks. What we found was that boys and girls talked and wrote about games differently, with respect to each other but also over time, and in different contexts. When asked in class which games they played, boys often referred to their experience in terms of established genre categories (shooter games, strategy games). This identified their experience in terms of a broad range of individual titles, putting the emphasis on quantity. The genre categories referred to are also those used by the games industry to market titles; in using them, boys identified themselves as a target audience. When asked in class the same question, girls often replied The Sims. However, when probed with more specific questions (i.e., have you played games on a games console? have you played Super

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Mario?) in small group discussion, a wider set of experiences became visible. This experience was often presented in a way which emphasised the selection of particular titles rather than the consumption of whole genre categories (as in the case of the boys). It is also noteworthy that although established game genre categories were studied in class, girls were often reluctant to use them; when asked to sort a set of game screenshots into genres, one group of girls sorted the images into two piles: “games that look attractive” and “games that don’t look attractive”. This field work suggested three things. First, the games with which students claimed familiarity, and the way they drew on game playing experiences in class work, shifted depending on the context of discussion. In small groups, and with specific probing, some girls revealed a greater range of experience and knowledge than in whole class discussions. Boys similarly altered accounts of game playing depending on the subject of discussion, alternatively claiming expertise in online PC-games playing or console-based gaming. At the end of the six-week course, students were given a questionnaire, asking them to list games they had played. With this method of data collection, yet another presentation of game-playing experience was produced, with some girls indicating Grand Theft Auto as their favourite game, and boys expressing a liking for platform games, a genre which had been noticeably absent from their oral accounts, due to its association, one might hypothesise, with female players. Second, students often identified themselves as particular kinds of game players in the way that they classified games into genres. Boys used terminology associated with the industry, game reviews, and Web sites, where games are the main subject of discussion and tend to be celebrated as a genre. The genre categories used by the girls tended to be less conventional: “attractive” versus “unattractive”, “games associated with films or books”, and so on. If genre is understood as a form of social interaction, a way

of identifying the representational practices of a group of people, the students’ responses can be interpreted in terms of the way in which students positioned themselves in the classroom, as well as with respect to social groups outside it. In other words, classifying games into genres was one way in which students could demonstrate their identification or “disidentification” with social interests, such as those of the games industry and hardcore/expert games players (as suggested in game magazines). The fact that girls did not usually draw on the genre categories covered in class (i.e., racing, first-person shooter, or role-playing genre), but drew on terminology which is not specifically associated with the games industry, can be interpreted as a strategy to emphasise their distance from “gamers” as a social category, a strategy which however tells us relatively little about whether they play games. Third, students presented their game-playing in terms of difference, usually emphasising what they did not play as much as what they did play. In claiming to play only The Sims, the girls also made it clear they did not play shooter games or racing games (although they might on other occasions demonstrate experience of these kinds of games). The boys also emphasised that although they played many games, they played discriminately, exercising judgement and good taste, and were not “addicted” or “nerds”—thereby distancing themselves from the negative stereotypes of male game players. In other words, the way in which students described their game playing aligned or distanced them from specific social groupings. This experience in one classroom indicated that students, both boys and girls, deployed similar strategies to construct their identities as game players. These identities were temporal, as the changes in accounts of game playing experience demonstrates. This indicates that students did not “read” genre conventions, or make sense of their game-playing experience, in abstract; rather their interpretations of games positioned them in class in certain ways at particular times. The

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way in which students accounted for their game playing, and understood genre classifications, was not determined prior to class work, but enacted in context, to put forward particular kinds of identities. This does not imply that students were manipulative, or choosing their game-player identities in a voluntaristic way. Rather they drew on available social resources, discourses, and conventions to make sense of themselves as game-players, both for their own benefit and that of others. It is important to emphasise here that students were not putting on a show to conceal what they “really” thought. Rather, it was precisely by talking about games in specific ways that they established specific kinds of identities. What was striking about this field work was the attention students put into classifying themselves according to a dichotomous system for signifying gender. Students frequently classified themselves according to well-established norms about what kinds of games boys and girls like, with boys emphasising shooting games and girls presenting a liking for games with a domestic setting. It was precisely because such norms were widely maintained in popular media that they were effective as statements of gendered identity in the classroom. Different methods of data collection, as well as research over time, highlighted a gap between such norms and students’ actual game-playing experience. The inconsistencies in students’ accounts of their game-playing are indicative of the strategies for dealing with such a gap. Questionnaire data indicated that girls and boys in the class had different levels of access to gaming equipment, with all the boys owning consoles but only half the girls, a pattern which reflects parental purchasing choices. However, the way in which students accounted for their experience of game-playing was not simply a question of different levels of access. It was also about how students could secure a gender identity, by erecting and positioning themselves in relation to a strongly segregated binary system.

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These research findings raise questions about the political, as well as commercial, effectiveness of identifying ”what girls like”, or what women want, with respect to gaming. This question has been of concern to researchers seeking to address gender disparity in levels of experience with new technology, as well as industry representatives looking to enter new markets. Suzanne de Castell and Mary Bryson (2000) are suspicious of the solutions offered to resolve “the gender problem” with respect to games, and particularly the educational use of games: whose interests will be served in making use of these purportedly “essential” differences as a basis for creating “girl-friendly” computer-mediated environments? Most importantly, are we producing tools for girls, or are we producing girls themselves by, as Althusser (1984) would put it, “interpellating” the desire to become a girl? By playing with girlish toys, does the girl learn to become the kind of woman she was always already destined to become? (p. 251). In a similar vein, T. L. Taylor (in press) notes that, “there is no single construct of ‘woman’ to which we can describe, analyse, capture and reproduce for the benefit of industry”. Instead, greater attention should be given to the structural and contextual production of game play. Players are not a homogenous species. We need to be wary of using classifications (hardcore gamers, “real” gamers, etc.) without acknowledging that such distinctions are elective constructions, employed within particular communities, by players who might consider themselves to be speaking from a position of hard-won or peer-verified prestige. Attitudes to play vary, and play itself is not a uniform activity. Many games offer a range of potential experiences. Players will actualise these experiences according to their expertise and time commitment (their “seriousness”), but also according to their tastes, expectations, peer group, and mood.

Gamers, Gender, and Representation

Popular perceptions of gaming and gamers impact on the receptivity of students, and thus such phenomena need to be a part of discussions about the potential motivation or alienation of students. If we are calculating students’ potential disengagement from computer games, widely held (yet locally and culturally specific) notions of “who plays” and the various factors that contribute to notions of the legitimate and the gender appropriate, will need to be taken into account. Girls will arrive in classrooms having been exposed to popular notions of computer gaming and gaming audiences. As will their male peers. This means that students’ engagement with (or disengagement from) games cannot be understood just in terms of a gendered user’s tastes, or a particular game’s attributes or imagery. However, it does not follow that we should desist from the analysis of this material. After all, the marketing of games contributes to cultural perceptions of games, and at times game advertising involves sexist or otherwise questionable imagery. Yet, because games are played, images in game advertising—in magazines or on television, for instance—and imagery in an actual game do not “work” the same way. Before concluding we would like to briefly address these issues because, as noted, both educators and students have expressed concern about the look or the content of commercial computer games when discussing the use of such games in classrooms. Representation in games is an issue to be taken seriously, yet the analyst of in-game imagery must acknowledge that games differ significantly from other popular culture forms. Many contemporary computer games are visually beguiling and narrative-orientated but they are games nonetheless, and games are, by definition, played. In recent years (and in tandem with the emergence of game studies as an identifiable field) considerable effort has been directed at the building and refining of a definition of “game”. These attempts build on earlier work of philosophers, ethnographers,

psychologists and anthropologists (see Salen & Zimmerman, 2004, for a review). Many definitions emphasize that games are a system. Games feature units in a set of relationships. These units are accorded either static or variable values, and they can be manipulated. Being a game, this manipulation involves the player negotiating with a set of rules, or arbitrary limitations, in order to attain goals. Games tend to eventuate in either a winning or losing state but as this suggests, there are also “border-line cases” (Juul, 2003). Computer games from the simulation genre, for instance, might be more about playing with modeled processes, than the attainment of a particular goal (consider The Sims). These definitions also remind us why some educators are interested in the pedagogic potential of computer games: games simulate environments where particular units, relationships, and conditions can be manipulated and tested. During game-play, events, actions, and (in many cases) a protagonist are visible on screen. We might see a character (or “avatar”) with particular traits enacting a chain of events within a detailed locale. Thanks to these elements, a game might resemble a conventional narrative form, from the perspective of a spectator. However, from the perspective of the player, the avatar does not “work” like a character in a narrative. The avatar is a representation, but it is controlled and manipulated by a player. This meeting of representation and playability and the ramifications for meaning, are outlined here with a brief consideration of the body of Lara Croft, the famed avatar from the well-known Tomb Raider series. Lara’s body in non-playable mode (on packaging, on billboards or in animations) should not be confused with the meanings that might be attributed to her body she appears as the drivable protagonist within a game world. To note that such representations operate differently is not the same as stating that their meanings are mutually exclusive, but what Lara’s body means

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when posed on a magazine cover is not what she means when it means when she is clambering through Tomb Raider. It is possible to explicate these differences further through reference to theories of narrative and characterization Briefly, within classic models of character (see Chatman, 1978), characters are understood and differentiated by their traits (clumsy, optimistic, introverted, etc.). Traits in a conventional narrative are communicated by dialogue or through action: the way that a character does something is indicative of their “personality”. What matters, in a conventional narrative model, is the relationship between a given trait, and that trait’s manifestation in an act. A character with a limited set of traits, that expresses these traits in a predictable manner, can be considered “flat”. Game characters have a limited menu of moves, and they have to perform set tasks in particular ways. This would suggest that avatars are predictable. But, in fact, such an assessment is only possible if this same character is considered apart from the experimental, playful ephemeral, and accidental nature of gaming. Understood in the context of game play, an avatar is simultaneously a depicted character (with traits) and a game component (like a chess piece). Thanks to the intervention of the player, avatars act in an inconsistent manner. Lara can gallop through the same game like a homicidal and/or suicidal maniac, or she might crawl through the game discovering secrets, and dodging conflict wherever possible. How Lara acts during play is to some degree up to the player. Certain actions are rewarded, others are not possible—but within these parameters, there is scope for variation. Generally speaking, depictions of Lara outside of the game have focused on her voluptuous proportions, but during actual game play, Lara’s most notable attributes are more likely to relate to the specific challenges posed by the game. A particular geological feature will call for a long jump/grab combination, for instance. The meaning of Lara’s action in such cases relates primarily to

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the demands of the game; it is ludic. From this perspective, the action might be interpreted as primarily indicative of the player’s skill—rather than a reflection of Lara’s character. The meaning of her body, at that point in time, for that player, is located in her function as a tool. Meanwhile, at another time, or for another player (or to an observer) this same action might primarily be interpreted according to a more narrative measure, in which case Lara’s action might connote athleticism or bravery. Interpreting Lara as she is manifest in a game during play involves recognizing these multiple possibilities.4 A body in a game might be interpreted according to its moves and the game’s various economies (of health, ammunition, etc.) or its narrative elements. A body from a game might take on a new set of meanings when reproduced on a magazine cover, or sprawled over a billboard. This variability has theoretical implications because it forces us to ask questions about meaning in games, and meaning during play. It also has methodological implications. In post-play interviews, for example, a player asked to account for his or her pleasures or the experience of play may opt to emphasise one aspect of a game over others. This selective emphasis might well be indicative of the player’s own priorities, or perhaps it will reflect his or her intention to produce an account of play according to the perceived interests or gaming competence of the interviewer. Perhaps, for instance, a player chooses to foreground a game’s more narrative elements in order to “make sense” to an interviewer regarded as a non-gamer. The playability of games complicates accounts of meaning, and further media-sensitive research into representation and meaning in games is called for. These are topics of concern to educators, as well as game theorists and designers. This is an area where scholars working in the field of game studies can usefully contribute to games, learning, and education debates.

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cONcLUsION Educationalists and researchers have expressed enthusiasm and apprehension about the introduction of computer games into the classrooms. There is concern that the use of games will engage male students, but alienate their female peers. This discussion is often framed in terms of the enigma of girls and their gaming preferences—the premise being that if computer games appealed sufficiently to girls, this problem would evaporate. Informed by recent debates within the emerging field of game studies, we have argued that when the gaming audience and their proclivities (gendered, or otherwise) are under consideration, the complexity and the variability of play should not be underestimated, the diversity of gaming genres should not be overlooked, and the cultural framing of computer games should not be omitted. Play is not just the rendition of a game’s rules. While play is multiple and fractious, the imagery generated and disseminated during the marketing of games is more predictable. The non-playable imagery associated with a game might employ familiar or clichéd material in an attempt to pander to what the producers perceive as their target audience, yet these same constructs might actually “fall apart” once play begins, and the player “gets their hands on the game”—generating events, initiating action, taking detours, and making mistakes. These aspects of games and gaming pose particular theoretical and methodological challenges, and these must be incorporated into credible accounts of gaming preference or the meaning of games. We have suggested that persistent patterns in gamer demographics might be less about the attributes of particular games or game genres, and more about the historical and commercial formation of computer gaming audiences. These phenomena influence how we feel about computer games—especially if we are not actually players. Such feelings might well be overturned if an individual were to access games in an environment

where his or her participation is validated. Perhaps cultural formations can be negotiated with, but this is not the same as suggesting that they can be ignored. Recent research from within computer game studies on the topics of representation, gender, and gaming preferences is an important resource available to those with a stake in these debates. We consider that the introduction of games, game play, and game-making into educational sites is significant not only (or even primarily) in terms of new ways of delivering the curriculum, but also in the forms of social interaction which digital games give rise to, and the kinds of social practices and social identities that consequently emerge in the classroom. Given their role in contemporary leisure, it is clear that games and social relations, economic development, media institutions, local play contexts, games-as-texts, and game playing all warrant study and analysis in their own right.

rEFErENcEs BECTA. (2001). Computer games in education project report. Retrieved October 15, 2006, from http://partners.becta.org.uk/index.php?section=r h&rid=11207&pagenum=1&NextStart=1 Bryce, J., & Rutter, J. (2005). Gendered gaming in gendered space. In J. Raessens & J. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of computer game studies (pp. 301-310). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Carr, D. (2005). Contexts, gaming pleasures and gendered preferences. Simulation and Gaming, 36(4), 464-482. Carr, D. (2007, May). Computer games in classrooms and the questions of “cultural baggage”. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 526-528.

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Cassell, J., & Jenkins, H. (2000). From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and computer games. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Gurer, D., & Camp, T. (2002). An ACM-W literature review on women in computing. SIGSCE Bulletin, 34(2), 121-127.

Chatman, S. (1978). Story and discourse: Narrative structure in fiction and film. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Juul, J. (2003). The game, the player, the world: Looking for a heart of gameness. Paper presented at the Level Up; Digital Games Research Conference, Utrecht.

Chee, F. (2005). Understanding Korean experiences of online game hype, identity, and the menace of the “Wang-tta”. Paper presented at DiGRA 2005 International Conference, Vancouver. Retrieved July 2007, from http://ir.lib.sfu. ca/handle/1892/1620 Cover, R. (2006, December). Gaming (ad)diction: Discourse, identity, time and play in the production of the gamer addiction myth. Game Studies, 6(1). Retrieved July 2007, from www.gamestudies. org De Castell, S., & Bryson, M. (2000). Retooling play: Dystopia, dysphoria, and difference. In J. Cassell & H. Jenkins (Eds.), From Barbie to Mortal Kombat (pp. 232-261). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Ellis, H., Heppell, S., Kirriemuir, J., Krotoski, A., & McFarlane, A. (2006). Unlimited learning: Computer games in the learning landscape. London: Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA). Retrieved October 15, 2006, from http://www.elspa.com/ assets/files/u/unlimitedlearningtheroleofcomputerandvideogamesint_344.pdf ESA (Entertainment Software Association). (2006). 2006 sales, demographic and usage data; Essential facts about the computer and video game industry. Retrieved October 2007, from http://www.theesa.com/archives/files/ Essential%20Facts%202006.pdf Gorriz, G. M., & Medina, C. (2000). Engaging girls with computers through software games. Communications of the ACM, 34(1), 42-49.

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Krotoski, A. (2004). Chicks and joysticks: An exploration of women and gaming. Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association. Pelletier, C. (2005). The uses of literacy in studying computer games: Comparing students’ oral and visual representations of games. English Teaching: Practice and critique, 4(1). Pelletier, C. (2005a). Studying games in school: A framework for media education. Paper presented at the Digital Games Research Association 2005 International Conference, Vancouver, June. Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Subrahmanyam, K., & Greenfield, P. M. (2000). Computer games for girls: What makes them play? In J. Cassell & H. Jenkins (Eds.), From Barbie to Mortal Kombat (pp. 46-71). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Sutton-Smith, B. (1997). The ambiguity of play. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Taylor, T. L. (in press). Becoming a player: Networks, structure and imagined futures. In Y. B. Kafai, C. Heeter, J. Denner, & J. Sun (Eds.), Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat: New perspectives on games, gender and computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Turkle, S. (1996). Life on the screen. London: Orion Publishing.

Gamers, Gender, and Representation

KEY TERMS

ENDNOtEs

Gaming Culture: The social processes shaping how games are made, distributed, sold and played, including the conventions by which games are interpreted.

1

Game Studies: (Digital game studies, computer game studies) an emerging and interdisciplinary field that takes digital games, gaming, and play as a central focus. Gender: The cultural system of differentiation regulating sexual identity. Legitimation: A process by which an action or a person is socially sanctioned, and made socially acceptable and intelligible.

2

3

Media studies: The study of media forms and media culture. Representation: The depiction of the game world and its inhabitants; relating to signification.

4

Digital game studies is an emerging field made up of scholars based in or affiliated to a range of disciplines (from psychology to film studies, to the computer sciences). For an overview, see the online journal Game Studies at www.gamestudies.org, or the Proceedings of the Digital Games Research Association’s 2003 and 2005 International Conferences at www.digra.org This is the same company who asked us not long ago if we were going to “get the girl, or play like one”. We fully appreciate that there are contexts where the valuing of player skills might be less about “gate keeping”, and more about the quality of an actual gaming experience. In an online multi-player role-playing game, for instance, expert play is the result of considerable amounts of commitment and practice, “grinding”, earning respect and building a reputation (see Chee, 2005). The difference that a skilled player can make to the success of a team’s mission is considerable. An inept or inconsiderate team-mate can wreck havoc. In some contexts, then, the value placed on expert play has a practical basis. It should also be noted that conditions that apply to the main character, might not apply to the non-playable bodies that feature as “baddies” or victims in a game.

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Chapter LIII

Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games Yi Mou Cambridge, MA, USA Wei Peng Michigan State University, USA

AbstrAct While the violent content of video games has caused wide concern among scholars, gender, and racial stereotypes in video games are still an understudied area. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a better understanding of the stereotypical phenomenon in video games. The book chapter first provides a comprehensive review of previous studies conducted upon gender-role and racial portrayals in video games. Then a small-scale content analysis on a sample of official trailers, introductory sequences and covers of 19 of the most popular video games is introduced. Finally, the implications of stereotype in video games and the possible social and psychological impacts on players, especially adolescent players, are discussed.

INtrODUctION Video games have been one of the most popular entertainment media in the U.S. According to the Entertainment Software Association (2007), U.S. computer and video games software sales grew 6% to $7.4 billion in 2006. The prevalent usage of video games among adolescents causes

growing concern (Child Development Institute, 2007; Gentile & Gentile, 2005). A recent NPD Group (2006) study reveals that 92% of children aged 2-17 play video games, and almost half of all “heavy gamers” are 6-to-17-years-old. Scholars have expressed broad concern about the possible impact of game playing on players, especially adolescent players, due to the inappropriate content

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Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

(such as the scenes of violence, a mass of blood and gores, etc.) in video games (Smith, Lachlan, & Tamborini, 2003). A large number of studies have been conducted upon the impact of the violent content on aggressive attitudes and behaviors (Anderson, 2004; Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Arriaga, Esteves, Cameiro, & Monteiro, 2006; Bartholomew, Sestir, & Davis, 2005; Gentile & Stone, 2005; Sherry, 2001). However, very limited research has examined the stereotypical content in video games and its possible impact on players. In this book chapter, we focus on the stereotypical content in video games. Specifically, we focus on gender and racial stereotypical content in video games. We first summarize previous research on the content of gender-role and racial portrayals in video games. Then we introduce a small-scale study on a sample of 19 of the most popular video games. Finally we discuss the implications of stereotyping in video games and the possible social and psychological impacts on players, especially adolescent players.

STEREOTYPICAL PORTRAYALS IN VIDEO GAMEs Stereotype A stereotype is a mental “shorthand which helps to convey ideas and images quickly and clearly” (Courtney & Whipple, 1983, p. 205). It refers to one group’s generalized and widely accepted perception about the personal attributes of members of another group (Ashmore & Boca, 1981; Dates & Barlow, 1990). Stereotypes serve multiple purposes in a variety of cognitive and motivational processes (Hilton & von Hippel, 1996). They emerge as a way of simplifying the demands on the perceiver (Bodenhausen, Kramer, & Susser, 1994; Bodenhausen, Sheppard, & Kramer, 1994; Macrae, Milne, & Bodenhausen, 1994); or as a way in response to environmental factors, such as different social roles (Eagly, 1995), group conflicts

(Robinson, Keltner, Ward, & Ross, 1995), and difference in power (Fiske, 1993); or as a means of justifying the status quo (Jost & Banaji, 1994; Sidanius, 1993), or in response to a need for social identity (Hogg & Abrams, 1988). In traditional media, gender and racial stereotypes are the most pervasive two. In mass media, compared to female characters, male characters appear more frequently, talk significantly more, and engage in noted behaviors more, such as achieving and showing leadership (Thompson & Zerbinos, 1995). In addition, these media provide distorted representation of women and minorities (Aubrey & Harrison, 2004; Greenberg & BaptistaFernandez, 1980; Thompson & Zerbinos, 1995). Exposure to these distorted images can have a negative effect on users’ perception of women and minorities (Omi, 1989). For instance, women are usually perceived as subordinate and passivedependent to men, with sexual relationships as central in life (Cantor, 1987). Racial stereotypes widely exist in mass media as well. For instance, Black men are more likely to be portrayed as criminals (Entman, 1992; Peffley, Shields, & Williams, 1996); Asian men are usually portrayed as culturally ignorant; while Asian women are portrayed as submissive (Park, Gabbadon, & Chernin, 2006).

Gender Stereotypes in Video Games Dietz’s (1998) study was one of the earliest studies to examine stereotypical portrayals in video games. The content analyzed both the portrayal of women and violence in a sample of 33 most popular Nintendo and Sega Genesis video games. In order to evaluate the role of women, she generalized four possible female stereotypes based on appearances and behaviors: females as sex objects or prizes, females as victims, females in feminine roles, and females as heroes or action characters. Not surprisingly, Dietz (1998) found that 41% of the games were devoid of female characters. Only 15% (5 out of 33) portrayed women

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as heroes or as action characters, while 21% (7 out of 33) portrayed women as victims or as socalled “damsel in distress”. At the same time, in 28% of these games, women were portrayed as sex objects based upon physical appearance or sexually-oriented actions. Following the female as sex object perspective, Beasley and Standley (2002) particularly focused on the appearance of female characters, using clothing as an indicator of sexuality. They examined three categories of clothing: sleeve length, neckline, and lower body clothing. They also coded body cleavage and breast size of female characters. Beasley and Standley (2002) found a significant sex bias in female characters. Of the 597 characters coded, only 82 (13.74%) were women. A majority of the female characters wore clothing that exposed more skin than the male characters. To be specific, female characters were more likely to be in low-cut clothing and with bare arms than male characters, and about 41% of the female characters were big busted. In addition, there was no difference among different game ratings (i.e., “E” for ages 6 and older, “T” for ages 13 and older, or “M” for ages 17 and older), which means children could see voluptuous women images as frequently as adults do in video games. A follow-up study by Downs and Smith (2005) demonstrated a similar result. They did a content analysis of 60 video games. Compared to male characters, females were more likely to be represented in a hypersexual way: being partially nude, featured with an unrealistic body image and shown wearing sexually revealing clothing and inappropriate attire. Similarly, Haninger and Thompson (2004) found that in the sample of 81 teen-rated video games, women were significantly more likely to be depicted partially nude than men. In addition, there were much more male playable characters (72 out of the 81 games) than female playable characters (42 out of the 81 games). Early content analysis studies consistently found that female heroes or female action characters were absent in video games. However, recently

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a new trend called “Lara phenomenon” emerges, which refers to “the appearance of a tough and competent female character in a dominant position” (Jansz & Martis, 2007, p.142). Jansz and Martis’ (2007) content analyzed the introductory sequence of 12 selective contemporary video games. Introductory sequence refers to a noninteractive introductory sequence for a computer or video game to create a cinematic atmosphere or to introduce the background story of the game before actual game playing starts. This dozen of console games were popular story-line games with diverse characters. Characters’ roles (e.g., villain or helper) and their position (e.g., dominant or submissive) were used as the principle categories in their content analysis. “Lara phenomenon” was observed: female characters in a leading role appeared as often as male did. However, these female characters were portrayed in a stereotypical way: female features were exaggerated by sexy attire and thin body.

Racial Stereotypes in Video Games Compared to the research on gender stereotyping, even fewer studies have examined racial stereotyping in video games. One reason might be the conscious avoidance of specific race representations by the game producers. Oftentimes characters are created with vague or ambiguous ethnic characteristics. It is hard to tell the exact race of the characters. Nevertheless, the limited research sheds some light on the under representation and stereotypical portrayal of minority groups. Generally speaking, minority ethnic groups, such as Black and Hispanic, appear less frequently in video games. A recent comprehensive research on the content of games (Brand, Knight, & Majewski, 2003) analyzed 130 computer and video games from five gaming platforms (PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube, Game Boy Advance, and PC). They examined the slick (the cover or box), the manual (or handbook), the introductory sequence, and

Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

the first 10 minutes of game playing. Upon the analysis on the physical and object-oriented world, leading characters, style, and narrative, it was concluded that some of the stereotypes in traditional mainstream media were still used to portray game characters: most characters were either white or too vague to tell and 71% of the lead characters were male. Dill and her colleagues (Dill, Gentile, Richter, & Dill, 2005) found similar results. They conducted content analysis on 10-to-30-minute game playing of the 20 top-selling PC games of 1999. Across the top 20 games, the characters were predominantly white male adults. Only 10% of the main characters could be recognized as female. Sixty-eight percent of the main characters and 72% of the secondary characters were white. Downs and Smith (2005) found a slight higher rate of presence of minority characters. According to their study, 21% were Black, 7% were Asian, and 3% were Hispanic. No previous study has found that a minority was more likely to be portrayed negatively. In fact, Lachlan, Smith, and Tamborini (2005) indicated that most violent perpetrators were Caucasian (40.5%), with Asian/Pacific Islander (8%) coming in a distant second and most others being unidentifiable.

A sMALL-scALE cONtENt ANALYSIS STUDY In this book chapter, we report a small scale study on gender and racial stereotypes using game trailers, introductory sequences, and game covers. Trailers, introductory sequences and game covers rather than recorded on-screen playing clips were chosen as the sample of content analysis for the following reasons. First, the game trailers are representative game playing of skilled game players. Recorded game playing by a player can only cover one small portion of the whole game, either at the beginning, or in the middle, or at

the end of a game. A trailer can provide many purposely selected vignettes of game playing from the whole game. Compared to the recorded clips of game playing, a trailer contains more comprehensive information of a game. Second, the recorded playing clip of one game player is very much biased by this specific player as different players with different attributes may play video games differently (Peng, Liu, & Mou, in press). Therefore, the trailer and the game cover will be a more typical representation of the game than a particular individual’s playing clip. Third, game trailers, introductory sequences, and covers are used as effective advertising media for video games. Previous research indicates that trailers are useful in helping audience make purchase decisions (Hixson, 2006). It is of great interest to reveal whether the images and behaviors the game producers intentionally include in the trailers, introductory sequences, and covers are stereotypical. We investigated the following research questions: RQ1: Are female characters underrepresented in popular video games? RQ2: Are female characters portrayed in stereotypes in popular video games? RQ3: Are minority characters underrepresented in popular video games? RQ4: Are minority characters portrayed in stereotypes in popular video games?

Game Sample Two criteria were used for the selection of the video games in analysis. First, the total sold copies of the game in the United States market should be over one million. Second, the game should be ranked within the top 20 most popular games based on experts’ recommendation and players’ response. Both criteria must be met. The top 20 video games (including Sony’s PlayStation 2, Microsoft’s Xbox, and Nintendo’s GameCube) were selected from the top 100 games in the 21st century (Campbell &

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Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

Keiser, 2006). Nineteen out of all these 20 games sold over one million copies. Therefore, these 19 games were selected as the popular video games in our analysis. A complete list of the games in analysis can be found in Table 1.

Unit of Analysis Two units of analysis were used in this study: game segment and game character. Game segments include official trailers, introductory sequences (if applicable), and game covers. The complete coding scheme can be found in the Appendix. Two basic variables coded for game segments were game content and game type. The game content indicated whether there were characters in the game or not; if so, whether there were female characters in it or not. The game type includes: sports game, role playing game, adventure game, action (shooting, fighting) game, strategy game, simulation game, driving game, puzzle game, board game, and kid’s game. A game character is defined as a human, an animal, or an object within a video game that displays human-like appearance or qualities such as speaking, using tools, or making conscious decisions (Beasley & Standley, 2002). According to Downs and Smith (2005), characters can be divided into three categories: primary, secondary, and background characters. The primary character is actively manipulated and controlled onscreen all the time by the game player. The secondary character is immediately tied to or related to the primary character by either aiding or deterring the primary character from fulfilling their quest, but is not controlled by the game player. All other characters belong to background characters. Not all characters receive equal attention. Generally speaking, primary characters and secondary characters receive the most attention from video game players (Downs & Smith, 2005). Only primary and secondary characters were coded in the study.

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Eight variables were used to code the game character. The first game character variable was the type of the character. It was coded as human, animal, supernatural creature, robot, anthropomorphized animal, anthropomorphized supernatural creature, and other. The second variable was sex, coded only for human character and anthropomorphized supernatural creature. Physical appearance, behavioral patterns, and voice intonation or cues were all used to make the judgment. The third one was race, coded only for human characters. Its categories were derived from the U.S. census, including White, Hispanic, Black, Native American, Asian/Pacific Islander, Middle Eastern, Mixed, and Unidentifiable. Race was coded based on the description of the characters from the official Web site of the game developer and the character’s appearance (such as skin color, hair color, and eye color), accent, and family name. The fourth variable was the position of the character. Following Jansz and Martis’ (2007) study, the position of a character was coded as leading role, opponent, and supporting role. The fifth variable is the role of the character, which was coded as hero, villain, rescued, and helper. The sixth variable is the character’s occupation, if applicable. For human characters only, the attire and the body were also coded. The attire refers to “any garment that is worn in order to enhance, exaggerate, call attention to, or accentuate the curves or angles of any part of the body (from the neck to above the knee) and which by design, or the amount of exposed skin a character shows, would arouse interest of physical intimacy from others” (Downs & Smith, 2005, p. 7). It was coded as unrevealing, partially revealing, nudity (revealing), or not applicable (Downs & Smith, 2005). For body, it was coded as heavy, normal, thin, or not applicable (Jansz & Martis, 2007).

Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

Coder Training and Reliability Two coders (one author included) received training prior to coding the sample. About 20% of the sample (four games) was used to test reliability. The coder did not begin assessing the rest of sampled segments until reliability reached at least .80 for every variable. Cohen’s Kappa was used to calculate the intercoder reliability. For most of the variables, the reliability reached 1.000, except for the body variable (.876).

Results Of the 19 games from the top 20 most popular games, five games (26.3%) were adventure games; five (26.3%) were action games; four (21.1%) were driving games; three (15.8%) were sports games; and two (10.5%) were role-playing games. Two out of the 19 (10.5%) had no characters at all and both of them were driving games. Eleven out of the 19 (57.9%) had both male and female characters; while 6 out of the 19 (31.6%) had no female characters at all. One third of the “E” and “T” rated games did not include female characters. Most of those games without females were sports, adventure, or action games.

Game Characters in Official Trailers Each of these 19 games had an official trailer. Among the total 70 human characters identified in the 19 game trailers, 19 were leading characters, 21 were opponents, and 30 were supporting characters. Most of the leading characters (95%) were heroes, with one as a gangster. All leading characters were males. There was no leading female character across the sample. Seventy-four percent of the leading characters were White, with only four Black leading characters from a basketball game. There was no leading character in other races. All of the 21 opponents were villains. No female characters were portrayed as opponents. In terms of race, 14.3% of the opponents were

Hispanic, 4.8% were Black, 76.2% were White, and 4.7% were unidentifiable. Half of the minority characters (50.0%) were portrayed as villains, while less than one third of the White characters (30.9%) were portrayed as villains. The distribution of the white and minority characters in different positions and roles can be found in Table 2. However, Chi-squares showed that there was no significant difference between the role representation of the white and the minority characters in the hero category, χ2 (1, n = 22) = .132, р = .716; or in the villain category, χ2 (1, n = 21) = 1.145, р = .285. In addition, there was no significant difference between the positions of the white and the minority characters for the leading position, χ2 (1, n = 19) = .469, р = .493, or for the opponent position, χ2 (1, n = 20) = .327, р = .567. Characters in a supporting role revealed a more diverse situation. Among these 30 human supporting characters, five were heroes; one was a villain; seven were the rescued; and 17 were helpers. Females appeared frequently in this category: more than one third of the supporting characters (43.3%) were female. The distribution of male and female characters in different positions and roles can be found in Table 3. Chi square analysis revealed that females were more likely to be in the supporting role position than males: χ2 (1, n = 29) = 10.319, р = .001. In addition, female characters were more likely to be portrayed as the rescued, χ2 (1, n = 7) = 13.205, р < .001, and helpers, χ2 (1, n = 17) = 9.394, р = .002 than male characters. In terms of race, only one supporting character was Black; the others were all White. Among all the female characters in the trailers, over half of them (58.3%) appeared unrealistically thin, and 25.0% wore partially revealing clothing. However, all but one male character in the trailers appeared with partially revealing attire, and most of them had a normal or heavy body. The distribution of the appearance of male and female characters is listed in Table 4. A one-way Chisquare yielded a significant difference between male and female in partially revealing clothes:

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Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

χ2 (1, n = 4) = 8.594, р = .003. In addition, a oneway Chi-square yielded a significant difference between male and female in thinness: χ2 (1, n = 11) = 15.109, р < .001. Females were more likely to appear with partially revealing clothes and unnaturally thin than males.

Game Characters in Introductory Sequences Considering the content of the games, only 14 games included an introductory sequence. Therefore, only 34 human characters were identified and coded. The distribution of white and minority characters in different roles and positions is listed in Table 2. Among them, 15 were leading characters, four were opponents, and 15 were supporting characters. Most (93.8%) of the leading characters were heroes, with one as a gangster. All of the leading characters were male. Most of them were White; with an exception of four Black leading characters from a basketball game. A one-way Chi-square showed that there was no significant difference in the representation of white and minority characters in the leading position: χ2 (1, n = 14) = 2.813, р = .093. Neither was there significant racial difference for characters portrayed as heroes, χ2 (1, n = 14) = 2.813, р = .093. All of the four opponents were villains. No female characters were portrayed as opponents. All opponents with identifiable race were white. Similar to characters in supporting role in trailers, characters in this category in introductory sequences also demonstrated a more diverse situation. Among these 15 supporting characters, two were heroes; one was a villain; two were the rescued; and 10 were helpers. All of the supporting characters were white. Nearly half of the characters in the supporting role position (40.0%) were females. A one-way Chi square indicated that females were more likely to be in the supporting role position than males: χ2 (1, n = 15) = 5.157, р = .023.

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Most of the female characters (83.3%) appeared unrealistically thin, and one third with partially revealing attire. On the contrary, no male character appeared with partially revealing clothing, and most of them were of normal or heavy size. A one-way Chi-square showed a significant difference between males and females in thinness, χ2 (1, n = 7) = 13.932, р < .001. It indicated that females were more likely to appear in thin bodies than males.

Game Characters on Covers In total, there were 26 human characters on the covers of the 19 games; 22 (84.6%) were males, while only four (15.4%) were females. The only four female characters appearing on the game covers were all unrealistically thin, and half of them wearing partially revealing attire such as bathing suits. The distribution of the appearance of male and female characters is listed in Table 4. In contrast, all male characters appeared with unrevealing attire, and most of their bodies were in normal shape. A one-way Chi-square showed a significant difference between males and females in thinness on covers, χ2 (1, n = 9) = 5.838, р = .016. In addition, among those human characters, a majority (84%) of them were White, while 4% were Hispanic and 12% are Black.

DIscUssION AND IMPLIcAtION Based on previous research and the small-scale study we report in this book chapter, it is clear that gender was portrayed in an unequal way. Male characters, especially White male characters predominate in video games. In particular, most of the leading characters and heroes are White male. There is almost no female or minority character in leading role in popular video games. The only exception is the Black leading characters in a sports game. Even though the proportion of female characters appearing in video games is increasing,

Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

female characters appear in stereotypical roles. Female characters are predominately supporting characters, who are either to be rescued or assistants to the leading male character. Female characters are also never portrayed as opposing characters, which in most of the cases are villains. The portrayal of female characters is consistent with the stereotypical mass media female characters. The attire and body image of the female characters are often very sexy, with revealing attire and unnatural body (either very thin or very voluptuous). Yet male characters are portrayed in normal or masculinized way. Minority characters are underrepresented in video games. Consistent with previous studies (Lachlan et al., 2005), our content analysis did not find racially stereotypical portrayals. There was no significant difference between the portrayal of white and minority characters as villains, though the leading hero characters are more likely to be white male. The content analysis revealed underrepresentation and stereotypical portrayals of certain groups in video games. What are the implications of these results for educators, researchers, and the game industry? The representation and portrayal of female and minority characters might have significant impact on the players, especially adolescent players who are in the developing stage to form their self-identity, self-image, gender role perception, as well as their expectation of and attitude toward the other gender and other racial groups. During adolescence, most boys and girls explore possible identity directly and vicariously. Unique fashion statements, activities, and even introspection are some direct means for identity exploration and identity formation. Vicariously, adolescents explore and develop identity through identification with role models (Erikson, 1968). Media figures are a particular type of role model. Previous studies have shown that media figures from TV programs and films have great influence on adolescent (Giles & Maltby, 2004). As a special type of media figure, game characters might also influence adolescent. As it is found

that stereotypical gender roles are prevalent in games, it is very likely that this stereotype will influence how adolescent form their own identity and attitudes toward the opposite gender. Boys might expect women to be unnaturally thin and sexy to be attractive. The weak, supporting role of females also instill the message that women are weaker and need help from men. Recently, video games have been advocated by a number of educators and researchers to be a powerful educational tool (Gee, 2007; Van Eck, 2006). As a number of learning principles are hard to find in today’s education systems but are evident in some good commercial games, researchers propose to use these games in the classroom for more effective instruction. Even though researchers and educators take precautions about the violent content present in those games, stereotyping in those games is not considered as a serious issue when applying those games in the classroom. This study, together with previous findings on stereotypical content in video games, demonstrates the underrepresentation of female and minority characters and stereotypical portrayal of female characters in video games. Therefore, when popular commercial video games are to be used in the classroom, researchers and educators need to consider the potential impact due to the prevalence of stereotyping. In the game industry, only 16% of the workforce is female (Haines, 2004). The predominance of male characters in the video games also raises the concern that video games are made by males and made for males. Boys get to choose a male leading character to play in almost all the video games yet girls hardly can find a female leading character as an avatar to represent themselves in the game, which might make girls lose interest in video games in the first place. Research has indicated that playing video games also has potential positive effects in cognitive and social developments for adolescents (Durkin, 2006; Gee, 2007; Lee & Peng, 2006; Lieberman, 2006). Furthermore, researchers believe that gaming opens

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Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

Table 1. List of video games in analysis Title

Rating

Type

Platforms

Grand Theft Auto: Vice City

M

Adventure

PS2

Halo 2

M

Action

Xbox

Gran Turismo 3: A-Spec *

E

Driving

PS2

Madden NFL 2004 *

E

Sports

PS2

Super Smash Bros: Melee

T

Action

Gamecube

Need for Speed: Underground *

E

Driving

PS2

Kingdom Hearts II

E

Role Playing

PS2

ATV Off Road Fury III *

E

Driving

PS2

Medal of Honor: Frontline

T

Action

Gamecube

Super Mario Sunshine

E

Action

Gamecube

Tom Clancy’s Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory

M

Adventure

Xbox

Final Fantasy X

T

Role Playing

PS2

Mario Kart: Double Dash

E

Driving

Gamecube

The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker

E

Adventure

Gamecube

Tony Hawk’s Pro Skater 3

T

Sports

PS2

Spider-man: The Movie

E

Action

Gamecube

Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty

M

Adventure

PS2

NBA Street *

E

Sports

PS2

Jak & Daxter

T

Adventure

PS2

Note: Those games with asterisk (*) do not have introductory cinematic sequences.

Table 2. The distribution of the white and minority characters in different positions and roles in official trailers and introductory sequences Content

Race White

Trailer Minority

White Intro Minority

930

Position

Hero

Villain

Rescued

Helper

Leading

13

1

0

0

Opponent

0

16

0

0

Supporting

4

0

7

14

Leading

4

0

0

1

Opponent

0

4

0

0

Supporting

0

1

0

0

Leading

9

1

0

0

Opponent

0

4

0

0

Supporting

1

1

2

8

Leading

4

0

0

0

Opponent

0

0

0

0

Supporting

0

0

0

0

Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

Table 3. The distribution of male and female characters in different positions and roles in official trailers and introductory sequences Content

Sex Male

Trailer Female

Male Intro Female

Position

Hero

Villain

Rescued

Helper

Leading

18

1

0

0

Opponent

0

21

0

0

Supporting

5

1

2

9

Leading

0

0

0

0

Opponent

0

0

0

0

Supporting

0

0

5

8

Leading

14

1

0

0

Opponent

0

4

0

0

Supporting

1

1

0

7

Leading

0

0

0

0

Opponent

0

0

0

0

Supporting

1

0

2

3

Table 4. The distribution of the appearance of male and female characters in official trailers, introductory sequences and covers Content Trailer IntroCover

Sex

Unrevealing

Partially

Nudity

Heavy

Normal

Thin

Male

54

1

0

8

45

4

Female

9

3

0

2

3

7

Male

26

0

0

5

21

2

Female

4

2

0

1

0

5

Male

22

0

0

2

15

5

Female

2

2

0

0

0

4

a door to computer literacy leading to potential technology careers (Cassell & Jenkins, 1998). The disproportionate gender representation and the gender role stereotyping of game characters might be the reason why girls dislike video games and fewer girls than boys play video games (Hartmann & Klimmt, 2006). As girls do not get as much exposure to computing and gaming in their adolescent years, this might influence their attitudes toward computing. As a result, as they grow older, girls are reluctant to choose computer and technology class and this will eventually influence their career choices. The game industry and game designers need to consciously consider the

disparity and take responsibility to decrease the gap of gender and race representation.

rEFErENcEs Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of playing violent video games. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 113-122. Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A

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meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12(5), 353-359. Arriaga, P., Esteves, F., Carneiro, P., & Monteiro, M. B. (2006). Violent computer games and their effects on state hostility and physiological arousal. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 146-158. Ashmore, R. D., & Boca, F. K. (1981). Conceptual approaches to stereotypes and stereotyping. In D. L. Hamilton (Ed.), Cognitive processes in stereotyping and intergroup behavior (pp. 1-35). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

2007, from http://www.next-gen.biz/index. php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3537 &Itemid=34&limit=1&limitstart=9 Cantor, M. G. (1987). Popular culture and the portrayal of women: Content and control. In B. B. Hess & M. M. Ferree (Eds.), Analyzing gender: A handbook of social science research (pp. 190214). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Cassell, J., & Jenkins, H. (Eds.). (1998). From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and computer games. Cambridge, MA: MIT.

Aubrey, J. S., & Harrison, K. (2004). The gender-role content of children’s favorite television programs and its links to their gender-related perceptions. Media Psychology, 6, 111-146.

Child Development Institute. (2007). Video games and children. Retrieved September 18, 2007, from http://www.childdevelopmentinfo.com/health_ safety/video_games_and_children.shtml

Bartholow, B. D., Sestir, M. A., & Davis, E. B. (2005). Correlates and consequences of exposure to video game violence: Hostile personality, empathy, and aggressive behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1573-1586.

Courtney, A. E., & Whipple, T. W. (1983). Sex stereotyping in advertising. Toronto: Lexington Books.

Beasley, B., & Standley, T. C. (2002). Shirts vs. skins: Clothing as an indicator of gender role stereotyping in video games. Mass Communication & Society, 5, 279-293. Bodenhausen, G. V., Kramer, G. P., & Süsser, K. (1994). Happiness and stereotypic thinking in social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 621-632. Bodenhausen, G. V., Sheppard, L. A., & Kramer, G. P. (1994). Negative affect and social judgment: the differential impact of anger and sadness. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 45-62. Brand, J. E., Knight, S., & Majewski, J. (2003, November). The diverse worlds of computer games: A content analysis of spaces, populations, styles and narratives. Paper presented at Digital Games Research Conference 2003, The Netherlands. Campbell, C., & Keiser, J. (2006). The top 100 games of the 21st century. Retrieved May 5th,

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Dates, J. L., & Barlow, W. (1990). Introduction: A war of images. In J. L. Dates & W. Barlow (Eds.), Split images: African Americans in the mass media (pp.1-21). Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press. Dietz, T. L. (1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games: implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38, 425-442. Dill, K. E., Gentile, D. A., Richter, W. A., & Dill, J. C. (2005). Violence, sex, and age in popular video games: A content analysis. In E. Cole & J. H. Daniel (Eds.), Featuring females: Feminist analyses of media (pp. 115-130). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Downs, E., & Smith, S. (2005, May). Keeping abreast of hypersexuality: A video game character content analysis. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Communication Association 2005, New York City.

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Durkin, K. (2006). Game playing and adolescents’ development. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses and consequences (pp. 415-428). Mahwah, NJ: LEA. Eagly, A. H. (1995). The science and politics of comparing women and men. American Psychologist, 50, 145-158. Entertainment Software Association. (2007). Top ten industry facts. Retrieved February 12, 2007, from http://www.theesa.com/facts/top_10_facts. php Entman, R. (1992). Blacks in the news: Television, modern racism, and cultural change. Journalism Quarterly, 69, 341-161. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton. Fiske, S. T. (1993). Controlling other people: The impact of power on stereotyping. American Psychologist, 48, 621-628. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J. P. (2007). Good video games + good learning: Collected essays on video games, learning and literacy. New York: Peter Lang. Gentile, D. A., & Gentile, J. R. (2005, April). Violent video games as exemplary teachers. Paper represented at the Biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development 2005, Atlanta, GA. Gentile, D. A., & Stone, W. (2005). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents. Minerva Pediatrica, 57, 337-358. Giles, D. C., & Maltby, J. (2004). The role of media figures in adolescent development: Relations between autonomy, attachment and interest in celebrities. Personality and Individual Difference, 36, 813-822.

Greenberg, B. S., & Baptista-Fernandez, P. (1980). Hispanic-Americans: The new minority on television. In B. S. Greenberg (Ed.), Life on television: Content analyses of U. S. TV drama (pp. 3-12). Noorwood, NJ: Albex Publishing Corporation. Haines, L. (2004). Why are there so few women in games? Retrieved October 1, 2007, from http://www.igda.org/women/MTNW_Womenin-Games_Sep04.pdf Hartmann, T., & Klimmt, C. (2006). Gender and computer games: Exploring females’ dislikes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(4), Article 2. Retrieved from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol11/issue4/hartmann.html. Hilton, J., & von Hippel, W. (1996). Stereotypes. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 237-271. Hixson, T. K. (2006). Mission possible: Targeting trailers to movie audiences. Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing, 14(3), 210-224. Hogg, M. A., & Abrams, D. (1988). Social identifications: A social psychology of intergroup relations and group processes. London: Routledge. Jansz, J., & Martis, R. G. (2007). The Laura phenomenon: Powerful female characters in video games. Sex Role, 56, 141-148. Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 1-27. Lachlan, K. A., Smith, S. L., & Tamborini, R. (2005). Models for aggressive behavior: The attributes of violent characters in popular video games. Communication Studies, 56, 313-329. Lee, K. M., & Peng, W. (2006). What do we know about social and psychological effects of computer games? A comprehensive review of the current literature. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant

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(Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses and consequences (pp. 325-346). Mahwah, NJ: LEA. Lieberman, D. A. (2006). What can we learn from playing interactive games? In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses and consequences (pp. 379-398). Mahwah, NJ: LEA. Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 37-47. NPD Group. (2006). Reports from the NPD Group shows 45 percent of heavy video gamers are in the six-to-17-year-old age group. Retrieved November 30, 2006, from http://www.npd.com/ press/releases/press_060919a.html

Shaw, E. (2006, September). (De)coding content: Code scheme development in content analysis. Paper accepted at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, 2006, Philadelphia, PA. Sherry, J. (2001). The effects of violent video games on aggression: A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research, 27, 409-431. Sidanius, J. (1993). The psychology of group conflict and the dynamics of oppression: A social dominance perspective. In S. Iyengar & W. J. McGuire (Eds.), Explorations in political psychology (pp.183-219). Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press. Smith, E. R. (2000). Research design. In H. Reis & C. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (pp. 17-39). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Omi, M. (1989). In living color: Race and American culture. In I. Angus & S. Jhally (Eds.), Cultural politics in contemporary America (pp. 111-122). London: Routledge.

Smith, S. L., Lachlan, K., & Tamborini, R. (2003). Popular video games: Quantifying the presentation of violence and its context. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 47(1), 58-76.

Park, J. H., Gabbadon, N. G., & Chernin, A. R. (2006). Naturalizing racial differences through comedy: Asian, Black, and White views on racial stereotypes in Rush Hour 2. Journal of Communication, 56, 157-177.

Thompson, T. L., & Zerbinos, E. (1995). Gender roles in animated cartoons: Has the picture changed in 20 years? Sex Roles, 32, 651-673.

Peffley, M., Shields, T., & Williams, B. (1996). The inersection of race and crime in television news stories: an experimental study. Political Communication, 13, 309-327. Peng, W., Liu, M., & Mou, Y. (in press). Do aggressive people play violent computer games in a more aggressive way? Individual difference and idiosyncratic game playing experience. CyberPsychology & Behavior. Robinson, R. J., Keltner, D., Ward, A., & Ross, L. (1995). Actual versus assumed differences in construal: realism in intergroup perception and conflict. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 404-417.

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Van Eck, R. (2006). Digital game-based learning: It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. EDUCAUSE Review, 41, 17-30.

KEY TERMS Coder Reliability: The reliability to measure the correspondence between two or more coders’ estimates of the same content. Coding Scheme: The coding manual to mark the coding unit by choosing the manifest content which best demonstrate whether the material contains or does not contain the latent content to the research (Shaw, 2006).

Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

Content Analysis: “A technique used to extract desired information from a body of material (usually verbal) by systematically and objectively identifying specified characteristics of the material” (Smith, 2000, p. 314). Gender Stereotype: A widely accepted perception or belief about the attributes of males or females. Introductory Sequence: A non-interactive introductory sequence for a computer or video game to create cinematic atmosphere. Usually appears before actual game playing to introduce the background story.

Racial Stereotype: A widely accepted perception or belief about the attributes of a particular race, especially minority groups. Stereotype: A widely accepted perception or belief about the attributes of the members in a group. Unit of Analysis: The basic unit that is being analyzed in the study.

Lara Phenomenon: “The appearance of a tough and competent female character in a dominant position” (Jansz & Martis, 2007, p.142).

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APPENDIX: CODING SCHEME Game segment 1. Game content a. Games with no characters b. Games with characters but no human characters c. Games with human characters but no female characters at all d. Games with both male and female character 2. Game type a. Sports b. Role playing c. Adventure d. Action Shooting Fighting e. Strategy f. Simulation g. Driving h. Puzzle i. Board game j. Kid’s game

Game character 1. Type of character: a. Human: A homosapien with no supernatural features. b. Animal: A live action or animated mammal, reptile, bird, fish, amphibian, or shark. c. Supernatural creature: A non-human that exceeds biological limits and/or possesses supernatural powers. d. Robot: An electro-mechanical or bio-mechanical device or group of devices that can perform autonomous or preprogrammed tasks. e. Anthropomorphized animal: An animal with human-like characteristics. e.g., Mermaid and Donald Duck. f. Anthropomorphized supernatural creature: A super creature with human-like characteristics. g. Other. 2. Sex: In most cases, it is easy to assess sex for human characters. For anthropomorphized characters or supernatural characters, it may be difficult to determine sex. Physical appearance, behavioral patterns,

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Gender and Racial Stereotypes in Popular Video Games

and voice intonation or cues should be all used to make the judgment. a. Male b. Female c. Cannot tell 3. Race (only applicable to human characters): Race was coded based on the description of the characters from the official Web site of the game developer and the character’s appearance (such as skin color, hair color, and eye color), accent, and family name. a. White b. Hispanic c. Black d. Native American e. Asian/Pacific Islander f. Middle Eastern g. Mixed h. Unidentifiable 4. Position a. Leading role b. Opponent c. Supporting role 5. Role a. Hero b. Villain c. Rescued d. Helper 6. Occupation Code the character’s profession or job, such as policeman, sports player, etc. 7. Attire a. Unrevealing b. Partially revealing c. Nudity (revealing) d. Not applicable 8. Body a. Heavy b. Normal c. Thin d. Not applicable

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Chapter LIV

Can the Subaltern Play and Speak or Just be Played With?1 David J. Leonard Washington State University, USA

AbstrAct This chapter examines and responds to the silencing, resistance to any intrusion of questions about race and racism, and overall erasure of race from the debates and broader discourse concerning video game culture. It not only provides insight into the nature and logics guiding claims of colorblindness, but also connects the ideologies and culture of denial to the broader racial discourse of post-civil rights America. Hoping to inspire debate and transformative knowledge sharing, this chapter additionally offers a textually-based racial analysis of Outlaw Volleyball as an example of the type of critical examination required to move beyond a culture that often reduces bodies and voices of people of color to objects of gaze, ridicule, and consumption while denying any sorts of criticism and questions regarding the racial meaning and texts evident within much of today’s gaming.

INtrODUctION2 Among some of my students, friends, and even neighbors, I have been known as the professor— the guy—who plays (studies) video games. It is not unusual for students and kids in the neighborhood to inquire about a particular console game, leaving me to wonder if I am a peddler of virtual reality. Although these exchanges often take place outside of a formalized educational setting, I try, as difficult as it is, to treat these encounters as teachable moments, challenging them to think about games as more than entertainment and as

not simply just a game, but rather cultural projects saturated with racialized, gendered, and sexualized meaning. Despite subtle resistance, evident in many of these instances, and the commonplace erasure of race from the overall discussions of video games, my focus on teaching and learning about contemporary racial discourses through examining video game culture guides these formalized and informal interactions. As a teacher and researcher of race, racism, and stereotypes I often wonder how I could not study video games, learning and teaching about some many of life’s paradoxes and questions.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Can the Subaltern Play and Speak or Just be Played With?

With this in mind, this chapter works to initiate a conversation about the denials that race matters within video game culture, reflecting on the broader implications of claims of colorblindness, while also offering a “how-to-do” example of racially-based (centered) textual analysis. The inclusion of a discussion of Outlaw Volleyball is not meant to provide a definitive picture of race and video games; nor do I claim it to be representative of the broader racial logics and ideologies that find their way into a spectrum games. It is most certainly extreme in nature, in terms of its construction of race, gender, and sexuality. Through this chapter, I argue that, despite assumptions otherwise rather than representing an aberration, the racial theories and representations animating from/within Outlaw Volleyball push mainstream formulations of race to their accepted, naturalized, and logical place within dominant discourse. Consequently, it is my attempt here to offer a critical reading of the representations, ideologies, and textual signifiers evident within this game not simply as an illustration of the racial meaning within this lone game, but as a means to bring into focus the power and importance of racial analysis within video game discourse. As part of both an effort to push conversations about race within video game culture and because of what this game (and the broader silence regarding race within video game culture) teaches us about the networks of racialized power in the 21st century, I use this space to reflect on the broader cultural silence in the face of a game such as this as well as the possibilities of an increased conversation about race and racial imagery among scholars, programmers, and players. Moreover, following a discussion that expounds on a post-civil rights or new racist discourse and the dialects between video game culture (production, reception, commentary) and broader societal forces, I use this space to demonstrate the importance of examining games in a way that moves beyond binaries and a focus on stereotypes/simple textual utterances toward analysis that situates images and repre-

sentations within a broader historical, cultural, and social context that reflects on ideologies, discourse, and power.

DENIAL AND ERASURE: VIDEO GAMEs AND tHE PrOFEssION OF cOLOrbLINDNEss In a recent online article, entitled “That’s Racist! The Unjust Crusade against Video Games,” Chris Mottes (2007), CEO at Deadline Games, lamented the supposed widespread criticisms directed at the video games industry regarding racism and sexism. He forcefully defended the industry, arguing that: “Members of the media often attack video games for being racist, sexist, mean-spirited, callous, unpleasant, insensitive, or just generally nasty. As a developer, I find most of these claims not only a touch insulting but also extremely tenuous, and in the majority of cases unfounded.” Rightly arguing that the majority of game critics have focused their attention on violence, (for discussion, see Gee, 2003, 2005; Jenkins; Leonard, 2003) as the basis of condemnation, he further claims that criticism regarding racial prejudice within gaming culture have become ubiquitous. Likewise, Mottes refutes these critiques, noting that, “Games with minority characters, and especially minority stereotypes—even tongue-incheek characters not meant to be offensive—are torn down by accusations of intolerance.” Arguing that a double standard exists, that other forms of “media receive significantly less criticism when they portray racist characters—even racist, morally questionable protagonists”, Mottes concludes that: “Racism is a terrible, awful thing; there is no doubt about that. And while games that are patently, intentionally racist do exist, most games with racist characters do not reflect the mindset of their developers.” His column, which sparked debates on a number of game Web sites, requires a certain amount of unpacking not simply to

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Can the Subaltern Play and Speak or Just be Played With?

garner a better understanding of the ideologies and discursive foundation that operates within his piece, but because it reflects a broader trajectory within gaming culture. First off, Mottes seems to reduce the discussion of race and racism to the ways in which “racist characters” and stereotypes operate within a gaming context, denying the broader implications or significance of games as a space of teaching and learning. At one level, he denies the cultural and racial significance of stereotypes, since they are presented in a “tongueand-cheek” manner, a satiric joke that merely pokes fun rather than denigrates and demonizes. Such logic is commonplace within contemporary racial discourse, whereupon stereotypes or other forms of racialized representations are dismissed as mere fun or pranks. In their examination of white student racial (racist) attitudes and behaviors through a discussion of both the “backstage and frontstage,” Leslie Houts Picca and Joe Feagin (2007) conclude that jokes matter: Under the guise of “just kidding,” comments can be tossed around socially without concern for consequences: “It just a joke. Don’t take me seriously. However, even in an apparently lighthearted, joking context, racialized “fun” by whites usually reveals hostile and deliberately hurtful sentiments that are typically part of the larger white-racist framing of society. Not surprisingly, thus, one analysis of survey data found that racial remarks that white respondents defended as “just a joke” were often seen as racist by black respondents. By telling racist jokes, and insisting that they are only jokes, whites who tell them promote the acceptability, persistence, and armful impact in U.S. society. Racist joking only accents aspects f white racist framing of society, but also is part of a widespread, often ceremonial activity that reinforces that white framing from one generation to the next and from one group to the next (pp. 69-70).

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According to M. M. Manring (1998), “a joke is just a joke, except in the respect that it reveals a common cultural knowledge. . . . A good joke, by its very nature, collapses if it requires any explanation to the humorless” (pp. 2-3). Jokes “reinforce dominant ideas” (King, 2006) and ultimately flourish “because post-Civil Rights racial norms disallow the open expression of racial views,” resulting in the development of “a concealed way of voicing them” (Bonilla-Silva, 2003, p. 57). In other words, jokes have contexts and play to accepted cultural norms, values, and logics, including those that render black men as criminals, black women as welfare queens, or Native Americans (those inhabiting indigenous nations) as mythical savage warriors (Collins, 2004; King & Springwood, 2001). It is thus important to not only think about the stereotypes and racialized images deployed within video game culture, but the meaning behind a defense centering claims of satire and jokes. “When whites are confronted with matters of race, they usually react as if the issue isn’t patters of inequality and unnecessary suffering but their own personal feelings and views about race,” notes Allen Johnson (2006) in Privilege, Power and Difference. “They seem to think if they don’t mean it, then it didn’t happen as if their conscious intent is the only thing that connect them to the consequences of what they do or don’t do” (p. 114). At another level, Mottes reduces questions surrounding racial content to whether or not video game characters profess racism thereby ignoring the broader context of reception. The questions regarding racism aren’t limited to whether or not characters express or embody racist ideologies, but also how virtual reality functions inside of history, institutional formations, and the broader culture. As Mottes argues games certainly reflect a social reality, yet they also reinforce and naturalize that same social reality. Beyond the fact that “the largely white male elite owners . . . derive wealth from the circulation” of racist and sexist imagery,

Can the Subaltern Play and Speak or Just be Played With?

virtual reality, and its inscription of controlling images “make racism, sexism and poverty appear to be natural, normal and inevitable part of everyday life” (Collins, 2004, p. 69). As argued by Mark Anthony Neal (2005), “The fact that these images are then used to inform public policy around domestic images that adversely affect and black and brown people”—whether with the wars on crime, drugs, terror, welfare—“further complicates what is at stake” for game studies (p. 51). A second argument offered here rests with claim that video games are subjected to an unfair double standard, that presumably stereotypes and racism within other forms of popular culture are not subjected to the criticism and vilification directed at the video game industry. On the one hand, an argument regarding double standards given the amount of academic and popular criticism dedicated to elucidating racial themes and logics within all forms of popular culture is absurd given the public and academic inquiry into race and gender within all realms of popular culture (Berg, 2003; Dave, 2005; Giroux, 1994; hooks, 1992; King & Springwood, 2001; Leonard, 2006b; Neal, 2005; Watkins, 1999). On the other hand, the claim of double standards seem to echo a hegemonic discourse that guides post-civil rights that ubiquitous claims that whites are increasingly under attack from political correctness guided by double standards. Third, the crux of the article seems to argue that the existence of stereotypes within certain games or even the use of characters that may express racist ideas does not reflect the worldview of developments—just because a game is racist doesn’t mean developers are racist. Yet, he takes this logic further thereby arguing that given that developers and even games cannot be racist irrespective of stereotypes or racist characters criticism of games is pointless and unfair. Mottes, as with much of dominant racial discourse reduces discussions of racism to individual intent, so that racism rests only with individual who harbor and profess their prejudicial ideals. The ubiquity of “present hege-

monic ideologies that claim that racism is over” (Collins, 2004, p. 54) and argumentation that link racism to a few prejudiced/extremists (See Ferber, 2000; King & Leonard, forthcoming) whether as individuals or cultural productions, a postcivil rights discourses minimizes the existence of racism (Bonilla-Silva, 2003, p. 29) in spheres of politics, culture, education, and economics. “Today, many white Americas are concerned only with whether they are, individually guilty of something called racism,” notes Michael Brown et al. (2003), in their analysis of new racism in White-Washing Race. “Having examined their souls and concluded they are not personally guilty of any direct act of discrimination, many whites convince themselves that they are not racists and then wash their hands of the problem posted by persistent racial inequality” (p. 4). And finally, after reading Mottes it would be easy to assume that criticism of games regarding their racial content is overflowing and without ample resistance. A quick glance at the various comments that manifested online after his article reveals the problematic in any argument that concludes that games are under attack from antiracist critics. On one Web site, respondents seem to nod in agreement, offering the commonplace rhetorical arguments that video games are just games, entertainment, and sources of humor. Others questioned why race had to be apart of every social/cultural formation and lamented the introduction of the “race card” (Are video games racist, 2007). Elsewhere, on a Web site dedicated to debating video game culture, and following the release of a study by a University of British Columbia which found that video games disseminate racialized stereotypes, many posters denied his conclusions, criticizing his methodology, otherwise questioning his findings given the “satirical” and “tongue-and cheek” nature of many games. Others similarly denied the racial implications of games given the presence of stereotypes within other forms of popular culture (“Do Video Games Promote Racist Stereotypes?”).

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Can the Subaltern Play and Speak or Just be Played With?

Such rhetorical positioning are neither isolated to debates about contemporary America (Ansell, 1997; Bonilla Silva, 2003; Johnson, 2006; Picca & Feagin, 2007), nor unusual to debates concerning video games. Similar levels of resistance were evident in wake of criticism directed at the trailer for Resident Evil 5, which has been criticized for depicting blacks as “inhumane savages,” (“Resident Evil 5”). For example, on Black Looks blog, posters not only denied the racial text and subtext of the trailer, but verbally attacked Kym Platt (2007), its author, for raising the issue. “Never have I been so harassed and insulted, and all because I questioned the imagery in this game… The response has been horrifying… I am shocked that in the same breath some of these folks denied that Resident Evil 5 displayed racist/anti-black imagery; they called me things like “nigger”, “bitch”, and “whore,” noted Platt. “The gamers would like to intimidate me and silence me, but that’s not going to happen. This vitriol has done nothing but embolden me and my political convictions” (Black bloggers react to gamers reacting to Resident Evil 5 racism charges, 2007). Equally revealing, following the announced release of Black College Football: The Xperience, a game focused on football and the surrounding cultural formations at historically black colleges, Rob Watson raised questions regarding the racial discourses prompted by news of this game: I have always bragged about how smart you gamers are and how open-minded and kindhearted you’ve been in terms of how the world works. Some of you let me down over the last couple of weeks… Various forums and message boards were littered with “Why do they need their own game?” or “If there was an all-white football game, there would be an uproar!” Sigh. (Watson, 2007) The posting of Watson’s commentary on Game and Politics elicited more reactions, with accusations of double standards and claims of

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racism against whites (Racial comments trouble Philly games writer, 2007). Irrespective of the specifics, the responses reflected the ubiquitous erasure of race within video games culture and the widespread denial that “race matters” within virtual and everyday reality on the one hand, and the rearticulation of those racial ideologies that position whites as victims of multi-culturalism and political correctness, “a term coined by those who tend to trivialize the scars of others and minimize the suffering of victims while highlighting their own wounds” (West, 2004, p. 7). Although Mottes argues that video games are ubiquitously denounced because of racism and sexism (for the supposed promotion of violence yes), within the academic realm there remains limited engagement as to not only the ways in which games deploy and promulgate longstanding stereotypes, but the ways in which virtual reality serves white supremacy and patriarchy through their teachings and pedagogical interventions (Dietz, 2004; Leonard, 2003, 2006c).“While there is discussion of race in the gaming industry, it has never been a key topic. Race in gaming often takes a backseat to more hot-button topics like video game violence or the console wars,” notes Latoya Peterson (2007). “Hopefully, as gaming begins to mature, more avenues for discussion about the social issues in video game design and development will open. . . . How dare you close your eyes to it, and keep promoting some bullshit “it isn’t us, it’s you” perspective? I know that race (and racism) is an uncomfortable topic to discuss. But that discomfort is not a compelling enough reason to hide from the truth” (“Denial and Delusion”). As such, I use the following pages to provide an example to teachers, gamers, and interested designers to a potential place of intervention that pushes the conversation beyond the a culture war, whereupon questions or even criticism regarding race and video game culture are immediately dismissed and denied without much interrogation and debate.

Can the Subaltern Play and Speak or Just be Played With?

LEADING BY EXAMPLE: TEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF OUTLAW VOLLEYBALL In order to truly understand Outlaw Volleyball and reflect on the ways in which this series of games, as well as the broader cultural place of virtual reality, teaches race and gender as a commodity, as place of demonization, power, and pleasure, one needs to have a picture of each character within the game. Moreover, this game, as with so many games from Ready to Rumble to Grand Theft Auto, recapitulates one of the central defenses of the industry: given that everyone is stereotyped, given the extreme and clichéd representations it must indeed be harmless. In fact, there is little to the game beyond the players, all of whom are caricatures and gross racial stereotypes. Outlaw Volleyball, like so many recent games, invokes stereotypes of every character as to disarm potential criticism, although as noted previously the varied logics and ideologies demonstrate that stereotypes regarding white ethnics and racialized communities of color are distinct and varied (Omi & Winant, 1994). So while this game offers a stereotypical loud Italian American woman (Donna Maroni), who talks of trash and is terribly rude (“If the bitch meter is up, you know she is ready to serve”) and a prejudicial representation of Appalachians, with “Country Clem,” who is out of jail for marrying his cousin. According to the game’s instructions, Country Clem loves “bump, set and spike, but hates to shower. When this down country boy is not playing offensively, he’s plain offensive.” The game offers several other stereotypically “white” characters: Lizzy, “the trashiest of the Euro-trash,” who loves volleyball almost as much as “doing it in the back backseat of her Morris.” Harley, the motorcycle, whose toughness, includes breaking bottles a confederate flag on her sweatshirt, and a series of tattoos. Nikki Steele, the clichéd rocker and Killer Miller, the ex-con who likes to kill his opponent and the ball, also find a place in the name. Not to

be forgotten, Outlaw Volleyball includes Natasha, a relic Cold War cultural icon—buxom, holding a machine gun when not drinking vodka, and “always ready to torture her opponent with her deadly service”—and Scrummy, the Irish character, whose square face, heavy accent, hooligan demeanor and drunkenness, who should remind players of nineteenth century cartoons. Lastly, there is Ice Try, “a Mac Daddy extraordinaire,” who “can bust a rhyme and a spike at the same time. His game is off da hezzy for sleezy or something like that.” The key here is that he is white, as this character plays on hegemonic notions of blackness elucidating the absurdity of whites acting black. Ice Try is unusual in that the absurdity of other white characters stems from their extremity and our knowledge that not all European women are like Lizzy and that Irish men do not look or behave as Scrummy. While each of these characters is stereotypical, they are laughable at the extreme, concretizing the hegemonic notions of identity. Yet, none of these representations embodies or defines a particular group. Not all Russian women are buxom, masculine blonds, nor are all Irish men drunk hooligans. Yes, surely typed, but these white characters do not play into common sense notions of whiteness, visions that guide policy and cultural debates; the same cannot be said of racialized (as opposed to ethnic) representations within this game and others. Equally important to understanding these characters, especially in comparison the characters of color visible within these games, are race, power, and context. According to Michael Omi and Howard Winant (1994), social, political, and cultural formation constitutes a series of racial projects, which they define as “simultaneously an interpretation, representation, or explanation of racial dynamics, and an effort to reorganize and redistribute resources along particular lines” (p. 56). Together, these projects operate at both micro- and macro-levels, coming together as part of processes of racial formation: “the sociohistorical process by which categories are created,

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inhabited, transformed, and destroyed” (1994, p. 55). Racial formation represents both “a process of historically situated projects in which human bodies and social structures are represented and organized” (1994, pp. 55-56), providing meaning, legitimacy, and a governing common sense to the ways in which society is “organized and ruled”—hegemony (p. 56). So, whereas characters such Scrummy and Natasha most certainly constitute racial projects in that these characters deploy and create signifiers of whiteness, and more specifically offer a particular vision of white femininity, their discursive relationship are distinct from those involving characters of color. In other words, while these characters are certainly negative and even potentially stereotypical caricatures, it would be futile to talk about the racial dimensions in relationship to While Scrummy and Natasha do not threaten the hegemony of white privilege, or the common sense ideologies/ representations of whiteness, Leon, Shawnee, E Suave and Chica Chavez all confirm ideologies of white supremacy. Leon embodies the inscription of black masculinity, functioning as signifier of sexuality, physicality, and violence. Accordingly, he is inscribed and defined historically as the stereotypical black brute. Ronald Jackson, in Scripting the Black Masculine Body (2006), reflects on this historic practice, arguing that amid hyper commodification and the increasingly profitability in selling an “authentic” “ghettocentric imagination” (Watkins, 1999), the “minstrel thug” has become commonplace within cinematic (and presumably all aspects of popular) culture. The thug’s sometimes maniacal, perennially dystopic ‘penis-as-animal’ (Bordo, 1994, p. 270) behaviors only recapitulate and exacerbate the public paranoia about the beast-like nature of the Black male as brute. The silver screen is exploding with these iconographic images, preoccupied with a Black representational gaze on almost nothing but the ugly aspects of Black existence that cel-

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ebrate trifling ghetto living and poverty, neither of which are indicative of a composite Black culture, but pretend to be (Kelley, 1997; Morrison, 2002; Watkins, 1998) (Jackson, p. 118). Or as Abby Ferber (1997) notes, “‘Blackness’ within white supremacist discourse is most situated in the body of a Black man” (p. 81). In other words, blackness, inscribed and given meaning through representations of body, ubiquitously functions as “a problematic sign and ontological position,” a symbol of “cultural degeneracy” that poses a threat to hegemonic values and mores (Williams, 1998, p. 140). “What is forbidden in American culture often seems to be projected outward onto the outsider or scapegoat,” argues Joy James (1996) in Resisting State Violence. “Blackness has come to represent sex and violence in the national psyche. Although they gain notoriety as the most infamous perpetrators of unrestrained criminality, African Americans are given little resignation in media, crime reports or social crusades as being victims” (p. 127). Endowed with ample muscles and presumably a larger penis, as well as a threatening and dangerous temper, Leon is presumably not your typical volleyball player, even for this game. According to the game, “Leon is a badass former all-pro who’s had his bad-ass out of every other professional sports league. He’s a born competitor who hates to lose.” Born an “athlete,” Leon is defined by his uncontrollable attitude. The racialized representation are not just evident in his muscles, his “Compton” hoody, or his shades, but through the games narrative and dialogue. Before every match, the game announcer introduces Leon to crowd with following description: “Leon is a star or basketball, football and beating the snot out of coaches, umpires and fans. He has been thrown off some of the best teams in the world. So, we better start before he gets thrown out of this league.” Violent and uncontrollable, Leon poses a threat to everyone at the game. Through the game, the commentary of the announcer further solidifies

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this violent orientation. At times, the announcer describes him as “vicious,” a “mean MOFO.” Before a serve he reminds (scolds) Leon not to “kick their ass . . . to just serve.” The hyper focus on the game’s vision of Leon as hyper masculine (“authentically” black) is not limited to the announcer, but comes through his own behavior and dialogue. After a player-initiated fight (this game encourages players to start fighting), which saw Leon pummel a shivering white competitor, Leon announces, “You are lucky I didn’t use my gun.” On another occasion, he reminded me, after I selected him as my virtual self that my decision “was a wise choice . . . don’t want to have to go postal.” Throughout the game, Leon fulfills hegemonic expectations of black masculinity, defined by a violent, aggressive, and hip-hop approach to volleyball. Such representations are not simply stereotypes, but offer meaning, contributing to commonsense understandings of blackness, whiteness, and America as a whole. To understand the meaning and what is being taught through such representations in terms of the irrelevance of new racism or even the broader significance of these signifies, one must situate these representations within a broader social-political-economic context. In other words, the pedagogical power evident in Leon rests with his ability to simultaneously teach that race is meaningless within our contemporary moment given societal ability to deploy stereotypes with ease and the significance of race evident in the degeneracy, danger, and deviancy of blackness. S. Craig Watkins (1999), in Representing: Hip-Hop Culture and the Production of Black Cinema, argues that the rise in social conservatism has seized upon and promulgated the idea that “black American youth were the cause of nation’s social, economic, and moral afflictions. The symbolic structure of the narrative—images of young black marauders looting, burning, and molesting—derived much of its currency from distilled representations of blacks as social problems, sexual predators, and potential pollutants of white purity, privilege and nation-

hood” (p. xi). To be black and male is to bring the game into the extreme place of moral degradation, physicality, violence, and sexuality. Equally powerful as a racial project is Shawnee. According to Children Now (2001), a community-based organization in Oakland, California, Native American characters are ostensibly absent from virtual reality, accounting for less than 1% of game characters. Although a virtual reality anomaly, Shawnee embodies hegemonic vision of indigenous communities, albeit through a hypersexual lens and/or presentation. “Western men have always thought of ‘foreign’ or ‘exotic’ women as delectable forbidden fruit. Whether it was nubile black slaves, fiery Latina peasants, or demure Asian geishas, they presumed the servile facade hid a siren of smoldering sexuality” or the sexualized and exotic Indian princess (Indian women as sex objects). Shawnee has enormous breasts that seem to define her; this is not surprising given the visual significance and attention afforded to breasts within virtual reality. As with so many female characters within virtual reality, she is purely sexual; she is worth little more than her parts—breast and buttocks—and the ways in which she displays obviously for the pleasure of men. However, compared to 20% of female game characters who have been reported to expose their breasts, and the roughly 10% also revealing their buttocks (Children Now, 2001), the sexuality of Shawnee is clearly racialized, marked by the signifiers of indigenousness, savagery, and exoticism. For example, her skimpy bathing suit, animals prints pieced together by animal teeth, is not simply functional in terms of sexualizing through the exposure of her breasts, but simultaneously marks her as uncivilized Indian. Additionally, her exotic savagery (her Indianness) is signified by her war paint and braids as well. The game demonstrates that while a sexual object, she remains a warrior. She could easily ravage male bodies through force/violence, or sexuality/seduction, making clear that while a desirable

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woman she remains Native American. “Shawnee is arguably the best Native American volleyball player in the country today, right behind Dances with Volleyball and Sitting Spike.” Shawnee, like the ample number of Native American sports mascots, represents a spectacle, an ideologized site of meaning that “arises from the ‘romance implicit’ in the mythology of Empire that turns on the social ambivalence of colonial subjectivity and colonial terror” (King & Springwood, 2001, p. 51). Whether in film, on sporting fields, or in a few examples of Native Americans imagined within virtual reality (Leonard & King, forthcoming), a clear narrative is evident. Writing about Native American mascots, King and Springwood (2001) argue: It is a narrative of ambivalence that includes contact, friendship and subsequent submission. It is a sensual narrative that turns on wildness, sexuality, and savagery, and it is a nostalgic narrative of mourning the loss of these once-great warriors and their glorious society. . . . It is a celebration of the Indian sacrifice in the name of imperial progress according to the divine plan of Manifest Destiny. It is a celebration of imperial power, then, that ritually incorporates the tragic figure of the Indian into the ‘imagined community . . . . (p. 51). Shawnee, evident in “her” description and representational field, reflects the game’s racial content, embodying dominant visions of Native Americans, setting the foundation for its complex rendering of race, gender, and sexuality. Moreover, she is not simply a stereotype, a clichéd and harmless representation given the spectrum of stereotypes offered in this game, virtual reality, or popular culture, but rather a narrative sign whereupon national narratives, cultural meaning, and hegemonic ideologies are articulated and given meaning in power ways. As with Leon, the game’s introductory moments captures the interplay between race,

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gender and sexuality through her representation. The announcer describes her in this way: “Circle the wagons. Boy, this Native American beauty is on a warpath. She easily makes Custard’s last stand look like a tea party. At other times during the game, this same announcer describes her as “having a vicious vengeance,” and “a great set of tomahawks.” In fact, virtually every textual signifier conveys both her sexuality and warrior/ racial/savage demeanor, inscribing the hegemonically inscribed exoticism of women of color and the dangerous savagery of Native Americans. Upon returning to the end line to serve, the announcer offers one of two pieces of color commentary: (1) “Shawnee steps back to serve with her Native American pride showing and just about everything else,” and (2) “Stepping back to serve and probably break a few treaties is Shawnee.” In both cases, the game offers a clear racial project that promulgates historic fictions (of individual, community and nation) about Native Americans. According to Renato Rosaldo, history and popular culture serves as a space for the promulgation of “imperial nostalgia,” which “occurs alongside a peculiar sense of mission, ‘the white man’s burden’,” where civilized nations stand duty bound to uplift so-called savage ones. In this ideologically constructed world of ongoing progressive change, putatively static savage societies become a stable reference point for defining (the felicitous progress of) civilized identity” (in King & Springwood, 2001, p. 51). As such, in this case the racial and ethnic identity ascribed onto Shawnee is central to virtually every descriptor in a transparent way that is absent with the white characters, not only teaching players of the savagery and sexuality of a mythical Indian, but reinscribing national narratives of progress, civilization, and the “white man’s burden.” While the exotification of Shawnee through ubiquitous references to her breasts and the inscription of racialized stereotypes of Native Americans as uncivilized (breaks treaties=Indian giver), violent, and savage already mentioned

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reflect disturbing elements of the game, none of these representations compare to a particular interlude that even floored me. After a lengthy rally, which ultimately resulted in a lost point for Shawnee’s team, the game camera quickly flashes toward her, gazing up her breasts toward her face. She looks very angry, chomping on an arrow that eventually breaks in her clenched mouth. “I need some spiritual rejuvenation,” she announces as the panacea to her violent reaction. Reconsidering, she states, “No, I just need a beer.” The extent of these racist and troubling representations of Native Americans from the drunk and the warrior to the savage and the cheater, all while maintaining a desired level of mysterious (exotic) sexuality, are not surprising given the extreme signifies extreme racism, sexism, and sexuality within virtual reality. Extreme only in its transparency as the racial and gendered projects associated with Shawnee reflect mainstream historically-based cultural projects central to the American imagination. Beyond Leon and Shawnee, Outlaw Volleyball, offers El Suave, from “south of the border,” whose penis protrudes through as to reinforce his own hypersexuality. Reflecting dominant stereotypes of Latinos was sexual and wonderful lovers (“hot Latin Lover”), El Suave loves beautiful women so much that his “swooning” impairs his concentration. He also embodies the prototypical Latino macho man. “He serves the ball only way he knows, chauvinistically.” He is paired with Chica Chavez, who is “100% Puerto Rican and 200% attitude.” While she “may suck at math,” she is “awesome on the volleyball court” and likely in the bedroom. Like the other women in the game, she is endowed with large breasts, skinny everything else, and a revealing bathing suit. Finally, we have Doe Joe, a Japanese Elvis impersonator. He is “an expert volleyball player and a black belt in karaoke.” Unlike others in the game, he is not threatening, violence, sexual or desirable. He is silly and goofy, almost laughable. Given the hypersexuality of virtually every character, his Asianness seems to render his presence

inside this virtual world of sex and sin impossible, whereupon he is defined by the “persistent desexualization of the Asian male” (Hamamoto, 1994, p. 171) within American popular culture. The inscription of blackness as ghetto violence, Native American femininity as exotic and savage, Latinoness as sexual and Asianness as nonthreatening and comedic all reflect longstanding popular cultural imagery and dominant white supremacist ideologies.

OUtLAW SEXUALITY: MAINstrEAM, NOt EXtrEME While the extreme nature of Outlaw Volleyball is reflected in its locations, which range from the roof tops of ghetto projects to a women’s prison (both racialized spaces), the objectification and sexualization of women represent the defining characteristic of virtual extreme sports. As already mentioned, all of the women with this game possess unusually (anatomically impossible) body types. All of the female characters wear revealing g-string bathing suits that provide game players with a highly sexualized gaming experience. The hypersexuality so central to the game transcends the image and textual inscriptions, evident with the gaze offered within virtual reality, which is clarified with its narrative and dialogue. For example, in one instance the announcer for the volleyball match identifies Shawnee as having a “great set of Tomahawks,” all while the game’s gaze focuses on her breasts. Similar sexualization is evident with each female character, all of whom matter little beyond their assets: Natasha, the bodacious Communist, rubs her breasts before every match; Donna, the loud Italian New Yorker, pinches her own nipples during player introductions, while announcing, “I guess I am ready to play;” Harvest, the stereotypical granola girl, who the game describes as “ a green piece of ass;” Harley, the lesbian biker chick who is “ready to serve and show her unmentionables;” Summer,

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the quintessential California girl who isn’t just another pretty face, she’s “got a nice ass, great rack and killer thighs;” and, lastly, Chica Chavez, the Puerto Rican sex kitten. While all of the women are reduced to eye candy and sexual objects of male desires, characters of color express greater depth (or surfaced orientation) concerning their sexuality. The sexualized focus is totalizing with female characters of color. Moreover, the sexualization of female characters links together race, gender, and sexuality, so that the sexual allure of Shawnee holds a dialectical relationship with her inscribed racial identity, so that her “tomahawks,”—her breasts—simultaneously mark her body in racial and gendered terms. A similar situation is evident with the game’s few male characters of color. While far less sexualized than the women, the only two males overtly sexualized are El Suave, a “gorgeous hunk of a man” endowed with a larger penis a chauvinistic masculinity and Leon, the black brute defined by both his sexuality and propensity to engage in violence. In all, characters of color embody the sexualized tropes of Outlaw Volleyball far above their white counterparts. This was no more evident than when I paired Leon and Shawnee together during a 2-on-2 match. After the finale point solidifying victory, Leon throws Shawnee into the air, landing on his shoulders with her crotch in Leon’s face as he swings her in several circles simulating oral sex. Outlaw Volleyball is not merely a platform for extreme sexuality or the objectification of women, but also a space in which race, gender and sexuality work in concert toward a particular representation of people of color. This moment, in which the game’s Native American and black characters, not only its sexualized tone, but reifies the game (societal) notions of the exotic, wild and sexualized other. Representation and image are not the only signifiers of sexuality based in misogyny and patriarchy. Through the game, its aesthetic, narrative, and dialogue all deploy similar ideologies. For example, during tied matches, the announcer

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describes the situation in sexual terms: “the game is tied up, but for some people being tied up is a good thing.” The inclusion of a women’s prison with subtle references to lesbian sexuality within the prison further amplifies the games vision of sexuality, extreme and becoming an outlaw. Being an extreme is controlling women and fetishizing lesbians. Moreover, extreme or supposedly transgressive sexuality invariably comes through the exotic others whether the lesbian or the women of color. More troubling than the overt sexualization of women through the game image, narrative, gaze, and dialogue is its acceptance, sanctioning and even promotion of sexual violence. After losing a point, the game announcer invokes rhetoric of support for rape to capture the level of disappointment. “It’s like being with a drunk sorority girl . . . . Someone’s gonna score and someone is gonna be pissed in the morning.” The extreme nature or outlaw orientation of this “sports game” reflects its promotion of extreme sexuality, extreme sexualization of women (particularly women of color), and the ubiquitous references to sex, all of which makes little distinction between sexual violence and healthy sexuality, especially revealing the historical dialects between white supremacy and sexual violence.

CONCLUSION: IMPLICATIONS It has become somewhat chic, it not canonical, within the field of ethnic studies, cultural studies and other subaltern academic enterprises, to reflect on the current moment as one of new racism (Bonilla-Silva, 2003; Brown et al., 2003; Collins, 2004; Leonard, 2006b). For example, Eduardo Bonilla-Silva (2003), who in many regards has been at the forefront of discussions of new racism, describes the current moment as such: “Yet this new ideology has become a formidable political tool for the maintenance of the racial order. . . .The beauty of this new ideology is that it aids

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the maintenance of white privilege without fanfare, without naming who it subjects and those who rewards (p. 3).” While not discounting the discursive and material shifts within America’s racial landscape, much of what defines race and racism within contemporary America is anything but new; from the prison industrial complex to widespread criminalization/ demonizing/profiling of communities of color, state violence has remained central to America’s white supremacist project. Likewise, while popular culture has been transformed by demands for change and humanistic representations, the emphasis on visibility, and the presumed death of grotesque images found within pre-civil rights movement American popular culture, it remains a powerful source of ideological and discursive teaching (Collins, 2004; Giroux, 1994; Gray, 2004; hooks, 1992; Leonard, 2006b, 2006c; Neal, 2005). “Adults cannot shut this culture off because they don’t understand the culture. Video culture is not just destructive, but productive too,” noted Henry Giroux, “Video games are teaching tools, not just games. They teach, have themes and schools must learn more about the video culture and take it more seriously” (In Cichon, 1999). In response to Chris Mottes defense of virtual reality through dismissing and denying the racist and sexist representations commonplace within video games, Latoya Peterson (2007), in “Denial and Delusion: Why Public Conversations About Race Fail Before They Begin” offered the following assessment of video games and the surrounding racial discourse: As a black, female console gamer, I can definitively say that many of the video games I play (and enjoy) can be considered both sexist and racist. Sexism is rampant, particularly when you consider character design, costuming, and forced gender roles in play. Most female characters are designed for maximum sex appeal, relegated to damsel in distress roles, or physically limited and/or forced

to contribute to the game in a limited capacity (“Denial and Delusion”). Similarly, Pat Miller (2007) voiced little support for Mottes contentions about virtual reality, describing as ostensibly a continuation of America’s long history with minstrelsy For people of color, our game-choices are always mediated through white people. We are always playing games as though we are white men—a sick kind of identity tourism wherein we come to associate saving the world with the white man. When we have the opportunity to play as people of color, we are invariably asked to act out the “tongue-in-cheek stereotypes” ourselves, by pushing the buttons that summon luchadores and so on. It’s kind of like paying $50 for the privilege of putting on a minstrel show, and it hurts, Mottes, to think that the only space for player characters that look like us also requires us to comply with what the dominant ideology thinks we do (“Well Said”). And finally, Roy (2007), in a blog about the widespread level of racism and sexism within video games, argued that not only is virtual reality saturated by demeaning representations, but also is also resistant to any conversations about racism and sexism. Add to that the fact that the most vocal critics of video games tend to be people like Jack Thompson or NIMF (the National Institute on Media and the Family) who accuse video games of being murder simulators or promoting cannibalism- and you’ll find that a lot of gamers are particularly hostile towards criticism of gaming, even from fellow gamers. Women and feminists are made unwelcome in many gaming circles, and concerns about sexism and racism in games go unheard, ignored, or mocked (“What Do We Do About Video Games?”)

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Each of these skilled critics of video games speaks to the rampant stereotypes, racist and sexist representations, and the hegemony of white masculinity within video games culture (in terms of production, consumption, and representation). Moreover, each demonstrates the cracks or fissures in a discussion of current popular culture as purely post or even new racist, in that these stereotypes are neither new nor subtle, but persistent continuations of a white supremacist imagination. These bloggers, as with the hopeful result from my analysis of this game, and the work of others committed to media literacy/textual analysis (Buckingham, 2003; Collins, 2004; Giroux, 1996; hooks, 1992; Neal, 2005) pushes the importance of conversation, of teaching and reflecting on the dialects between broader racial debates and those within video game culture, as well as the powerful ways in which games embody and deploy hegemonic images. The implications here are not avoidance or censorship, although there certainly is a need to reflect on the narrowness of imagery, but rather empower and make visible that which is often obscured and denied to exist. “It does not aim to shield young people from the influence of the media, and thereby lead them on to ‘better things’, but to enable them to make informed decisions on their own behalf,” writes David Buckingham. “Media education is seen here not as a form of protection, but as a form of preparation” (2003, p. 13). Likewise, in his book, Fugitive Cultures: Race, Violence, and Youth, Henry Giroux (1994) argues that within a discourse of critical pedagogy, “images do not dissolve reality into another text: on the contrary, representations become central to revealing the structures of power at work in schools, in society, and in the larger global order” (p. 53). In other words, despite ubiquitous claims regarding video games as entertainment, as escape, or as pure fantasy, they provide an entryway into a world that exposes the contradictions, paradoxes, and ideological foundations of a broader society. The widespread resistance to engaging in these conversations reflects a reaction-

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ary stance given the demonization of video game culture from various political and media circles, prompting an unhealthy denial and dismissal of any attempt to foster debate regarding the social, cultural, and racial significance, implications, and broader meaning of video game culture. It is the hope that from this chapter conversations begin not so much to figure out all the answers, but to open up a space whereupon discussions regarding racial and gender representations don’t replicate those so common within contemporary public discourse: that of denial, dismissal, and silencing. Whether these conversations take places against programmers who seek to hear and integrate representational changes Gamers and scholars alike, while still a minority, have raised issue with the types of representations offered within virtual reality and the broader significance/dialects of evident in this world, so the question that guides this chapter is are programmers, gamers, and scholars interested in listening rather than denying and defending, thereupon silencing those who raise questions. Moreover, the challenge here is not simply what can we learn about video game culture through a pedagogy of video games guided by critical race theory and the theoretical foundations of cultural studies, but more importantly how video game culture can serve as a means to understanding the persistent levels of front and backstage racism. This is not an effort to scapegoat or even demonize video game culture, an accusation that seem to be a result of the ongoing culture wars that often locates broader problems and issues within video game culture (Gee, 2005; Leonard, 2005, 2006a, forthcoming), but rather an attempt to see video games as a dialogic and dialectic force within society. As noted by Herman Gray (2005), “By suggesting that media and technology are embedded in social and cultural relations means that their operation and control involve matters of politics and history rather than the mere workings of disinterested technical know-how” (p. 135). In other words, this chapter has tried to reveal the

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levels of resistance to conversations regarding race and racism within video game culture on the frontage, amid a persistent in the displays and promulgation of racialized representations and ideologies that guide dominant discourses of race. “Continuing racist performances,” such as those elucidated here and elsewhere (Chan, 2005; Dymek & Lennerfors, 2005; Leonard, 2004, 2006a, 2006c; Sanford & Madill, 2006) and within the blogosphere, “remain a threat to real equality and multiracial democracy” within both virtual and everyday reality (Picca & Feagin, 2007, p. 270). According to Picca and Feagin (2007), “significant changes necessitate that all those truly committed to liberty, justice, and equality must work aggressively to rid the country of that racism in its many individual and institutional manifestations. New information is not enough; new and bold action is required. Routine racist performances must be made unacceptable in all settings, including the backstage” (p. 270), a geographic marker that seems to capture the place of video game culture. In this sense, this chapter heeds to the call of Picca and Feagin, and Feagin and Vera, who argued, “By changing what is viewed as acceptable in numerous white peer groups, neighborhoods and communities [including the virtual—my inclusion], it is conceivable that racist attitudes and behavior might begin to be altered on a significant scale” (In Picca & Feagin, 2007, p. 270). In a sense, this chapter offers a challenge in its presentation of a road map, elucidating the efforts to silence all while making visible the issues and the voices, the subaltern of this virtual reality, so often dismissed and denied by the spectrum of voices that guide dominant debates regarding video game culture. The implications, thus, are simple: how can all constituencies that engage video games begin to see and reflect on the racial meanings not only in an effort to diversify those images offered, the gamer population itself, and those on the production side, but toward a better understanding of society as a whole in the name of justice and peace. To talk about race,

gender, and representation of video games isn’t simply about condemning and denouncing video game culture, but using games, whether Outlaw Volleyball, given its promulgation of vicious stereotypes that are increasingly visible throughout society (see King & Leonard, 2007 for examples), Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, given its shared ideological investment in the ghetto as a place of dangerous pathology with a spectrum of dominant ideologies, any number of war games that are certainly in dialogue with policy and cultural forces (Halter, 2006; Turse, 2003), or ICED3 and Darfur is Dying,4 games committed to using video game technology to inspire action and consciousness (teach) regarding societal acceptance of dominant ideologies. To analyze and construct is to learn not simply about gaming culture, but society as a whole; to educate and learn is not to deny and dismiss but to embrace not simply those who are heard, but those subaltern in/around video game culture whose questions, criticism, and textual analysis are ubiquitously questioned, denied, and denounced amid a widespread culture war inside and outside of a world of video game consumption, production, and critical reflection.

rEFErENcEs Ansell, A. E. (1997). New right, new racism: Race and reaction in the United States and Britain. New York: New York University Press. Are video games racist. (2007, June 20). The Feed Web site. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://www.g4tv.com/thefeed/blog/post/676706/ Are_Videogames_Racist.html Berg, C. R. (2002). Latino images in film: Stereotypes, subversion, and resistance. Austin: University of Texas Press. Black bloggers react to gamers reacting to Resident Evil 5 racism charges. (2007, August 3). Game Politics Web site. Retrieved October 10, 2007,

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from http://gamepolitics.com/2007/08/03/blackbloggers-react-to-gamers-reacting-to-residentevil-5-racism-charges/ Bonilla-Silva, E. (2003). Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America. New York: Rowan and Littlefield. Brown, M., Duster, T., et al. (2003). Whitewashing race: The myth of a color-blind society. Berkeley: University of California Press. Buckingham, D. (2003). Media education: Literacy, learning and contemporary culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. Chan, D. (2005, December). Playing with race: The ethics of racialized representations in e-games. International Review of Information Ethics, 4. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://www. i-r-i-e.net/inhalt/004/Chan.pdf Children Now. (2001). Fair play? Violence, gender and race in video games. Oakland, CA: Children Now. Cichon, F. (1999, July 16). Officials, educators [sic] debate video games’ influence. The Daily Collegian. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http:// www.collegian.psu.edu/archive/1999/07/07-1699tdc/07-16-99darts-3.asp Collins, P. H. (2004). Black sexual politics: African Americans, gender and the new racism. New York: Routledge. Dave, S. (2005). East Main Street: Asian American popular culture. New York: New York University Press. Dietz, T. L. (1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games: Implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38(5-6), 425-442. Dymek, M., & Lennerfors, T. (2005). Among pasta-loving Mafiosos, drug-selling Columbians and noodle-eating Triads: Race, humour

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and interactive ethics in Grand Theft Auto III. Paper from DiGRA 2005 Conference: Changing Views: Worlds in Play. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://www.digra.org:8080/Plone/dl/ db/06276.49210.pdf Dymek, M., & Lennerfors, T. (2006, July 24). Do video games promote racist stereotypes? Game Politics Live Journal Blog Web site. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://gamepolitics.livejournal.com/326267.html?page=1#comments Feber, A. (1998). While man falling: Race, gender, and white supremacy. New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J. P. (2005). Why video games are good for your soul. Urbana, IL: Common Ground Publishing. Giroux, H. (1994). Disturbing pleasures: Learning popular culture. New York: Routledge. Gray, H. (2005). Cultural moves: African Americans and the politics of representation. Berkeley: University of California Press. Halter, E. (2006). From Sun Tzu to Xbox: War and video games. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press. Hamamoto, D. Y. (1994). Monitored peril: Asian Americans the politics of TV representation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Indian women as sex objects. Blue Corn Comics Web site. Retrieved July 9, 2007, from http://www. bluecorncomics.com/princess.htm Jackson, R. (2006). Scripting the black masculine body: Identity, discourse, and racial politics in popular media. New York: State University of New York Press.

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James, J. (1996). Resisting state violence: Radicalicism, gender, and race in U.S. culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Jenkins, H. Reality bytes: Eight myths about video games debunked. PBS Web site. Retrieved October 12, 2007, from http://www.pbs.org/kcts/videogamerevolution/impact/myths.html Johnson, A. (2006). Privilege, power, and difference (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. King, C. R. (2006). Defacements/effacements: Anti-Asian (American) sentiment in sport. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 30(4), 340-352. King, C. R., & Leonard, D. J. (2007, September). The rise of the ghetto fabulous party. Colorlines, 27-31. King, C. R., & Leonard, D. J. (forthcoming). Beyond hate: White power and/as popular culture. University of Mississippi Press. King, C. R., & Springwood, C. F. (2001). Beyond the cheers: Race as spectacle in college sport. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Leonard, D. J. (2003, November). “Live in your world, play in ours”: Race, video games and consuming the other. Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education (Simile), 3(4). Simile Web site. Retrieved October 12, 2007, from http://www. utpjournals.com/simile/issue12/leonardX1.html Leonard, D. J. (2006a). Virtual gangstas, coming to suburban house near you: Demonization, commodification and policing blackness. In N. Garrelts (Ed.), Meaning and culture of Grand Theft Auto: Critical essays (pp. 49-69). Jefferson, NC: McFarland Press. Leonard, D. J. (2006b). Screens fade to black: Contemporary African American cinema. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Leonard, D. J. (2006c). Not a hater, just keepin it real: The importance of race and gender based game studies. Games and Culture, 1(1), 83-88.

Leonard, D. J. (forthcoming). Young, black (& brown) and don’t give a fuck: Virtual gangstas as children’s culture in the era of state violence. Cultural Studies <=> Critical Methodologies. Leonard, D. J., & King, C. R. (forthcoming). Surrounded by terror, consumed by violence: Borders, frontiers, and America’s (virtual) imperialistic impulses. In D. Thomas (Ed.), Pop and politics. Manring, M. M. (1998). Slave in a box: The strange career of Aunt Jemima. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. Miller, P. (2007, June 22). Well said: A response to “Chili Con Carnage.” Tokenminorities.com. Retrieved July 8, 2007, from http://tokenminorities.wordpress.com/2007/06/22/well-said-a-response-to-chili-con-carnage/ Mottes, C. (2007, June 19). That’s racist! The unjust crusade against video games. Gamebiz.com. Retrieved July 9, 2007, from http://biz.gamedaily. com/industry/myturn/?id=16565 Neal, M. A. (2005). New black man. New York: Routledge. Omi, M., & Winant, H. (1994). Racial formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s. New York: Routledge. Peterson, L. (2007, June). Denial and delusion: Why public conversations about race fail before they begin. Racialicious.com. Retrieved July 8, 2007, from http://www.racialicious. com/2007/06/22/denial-and-delusion-why-public-conversations-about-race-fail-before-theybegin/ Picca, L. H., & Feagin, J. R. (2007). Two-faced racism: Whites in the backstage and frontstage. New York: Routledge Platt, K. (2007, July 31). Resident Evil 5. Black Looks Web site. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://www.blacklooks.org/2007/07/resident_evil_5.html

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Racial comments trouble Philly games writer. (2007, September 15). Game Politics Web site. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://gamepolitics.com/2007/09/15/philly-games-writerbugged-by-racial-comments/ Roy. (2007, June 12). What do we do about video games? Feministe Web site. Retrieved July 8, 2007, from http://www.feministe.us/blog/archives/2007/06/12/5056/ Sanford, K., & Madill, L. (2006). Resistance through video game play: It’s a boy thing. Canadian Journal of Education, 29(1), 287-306. Canadian Journal of Education Web site. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://www.csse. ca/CJE/Articles/FullText/CJE29-1/CJE29-1-sanfordmadill.pdf Turse, N. (2003, December 16). The Pentagon invades your Xbox. Znet Web site. Retrieved March 27, 2004, from http://www.zmag.org/content/ showarticle.cfm?SectionID=51&ItemID=4688 Watkins, S. C. (1999). Representing: Hip hop culture and the production of black cinema. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Watson, R. (2007, September 14). Bare knuckles | It’s football: What’s your problem? Philadelphia Inquirer Web site. Retrieved October 10, 2007, from http://www.philly.com/inquirer/columnists/ rob_watson/20070914_Bare_Knuckles____Its_ football_-_whats_your_problem_.html West, C. (2004). Democracy matters: Winning the fight against imperialism. New York: Penguin Press. Williams, R. (1998). Living at the crossroads: Explorations in race, nationality, sexuality, and gender. In W. Lubiano, (Ed.) The house that race built, (pp.136-156). New York: Vintage.

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KEY TERMS Backstage/Frontstage: Idea promulgated by Picca and Feagin (2007) that describes racist practices, ideologies, and performances as varying depending on space of orientation between those on the frontage (public) and backstage (private). Video games provide an interesting space to think about this ideal given the simultaneity of both the public and private. Binaries: The existence of either/or explanation or theories, which guide dominant conversations and propel a culture war. A key element to the hegemonic of binaries within hegemonic discourse is the existence of spheres or points of opposition so that blackness as a signifier does not exist in absence of a solidified understanding of whiteness. Colorblind Discourse: A guiding discourse of a post-civil rights America that not only presumes the existence of colorblindness (race no longer matters concerning rights of citizenship, access to the American Dream), but the desirability of a culture, dominant institutions, and worldview that doesn’t see, recognize, or consider race (color). New Racism: In the absence of a formal system of segregation and other blatant forms of racism, new racism describes the system of persistent inequality, injustice, and racial differentiation. Likewise, new racism refers to the codes, logics, and ideologies that facilitate, rationalize, and naturalize power imbalances in the absence of formalized segregation or apartheid within 21st century America. Race: Socially-constructed marker of difference that despite its fluidity and politically, socially, and culturally constructed nature has material consequences, contexts, and lived personal/situational implications.

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Stereotypes: Often simply used to describe commonly accepted generalizations attributed to particular groups, it is crucial to see stereotypes in their relationship to dominant ideologies, governing power structures, systems of inequality, and daily lived and unequal power relations. Subaltern: A term emanating from postcolonial theory, it refers to minorities—those marginalized and disempowered—who have been systematically silenced and denied agency by the power structure.

ENDNOtEs 1

2

Textual Analysis: Including various forms textual analysis (e.g., semiotics), which treats popular culture texts as those embedded social, political, and cultural meaning, an approach utilizing textual analysis examines as cultural products saturated with narratives, ideologies, and discourse.

3

4

The title of this chapter references and builds upon Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s 1998 seminal essay, “Can the Subaltern Speak?” which appeared in Lawrence Grossberg and Cary Nelson’s Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois Press). This chapter builds upon two prior essays written by the author entitled “Not a Hater, Just Keepin’ It Real: The Importance of Race- and Gender-Based Game Studies,” which appeared in Games and Culture (2006), 1(1), 83-88; and “‘Live in Your World, Play in Ours’: Race, Video Games, and Consuming the Other,” in Studies in Media & Information Literacy Education, 3(4), 2003. Retrieved from http://www. utpjournals.com/simile/issue12/leonardX1.

html

For information on this game, see http:// www.breakthrough.tv/product_detail. asp?proid=92&id=7 For information on this game, see http:// www.darfurisdying.com

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Chapter LV

Culturally Responsive Games and Simulations Colleen Swain University of Florida, USA

AbstrAct Electronic games and simulations are powerful learning tools for many learners; yet, the learning environments in these games and simulations frequently represent knowledge and experiences from a single dominant culture perspective—a white, middle to upper class perspective. This chapter introduces the reader to the connection between culture and learning and using culturally responsive teaching strategies as a method of expanding the effectiveness of electronic games and simulations to all learners. Readers are exposed to major tenets of culturally responsive instruction and how specific instructional strategies that embrace these principles can effectively be incorporated into educational games and simulations. Suggestions for future development of electronic games and simulations are also presented along with ideas for research regarding the effectiveness of culturally responsive teaching strategies in electronic games and simulations.

INtrODUctION It was dusk and my family was driving over the Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin, Texas. The Congress Avenue Bridge houses the largest urban colony of Mexican Free-Tail bats in the United States, an estimated 1.5 million of them, and they come out at dusk each night to go hunting. It is an exciting and amazing experience for locals and tourists alike. We were excited to have my niece Katie, who was 3 at the time, experience this

incredible sight. Her father excitedly exclaimed, “Katie, look at all the bats. They live underneath the bridge and are going to look for food.” Katie stopped playing with her doll, looked out the window, and then responded, “Bats fly using echolocation.” We all sat in stunned silence. How did this 3 year old know about echolocation? Her father recovered first and stated, “That’s right Katie. How did you know that?” Katie nonchalantly picked up her doll, began playing again and said, “Oh, it was on my Animal Adventures game”

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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(A CD of games from JumpStart: http://www. knowledgeadventure.com/jumpstart/). To Katie, this was merely a computer game she played and happened to learn a fact that impressed the adults. However, for educators, instructional designers, and programmers, stories like this inspire us to consider the many learning opportunities available when electronic games and simulations are integrated into the numerous learning environments, both informal and formal, learners encounter on a daily basis. Previous research and the numerous research studies and examples presented in this handbook document effective teaching and learning can take place with learners of all ages when simulations and electronic games actively engage them in learning experiences (Gee, 2004; Papert, 1998; Rieber, 1996). Nevertheless, the needed prior learning experiences and knowledge expected in these kinds of encounters are often reflective of what is considered appropriate school ready experiences from a single dominant culture perspective—that being a white, middle to upper class perspective (Bennett, 1986). Some learners are inadvertently left out of the electronic learning environment because their experiences, interests, and culture are so different than that encountered in the gaming environment. Therefore, there is a need to advance the field in ways to reach learners in new ways. How can we increase the effectiveness of electronic gaming with all learners? How can we use simulations and electronic games to address different learning styles or preferences? How can learners’ prior background and knowledge experiences, culture, language, and other factors that influence learning be infused into electronic gaming and simulation learning spaces? Although there are many ways in which to address these questions, this chapter will take the stance of considering learning with simulations and electronic games from a socio-cultural foundation. Vygotsky (1962, 1978, 1987, 1997) emphasized the importance of society and culture in learning; hence, his theory is often referred to

as learning and development from a socio-cultural perspective. This chapter will explore the concept of culturally responsive teaching from a socio-cultural teaching stance with respect to learning with simulations and electronic games. Specifically, this chapter will: • • •

•

•

Offer a foundation for the relationship between culture and learning; Provide an in-depth description of culturally responsive teaching; Propose a rationale for the importance of culturally responsive teaching in simulations and electronic games; Present strategies to implement a culturally responsive teaching stance into electronic simulations and games; and Recommend suggestions for future research and development in integrating a culturally responsive teaching mindset and instructional strategies into simulations and electronic games.

cULtUrE AND LEArNING There are many ideas about learning in terms of defining the construct, determining how the learning process happens, the importance of the context in which learning occurs, and how learning might be measured. Some researchers examine developmental or cognitive issues associated with learning. Others view learning as achievement so they focus on what instruments best measure learning. There is not a “gold standard” in defining what the construct of learning is. Hence, when attempting to better understand learning, researchers from various perspectives focus on different factors or components in the learning process. When considering the construct of learning from a socio-cultural perspective, there are fundamental assumptions about learning that are made. Some of the foundational work of learning from a socio-cultural stance comes from Jean

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Lave’s (1985) studies. Lave’s work revealed that the different activities and cultures give meaning and purpose to what students learn elsewhere. Building upon Lave’s work (1985), Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) have a seminal article detailing how knowledge is situated within the activity, context, and culture in which is occurs. These authors note, “too often the practices of contemporary schooling deny students the chance to engage the relevant domain culture, because that culture is not in evidence” (p. 33). Nieto (1999) creates a conceptual foundation of the importance of culture on learning when she explains learning emerges from the social, cultural, and political spaces in which it takes place, and through the interactions and relationships that occur among learners and teachers…this means that student cognition exists within a context that is broader than the talents, inclinations, and capabilities of individual learners. This is not to diminish the role of personal talents and abilities, which are always at play in learning; it is simply to underscore that the social and political context is always implicated as well. (p. 2-3). In a section of her book The Light in Their Eyes: Creating Multicultural Learning Communities, Nieto (1999), using a socio-cultural perspective, provides a meta-analysis of findings about learning and highlights five assumptions of learning. These assumptions will be fundamental and significant when exploring strategies to create electronic games and simulations that promote culturally responsive learning practices. Therefore, these assumptions will be briefly presented. (Readers seeking a more detailed explanation of the meta-analysis and assumptions should refer to Nieto’s book along with the other research studies presented in her explanation.) First, learning is actively constructed (Marshall, 1992; Mayer, 1996; Prawat, 1993; Spivey, 1997). This assumption requires one to recognize that each learner makes his or her own meaning of experiences and hence

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there will be differences in what is learned. It is also important to recognize with this assumption there are evaluations or judgments made of what learning is considered valuable or worth knowing (Rogoff & Lave, 1984). Hence, societal, cultural, and political spaces influence what is learned and how one interprets this knowledge. Second, learning develops and builds on experiences (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Rogoff & Lave, 1984). This assumption requires that educators, programmers, and instructional designers of instructional materials value the unique behaviors, attitudes, and experiences each learner brings to the teaching and learning environment. Third, learning is influenced by cultural traits and differences (Greeno, Collins, & Resnick, 1996; Pea, 1993; Perkins, 1995; Sternberg & Wagner, 1994; Vygotsky, 1962). How a learner makes meaning of an experience is highly influenced by the norms of the culture to which he or she was exposed (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Yet, it is also critical to understand that culture is not static and is manifested differently in each person. Fourth, learning is influenced by the context in which it occurs (Anderson, Reder, & Simon, 1996, 1997; Bereiter, 1997; Perkins, 1992). Brown, Collins, and Duguid note “A concept…will continually evolve with each new occasion of use, because new situations, negotiations, and activities inevitably recast it in a new, more densely textured form” (p. 32). Finally, learning is socially mediated and develops within a culture and community. This assumption takes learning into an active realm where there are many factors that influence the learner as he or she makes meaning of knowledge and experiences. Bruner (1996) remarked, “Culture, then, though itself man-made, both forms and makes possible the workings of a distinctly human mind. On this view, learning and thinking are always situated in a cultural setting and always dependent upon the utilization of cultural resources” (p. 4).

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When considering learning within a sociocultural framework, cultural plays a significant role in this process. Culture is a multi-dimensional and complex construct; therefore, characteristics are often used to describe it. Characteristics of culture include that it is dynamic; multi-faceted; embedded in context; influenced by social, economic, and political factors; created and socially constructed; learned; and embodies values grown out of historical and social conditions. Numerous researchers (Erickson, 1987; Gay, 1975; Ladson-Billings, 1994; Lee & SlaughterDefoe, 1995) in multi-cultural education note connections between culture and learning. Nieto (1999) provides educators with several instructional implications that capture the essence of the research in this area. These implications are: •

•

•

Students’ identification with, and maintenance of, their native culture and language can have a positive influence on learning. The role of the teacher as cultural accommodator and mediator is fundamental in promoting student learning. A focus on cultural differences in isolation from the broader school and societal context will likely not lead to increased learning or empowerment.

With these connections between culture and learning and the implications provided by the experts, it behooves educators, programmers, and instructional designers to consider the benefits of integrating culturally responsive and inclusive instruction in teaching and learning environments such as electronic games and simulations.

FOUNDATIONS OF CULTURALLY rEsPONsIVE tEAcHING In order to effectively integrate elements of culturally responsive teaching into electronic games and simulations, it makes sense to gain a basic un-

derstanding of the foundations of this educational phrase and the school of thought from which it emerged. According to Gay (2000), the ideas of culturally responsive teaching (or pedagogy) date back to the 1970s from the works of Abrahams and Troike (1972), Chun-Hoon (1973), Forbes (1973), Aragon (1973), Gay (1975), and others. Historically, in terms of curriculum movements in the United States, this was a time of transition from a progressive education approach to an essentialist (back to basics) approach. Abrahams and Troike (1972) noted if children from various cultural backgrounds were to be effectively taught, teachers must learn where cultural differences lie, how to capitalize and value these differences in the teaching and learning process, and allow students to feel valued instead of disenfranchised. Researchers noted that teaching cultural diversity positively influenced all groups of students (i.e., Asian American (Chun-Hoon) and Native American (Forbes)). In a seminal article in Educational Leadership, James Banks (1974), a major leader in multi-cultural education, challenged teachers to change how education occurred for learners and “respect the cultural and linguistic characteristics of minority youths, and change the curriculum so that it will reflect their learning and cultural styles and greatly enhance their achievement” (p. 165). Aragon and Gay also extended the focus of culturally responsive teaching from the K-12 environment to teacher education. The work by Aragon and Gay noted the need to change teacher practices and strategies.

Definition and Characteristics of Culturally Responsive Teaching If changes in typical teaching practices are to truly occur, it is paramount that educators have a working definition and even descriptive characteristics of what culturally responsive teaching would and would not look like in practice. What would teachers be doing in a culturally responsive environment? What would students do? In

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order to help create an instructional picture for education, researchers such as Gay (1975, 1988), Ladson-Billings (1992, 1994), Shor (1992), Banks (1991), Au (1993), and others worked to provide research-based findings to highlight descriptive characteristics of culturally responsive teaching. Gay (2000) defines culturally responsive teaching as using the cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters more relevant and effective for them. It teaches to and through the strengths of these students. It is culturally validating and affirming. (p. 29) This approach to teaching requires a specific mindset and philosophical stance for the teacher. In Gay’s (2000) analysis of the research in the area of culturally responsive teaching, educators are provided with descriptive characteristics of culturally responsive teaching. Culturally responsive teaching is validating, comprehensive, multi-dimensional, empowering, transformative, and emancipatory. Again, it is worthwhile to briefly consider what these descriptive terms regarding this philosophical stance means for teachers and learners. When referring to culturally responsive teaching as validating, educators provide students with the assurance the experiences they bring to the learning environment are valued and important. Many of these experiences will be different than what is expected in terms of school-ready experiences from a dominant culture perspective but they are important and help shape the learners’ understanding; hence, they must be valued. This also means that teachers respect experiences the students have had and take a “No Excuses” approach to prior learning. Hence teachers do not use students’ backgrounds that are different or their perceived “lack” of experiences as an excuse in preparing students to learn and meet high ex-

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pectations. Teachers using culturally responsive strategies seek to learn about the rich experiences their students have in order to make connections to prior experiences, work with students as they create new knowledge or more complex connections, and link school learning with the real world. Not only is this validating the student’s intellectual, social, emotional, and political experiences, it is also helping to educate the whole child and the learning community built within the culturally inclusive teaching and learning environment. Students build trust and confidence in their learning community and engage in caring relationships when this type of learning environment is created. This comprehensive approach responds to learners’ need to belong, have their dignity honored, and promotes individual self-concepts as well. When engaged in cultural responsive teaching, educators do not isolate this way of teaching to one subject area or part of the day. This teaching approach spans not only to all subject areas and activities within the school day but into social and political areas as well. Culturally responsive teaching is multi-dimensional in terms of where, when, why, and how culturally responsive and inclusive teaching takes place. It also empowers students because teachers demonstrate in multiple ways that they believe students can succeed and work to find ways to make this possible. “This is done by bolstering students’ morale, providing resources and personal assistance, developing an ethos of achievement, and celebrating individual and collective accomplishments” (Gay, 2000, p. 32). When educators present a teaching and learning environment where success is non-negotiable, it becomes a transformative experience for students. This mandate for high-quality education, regardless of the type of learner, is liberating for students. Culturally responsive teaching brings students the freedom to have pride in their culture and experiences as they incorporate their knowledge into academic learning tasks. So what does creating a teaching and learning environment where culturally responsive teaching

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is employed require of teachers? Gay (2000) summarizes for us that culturally responsive teaching requires teachers who have: (1) a thorough knowledge about the cultural values, learning styles, historical legacies, contributions, and achievements of different ethnic groups; (2) the courage to stop blaming the victims of school failure and to admit that something is seriously wrong with existing educational systems; (3) the will to confront prevailing educational canons and convictions, and to rethink traditional assumptions of cultural universality and/or neutrality in teaching and learning; (4) the skills to act productively in translating knowledge and sensitivity about cultural diversity into pedagogical practices; (5) and the tenacity to relentlessly pursue comprehensive and high-level performance for children who are currently underachieving in schools. (p. 44)

General Caution: Stereotype Threat Before moving deeper into the discussion of the infusion of culturally responsive teaching into electronic games and simulations, it is also important that the educator carefully work to avoid stereotype threat (Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995). Dunn (1997) states “Researchers have clearly established there is no single or dual learning style for any cultural, national, racial, or religious group” (p. 74-75). According to the Merriam Webster Online Dictionary, stereotype threat is “a standardized mental picture that is held in common by members of a group that represents an oversimplified opinion, prejudiced attitude, or uncritical judgment”. It is critical instructional designers, programmers, and teachers do not automatically assume that because a learner belongs to a certain race, gender, religion, and so forth, he or she represents that group as a whole. For example, most teachers would not say about a white student, “Oh, because he (or she) is white, this person will act, speak, learn, and dress in the

following way.” However, this is often what occurs to marginalized groups of students. Grant and Sleeter (2007) noted, “A problem with stereotypes is that we assume them to be true unless we have alternative information with which to contrast the stereotype” (p. 109). According to Steele and Aronson’s research (1999), the stereotype threat is shown to affect the most academically able students. For example, the stereotype threat places extreme pressure and stress on students who are successful in school because they are not “holding” to this stereotype for the group. Lee (1996) also addresses the problems associated with the model minority in terms of the stereotype threat. Some minorities are assumed to be model students, very intelligent, and polite while others are presumed to be poor, unmotivated, and uninterested learners. It is imperative that instructional designers, programmers, and teachers using games and simulations not reinforce the stereotype threat in learning environments.

rAtIONALE FOr UsING CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE strAtEGIEs IN GAMEs AND sIMULAtIONs The research studies that launched culturally responsive teaching (Abrahams & Troike, 1972; Chun-Hoon, 1973; Forbes, 1973; Gay, 1975) and those that continue this work provide additional evidence of its effectiveness with all learners by documenting that teachers with this philosophy of teaching and dispositions truly make a difference in students’ learning experiences. But why is a concept that is has its foundational structure within the philosophical mindset of the teacher something to integrate into electronic games and simulations? This next section will present a rationale for using culturally responsive teaching in today’s powerful learning tools—electronic games and simulations.

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This entire handbook of research for electronic games and simulations demonstrates that these are powerful and effective tools for learning. Individuals rely heavily on electronics not only to work but also to play. For example, when looking around on a plane, people of all ages can be seen playing a game on their phone, PDA, or other electronic device. Games and simulations are obvious tools for the 21st century educator. So why bother integrating culturally responsive and inclusive teaching into electronic games and simulations? Actually, one aspect of the answer to this question is rather simple. As humans, we tend to want to surround ourselves and learn from people like us—and that doesn’t necessarily mean race. We are much more complex than just race. We have cultural traits, religious preferences, language patterns, and more. However, as noted in the description of culturally responsive teaching, it is more than having someone “like us” teach us (Lave, 1985). Culturally responsive teaching works to create environments where safe, caring, and trusting learning communities are formed and high standards are met. All learners, including the teacher, work to better understand each other and respect what each individual brings. With these characteristics and those explained earlier in this chapter interwoven into electronic games and simulations, the odds are high that the same learning increases seen in culturally inclusive classrooms will occur in digital learning environments. As the field advances in its ability to create electronic games and simulations infusing an effective teaching stance into these environments could be a next logical step. Initial research on electronic games and simulations, which will be discussed later in this chapter, that strive to respond to the uniqueness of learners are showing this often enhances the learning taking place. Culturally responsive teaching has been shown to transform many educational environments and influence student learning. Electronic games and simulations that utilize principles of culturally responsive teaching can be a powerful

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component of transforming teaching and learning environments. In this next section of this chapter, culturally responsive teaching strategies that can be utilized in electronic games and simulations will be presented.

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE strAtEGIEs FOr ELEctONIc GAMEs AND sIMULAtIONs As indicated in prior sections of this chapter, culturally responsive teaching requires certain dispositions in the teacher. Specific strategies that support and facilitate these dispositions can be integrated into educational electronic games and simulations. This portion of this chapter will provide general and specific suggestions for infusing culturally responsive strategies when integrating culturally responsive teaching strategies into electronic gaming and simulated environments.

General Instructional Strategies for Culturally Responsive Teaching Many of the general strategies used to create a culturally responsive teaching and learning environment are powerful strategies for all learners—not just specific groups of learners. However, by interweaving these strategies into electronic games and simulations, all learners have the opportunity to succeed and not just those well versed in the dominant culture’s learning strategies and patterns. At this time, five general instructional strategies will be presented for instructional designers, programmers, and educators facilitating the use of electronic games and simulations.

High Expectations for All Learners One of the fundamental tenets of culturally responsive teaching is having high expectations for

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all learners. Although the general goal of high expectations sounds reasonable and appropriate, it is important to consider what action steps are needed for instructional designers, programmers, and teachers involved with electronic games and simulations to transmit this goal of high expectations for learners. First, students must be made aware of the specific goals for the game or simulation. They need to know what “high expectations” means—in exact terms. Let students know how well they need to meet each goal in the game or simulation. Second, students should be given the encouragement to set their own personal goal. It is important to remember that not all students will know how to accomplish goal setting or to keep themselves moving toward the goal(s) set. Therefore, designers, programmers, and teachers facilitating the use of electronic games and simulations need to show students how to set personal learning goals (Bishop, 2003). Providing students with organizers, both linguistic and non-linguistic, are effective strategies in working toward obtaining goals (Tate, 2004). Third, teaching students how to engage in self-talk can help them stay motivated as well as explore various options to problems or new situations encountered. Fourth, it is helpful at the conclusion of a gaming event or simulation that students are provided with an opportunity to get goals for future achievement. The goal of high expectations for all learners does not limit itself to one task—it is an attitude that extends to every learning activity engaged in by each student. SimSchool (http://www.simschool.org) and Chalk House (http://created-realities.com/chalkhouse.html) are two excellent examples that provide users with specific goals of what they should accomplish in the game. For example, in SimSchool the goal is to have the simulated student’s behavior improve and learning increase as a result of the actions of the pre-service teacher. This goal of the simulation is clearly articulated to the pre-service teacher within the simulation. SimSchool is designed to help pre-service teachers

better understand their students, create powerful learning tasks for the virtual students, and strengthen their classroom management skills. In Chalk House, a game designed to promote literacy, students are tasked with investigating the last living members of the Forrester family, living in a haunted mansion.

Making Connections to Learners A second premise fundamental to culturally responsive teaching is the need to connect educational learning and activities (often considered as school actions) to the world of the student (Phelan, Davidson, & Cao, 1991). Again, SimSchool is a perfect example of making the simulation relevant and meaningful to users. Pre-service teachers are extremely concerned about their ability to manage their future classrooms. When using SimSchool with pre-service teachers, it is clearly evident that pre-service teachers perceive the use of this simulation as a salient aspect of their teacher preparation program. Knowledge that is connected to prior learning and experiences, frames of reference, or previously established cognitive schemas is more easily learned and retained longer (Ormrod, 1995). In addition, students that think learning and school activities will be beneficial to them in the future have a tendency to stay with and accomplish their learning goals (Young, 2004). Connections can be made in a variety of ways. If the electronic game or simulation is part of a series, it is easy to make connections to previous episodes or events with linguistic and non-linguistic references back to important points, people, tasks, or experiences to which the user relates and understands. If the game or simulation is in isolation, setting up powerful introductions or prologues are ideas to help the learner make connections to prior experiences. As far as establishing games and simulations that are “real” and connect to students’ worlds, developing these learning environments around important concepts (i.e., energy conservation, symbolism) instead of a list of skills or facts to

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be learned allows learners to link the content to their own context. By engaging students in different ways or scenarios to address these concepts, students can customize the learning environment to settings with which they are familiar (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005). This allows students to not only have choice but also provides authenticity to their learning experiences. Currently, both SimSchool and Chalk House could strengthen this aspect of their program. SimSchool does not allow the instructor to program the culture, race, or language of a student. When asked about this at a recent National Educational Computing Conference (NECC), one of the authors of SimSchool remarked that they considered integrating race, asked certain individuals of different races whether race should be programmed, and they took the recommendation to not include race in the simulation. One can understand the desire to avoid the stereotype threat, but it is critical that pre-service teachers understand how factors such as race, culture, and language shape every classroom and learning environment. Chalk House, which has been designed with great attention to theory, could be enhanced even more by allowing students to somewhat alter the scenario to better match the learners’ culture, customizing the writing assignment to match their context, experiences, and more. Chalk House is still in the development stage and this could change before the final version is released. Still, both SimSchool and Chalk House have made positive starts in integrating culturally responsive teaching strategies and this is encouraging.

Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning, which is considered both a traditional and culturally responsive teaching strategy, is also an important strategy to build into educational games and simulations. Cooperative learning is when groups of students work together to accomplish a common task leading to common learning outcomes.

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Cooperative learning has at its core that students must both “pull their own weight” and work together to accomplish a task. The cooperative tasks are designed so that one person is not able to complete the group’s assignment alone. By holding members individually accountable, the group is positioned so that members help each other, work interdependently (and not independently), and learn more. (Larson & Keiper, 2007, p. 184) Cooperative learning also allows each learner in the cooperative group to use his or her preferred learning style in the game or simulation; hence, students are able to work in a way that allows them to showcase their work according to their strengths. Many of today’s games, such as Exploring the Nardoo by the Learning Team (http://www.learningteam.org/htmls/nardoo. html), allow students to work together in groups to perform task and solve problems. Cooperative learning also provides for alternative and authentic forms of assessment that is a welcome change for many learners that do not do well on tests.

Differentiating Instruction Altering instructional formats, approaches, and perspectives is another powerful culturally responsive teaching strategy. Finding ways in which students can draw on different interests, causes, and strengths motives students. In addition, research shows various instruction approaches and assessments lead to gains in learning (Tomlinson, 2003). For example, in the simulation Exploring the Nardoo, students are allowed to collect data in a variety of ways (audio, video, using probes to collect data, take notes, record their thoughts, etc.) all while attempting to solve different environmental problems on the fictional Nardoo River in Australia. In reality, all students are learning similar environmental and scientific concepts but in a variety of ways. Multiple approaches to learning about a concept enable students to explore various perspectives thereby increasing

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students’ depth of knowledge about the concept. Another aspect of differentiating instruction is to consider novel approaches to teaching and learning. For example, several research studies document the effective use of music and movement in increasing learning gains for different learners (Allen & Bulter, 1996; Boykin & Allen, 1988). Using approaches that could be considered novel by students is another instructional strategy that promotes motivation and student engagement.

Opportunities for Practice Providing ample opportunities for learners to practice in educational games and simulations is an important strategy in all teaching environments—including culturally inclusive ones. By default, one of the benefits of educational games and simulations are the opportunities for limitless practice. “Prior success breeds subsequent efforts and success” (Gay, 2000, p. 149). Creating an introduction or prologue for the game or simulation allows a guide, facilitator or the learner to work with important processes, thinking strategies, and actions needed to be successful in the game or simulation. This can reduce the uncertainty or strangeness in the new learning environment thereby increasing learner engagement and mastery of new learning tasks. This idea of practice and modeling in an educational game or simulation points to the importance of using avatars or guides in these learning situations. The next section will specifically address using avatars or guides as culturally responsive agents.

Using Avatars and Guides as Culturally Responsive Agents Avatars and guides are important elements in electronic games and simulations. An avatar or guide can play a very important role in a culturally responsive learning environment. When teachers engage in creating culturally responsive

teaching, they present the theme that “we are in this learning question together” and “we are smarter collectively than we are separately”. In electronic games and simulations, an avatar or guide could function as this supportive learning partner. Students could either individually or as teams select the guide they want to collaborate with as they work on an academic task, hopefully one that is real world related and can connect to various communities. Students could also program certain aspects of the avatar or guide. This could include selecting the race, language, behavioral characteristics, and more. Research has shown that learners want teachers that look like them; therefore, it seems reasonable to allow learners to pick an avatar or guide similar to themselves (Lave, 1985). Yet, it is important that designers be cognizant of stereotyping any particular group. One way to consider this is allow students to control additional factors beyond race. Some other important factors to consider in the development of the guide or avatar are learning style, language, religion, dress, and cultural traits.

sUGGEstIONs FOr FUtUrE rEsEArcH The idea of culturally responsive teaching in electronic games and simulations is not new. Culturally responsive teaching principles have been integrated into electronic games and simulations to varying degrees. It is critical that instructional designers, programmers, and developers must better address culturally responsive teaching strategies. The importance of culture, language, and race must be addressed in 21st century electronic games and simulations. Although there is the risk of some stereotype threats occurring, it is important that as our society becomes more heterogeneous our students have the opportunity to explore different culture, religion, race, language,

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and other contextual factors as they learn and solve different problems. Listed in the following are ways in which this could occur. 1.

2.

3.

Creating customized gaming and simulation environments where users can customize at least one aspect of the game or simulation to his or her own experiences. Examples could include customizing the environment, language, setting, or guide. Although fictional environments (midevil castles, haunted houses, forgotten or undiscovered cities) are wonderful, more real world that resemble the experiences of the user’s environments need to be created. Students want to know that what they learn will help them in the “real world opportunities” beyond school. Even when students are presented with games that deal with unpleasant subjects (for example, the game Darfur is Dying [http://darfurisdying. com]), Howe, Strauss, and Matson (2000) note that as a group Millennials (today’s generation of learners) are more ethnically diverse and have attitudes and dispositions to work together to solve community and social problems. Instructional designers, programmers, and teachers that use electronic games and simulations must not be hesitant to include factors such as face, culture, and language. Although financial issues such as market share will always be a part of the picture, it is critical that students be prepared to learn and work in society, which continues to become more and more diverse.

As these culturally inclusive environments are created, it is important that the effectiveness of culturally responsive electronic games and simulations are researched. Research questions such as the following should be addressed. Are culturally inclusive electronic games or simula-

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tions more effective with certain groups based upon culture, race, ability level, income-level, and so forth, than other groups? Is the gain in learning when culturally responsive teaching is employed the same, better, or worse than electronic games or simulations that present standard viewpoints of the dominant culture? There is little research on how culturally inclusive learning environments in electronic games and simulations influence learning so research opportunities and options are wide open.

cONcLUsION Developing electronic games and simulations that have elements of culturally responsive teaching infused into the learning environments is a worthwhile venture for all learners. Given the positive gains in learning in culturally responsive classrooms, the potential for learning gains with electronic games and simulations is limitless. What can be said with assurance is that 21st century citizens, regardless of gender or age, are using electronic games and simulations. Why not make these experiences applicable and relevant for all learners and not just those of the dominant culture?

rEFErENcEs Abrahams, R., & Troike, R. (Eds.). (1972). Language and cultural diversity in American education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Allen, B., & Bulter, L. (1996). The effects of music and movement opportunity on the analogical reasoning performance of African American and White school children: A preliminary study. Journal of Black Psychology, 22(3), 316-328. Anderson, J., Reder, L., & Simon, H. (1996). Situated learning and education. Educational Researcher, 25(4), 5-11.

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Anderson, J., Reder, L., & Simon, H. (1997). Situative versus cognitive perspectives: Form versus substance. Educational Researcher, 26(1), 18-21. Aragon, J. (1973). An impediment to cultural pluralism: Culturally deficient educators attempting to teach culturally different children. In M. D. Stent, W. R. Hazard, & H. N. Rivlin (Eds.), Cultural pluralism in education: A mandate for change (pp. 77-84). New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Au, K. (1993). Literacy instruction in multicultural settings. New York: Harcourt Brace. Banks, J. (1974). Cultural pluralism and the schools. Educational Leadership, 32(3), 163166. Banks, J. (1991). A curriculum for empowerment, action, and change. In C. E. Sleeter (Ed.), Empowerment through multicultural education (pp. 125-141). Albany: State University of New York Press. Bennett, C. (1986). Comprehensive multicultural education, theory, and practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Bereiter, C. (1997). Situated cognition and how to overcome it. In D. Kirshner & J. A. Whitson (Eds.), Situated cognition: Social, semiotic, and psychological perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Boykin, A., & Allen, B. (1988). Rhythmic movement facilitated learning in working-class AfroAmerican children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 149(3), 335-347. Brown, J., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42. Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Chun-Hoon, K. K. Y. (1973). Teaching the AsianAmerican experience. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Teaching ethnic studies: Concepts and strategies (43rd Yearbook) (pp. 118-146). Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies. Dunn, R. (1997). The goals and track record of multicultural education. Educational Leadership, 54(7), 74-77. Erickson, F. (1987). Transformation and school success: The politics and culture of educational achievement. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 18(4), 335-356. Forbes, J. (1973). Teaching Native American values and cultures. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Teaching ethic studies: Concepts and strategies (43rd Yearbook) (pp. 200-225). Washington, DC: National Council for the Social Studies. Gay, G. (1975). Organizing and designing culturally pluralistic curriculum. Educational Leadership, 33(3), 176-183. Gay, G. (1988). Designing relevant curricula for diverse learners. Education and Urban Society, 2(4), 327-340. Gay, G. (2000). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, & practice. New York: Teachers College Press. Gee, J. (2004). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Grant, C., & Sleeter, C. (2007). Doing multicultural education for achievement and equity. New York: Taylor & Francis Group. Greeno, J., Collins, A., & Resnick, L. (1996). Cognition and learning. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology. New York: Macmillan. Howe, N., Strauss, W., & Matson, R. (2000). Millennials rising: The next great generation. New York: Vintage/Random House.

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Ladson-Billings, G. (1992). Reading between the lines and beyond the pages: A culturally relevant approach to literacy teaching. Theory Into Practice, 31(4), 312-320. Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The dreamkeepers: Successful teachers for African-American children. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

(Ed.), Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Perkins, D. (1995). Smart schools: From training memories to educating minds. New York: Free Press/Macmillan.

Larson, B., & Keiper, T. (2007). Instructional strategies for middle and high school. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

Phelan, P., Davidson, A., & Cao, H. (1991). Students’ multiple worlds: Negotiating the boundaries of family, peer, and school cultures. Anthropology and Education Quarterly, 22(3), 224-250.

Lave, J. (1985). The social organization of knowledge and practice: A symposium. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 16(3), 171-176.

Prawat, R. (1993). The value of ideas: Problems versus possibilities in learning. Educational Researcher, 22(6), 5-16.

Lee, C., & Slaughter-Defoe, D. (1995). Historical and sociocultural influences on African American education. In J. A. Banks & C. A. M. Banks (Eds.), Handbook of research on multicultural education (pp. 348-371). New York: Macmillan.

Rieber, L. (1996). Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games. Educational Technology Research & Development, 44(2), 43-58.

Lee, S. (1996). Unraveling the “model minority” stereotype: Listening to Asian American youth. New York: Teachers College Press.

Rogoff, B., & Lave, J. (Eds.). (1984). Everyday cognition: Its development in social context. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Marshall, H. (Ed.). (1992). Redefining student learning: Roots of educational change. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Shor, I. (1992). Empowering education: Critical teaching for social change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Mayer, R. (1996). Learners as information processors: Legacies and limitations of educational psychology’s second metaphor. Educational Psychologist, 31, 151-161.

Spivey, N. (1997). The constructivist metaphor: Reading, writing, and the making of meaning. San Diego: Academic Press.

Nieto, S. (1999). The light in their eyes: Creating multicultural learning communities. New York: Teachers College Press. Ormrod, J. (1995). Human learning (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill/Prentice-Hall. Papert, S. (1998). Does easy do it? Children, games, and learning. Game Developer, June, 88. Pea, R. (1993). Practices of distributed intelligence and designs for education. In G. Salomon

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Steele, C. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629. Steele, C., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797-811. Sternberg, R., & Wagner, R. (Eds.). (1994). Mind in context: Interactionist perspectives on human intelligence. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

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Tomlinson, C. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of differentiated classrooms: Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. (E. Haufmann & G. Vakar, Eds. and Trans.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L. (1987). The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky. (R.W. Rieber & A.S. Carton, Eds.). New York: Plenum Press. Vygotsky. L. (1997). Educational psychology. Boca Raton, FL: St. Lucie Press. Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by design (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Culturally Responsive Teaching: Gay states, “Culturally responsive teaching is about teaching, and the teaching of concerns is that which centers classroom instruction in multi-ethnic cultural frames of reference. Culturally responsive teaching recognizes the power of teaching while fully realize that, without accompanying changes in all other aspects of schooling and society, the very best of teaching will not be able to accomplish the systemic reforms needed for ethnically diverse students to receive genuine educational equity and achieve excellence.” Culture: A multi-dimensional and complex structure which is dynamic, multi-faceted, embedded in context, influenced by social, economic, and political factors. Culture is created and socially constructed. It is learned and embodies values grown out of historical and social conditions.

KEY TERMS

Multi-Cultural Education: According to the Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education (1995), multi-cultural education is a field of study designed to increase educational equity for all students that incorporates, for this purpose, content, concepts, principles, theories, and paradigms from history, the social and behavioral sciences, and particularly from ethnic studies and women’s studies (p. xii).

Avatar: Most frequently defined as an Internet user’s representation of himself or herself. These representations can in the form of a 3-D model, a 2-D picture, or a text construct.

Socio-Cultural: Lev Vygotsky stressed the importance of society and culture. His theory is often referred to as socio-cultural because of the importance of society and culture in learning.

Cooperative Learning: A traditional and culturally responsive instructional strategy. Students work in various groupings of teams to improve their understanding of a subject matter. Students use a variety of methods to accomplish their learning task. Examples of cooperative learning techniques are the jigsaw strategy and using literature circle roles.

Stereotype Threat: A perception held in common by members of a group that represents an oversimplified opinion, prejudiced attitude, or uncritical judgment.

Young, A. (2004). The minds of marginalized black men. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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Chapter LVI

Saving Worlds with Video Game Activism Robert Jones New York University, USA

AbstrAct Due to its nature as an interactive medium, the video game offers uniquely different approaches to the project of activism. Unlike other audio/visual media like film and TV, video games consist of processes enacted by players. More specific, they contain rules systems known as algorithms that the player navigates to become successful at the game. And through that process of learning that algorithm a new form of rhetoric is born. Ian Bogost labels this unique form as procedural rhetoric: “the art of persuasion through rule-based representations and interactions rather than the spoken word, writing, images, or moving pictures.” Through gamic actions players internalize not only the rules, but also the rhetoric of that rule system. To demonstrate precisely how procedural rhetoric works through video game technologies, this chapter presents a definition for video game activism as well as three distinct modes: original design, engine appropriation, and machinima. Using three recent case studies, the chapter suggests some of the implications for educators and why they should take video games seriously as means of political expression when teaching students about civic duty.

sAving Worlds With video gAme Activism Can a video game save the world? Well that would depend on which world we are talking about. In the case of Hyrule from the Legend of Zelda series, the answer would be absolutely. But in the case of increasing genocide in Darfur, mounting

school violence in the U.S., or persisting racial tensions in France, the answer gets more complicated. The truth is no single medium could ever lay claim to having any lasting impact on a political or social issue without being indicted for its hubris or dismissed for its naiveté. And as a medium still in its infancy, the video game continues to struggle to even find legitimacy

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within the mainstream culture. Therefore, the very notion of video games serving a function beyond entertainment, elevated to the level of political expression, poses a number of challenges to how we think of this medium. This chapter, however, suggests that video game technologies offer a unique form of rhetoric that opens up new avenues for political and social activism. With the population of gamers increasing each year, recent estimations state that 69% of American heads of household play video games, the notion of gaming being the pastime of just teenage boys has become outmoded (Entertainment Software Association, 2007). Gamers now represent a broader spectrum of the demographic than ever before and thus offer a new channel of access by which politically and socially minded discourse can be distributed. As a project, activism works largely outside of mainstream culture, providing alternative viewpoints, which requires constant reinvention. Harnessing the power of video game technology for activist pursuits only marks the next logical step of adaptability to a constantly evolving media environment. Volumes such as this indicate the significant role that video games now play in our lives, requiring that educators understand how video games contribute to the identities of our students. Because imparting a sense of civic duty is perhaps one of the most important parts of any education, it only makes sense to introduce how video games now function as a part of being a citizen in the digital age. For the purposes of our discussion here video game activism is understood as the intentional use of video game technology to bring about social or political change. To be clear, gaming and poltics is hardly a new concept. In fact, dating back to around 2000B.C., an Egyptian mural depicting a game known as t’au was one of the precursors to chess (Halter, 2006). These early war games up to and including chess have been largely understood as tactical military training tools as much as recreational distractions. This trend has continued on forth through to video

games, manifesting in its most recent iteration: America’s Army. Commissioned by the U.S. Army, this game functions both as a marketing tool for recruitment as well as a training tool for new soldiers, teaching them everything from tactical movement to the code of military conduct. It is important to note here that video game activism is not just simply the marriage of video games and politics, as contemporary examples like America’s Army (2005) and historical examples like Battlezone (1980) illustrate. Just as in any other form of media, simply having a political agenda does not necessarily constitute a form of activism. And while an in-depth history and discussion of the project of activism is beyond the scope of this chapter, it is necessary to distinguish it from these other forms of political discourse. At its core, activism is about initiating change which often implies standing on the outside of the dominant group, representing a marginalized viewpoint. Therefore, the militaristic ideologies set forth in both America’s Army and Battlezone both function as rhetorical strategies to advance a certain political agenda. However, as part of the dominant worldview they attempt to maintain that established belief more than try to change it. Video game activism then requires an attempt to change the status quo as much as having any sort of political message, differentiating it from convential wargames. Due to its subaltern status, video game activism typically functions outside of the commercial gaming industry. Whether funded through non-profit organizations or created by a single individual, operating outside of market influences marks an important distinction from other forms of gaming. Not beholden to fiscal concerns, the examples of video game activism outlined in this chapter illustrate ways in which the adoption and appropriation of gaming technologies allows for a powerful new means of access to a growing population. Though not specifically termed video game activism, the uses of these technologies to influence and change ideas sits along a historical

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trajectory going back to before the most recent serious games movement that began in 2002 with the Serious Games Intitiative. Scholars like Henry Jenkins (1998) have long since championed the role that games play in the deveopment of students’ lives, as seen in his work at Education Arcade with Kurt Squire. Authors like Mark Prensky (2006, 2007), who played a key role in establishing the Serious Games Intitative, and James Gee (2004, 2005, 2007) as well as Clark Aldrich (2005) have all followed suit, extoling the virtues of gaming technologies for their pedogical potential. Part of that discourse also tries to innoculate against so much of the media effects research that attempts to position video games as the root of the violence that plauges today’s youth as suggested by the most recent findings of the APA that draw a corollary between violent video games and “aggressive behavior” (Carrl, 2005). As a branch within the Serious Games Intitiative, the people at Games for Change (G4C) (www.gamesforchange.org) have created a support structure that promotes and provides funding for organizations and individuals trying to use gaming technologies in the way suggested by the case studies in this chapter. So if we are to understand serious games as a larger heading, incorporating both video game activism as well as games used for specific educational purposes like Math Blaster (1987), the Games for Change would be the specific use of games for social change. The establishment of an organizational body like the G4C certainly bodes well for the future of game technologies as a means of political and social change; however, part of the problem they face is communicating in a medium that is highly commercialized. With the development of next-generation consoles touting near photorealistic graphics, the marketplace for games that have little or no funding seems meager at best. So while conventional game design as means of change, which is costly, has the potential to reach a great number of individuals, the sad reality is that it is hard for any game to thrive in the highly

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competetive video game market even as a free download. Therefore, another key attribute of video game activism that needs to be outlined here is its ability to adapt, particularly in the way it utilizes the viral nature of how media now spreads. To best do this, it is important to break down the theoretical frame of video game activism into three distinct modes and detail how each plays out in current examples.

three modes of video game Activism Activism as a project must be tactical, requiring constant adaptability in order to continue to have an impact upon the culture it attempts to change. As a technology, video games provide a unique form through which such adaptability is perhaps made more readily available to users/consumers than other media. That is to say, video games are software and operate as tools. The vast majority of complex games today are built upon what are known as game engines, which consist of a collection of processes working in unison to produce the graphical representations and the ability to interact with them. Creating a game then ultimately involves creating a toolset. So to think of video game activism as merely the creation of a video game that aims at initiating a social change is to overlook perhaps the virtue of games that distinguishes them from any other medium. To better understand this we must first look at the relationship between games and play. As a cultural phenomenon, play represents perhaps one of the most complex human activities. In relation to video games and game design, this is probably one of the most contested areas of definition. In fact, Salen and Zimmerman (2004) spend a great deal of space outlining the history and many definitions used to understand this human behavior that binds us all. They ultimately distill the theoretical explanations of play from authors ranging from anthropologists like Johan Huizinga (1950) to game design pioneers like Chris

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Crawford (1984) into a single working definition that many have since adopted in understanding play within video games as “the free movement within a more rigid structure” (p. 300). Therefore, the designing of a video game involves the creation of this “rigid structure” within which players are invited to play. And it is precisely this rigidity that allows for the unique form of rhetoric that games offer to activism (the specifics of how this rhetoric works will be detailed in the following section). This is why the first, and likely the most prominent, of the three modes of video game activism is original design. Built from the ground up, original design involves all conventional approaches to creating a game for the market, from developing the narrative to creating (or leasing) the game engine to build the game upon. Most if not all of the video game activism promoted through the G4C organization embodies this mode. The strategy here is very straightforward: use the culture’s growing appetite for gaming to feed them socially and politically minded narratives and game play that hopefuly initiate some sort of change. Ian Bogost’s (2007b) work at Persuasive Games (www.persuasivegames.com) and Gonzalo Frasca’s (2003) Web site on Newsgaming (www. newsgaming.com) provide numerous examples of precisely how this mode of video game activism works. The challenge these games face is offsetting their production costs with no real viable economic model for funding the work. Very few games have tried to achieve any sort of commercial viability, the most notable example being PeaceMaker (http://www.peacemakergame. com/). The problem, however, of trying to charge for a game that inevitably cannot compete with the same production values of premiere titles is that the number of people who will actually play the game diminishes exponentially. And yet to create a game that has even the look and feel of a previous generation game requires resources often beyond the meager budgets of a non-profit organization. Therefore, the scope of video game

activism needs to expand beyond the single mode of orginal design. Briefly returning to Salen and Zimmerman (2004), the play that occurs within the rigid structure of a game only represents one aspect of how play functions within gaming. The more salient attribute of play in this context involves the kinds of free movement that not only play within the rigid structure, but in fact transform the structure. Huizinga (1950) proposed that play operated within a magic circle, an imaginary boundary in which an arbitrary rule system is set up to allow for a game to exist. For instance, both the physical court as well as the rules governing play (i.e., one must dribble the ball when moving about) constitute the magic circle of basketball. To play a game then implies conceding to this arbitrary rule system, thus entering within the confines of the magic circle. The free movement within the rigid structure of the magic circle is the play found within most video games; however, there exists another form of play that changes the structure itself. Salen (2002) calls this transformative play and defines it as when “the free movement of play alters the more rigid structure in which it takes shape.” She goes on to say, “play doesn’t just occupy the interstices of the system, but actually transforms the space as a whole” (1). That is to say, by interjecting one’s own rules to the magic circle, the circle is transformed not only for the individual’s experience of the game, but others who play it. For example, introducing a second ball into play during a game of basketball would profoundly transform how everyone would have to play it. As previously stated, video games are software and function as tools. Those tools produce certain forms of game play and constitute the magic circle set forth by the game designers. But if one were to alter the code of that software and make it perform differently as they prescribed, the possibility of transformative game play is only restricted by the individual’s ability to control the game’s engine.

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This kind of hacking is known as modding and has long been a part of gaming culture. Dating back to the demo scene when hackers would tag pieces of software they had successfully hacked with their logos, this sort of playing with the code that transformed users to producers established one of the more important attributes of software as a medium (Tasajavari, 2002). As an act of transformative play, modding involves changing the game on any of three basic levels: (1) at the level of its visual design, substituting new level maps, new artwork, new character models, and so on; (2) at the level of the rules of the game, changing how gameplay unfolds – who wins, who loses and what the various repercussion of various gamic acts are; or (3) at the level of its software technology, changing character behavior, game physics, lighting techniques and so on. (Galloway, 2006, p. 107-108) The ability to mod a video game and transform the play experience for others establishes the second mode of video game activism: engine appropriation. Because the vast majority of modding involves the alteration of an established commercial game, hence the appropriation of an engine, the potential of exposure increases tremendously. Whereas the original design of an activist video game has to capture a player base to have any sort of effect, the mod of a popular game already has a fan base that shares an interest in the game. Moreover, the creation of mods often involves the work of a single individual and does not have the expenses that an original design carries, lifting the financial burden of trying to compete within the video game market. Modding has a divided history both as an extension of the commercial aspect of games (i.e., the famed total conversion of Half-Life (1998) into what became the widely successful CounterStrike (1999)) as well as attempts to elevate the medium to the avant-garde, what Galloway (2006) has termed “countergaming” as a reference to the

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counter-cinema movement made famous by JeanLuc Godard. From the highly politically charged work of Eddo Stern (www.eddostern.com) to the abstractly depoliticized work of Jodi (http://wwwwwwwww.jodi.org/), engine appropriation offers the richness of commercial games without the prohibitive costs of original design. And because most game mods exist as small files (often called patches) that can be easily downloaded, the ability to widely distribute offers yet another advantage over the original design mode. The last mode of video game activism, machinima, pushes the act of transformative play to the point that the end result no longer functions as a game. Defined as “animated filmmaking within a real-time 3-D environment,” machinima represents a decade old gaming sub-culture (Marino, 2004, p. 1). Through the manipulation of a game engine, gamers use the in-game avatars as virtual puppets to tell their stories, often resulting in highly polished animated films despite the creator having little or no animation skills. Because machinima largely exists as a fan culture, the narratives told tend to gravitate toward comedic in-game references, like the hugely popular series Red vs. Blue (Jones, 2006, 2007). However, some machinimators have chosen to use the medium to construct political narratives, providing both a voice through this new use of technology and a quickly growing audience that now seeks out machinima. While machinima drastically differs from the first two modes of video game activism, it also shares qualities with each. In its early days, machinima was made using the popular first-person shooter Quake (1996), often called Quake Movies. Like modding, this was an act of transformative play that appropriated the engine for something other than what the designers had planned. This form of poaching was clearly a copyright infringement as agreed to by gamers when they clicked to accept the end user license agreement; however, game developers allowed this to happen because machinima films were essentially little

Saving Worlds with Video Game Activism

commercials for the game. Mods also function as a means of providing longevity to the game and have largely been encouraged by developers, who now provide extensive tools for modding the game. So while both mods and machinima share in being acts of engine appropriation, this has largely been a sanctioned use of the gaming technology. As an act of political expression, there has yet to be a public case where either a modder or machinimator has been threatened by a developer for espousing viewpoints contrary to the company’s. Machinima also shares in the freedom exercised by original design because not all machinima comes from the appropriation of an engine. As the art form continues to grow, more and more software has been specifically designed for making machinima; iClone (http://www.reallusion.com/iclone/) and MovieStorm (http://www. moviestorm.co.uk) are the two most popular ones. Just as original design offers the complete freedom of not relying upon the intellectual property of others, these software suites allow a machinimator to say what they feel and not worry about repercussions from the developer. Each of these three modes offers unique differences to the project of activism and demonstrates specifically how gaming technologies pave new avenues to social and political expression. As the population of gamers continues to increase, the discourses that utilize this medium that has become more and more part of the media vocabulary will have a marked advantage over those that overlook it. Before delving into the specific case studies that will illustrate just how each of these modes get used as current examples of video game activism, it is important to address the rhetorical power of video games.

video game rhetoric Going back to 1980 when the U.S. Military commissioned a version of Atari’s Battlezone (the original first-person shooter) to train troops in tank combat, a video game’s procedurality, one of the

four properties of digital interfaces as defined by Murry (1997), demonstrated the medium’s capacity to influence players. All games consist of rule systems or algorithms that the player must successfully navigate to win. And through the process of learning that algorithm, the player internalizes the logic of that system, what Manovich (2001) calls “learning the hidden logic” (p. 222). One of the things a player quickly learns about tank combat from Battlezone is that slow reloading speed of ammunition in a tank requires careful decision making as to when and when not to fire. While this simple game mechanic adds a new level of challenge to the game, it more importantly teaches a lesson to the player that can then translate into actual tank combat. Live tank combat is prohibitive for training purposes due to cost and danger, and conveying this information via textbook is limited to the retention rate of the soldier that is already swamped in a deluge of information as part of his training. But through enacting this process over and over again, the player (or in this case trainee) begins to adopt this information because it becomes vital to succeeding in the game. As Galloway (2006, p. 2) simply states, “Video games are actions.” Therefore, information must not only be internalized but utilized again and again through the actions of playing the game in order to achieve success within the game world. The rhetorical strength of Battlezone then relies upon the game’s ability to produce procedural reprensentations, defined by Bogost (2007a) as “a form of symbolic expression that uses processes rather than language” (p. 9). Because video games are software and consist of a collection of rules and processes, the representations they express are uniquely different from that of other audio/visual media like film. So when one plays a game like Grand Theft Auto III (2001), they are continually enacting processes to produce the images on the screen. Position shifts from a viewer to an actor within the space of a game, thus distinguishing video games as an expression of processes. Bogost goes on to say that a new form of rhetoric is made

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possible through these expressions of procedural representations. He calls this procedural rhetoric: “the art of persuasion though rule-based represenations and interactions rather than the spoken word, writing, images, or moving images” (p. ix). Because video games can also represent (albeit virtually and within considerable limitations) the “real” world, they offer a collection of procedures we can learn from them, like driving a tank in combat. Let this not be mistaken for the procedural rhetoric that is also part of Battlezone. Whereas the simulation software developed by Atari was used as a training tool to orientate the trainees to the tank’s navigational and weaponry systems, the rhetoric that was also part of that training was something entirely different. Like so many subsequent war games, the action (in this case the destruction of enemy tanks) is depoliticized in a way that gives the game a simple narrative of good vs. evil. So as the trainee plays the game over and over again, he learns not just an algorithm about combat but also an algorithm for how to think of combat. Due to the necessity of maintaining chain of command, soldiers must never question the politics of their actions; therefore, a vital part of their training involves not just hand-eye coordination and tactics, but ideological training as well. This simple dichotomy creates an argument that justifies any and all military action so long as the order has come down from command. This same Manichean dichotomy of good vs. evil used in Battlezone is implemented in the online multi-player component of the America’s Army game whereby through a simple game mechanic, every person playing the game sees themselves as part of the U.S. military. In other words, online games like capture the flag require opposing teams, so to distinguish teams one is pitted as the U.S. army and the opposing team is the “terrorist” team. However, no matter what team the player is on, the graphical engine renders his avatar as a member of the U.S. army for his screen while the opposing team sees his avatar rendered to look like a terrorist, thus avoid-

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ing the potential cognitive dissonance that could arise from playing the game and successfully winning as a “terrorist.” Another way to understand how procedural rhetoric is unique from other forms of persuasion is to compare it to other rhetorics. As an audio/ visual medium, video games are often compared to film as a way of analyzing and understanding them. Therefore, one could also analyze video games as forms of visual rhetoric. Hill (2004) notes that visual rhetoric prompts a heuristic processing which is more akin to an instinctual response to an image compared to written forms of rhetoric that prompt the more analytical systemic processing, marked by reflecting upon the matter (p. 33). What is interesting is that even though rhetoricians often situate systemic processing on a higher order than that of the heuristic because it appeals to reason (logos) more than feelings (pathos), most people generally respond more often than not to the visual and more emotional appeal. For example, one could present a paragraph explaining the problem of food shortages in Ethiopia that made logical sense, or one could show a picture of a malnourished child. Despite clearly being a “base appeal,” the image offers a higher level of what Hill calls presence (p. 27). The vividness of the child and seeming proximity of the tragedy trumps any rational conclusions that the individual may have about the issue. Blair (2004a) adds that “although there can exist purely visual arguments, most communications that are visual arguments are combinations of the verbal and the visual” (p. 49). The picture of the child may be far more compelling than a written argument. But without text or a voiceover to indicate what one can or need to do to help the child, the image would only leave one with a feeling. Bogost (2007a) makes the case that even though visual rhetoric seems to capture part of what a game can achieve persuasively, its procedurality needs not only to be acknowledged, but that it in fact offers the most persuasive potential: “Just as visual rhetoricians argue that verbal

Saving Worlds with Video Game Activism

and written rhetorics inadequately account for the unique properties of visual expression, so I argue that verbal, written, and visual rhetorics inadequately account for the unique properties of procedural expression” (p. 29). Thus, through procedural rhetoric video games are capable of showing how complex things work in ways that are beyond the limitations of visual rhetoric. More important, the complex argument expressed in the procedural representation of an activist use of game technology not only achieves the goal of conveying the argument efficiently but also in a manner that is more desirable or palpable than a written argument. That is not to say activist video games are fun, they most usually are not as part of the point they are making. But because they are still seen as “games,” the likelihood that someone would engage them who might not otherwise engage materials on that issue increases. So perhaps that represents the most important aspect of video games as a viable means for political activism—their Trojan horse quality. What at first appears as “just a game” slowly unpacks a complex message through its algorithms, working into the mind of its player. To see exactly how this works, it is now necessary to turn to three case studies and address both how each works as a form of procedural rhetoric and how they have been received by the public. Each of the following examples do not necessarily represent the perfect exemplar for each of the three modes of video game activism (original design, engine appropriation, and machinima) so much as they represent the most visible examples, each having had a tremendous amount of public response.

original design: darfur is dying In the fall of 2005, MTV (in partnership with Reebok Human Rights foundation) created a contest through its mtvU Web site (www.mtvu. com) to generate awareness about the genocide taking place in Darfur called the Darfur Digital Activist contest. The parameters of the contest

stated that the objective was to create a game that depicts the current crisis using a 2-D Flash-based game which could then be uploaded as part of the mtvU Web site. They selected several finalists and created a page where anyone could come to play the games and rate them based on a scoring system. After several weeks, Darfur is Dying (www.darfurisdying.com), designed by a team of University of Southern California students led by Susana Ruiz, was selected as the winner. The game play consists of two separate sections that attempt to illustrate the daily struggle for subsistence in Darfur. In the first section, the player chooses a Darfuri man, woman, or child to then use to forage for water. The player proceeds to run across a barren landscape with a water can searching for a well, all the while being careful to avoid the jeeps carrying Janjaweed militia by hiding behind whatever is available. If unsuccessful, the player is captured and a screen pops up indicating what will likely happen to the character. For example, Poni, a 13 year-old Darfuri girl, upon capture will likely be beaten and raped before eventually being killed. The second section takes place in a refugee camp and consists of a simple resource management game mechanic not unlike the Civilization franchise where the player must maintain health by obtaining food and water or building shelters. Whereas the foraging for water section plays like a typical arcade game, relying upon timing and hand-eye coordination, this section emphasizes more on decision making, highlighting the limited resources available. As expected, the game has been received with mixed responses. In a markedly celebratory tone, Bicthelder (2006) of Time Magazine has said of the game and others like it: “Techno do-gooders are proliferating, and gamers are saving the world.” At the other end of the spectrum, Dibbel (2006) pulls no punches and insists that the game trivializes the issue: “Say what you like about Grand Theft Auto or Mortal Kombat, but neither of them was ever so cruel as to delude anyone that playing a game might change the world.”

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Sentiments like this reveal the biggest challenge video games must overcome as a form of activist media. With a cultural legacy of being about fun or the plaything of children, video games have to gradually carve out a space within mainstream media where they are seen as legitimate modes of expression for social and political commentary. The unfortunate choice by mtvU to promote the game with the tag line “Play the game. End the killing,” clearly overstates what the game or any activist game can achieve, and one can see how such hubris might illicit such a visceral response as Dibbel’s. However, the game’s lead designer, Ruiz, defends what the game tries to do: “We were always trying to make something that would be accessible to the audience that wouldn’t go to see a documentary about Darfur, or wouldn’t read a newspaper article” (Boyd, 2006). One can certainly question the efficacy of a game like Darfur is Dying to enact any sort of tangible change to such an atrocity, but the same could be said of any activist attempt to create awareness. As a concept, awareness offers little value as a measure of the impact any one message can achieve. The game has been downloaded and played nearly a million times, yet mtvU would have a hard time making a case that it has had any real impact on the situation. Douglas Thomas (2007) has proposed an alternative to the ways in which the efficacy of activist games can be measured based on his work with Chris Swain (2007) on The ReDistricting Game (www.redistrictinggame.org). The game reveals the way that redistricting dramatically changes election outcomes by altering the boundaries defining voting constituencies. Rather than thinking about how activist games can immediately implement some social change, Douglas suggests that we think more longitudinal about the impact of games and think in terms of “dispositions.” That is, over the course of one’s life they encounter a string of messages that cultivate certain dispositions toward one thing over another. Therefore, as activist games play a larger role in peoples’

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lives and extend over the course of many years of one’s life and not just a few hours on the Internet, only then can we hope to see what he believes are the substantive changes that video games are capable of making. In his analysis of the game, Bogost (2007) challenges what Darfur is Dying actually achieves politically precisely on this issue of efficacy: mtvU might argue that the game fulfills one of its contest goals, to “raise awareness” about the conflict, but awareness is a tired, ineffectual excuse for the absence of fungible solutions. If the player hopes for perspectives on possible solutions, he must consult materials far beyond the video game. If it succeeds at all as a political statement, Darfur is Dying acts as kind of video game billboard for more complex verbal or written rhetorics on the crisis. (p. 96) As a form of procedural rhetoric, the game falters due largely to the oversimplification of the politics at play in this. Not to be mistaken for Dibbel’s criticism that the game as a whole completely trivializes the crisis, Bogost makes the case that the game “abstracts the historical dilemmas that partially explain such a terrible outcome” by setting up a very simple moral narrative where the Darfuri villagers are good and the Janjaweed militia are evil (p. 97). As a form of procedural representation, video games offer the ability to engage into complex processes as well as histories; therefore, for Darfur is Dying to reduce the complex issue of the Darfuri struggle to a Pac-Man (1980) arcade style game of “dodge the baddy,” Bogost’s critique makes some valid points. Players of the game never really come up against a rhetorical argument as to why the Darfuri villagers are in the right, but instead mostly already sympathize with them in the first place which is the likely reason they even chose to play the game (activism’s perpetual problem of preaching to the converted). A more complex game would possibly cast the player in the role of the Janjaweed and

Saving Worlds with Video Game Activism

force them to tackle the moral dilemmas that would give an insight to both sides of the conflict. So it is important to note that the inability of Darfur is Dying to fully utilize its procedurality to construct a procedural rhetoric that works toward more deeply understanding the conflict and the possible solutions does not necessarily suggest that video games as a form of activism fails. Not to justify the game design choices, but the game was constructed within a short time frame by students with limited resources. Given more time and a better understanding of the complexity of the politics involved, a different game may have emerged. Regardless, the reception of Darfur is Dying by the mtvU audience certainly indicates that this new mode of communicating politically offers a great deal of potential to reaching previously untapped demographics. And at the same time the costs, which in this case have been subsidized by both MTV and Reebok, associated with original design illustrate the confines of working within a largely corporate structure. It is safe to say that neither MTV nor Reebok would have endorsed the proposed example of a game where one plays as the Janjaweed due to its potentially controversial nature.

engine Appropriation: super columbine massacre rPg Two years ago Danny Ledonne set out to pursue one of his life’s dreams of designing a video game, using a new piece of software called RPG Maker (which allows users to create their own role-playing games). As a mode of engine appropriation, this does not provide a clean example because the game was built using software that sells itself as a game designer. However, because Ladonne’s use of the software represents such a leap beyond what the developers of RPG Maker could have ever fathomed, the game constitutes both an instance of transformative play and engine appropriation. Rather than rehashing another Tolkien inspired dungeon crawler, he instead chose to create what

he termed the “unthinkable” game, depicting the real life characters of Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold and their lives leading up to the Columbine shooting. Super Columbine Massacre RPG (www.columbinegame.com) was born and the incendiary game sparked a huge backlash from conservative groups and families of the victims. Brian Rohrbough, whose son, Daniel, was one of the victims said, “It disgusts me. You trivialize the actions of two murderers and the lives of the innocent” (Fox News, 2006, May 18). Even members of the gaming community rejected the game; PC World named it number two on the top 10 worst games of all time, calling it “appalling” as a game (Townsend, 2006). Ladonne, however, defends the game and insists that “it does not glorify school shootings,” and instead sees the game as “an effective way to confront their actions and the consequences those actions had” (Vargas, 2006b). Similar to responses to Darfur is Dying, tackling a serious subject matter through the medium of the video game still brings up several challenges for mainstream culture. The game’s top-down view and cartoony 2-D graphics recall the Nintendo classic, The Legend of Zelda (1987), which seems hardly the space to interrogate the multitude of issues that Columbine brought up. But Thompson (2007) suggests that “the game’s style evokes the killer’s pared-down, simplistic, self-serving view of the world,” which ultimately feeds into the rhetorical strategy of forcing the player into the role of the killers, not so much to empathize as much as to understand what that sort of lack of control must have been like. Nonetheless, Ladonne meticulously researched the lives of Klebold and Harris so that he could recreate the actions of that day and their back-stories leading up to it with the highest level of verisimilitude. With over 80% of the game’s dialogue consisting of actual quotes from the two boys derived from videos and diaries as well as using actual photos of the two throughout the piece, he made it a point never to allow the game to drift too far

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from the sober reality of what the game set out to address. Super Columbine Massacre RPG (SCMRPG) stands in stark juxtaposition to Darfur is Dying as a form of procedural rhetoric because it opts to take on the complexity of the issue, clearly to an uncomfortable point based on the negative response, rather than reducing it to a simple narrative of good vs. evil. Where the influence of corporate sponsorship clearly limited the political range Darfur is Dying had as a mode of original design, SCMRPG’s appropriation of an engine illustrates the increased freedom this second mode offers to activists. This is clearly seen in that the point of the game is not to enjoy playing as the killers, experiencing what some might consider ultimate freedom (living above the law), but instead gain a sense of the pressures that mounted and eventually led up to them ultimately choosing what they did. Whereas Darfur is Dying often tends to preach to the converted, SCMRPG takes on the unenviable task of forcing players into considering Klebold and Harris as something other than monsters. The degree to which the game was successful at doing that is nearly impossible to measure; however, the procedural representation of the game makes it possible to persuade players in a way that exceeds the limitations of written or even visual rhetoric. Despite all the negative press and feedback, the game was selected as a finalist for the 2007 Slamdance film festival under their interactive media division. Once word had gotten out to the public that such a “horrific” game had been selected, the festival committee withdrew the game due to the pressure of some of their sponsors (Crecente, 2007). On his blog, Bogost (2006b) responded to this reaction, warning that this sort of censorship is an alarming trend: I think those of us deeply mired in the fields of Serious Games or Games for Change or video games with an Agenda or even just video game development underestimate just how long a road

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we still have to tread for video games to be treated as a medium of expression commensurate with film, literature, and art. Ledonne, like Michael Moore, set out to investigate the tragedy of Columbine because so much of the media were reducing it into too simple of terms. He just so happen to choose to create a game that places the players in the role of the killers rather than make a documentary. So as much as SCMRPG stands as a bold foray into the kind of procedural rhetoric that video game technology makes possible, the fact that the medium as a whole still does not garner the same respect as other more traditional media still looms as one of the largest hurdles for video game activism.

machinima: the French democracy The final of the three sections represent perhaps the furthest advance in the use of the video game as an activist medium mainly in that it results not in a game but an animated film. By harnessing the power of the game engine (the part of the software that makes all the graphics and their movements), machinimators are able to use video game software as 3-D animation tools. Though this has been going on for a number of years within video game culture, machinima has found a recent popularity that has changed the way many games are designed. Lionhead Studios recently produced a game entitled The Movies (2005) where players can use the engine to create their own stories. A Parisian born designer of Chinese decent named Alex Chan (2005) bought The Movies in the fall of 2005. Soon there after, the Paris suburb where he lived became one of the many ravished by the ensuing riots that followed after the death of two minority teens as a result of actions from the French police. He used the game to create a 13 minute film entitled The French Democracy telling the story leading up to the riots because he felt the news media had depicted the people of his

Saving Worlds with Video Game Activism

neighborhood as savages. Chan said that the point of his film was, “to bring people to think about what really happened in my country by trying to show the starting point and some causes of these riots” (Musgrove, 2005). Machinima narratives more often than not tend to run more comedic than dramatic. Typically playing off the characters of the games used to create these films, the humor usually caters to the esoteric knowledge fans of the game lavish in. So machinima, as a medium, tends to have a rather limited audience, though this has been changing. The French Democracy marks the first time that someone has used this mode of expression for a political purpose and has received as much buzz (Matlack, 2005). Even though the end result looks like just an animated film, it is important to remind that thanks to the efficiency and ease that The Movies software allows for creating films, The French Democracy was able to be finished and up online in a matter of a few days. While traditional filmmaking has long been a contributor to the project of political activism, machinima must be understood as something that is distinctly different due to its greater accessibility. As previously discussed, machinima distinguishes itself as a form of procedural representation despite not being a game. If we understand procedural representation as a product of a series of processes (i.e., the images of a game as a result of my input), then machinima can be understood as emerging in the same way. In the case of The Movies, the player chooses every aspect of a given scene, from actors to settings to camera angles. And while the game’s engine is a powerful one offering a multitude of possibilities, it still is a limited number of choices. One of the examples that come up in The French Democracy is the use of a set that is clearly a subway station based in a city like New York for a station of the Metro in Paris. Chan had to work within the rules of the game, choosing his sets from a limited number based on locations culturally targeted for the game’s primary market: the U.S. Therefore, be-

cause the machinimator is beholden to the game’s engine (itself a system of rules) in order to create his film, we can understand it to function as procedural representation. And the software itself of The Movies further complicates this mode of machinima in that on one level, the film is very much a sanctioned use of the game, which is a “god game” like Rollercoaster Tycoon (1999) that asks the player to run a movie studio. The ability to make films is an added feature of the game play that enables the making of machinima. However, the end user license agreement set forth by the game’s publisher Activision declares that it owns the rights to any and all machinima films. Therefore, if Chan had produced a film that somehow did not align with the political viewpoints of the company, a cease and desist letter would have been inevitable. Those who own the game engine being appropriated will always maintain a certain amount of control over it. So while the widely successful The French Democracy offers a ray of hope for the future of video game activism, the fact that more and more companies like Microsoft and Blizzard are issuing rules for how their technologies can be used to make machinima threatens what can be said. As a product of what Jenkins (2006b) calls convergence culture, The French Democracy illustrates that with the development of toolsets like game engines designed to make machinima, consumers have more immediate access to media channels than ever before. After Chan finished the film he uploaded it to The Movies official Web site (http://www.lionhead.com/themovies/) created specifically for owners of the game to share their films. Due to the film’s unique political nature and the proximity to the actual riots that had taken place not long before, some of the mainstream news media picked up on it and began reporting it (Musgrove, 2005). Once it became something newsworthy, the number of people downloading it exploded and it became one of the most watched machinima films outside the uber-popular Red vs. Blue series (http://rvb.roosterteeth.com/home.

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php). This perfectly illustrates the political capacity of convergence media in general and video game technologies in particular. Jenkins refers to this as the logic of convergence politics: “The effort to use grassroots media to mobilize and mainstream media to publicize” (p. 220). As digital technologies, video games share in the same ease of distribution as other forms of media online; however, coupled with the unique form of procedural rhetoric offer an even greater potential to the project of political activism.

imPlicAtions For educAtors Hopefully these three modes of video game activism (original design, engine appropriation, and machinima) have demonstrated that mainstream culture vastly overlooks the potential of video game technology. More important, the unique form of procedural rhetoric that each of these modes offers demands that games be explored not just for their pedagogical potential, but for their ability to provide a new voice that speaks to a new audience in the realm of the politically minded. As each of the case studies indicates, video game activism is hardly the answer to overcome the many social and political ills that plague our culture. But they certainly cannot be ignored anymore as a viable means of expression. As organizations like G4C continue to grow and games become even more integrated into our daily lives, this form can become an important part of how we teach civic duty. Similar to the work done by Steve Goodman (2003) at the Educational Video Center in Manhattan, which teaches at-risk youth how to use video equipment to create documentaries that tell their stories, teaching students how to use video game technologies to express their ideas offers endless possibilities. While much of the literature on the educational uses of games follows in the vein of James Gee (2004, 2005), some researchers have opted to extend the role of game design technology into

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after school programs. Peppler and Kafai (2007) have been doing ethnographic research on the Computer Clubhouse, which offers instruction on game design using proprietary software developed through MIT specifically for students called Scratch (http://scratch.mit.edu/). In addition to the members of the Computer Clubhouse, Scratch boasts nearly 8,000 contributors who have uploaded their game designs to their Web site. Teaching students about civic duty and the idea of political activism can be challenging; however, with the introduction of programs like this that allow students to create their own games rather than just play the games prescribed to them by the gaming industry, that challenge seems less daunting. James Gee has joined forces with game design experts Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman in developing a similar program called the Game Designer Project which is funded by the MacArthur Foundation’s 50 million dollar commitment to exploring digital learning (http://digitallearning. macfound.org). As part of the Digital Media Initiative, also funded by the MacArthur foundation, the Global Kids (http://www.globalkids.org) after school program has been using the increasingly popular SecondLife online 3-D virtual world to teach both aspects of game design through using the software’s toolsets to create 3-D models. In addition they have followed in the footsteps of The French Democracy and have used that engine to create their own political machinima. Entitled A Child’s War, the story unfolds like a documentary that tells a child’s story about being made a soldier for the Lords Resistance Army in Uganda. Initiatives like this that make the Global Kids program possible have acknowledged the vastly changing media landscape in which these children now live and have adapted to it, providing them with an entirely new version of what it means to be literate in the 21st century. Teaching students game design represents a new age of digital literacy, one that accounts for a growing impact that gaming makes upon our

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lives. And if civic duty is to be part of that education, teaching them about how video games offer activism new modes of expression in the forms of original design, engine appropriation, and machinima becomes a necessary part of that new literacy. The procedural rhetoric that video game technologies offer has so much more potential to be explored in these sorts of after school programs. So it may be time to teach kids that they can save other worlds besides Hyrule.

reFerences Aldrich, C. (2005). Learning by doing: A comprehensive guide to similuations, computer games, and pedagogy in e-learning and other educational experiences. Jossey-Bass. Bicthelder, H. (2006, August 6). Do-gooder games. Time Magazine. Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1223388,00.html Birdsell, D. S., & Groarke, L. (2004). Toward a theory of visual argument. In C. Handa (Ed.), Visual rhetoric in a digital world: A critical sourcebook (pp. 309-320). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Blair, J. A. (2004a). The rhetoric of visual arguments. In C.A. Hill & M. Helmers (Eds.), Defining visual rhetorics (pp. 41-62). Mahwah, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates. Blair, J. A. (2004b). The possibility and actuality of visual arguments. In C. Handa (Ed.), Visual rhetoric in a digital world: A critical sourcebook (pp. 344-363). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Bogost, I. (2006a, May 3). Columbine RPG. Water Cooler Games. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http:// www.watercoolergames.org/archives/000551. shtml Bogost, I. (2006b, May 6). Columbine, video games as expression, and ineffability. Water

Cooler Games. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http:// www.watercoolergames.org/archives/000558. shtml Bogost, I. (2007a, January 15). Slamdance: SCMRPG removal was personal, not business. Water Cooler Games. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.watercoolergames.org/archives/000718.shtml Bogost, I. (2007b). Persuasive games: The expressive power of video games. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Boyd, C. (2006, July 6). Darfur activism meets video gaming. BBC News. Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/5153694.stm Carrl, E. (2005). APA calls for reduction of violence in interactive media used by children and adolescents. American Psychological Association. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www. apa.org/releases/videoviolence05.html Chan, A. (2005). The French democracy. Retrieved April 5, 2006, from http://movies.lionhead. com/movie/11520 Crecente, B. (2007, January 5). Exclusive: Columbine game kicked from competition. Kotaku. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.kotaku. com/gaming/top/exclusive-columbine-gamekicked-from-competition-226272.php Croal, N. (2007, January 5). Critical hit: Slamdance backers to game makers—your work is still just for kids. Newsweek. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://ncroal.talk.newsweek.com/default. asp?item=417924 Deitch, C. (2006, June 8). Killing time: Is videogame violence uglier when based on real-world violence? Salt Lake City Weekly. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.slweekly.com/article. cfm/killingtimestrong

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Dibbel, J. (2006, February 13). Game from hell. The Village Voice. Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.villagevoice.com/screens/ 0607,dibbell,72158,28.html Entertainment Software Association. (2007). Top 10 industry facts. Entertainment Software Association. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www. theesa.com/facts/top_10_facts.php Galloway, A. R. (2006). Gaming: Essays on algorithmic culture. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Gee, J. P. (2004). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. Palgrave Macmillan. Gee, J. P. (2005). Why video games are good for your soul. Common Ground. Gee, J. P. (2007). Good video games + good learning: Collected essays on video games, learning and literacy. New York: Peter Lang. Goodman, S. (2003). Teaching youth media: A critical guide to literacy, video production, & social change. Teachers College Press. Hill, C. A. (2004). The psychology of rhetorical images. In C.A. Hill & M. Helmers (Eds.), Defining visual rhetorics (pp. 25-40). Mahwah, NJ: Lawerence Erlbaum Associates. Huizinga, J. (1950). Homo ludens: A study of the play-element in culture. Boston: Beacon Press Jenkins, H. 1998). Complete freedom of movement: Video games as gendered play spaces. In J. Cassell & H. Jenkins (Eds.), From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and computer games. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Jenkins, H. (2006a). Convergence culture: Where old and new media collide. New York: NYU Press.

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Jenkins, H. (2006b). Fans, bloggers and gamers: Exploring participatory culture. New York: NYU Press. Jones, R. (2006). From shooting monsters to shooting movies: Machinima and the transformative play of video game fan culture. In K. Hellekson & K. Busse (Eds.), Fan fiction and fan communities in the age of the Internet (pp. 261-280). Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Jones, R. (2007). Machinima: Gamers start playing director. In D. Macedo & S.R. Steinburg (Eds.), Media literacy: A reader (pp.486-491). New York: Peter Lang. Manovich, L. (2001). The language of new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Marino, P. (2004). 3D game-based filmmaking: The art of machinima. Scottsdale, AZ: Paraglyph. Matlack, C. (2005, December 9). Video games go to the movies. Business Week. Retrieved April 4, 2006, from http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/dec2005/tc20051208_639203. htm?campaign_id=search McCloud, S. (2004). From the vocabulary of comics. In C. Handa (Ed.), Visual rhetoric in a digital world: A critical sourcebook (pp. 31953208). Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Murry, J. (1997). Hamlet on the holodeck. New York: Free Press. Musgrove, M. (2005, December 1). Game turns players into indie moviemakers. Washington Post. Retrieved April 5, 2006, from http://www. washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/30/AR2005113002117.html Newitz, A. (2006, January 26). Machinima for the masses. Wired News. Retrieved April 4, 2006, from http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/ news/2006/01/70058

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Peppler, K. A., & Kafai, Y. (2007). What video game making can teach us about literacy and learning: Alternative pathways into participatory culture. Paper presented at Digital Games Research Association, Tokyo. Pereira, I. (2007, March 31). Pols rage as vid game takes shot at city. New York Daily News. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.nydailynews. com/entertainment/2007/03/31/2007-03-31_pols_ rage_as_vid_game_takes_shot_at_city-4.html Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Swain, C. (2007). Designing games to effect social change. Paper presented at Digital Games Research Association, Tokyo. Thomas, D. (2007). Designing games to effect social change: Perspectives from designers, thinkers and activist in the field. Panel discussion at Digital Games Research Association, Tokyo. Thompson, C. (2007, January 15). I, Columbine killer. Wired News. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.wired.com/gaming/gamingreviews/ commentary/games/2007/01/72491 Totilo, S. (2005, December 5). First film about French riots comes courtesy of a video game. MTV News. Retrieved April 4, 2006, from http://www. mtv.com/news/articles/1517481/20051205/index. jhtml Townsend, E. (2006, October 23). The 10 worse games of all time. PC World. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.pcworld.com/article/ id,127579-page,3-c,games/article.html Tschirgi, M. (2006, May 12). Retro Super Columbine Massacre RPG a mostly thoughtful take on the tragedy. Gameology. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.gameology.org/node/1031 Vargas, J. A. (2006a, May 1). In “Darfur Is Dying,” the game that’s anything but. Washington Post.

Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/04/30/ AR2006043001060.html Vargas, J. A. (2006b, May 20). Shock, anger over Columbine video game. Washington Post. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/19/ AR2006051901979.html

Key terms Machinima: Derivative from the modding culture, machinima (machine + cinema) often utilizes the transformative quality of the video game medium to create new narratives based on various game worlds. By harnessing the game engine, machinimators use its capacity to create 3-D graphics in real time and control the avatars much like digital puppets to tell their stories. The result looks a lot like an animated film, yet allows the machinimator who has no animation skills to create their own narrative. Magic Circle: From the work of Johan Huizinga (1950), the magic circle is a metaphor that delineates the artificial world of a game (within the magic circle) and the personal world of the player (outside the magic circle). By accepting to play the game, players voluntarily enter this artificial world that exists within the magic circle. Mods: Short for modification, mods involve gamers changing one of the core aspects of a game to suit their individual needs or visions. Games like Half-Life or Unreal Tournament 2004 often ship with editing tools that allow the gamers to make changes to either the graphics of the game, the rules of interaction, or the physics of the game. The result can be something as subtle as changing the skin color of a character to something as dramatic as transforming the sci-fi dystopian world of the original game into a sweeping Roman empire of antiquity.

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Procedural Rhetoric: From the work of Ian Bogost (2007a, p. ix), procedural rhetoric is defined as “the art of persuasion through rule-based representations and interactions rather than the spoken word, writing, images, or moving pictures.” Transformative Play: If we accept Salen and Zimmerman’s (2004, p. 300) definition of play as “the free movement within a more rigid structure,” transformative play then constitutes the free movement that then alters that rigid structure for others. Rather than playing by the rules, the player changes them for herself as well as others, thus permeating the magic circle.

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Video Game Activism: The intentional use of video game technology to bring about social or political change. Video Game Engine: A game engine is the core software component of a video game that comprises of several complex processes working in unison to make modern game design both possible as well as more efficient. Also referred to as Middleware, due to the flexibility they provide developers for reusing an engine for several different games, game engines usually consist of three core engines (but often many more): Rendering (to govern graphics), AI (to govern non-player actions) and Physics (to govern how characters and environments interact).

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Chapter LVII

Conceptual Play Spaces Sasha A. Barab Indiana University School of Education, USA Adam Ingram-Goble Center for Research on Learning and Technology, USA Scott Warren University of North Texas, USA

Abstract In this chapter we provide a framework for designing play spaces to support learning academic content. Reflecting on our four years of design experience around developing conceptual play spaces, we provide guidelines for educators to think through what it would mean to design a game for supporting learning. Conceptual play is a state of engagement that involves (a) projection into the role of a character who, (b) engaged in a partly fictional problem context, (c) must apply conceptual understandings to make sense of and, ultimately, transform the context. We provide four elements that one must balance when designing a conceptual play space to support the learning of disciplinary content; more specifically, ensuring the learning of academic content and supporting legitimate participation while, concurrently ensuring interaction with gaming rules and engagement with the framing narratives through which the play takes on meaning. Our goal is to communicate the potential value of play spaces and to provide an illuminative set of cases for others.

It is our belief that video games pedagogies and technologies bear considerable potential for transforming learning even in the context of schools. Though many academics have little first-hand experience with them (Frasca, 2002), two genera-

tions of adults have grown up with video games, and a multi-billion dollar industry has developed alongside these players (Herz, 1997; Jones, 2003). Indeed, considering how much time youth spend with video games (Jones, 2003; Roberts, Foehr,

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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& Rideout, 2005) coupled with research revealing the richness of the learning interactions and social networks that video games inspire (Gee, 2003; Shaffer, 2006; Squire, 2006), educators should be keen to command such a force. Game play has the potential to immerse the player in a rich network of interactions and unfolding story lines through which she solves problems and reflects on the workings of the design of the game world, and the design of both real and imagined social relationships and identities in the game- and non-game worlds. According to Gee (2003), video games support a form of empathetic embodiment for a complex system, something that school curriculum should aspire to but has difficulty in achieving. Empathetic embodiment is a process of being immersed (experiencing a sense of “presence”) within a virtual environment through which one comes to develop an understanding of or appreciation for one or more particular aspects (narratively, interactively, perceptually, and/or socially) of the context (Heeter, 1992). This sort of projective identification with an individual, a group, or even a system occurs in games as the player comes to identify with their game character and the larger system within which their character interacts. So far in history, for most people, complex systems have not been the sorts of warm and fuzzy things with which most people could or wanted to sympathize, let alone empathize. But good games create a strong empathetic identification with the game world as a system. (Gee, 2004, p. 2) Further, video game play and particularly multi-player gaming usually takes place as part of discourse communities that elicit complex cognitive and communicative practices, much the way participation in scientific communities has been shown to produce complex cognitive processes (Squire, 2006; Steinkuehler, 2006). At one level, curriculum developers and instructional designers can only marvel at the

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diverse ways these games support complex learning, thinking, and social practices. Multiplayer role-playing games (MMOs) afford rich opportunities for achievement, communication, collaboration, fantasy engagement, problem solving, character development, hypothesis generation, and reflexivity, with the potential to enlist membership and identity in ways that occur only in the most advanced curricular designs. However, even if one did want to integrate the technologies and methodologies of video games into K-12 curriculum design, there is little understanding of the principles and tensions regarding how to develop a play space that shares common design features with these kinds of games while falling within societal norms and school-sanctioned behaviors. Doing so is a challenge, but one that we believe is possible, worthwhile, and necessary. In designing games for academic learning, it is easy to create a distinction between play and learning, setting up the game structure so that it is separate from the content to be learned. The goal of this manuscript is to offer a theoretical and design framework that facilitates academically meaningful collaborative play. This argument is situated in the context of our Quest Atlantis Project. Quest Atlantis (QA) is a learning and teaching project that uses a 3-D multi-user environment to immerse children, ages 9-15, in educational tasks (http://questatlantis.org). Building on strategies from online role-playing games, QA combines strategies used in the commercial gaming environment with lessons from educational research on learning and motivation (Barab, Dodge, Thomas, Jackson, & Tuzun, 2007; Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005; Barab, Zuiker, et al., 2007). It allows learners to travel to virtual places to perform educational activities (known as Quests), talk with other users and mentors, and build virtual personae. While QA as a virtual environment consists of dozens of virtual worlds, each with their own themes and design priorities. The two examples presented here were chosen because they usefully contrast

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and illuminate the challenges and opportunities of designing what we refer to as conceptual play spaces.

Conceptual Play Spaces Defining Play. While defining play is not a simple task, researchers have described play as: (1) intrinsically motivated and self-initiated, (2) non-literal and pleasurable, (3) process-oriented, (4) exploratory and active, and (5) governed by rules (Fromberg, 1998; Wardle, 1987). Similar in emphasis, Huizinga (1950) defined play as, “a free activity standing quite consciously outside ‘ordinary’ life as being ‘not serious,’ but at the same time absorbing the player intensely and utterly… It proceeds within its own proper boundaries of time and space according to fixed rules and in an orderly manner. It promotes the formation of social groupings, which tend to surround themselves with secrecy and to stress their difference from the common world by disguised or other means” (p. 15). What is common across both these definitions of play is a belief that play refers to activities that are somehow “outside of life,” and “not serious.” Such a view of play makes it difficult to appreciate how it can be leveraged toward academic ends. Vygotsky (1978), instead, argued that “the influence of play on a child’s development is enormous…it is a novel form of behavior liberating the child from constraints” (p. 94-95). Vygotsky and others describe play as a scaffolding activity that expands the children’s zone of proximal development (ZPD)1, engaging them in issues, concepts, and interactions that are not addressed directly through participation in society or even through the normal curriculum of schools (Barab, Arici, & Jackson, 2005; Leong, Bodrova, Hensen, & Henninger, 1999; Leont’ev, 1974). This sentiment was also advanced by the Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI), who stated that “play—a dynamic, active, and

constructive behavior—is an essential and integral part of all children’s healthy growth, development, and learning across all ages, domains, and cultures” (Isenberg & Quisenberry, 1998, p. 15). Many people have preset beliefs about what constitutes play and its relevance to academic learning, with some treating it as a frivolous activity that at best should be relegated to the elementary years, if it is to occur in K-12 schools at all. Others believe that it should simply be used as a reward structure for other, more meaningful activities that directly relate to the accepted curriculum within recognized content areas. In elementary school, a different attitude towards learning regularly emerges; school-based learning is often something that must be done before a child is allowed to go out and play—an activity distinct from play and explicitly labeled “work” (schoolwork, homework). Much like eating one’s vegetables before getting dessert, schoolwork becomes a chore rather than reward. (Barab, Arici, & Jackson, 2005, p. 5) A core conviction underlying our work is that meaningful curriculum can be designed that sits at the intersections of real and fantasy, or of mandatory and voluntary participation, or of working and playing. Defining A Game. Before advancing our theory of conceptual play spaces, we should briefly outline what we mean by a game since this has strongly influenced our notion of how to design conceptual play spaces. Just as complex as the notion of play, we have also found that producing a comprehensive definition of games to be challenging undertaking. For some, games are activities to be undertaken for pleasure and are explicitly designed to escape real-world concerns. For others, life is as a game. In our work, we have at times treated our intervention as a game and at other times describe it as a curriculum (Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005). We even had

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an instance where one student interviewed at a school referred to it as “a game” and when the same child was interviewed at an after-school location he referred to it as “school work”. According to Salen and Zimmerman (2004, p. 80), “a game is a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome.” This definition highlights four features as constituting a game: system, rules, artificial conflict, and quantifiable outcome—the latter term referring to a measurable goal state upon which the player and the system can evaluate progress. Gee (2004, p. 2) has argued that a game is a complex system: “this complex system is an emergent property of the (sometimes not fully understood) rules that the designer has built into the game and the (never predictable) interactions of the player (in his or her gamer identity) with this rule system.” This description is similar to ideas discussed by Winn and Heeter (2006) who suggested that within a game there are two types of storytelling: the designer’s story which is built into the game and the player’s story which emerges in response to playing the game. In a game, what unifies the different aspects of play is some overriding coherence or, in the case of MMOs and many popular video games, is an overriding narrative through which the various components, rules, and interactions take on meaning. Salen and Zimmerman (2004, p. 35) suggest that: “Meaningful play occurs when the relationships between actions and outcomes in a game are both discernable and integrated into the larger context of the game.” While some games have fairly impoverished internal narratives (e.g., poker, craps, jacks), many are steeped in rich narratives that provide semantic meanings to the actions defined by the rule sets (Squire, 2006). Conceptual Play Spaces. For us, conceptual refers to both disciplinary content and practices, as well as an appreciation for those situations in which these understandings and practices have

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value. In terms of disciplinary content, we are referring to the core facts, concepts, methods, instruments, and processes that underlie any discipline. For example, the concept of “erosion” would be a core environmental science concept in the context of an ecosystem. Knowing domain concepts and content is in part what it means to be literate with respect to the discipline. Ostensibly, this content is core to a domain because of its value for domain practitioners; however, for schools and for textbook companies this content is usually defined for a domain in terms of academic standards rather than a real-world context and need. As reaction to such positioning of content, Lave and Wenger (1991) introduced the notion of legitimate participation which emphasizes using conceptual understandings as tools to address authentic situations in which the conceptual understanding has value—as opposed to the learning of academic content as facts to be exchanged for a grade on a test. On a related note, different individuals have different opinions on how students should best learn core disciplinary content. For example, two opposing positions have been described in the academic literature as aligning to an acquisition metaphor or a participation metaphor of learning (Sfard, 1998). Central to the former metaphor is a view of school as a place for collecting or acquiring knowledge, which makes instruction about determining the best means of transmitting this information. The opposing view treats knowing as distributed across people and contexts through which core content gains meaning (Barab, Cherkes-Julkowski, Swenson, Garrett, Shaw, & Young, 1999). In a similar vein of thinking, the sociologist of science Bruno Latour (1987), distinguished between acquiring ready-made knowledge and participating in knowing-in-the-making. For many, learning through engaged participation results in a very different kind of knowing than a more didactic pedagogical approach (Barab, Hay, Barnett, & Keating, 2000; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Cognition and Technology Group

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at Vanderbilt, 1990; Lave, 1988). We argue that science learning should occur as part of participation in (embodiment with) rich contexts through which the science content takes on meaning. A pedagogical shift to this sort of engaged participation could occur through well designed learning games. In particular, our focus is on supporting conceptual play. Conceptual play, according to Barab (2006) is a state of engagement that involves: (a) projection into the role of a character who, (b) engaged in a partly fantastical problem context, (c) must apply conceptual understandings to make sense of and, ultimately, transform the context. Additionally, a conceptual play space should (d) provide opportunities to examine one’s participation in terms of the impact it had on the immersive context. An essential aspect of conceptual play is that the individual is experientially situated within the play space in which she has a legitimate role. For example, a student involved in Quest Atlantis—described later in the chapter—might play the role of an environmental scientist, examining the quality of the green, murky water in a virtual river in order to determine why fish populations are declining resulting in the virtual park no longer attracting fisherman. Similarly, such spaces serve to situate disciplinary content. For example, the studentscientist must make use of their understanding

of the related disciplinary concepts (i.e., algae blooms and eutrophication) to correctly describe the problem situation and advance a successful solution. In our work on the Quest Atlantis project (described more fully later), we have designed and researched numerous conceptual play spaces to better understand the challenges of designing and the potential benefits of using such contexts to support learning in 4th-8th grade classrooms. We have found that a core challenge in designing conceptual play spaces is the balancing of four core elements into a meaningful experience (see Figure 1). More specifically, ensuring the learning of academic content and supporting legitimate participation while, concurrently ensuring interaction with gaming rules and engagement with the framing narratives through which the play takes on meaning. While it is possible to develop game rules or even a rich narrative, and while it is possible to design a space to support academic learning or even legitimate participation, it is quite challenging to develop a conceptual play space that both fosters Gee’s notion of empathetic embodiment and supports the learning of discipline-relevant practices. The goal of this manuscript is to both communicate the value of such curriculum and to provide an illuminative set of cases such that others might create their own conceptual play spaces.

Figure 1. Core elements that need to be balanced in developing a Conceptual Play Space

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Illuminative Examples Above, we outlined four key aspects to be balanced when designing conceptual play spaces. To further illuminate what we mean by conceptual play spaces and the challenges that confront the design of these environments, in this section we will share two designed curricula, both situated in the Quest Atlantis learning context. The first curriculum is the Black Rhino Unit, which was designed to aid students in discovering that reallife issues of science, ecology, and habitat are often inseparable from other issues such as society, politics, and economics. This unit includes a real-life narrative context and engages learners in legitimate practices, but has few game rules. The second example is a unit called Anytown that leverages language arts, reading, social studies, mathematics, and science content; participation is embedded within a rich, enmeshed narrative around meaningful practices that elaborate explicit and implicit game rules. Within this unit,

students take on the role of a professional journalist as they uncover evidentiary clues, interview complex, evolving characters, and solve game-like mysteries as part of their writing practices across content areas. To understand these units, one has to first appreciate the meta-context of Quest Atlantis within which these activities are situated. The core elements of QA include: (1) a 3-D multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) (see Figure 2), (2) inquiry learning Quests and unit plans, (3) a story line, presented through an introductory video as well as novels, comic books, online Web logs, and trading cards which involves a mythical Council and a set of social commitments, and (4) a globally-distributed community of participants. At the writing of this manuscript, we have over 15,000 students and over 1,000 teachers from five countries using Quest Atlantis. At its core, Quest Atlantis is about participating in a narrative about Atlantis, a world in trouble that has fallen into the hands of misguided leaders. Through videos, novels,

Figure 2. Screenshot from Quest Atlantis, showing a scene from a village on the left and the homepage for a student on the right

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and an unfolding back story, children learn that an effort to save their civilization, a small group of Atlantians came together to form the Council to seek knowledge from other civilizations. This knowledge is primarily gathered by having children complete Quests, which require them to investigate Council-posed problems usually involving the investigation of real-world issues on Earth and then sharing what they learned with the Council. To support this sharing the Council developed the OTAK, a virtual environment that serves as a technological portal between Atlantis and the Earth. Participation in QA entails a personal and shared engagement with this narrative, as children complete Quests to contribute information and ideas based on real-world experiences. Significantly, it is this central narrative that provides the meta-structure of QA; the online technology is simply one of the ways in which participants are immersed in the narrative (Barab, Zuiker, et al., 2007). This larger frame, the meta-game narrative, is the umbrella structure that gives unity and meaning to the underlying participant structures. While students earn points, navigate characters through virtual worlds, collect virtual and real artifacts, and can “Luminate” (a.k.a. “level up”) their virtual character by completing Quests related to different disciplinary foci (e.g., environmental awareness, diversity affirmation, creative expression) and to the project social commitments (Barab, Dodge, Thomas, Jackson, & Tuzun, 2007). At its core, Quest Atlantis is less of a game and more a form of dramatic play (Leong, Bodrova, Hensen, & Henninger, 1999; Vygotsky, 1978). In this way, QA as originally designed had fewer game elements and was therefore more storydriven; this was a story in which children were both readers and authors, using their own experiences as part of the content of the core narrative. The mythical back-story of QA, which crosses the boundaries between the Atlantian world and local contexts, is intended to motivate students to devel-

op answers to social issues beyond their typically available life experiences (Barab, Thomas, et al., 2005). In particular, as they engage with Quests, investigate local issues and upload responses of various types (e.g., word documents, PowerPoint presentations, excel graphs, etc.) students hold the expectation that this response will be reviewed by the Council of Atlantis and that these representatives of a distant planet will provide useful perspective on the Atlantian problem. Students and teachers most often engage the myth, with approximately 90% of our over 30,000 reviewed responses having been signed by teachers who role play one of the Council members. The Black Rhino Unit. The Black Rhino Unit, beyond a simple collection of Quests, established a simulation context in which students investigated the socio-political and environmental dynamics surrounding the creation and maintenance of a game reserve located in the East African country of Tanzania. As part of the simulation context, children investigated and adopted multiple roles (i.e., conservationist, veterinarian, plantation owner, director of wildlife, import/export trader, meat company manager). Regardless of their particular role, children were required to develop a rich understanding of the issue at hand, a task that required them to learn about various scientific and economic aspects of the reserve and the Black Rhino, and then make recommendations about the best use of the land. As part of their participation in the project, participants use their digital avatar to navigate around the virtual space and interviewed characters who allowed them to gain access to the multi-media materials so that they could defend their positions and prepare a scientific report. The unit contained three Quests and four classroom discussion activities. The unit as a whole took approximately six 50-minute class periods to complete. In addition to learning about the reserve in Tanzania, students also had to identify and investigate an issue in their local community. Similar to their

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Conceptual Play Spaces

investigation of the virtual reserve, they were required to write a scientific report, prepare a persuasive argument, and develop a public document to promote awareness of this issue. The unit was problem-based (Savery & Duffy, 1996), beginning with a text-based appeal from a local tribesman followed by the provision of a series of Web-based resources that students used to learn about the Reserve, its associated issues, and stakeholders’ differing perspectives. The project resources, for which we developed over 50 html pages, contain factual information based on different stakeholders (indigenous families, the local warden, government officials, and other experts) and their conflicting interests. This information is distributed throughout a virtual world, containing of all the core components of the reserve and the virtual people who represented the actual stakeholders. As students explored the virtual space, they clicked on objects such as a person, a hut, a rhino, or even a tree, which allowed them to accumulate and sort through the information which was presented on the linked html pages (see Figure 3). Students used the information to

make a case for or against the continuation of the reserve and then to develop an ecotourism scenario and brochure with the goal of balancing and improving conditions for both the animals and humans in the area. In terms of narrative and, to a lesser extent, the rule sets, the Black Rhino unit represents a significant change in our QA design work. Up to this point, the virtual worlds in QA were not simulations of real-world places but rather were fictitious worlds. Instead of simply reading Quests that were only situated in the larger project narrative, all the content in the Rhino world was embedded within the virtual environment, which allowed students to learn and conduct research entirely within this world, without having to leave for access to the Internet, library, or real people and problems in the world. Children and teachers alike commented on how engaging it was to be immersed in a thematically connected space, where they could walk around to view and learn about the virtual animals and interview the various stakeholders, all of which represent real people, scenarios and conflicts.

Figure 3. Screenshot from Rhino world, showing the juxtaposition of the real and the virtual

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Conceptual Play Spaces

We specifically examined student learning in four classrooms. In all four classrooms, there were significant learning gains from pre-test to post-test. There were significant gains from pretest to post-test at the New York site (PreM = 12.14, PostM = 18.74; t(27) = 12.17, p < .01), at the Indiana classroom site (PreM = 6.82, PostM = 13.65; t(16) = 9.23, p < .01), at the California site (PreM = 2.66, PostM = 11.27; t(29) = 12.66, p < .01), and at the Indiana after-school site (PreM = 6.12, PostM = 11.38; t(7) = 10.45, p < .05). The fact that student learning occurred over six class periods may not be so surprising, but the types of comments we received from teachers were quite compelling. Teachers continually commented how useful it was to take this “virtual field trip,” thereby situating children in the Tanzanian context. One California teacher stated: The last four weeks of school will be memorable for me, because it was a shining example of what great things can come from students if you engage them in learning not just curriculum … because the students really cared about the Black Rhino, the Maasai Tribe, or the farmers. They were motivated to really understand these perspectives in order to discuss and debate the perspectives of the poachers, and government officials. While they are not meant to be exhaustive for all children, some illuminative comments from children are presented in the following. And while not all students in the four research sites that we examined Rhino World being implemented made such comments, we did not receive any negative comments from children. • •

I love the whole theme of Tanzania and Africa. It seems so life-like … I actually feel like I’m halfway around the world! I think this unit was important so we could learn to save an environment in a virtual world, so we would know how to do it in the real world.

•

When asked if this was more like a game or more like school, one girl responded: “This is more like a game than school.” When asked if she plays video games, “No, I think video games rot your mind! This is different. This is fun because it teaches you something.”

Clearly, these comments indicate a sort of engagement with the narrative. Also of interest were the blurring of boundaries of what was play and what was real. This latter tension highlights an important feature of games, what Salen and Zimmerman (2004) refer to as the “magic circle.” The magic circle is the metaphorical border between the game and the world outside of the game. In the Black Rhino Unit we treat this circle as porous, introducing a game-based narrative that involves real people and a real-world issue taking place in Tanzania. As such, students had little trouble appreciating the relations between the virtual and the “real” world. In this way, rather than establishing a world unto itself, we designed a virtual environment that had direct ties to non-virtual happenings. For us, blurring this distinction is an important element of successfully designed conceptual play spaces in that our goal in designing these spaces is to simultaneously immerse students within a rich fictional world and helping them make linkages to core meanings and concepts such that they perceive their relevance to other narratives. A question that might arise is whether Black Rhino a game or a simulation? At some level, this experience might be better described as a simulation than a game in that it was designed to model a version of reality such that the player can experience events otherwise not possible. However, for us, the distinction between a game and a simulation is less useful in that our focus is on supporting conceptual play. With that said, it is our belief that by building the context in a way that does not feel overly “real,” we enlist a playful component that is more likely to draw in the player, to enlist experimentation, and to support the type of play that theorists have

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argued make play such an important learning and developmental experience. At one level we are designing a game and at another we are designing a simulation. In either case, if we do not draw meaningful links to educational content and core domain practices (even if the virtual world is entirely fantastical) then we have failed to develop a successful conceptual play space. With that said, Rhino had definite elements of a simulation, but had very few elements of a game. In fact, there were almost no embedded rules that gave the experience an element of game-based, as opposed to simply, narrative play. In our thinking, rules provide game-based parameters that delineate the types of interactions that the user will have when they perform actions in the game. For example, in the computer video game Neverwinter Nights, based on the popular Dungeons and Dragons™ fantasy series, the interaction is between the player and the other virtual people (non-player characters) and beasts in the game, which the player encounters as she attempts to end a horrible plague that is devastating the entire land. Sometimes fellow travelers will help, sometimes they will fight; but the important point is that they can be acted upon and they act in certain ways. Likewise, in a flight simulation, the interaction is between the user and the airplane controls. Clicking the wrong button or using the wrong combination of keystrokes can send the plane out of control and to possible destruction. In both cases, the system reacts to the user’s actions based on some kind of algorithm. Further, how the system interacts is dependent on what the player has accomplished previously; that is, the game play evolves based on user choices. Rules provide the formal structure of the game, specifying how the system functions. In contrast, the Rhino Unit had a rich narrative but almost no rules governing the interaction. Basically, we had a virtual context in which a player could move their avatar to a location and click on a virtual (non-player) character, providing the student with

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a text statement from the character and a list of possible responses from which to select a followup question. There were no interactive rule sets and the system did not change based on student choices. Further, while there was an outcome, the system did not know whether a particular player reached the outcome; instead, it just awarded individuals points if the teacher judged the three submitted reports as adequate. Upon acceptance of a Quest, students would receive points and lumins (in QA students luminate on project social commitments such as environmental awareness or creative expression as they earn lumins). Students could then use the points they gained from completing the work to earn trading cards and other game paraphernalia, and through their luminations they could unlock more opportunities in QA. However, besides online rhino trading cards, the rewards and interactions were generic to the QA system and had no particular meaning to the Rhino unit. The Anytown Unit. Within this unit, students engaged a rich narrative about a small town that is facing economic and criminal challenges such as flagging tourism, closing businesses, graffiti, and arson (Warren, Barab, & Dondlinger, in press). The unit’s underlying focus is on improvement of reading and writing, as well as science learning. The student’s role is one of an investigative reporter for the local newspaper. However, as soon as students engage with their first major writing task, the multi- and inter-disciplinary nature of the town’s problems, solutions, and available student tasks is presented through a series of evolving, linked mysteries that students can solve. Similar to Rhino, new information and content area guidance is provided through various non-player characters (NPC) who act as pedagogical agents to present as well as help evolve the intertwining narratives that are present throughout the Anytown experience. The developed NPCs provide students with multiple perspectives on problems as the central

Conceptual Play Spaces

narrative and its several branches progress, drawing students into the ecological and economic problems that the town is facing. Objects such as books, toys, paintings, plaques, keys, and trees also take a more active role, providing students with game tools for solving mysteries. The stories told by the characters and objects were used as a means of engaging students with their role (reporter). We also included a number of “frustration points” upon which student knowledge constructs could be challenged and student dependence upon the system as well as interdependence with peers could be fostered. A designed frustration point is intended to support what Gee (2003) referred to as pleasurable frustration and what Csikszentmihalyi (1990) referred to as the state of flow. Such points establish academically-relevant dilemmas that require students to use information they learn

from the system and from peers to succeed at their task. This experience takes place in the Anytown world, and students, similar to other worlds in QA, use their digital avatar to navigate around the world as they investigate news stories assigned to them by the editor. Some of the salient features of Anytown include a mine, old mansion, nature preserve, and farm. The world is presented as a digital, simulated town that also includes businesses, school, library, newspaper, a gas station, and city hall. Investigations assigned to the player, in their role of investigative reporter, are scaffolded by NPCs such as Jim Tuttle, the editor-in-chief of the Anytown News, as well as by objects within the environment that provide feedback and redirection to other tasks. Students were initially asked to write a newspaper story about a nearby historic

Figure 4. Design document from Anytown that illuminates the interactive complexity to the Anytown context. Anytown Part Two shows what happens if the learner chooses the Raintree trajectory instead of the Dark Lake trajectory, and the impact this has when combined with the standard evidence that comes from the mandatory reporter's investigation

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cabin that has mysteriously caught fire. Once their investigation begins, students are asked by another NPC, Larry the Sheriff, to investigate the cause of the fire, which in turn provides students with more information for writing their news story. Student investigations yield clues such as a footprint, a book of matches, and an old gas can that someone attempted to bury in the earth. Each clue provides embedded information that can be used to lead students to information sources in the form of NPCs. Once a student accrues clues, character dialogue changes, and relevant information is offered that leads students to new clues and information. However, as referred to earlier, some objects such as the gas can act as designed frustration points. If a student fails to follow the trail of clues and build their own case, they often went straight to the gas can that they could only pick up once they had other clues or information that warranted taking it. Without all the evidence that stemmed from the clues and characters, students would become frustrated as they made many attempts to get the gas can. This frustration then led to student re-examination of their evidence, return visits to speak with relevant NPCs, and use of peers to discover steps or clues they had missed. See Figure 4 for an overview of the Anytown trajectories, illuminating the interactive complexity to the Anytown experience. Once a clue loses its usefulness, it is “given” to a relevant NPC such as when the evidence of a crime is given to the sheriff. This serves two purposes: (a) reduce the amount of clutter that students have to work with as they work on Quests and (b) to make the unit more about participation in the process of investigation and report than in acquisition of objects. While most of the play is single player, because students make different choices and therefore collect different clues, we observe much conversation among students as they exchange facts and understandings—even trading some objects across characters to unlock different storylines. Each of the four Mystery Quests included a designed frustration point that

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ranged from following directions (Quest One) to using ciphers that were embedded in other clues in order to gain items (Quest Four). Writing and Creative Writing Quest activities required that students engage in the development of progressively more difficult pieces that covered the gamut from descriptive and compare and contrast to poetry and short fiction. A final category of Quest called Reflection Quests ask students to link their experiences in Anytown to their personal experience, comparing and contrasting or choosing a viewpoint and defending it. As a means of illustrating the main two Quest trajectories, we offer a brief description of the Mystery and Writing Quests, pointing out the intertwining of the writing and investigation activities that students engage in as they work in Anytown. As already briefly described earlier, the first dyad of Mystery and Writing Quests involves students in: (a) writing a short descriptive piece about the historic Burning Cabin concurrently with (b) investigating the cause of the fire. While they investigate, students encounter both characters that have useful, factual information to tell them related to the story or crime as well as NPCs that have little to say and can sometimes be rude when they are interrupted at work. For example, when students interact with Freddie, the mayor’s son, he provides students with little information, but passes along the important Matchbook clue that contains information about who they should talk to for a lead on the next clue. The scaffolding of the clues and characters presents students with a system of rules such as some characters have good information, some do not, and talk to everyone which students can use to guide their investigation and overcome the central conflict which is that they do not know who or what caused the fire. Such inclusion of irrelevant information is important to allow for students to become critical consumers, making choices of which information is worth their time to examine. The clue trail leads students to accidental arson and a problem that stems from

Conceptual Play Spaces

pollution because of old building materials such as tar. However, students must deduce who was responsible and apply this knowledge because the criminal does not confess. Once they have solved the first Mystery and written their first news story for the editor, the second set of activities requires that students write about and investigate graffiti that has emerged around town since they last spoke to the sheriff. As a result, the learning environment changes when two historic plaques are defaced with spraypainted slogans that foreshadow future conflicts while introducing a new, current conflict. The rules by which students interact with characters continue to be revealed, introducing new characters with information, while old game characters fall silent. Some of the clues include receipts that students can present to store owners. However, they must first puzzle out the cost of items using addition and subtraction skills before determining which game character will be able to help them solve the mystery. The collection and analysis of clues, discourse with characters, and reflection allows students to solve the mystery and name the graffiti artist as well as the civic concern that led him to deface the artifacts. In this instance, the criminal confesses his crime as a means of social protest, similar to the concept of civil disobedience outlined by Thomas Payne prior to the American Revolution, thus introducing a social studies focus. The final two activities require students to build a case for or against reopening the mine in town at the behest of its wealthiest citizen. This request sets citizens against one another, setting up the overarching conflict in Anytown. As students talk to the NPCs in town prior to the third dyad of Mystery and Writing Quests, each states their opinion and any supporting evidence. The Mystery Quest that students engage with next allows students to use the stories they have heard from characters, combined with those in objects such as books and paintings, in order to solve puzzles. The solution of these puzzles eventually results in

students gaining important information that can inform the writing of their news story, possibly causing them to question their initial hypotheses stemming from discussions with the Anytownians. Once students write up the information they gain from the townspeople and Mystery Quests, another round of information becomes active in which a second mystery provides further information and evidence and a second set of facts and opinions from the townspeople. It is the combination of all the information that students collect from the four Quests combined that allows them to complete a final meta-task requiring that they write an editorial for the newspaper, stating the opinion of the editor supported by the evidence they have found. These Quests require students to discriminate fact from opinion, interpret the intentions of the NPCs, solve puzzles using ciphers, learn science content, learn about the history of the town as a means of contextualizing their own understandings, and begin to understand what questions a reporter should ask in order to write a good story with the characteristics of good writing. In this case, a pedagogical agent helps them consider the necessary components of good writing and a convincing essay. Further, students are required to pay attention to what they read and take good notes in order to present a solid argument and solve the puzzles that arise. Finally, based on student choices, the system and characters change to provide consequential feedback about the impact of student choices. Anytown is still going through revisions as part of our design-based research methodology (Barab & Squire, 2004), but an examination of the data from the most last implementation provides insights into its effectiveness. In particular, our initial analyses have focused on learning outcomes related to writing process. Achievement scores were assessed using a standardized writing prompt used by the state of New Jersey. This prompt is open-ended and a standardized rubric is then applied to their writing responses to the prompt.

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For this study, a comparison, traditional curricula was made focusing on the same process writing skills, and two equivalent 4h grade classrooms were identified for this study (Warren, 2006). We found a statistically significant increase in pre-post learning gains on the essay items for both classes, with the class using the Anytown unit showing significantly more improvement (F (1, 40) = 4.32, p < .05) than the class using the traditional curriculum. We also examined teacher time spent on administrative tasks such as providing repeated directions about the nature of the task and procedures for task completion, voluntary activities completed during the implementation, and a more general qualitative take on how the teaching of the different forms of curriculum unfolded. The first item, teacher time spent on administrative tasks, was a measure of the amount of time that the teacher spent answering questions about the task directions, recommended procedures for completion of tasks, and teacher expectations of learning outcomes. This was interesting because it was an indication for us of how much time the teacher devoted to giving redundant directions, directing or redirecting students to complete specific activities, and about how the teacher wanted students to complete voluntary or mandatory learning tasks. For this question, a paired-sample t-test was conducted on the teacher time spent answering scores to see if the mean for the teacher using Anytown was significantly different from the mean for the teacher using more traditional methods. With the alpha set at .05, the paired-C-sample t-test showed that there were significant differences (t(15) =5.95, p = .043) between treatment (M = 12.12, SD = 6.70) and comparison (M = 28.41, SD = 3.91). In terms of voluntarily writing, equivalent activities were designed for both classes and students were told that they were free to engage these activities at any point. With the alpha set at .05, the paired-sample t-test showed that there are significant differences (t (40) = -16.41, p =.006)

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between the treatment (M = 1.09, SD = .29) and comparison class (M = .00, SD = .00). Finally, there were qualitative differences in how the classes unfolded. One major qualitative difference between the classes came in the form of student choice of activities. The Anytown treatment allowed students to explore and direct their own learning within the environment, noting locations, people, and items such as clues or puzzles that they thought were of interest and might return to as the story unfolded. Students also interacted with human and non-human characters that acted as pedagogical agents, identified interesting Quests through face-to-face (FTF) sharing, and helped each other understand the rules and locations of the various Quests. This contrasted with the comparison class in which student activities were predetermined by the teacher and choice was limited to one learning task. The teacher was the primary arbiter of where students were allowed to go, both in the classroom and in Quest Atlantis during computer lab time. Also of interest, was that the students in the treatment class spent time in the hallway and at lunch discussing the Anytown curriculum, and we witnessed no moments of this in the comparison condition.

Conclusion In this manuscript we described two virtual worlds that students might experience as part of their participation in the Quest Atlantis project, offering both as examples of conceptual play spaces. At their core, the findings of these studies suggest that bringing together game-based methodology and inquiry-based pedagogy in the context of supporting academic content can be a fruitful venture. Reflecting on our four years of design experiences centered on the development of conceptual play spaces, we also provide educators with anchor points and examples for thinking through what it would mean to design a game for supporting learning. In particular, we provide four

Conceptual Play Spaces

Table 1. Breakdown of different curricular units in terms of the elements of conceptual play spaces Rhino Unit

Anytown Unit

Academic Content

Low

Med

Legitimate Participation

High

High

Framing Narrative

High

High

 

Game Rules

Low

High

Magic Circle

Porous

Solid

elements that one must balance when designing a conceptual play space to support the learning of disciplinary content: one must balance academic content, legitimate participation, a framing narrative, and the use of game rules to establish a play space for learning academic content. We then purposively selected these two worlds because of how they differed in terms of the extent to which they balanced these four elements, and we have also compared them in terms of the rigidity of the magic circle of the game (see Table 1). Salen and Zimmerman (2004) discussed the idea of a magic circle, referring to the conceptual boundary that surrounds a particular game and gives it its meaning. First, we described the Rhino Unit, which, while situated in the larger QA context, was self-referentially sufficient because it had its own back-story and core practices. A core element of this context was also that the framing narrative was not just fantasy-based; it had elements of reality in that it models a real park and the various stakeholders within it. Clearly, this unit blurred the magic circle. In contrast, the activities in Anytown provided a much more fantastical context and included many more game-based rule structures. In fact, Anytown evolved from game tasks similar to those included in games such as those in the Myst series, The Longest Journey, or Syberia in which investigation is the primary task given to the player because it was a match with the content to be presented. More generally,

the Rhino unit much more closely resembled a problem-based learning environment (Savery & Duffy, 1996) in which players were given a problem and then explored various information to determine a solution. The space, while adding a layer of perceptual immersion and involved firstperson characters, was not very interactive and did not meaningfully respond to player choices as did Anytown. The user experience in Rhino was participatory but was designed to have them acquire our pre-determined narrative, potentially emphasizing the designer story over the player story. Now, while this has educational merit in the context of schools, it is our belief that Anytown allows for more student agency and authority, as well as provides an authentic layer of conceptual consequentiality in that the system responds to student actions—as opposed to the consequences simply being that the student turned in a report that received a reasonable grade. Gee (2004, p. 3) notes that through “embodied movement in the game world… (the player) can achieve an empathetic embodiment for the complex system.” This is to say, the player can achieve a level of empathy with the entirety of the complex system, rather than simply being an individual embedded within the system. A key component is that the environment is designed in such a way that the learner, through their interaction with the rule sets and underlying narrative, develops a sense of empathy for the complex system that is the game. In the examples

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Table 2. Breakdown of different curricular units in terms of four types of embodiment scaffolds  

Anytown Unit

Narrative Embodiment

Med

High

Perceptual Embodiment

High

High

Social Embodiment

Low

High

Interactive Embodiment

Low

High

presented here, there were obvious differences in the potential of the respective designs to establish this empathetic embodiment. In Table 2 we compare the two units in terms of four potential scaffolds for supporting conceptual play: narrative, perceptual, interactive, and social. Looking across the two instructional trajectories we see clear differences on the four forms of scaffolds, which leads to, we argue, different levels of empathetic embodiment. Before contrasting the four environments, we should briefly define what we mean by a conceptual play scaffold. For us, a conceptual play scaffold is a designed structure intended to engage a user more deeply into a particular context such that users develop an understanding of a particular phenomenon. Beginning with a narrative scaffold, we are referring to the enlistment of a particular story line to draw in a user and make contextual details more apparent. At some level, all problem-based learning environments leverage this type of scaffold. A perceptual scaffold, while usually connected to a story line, refers to making observable the particular context with which the learner becomes embodied; for example, using 3-D development tools to allow users to virtually enter a park. Interactive scaffolds can be thought of as rule sets, allowing the player to interact with objects with which one is embodied. So, for example, having people in Anytown collect clues, bring them to

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Rhino Unit

the lab to be analyzed, and interpret what they mean creates an interactivity with the system that supports both embodiment and learning. Lastly are social scaffolds, which occur when through interactions with others one becomes more deeply immersed with the play context. While we have discussed these as four separate elements, it is important to mention that they are interrelated; for example, a user might find a narrative more interesting if it occurs in an environment that provides meaningful interactions while perceptually surrounding them. Returning to our two examples, the Black Rhino Unit involves rich narrative engagement in that player actions are tied to a larger meta-narrative that drives the learner’s tasks in the space. Additionally, there is a customized virtual park that was designed to support a form of perceptual embodiment. However, nothing in the learning environment reacts to learner agency (there are no rules, just narrative), and the complexity of the system is not exposed in meaningful ways that allow a learner to develop empathetic embodiment for the system—just for the story line. The environment remains static and the stories do as well; there is only a single possible trajectory of learner experience and one outcome. The characters within the space do not react to the player or to each other. Anytown, however, begins to reach the goal of empathetic embodiment for a complex

Conceptual Play Spaces

system. It provides learners with a rich environment in which the non-player characters tell stories that contribute to a meta-narrative similar to the way that they do in video games like Oblivion and World of Warcraft. Characters tell their stories as a means to convey the complexity of the virtual space, weaving the problem to be solved within their own stories even as they convey “The Story of the Park.” The stories told by the non-player characters that the actual players meet as they explore Anytown are intended not only to help students care about them as individuals, but also to care about the fate of the town itself. There are also interactive and social embodiment scaffolds, with students even having to work with others to gain full insight into the happenings of the town. The characters within Anytown reveal new information and expanded pieces of their story, and therefore the story of the town, in response to the actions of players and those of other characters in the 3-D space. For example, when players complete the game-like Mystery Quest related to graffiti, the dialogue of all characters in town changes substantially because characters with little to say about that issue become much more important as students investigate the possibility of reopening the old mine. Illustrated in Figure 4, completion also opens up two new trajectories of player action that may be pursued: investigation of Raintree Manse to save Toshii the scientist or seek the truth about the foreshadowed Dark Lake. If a player chooses to save the scientist, the other trajectory is now closed to them. As a result, this player’s outcome will be different from that of a player who chose to work on the Dark Lake Quest and therefore, what they learn may also be different because their overall experience was different. The environment itself also changes to allow students into places that had previously been closed in response to their actions, such as virtually using a shovel and pick to pull down the boards that had closed off a mine tunnel.

Implications We began this article suggesting that video games pedagogies and technologies bear considerable potential for science education. In particular, they afford an empathetic embodiment with a complex system at the same time situating the learning of particular domain formalisms within a rich context of use. The work described here suggests that it is possible to develop spaces that are both entertaining and educationally useful. In general, schools have had difficulty engaging children in the process of learning for reasons beyond scoring highly on tests, with research revealing a significant decline in academic motivation from grades three through nine (Lepper, Sethi, Dialdin, & Drake, 1996). This inability to engage students can be attributed to multiple factors, some within our control and some having more entrenched societal roots. A core commitment of this work was to develop a space that was both entertaining and, at the same time, educational. At one level, simply situating the curriculum in the 3D-MUVE was engaging to students. However, it was not our intention to just have children walk around an aesthetically fun environment, but to design the space in a way that at the same time one is having fun they are engaging deep learning. The challenge was to design the entertaining aspects in a way that they are engaging participants in academic learning. Our work suggests that such a goal was indeed possible. In this way, we did not simply want to support a form of empathetic embodiment but wanted them to develop empathy with particular domain knowledge. As educators, even those espousing inquiry and emphasizing legitimate practices, we have a responsibility to support students in understanding particular facts, concepts, and principles. Toward this end, we have advanced the notion of conceptual play spaces and have provided two examples that differ in their “gameness” but that both have usefulness in supporting engaged learning. However, balancing gaming

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elements and pedagogical goals is a challenging endeavor, one that involves infusing open-ended play with academic content such that learning naturally follows from rich participation. It is toward the goal of advancing theoretical work that integrates education, entertainment, and social commitments, that our work on the Quest Atlantis project has been targeted. While on the surface, Quest Atlantis might appear to be a 3D, multi-user virtual environment, or game, it was designed to serve a much deeper purpose; to provide a meaningful context for significant academic learning. As an illuminative case, the designed space has provided a fertile context for generating, testing, and evolving theories of participation that work to preserve the joy, meaning, and educational value of learning. Beyond a proof-of-concept or the presentation of illuminative cases for others involved in this type of work, we have purposively selected these cases so as to illustrate what we mean by conceptual play spaces as well as illustrating the challenges in developing them. The promise of games for education, from our perspective, lies in their ability to transform learning from the rote acquisition of facts and concepts to a more meaningful type of literacy—one that is steeped in legitimate practices as part of rich contexts. While we believe this to be a potential affordance of games, we need to recognize that this same potential must be balanced such that we can both situate students in a rich world, at the same time ensure that they are appreciating the value of their experience in other contexts. In this way, enlisting games as curricular contexts is not simply porting content into this powerful media but, instead, involves developing a new genre of participation that brings together games and education to establish an embodied curriculum through which students become immersed in doing learning. It is our hope that this discussion meaningfully extends this dialogue of possibility.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT This research was supported in part by a ROLE grant from the National Science Foundation #0411846, as well as grants #06-88658-000HCD and #07-90694-HCD from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Also, special thanks to Anna Arici, George Newman, and Natasha Matic for their support.

References Barab, S. A. (in press). Narratizing disciplines and disciplinizing narratives. In S. A. Barab & A. Ingram-Goble (Eds.), Games as 21st century curriculum. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. Barab, S. A., Arici, A., & Jackson, C. (2005). Eat your vegetables and do your homework: A design-based investigation of enjoyment and meaning in learning. Educational Technology, 65(1), 15-21. Barab, S. A., Cherkes-Julkowski, M., Swenson, R., Garrett, S., Shaw, R. E., & Young, M. (1999). Principles of self-organization: Ecologizing the learner-facilitator system. The Journal of The Learning Sciences, 8(3&4), 349-390. Barab, S. A., Dodge, T., Thomas, M., Jackson, C., & Tuzun, H. (2007). Our designs and the social agendas they carry. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 16(2), 263-305. Barab, S. A., Hay, K. E., Barnett, M. G., & Keating, T. (2000). Virtual solar system project: Building understanding through model building. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(7), 719-756. Barab, S. A., & Squire, K. (2004). Design-based research: Putting a stake in the ground. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1-14. Barab, S. A., Thomas, M., Dodge, T., Carteaux, R., & Tuzun, H. (2005). Making learning fun:

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Quest Atlantis, a game without guns. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(1), 86-108. Barab, S. A., Zuiker, S., Warren, S., Hickey, D., Ingram-Goble, A., Kwon, E.-J., Kouper, I., & Herring, S. C. (2007). Situationally embodied curriculum: Relating formalisms and contexts. Science Education, 91(5), 750-782. Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42. Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt. (1990). Anchored instruction and its relationship to situated cognition. Educational Researcher, 19, 2-10. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. NY: Harper and Row. Frasca, G. (2002). Review of Ryan, M.-L. (2001). Narrative as virtual reality. South Atlantic Review, 67(1), 153-154. Fromberg, D. P. (1998). Play issues in early childhood education. In C. Seefeldt (Ed.), The early childhood curriculum: A review of current research (2nd ed., pp. 190-212). Columbus, OH: Merrill. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning. New York: Palgrave. Gee, J. P. (2004). Video games: Empathetic embodiment for complex systems. Paper presented at E3, Los Angeles, CA Heeter, C. (1992). Being there: The subjective experience of presence. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 1(2), 262-271. Retrieved April 2, 2002, from http://commtechlab. msu.edu/randd/research/beingthere.html Herz, J. C. (1997). Joystick nation: How video games ate our quarters, won our hearts, and

rewired our minds. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Huizinga, J. (1950). Homo Ludens. Boston: The Beacon Press. Isenberg, J., & Quisenberry, N. L. (1998). PLAY: A necessity for all children. A position paper of the Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI). Childhood Education, 64(3), 138-145. Jones, S. (2003). Let the games begin: Gaming technology and entertainment among college students. Washington, D.C.: Pew Internet and American Life Project. Kolbert, E. (2001). Pimps and dragons: How an online world survived a social breakdown. The New Yorker, May 28. Latour, B. (1987). Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. New York: Cambridge University Press. Leong, D., Bodrova, E., Hensen, R., & Henninger, M. (1999). Scaffolding early literacy through play. NAEYC 1999 Annual Conference, New Orleans. Leont’ev, A. (1974). The problem of activity in psychology. Soviet Psychology, 13(2), 4-33. Lepper, M. R., Sethi, S., Dialdin, D., & Drake, M. (1996). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: A developmental perspective. In S. Luthar, J. Burack, D. Cicchetti, & J. Weisz (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Perspectives on adjustments (pp. 23-50). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Roberts, D. F., Foehr, U. G., & Rideout, V. (2005). Generation M: Media in the lives of 8-18 year-olds. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.

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Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Savery, J., & Duffy, T. (1996). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. In B. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design (pp. 135-148). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4-13. Shaffer, D. W. (2006). How computer games help children learn. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Video games as designed experiences. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29. Steinkuehler, C. A. (2006). Massively multi-player online video gaming as participation in a Discourse. Mind, Culture, & Activity, 13(1), 38-52. Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the internet. New York: Simon & Schuster. Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wardle, F. (1987). Getting back to the basics of children’s play. Child Care Information Exchange, 9, 27-30. Warren, S., Barab, S. A., & Dondlinger, M. J. (in press). A MUVE towards PBL writing: Effects of a digital learning environment designed to improve elementary student writing. To appear in the Journal of Research on Technology in Education. Winn, B., & Heeter, C. (2006). Resolving conflicts in educational game design through playtesting. Innovate, 3(2). Retrieved from http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=392

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Key Terms Acquisition Metaphor: A view of school as a place for collecting or acquiring knowledge, which makes instruction about determining the best means of transmitting this information. Conceptual Play: Conceptual play is a state of engagement that involves: (a) projection into the role of a character who, (b) engaged in a partly fictional problem context, (c) must apply conceptual understandings to make sense of and, ultimately, transform the context. Additionally, a conceptual play space should (d) provide opportunities to examine one’s participation in terms of the impact it had on the immersive context. Conceptual Play Scaffold: A designed structure intended to engage a user more deeply into a particular context such that users develop an understanding of a particular phenomenon. Empathetic Embodiment: Empathetic embodiment is a process of being immersed (experiencing a sense of “presence”) within a virtual environment through which one comes to develop an understanding of or appreciation for one or more particular aspects (narratively, interactively, perceptually, and/or socially) of the context. Game: According to Salen and Zimmerman (2004, p. 80), “a game is a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome.” Interactive Scaffold: Rule sets that allow the player to act with consequence on the game environment, thereby influencing the unfolding story line and game dynamics. Narrative Scaffold: The enlistment of a particular story line to draw in a user and make contextual details more apparent. Participation Metaphor: A view of knowing as distributed across people and contexts through which core content gains meaning.

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Perceptual Scaffold: Usually connected to a story line, a perceptual scaffold refers to making observable the particular context with which the learner becomes embodied. Play: Play is described as having the following elements: (1) intrinsically motivated and self-initiated, (2) non-literal and pleasurable, (3) process-oriented, (4) exploratory and active, and (5) governed by rules.

ENDNOTE

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The zone of proximal development pertains to the difference between one’s actual and potential level of cognitive development, or between what one can achieve on her own versus what she can accomplish with assistance or scaffolding. Vygotsky (1978) believed that the context of play can provide important scaffolding.

Social Scaffold: Occurs when through interactions with others one becomes more deeply immersed with the play context.

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Chapter LVIII

The Design, Play, and Experience Framework Brian M. Winn Michigan State University, USA

AbstrAct This chapter introduces a framework for the design of serious games for learning, called the design, play, and experience framework. The author argues that the great potential of serious games will not be realized without a formal design approach. To that end, the author presents and thoroughly explains the design, play, and experience framework which provides a formal approach to designing the learning, storytelling, game play, user experience, and technology components of a serious game. The author concludes by detailing how the framework provides a common language to discuss serious game design, a methodology to analyze a design, and a process to design a serious game for learning.

introduction The serious games movement asserts that the game medium can serve many functions, and a sole focus on entertainment significantly undersells its potential (Jenkins, 2006). Serious games have a purpose beyond entertainment, including (but not limited to) learning, health, advertising, and social change (Prensky, 2001; Sawyer, 2002). Some serious games are thought to provide stealth learning as players are focused not on learning but on playing (Shreve, 2005).

Serious game design is a relatively new discipline. As such, there is a lack of a common language and a lack of standard practices for designing serious games. To date, serious game development teams have utilized a diverse mix of game design and instructional design methodologies to help realize their designs, but often without a unifying framework to bring these diverse perspectives together. This chapter describes a unifying framework to help serious game development teams achieve their full potential.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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bAcKground While learning through play is not a new concept (Dewey, 1916; Malone, 1981; Papert, 1998; Piaget, 1951), increasing technical and aesthetic sophistication, and growing popularity of commercial digital games across diverse demographics (ESA, 2006), have attracted a rebirth of interest on the part of scholars and teachers to create new and improved games for learning (Van Eck, 2006). Evidence of perceptual, cognitive, and social benefits of playing games is growing (e.g., Gee, 2003, 2005; Johnson, 2005; Kierrimuir & McFarlane, 2004; Lieberman, 2006; Ritterfeld, Weber, Fernandes, & Vorderer, 2004; Shaffer, 2006). Linguist and learning scholar James Gee (2003, 2005) believes that games are enjoyable because of learning—they present just the right amount of challenge, support, and feedback, progressively rewarding mastery with new challenges. This experience parallels other known optimal states of happiness, or flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). The structure of games mirrors good pedagogy, offering progressive problem solving and scaffolded learning. Van Eck (2006) demonstrates that games embody all phases of Gagne’s (1985) Nine Events of Instruction (events that activate processes needed for effective learning). These events are: gain attention, inform learner of objectives, stimulate recall of prior learning, present stimulus material, provide learner guidance, elicit performance, provide feedback, assess performance, and enhance retention and transfer. Games excel where traditional in-person classroom training and online Web-based training fall short. Most notably, games are effective at engaging students and making them an active participant in their education process. Among education scholars, this is referred to as active learning. Active learning is a form of constructivism, based on a student-center model of instruction (Svinicki, 1999). Active learning assumes the student must be active in the construction of his or her own knowledge, what Dewey (1916)

referred to as learning by doing, rather than a passive recipient of information. Active learning has been shown to promote better recall, enjoyment, and understanding than traditional instructional techniques, such as lecturing (Gibbs, 1992; Mujis & Reynolds, 2001; Petty, 2004) and is the cornerstone of other progressive pedagogy, including problem-based learning and collaborative learning. Communication and education scholar Deborah Lieberman (2006) lists eight learning benefits of games: • • •

• •

•

•

•

Games provide the player with an active experience. Games encourage the player to learn by doing. Games are a social medium providing the player with human-to-human like interactions and emotional responses. Games are participatory by providing the player with customized, rapid feedback. Games are engaging. Participation makes the player pay close attention. It demands thoughtful planning and decision making. It demands learning in order to succeed (if you don’t learn, then you can’t succeed). Games promote behavioral learning. The game gives the player rewards for behavior (points, power, rank, and so forth). This positive feedback in the game can encourage desired behaviors in real life. Games offer consequences. These are not abstract or hypothetical; they are represented in the game directly. The player plays a character and identifies with him or her. Success and failure map directly to the player’s actions; one’s ego and self-image are invested in the experience. Games provide role models for the player. The player can learn from the game characters and understand their behavioral experiences.

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Serious games offer serious opportunities for learning, but only if the game is designed effectively. The design process is a creative, sometimes chaotic process. Making a good game is hard. Making a good serious game is even harder. The reason it is so difficult is that rather than simply trying to optimize the entertainment aspect of the game, or the so-called fun factor, one must also optimize to achieve a specific set of serious outcomes. For example, the NSF-funded Life Preservers game was designed to be an appealing, entertaining game for middle school students of both genders while teaching the national science standards on evolution and adaptation, as well as serve as the stimulus for research on gender and play-testing in learning games. This was not an easy task (Heeter, Winn, & Greene, 2005). In designing Life Preservers, it was realized that there are three perspectives on designing serious games: that of the academic, interested in various academic theories, be they from educational pedagogy, communication theory, and so forth; that of the content expert, interested in the given subject matter; and that of the game designer, focused on creating engaging and entertaining game play (Winn & Heeter, 2006/2007). On a typical development team, a different individual or group of individuals usually represents each Figure 1. Heart of serious game design

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of these perspectives. In order to have a serious game that met its goals, the Life Preservers’ team quickly discovered that they needed to converge on game design features so that the theory, content, and game design were compatible and complementary. The overlap between theory, content, and game design form, what we have dubbed, the heart of serious game design (see Figure 1). The concept of the heart of serious game design parallels the technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) model proposed by Mishra and Koehler (2006). This model defines the overlap in knowledge about technology, pedagogy, and content as TPCK. TPCK is an emergent form of knowledge that goes beyond the three individual components to yield a result that is more than the sum of its parts. The same sort of emergent knowledge between theory, content, and game design is particularly relevant for realizing effective serious game designs. One of the greatest challenges that collaborative teams face in the design of serious games is working through their disciplinary tensions and converging on the heart of serious game design. To be sure, such tensions will vary depending on the nature of the serious game in question. In the case of exogenous educational games, con-

The Design, Play, and Experience Framework

flicts between theory, content, and game design rarely arise since the game mechanics and pedagogical theory are already defined at the outset. Such games separate learning content and game mechanics (Halverson, 2005; Malone & Lepper, 1987). Designers of exogenous educational games typically reuse successful game mechanics, such as hangman, a Jeopardy-style game show, or a Space Invaders-style shooter, inserting the content to be learned into the pre-existing game structure and rules. Content is often the only new input, and the learning tends to be limited to reinforcing knowledge recall. This can be seen in early edutainment titles, such as Math Blaster1 or more recent Web-based titles such as Trivia Archer2. In contrast, endogenous educational games target more complex learning goals beyond memorization and do so in part by integrating learning content into the structure of the game (Halverson, 2005). Like exogenous games, endogenous games frequently adopt familiar game genres such as role play or adventure games, board or card games, or puzzles. The defining characteristic of endogenous games, however, is that the game play itself informs the pedagogical theory and embodies the learning content. By requiring players to explore the game space and use their knowledge to meet game challenges, designers of endogenous games promote active problem solving and reinforce context-specific learning goals. Consequently, endogenous educational game designers begin with a more or less blank slate. They seek an idealized convergence of content, theory, and game design that achieves the hypothetical potential of games to promote advanced forms of learning (aka, the heart of serious game design). The vast challenge being, of course, is that this ill-specified

design problem has infinite possible solutions. Oregon Trail (MECC, 1985) is an example of an early endogenous learning game. More recent examples include Life Preservers (2006), Hot Shot Business3, and Times Attacks4.

the mdA FrAmeWorK The mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics (MDA) framework was designed and taught by Marc LeBlanc (2005a) to “…clarify and strengthen the iterative processes of developers, scholars and researchers alike, making it easier for all parties to decompose, study and design a broad class of game designs and game artifacts” (Hunicke, LeBlanc, & Zubek, 2004, p. 1). The MDA framework depicts the relationship of the designer and the player (see Figure 2). The designer designs the mechanics or formal rules of the game. These rules are instantiated at play time and influenced by the player’s inputs, forming the dynamics, or run-time behavior of the game. The aesthetics of the game are the resulting emotional responses in the player when playing. In this framework, the designer only has direct control over the mechanics of the game. Therefore, the designer must determine the desired aesthetic he or she hopes to create for the player and then design the mechanics to achieve these desired aesthetic. The designer utilizes play-testing and game balancing to modify the mechanics over time to achieve the desired aesthetic through an iterative process. While the MDA framework has proven to be a useful approach to designing and analyzing game play (LeBlanc, 2005b), it does not specifically

Figure 2. The MDA framework

 Mechanics Designer

Dynamics

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address aspects of game design beyond the game play, including the storytelling, user experience, and influence of technology on the design. This is partially due to the game play-centric language used in the framework. For example, we can attempt to decompose the mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics of the storytelling and user experience, but the semantics of the terminology often get in the way of doing so. This approach also jettisons the discipline-specific language used in storytelling and user experience design. Further, the MDA framework focuses on the design of games for entertainment. Designing serious games offers a unique set of design challenges (Winn & Heeter, 2006/2007) that are not encompassed in the MDA framework.

Similar to the MDA framework, the DPE framework depicts the relationship between the designer and the player (see Figure 3). The designer designs the game, the player plays the game, which results in the player’s experience. The designer only has direct control over the design itself. To design a game effectively, the designer should first come up with goals for the resulting experience. These goals can be used both to guide the design and to gauge the effectiveness of the design once implemented. The arrow from experience back to design represents both the influence of the goals on the original design and the iteration on the design once a prototype of the game is tested against the experience goals. This reflects the inherently iterative process of game design (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004), including designing, prototyping, play-testing, and iterating back to the design based on the experience of the play-testing (see Figure 4). However, play is a mediated experience. Play is greatly influenced by not only the design, but also the player, including his or her cognitive, social, cultural, and experiential background that he or she brings to the given play experience. Therefore, the experience of one player may be profoundly different than the experience of another player. The target audience for the game must be strongly taken into account throughout the design process.

the dPe FrAmeWorK The design, play, and experience (DPE) framework was created as an expansion of the MDA framework to address the needs of serious game design for learning, while also attempting to address some of the semantic barriers described earlier. The DPE framework presents a language to discuss design, a methodology to analyze a design, and a process to design a serious game for learning.

Figure 3. The DPE framework

 Designer

Design

Play

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Figure 4. Iterative design process

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Figure 5. Expanded DPE framework

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The expanded DPE framework (see Figure 5) depicts the sub-components of serious game design, including the learning, storytelling, game play, and user experience layers. Each layer has a design, play, and experience aspect (described in the figure). Technology is represented in the bottom layer. While the designer does not necessarily design the technology, the design itself is realized (or not) on the technology. While the serious game design process is often led by a team of individuals with diverse expertise (as described earlier), to simplify the conversation, the design team will simply be referred to as the designer in the discussion that follows. To that end, the potential players of the serious game will be discussed as a figurative individual player.

learning layer In the learning layer, the designer designs the content and pedagogy, which results (hopefully) in teaching when the player plays the game. This leads to a set of learning outcomes (either realized or not) derived from the overall experience. As described previously, the designer should first come up with goals, or in this case, learning outcomes for the resulting experience and then design the content and pedagogy to meet these goals. Just as an instructor might do in their curriculum development, the designer can define their

learning outcomes using proven instructional design techniques. Bloom’s Taxonomy on Teaching and Learning (1956) is useful in thinking about and generating the student learning outcomes in serious game design. This taxonomy defines three types of learning, including cognitive, psychomotor, and affective learning, commonly simplified as knowledge, skills, and attitude (KSA). The taxonomy also further sub-categorizes cognitive and affective learning into a range of behaviors, from simplest to advance. For example, cognitive learning is sub-categorized into knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. While Bloom’s taxonomy did not sub-categorize psychomotor learning, others since have (Dave, 1975; Harrow, 1972; Simpson, 1972). There are many resources available to help serious game designers generate student-learning outcomes using Bloom’s taxonomy (e.g., Clark, 1999) or using any number of other learning taxonomies. The main point is to take the time early in the design process to think about and rigorously define your learning goals. The goals not only form the basis for the design of the content and pedagogy but also can form the basis for the assessment of the game’s learning effectiveness on the player. With an increase in focus on testing and monitoring student performance, generating effective forms of assessment is rapidly becoming a must for any serious game.

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storytelling layer There are two perspectives on storytelling in games: the designer’s story and the player’s story (Rouse, 2001, p. 216-218). The designer’s story is the storytelling that is designed into the game. The designer’s story can be used to set the stage, provide purpose and engagement, and convey content, among other things. The setting, character design, and narrative are the designers primary design tools. The storytelling that occurs during play combines the designer’s story with the interactions and choices the player makes. The resulting experience crafts the player’s story. Some games have stronger designer stories, such as adventure and role-playing games, while others have little to no designer story, such as classic arcade games like Pacman and puzzle games like Tetris. However, all games have a player’s story, which at the very least reflects the story of the game play challenges encountered by the player and how the player addressed them. When approaching a design, the designer must first decide on what type of stories he or she wants the player to be able to experience and design the setting, character design, and narrative to achieve this. The learning outcomes often complicate the storytelling in serious game design. For example, if you are developing a serious game to teach history, how much can the games storytelling deviate from the actual events of history and still accomplish its objectives? If you are developing a serious game to teach science, can your storytelling integrate elements of science fiction? Each of these important storytelling design decisions must be tempered with the desired learning outcomes.

game Play layer The game play layer defines what the player does in the game. That is, what choices the player can make in the game world and what ramifications those choices will have on the rest of the game

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(Adams & Rollings, 2007, p. 277). The game play layer is broken down into mechanics, dynamics, and affects. The mechanics are the rules that define the operation of the game world, what the player can do, the challenges the player will face, and the player’s goals. The dynamics are the resulting behavior when the rules are instantiated over time with the influence of the player’s interactions. The resulting experiences, or emotions derived in the player, are the affects. The game play layer most closely resembles the original MDA framework that was the inspiration of the DPE framework. The notable exception is the change of terminology from aesthetics, which for many represents a visual arts term representing the beauty of something, to affect, a psychological term meaning emotion or desire. As in the MDA framework, the designer must take a formal approach in defining what emotions he or she wants to raise in the player. From a player’s perspective, the game may be described as fun or not fun. However, as a designer, it is important to move beyond simply describing the desired emotion as fun. The designer must decompose fun and understand the particular aspects that derive a fun experience in the player. Marc LeBlanc lists eight kinds of fun as aesthetic goals (Hunicke, LeBlanc, & Zubek, 2004), which I will refer to here as affective goals. PierreAlexandre Garneau (2001) wrote an article that proposed 14 forms of fun. Heeter, Chu, Maniar, Mishra, Egidio, and Winn (2003) expanded this to 16 forms of fun, including beauty, immersion, intellectual problem solving, competition, social interaction, comedy, thrill of danger, physical activity, love, creation, power, discovery, advancement and completion, application of an ability, altruism, and learning. LeBlanc further formalizes the process of defining the affective goals by creating a rigorous definition of each goal, which includes criteria for success and failure. For example, LeBlanc (2005a) defines competition as a game where the players are emotionally invested in defeating each other.

The Design, Play, and Experience Framework

Figure 6. Balancing the level of difficulty

Too Difficult

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(Frustration)

el ann h wC Flo

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(Boring)

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The players are adversaries and want to win are the criteria for success while the players feel that they cannot win or players feel they are unable to gauge their progress are criteria for failure of the model. Once the affective goals are defined, the designer must then devise the mechanics to realize these goals through the dynamics of the play experience. The only way to determine if the mechanics actually do realize the affective goals is through play-testing. With appropriate formal models for success in hand, it becomes quickly apparent to what degree the goals are being reached. The designer can then use this information to modify the mechanics to better achieve the goals. This process is known as balancing the game. Several iterations of designing, prototyping, play-testing, and revising are often required to balance a game. One common form of game play balancing is the balancing of the level of difficulty. Figure 6 contains psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1990) theory of flow, which demonstrates that in order for the flow state to be achieved, the level of challenge must match the player’s abilities as his or her skills increase. If the challenge is too great, the player will become frustrated and may give

up. If the challenge is too little, the player will quickly become bored and may quite playing. Another form of game play balancing relates to the frequency of rewards given to the player. Figure 7 represents a common learning curve in the game. A designer usually wants to balance the game so that the player is rewarded more often (represented as stars) during the steepest part of the game’s learning curve, or during the most challenging parts of the game, in order to keep the player playing. This can be thought as a form of operant conditioning with the rewards representing reinforcements at key points as the player learns how to play and overcome the game’s challenges. The designer often also needs to balance the progression of play. Early in the game the player may be overwhelmed with a great deal of choices as they learn how to play. Therefore, the designer often wants to limit the choices early in the game and then ramp the number of choices up as the game progresses as shown in Figure 8. The typical pattern for introducing new choices is that the designer will present the player with a new goal in the game. The player will need to gain some new skill in order to achieve the goal. The player will learn and practice this new skill until they master the skill and finally achieve the goal. The

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Challenges

Figure 7. Balancing the frequency of rewards

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Figure 8. Balancing the progression of play

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process then repeats, building on the previously introduced skills. Rollings and Adams (2003, p. 240) state, “a balanced (entertainment) game is one where the main determining factor for success of the player is the skill level of that player.” While this is often true as well in a serious game, the goals in balancing a serious game often are influence by additional factors, most notably factors related to the desired learning outcomes (see section on “Influence Between Layers”).

user experience layer While the user experience layer is represented as the deepest layer in the framework, it is actually the most visible (or surface) layer from the perspective of the player. Bruce Shelly with Ensemble Studios, a well-known designer of entertainment games,

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once said, “the game designer’s principal goal is to create entertaining game play. The purpose of the interface is to make that entertainment accessible” (Saltzman, 2000, p. 256). While this is true as well for serious games, the purpose of the user interface is also to create a vehicle to realize the desired serious outcomes. The game design manifests itself through the user interface. The interface encompasses everything the user sees, hears, and interacts with and how that interaction happens (i.e., the control system). Ultimately the goal of the designer is (usually) to develop a game that immerses the player in the game world and engages them in the play experience. Good user interfaces are said to be transparent, that is, the player does not have to focus their attention on how to play the game (i.e., what button to press) but rather on the game play, storytelling, and learning experience.

The Design, Play, and Experience Framework

Influence Between Layers

technology layer

The vertical arrows shown in Figure 5 reflect the fact that each layer has influence over the other layers. For example, the learning will influence and be influenced by the storytelling, game play, and user experience. Certain design decisions are complementary or conflicting across the layers. Sherry and Pacheco (2004) argue that serious games for learning are most effective when a game’s game play matches the desired learning outcome. They developed a heuristic for mapping different types of learning, based on Bloom’s taxomony, to game genres. Marc Prensky (2001, p. 156) developed a similar table that maps different types of learning to potential activities and game styles. For example, for the learning of skills, Prensky proposes the use of “imitation, feedback coaching, continuous practice, and increasing challenge” for learning activities, and “role-play games, adventure games, and detective games” as potential game styles. When making design decisions, you must always consider the impact of those decisions on the other aspects of the game. In working out design conflicts, I suggest starting with the topmost layer and working you way down. For most serious games for learning, the learning is the most important aspect and usually the least malleable. Storytelling is often tied closely to the learning content and therefore should be addressed next, but is usually much more malleable. The game play and user experience layers are the most malleable and often must adapt to the learning and storytelling. However, as discussed, design is an iterative and creative process. Decisions in lower levels and discovers in play-testing will influence you design across all layers and should be addressed. For example, certain game play and storytelling may not be compatible. Rather than change the game play, the designer may elect instead to modify the storytelling.

Everything is grounded on the technology that you are building the serious game upon. Some design choices are more dependent on the technology than others, usually from the bottom layer up in the framework. The user experience is most tightly tied to technology. A designer could design the game play, storytelling, and learning components of a serious game and develop them into a simple paper prototype, such as a board or card game, for rapid play-testing. While this paper prototype will likely help in assessing the effectiveness of the design, its user interface will be very different than a computer-based version of the same game. The experience of playing the paper version of the game will therefore be quite different than playing the digital version. Moreover, certain designs may only be possible based on the technology the game is built upon. For example, game mechanics that require a real-time simulation of Newtonian physics or a user interface that requires the detailed representation of a 3-D world would not map well to a paper prototype. These complex mechanics and user interface features requires a much higher level of sophistication in the game technology and, as a result, will likely require greater resources to implement. Therefore, technology can be both an enabler and a limiter. Overall, the capabilities and limitations of the technology and the resources required to implement the technology may greatly influence the design and should be considered throughout the design process.

APPlying the dPe FrAmeWorK The DPE framework has been successfully used in a number of serious game design workshops

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(Winn, 2006a, 2006b) and is currently being applied in the serious game design graduate curriculum and on various projects in the Games for Entertainment and Learning (GEL) Lab at Michigan State University. One way the framework has been used is in the analysis of existing serious games. The framework gives a structure to decompose the elements of a design. For example, a student of serious game design can playtest and critique an existing serious game, breaking down and discuss its learning, storytelling, game play, user experience, and technology, each as separate components. He or she can further deconstruct the design, play, and experience aspects of each component. The student can ascertain what the experience goals were for the game (from product marketing, for example), and then determine if these goals were met through the design. A growing list of serious games analyses that employ the DPE framework is available online (http://seriousgames.msu. edu/analyses/). The framework not only provides the structure to analyze a game, but also a uniform language in which a group of individuals can discuss and critique a game’s design. The terminology used in the framework builds on the language from the disciplines of education and instructional design, storytelling, game design, and user experience design; the disciplines that make up serious game design. By bringing this terminology into a framework that defines the relationship between the disciplinary vocabulary, it helps team members with diverse expertise communicate and converge on game design features to achieve the goals in their respective games, reaching the heart of serious game design. As discussed previously, the framework creates an organizing structure and a formal process to guide a design. By following this formal process of rigorously defining the experience goals, designing, prototyping, play-testing, and iterating to balance the game, the design team can alleviate

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much of the problems that stem from a more ad hoc, chaotic approach to design.

Future trends There are rising concerns that the traditional classroom model of education, with one instructor to many students, is falling far short in its promise of motivating and educating the knowledge workers of tomorrow (Svinicki, 1999). Educators and business trainers are also beginning to recognize that Web-based instruction, that often is no more than a set of online reading assignments followed by a multiple choice test, is not providing the engaging experience necessary to provide effective education and training (Prensky, 2001). Serious attention is being given now to the promise of serious games (Van Eck, 2006). Educators and learning scientists observe the deep engagement and long hours individuals spend playing challenging console and PC-based commercial games and imagine a world where this immensely engaging medium is used to teach meaningful content. The United States military has been using games for some time to train and recruit the next generation of soldiers (Bergeron, 2006). The medical and corporate training industries have also begun to look to games to enhance their arsenal of training tools. A recent Ambient Insight market report lists games and simulations as one of the fastest areas of growth in the U.S. corporate training market (Adkins, 2007). To address this growth, new companies are forming, such as Break Away Games, Games2Train, PIXELearning, and Virtual Heroes, while existing companies are building serious game initiatives. To match the expectations that those have for serious games, the serious game designer must build effective serious games; games that are engaging and enjoyable for the player to play, while satisfying the serious objectives for which the game was built. To that end, serious game design

The Design, Play, and Experience Framework

needs to apply a more formal approach; an approach that brings together the collective wisdom of the diverse disciplines involved in the design while also providing them a framework to work together and a process to realize their goals. The DPE framework represents a more formal approach to designing serious games. By employing this approach, serious game developers can build better serious games. Without such an approach, the games will likely not live up to the expectations of the stakeholders. In the short term, this will diminish the current enthusiasm surrounding serious games. In the long term, if serious games continue to miss the mark, they may begin to be viewed as an over-hyped, computer-based training fad and a great opportunity to truly revolutionize education will be lost.

Bergeron, B. (2006). Developing serious games. Hingham, MA: Charles River Media, Inc. Bloom, B. S. (Ed.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. Clark, D. (1999). Learning domains or Bloom’s taxonomy. Retrieved on January 3, 2006, from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/ bloom. html Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experiences. New York: Harper Perennial. Dave, R. H. (1975). Developing and writing behavioural objectives. (R. J. Armstrong, Ed.). Educational Innovators Press.

conclusion

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. Macmillan Company.

The design, play, and experience framework expands on the MDA framework used in the design of entertainment games, adapting it to serious game design. The DPE framework addresses shortcomings in the emerging discipline of serious game design by providing a language to discuss design, a methodology to analyze a design, and a process to design. The DPE framework parallels the iterative design process used in game development while emphasizing a formal approach that surpasses the ad hoc approach often found in serious game development to date.

Entertainment Software Association. (2006). 2006 essential facts about the computer and video game industry. Retrieved August 10, 2006, from http://www.theesa.com/archives/2006/05/ 2006_essential.php

reFerences Adams, E., & Rollings, A. (2007). Fundamentals of game design. River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Adkins, S. (2007). Ambient insight’s U.S. corporate market for learning services: 2007-2012 forecast and analysis.

Gagne, R. (1985). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Garneau, P.-A. (2001). Fourteen forms of fun. Gamasutra. Retrieved June 5, 2007, from http:// www.gamasutra.com/ features/20011012/garneau_01.htm Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave McMillan. Gee, J. (2005). Why video games are good for your soul: Pleasure and learning. Victoria, Australia: Common Ground. Gibbs, G. (1992). Improving the quality of student learning. Bristol, UK: Technical and Educational Services Ltd.

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Halverson, R. (2005). What can K-12 school leaders learn from video games and gaming? Innovate Journal of Online Education, 1(6). Harrow, A. (1972). A taxonomy of psychomotor domain: A guide for developing behavioral objectives. New York: David McKay. Heeter, C., Chu, K., Maniar, A., Mishra, P., Egidio, R., & Winn, B. (2003). Comparing 14 forms of fun (and learning and gender issues) in commercial versus educational space exploration digital games. International Conference on Digital Games Research, Utrech, Netherlands. Heeter, C., Winn, B., & Greene, D. (2005). Theories meet realities: Designing a learning game for girls. In Proceedings of the 2005 Conference on Designing for User Experience: ACM Conference Proceedings Series, 135(27), San Francisco, CA. Hunicke, R., LeBlanc, M., & Zubek, R. (2004). MDA: A formal approach to game design and game research. In Proceedings of the Challenges in Game AI Workshop, Nineteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence. Jenkins. (2006). Getting serious about games. Weblog. Retrieved September 14, 2006, from http://www.henryjenkins.org/2006/07/getting_ serious_about_games.html Johnson, S. (2005, July). Your brain on video games. Discover Magazine, 39-43. Kierrimuir, J., & McFarlane, A. (2004). Literature review in games and learning. NESTA FutureLab Series, Report #8. Retrieved July 25, 2006, from http://www.futurelab.org.uk/research/reviews/ 08_01.htm LeBlanc, M. (2005a). Game design and tuning workshop. Workshop presented at FuturePlay 2005 International Academic Conference on the Future of Game Design and Technology, East Lansing, MI.

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LeBlanc, M. (2005b). Intuition and intellect: Deconstructing the design of oasis. Presented at Game Developers Conference, San Francisco, CA. Lieberman, D. A. (2006). What can we learn from playing interactive games? In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Life Preservers [serious game]. (2006). East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Games for Entertainment and Learning Lab. Retrieved from http://lifepreservers.msu.edu Malone, T. W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 4, 333-369. Malone, T., & Lepper, M. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomic model of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction: Cognitive and affective process analysis (3, 223-253). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. MECC. (1985). Oregon Trail [Educational game software]. Minnesota: Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium. Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A new framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record. 8(6), 1017-1054. Mujis, D., & Reynolds, D. (2001). Effective teaching: Evidence based practice. London, UK: Paul Chapman Publishing. Papert, S. (1998). Does easy do it? Children, games, and learning. Game Developer, 88. Petty. (2004). Teaching today: A practical guide (3rd ed.). Cheltenham, UK: Nelson Thornes. Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams, and imitation in childhood. New York: W. W. Norton.

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Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Ritterfeld, U., Weber, R., Fernandes, S., & Vorderer, P. (2004). Think science! Entertainment education in interactive theaters. Computers in Entertainment: Educating Children through Entertainment, 2(1). Rollings, A., & Adams, E. (2003). Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams on game design. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders. Rouse, III, R. (2001). Game design theory and practice. Plano, Texas: Wordware Publishing. Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Saltzman, M. (2000). Game design: Secrets of the sages (2nd ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Macmillan Publishing. Sawyer, B. (2002). Serious games: Improving public policy through game-based learning and simulation. Foresight and Governance Project White paper, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Publication 2002-1. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from http://www.seriousgames. org/images/ seriousarticle.pdf Shaffer, D. (2006). How computer games help children learn. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Sherry, J. L., & Pacheco, A. (2004). Matching computer game genres to educational outcomes. Paper presented at the National Communication Association Annual Convention, Chicago, IL. Shreve, J. (2005, April). Let the games begin. Edutopia. Retrieved July 12, 2006, from http://www.edutopia.org/magazine/ed1article. php?id=art_1268&issue=apr_05# Simpson, E. J. (1972). The classification of educational objectives in the psychomotor domain. Washington, DC: Gryphon House.

Svinicki, M. D. (1999). New directions in learning and motivation. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 80, 5-27. Van Eck, R. (2006, March/April). Digital gamebased learning: It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. Educause, 16-30. Winn, B. (2006a). Serious games construction workshop. Workshop presented at the New Media Consortium Conference, Cleveland, OH. Winn, B. (2006b). Serious games construction workshop. Workshop presented at FuturePlay 2006 International Academic Conference on the Future of Game Design and Technology, London, Ontario, Canada. Winn, B., & Heeter, C. (2006-2007, December/ January). Resolving conflicts in educational game design through playtesting. Innovate Journal of Online Education, 3(2).

Key terms Balancing: A key activity in the iterative game design process in which the designer refines the design of a game after play-testing to better achieve the goals of the design that were not realized in the play-test. Endogenous Educational Games: Games where the game play is informed by the learning content and pedagogical theory. Exogenous Educational Games: Games in which the learning content is adding on top of successful game mechanics without significant modification. Game Design: The process of developing a plan for the learning content, pedagogy, game mechanics, and user interface in a serious game.

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Game Dynamics: The resulting run-time behavior of the game when the game’s rules, or mechanics, are instantiated over time with the influence of the player’s interactions.

to implement. The prototype is often not built on the actual technology of the final game. For example, a computer game may first be prototyped as a board game.

Game Mechanics: The formal rules that define the operation of the game world, what the player can do, the challenges the player will face, and the player’s goals.

Serious Games: Games that serve a purpose beyond just entertainment, such as education or training.

Heart of Serious Game Design: The ideal overlap between pedagogical theory, subject matter content, and game design. Iterative Game Design: The typical game development process, including crafting an initial design, creating a prototype of the design, playtesting the prototype, and iterating back to modify the design based on the results of the play-test. Prototyping: Developing a game design into a playable format for purposes of play-testing in a fashion that requires minimal time and resources

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endnotes 1

2

3 4

http://www.knowledgeadventure.com/ mathblaster http://funschool.kaboose.com/fun-blaster/ back-to-school/games/game_trivia_archer. html http://spapps.go.com/hsb4/landing http://www.bigbrainz.com

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Chapter LIX

Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games Youngkyun Baek Korean National University of Education, Republic of Korea

AbstrAct This chapter examines hidden curricula and pedagogy of digital games in order to clarify their educational meaning and importance. The experiences which players get from the inherent ideology of digital games was categorized into four areas: fantasy, immersion, representation and identification, and making sense of the game’s system or model. These hidden curricula are important for learninggame designers to consider in that they are internalized subconsciously. Also these hidden aspects of games are important for teachers to help motivate players for learning, to facilitate self-directed playing and learning, to improve gender sensitivity, and to help with the transfer of knowledge from games to real life. Games have the magical ability to inspire players through compelling stories, challenges, and activities. The hidden curricula of games are bound to continue to be an issue of great concern for educators in coming years.

introduction Internet-connected computers are now more than just a tool and a medium for packaging and presenting information; they have achieved an importance that rivals the former king of popular media, television. Computers have become a universal source of entertainment as more people discover

the joys of computer-based gaming. People across the world today spend a huge amount of time and money playing computer games. Digital games are now a dominant cultural form of the 21st century. Inherent in any technology or media is a certain set of assumptions and an ideology that is either overtly or imperceptibly transmitted along with it. Because of the increased importance of computer

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Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games

games in today’s media culture, as well as because they make up such an important part of the lives of today’s children, they have become an area of serious thought and examination. “Computer game playing is increasingly the leisure activity of choice for children, and needs to be considered closely” (McCarty, 2001, p. 22). The computer has become ubiquitous in young people’s lives much as television was for the Baby Boom generation that grew up after the Second World War. It is used as a productivity enhancing information management tool, as well as an entertainment and communication device. The “computer is a […] toy that adults and children can both use to find inspiration, stimulate the imagination, explore the world and meet other human beings, and gain new experiences that can rejuvenate their senses and personalities” (Tapscott, 1998, p. 159). Many of these types of experiences can be obtained playing computer games. “During the early nineties […] video and computer games became a matter-of-course in the everyday life of young people, including children” (Fromme, 2003, p. 1). For game players, the computer is a toy. However, “toys are also cultural objects, socializing agents, [and] carriers of the dominant ideology” (Gottschalk, 1995, p. 4). In addition, “computer games, like other texts, circulate and are embedded within existing discourses to do with gender, ethnicity, class and power” (Beavis, 1998, p. 8). What children learn from computer games is of great concern to society at large and to educators, who should adjust to the different formative experiences of what has been called the “games generation”. The generation gap that has occurred since the emergence of the computer and the computer game, changing the patterns of play (and of thinking) of today’s students are of great importance for teachers who wish to better understand their students’ experiences with computers, and computer games in particular. In education, computer games must be examined for two important reasons. First, it is essential that teachers understand

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the media environment their students experience and participate in away from school, so that they may instruct them in being informed and critical members of it. Second, teachers can and should use its language that their students understand best in order to further learning of young children. This chapter will examine the inherent ideology that computer games transmit, or what Gottschalk calls “videology”—the system of interrelated assumptions video-games articulate” (p. 5), in order to clarify the educational meaning and importance of these media, including issues of gender and violence. What are those aspects and how do they affect teaching and learning will also be examined. In addition, their implications for game design and utilization in classroom will be summarized.

hidden curriculum oF digitAl gAmes It is first important to note that although it is widespread and practiced by a great number of diverse individuals, computer gaming cannot be considered an activity that has been totally accepted or legitimized by mainstream society. A number of critics accuse computer games of contributing to a variety of social ills. “Since their inception, computer and video games have both fascinated and caused great fear in the politicians, educators, academics, and the public at large” (Squire, 2002). However, of course “extreme cultural reactions to technological and cultural innovations are hardly new” (Squire, 2002). What persists is a prevailing negative attitude in the popular imagination towards computer games. “Computer game playing is often regarded as one of the most negative types of play” (McCarty, 2001, p. 22). What constitutes this general perception? It is claimed that “games represent at best a childish pleasure long since left behind, and at worst a threat to every position on the home front: children obsessed and bewitched, partners distracted and preoccupied, money spent,

Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games

and time wasted” (de Castell & Jenson, 2002). Reflecting this attitude, “[w]ithin both academic and popular discourse computer gaming has been marginalised as a leisure activity restricted to male children and adolescents” (Bryce & Rutter, 2003, p. 244). This false perception must be overcome, both in acknowledgment of the reality of the increasing cultural importance of computer gaming, as well as in order to be able to better understand young people’s changing media preferences and learning styles when teaching to them and also to take advantage of this emerging media as a new way to provide learning experiences. In addition, the stereotype does not reflect the reality of the demographics of today’s average game player, let alone the real diversity that exists. The experiences which children get from the ideology of computer games can be categorized into four areas: fantasy, immersion, representation and identification, and making sense of the game’s system or model. Each area has a corresponding implication for teaching and learning. Fantasy: The elements of fantasy that computer games allow contribute significantly to their appeal. The environment in which computer games provide fantasy with users is a world without a clear boundary between reality and virtuality, a world of expanded experience with 3-D graphics and a world of emotional appeal through firstperson narrative. The current cultural trend is toward “the collapse of the boundaries between fantasy and reality, a collapse introduced long ago by the television logic” (Gottschalk, 1995, p. 10). It extends a real world into a fantastic world. On the other hand, it pulls very often a fantastic world down into a real world. The Quest Atlantis project is an example. A key aspect of Quest Atlantis is that the players accomplish activities in the real world, not simply in the virtual environment. It brings together what is real and what is virtual. In this way, “the fantasy overlaps with the real world, providing a mutable platform through which

our social commitments become manifest and suggesting that the Quest Atlantis context is not simply a role-playing environment, but extends through a story line that directly engages issues of real-world identity and community” (Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005, p. 99). Games for literacy situate players in particular literacy practices associated with the identities being played, which are associated with real-world professional domains with concrete experiences, but quite often their tasks are consistent within the fantasy with virtual experiences (Sandford & Williamson, 2005). Current games provide the player with imaginative 3-D worlds to explore, characters to encounter or become, challenging situations to overcome, and a variety of other fictional experiences. These stimulate the imagination of the game player, while directing their creativity and curiosity at the same time. The Halo series of game are an example. In the world of Halo, 3-D graphics can be seen in various angles, thus the images can be differently viewed as players move themselves around in the 3-D space. Threedimensional graphics in games are not just to see or watch, but to participate and operate. Players can manipulate the images by zooming in and out. Players can adjust images through willful actions to see them from new perspectives. Computer games enhance learning through visualisation (Betz, 1995). Visualisation plays an important role in discovery and problem solving (Rieber, 1995). Many of the problems presented in games require the manipulation of objects. Leutner (1993) has argued that manipulation of objects stimulates learning and training. Narrative representation in games consists of setting, characters, actions, and happenings. Representation is changing and dramatic throughout game play. It is logical, elaborated, and fully described in what James Gee called an “epistemic experience.” It is not absurd. This “narrative myth” (Ryan, 2001) of games takes the form of metaphorical transfer and promotes literacy through

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an entertaining forms of digital textuality. These myths also serve the useful purpose of energizing the imagination of the public, but they may also stand for impossible or ill-conceived goals that raise false expectations (Ryan, 2001). The narrative representation in terms of a unified theme with logical coherence is not an end itself. It is only a means toward the goal of luring the player into the game world. The player’s actions and reflection on the representation renews the narrative of the game and increases the player’s intrinsic motivation by using mysteries and fantasies as parts of the game universe. These also “should appeal to the target group emotionally, serve as metaphors for the learning content and be an endogenous part of the learning material” (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2005, p. 80). In sum, the fantasy elements of games add creativity and curiosity to gaming. Gaming also requires creative imagination resulting from fantasy in solving game problems (EgenfeldtNielsen, 2005). Current classroom teaching often lacks fantasy. The experiential learning approach through gaming can expand learning from concrete experiences to the centre of the scene. Immersion: The quality perhaps that most differentiates computer games from the media of the past is immersion. Immersion is the act or an instance of whole or deep engagement. “It’s like taking a drug that kills your worries and gives you the power to do things you can’t do in real life, like flying, hitting, killing whom you hate” (Dickey, 2003). Immersion comes from several game characteristics: interactivity, locus of control, aesthetic quality, flow, and safety. No previous type of text has accomplished the same immersive level of interactivity as games. Freidman (1999) states: Computers can transform the exchange between reader and text into a feedback loop. Every response you make provokes a reaction from the

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computer, which leads to a new response, and so on, as the loop from the screen to your eyes to your fingers on the keyboard to the computer to the screen becomes a single cybernetic circuit. Such a melding of reader with text and text with response has only been possible since the development of the computer game. In addition to the reader’s responses being instantly registered and responded to in a way unique to each reader and each reading, performance is also continually being evaluated, making explicit that learning must take place in order to advance in the game. “This is a dynamic, real-time hermeneutics that lacks a corresponding structure in film or literature” (Aarseth, 2003, p. 5). The more a player’s actions are appropriate and meaningful to the game space and objectives, the more immersed the player will be. Quinn calls this embeddedness, which “includes thematic coherence, meaningfulness of action to the domain of representation, and meaningfulness of the problem in the domain to the learner” (Quinn, 1997). Quinn goes on to “propose that engagement comes from “interactivity” and “embeddedness”, and that the elements that constitute these two match with good learning design as well. Interactivity is one of characteristics of digital media like games, allowing the users to become immersed. Immersion occurs not only between game and players but also between players as in online game. According to Eskelinen (2004), an audience at a movie takes an interpretive attitude on the whole, but players in games take a “configurative” attitude. An audience at a movie is enjoying it based on their interpretation of the story, whereas game players are enjoying the path they’ve created while they are playing. Players may lose their interest in playing game as soon as they feel they are doing only what they are told by the game. They prefer to think that they are searching, unveiling, and enjoying the mystery of the game by their own actions. The fun disappears when they feel that they do not control the game. Scenes are

Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games

controlled by players, not delivered one-way like in a movie. Thus, scenes and spectacles in a game are player-driven. As soon as a player does not input their response, the motion in a game won’t happen or worse yet, will punish the player for not acting. Locus of control in a game is in the players, mostly originating from their operations. This subjective trait of control in games can be found even in a multi-user online game. Players of online games can proceed through communication with other players and they can create their own customized story, based on their preferences and choices. Player’s locus of control makes it possible for the player to operate, proceed, gain self esteem, and experience the joy of academic as well as technical achievement. Through this control, “the player should gain the overall feeling of being the controlling party. This is done through a responsive environment, high degree of choice in the environment and by equipping the player with the ability to perform great effects” (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2005, p. 80). Games attract players with their aesthetic display, which accompanies the multimedia integration of text, graphics, and sound. The integration appeals to player’s multiple senses. Also, the screen display in a game creates a cyberspace where players move around via their avatars. “Extensity” of games is very different from that of movies or drama in that it expands from the direct visual experience of the player whereas the extensity of a movie or drama is experienced only when the audience identified with the hero/heroine. Game players can manipulate screens like operating a camcorder. The game screen stays still unless the player scans and explores. This means that extensity in game becomes meaningful to players when they participate in exploration. This extensity makes players feel they are in virtual space and it in turn contributes to the immersion of players. Screens in virtual space of game are changed as the game advances. As a game’s narrative is open, games do not force players to follow the display, rather it

allows players to experiment new displays of the events they want to try under their own power. It waits player’s click and are ready to unfold the hidden sides of the game. Flow theory might also help explain immersion in games. Flow is the state of optimal happiness which people get when they are actively participating in tasks. Csikszentmihalyi (1992) identifies “concentration on the activity” and “involvement in the activity” as two characteristics of the flow experience. According to flow theory, people should be in strong autotelic motivation in order to experience flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). In addition to this, players are engaging in autotelic activity in game play. Then players are close to flow state when they continue to perform autotelic activities without stopping the game. In online games, players engage in social interaction with other players, and this interaction becomes an autotelic activity. In turn, social interaction helps players to construct an affirmative self awareness leading to self esteem as an internal reward. This continuous self-esteem increases the sense of flow in online players. It should be noted that being immersed in an interactive fantasy world of one’s choosing, rather than in a passively absorbed world created by films or television, does not lead necessarily lead to a higher level of engagement with the real world, which is a goal of the education process. In fact, Palmer suggests that “although [computer technologies (and computer games specifically)] ceaselessly promot[e] the advantages of ‘user control’ as a form of democratic participation, dominant forms of real time media conceal their tendency to isolate and separate individuals” (Palmer, 2003, p. 160). It must be one of the goals of educators, as part of a program of media literacy education, to point out the limitations of the computer game media, as attractive as it may be. Representation and Identification: The opportunities for identification presented by computer games raise the persistent criticism of computer

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gaming culture’s representation of masculinity and femininity, while deciphering the games’ systems of logic often uncovers unpleasant assumptions and messages about both gender and violence. Computer games engage players partially because they enjoy identifying with the characters they either become or control. “‘Losing yourself” in a computer game means, in a sense, identifying with the simulation itself” (Friedman, 1999). Ideally, players could become their best selves in games that build a positive self-image and increase confidence in their abilities. However in reality, the messages that often accompany the game characters are not particularly empowering especially to female gamers, and seldom teach valuable skills that can be used outside of the computer game world. Beavis points out the relationship between ideology and character thus: “This question of players’ relationship to character is of considerable importance in assumptions made about ideology, and the ways in which games work on players’ subjectivity” (Beavis, 1998, p. 7). She is suggesting that the messages carried along with the characterizations in computer game texts can affect identity formation—how players view themselves. Such a process is likely more pronounced in young people, who are still in the process of forming their identities and who have a generally more malleable self-concept. The more significant issue is that main characters in a game are construed as explorer, colonizer, and conqueror. They are young, white, muscular, and male (Gottschalk, 1995, p. 7). Depictions of women tend to relegate women to inferior roles and often contain extremely problematic messages. “Simulated most often as a young…and defenseless victim, she is rarely depicted as an active agent participating in whatever mission the game involves” (Gottschalk, 1995, p. 8). Taking all of these descriptions into account, “it has been claimed that the representation of females within computer games is consistently sexualized and stereotypical, potentially reinforcing societal

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objectification of women and the use of sexual violence” (Bryce & Rutter, 2003, p. 244). Unrealistic and often offensive, representations of women in computer games leave far fewer opportunities for female players to find characters they can relate to. At the very least, “[i]mmersion in the game may be more difficult for a player if the main character is of the opposite sex” (Boe, Killpatrick, Martin, Packer, & Spiegel, 2003). Game developers bear a great deal of blame for this. As one might imagine the majority of attempts to exploit the female gamer market by the larger publishers have been firmly based within a discourse that seeks to work within and reproduce contemporary gendered stereotypes of what may be “appropriate” for female gamers. (Bryce & Rutter, 2003, p.247) The importance of video games in children’s culture, with boys especially but also with girls, is increasing and “[i]f video games are the primary means of socialization for young boys [and girls] in our culture, then these games reaffirm the age-old doctrine of dominant and patriarchal conceptions of gender roles through frequent dependence on male heroes, and female victims” (Boe et al., 2003). Computer games must change to reflect women’s diversity as well as to cater to the increasing numbers of female players. “Now, more and more females are playing computer games, and they do not want to be relegated to playing male roles or stereotypical female roles” (Boe et al., 2003). A new set of role models need to be more commonly included in computer games providing opportunities for resistance and criticism of traditional ideas about gender. New more nuanced roles, as well as a reflection of female gamers’ tastes, even when they are traditional, can be empowering for female players and consciousness-raising for male players. “Games, which break the mold and promote women as viable equals in society, can be seen as an attempt to counteract such pressures [of patriarchy]. They help girls recognize

Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games

that they are not alone and the things they like are not stupid” (Boe et al., 2003). By allowing the player to become or control a character of either gender, he or she can “try on” alternate gender roles or disguise their own gender to avoid being excluded from the predominantly male culture of computer games. Perhaps central to the debate concerning the messages contained in computer games regards their acceptance and encouragement of violence in a great number of computer games. It is probably best to begin by saying that violent play did not begin with computer games. “Though it may be discomforting to admit, throughout history children have always played violent games (Tapscott, 1998, p. 165)”. What is troublesome in computer games is that in many of the worlds created where games take place, violence is central to the existence of all members of those worlds. Gottschalk describes is thus: [V]iolence is not one among the many behaviors humans, animals, or machines sometimes participate in. It is the most typical behavior we can expect from these various entities constituting our (real or fantasized) environment. The videological construction of machines, animals, and humans into dangerous entities is also replicated in the simulation of temporal decors. (Gottschalk, 1995, p. 7) Violence is central to the continued existence of the player, as well as to most other characters that she or he will encounter. Violence is, in most cases, the player’s only option to achieve success. “The only relevant question posed by videology is not whether a particular situation calls for negotiation or violence, but how efficiently can one administer violence” (Gottschalk, 1995, p. 7). Also, in these types of games, the player’s elevated importance denigrates the value of the lives of all the other characters she or he encounters. There is a deficient depiction in computer games of actions that a male should perform and be rewarded for.

Beavis describes it thus: [C]omputer games are seen as tapping into, endorsing and recirculating discourses of masculinity that are largely hegemonic and non-reflective, that legitimate and promote violence, exclusion and domination. (Beavis, 1998, p. 10) These messages, both of masculinity and of the acceptance of violence, need to be exposed and deconstructed for young people, who may still choose to amuse themselves with computer games, but will at least be doing so critically and understanding the messages they might have otherwise have been internalizing unwittingly. For computer games to remain a relevant cultural form, they must change to reflect the increasing diversity of their audience and to address some of the serious concerns raised here. This process is already underway. According to Bryce and Rutter, “gendered perceptions of gaming are changing” (Bryce & Rutter, 2003, p. 251). Also, the debate on violence in computer games continues unabated. It should, in the end, be noted that consumers of cultural products, including children and young people, are increasingly sophisticated, and “the linking of text or authorial intention and audience reading is problematic” (Bryce & Rutter, 2003, p. 248), meaning that individuals’ reactions to computer games are as varied as the games themselves. In addition, an argument for the subjective effect of violence can be made. “[T]he impact of media violence on an individual child’s behavior is probably very specific to the child and his or her social context” (Tapscott, 1998, p. 165), and furthermore, “concerns about the effects of ‘violent’ video games have drawn our attention away from the broader social roles and cultural contexts of gaming” (Squire, 2002), as well as from many far more serious causes of violence. Making Sense of Game Engine’s System: The final experience that computer games provide

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children with is the challenge of uncovering the system of rules that govern the game, and then acting in accordance with them in order to accomplish a goal. Friedman points out that “[c]omputer gaming is essentially process of demystification, discovering how software is organized for a certain set of goals and action”. Gottschalk offers that computer games assume “the existence of reliable, decipherable, and systematic rules” (p. 12). The purpose of this system, again according to Gottschalk, is “that beyond and beneath this chaos of electronic excess, there exists an organized set of rules, a decipherable computer “order” where pleasure, control, and survival are possible once one has accepted its (il)logic and successfully cracked its code” (p. 12). Thus game playing is a process of understanding the rules inherent in a game and every game has problems that need to be solved by the game player. Squire (2004) described the emergence of games as an entertainment medium and the increased recognition of games as complex problem solving spaces. Barab et al. (2005) found that the design of Quest Atlantis reflects the need for both action and reflection in evaluating its relevance to real-world problems, in constructing meanings in authentic settings, and in justifying the credibility of assertions. According to Grundy (1988) and Curtis and Lawson (2002), computer-based adventure games do have the potential to be an effective problem solving environment Problem solving is the essence of a player’s actions in a computer game (Jørgensen, 2003). Her philosophical approach to the process of problem solving in a computer game includes three phases. The player’s first task is to comprehend the nature of the problem. Second, the player develops a strategy linking comprehensive activity and physical action. In the third phase, the player’s mental activity is realized as intentional actions to solve the problem. Begg, Dewhurst, and Macleod (2005) described the game playing process as the following:

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•

•

•

• • •

When entering a gaming environment, a player adopts a character role or assumes an identity appropriate to the environment. Once within the gaming environment, the player perceives tasks to be completed and, consequently, progress to be made. In order to progress through the game’s more complex levels, the player picks up the necessary game vocabulary. The player explores intriguing hidden corners and alluring vistas. The player adapts to the gaming environment by interacting with it. The player realigns expectations and judgments through each exploration and interaction, reappraising the cause and consequence of each experience accordingly.

Begg et al. (2005) also proposed that the descriptive sequence of game playing might be read as a model paradigm of problem-based learning. Games are an ideal environment for problem solving as game playing is a problem solving process. The three characteristics of problems in learning are: givens, a goal, and obstacles (Davidson, Deuser, & Sternberg, 1994) which can be replaced with missions in a game because game missions have these same characteristics.

hidden curriculum oF digitAl gAmes vieWed From teAching And leArning PersPective The nature of a game is dependent on an ideology contained in its skeleton, namely its framework of rules, assumptions, and representations. So designing a game is to construct the framework of the game and that framework in turn affects every aspect of the game. “[Video]games can either stimulate brain development or stifle brain development, and the difference between the two has to do with the design of the games” (Guterl, 2003, p. 36) . However, designing a game is a com-

Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games

plicated process because games and the contexts in which they are used are rich enough that not all the variables can be easily controlled. The following sections will describe several considerations both in design and in utilization of educational games, relating to hidden curricula areas. Implications of Fantasy: The game characteristic of fantasy implies several things about teaching and designing educational games. Fantasy which games provide to players has both imaginative and real aspects. Fantasy merged with technology in a game should be such that it can nurture gamers’ imaginations. To enhance fantasy in game, a world with no boundary can be built up by combining realistic elements with unrealistic elements. A world of emotional appeal with narrative consists of objects/characters, events functioning as mediator to change the world, and plot making players think with (Ryan, 2004). The narrative of educational games is more complicated than non-digital games in general in that the episodes in each stage are synchronized with the learning objects. The well-woven narrative can be more effective in promoting immersion of players. The narrative of an educational game should stimulate the player to solve the problem and deliver affirmative feedback within the overall structure of the story in addition to providing explanations. So the ideal model of narrative of an educational game should be that of creating user motivation and of leaving the locus of control to players so that they can try their own unique solutions to the problem. Fantasy takes either subjective or objective form. Most subjective fantasy results from scenarios where the activity is embedded. Thus, in order for gamers to feel immersed in fantasy, the framework of a game should not be made of ready-made characters, plots and dialogue which gamers passively absorb, but be made of versatile characters, open plots, and varying dialogue which gamers actively compose. A subjective fantasy is preferable in order to lead to gamers’

intrinsic motivation. It is preferable in many cases, although usually more difficult, to use a framework which is intrinsically motivating, rather than extrinsically motivating (Malone, 1981). In an intrinsically motivating gaming activity, the game framework itself helps to teach the instructional content. However, “[t]here’s no formula to ensure them happy, imaginative and accomplished lives. But even as high-tech entertainment stacks up on toy-shop shelves, it seems clear that simple unstructured play should be a priority, enriching children—and their imagination—for the rest of their lives” (Kalb, 2003). Implications of Immersion: Gamers are apt to be immersed when they feel inclined to emotioncharged imagery. When someone feels immersed, they become very goal-oriented, challenged, focused, and attentive. In this active environment, gamers are likely to be immersed in constructivist worlds for their learning where they are intrinsically motivated, meta-cognitively active, and self-regulative. Thus, it becomes one way for making games educative to design the “action” so that there is a thematically coherent development of the experience over time. Further, the action should be meaningful to the theme (Quinn, 1997), and each action should have clear goals. When gamers have the locus of control, they reach the highest level of “flow”. Finally, control should be in the hands of the user, with a perception of choice and frequent opportunities for action. While a passive action of the player can happen in games, most of the actions are active. Players should be very active to proceed and/or to succeed. Players manipulate items on the screen, discover rules, and apply what they have learned exploring the unknown world. In educational games, players should construct their knowledge through the same activities that lead to immersion in the game. To secure maximized immersion, interactivity in a game should be fully designed. Every game has a visualization space component that

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includes game elements made up of fun, graphics, sound, and technology and problem components requiring a player’s critical thinking, discovery, goal formation, goal completion, competition, and practice (Amory, Naicker, Vincent, & Adams, 1999). Both pedagogical and game elements should initiate each other. Most of the time, pedagogical elements are represented by abstract interfaces and game elements by concrete interfaces (Amory, 2001). What we see from an educational game is that elements contributing to effective learning environments include a thematically meaningful story (“situating” the application of the knowledge), relevant and rapid feedback, and a carefully managed level of challenge (Quinn, 1997). At this point, a tight coupling between action and feedback is important, both in the form of the communication, and in the time between action and response (Hutchins, Hollan, & Norman, 1986). Finally, as the game designer Chris Crawford indicated, players should be safe from the events in the game. But making or losing money in a gambling game presents a special case, where the outcome of the game is designed to have impact in the real world. Implications of Representation and Identification: Usually a player performs one and/or more than one role in playing a game, largely depending on its genre. Through playing the role in the game, the players represent their desire, self esteem, and confidence. The avatar or the agent in a game is the second self of the player. As is so natural that games represent a certain culture’s values, current cultural inheritance is also embodied in games. Neither prejudice nor and one-sidedness should be avoided. It transmits its ideology to players. Thus it will be a desirable game when any gamer may not be influenced by the biased view of the designer. Gaming is a boy dominated activity. However, through feminine tactics in designing a game such as adopting female characters, non-violence, so-

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cial relations, caring, peaceful pace, and a peaceful story line, gaming can attract girl players. The success of educational games is arguably attributable to the synchronicity, being present at the same time, between boys and girls in the game narrative as well as tactics of designing for non-gender bias. Another good tactic would be to adopt characters evoking both gender players’ empathy so that they can input their emotional feelings and think the agent/avatar as their representative in the game. Those agents/avatars should represent various genres and various characters of race, role, and gender that can be chosen by players. In considering which game to employ in a learning activity, a special attention should be given to gender preferences. There appears to be some disparity in the types of games and the types of gaming activities preferred by male and females (Braun, Goupil, Giroux, & Chagnon, 1986; Malone, 1981). Also, close observation of student’s behavior in game-based learning suggests that certain aspects of interactive group play affects girls’ participation in playing games. The social climate developed through group play can be one of factors for attracting or repelling girls and serves to enforce gendered separation during play. However, teacher intervention can make a difference. A teacher must be gender sensitive and understand why girls may not be playing on the computer games as often as the boys. The teacher could encourage females to use the computer. The teacher has a role in managing the complex issues surrounding the creation of an equitable classroom environment (Koch, 1995). Implications of Making Sense of Game Engine’s System: Games have a set of rules for the gamers’ achievement of the goal in the game. Rules are the internal orders of the game, which should be understandable to gamers. Gaming is in itself a problem-solving activity in which Salomon, Globerson, and Guterman (1989) mentioned social interaction, especially dialogue and modeling, can be used to enhance monitoring and strategy use,

Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games

and technology or other external supports can be used to scaffold reflection and metacognition. Game system can include non-linear causes and involve ill-structured problem solving which then scaffolds higher-order thinking (Lajoie, 2000; Lajoie & Derry, 1993). In scaffolding, strategies are used to engage students in peer discourse required for the solving of ill-structured problems, including: (a) modeling high-level peer discourse using question prompts, (b) promoting high-level discourse using guided peer questioning, and (c) supporting high-level peer discourse using online collaboration tools (Ge & Land, 2004). Those strategies are especially valuable for online game based. Another factor which should be given consideration in deciphering the game system or problem solving in a game is metacognition. Based on prior problem-solving research, (e.g., Gick, 1986; Greeno, 1978; Simon, 1978), Metacognition enhances problem-solving abilities in game playing: Metacognition guides the problem-solving process and improves the problem-solving abilities of learners. Hype and Bizar (1989) defined metacognition as “a process where the individual carefully considers thought in problem solving situations through the strategies of self-planning, self-monitoring, self-regulating, self-questioning, self-reflecting, or self-reviewing” (p. 1). When it comes to metacognitive strategies, learners need to plan, check the initial plan, and choose other strategies if the original plan isn’t working. All this he calls self-regulation. Many metacognitive strategies are very similar to problem-solving process. In other words, students can enhance their problem-solving ability using metacognition and metacognitive strategies. Davidson, Deuser, and Sternberg (1994) discussed the role of metacognition in problem solving, focusing on four metacognitive processes that are important contributors to problem-solving performance across a wide range of domains. These processes are: (1) identifying and defining the problem, (2) mentally representing the problem,

(3) planning how to proceed, and (4) evaluating what you know about your performance. Henderson-Lancett and Boesen (1986) argued that adventure games encourage application of metacognitive skills. However, Grundy (1988) argued that classroom use of many adventure games to influence problem solving is limited because the programs usually do not include guidelines to suggest how they might be used, what problem-solving strategies could be developed, or what other experiences might be arranged to support their use.

conclusion As gaming becomes a routine part of young children’s daily lives, teaching through games is also becoming more and more prevalent. In game-based learning, players pursue the player’s goals as well as the learner’s. But just as a less obvious “hidden curriculum” is transmitted to students in a traditional classroom in addition to the more apparent learning objectives, players subconsciously internalize much of what games offer. In a traditional school setting, classroom culture, teacher’s values, attitude, and relationships with students are all relayed to the students who subtlely learn from these hidden curricula. In games, players absorb the hidden curricula of values, role playing, jobs, and problem-solving strategies, whether those affect them positively or negatively. Opponents of using games for teaching and learning argue that games are therefore hazardous to players due do their potential for causing player impatience, cruelty, and violence. On the other hand, game-based learning advocates recognize that players can also acquire valuable knowledge, positive attitudes, and new psychomotor awareness and skills from gaming. In this chapter, several hidden aspects of games that can have an effect on players have been explored. These hidden curricula are important for learning-game designers to consider in that they

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Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games

are internalized subconsciously while playing games. For example, Fantasy offers players an unlimited experience of reality and virtuality, strong emotional appeal, and hope for the future world. Players experience connection, immersion, and control over the world. Thus players may get into the flow of learning. Players are influenced by the game’s narrative, representation, and identification. Also, while players solve problems directly posed to them in games, they also subconsciously learn how to solve similar problems that might appear in the real world or future virtual experiences. These aspects of hidden curricula suggest several points in designing and utilizing games in teaching and learning. Designers of educational games need to combine realistic elements with fantasy elements, use a range of quantitative and qualitative stimuli at multiple levels and adopt a plot with educational objectives. Game designers should be aware of creating a narrative consisting of objects/characters and events functioning as a mediator that allows the player to change the world. Goals, challenges, focus, attention, and various tools and devices for player’s input must be thoughtfully placed within the designed experience. Carefully devised synchronicity between boys and girls in the game narrative as well as other tactics for alleviating gender bias should also be adopted. The final point is that a scaffolding framework and various metacognitive strategies should be adopted as part of the problem-solving process. Education game designers should remember that the purpose of game design is entertainment, whereas the purpose of instructional design is education. Because it is not productive to view these two undertakings as polar opposites or mutually exclusive (Dickey, 2005), designers of educational games need to develop their own principles for integration of game design into various types of learning. Teachers can use games in their class to help motivate players for learning, to facilitate self-directed playing and learning, to

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improve gender sensitivity, and to help with the transfer of knowledge from games to real life, the teacher can provide problem situations similar to those in games. Besides instructional objectives, educational game designers should also be aware of how they provide players with the hidden curriculum of games combined with motivation to learn. This is achieved primarily through the sense of immersion, which gives players the opportunity to play roles, to build identity and learn to identify with others, to use virtual identities for therapy, to rehearse skills, to explore in open-ended spaces, to learn in groups, and to develop higher cognitive skills (de Freitas, 2006). This chapter has hopefully shown why gamebased learning can be a good alternative learning method for the younger generation. The hidden curricula of games are bound to continue to be an issue of great concern for educators in coming years. Games have the magical ability to inspire players through compelling stories, challenges, and activities. Game playing feeds something in players that is often missing in traditional classrooms; it exercises their imaginations (Wright, 2002). What we need to do now is learn to channel this inspiration; to direct and transform it into a more persistent motivation to learn. Educators, game developers, and consumers must all seek to have more meaningful learning through game playing and expect something significant for learning to happen via digital games.

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Malone, T. W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 4, 333-369. McCarty, C. T. (2001, August 24). Playing with computer games: An exploration of computer game simulations and learning. Dissertation submitted in part fulfillment of the requirements of the MA (ICT in Education) Degree of the University of London, Institute of Education. Palmer, D. (2003, August). The paradox of user control. Symposium conducted at the 5th International Digital Arts and Culture Conference, Melbourne, Australia. Retrieved January 10, 2007, from http://hypertext.rmit.edu.au/dac/papers/ Quinn, C. N. (1997). Engaging learning. Instructional Technology Forum. Invited Presenter. January. ITFORUM Feb 1997. Retrieved March 20, 2008, from http://itech1.coe.uga.edu/itforum/ paper18/paper18.html Rieber, L. P. (1995). A historical review of visualisation in human cognition. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 43, 45-56. Ryan, M. L. (2001). Beyond myth and metaphor/The case of narrative in digital media. The International Journal of Computer Game Research. Retrieved March 20, 2008, from http:// www.gamestudies.org/0101/ryan/ Ryan, M. L. (2004). Narrative: A transmedial definition. Narrative Across Media. University of Nebraska Press. Salomon, G., Globerson, T., & Guterman, E. (1989). The computer as a zone of proximal development: Internalizing reading-related metacognitions from a reading partner. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(4), 620-627. Sandford, R., & Williamson, B. (2005). Games and learning. A handbook from NESTA Futurelab 03. Using games inside school: Learning with

computer games in and out of school. Bristol, UK. Simon, H. A. (1978). Information-processing theory of human problem solving. In W. Estes (Ed.), Handbook of learning and cognitive processes: Vol.5. Human information processing (pp. 271-295). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Squire, K. (2002, July). Cultural framing of computer/video games. Game Studies, The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 2(1). Retrieved March 20, 2008, from http://www. gamestudies.org/0102/squire/ Squire, K. D. (2004). Video games and nextgeneration learners. Presentation made at the Annual Education and Information Systems Conference, Orlando, FL. Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up digital: The rise of the net generation. New York: McGrawHill. Wright, W. (2002). Vision 2020, Transforming education and training through advanced technologies. Motivational Technology. U.S. Department of Commerce Technology Administration Office of Public Affairs.

Key terms Fantasy: Fantasy is an imagined event or sequence of mental images, such as a daydream, usually fulfilling a wish or psychological need. The contexts of computer games provide fantasy, curiosity, concentration and uncertainty, and so forth. Those cannot be experienced in the real world. Flow: Flow is the state of optimal happiness which people get when they are actively participating in tasks. Csikszentmihalyi (1992) identifies

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Revealing New Hidden Curriculum and Pedagogy of Digital Games

“concentration on the activity” and “involvement in the activity” as two characteristics of the flow experience. Hidden Curriculum: Hidden curriculum refers to those unstated norms, values, and beliefs embedded in and transmitted to students (players in game). This can have non-academic but educationally significant consequences of the participating activities. Hidden curriculum is the part of the curriculum knowledge or the subject matter that is not solely academic, but it includes the personal and social knowledge as well. Identification: Identification is an unconscious mental process, by which someone makes part of their personality conform to the personality of another who serves as a model.

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Immersion: Immersion is the state where anyone ceases to be aware of his/her physical self. It is frequently accompanied by intense focus, distorted sense of time, and effortless action. Motivation: Motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior. It is having desire, intentions, and needs that determine human behavior. Pedagogy: Pedagogy is the study and theory of the methods and principles of teaching. Pedagogy is the art or science of being a teacher, generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction Representation: Representation is a formal system for making explicit certain entities or types of information, together with a specification of how the system does this.

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Chapter LX

Game Design as a Compelling Experience Wei Qiu Michigan State University, USA Yong Zhao Michigan State University, USA

AbstrAct This study explored the nature and design of a compelling experience: game design. Thirty-six college juniors in the software engineering major participated in a semester-long project to design games for Chinese language learning. The project was designed to help engineering students understand educational and other issues in designing educational games. Results show that game design expanded students’ perceptive capacity; enhanced their subject-matter understanding, problem-solving skills, meta-learning ability and motivation; and facilitated students’ reflection on themselves as well as their environments. Factors are discussed to make a game design learning experience compelling.

gAme design As A comPelling leArning exPerience This chapter addresses the nature and design of a compelling experience: game design. Game design has been increasingly used to engage students in various subject matter learning such as math,

science (Harel & Papert, 1990; Resnick, 1996), and software design (Cagiltay, 2007). There are many claims about the benefits of using games in education: games are a motivator to engage students in exploration and reflection (Gee, 2003); as the native language of the digital world, games can reach a younger generation (the digital natives)

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more easily; design can help establish dialogues and break social and cultural boundaries inside and outside of classrooms (Pivec, 2007); and finally game design enables students to develop knowledge and skills that they need to succeed in the digital world (Cagiltay, 2007). However, game design does not automatically lead to better learning. The educative values of game design can only be realized when it is appropriately developed according to the pedagogical goals and the characteristics of the learner. Thus, to more effectively use game design as an educational medium, we need to have a deeper understanding of the key components of effective game-design learning environments as well as the psychological and social conditions and processes triggered by game design. The intention of this study was to answer three related questions: (1) what makes a game design learning environment effective; (2) what learning outcomes do students accomplish in the game design process, and (3) why game design makes such kind of learning happen. As an initial attempt, we created a game design learning experience for our students to achieve three goals: cognitive growth, emotional engagement, and self-discovery. We examined the learning outcomes that the students had made as well as the lessons that we had learned as learning experience designers. We discussed the implications of this design-forlearning experience for curriculum designers, teachers, and learners.

gAme design As leArning exPerience mini game design Project Mini Game Project The Chinese Language Mini-Game project was to design simple and small-scale games for beginning Chinese Language learners. It was a pilot program

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of a large innovative Chinese language education program initiated by the Confucius Institute at Michigan State University1. The program began with a vision that games provide an immersive and natural environment where learners can learn Chinese and Chinese culture in a cohesive and engaging way2. The program was designed to run in a 3-D massive online game environment that consists of several levels of learning and thousands of mini-games with rich language and cultural content. The goal of the mini game project was to create functional and engaging games for Chinese language and culture learning. This was no small challenge for the game designers. The designers had to create a game that was engaging in its design, content, and pedagogical approach. In our project, student designers were asked to design games around the idioms. The students chose an idiom from a pool of the most popular Chinese idioms, such as as the old cock crows, so doth the young. Most of the Chinese idioms were punch lines of historical events or folk tales widely known among Chinese society and community. Because of that, the idiom possesses rich cultural and linguistic information, and more importantly, provides open space for game narrative and interaction. Thirty-six college juniors in the software engineering major from a Chinese university participated in the project, as a partial fulfillment for their practicum, a four-credit required course. The participants were interested in both games and cultural exchange. Most of the students considered this project/course as an entrance into game design, a field in which they were interested in building a career. The students worked in small teams of 2 to 4 people. It took roughly 12 weeks to complete the entire design cycle from brainstorming to accomplishing the final products. The students and the instructor decided collaboratively on the team task and each team member’s role. Every team made individualized design plans.

Game Design as a Compelling Experience

According to their prior skill structure and their role in the team, each individual student came up with their own personal learning plans to update their skill portfolio. The students were required to keep design journals and submit final reports, in order to facilitate the reflection process. The evaluation was made on the basis of the final products, team collaboration, design journals, and final reports.

Mini Games At the final stage, the students who had worked as 15 groups had completed 47 single-player games for 15 idioms. Some groups had created more than 6 mini-games for one idiom, and some had produced a couple of games. Overall, each idiom inspired more than one mini-game. The final games from the student designers came in various genres, including maze games,

puzzle games, adventure game, and social games. Most of the students designed their games with Macromedia Flash MX. A few students found it more comfortable to design with Java or Visual Basic 6.0. These games varied in the sophistication of their rules, artistic design, content presentation, and pedagogical effectiveness. But, all of them were fully functioning games. The following screenshots offer a glimpse of the students’ projects. Ridge Walking and Chinese Bell are two mini games embedded in an adventure game. The adventure game was inspired by farming in the sunny days, reading in the rainy days, an emblematic image of the Chinese scholar’s life in ancient times. The game was designed for the gamer to explore the life story of Zhu Geliang, a well-known Chinese scholar. Ridge Walking, as shown in Figure 1, is a maze game to teach the writing system of Chinese

Figure 1. Ridge Walking

Figure 2. Chinese Bell

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characters, which is one of the hardest parts of learning Chinese for many beginners. To win the game, the gamer has to walk carefully along the ridge of the paddy field, highlighted in yellow. The game is over if a gamer walks out of the ridge. Ridge Walking makes the experience of writing both virtual and in-person. This game helps the learner to build up a more personal and intimate bond with the Chinese character which may otherwise seem distant and intimidating. It also brings out the “earthbound” feature of Chinese calligraphy and language. Although the game would be more graphically vivid and pedagogically effective if designed in a 3D environment, it does give us an idea of the power of the game in language learning. Chinese Bell focuses on the Chinese pronunciation. In the game, the learner has to play the Chinese Bell set3 to match sounds and tones with those appearing randomly on the screen. The game does not just present the nuances of tones and the subtle differences between different vowels and consonants. What makes it unique is that it invites the learner to find out those differences on their own. It also introduces the gamer to an often neglected feature of oral Chinese language, that is, the musical roots of the oral Chinese language. These two games are just two examples from the 47 mini games, covering different aspects of Chinese language learning, such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

design FrAmeWorK design-based research (dbr) Game-design-learning starts with a concern of two disconnections in schooling: the disconnection between teaching and students’ interests; and the disconnection between learning inside and outside of classroom. John Dewey addressed this disconnection in teaching and learning a century

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ago in School and Society. Yet the puzzle has not been solved, after almost a hundred years of educational research (Resnick, 1987). Previous studies indicated that small interventions such as a controlled lab experiment may produce limited knowledge about bridging gaps in schooling. To make learning both engaging and relevant, we need to understand the nature of learning in real settings, supported by an innovative intervention. To this purpose, we adopted the design-based research paradigm (DBR; Kelly, 2003). Designbased research, or design experiments (Brown, 1992), is a research paradigm that integrates design, research, and practice to improve educational practice (Cobb, Confrey, deSessa, Lehrer, & Schauble, 2003). DBR is important for this study for a number of reasons. First, it enables us to create learning conditions that learning theory suggests are productive, but that are not commonly practiced or are not well understood. Second, DBR can provide principles that can be localized for others to apply to new settings. Furthermore, it can contribute to the understanding of learning and teaching (DesignBased-Research-Collective, 2003).

Assumptions of learning The learning environment we designed embodies the following assumptions about learning: (a) learning is authentic; (b) learning is social and distributed; (c) learning is individualized; (d) learning is discovery; and (e) learning is interactive and reflective. These assumptions are derived from Seymour Papert’s constructionism and Dewey’s experiential education.

Authentic Learning The learning task should be authentic. Papert (Papert & Harel, 1991) notes that an authentic task with a product that is sharable is the key to make learning relevant, personally meaningful,

Game Design as a Compelling Experience

and challenging to students. Although it is unrealistic to simulate the real world too precisely, it is important to connect the learning task with the learners’ world. Meanwhile, the concept of authenticity takes on different meanings in different contexts. What does authenticity mean for the gamer? For the student designers? For the game learning? For the Chinese language learning mini games? To answer these questions, we need to combine authentic learning with the specific context in which it happens. Gee (2003) provides us with an insightful observation on the meaning of authenticity in game and design. In addition, Dewey’s experiential education is particularly helpful in identifying what forces make learning happen in the process of game design.

Distributed Learning The learning environment should encourage and support distributed learning. Expanding Papert’s constructionism, Resnick brings a social element into the constructionism. He suggests that learning is essentially social and distributed because knowledge is distributed in tools, people and the surrounding environments (Resnick, 1996). This implies that the environment should be at once close-knit and open.

Discovery Learning Despite the merits of enhancing students’ motivation and problem-solving ability, one of the limitations of constructionism is that it tends to narrowly define learning as a negative problembased process, rather than a positive idea-based process (Prawat, 1993). While a large part of learning lies in improving problem-solving capability, it is more than problem solving. We argue that game design is a positive rather than negative learning experience because it is an experience associated with expanded capacities to think and

feel. It is a process of discovery (Mishra, Zhao, & Tan, 1999).

Interactive and Reflective Learning Learning cannot occur without interaction. As a crucial channel for interaction, dialogue opens up interaction among students, teachers, and the environment, which is a key to a transformative experience (Dewey, 1934). It helps learners to actively seek out inspirations and support from the teammates, instructors, and technologies available. Learning cannot occur without reflection either. Action is merely monotonous repetition or aimless attempts (Dewey, 1934). Only when reflection goes together with action does an experience become complete and rhythmic. Only with reflection does an experience have the power to expand students’ perceptive capability (Wong, 2007), gain more powerful ideas (Prawat, 1993), and achieve higher motivation (Dewey, 1938).

Individualized Learning Learning is increasingly individualized. Nowadays, professionals always find that they need to learn something new while already doing a task. Learners should learn to identify their own skill gaps and constantly upgrade their knowledge structure and skills repertoire.Therefore, making personal learning plans has become a crucial quality to have to keep up with the fast-moving knowledge and global economy (Gee, 2003). The message from Gee is that learners should not only build their own knowledge, but they should build their own learning strategy and plan.

design of the learning experience On the basis of the framework outlined previously, we created a game design learning experience for the students to grow cognitively and emotionally.

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Goal The game design activity had two distinct and interrelated goals. The first goal, as a design project, was to produce a number of functional games for Chinese language learning. The second goal, as a learning experience, was to help students grow cognitively and emotionally through the game design activity. The goal of production fuels the goal of general learning, while the goal of learning determines the quality of the final products (Harel & Papert, 1990).

Task Authenticity is the top priority for selecting a proper task. There are at least four dimensions to make an experience authentic: (1) making learning relevant to the real-world outside school; (2) making learning personally meaningful for the learner; (3) providing an opportunity to think in the mode of a particular discipline; and (4) making the assessment reflect the learning process (Shaffer & Resnick, 1999). In light of Shaffer and Resnick’s idea of authenticity, we created a task of game design that is personally meaningful for the students, and that has a real audience of beginning learners in the U.S. We repeatedly challenged the students to think and design as a software designer and emphasized that the assessment of the task depends not just on the final product but also on the entire process of construction.

Learning Environment The environment we provided was self-regulated, collaborative, and distributed. We gave our students both freedom and responsibilities in their design process. The students had the freedom to choose their teammates, to select the specific topic that they wanted to design, to pick out the design tools that they would like to work with, and to set the pace and rhythm of their work. The students

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also assumed the responsibilities of tracking their own work, conducting self-evaluation, and keeping reflective journals. The students worked in a self-assembled team of 2 to 4 members. Through numerous practices such as brainstorming, design, and problem-solving, the students understood that a design project involved more than one person or one type of technology. They also benefited from the interaction between themselves and the environments including the people and the artifacts (Resnick, 1994). The instructor provided help and support obtrusively. The instructor gave the students a series of lectures on the relevant issues such as language pedagogy and the psychology of gamers and players. In addition, the instructor provided technological resources and support, resolved conflicts in teamwork, supervised the project progress, and evaluated the students’ designs.

Assessment Assessment was achieved through a mixture of methods. For example, we encouraged our students to keep a design notebook which could track the evolution of their game concept, design, programming, and teamwork. A reflective journal was another way to help the students keep a record of their individual design progress, and to help the instructor keep track of each student’s achievements and problems. The students submitted design reports regularly (altogether three times in 12 weeks). These reports were more formal and elaborate than the design notebook and journal. The final product was undoubtedly an important part of the assessment.

leArning outcomes The design process spanned over 12 weeks, giving the students a chance to conduct in-depth inquiry, active construction, and reflection. The students

Game Design as a Compelling Experience

learned much from their inquiry and collaboration, a process punctuated with moments of frustration, delight, and revelation.

Cognitive Growth Cognitive growth is one of the most important aspects of educative experience. Game design enhances the students’ cognitive growth in many ways. Our discussion about the students’ cognitive growth focuses on two related issues: perceptive capability and subject matter understanding.

Perceptive Capacity The students expanded their capacities to perceive and to take in new ideas. In the final reports, our students named a heightened sensibility as one of the most important achievements that they had made in the project. In her final report, student Feng discussed about how the project expanded her perceptibility. What we have learned the most from this project is how important it is to be sensible and curious about our lives. The extraordinary often lies in the ordinary. Some of the most brilliant design ideas may be embedded in our daily life. I almost felt sad that we simply overlooked so many of them... Student Chen designed the game Ridge Walking, and his design experience explains how the perceptive capacities have been polished and expanded in the process of game design. Chen described how he started to perceive the possibility of this game idea and how this practice expanded his sensibility to Chinese culture and game design. Maybe I pushed too hard... so I decided to let the strokes and Chinese character speak to me, to see if this would help. It’s like turning around the table. And suddenly, the Chinese characters began to talk to me. And I felt more relax, and

saw that there’s more in those strokes, and more connections between the strokes and Chinese culture as well as my life, such as the farm culture, the farm land where I came from, the Chinese calligraphy, etc. I felt that Chinese farming and calligraphy shared some qualities in common. It had certain rules or orders, and it required undivided attention to achieve something good. So it struck me that maybe field ridge would be perfect to represent the strokes in Chinese characters. It would be a good way not just to teach the Chinese writing, but also to communicate Chinese spirit and culture. I was thrilled when the thought first hit me. Chen’s story shows that both active doing and receptive undergoing are powerful for successful design and learning. On the one hand, action is crucial to shaping the interface and function of the games. On the other, receptive undergoing helps the designer be receptive to the new possibilities, by yielding part of the self (Dewey, 1934). As Dewey points out, receptivity is not passivity, but a series of responsive acts that accumulate toward objective fulfillment (Dewey, 1934). Chen was not passive, because he was engaged in a dialogue with the Chinese characters, which made him see the Chinese characters from a new angle. As a result, something original was intuited and felt, and perceptivity was expanded.

Subject Matter Knowledge A balance between the interface design and content learning is a key to the success of a designfor-learning experience (Kafai & Ching, 2001). In our project, the students improved subject matter knowledge during the design process. Chinese language and culture was the core subject matter for this project. Classroom observation showed that all of students spent a large amount of time doing research on the content, the Chinese language, for their games.

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Nearly every student reported in their final reports that they had deepened their understanding of Chinese language and culture. For example, student Han reported that as he conducted research about his game, Tu Si Gou Pen (trusted aids are eliminated when they finish their mission), he became more knowledgeable about this idiom’s meaning and its historical roots. He also understood why this old idiom was still widely used after it came into being 2,000 years ago. Furthermore, the students mentioned that game design changed their understanding of language teaching and learning. For instance, student Xie said that, “I learned a lot about language teaching by thinking from the standpoint of teachers. To me, assuming the identity of teacher meant taking up the responsibilities of being a teacher. It was very interesting and refreshing.” Among the forces that stimulated the development of subject matter understanding, the most powerful force was perhaps the shift from a student’s perspective to a teacher’s perspective, as revealed by student Xie. When one had to explain and teach a piece of knowledge to others, he or she was propelled to understand it as thoroughly and correct as possible (Papert & Harel, 1991). The weight of this responsibility made our students realize that deep content knowledge was a prerequisite for good game design.

meta-learning skills in globalization This project benefited from international cooperation from the outset—it blended expertise in educational psychology from the U.S. and the software design manpower from China. This background had significant influences on the students’ perceptions of learning and working in the global economy.

Distributed Learning The students understood that it was essential to be able to collaborate with their surroundings,

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including other individuals as well as various technologies and tools (Gee, 2003). This was just as important as what they could accomplish all by themselves. More importantly, this knowledge of working with others in different societies and cultures could not be taught, but could only be obtained through experience and practice (Zhao, 2006). A project like this provided a good opportunity for students to be actively engaged in global collaboration and discourse. Through working with their teammates and instructors in face-to-face and online environments, the students actually “saw” that creative activities were inherently social and distributed. The students understood that the most important knowledge resided in all the people, texts, tools, and technologies interconnected in the global network. In essence, the knowledge was not in any one “node”, but in the network as a whole (Gee, 2003).

Individualized Learning The students learned to identify their own skill gaps and to build individualized learning plans on their own. This is another highly valued quality in an economy where knowledge plays a key role. Nowadays, professionals always find that they need to learn something new while already doing a task. Because of that, lifelong learning and ongoing professional development is not enough. Learners need to assume more responsibilities to constantly upgrade their knowledge structure and skills repertoire. The ability to identify skill gaps and to make personal learning evaluation plans is crucial to keep up with the fast-moving knowledge and global economy. In our project, a major adjustment that the students had made was to assume more responsibilities in their teamwork. They learned to divide up roles and work on the basis of each individual student’s interest and strength. The students built a team learning plan for the project. The plan allowed the students to learn new skills and

Game Design as a Compelling Experience

knowledge independently and efficiently, to avoid overlapping learning, and to share the skills they had learned with their teammates. The students kept a record of their work progress on their own, rather than relying on the instructor to check constantly. They learned to solve team conflicts. The students also tapped into the online resources for problem-solving and innovative ideas.

Raising Questions A third lesson that the students learned about working in a global economy was that raising questions was as important as finding answers. The students started to ask questions about education, games, and design. Asking questions did not imply that they automatically became more mature. Nor did it imply that they could find a definite answer. Some of the questions might not have had a perfect answer, but these questions were valuable in themselves because they were the echoes of the students’ inquiry and thoughts and because there were starting points for the subsequent inquiry. As Dewey pointed out, these questions were a pause to reflect, to perceive, and to start again. And they were the moment connecting what went through and what comes after. They were the crucial point of an educative experience (Dewey, 1934, 1938).

Meta-Cognitive Meta-thinking was an important achievement that the students had made in this design task. This outcome is consistent with other research on design for learning (Harel & Papert, 1990). The students developed abilities such as cognitive control over their design (i.e., planning, self-management, self-evaluation of the design) and metaconceptual thinking (i.e., students’ thinking about their own knowledge and understanding of concepts). The students developed a metacognitive awareness of how knowledge could be constructed, and how problems were solved, as they were engaged in

the process of writing design report and reflective journal.

Emotional Growth Passionate Expression One change that we identified in our students’ performances was how they learned to express their passion through their design. At the initial phase of the project, many students considered our project as another “just-a-term-project” which more often than not failed to evoke their genuine passions. Overtime, the students became increasingly passionate about their design, which was revealed in the reflective journal, final reports, and classroom observation. The passion arose from a significant amount of investment of personal interests in the project. For example, student Wu who loved basketball designed a game on basketball; student Qian designed a game about cooking because food was his passion; student Cao designed a game on a poem because he loved Chinese poetry. In these games, the student designers found a medium to express their personal passions. The more personally involved they became, the more passionate they were about their designs. The quality of the final games was better precisely because the students had channeled an enormous amount of passion and emotional energy into their designs. In a personal email, Student Qian confessed to the instructor that, one thing he had learned the hard way in the project was that working passionately was far different than working diligently. He explained that: It’s not that I do not believe in hard working any more. I still do. But, I see myself have more faith in passion now… because passion not only makes me work harder; it also gives me more flow experiences. It’s cool to work that way.

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Frustration Management The design process was sometimes tedious and frustrating for the students. Students had difficulties with various technical issues such as graphics editing and programming. It was precisely the frustration that made the students emotionally stronger, and made them more capable to handle various problems and their anxiety. As student Xie pointed out in his report, At that time (of brainstorming), I felt the weights of anxiety and frustration. But the weight made me stronger. And it made me realize that great works and moments of awe do not come easy and free. I knew I had to be courageous, not just to withstand difficulties, but more importantly, I needed courage to be moved and to be surprised (by my own works)!

self-discovery Personal Interests and Potentials The design was a process of discovery for our students. Perhaps, re-discovery was a more precise word to describe the transformative experience that our students had gone through. Some students rediscovered their personal passions. Some students found interests in the areas that they used to pay little attention to. Still others identified the missing connections among various topics that they were interested in. Rediscovered personal interest and potential was one of the most exciting and possibly most far-reaching outcomes. In her essay, Chen told the story how this project liberated her passion in arts and design, which was largely thwarted by the coding and technical project that she was involved in before. Chen said that: “The project let me rediscover the passion that always lies deep down in my heart. I thought they were driven away by all the technical stuff that I had to deal with. I thought my potentials would

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never get to be developed or even to be noticed. The project helped me see how beautifully arts and technology can be combined together. It challenged me both artistically and technically. And I was really happy to be challenged that way. ”

Connections The students identified more connections in their knowledge, skills, and subject domains. For instance, many of them used to think that programming was the only knowledge that they were supposed to learn. Knowledge that had little to do with programming, such as graphic design or psychology, was no more than a distraction. Dan, a male student, once told the instructor that “art is not my cup of tea. All I know is programming. It is so frustrating to draw and write.” After going through the game design project, even Dan, the hard-core programmer, came to realize that he had an artistic potential that he used to deny having. Dan began to see an element of elegance in programming and stopped treating it merely as a technical skill. Similarly, the students made connections between software engineering and other domains. They became more concerned with language education, cross-cultural communication, and education, issues that they used to consider as irrelevant to their expertise in software engineering.

lessons leArned And imPlicAtions conditions that Facilitate design for learning Authenticity In reflection, we find that an authentic task is crucial to a successful learning experience.

Game Design as a Compelling Experience

Authenticity helps the students to think in-depth about real-world issues, which is the reason for their cognitive growth. Furthermore, authenticity allows the students to establish a personal bond with their design. In our case, the bond not only evokes the students’ personal passions but also helps them make new discoveries. In short, to achieve cognitive and emotional growth, authenticity seems to be an indispensable element of a design-for-learning environment.

Dialogue Design is essentially about dialogue (Mishra, Zhao, & Tan, 1999). Much has been written about the importance of dialogue in designing projects. We, too, acknowledge the importance of dialogue between the students and the instructor. It is this kind of dialogue that drives the project to move along. But we also want to highlight something further about dialogue. That is the dialogue between the design and the designer, between ideas and its world, between concept and its realization. And it is the dialogue between active doing and receptive undergoing that is emphasized in the Deweyan notion of experience. It is the back and forth transaction between the person and the object (Dewey, 1934; Prawat, 1993; Wong, 2007). It is in this kind of transactional dialogue that relationships are perceived, “aha” moments are captured, and new ideas are brewed. In our project, many designs were made better simply because of a frank dialogue between the design and the designers. The earlier-mentioned student Chen and his Ridge Walking game made a good example. The excerpt of his final report provided us a glimpse of the power of receptive undergoing. Receptive undergoing requires the designer to yield part of the self in the design process. Only by relinquishing control over the familiar or the stereotypical could one be open to new possibilities.

Reflection Trigger There are a number of underlying forces that make learning possible, such as ongoing dialogue, distributed collaboration, and active knowledge construction (Harel & Papert, 1990; Resnick, 1996). Besides these forces, our study suggests that reflection trigger is another important force that transforms the students’ design experience. One important reflection trigger was the peer pressure arising from the comparison of each other’s projects (Kiili, 2007). In our study, this trigger became most salient during and after the mid-term presentation. The students were inspired by other teams’ work, but a number of students confessed in their reflective journal that they felt ashamed when comparing their own works to the designs standing out in the presentation. One student called in to tell the instructor that he felt sorry for himself because he had “borrowed” graphics and scripts from the Internet, instead of creating original games. He was determined to redesign his game. His final design turned out to be original, which to a large extent was triggered by his peers’ efforts and design. Another trigger was the writing activity in the design process. Reflective journaling and final reports proved to be effective in encouraging the students to continuous reflect on their designs. Furthermore, dialogues were indispensable to help students to make productive reflections, such as refining their designs by integrating one’s own ideas with others’ suggestion.

Balance between Concept and Design Balance between concept and design was an important issue, affecting both the students’ motivation and performance. On one hand, the students could be easily carried away toward the technical issues such as graphic effects, and they tended to lose sight of the main concept and functionality of the games from time to time. On the other hand, too much conceptual talk could

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dampen students’ creativity as well. In our project, the students had to discuss extensively on Chinese language as well as Chinese culture issues. But the students were so eager to materialize their design plans that they were sometimes impatient with the conceptual talk. Some students confessed that even a small picture drawn by them would give them a better sense of achievement, and that conceptual talk alone made them restless. At the beginning of the course with an enrollment of 46 students, 10 students dropped the class. A possible reason was that the beginning dropouts were lost in talking and writing abstract language scripts. Therefore, it was important for the instructor to carefully pace the design activity so that students could pay enough attention to both the concept development and the technical part of the game design.

Technical Issues From our observations and the students’ design journals, one difficult issue that the students and the instructor struggled with was technical support: how do we provide the students with timely technical support in their design? How much technical support do we offer? These questions inspired much discussion among the students and the instructor. Our experience suggested that the answer lied in the pedagogical goal of the learning experience. An important goal of the project was to improve the students’ technical skills, for the students were junior software majors. Problem-solving and support-seeking were identified as two key skills for them to master in this design project. For that reason, the instructor deliberately left the responsibility of solving technical problems to the students. Without much structured help on the technical issues from the instructors, the students had to solve their problems independently. Rather than relying on the instructor to spoon-feed them, it was beneficial for the students to develop the problem-solving skills by actively participating in

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broader social networks of software engineering. By this means, the students could transfer what they had learned in classroom to real-world contexts. Although instructors should not provide help obtrusively, there are several alternatives to provide effective and timely support. One alternative is to invite students to run special training sessions on technical issues. In our project, the instructor ran one student session on Graphic Design which fared very well among students. The student session was effective for several reasons: the student lecturer was more sensitive to the specific issues that his or her fellow students might encounter; and the lecturer and the audience shared the common identity of being a student, which made the flow of communication in the lecture at once relaxing and energy-charged. Moreover, the communication could easily carry on beyond the confinement of classroom, by computer-mediated communication tools such as e-mail, instant messaging software, and so forth. Another solution that we could have utilized would have been to apply apprenticeship to make the collaboration more efficient (Kafai & Ching, 2004). If we would have used this, the students might have benefited from a balanced team composition, the balance in terms of students’ capabilities and interests. For example, each team could have at least one student, who was relatively experienced in design, take the lead and help the less experienced teammates move forward. The apprenticeship could have made students motivated and responsible for their own design and learning.

implications for teaching and learning It is true that this project is not a typical school project for teachers and students in K-12 system: the participants are mostly from the college; the technologies are basically beyond the requirement

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in K-12 schooling; the final products are games for Chinese language learning, a subject matter that is less well-known; and the collaboration is international and inter-disciplinary. However, important implications can be drawn from this project, precisely because of its atypical features and the underlying learning assumptions. The first implication is for students to reconsider the nature of knowledge, learning, and career adaptability. In our project, the students appreciated the importance of adjusting oneself to the work rather than waiting for the work to adjust to their needs and interests. The students learned new skills as they worked on the project. They redefined their positions in the project. They rearranged their skill repertoire. Many students expressed in the final journals that career success probably depended on one’s adaptability as much as what one had already known. This was the change that had ultimately pushed the project and the students forward. This way of thinking fits with the changing nature of knowledge in the global economy, in which most challenging jobs are team—and project-based. The most valued knowledge is not a simple accumulation of basic skills, but more of an ongoing-changing “portfolio” composed of the re-arrangeable skills and identities acquired in diverse projects (Gee, 2003). The most needed skill is to be able to identify one’s own skill gaps and build up individualized learning plans. In order to adapt to constant changes in work and practice, students have to rethink about the knowledge, learning, and career preparation in a larger context. Second, this project implies an alternative perspective on teaching. Teaching is collaborative and reciprocal as much as learning is. In the project-based learning, each individual has something to learn and has something to teach. This old wisdom has renewed values in the global economy. The power of collaborative teaching and reciprocal teaching is revealed by

the student teaching session in our project, as well as the students’ research on Chinese language and culture. It is also shown through the team cooperation among the students. Third, the curriculum designers can make this kind of learning experience more compelling by integrating design-for-learning activities into regular curriculum. In our project, the details of the design activity were laid out by the instructor. Although the instructor’s knowledge and skills in game design were a crucial factor to make game design experience compelling, that alone was not enough. Equally important were factors including administrative support, curriculum alignment, collaborations among teachers, and so forth. To some extent, the value of this approach was hurt by its poor connection with school curriculum. Our experience suggests that a design activity would be more engaging and educative, had the design project been aligned with other academic activities. Finally, further research is necessary to examine how such design activity is influenced by contextual factors, such as school climate, technology adoption, teaching practice, and students’ motivation. Another equally important issue is the relationship between design activity and student achievement. Under the current competitive atmosphere in schools, many teachers and school administrators cannot afford to implement this kind of design activity because of the high stakes of students’ performance on standardized tests. As a result, both the creative potential of students and the educative potential of design activity are unfortunately thwarted. Therefore, it is crucial for educators to make a connection between design activity and school achievement, in order to truly realize both the values of the design-for-learning-experience and the potential of students. Furthermore, due to the qualitative nature of this study, additional quantitative research is necessary to evaluate and refine this kind of game design learning experience.

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conclusion In this chapter, we present a case study of game design learning experience. Our experience as learning environment designers shows that the success of such learning experience depends as much on the external factors as on the internal ones. Our project suggests that a compelling learning experience includes the crucial ingredients such as authenticity, clear goals, dialogue, collaboration, and formative evaluation. These factors are helpful in localizing the model in a particular context. To customize such kind of activity to the characteristics of particular classrooms, we need to be careful to prevent the abovementioned internal factors from becoming “lethal mutation” (Brown, 1992). Perhaps the most important lesson we have learned is that all of this ingredients are limited in their power when considered alone, but when they come into play together, these ingredients indeed can make learning compelling.

reFerences Dewey, J. (1934). Art as experience. New York: Perigee. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy? New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Harel, I., & Papert, S. (1990). Software design as a learning environment. Interactive Learning Environments, 1(1), 1-32. Kafai, Y. B. (1995). Minds in play: Computer game design as a context for children’s learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kafai, Y. B., & Ching, C. C. (2001). Affordances of collaborative software design planning for elementary students’ science talk. The Journal

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of the Learning Sciences, 10(3), 323-363. Kafai, Y. B., & Ching, C. C. (2004). Children as instructional designers: Apprenticeship and evaluation in the learning project by design project. In N. Seel & S. Dijkstra (Eds.), Instructional design: International perspectives, volume 3, curricula, plans and processes (pp. 115-130). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mishra, P., Zhao, Y., & Tan, S. (1999). From concept to software: Developing a framework for understanding the process of software design. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32(2), 220-238. Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. New York: Basic Books. Papert, S. (1993). The children’s machine: Rethinking school in the age of the computer. New York: Basic Books. Papert, S., & Harel, I. (1991). Situating constructionism. In I. Harel & S. Papert (Eds.), Constructionism. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Prawat, R. S. (1993). The value of ideas: Problems versus possibilities in learning. Educational Researcher, 22(6), 5-16. Resnick, M. (1996). Distributed constructionism. Paper presented at the International Conference of the Learning Sciences, Northwestern University. Shaffer, D. W., & Resnick, M. (1999). “Thick” authenticity: New media and authentic learning. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 10(2), 195-215. Wong, E. D. (2007). Beyond control and rationality: Undergoing, aesthetics, and educative experiences. Teachers College Record, 109(1), 192-220. Zhao, Y. (2006). The past, present, and future of ICT in education. Keynote Speech at the Inter-

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national Conference on Educational Technology, Singapore, September.

Key terms Constructionism: A learning theory inspired by constructivist theories of learning. According to Seymour Papert’s definition of constructionism, learning is most effective when learners are consciously engaged in constructing a pubic entity. Examples of constructionism include the Logo programming language and the Lego system.

to instead become changed by what one learns in some meaningful way. It involves questioning assumptions, beliefs and values, and considering multiple points of view, while always seeking to verify reasoning.8

endnotes 1

Design-Based Research (DBR): A way to carry out formative research to test and refine educational designs based on principles derived from prior research.4 Digital Native: A term coined by Marc Prensky. It is applied to the individuals who have grown up immersed in technology. Distributed Learning: An instructional model that allows instructor, students, and content to be located in different, non-centralized locations so that instruction and learning can take place independent of time and place. The distributed learning model can be used in combination with traditional classroom-based courses, with traditional distance learning courses, or it can be used to create wholly virtual classrooms.5 Experiential Education: A process through which a learner constructs knowledge, skills, and values from direct experience.6 Lethal Mutation: This biological term was introduced in discussions of education reform and implementation by Ann Brown in 1992. Brown refers the concept to the kind of educational reform that has a poor match between theory and its implementation in a particular context.7 Transformative Learning: A process of getting beyond gaining factual knowledge alone

2

3

4

5

6

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MSU Confucius Institute (CI-MSU) was established in collaboration with China Central Radio and TV University under the authorization and sponsorship of China’s National Office for Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language. Its objective is to meet the ever-increasing demand for Chinese education in the U.S., providing quality Chinese learning materials and experience to both K-12 students and adults and helping training qualified teachers of Chinese. See details in the design framework of the Chinese language program: http://www. confucius.msu.edu/documents/Chengo%2 0Chinese%20Designing%20Framework. doc Chinese bell set is a traditional Chinese instrument with dozens of bells, each with a distinctive sound. See details in: Collins, A., Joseph, D., & Bielaczyc, K. (2004). Design research: Theoretical and methodological issues. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1542. See details in: Saltzberg, S., & Polyson, S. (1995). Distributed learning on the World Wide Web. Syllabus 9, no. 1. September. See details in: What is experiential education? Association for Experiential Education. Retrieved September 25, 2007, from http://www.aee.org/customer/pages. php?pageid=47. See details in: Brown, A.L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological

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challenges in creating complex interventions in classroom settings. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2), 141-178.

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8

See details in: Mezirow, J. D., & Associates. (2000). Learning as transformation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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Chapter LXI

Gaming Ethics, Rules, Etiquette, and Learning Laurie N. Taylor University of Florida, USA

AbstrAct This chapter explains the significance of informal and unwritten rules in order to show the connections among formal rules of play, formalized learning, informal and unwritten rules, and collateral learning. It argues that computer gaming’s rules of play include the formal rules by which games are played and the informal and unwritten rules within the magic circle of play where the games are played. Too often games are reduced to their formal rules of play and the collateral learning fostered by the realm of play is neglected. By examining unwritten rules, this chapter also connects to and informs other areas that rely primarily on formal rules, including educational gaming.

introduction Electronic gaming literacies are always multiple, involving literacy of game content, game play, and the rules of play themselves. Computer gaming’s rules of play include the formal rules by which games are played and the informal and unwritten rules within what J. Huizinga (1950) termed the “magic circle” of play where the games are played. The magic circle of play isolates play or the game from everyday life by formalizing the play space and applying the rules. This play space includes formal rules as well as informal and unwritten

rules. Like play itself, games are played within a play space. Too often games are reduced to their formal rules of play and the collateral learning fostered by the realm of game play is neglected. This chapter shows that the informal and unwritten rules are pivotal to game play, and shows the connections among formal rules of play, formalized learning, informal and unwritten rules, and collateral learning. In explaining the operations of informal and unwritten rules for play, the chapter also covers gaming etiquette in relation to the creation and changes of laws regulating game play.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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Currently, many studies have been completed and others are underway that address law in relation to games as online game environments continue to see millions of players daily (Balkin & Noveck, 2006). Because digital objects in these game worlds can be exchanged for real-world currency (Castronova, 2003; Dibbell, 2006), and because of the massive international systems through which these games are played, studies on games and law are necessary because games can impact real-world law. In addition to legal concerns, however, computer games are also changing the space of play in terms of unwritten and informal rules. These changes have been less studied and are important to study because of the manner in which games are used for education and because of the manner in which games educate collaterally even when played purely for entertainment. Games are often used in educational settings to teach specific information. Such games are often referred to as “edugames” or more generally under the category of “edutainment.” Other games for education are referred to under the emerging classification of “serious games” which is meant to contain games used for serious purposes like education, business, and simulation modeling among other areas (Zyda, 2005). Serious games are classified by their express intent, yet many other games also serve the same serious purposes without being specifically designed to do so. Unwritten and informal rules help illuminate how games designed and played for entertainment purposes can also educate and argue through the space of play. Unwritten and informal rules also show how games excel at modeling complex scenarios. A critical gaming literacy, one that covers different types of games and different aspects of games as well as their uses, can be developed more easily with an awareness of the complexities of game operations and the situations of game play. Educators and game designers need this critical gaming literacy in order to best develop and use games for education. Unwritten

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and informal rules inform a critical gaming literacy in relation to the space and culture of play. Additionally, unwritten and informal rules also illuminate other areas for possible development more generally, like gaming’s ability to support collateral learning while teaching a particular topic or subject. Building from the formal studies related to laws for games and rules of play, this study covers unwritten and informal rules for games to show how games offer unexpected collateral learning opportunities, like opportunities to learn proper behavior, social norms, information, and methods of investigation for learning. In studying non-explicit rules for games, this study contributes to a further understanding of how games are played within the space of play and thus provides information on how games can be used to teach.

bAcKground Play and simulation for use in learning and education predate video games, with video games simply a newer entry into this area. Video games for education began as extensions from earlier work on games and simulations for learning, focusing on games to teach particular skills, information, and critical thinking about complex topics, as with K. Squire’s research (2002) using the strategy game Civilization to teach history as a process and J. P. Gee’s research on games and learning more generally (2003). In all uses of games for learning, games also provide collateral learning. Collateral learning refers to the non-explicit material taught within the context of learning (Dewey, 1963). While all games provide a context for collateral learning, unwritten and informal rules of game play expand this context. Studies of games (Hughes, 2006; Sniderman, 2006; Taylor, 2006) show that the explicit game rules differ from those reported and employed by players. Like unwritten and informal rules, which add an additional dimension to a par-

Gaming Ethics, Rules, Etiquette, and Learning

ticular game’s formal rules, collateral learning also adds an additional dimension to formal learning. A critical gaming literacy for game designers and educators could capitalize upon gaming’s ability for both formal and informal instruction. Formal learning and formal game rules are explicit and directed toward a particular purpose related to learning or game play. Informal or unwritten rules may also be directed toward a particular purpose, but they are not explicit and they may be directed to purposes outside of the explicit context of learning or the game. Informal and unwritten rules for games are often studied from a context within the game, as with rules for handicapping and house rules in cards (wild cards), board games (players landing on the free parking space in Monopoly winning money), and online games (controlled by End User License Agreements and player code of conduct rules that are then enforced by player reporting on infringements to the game company as the policing authority). In examining massively-multi-player online roleplaying games (MMORPGs), T. L. Taylor explains that players actively create and modify game rules as “active, creative, and engaged agents within games” (2006). While players “already are active, creative, and engaged agents within games,” the same is true within the play spaces of the games because informal and unwritten rules affect the context outside the game, but within the real world constraints in which the games are played. These outside contexts expand the horizon of game play from a particular game or gaming event to the larger spheres of social interaction, behavior, ethics, and the learning process. Because collateral learning emerges from the contexts stipulated by the formal game rules and the informal and unwritten rules of play, understanding common unwritten rules and their function is critical to the optimal use of games for learning.

mAin Focus oF the chAPter The tension between formal game rules and formal learning and informal and unwritten game rules and collateral learning are part of the foundation from which many researchers argue for games as positive in education (Gee, 2003). Further, informal and unwritten rules support the pleasure of playing games by fostering the sense of safety necessary for a fun learning environment (see Koster, 2005). In order to show how games not specifically designed nor intended for learning operate, those informal and unwritten rules must be explained. Unwritten and informal rules, aside from handicapping and house rules, can be difficult to define because they are flexible and context-dependent. Those contexts can include single-player play, multi-player play in the same physical location, and multi-player play in different physical locations, as is the case with online multi-player games. Informal and unwritten rules often include those related to issues of “fair play” more generally, including good sportsmanship and handicapping for multi-player games as well as player etiquette for all game styles. Because fair play is based on both formal and informal rules, fair play changes based on context. For professional players, fair play follows the formal rules of the game as it does in professional sports, allowing any actions that are not formalized and specifically banned based on that formalization (Sirlin, 2005). Good sportsmanship and fair play within professional gaming thus follows a different line of reasoning than do informal and unwritten rules in other settings. Some behaviors that offer players an unfair advantage within the game or that lessen the game play experience for others constitute unwritten rules. Many players enforce unwritten rules related to activities like “camping,” where a player sits in one spot and waits for other players to move through and then attacks the other players, giving the “camping” player the surprise advantage and making the game less interesting

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(Nanamaker, 2005). In other situations—perhaps still competitive, but not professional—fair play and good sportsmanship follow reasoning that supports and fosters the magic circle of play. Informal and unwritten rules related to handicapping are imposed by players to support the magic circle of play. Handicapping rules emerge out of the game play context where players of differing skills and abilities are weighted so that they are functionally equivalent in terms of skill. Some games explicitly allow for this, as with fighting games where players can set the levels of health and damage for each player. These weights thus allow stronger players to assign less health and weaker power levels to their own characters so that their personal playing strengths are reduced by the game system. Other weighting occurs in games where players decide that stronger players cannot use certain items or abilities. These weightings require that players understand the game systems algorithms and understand how to modify that algorithm for particular effect. This sort of system analysis and modification is often unavailable in edugames because the games are designed for a particular purpose and allowing for this sort of modification could shift the explicit goals. In order for games to allow for handicapping, the games must include a sufficient number of or depth to variables that players can then modify in order to alter difficulty. Because games are played within the magic circle of play, it is important to remember that even single-player games can use handicapping. For instance, multiple players playing Sim City separately could choose to modify the initial game constraints for players based on skill—allotting more funds for newer players and assigning fewer funds and more disasters to strike stronger players. After a similar period of game play, players could still compare their skills based on the weighted sphere of play. This weighting is useful because it allows players to test the games themselves to see what variables are most important and it allows players in community play environments to see how different players deal

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with different variables. The cumulative value of handicapping is thus that players learn more about the way in which games function, how to modify games, and other strategies for play. Other informal and unwritten rules are more closely related to etiquette and deal less with the mechanics of the actual game play and more with the method by which games are played. S. Sniderman (2006) explains the different types of game rules, and includes those explicitly stated by a game, those based on “conventions, ‘etiquette,’ or ‘ethos’” (p. 480), and those “based on our own notions of ‘fairness’” (p. 486). After analyzing the complexity of rules for any given game, Sniderman argues that games “can provide an analog to other, more ‘important’ and more complicated, aspects of life” (p. 502). Game play conventions connect to more complicated aspects because the seemingly simple rules of play etiquette actually teach far more than it may first appear because, as R. Scapp and B. Seitz rightly state, “Etiquette prefigures ethics” (2007, p. 5). Etiquette prefigures ethics because it requires people to read complex situations and determine proper behavior. By existing within the play space, games offer a focal point to teach concepts not held within the games themselves, like rules for proper behavior, social norms, and a general sense of ethics as an extension to explicit structures like game rules. These concepts can then be transferred from their use in connection to the game and the play space to other areas. The play space, and games by creating the play space, thus provide learning opportunities often unrelated to a particular game or game style. The proper behavior lessons afforded by games are behaviors that support the magic circle of play, which also support and foster interaction with other players. Where a game’s formal rules may require players to act in a particular manner, those formal rules do not require players to negotiate the complexities of the gaming social situation nor the social and behavioral choices necessary to foster the magic circle of play. Those

Gaming Ethics, Rules, Etiquette, and Learning

complexities may be negotiated from informal and unwritten rules based on prior games or general rules of etiquette that support the magic circle of play. For instance, K. T. Jensen explains, “It wasn’t uncommon for actual fistfights to break out over perceived lapses in Street Fighter etiquette, such as jostling or ‘scrubbing’—playing with acknowledged cheap tactics” (2004, p. 119). Because Jensen is writing about a time when Street Fighter was new—a time when most competitive fighting video games were also new—even informal and unwritten rules would not yet have emerged, but etiquette for general concepts of fair play would have existed and affected player perceptions of acceptable methods for play. Miscommunication resulting from the gaming situation’s newness and the differences in assumptions of etiquette and informal and unwritten rules could thus even result in physical conflicts based on the violation of rules. Etiquette, informal and unwritten rules are each based on a variety of changing factors and context, arising emergently within the game space and from individuals’ interpretations of social rules as in Jensen’s example with Street Fighter. K. Salen and E. Zimmerman define emergence as a process resulting from the combination of many factors, including “complex programmed mechanisms that simulate adaptive agents and systems” and emergence “on an experiential level, where extremely simple rules give rise to complex social or psychological relationships among players” (2004, p. 159). Emergence is a necessary concept for non-explicit rules because all non-formalized rules operate interdependently. For instance, handicapping is part of the informal rules of game play and part of the etiquette for multi-player games, where players play together within the game, as well as single player games when players play in the same play space. Video game etiquette includes being considerate and sharing game systems to the point of allowing weaker players to play multiple games to be more

equivalent to stronger players in terms of play time, and never interfering with a player while the player is playing (Kubey, 1982, p. 223). Etiquette, like handicapping and other informal and unwritten rules, derives from the shared space and the respect for the space of play as occurring within the game and extending through and into the player. Examples of these types of non-explicit rules include: a general respect and mindfulness for the space of play; sharing game play time; not interfering with the player (not moving in front of the game screen); taking care of peripherals and managing tempers so as not to stop the play time or damage the play equipment (Kramer & Kramarae, 1996; Kubey, 1982). Etiquette for multi-player games extends rules from the social space into the play space, including rules for general proper behavior, stemming from rules of behavior for face-to-face situations and those for general online behavior, as well as those related to the method of play. The combination of various types of rules and rules from other situations combine in an emergent fashion to structure the space within which games are played. While informal and unwritten rules and rules for gaming etiquette arise emergently and are difficult to define, they remain important because they allow researchers to study the multiple levels of information games provide and the multiple contexts of learning within a single game. This complexity reshapes arguments like Sirlin’s (2006) when he argues that games like World of Warcraft informally teach players negative ideas—lack of self-reliance, time investment is worth more than skill. Games are far too complex in themselves, and certainly far too complex when understood within the contexts of the play environment, to be held to teach only one concept. Further, seemingly problematic issues, like cheating and shortcuts (Koster, 2005), that could reduce the learning potential for a game must be considered in light of the counterpoint offered by unwritten and informal rules that provides a

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context wherein players would not want to cheat and a context where rules outside of the game affect the learning potential for the game.

Future trends The contexts of game play allow for enriched studies of all aspects of games for education and games for learning. However, in order to optimize collateral learning by players, a critical gaming literacy is needed. Video games are becoming increasingly popular in education because they afford students the ability to model and test multiple scenarios, yet many instructors and students lack foundational knowledge about games that is needed to evaluate and interrogate the games’ use and efficacy. Multiple initiatives are in place to address this (for instance, the Serious Games Initiative, Games for Learning, and many others), but further awareness is needed about gaming and the context of game play. This particular collection aids in developing that awareness and critical literacy because it helps stimulate discussion of games and education. One notable example of a problem arising from a lack of a critical gaming literacy in relation to formal and informal rules occurred in the MMORPG World of Warcraft. In 2006, a group of players in World of Warcraft ambushed a funeral (Kotaku, 2006). Player responses to the ambush ranged from anger to laughter.1 The different responses stemmed from the differences in thought about the rules of the game and of play based on background knowledge. Players’ background knowledge serves as an anchor required for play to begin, but that initial anchor can be changed through the experience of play. For the players attending the funeral, one of their fellow players had died in real life. The players chose to mourn and remember their friend in the virtual world where they had played together. The ambushing players saw these players as easy prey within

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the constraints of the game world and implicitly argued that the rules of play—where they played to fight and win—could not be bounded by the other players’ real-world concerns, even if those included the real death of another player. The players ambushing the funeral had learned the formal rules of the game and their own informal rules of play—play to win and have fun while not worrying about the opponent if the opponent is seen to be acting foolishly—saw the mourning players as opening themselves to the attack by playing poorly. The mourning players had applied ethics and etiquette from outside of the game world to the game world, and thus viewed the attacking players as violating those unwritten rules. Both player groups relied on the formal rules of the game and then extended those through select informal and unwritten rules. However, the groups differed in how they connected and applied different sets of informal rules—the attacking players applied rules of general game play, like playing to win and not allowing poor judgment to go unpunished, and the attacked players applied rules of realworld etiquette which afford those in mourning a certain degree of respect. Both groups relied on their own informal rules, but neither group realized the other’s potential concerns, resulting in a significant miscommunication that different groups found cruel or humorous. Acknowledging informal and unwritten rules and working to establish a critical gaming literacy that would further foster communication and understanding would help to reduce potential misunderstandings like this. An inclusive paradigm that studies the specifics of games as well as the specifics of game play will prove most beneficial for using games in education. While many edugames and serious games are available and more are being developed, games explicitly designed to teach are not always the games with the most educational potential because successful games for education must also be enjoyable to play (Koster, 2005; Peters, 2007).

Gaming Ethics, Rules, Etiquette, and Learning

A critical gaming literacy will help educators successfully evaluate and use both commercial games and games specifically designed for education. As a critical gaming literacy is further developed, future research related to the external contexts of game play could study games for use in behavioral and emotional development, as well as games for use in teaching ethics in the same manner that sports are used to teach concepts of fairness and good sportsmanship which then lead to concepts of ethics that exist outside of explicit rules. Instruction using games as well as future research will need to respect the informal and unwritten rules of gaming in order to optimize the benefits from games in education. This optimization can only occur in concert with a critical gaming literacy, without which the unwritten and informal rules will remain too nebulous to be fully usable. In addition to using gaming’s informal and unwritten rules for education, these rules could also aid in fostering a critical digital media literacy. As the Internet shifts from the Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 standards—from a user to participator model of interaction—more people interact with each other online. So-called “netiquette” rules have tried to apply real-world rules to online interaction in order to encourage a hospitable environment. However, these etiquette rules have only been loosely enforced—often only by EULA requirements on particular sites—and the perceived lack of rules for the Internet has led to problems. One notable example came with Kathy Sierra, a well known technology author, who received threats in response to her professional blog on technology and usability, which led to the “Call for a Blogger’s Code of Conduct” (O’Reilly, 2007). This “Code of Conduct” is intended to help minimize or prevent comments that are inappropriate. In the Sierra case, those inappropriate comments quickly escalated beyond an etiquette infringement and into a legal violation. The ties between informal and unwritten rules, like those for game and online etiquette, and their connection to legal

concerns proves useful in education about ethics and legality, while also being useful to education for areas like civics, social justice, and personal accountability for behavior.2

conclusion Recognizing unwritten and informal rules along with etiquette is necessary to study or use the fullness of the game play space. While non-explicit rules are difficult to define abstractly, they nonetheless remain important during game play and for any application of games for learning. The emergent nature of etiquette and informal and unwritten rules can be seen best when the boundaries formed by them are transgressed because, “Etiquette duly acknowledges the existence and necessity of boundaries while negotiating, respectfully traversing, and even transforming the conditions that allow one to become presentable, and thus allow one to extend oneself to the world” (Scapp & Seitz, 2007, p. 5). Thus, etiquette, informal and unwritten rules form boundaries and rules that change, making those boundaries difficult to define except in the act of their transgression when all elements are defined. Planning and preventing the transgressions is more complicated because the actions that constitute a transgression—aside from those defined by gaming more generally—cannot be fully accounted for. Formal rules of play and explicit laws for games are only some of the many rules for video games. As such, they offer only part of the structure through which games can be used for learning and education. Games specifically designed for learning often derive largely from those formal and explicit rules. However, informal and unwritten rules allow many other games to offer collateral learning and other learning opportunities. Unwritten and informal rules for games expand games’ ability for collateral learning in terms of teaching proper behavior, social norms, informa-

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tion, and methods of investigation. Unwritten and informal rules provide a means for researchers and educators to better study games within the contexts of play for possibilities games offer for learning. Using unwritten and informal rules, game designers, and the gaming industry could work with the education community to construct both the formal and informal goals for education and to then match those goals to game design. For instance, game design companies could work with educators to identify the informal elements that educators would want games to teach—perhaps leading to the development of games that formally teach history and informally teach the art of negotiation and compromise—and then matching those goals to the official curriculum. Educators could also evaluate existing games on the basis of those that contribute to a critical gaming literacy—those that help students to be better players and thus to gain more from their interaction with games—and the educators could then evaluate and select games with gaming literacy development as part of the criteria. New games incorporating informal rules and new ways to use games by incorporating existing informal rules could further expand the usefulness of gaming for both education and game design. In order to best utilize games for education, a critical gaming literacy that addresses all aspects of game play—formal and informal within the situation of play—is needed. In order to develop and support this critical gaming literacy, additional teacher education on using games to teach is needed. As needed are openly available examples and lesson plans that address how to use games to teach a particular topic while also learning more about games by doing so. For instance, using a simple financial game like those that simulate a lemonade stand to teach mathematical skills as well as to teach students and teachers about financial simulation games, gaming interfaces, and how players can ideally share game play time. Game designers can also address the need for a critical gaming literacy by providing teaching informa-

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tion in much the same way they already provide media information for journalists writing game reviews. This teacher information could explicitly state the type of game, similar games, the general length of time for setting up and playing a single game episode, the general scenario for game play, and the manner in which the game supports curriculum and other informal skills. Ideally, game lesson plans and teacher information could also be shared on a collaborative site driven by user contributions, like those already in use by players for sharing game walkthroughs, hints, and other information. These collaborative sites would support both the information for developing a critical gaming literacy as well as a structure that would share teaching resources for teachers and allow for discussion among teachers and game designers on particular games and needs.

reFerences Balkin, J. M., & Noveck, B. S. (Eds). (2006). The state of play: Law, games, and virtual worlds. New York: New York UP. Castronova, E. (2003). On virtual economies. Game Studies: The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 3(2). Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www.gamestudies.org/0302/ castronova/ Dewey, J. (1963). Experience and education. The Kappa Delta Pi Lectures. London: Collier Books. Dibbell, J. (2006). Play money: Or, how I quit my day job and made millions trading virtual loot. New York: Basic Books. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Hughes, L. A. (2006). Beyond the rules of the game: Why are rooie rules nice? In K. Salen & E.

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Zimmerman (Eds.), The game design reader: A rules of play anthology (pp. 504-516). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Huizinga, J. (1950). Homo ludens: A study of the play element in culture. Boston: Beacon Press. Jensen, K. T. (2004). Finish him. In S. Compton (Ed.), Gamers: Writers, artists, and programmers on the pleasures of pixels (pp. 115-121). Brooklyn, NY: Soft Skull Press. Koster, R. (2005). Theory of fun for game design. Scottsdale, AZ: Paraglyph. Kotaku. (2006). WoW funeral party gets owned. Kotaku, Retrieved June 1, 2006, from http://kotaku.com/gaming/wow/wow-funeral-party-getsowned-167354.php Kramer, J., & Kramarae, C. (1996). Gendered ethics in the Internet. In J. M. Makau & R. C. Arnett (Eds.), Communication ethics in an age of diversity (pp. 226-244). Champaign, IL: U of Illinois P. Kubey, C. (1982). The winner’s book of video games. New York: Warner Books. Nanamaker, B. (2005). Emergent gameplay: The limits of ludology and narratology in analyzing video game narrative. Unpublished senior honors thesis. Ohio State University, Columbus. O’Reilly, T. (2007). Call for a blogger’s code of conduct. Radar O’Reilly. Retrieved June 1, 2007, from http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2007/03/ call_for_a_blog_1.html Peters, J. (2007). World of Borecraft: Never play a video game that’s trying to teach you something. Slate. Retrieved June 27, 2007, from http://editor. slate.com/default.aspx?id=2169019&displaymod e=6&workarea=3

Scapp, R., & Seitz, B. (2007). Introduction: On being becoming. In R. Scapp & B. Seitz (Eds.), Etiquette: Reflections on contemporary comportment (pp. 1-6). Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Sirlin, D. (2005). Playing to win: Becoming the champion. Sirlin: 2005. Sirlin, D. (2006). Soapbox: World of Warcraft teaches the wrong things. Gamasutra. Retrieved June 1, 2007, from http://www.gamasutra.com/ features/20060222/sirlin_01.shtml Sniderman, S. (2006). Unwritten rules. In K. Salen & E. Zimmerman (Eds.), The game design reader: A rules of play anthology (pp. 476-502). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Squire, K. (2002). Cultural framing of computer/video games. Game Studies: The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 2(1). Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://www. gamestudies.org/0102/squire/ Taylor, L. N. (2005). Positive features of video games. In N. E. Dowd, D. G. Singer, & R. Fretwell Wilson (Eds), Handbook of children, culture, and violence (pp. 247-265). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Taylor, T. L. (2006). Beyond management: Considering participatory design and governance in player culture. First Monday, 7(Sept.). Retrieved July 1, 2007, from http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue11_9/taylor/index.html Zyda, M. (2005). From visual simulation to virtual reality to games. Computer, 38(9), 25-32.

Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge: MIT Press.

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Key terms Edugames: A subgenre to both games and edutainment (or entertainment that has been repurposed for educational purposes). Edugames are games designed for education; however, the more pedantic goals have historically made for poor game design with notable exceptions like Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? and Oregon Trail. Etiquette: Influences and is influenced by formal, informal, and unwritten rules. Etiquette is an important concept in informal and unwritten rules because infractions of those rules can be treated as infractions of etiquette rules. Formal Rules: The explicit rules for game play. These are most of the stated rules in game books or within the games, or are built into the games, as with rules against attacking certain creatures where the creatures cannot be injured, thus making it impossible for players to break that formal rule. Formal rules also include the formal rules of behavior. These are most often found in end user license agreements (EULAs) that prohibit particular behaviors like reverse engineering, specific behavior in multi-player games, and copyright infringement. Formal rules also include the methods for winning a particular game. Some games allow players to win by reaching a particular benchmark, other games require winning by reaching a benchmark in a particular manner, like avoiding detection in stealth games. Informal Rules: Akin to house rules. Informal rules are fluid—often relating to a particular situation—but they may crystallize into unwritten rules. Disputes based in the quality of a rule—whether it is informal, or a house or opinion-based rule; or an unwritten rule that all players should implicitly follow—can be frequent with new players and new player groups. Because video games are a newer media form,

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games frequently garner new players and conflicts can ensue. This is especially true for massively multi-player games where players from various generations play together. Multi-Player Game: Games designed for multiple players or games with modes for multiple players to play simultaneously with each other and the game system. Multi-player games can be collaborative competitive, or a mixture of both—as with MMORPGs where players work with the members of their team or guild and sometimes cooperatively fight against other players or player groups. Serious Games: A classification referring to games that are specifically designed for a particular purpose. These games are often for education, training, and advertising, and are more often used in particular industries like health care and the military. Single-Player Game: Games are games designed for only one player or games played in the single-player mode. While this means the game would only have one explicit player, the space of play may include multiple players. For instance, a game like Oregon Trail may have only one player handling the controls, but multiple players could be collaboratively discussing and deciding what to do next and those multiple players may switch places to allow each a “turn” at handling the game controls. Unwritten Rules: Like informal rules, but unwritten rules are normally more enforced. Where informal rules are more like house rules and are more fluid, unwritten rules are—while unwritten—generally assumed to be in place and violations of unwritten rules are less acceptable to other players. Unwritten rules arise out of the real world situation in which games are played (Sniderman, 2006).

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endnotes 1

Misunderstandings like this are common with people from multiple generations, various age groups, and various cultures playing games. Without further research into unwritten and informal rules and etiquette, and without further education on games themselves, misunderstandings like this could become increasingly problematic. Like the legal issues tied to selling virtual materials within games, game behavior is tied to many possible real world actions that have not been investigated like legal contract violations, and miscommunications resulting in social issues. As more people play off- and online, a critical gaming literacy could be of great benefit for social game play situations.

2

In the Sierra case many responses misunderstood the differences between free speech and harassment, with harassment as a legal violation with legal repercussions beyond an infringement of etiquette or informal and unwritten rules. Further research on informal and unwritten rules and etiquette could also lead to games that help educate about these differences as well as games that include cultural training, as some military simulations have begun to do, so that the formal game design would include informal and unwritten rules related to culturallybased rules for proper behavior.

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Chapter LXII

Designing Games-Based Embedded Authentic Learning1 Experiences Penny de Byl University of Southern Queensland, Australia

AbstrAct This chapter presents the embedded authentic serious game-based learning experiences (EASLE) architecture which has been developed to assist in the definition of games-based applications. The motivation behind the design of EASLE is to keep game specifications as simple and focused as possible for educators attempting to create serious games as current available game design methodologies and templates are complex and extensive. Furthermore, it is argued that games created with EASLE reduce the amount of game development work to be done by the educator allowing for deeper collaboration between students. Toward the end of this chapter a game developed with EASLE which took two weeks to complete is presented.

introduction Computer games can support a suite of pedagogical experiences that are unique within current elearning technologies. The worlds created in this immersive medium are distinctively structured. These environments create a synthetic experience that captures the essence of being in a particular world or context, and replaces the traditional computer interface which sits between a learner

and their computer-based educational material (Winn, 1993). This immersion enables learners to negotiate meaning based on their own personal cognitive, affective, and kinaesthetic experiences rather than on the descriptions of others’ experiences. It assumes learners will construct knowledge through non-symbolic, non-reflective, first-person psychological activity that occurs when they interact directly with worlds. Choices embedded within the worlds allow the learning

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Designing Games-Based Embedded Authentic Learning Experiences

focus to shift away from isolated pre-designed interactions, to a situation that encourages the learner to control, manage, and direct their own learning. Once immersed within a world, learners can communicate, investigate, and experiment either individually or in the company of other learners, to transcend geographical and temporal boundaries. Such conversations can be synchronous or asynchronous, anonymous or identified, and are believed to provide community support as well as social learning opportunities and relationships. It is reported in other types of education games that the presence of a low risk non-threatening environments encourages participation and risk taking (Dickey, 2005). Thus, the pedagogical power of games are in their ability to immerse the learners themselves in a synthetic, purpose built virtual environment where they can act or collaborate as either themselves or as a proxy persona (avatar). The learner can participate with other learners in discussion (synchronous or asynchronous), investigation, or experimentation while involved in a range of other learning activities including simulations, role playing, problem solving, formal instruction, self-assessment, and peer assessment (McArdle, Monahan, & Bertolotto, 2006). The long history of technology use in education shows an inclination to use it in the same traditional manner as old technologies (Cuban, 1986; Means & Olson, 1994) even with new media (Galarneau, 2004). This methodology neither produces change nor improves education. It is imperative that old pedagogies and curricula are updated and modified to take the best advantage of the new technology. Furthermore, implementation of new technologies in universities has its inherent problems and even more so the execution of games, simulations, and virtual realities which have traditionally been the domain of technical experts (de Byl & Taylor, 2007). What is clear from previous research is that for a successful paradigm shift towards enhancing e-learning with new technology teachers need to be shown

how to access the required resources, make the use of these resources and resulting applications convenient and providing rewards and recognitions for its use (Rogers, 2000). Current understanding of quality in games is largely grounded in specific games. As such, the majority of serious games available reuse game engines designed for combat simulations, for example, America’s Army (a tactical multi-player first person shooter deployed the United States Army as a global public relations initiative) and STRATA (a Synthetic Teammates for Real-time Anywhere Training and Assessment game for close air support used by DARPA). Good games are not easy to design and educational games are even more difficult because of the lack of content and pedagogy knowledge on behalf of the games companies and the lack of technical ability in educators to create such application. In addition there is little incentive for a games developer to embrace an educator with an educational game idea when their potential audience is not in the millions, but in the tens or hundreds. Although games engines exist which assist educators in creating their own games, there are no existing pedagogy guidelines for translating their content into a playable game. Educators cannot simply transmit their knowledge into their students. Rather, they must arrange semi-structured learning environments to support educative exploration by students. Through exploration, experimentation, and discovery, students can build their own understandings. Computer games are the ideal medium in which to create such environments that not only immerse and engage the students but allow them to practice problem solving over and over again. This chapter will define an architecture which will assist educators in the implementation of customised games to deliver course content. However, first some key issues to consider before starting a game development project are presented to assist in the projects success.

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criticAl FActors For success The idea of creating an affective, engaging game for many technical savvy and innovative educators is an alluring idea. However the reality is that today’s computer games require specialist skills and knowledge to create. In the past 10 years games have gone from software costing in the vicinity of $40,000 to full-scale productions costing anywhere up to $4M rivaling Hollywood blockbuster movies with as many highly skilled professionals employed for their creation. As pointed out by Van Eck (2006) educators select from three approaches when developing their own games: (1) have their students build the games from scratch, (2) build the games from scratch themselves (or by someone with development experiences, and (3) add content to existing commercial-off–the-shelf (COTS) games. Options 1 and 2 require the game creator to possess a multitude of skills ranging from graphic designer to computer programmer. Van Eck suggests that the third option which is currently the most cost and time effective can produce quality educational games by leaving the game play up to the game developers and the pedagogical content to the educator. Unfortunately this approach separates the crucial elements of game play and content whose successful marriage is central to a successful engaging game. The dynamic nature of games is as participatory systems with process-orientated content. Simply inserting factual content into generic playing styles is a formula for failure. Educational content needs tight coupling with all aspects of the game from game play mechanics to genre and themes. For example, a game to teach forensic analysis should focus on the process of scientific evaluation, experimentation, hypothesis, and observation not maze navigation or budget balancing. This is not to exclude the many successful uses of COTS in educational settings; however it does highlight the need for a sounder approach to move the domain of GBL forward.

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The other two approaches to educational game creation fit two distinct pedagogical approaches: instructionist and constructivist. The instructionist approach endorses the embedding of lessons into game structures for the purpose of teaching. Much of the work in preparing the game is taken on by the educator. In contrast the constructivist approach places more onus on the student; even to the point of having the student construct their own game from scratch and thus during the process learn new skills and knowledge. While game making allows both educators and students to engage with content and processes at a deeper level than via other pedagogical methods, there is no dispute such game creation activities are beyond the technical skills of most students and educators. On the other hand, more often than not, much of this difficulty is placed on the game designer by their own ambitions for the final product. If anything should be learned by studying games historically, it is some of the simplest that have had the longest shelf-life. Computers aside, games such as Chess, Go, Poker, Solitaire, and even Monopoly have become classic and popular games. In these cases, the games existed before the computer revolution and have simply been translated into the medium with none of the mechanics or strategies for winning having been lost. Even now while Halo is on the shelf collecting dust, Solitaire is still a popular choice the casual gamer. The point being made here is that games do not need to be million dollar blockbusters to be engaging and successful. Before taking on the full production of a game-based learning application, educators need to consider the following points: •

Keep it simple. It’s not a coincidence that the credits on today’s successful computer games can list 40 or more programmers, artists, and production crew. Game making is hard and dreams of grandeur for the ultimate GBL application should be kept in check.

Designing Games-Based Embedded Authentic Learning Experiences

•

•

•

•

Both competition and collaboration are the key to a successful game. Often these elements which make a game fun are lost in the translation as serious content is added. A common misconception among educators is that competition in a game is a hindrance to the learning process (Adams, 2005). Not wanting to label students as winners or losers even the most well-intentioned educator misunderstands the importance of competition and collaboration as the fundamental source of fun in games. If Chess and Solitaire teach anything they certainly demonstrate that good game play is not dependent on fancy 3D graphics, surround sound, and Hollywood level cut scenes. Games are complex systems which integrate game mechanics with challenge/ reward scenarios. The elements of graphics and audio are merely window dressing. There’s no need to reinvent the wheel. There are a plethora of game development Web sites on the Internet with open source game engines, free 2D and 3D models and free sound files. Nowadays there is enough content available for educators to download and use in their games. This takes the majority of work out of visual and audio side of game development which is actually a large part of the game creation process. Follow Web 2.0 philosophies (O’Reilly, 2005). This ethos centers on the idea of a collective intelligence which evolves from hyper-linking, Web services, platform-independent software, re-usable and re-mixable content, and, above all, user participation. An examination of games before they became technology enabled puts the onus of collaboration, taking turn and following rules onto the players themselves. This reduces the amount of extra development that must go into the game to ensure these dynamics are enforced. The ultimate in user participation in multi-user games is

•

to have the players police each other and ensure the game play continues. In the same vein of Web 2.0 the reuse and re-mixability of content allows educator to create game objects once and reuse these in the future. In addition it allows for integration of existing educational content into game formats. The critical path to follow to ensure these characteristics of game environments and content is to conform to existing standards such as XML (http://www.w3.org/XML/) and X3D (http://www.web3d.org) which ensure interoperability between past, current, and future GBL applications. Furthermore, aligning such applications with education institutional systems through IMS (http://www.imsglobal.org/) and SCORM (http://www.scorm.com) standards will allow for easy plug and play functionality with learning management systems such as Moodle (http://www.moodle.org) and WebCT (http://www.webct.com). Don’t use games because they are fashionable. Games are not the answer to all teaching and learning situations. Games are about challenges and processes. Delivering pure educational facts in a game is just a gimmicky way to sell the content to students. These types of games are becoming known as chocolate covered broccoli (Bruckman, 1999). Cruickshank (1980) identifies two types of serious games: non-simulation and simulation. The non-simulation games are the ones in the le chocolat a couvert le broccoli category. These games should more appropriately be classified as pop quizzes. Simulation games on the other hand embody everything that make games fun and fit well with many pedagogies including instructivism, constructivism, action-based learning, problem-based learning, and situated learning.

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A bottom-uP gAme design Architecture For serious gAmes Contemporary game design architectures place a great emphasis on story lines and character development in a top-down approach. I suggest this method in GBL environments is inappropriate and a bottom-up process is required. Historically games designed with a bottom-up approach have greater longevity and place a greater emphasis on the game interaction and player actions. Teaching a course is not the telling of a story but rather an embedding of a skill base followed by supervision and application of its use. Story telling is then a reflective activity undertaken by the student on completion of their learning journey. Hence translating the skill base into game mechanics dictates a bottom-up approach. This technique, known as the embedded authentic serious games-based learning experiences (EASLE) architecture allows the designer to specify game aspects building up a foundation of layers where each successive layer refines the previous and makes the game play more complete. The layers, shown in Figure 1 are: (1) genre, (2) game play mechanics, (3) game rules, (4) theme,

Figure 1. The EASLE layers

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(5) icons, (6) scenes, and (7) story. As symbolised in Figure 1, each succeeding layer from the bottom-up adds less impact to the game but also requires the preceding layer as a fundamental basis upon which to build.

genre Although there is a lack of consensus in the games community for a general standard of classifications for game types there are a few commonly used genres with which the reader may be familiar. These include first-person shooters (FPS), roleplaying games (RPG), simulation games (Sims), and real-time strategies (RTS). Definitions of the genres are somewhat subjective and the functionalities of each often overlap which contributes to the lack of standard definitions. For example, an RPG can be presented in a FPS format and where in the past FPS defined a 3D game environment view where the player brandished a large weapon, it is now often used to describe a game with a similar game view devoid of shooting. Much of the confusion in classifying game genres stems from mixing the definition of the players view of the game environment with the

Designing Games-Based Embedded Authentic Learning Experiences

role of the player. For example, a platform game which describes an environment in which the player jumps from one platform to another where platforms are at differing heights. Traditional platforms were 2D where the environment was viewed in a cut-away fashion much like an ant farm is viewed in a glass tank. In contrast an RPG the player takes on the role of an adventurer who progresses through the game environment following a set story line (either linear or non-linear) encountering obstacles and taking up quests. In the preceding examples, the platform genre defines the game interface and the RPG defines the game procedures. Thus, there are two distinct genre sub-classifications into which games must fit: interface and procedure. Some examples of interface genre include: •

•

•

First person in which the player views a 3D environment from the perspective of actually “being there”. Often all the players can see of their avatar is their hand or hand-held object and they concentrate on the environment rather than themselves. The first widely known first person game was Wolfenstein 3D; Third person games that have the player controlling a character which is embodied within the game environment. The player can witness the actions of the character they control and specific environmental interactions. An example of a third person game is Spintercell; and, Isometric where the environment is displayed to the player at a fixed elevated angle. SimCity is famous for presenting its game board in this way. Although the player’s view is elevated and looking down at the environment they can move across the landscape as if flying over the surface at a static altitude.

Because procedure genre only define the type of game play and not the interface layout both genre can be mixed across game applications to create many interesting game applications. Examples of game procedures include: •

•

•

Strategy games in which the player focuses on careful creation, management, and skillful positioning of resources on a game map in which the player has to defeat an opponent and essentially wipe them out. Strategy games can be played in, though not limited to, isometric view such as in Starcraft and third person such as Ghost Recon; God games where the player is external to the game and controls and builds up the world having as holistic view. Black & White is a god game with a first person interface and The Sims is a god game with an isometric interface; and, Adventure games focussing on exploration, puzzle solving, and sometimes combat. Super Mario World is an adventure platform game and Diablo is an isometric adventure.

The selection of the genre, both interface and procedure, is the foundation layer in game design. It dictates the way in which players ultimately interact with the game environment in the succeeding Gameplay Mechanics’ level. Further on it will also influence the visual style of the game environment defined in later levels.

gAme PlAy mechAnics Game play is the essential core of all successful games. It consists of a series of actions and challenges within the game world which are causally linked (Rollings & Adams, 2003), otherwise known as a risk and reward schedule. Good game

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play keeps the player motivated and engaged throughout (Costikyan, 2002). Often the aspirations of educators to create an authentic educational experience for their students within a game environment take precedence over the game play mechanics, and the game loses its appeal. All games consist of a set of activities or mechanics which the player repeats throughout. In chess the mechanics consist of moving pieces around the board one at a time with players taking turns. Although it is games such as Chess and Go that have stood the test of time with their very simple mechanics, computer games through their very medium provide the game designer with a plethora of mechanics from which to choose. Most successful games employ only a small subset of main mechanics. Some of the better known mechanics are: •

•

•

Navigating: This is an activity in which the player plans and assigns routes in relation to the game environment. Navigating is a popular mechanic in strategy games such as Civilisation or Empire Earth in which the player can assign routes for their armies and units to follow. Jumping: Used across many game genre, jumping is employed by a player to avoid obstacles, move between platforms or fighting. Jumping can be used by a player in Quake to run and jump across wide chasms or in Frogger to skip across the river. Contract: This mechanic allows players to cooperative with one another. Contracts are seen in multi-player sporting games when multiple players are on the same team or in strategy games where players can form alliances or trade with other guilds.

The selected game play mechanic will depend on the genres chosen for the game. While most mechanics can be employed across genres, some genres by their very nature require several set mechanics. For example, strategy games require

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a navigating mechanic and sports games require a motion mechanic. Once the mechanics for the game have been chosen, the game rules must be applied. These will dictate when and how the chosen game mechanics can be executed. For example, the mechanic of shooting cannot be employed in Doom unless the player has a weapon with ammunition in their possession.

gAme rules Game rules ensure the player stays within the confines of the game environment. These rules also assist in establishing and maintaining the “suspension of disbelief” factor by providing the player with a consistent and believable set of environmental cause and effects. Imagine how dramatically the game of Chess would be effected if the player could move the pieces where and whenever they liked. The game rules also provide a common ontology when more than one player is involved and because they remain (mostly) static throughout play, future playing strategies can be devised and later tested. The game rules in Chess dictate how each different piece on the board can move. Chess is also a turn-based game and shares the same “one player at a time” rule imposed on turn-based strategy games such as Civilisation. Through the set of game rules, the game designer specifies how the player’s actions effect the game environment. For example, if a player moves their character into a lava pit, their character might suffer a significant hit on their health. The same types of rules specify how in fighting games how much effect different weapons have on characters’ health by considering a multitude of factors such as the characters current health status, their body armour, whether they have a magical spell cast on them, and many and varied other conditions and states. These rules not only dictate how the game environment changes but keeps it consistent

Designing Games-Based Embedded Authentic Learning Experiences

such that the player can strategise relying on their knowledge of how the game environment reacts to them. Without this consistency the player is trapped in a random world where they cannot try to predict the outcomes of future plans and thus the game becomes impossible to play. For example, if a player believes that “the shield of Q’Thor” protects them from lightening blasts, then they will expect that it always will. Changing this rule during the course of the game, without provocation and adequately explaining the reason to the player, will cause the player to ignore using such an unreliable piece of equipment. The game can also have a set of rules within the simulated environment which occur as events triggered by time, game status, player character status, or player action. Games such as Splintercell, which have a generally linear story line, wait until a player is in some location before triggering cut-scenes or having non-player characters play out a scenario. This ensures that crucial information is given to the player at the right time and that they are always in the right spot at the right time to get this information. In several scenes throughout the Splintercell franchise, the player receives information by eves-dropping on guards in corridors. The player triggers this via a proximity sensor around the guards. It would be no use to the player’s progression to have spent time lost in some maze within a building to arrive at the guards’ location to find they have missed a crucial conversation.

theme The game theme specifies the style of the environment and interface. This includes specifications about the architecture of the map, the colours used, the sounds used, and the “look” of the characters. It aligns with a movie making genre in which directors follow a particular theme to fully immerse the viewers in the story and make it more believable. In games theme provides the element

of authenticity which makes the game environment more realistic. The theme also generates a certain expectation in the player about the game contents and game play. For example, a futuristic space game could be envisaged with black starry skies, shiny silver spaceships, strange alien vistas, futuristic technological devises, laser weapons, and heavily synthesised music and sound effects. Within this theme the player would expect to see alien creatures and experience anti-gravity whereas in a Western-themed game an alien would be unexpected and completely upset the player’s suspension of disbelief.

icons Icons are the conceptualized tokens which extend the theme. They are the intuitive set of symbolic stimuli presented in the game environment which shorten the learning curve of the player and take much of the onus off the game creator in explaining every little detail about the game. Often icons represent archetypes or stereotypes within a specific theme. For example a large brutish cyclops character within a medieval theme will be recognized as a bad character without the player having to be explicitly told. Another particularly global icon in most games which is instantly recognizable is the white box on the floor or wall with a large red cross on the front. This is immediately understood by the player as an item that will heal their character. One of the main problems in educational games is the risk of overloading a player’s working memory with too many iconic elements (Mayer, 2001). This can distract from the educational aim of the game as players struggle understanding the environment rather than engaging with it. A balance needs to be found between the instructional design aspects and the player’s interaction with the game environment. As such, icons should be optimized in a game by cutting down on irrelevant elements.

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scenes The scene in a serious game dictates the game level and how game play and icons interact. A scene is a defined level in a game where the player engages in a scenario. It also includes defining pre-scripted events and milestones for progression in the game. It combines the use of game icons and game mechanics as tools for completing challenges. Typical FPS games consist of multiple levels where the icons and mechanics are repeated in each level. The challenges are across levels are similar in nature and require the player to use the same mechanisms for progression. In Doom, the player learns the mechanisms of navigating around the game map (maze), picking up items, opening doors, and shooting monsters. In addition, there are medical bonus boxes that when found can restore the player’s health. In each successive level the game becomes harder as the monsters are more aggressive, more numerous, and medical bonuses and weapons are more difficult to find. As FPS games have evolved, the same principals of repeated tokens and mechanics across levels have remained. The Halo developers have described the game as five minutes of fun played over and over again. Unlike Doom, the levels of Halo are played out in different geographical locations, for example, in the outdoors or on a spaceship. The icons and mechanics in these games are not the source of the challenge. The challenges in these games come from the increasing difficulty of each level. This is achieved through diminishing lack of resources (weapons, medical bonuses, etc.), an increase in the number of bad influences (monsters, lava, etc.), an increase in the strength or strategies of enemies and more complex environments to navigate just to name a few. In strategy games, which fit well with the EASLE, again the icons and mechanics remain the same for the entire game. Usually these games have but one scene. SimCity, Starcraft, Civilisa-

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tion, and Sid Meier Railways all have one level which consists of a game map. The challenge in these games becomes increasingly hard as the game map begins to fill up with items and the interactions between these items takes effect on the player’s score. For example, in SimCity, building industries, residential and commercial areas effect the cities population which in turn affects the player’s bank balance from taxes and the traffic system. The challenge in strategy games comes from balancing the cause and effect of resources built and operating in the game world.

story Traditional game design methods place the most emphasis on the story. In fact there are many advocates for the story being the most fundamental element of the game design (Rollings & Adams, 2003). The fact is games with the most elaborate of stories leave very little to the player’s imagination and after the story has been revealed, the player is not enticed to play the game again. In a top-down designed game where the story is paramount and dictated to the player, a player’s reflection upon their journey will not differ greatly from that of another player. For example, in the game of Halo everything within the game plays out around a linear story line. The player’s journey is to reveal the nature of this story much like ready through a book. Rather than having their own experience, the player is watching their character’s progression. In the EASLE approach the player creates their own story. Although the number of game mechanics will determine the actual number of different stories that can emerge from game play, the story is less linear and the player more in control. For example, in The Sims, there is a very loose back story about a player’s Sim living in a neighbourhood of Sims, but how that Sim’s life unfolds is at the discretion of the player. This provides a stronger emotional attachment between the player,

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their character, and the story. This emotional experience has been found to have a profound effect on student learning (Dirkx, 2001). Constructivist, action-based, and problembased learning theories focus on the student’s journey in acquiring knowledge and actively encourage learner reflection (Boud, 1985). The EASLE approach constructs games which put more control on how the story unfolds in the hands of the player. With learning seen as a continual conversation with one’s environment, artifacts, and oneself along with other learners and teachers (Sharples, 2005) having students reflect on their passage through the game provides this extra level of experience.

imPlementAtion oF eAsle It should be noted that although EASLE presents the game designer with a structured bottom-up approach, the game design process should not be dictated by completely defining one layer before the other. While the genre layer will impose the look and feel of the final game application, it is not necessary to pick a genre before having decided upon a back-story or set of scenarios for the game. More often, during the brainstorming session for a new game, ideas and concepts will surface that fall across the EASLE layers. Usually a game designer will come up with a back-story and then fill in the rest of the design. Although EASLE does not focus on a forced narrative, the designer still needs to “set the scene” for the game which will in turn bring out further ideas about necessary icons and mechanics. As such during the design process all layers are considered and documented in parallel. In the following sections a game concepts will be examined in the context of EASLE.

construction oF A serious gAme ideA Each of the layers in EASLE builds and adds to the preceding one. All are essential but lose their need for level of detail from the bottom-up. For example, genre followed by game mechanics is critical for the application to be deemed a game. Of less importance is the predefinition of the story as it is the aim of serious games to have students construct their own experiences, reflect upon and share them with others. An examination of the game of Chess, a successful game with a long history, with respect to the game layers reveals absent and loosely defined parts of the game. A partial analysis is shown in Table 1. As shown in Table 1, the design of a game using the EASLE is straightforward and succinct. Although there are some complex computer games of Chess including ones with sophisticated AI, if an educator wanted to create their own game of computer Chess in which there was no AI just two players, the simplest game possible would require the creation of a chess board and moveable pieces. Parts of the game such as the mechanics and rules need not be monitored or corrected by the computer program and could be left to the monitoring by the students themselves—much in the same way a real game of Chess with wooden board and pieces works. While this is possibly not the chic computer game an educator may have been thinking of, it illustrates the point that not all games, and even the most successful need all the bells and whistles to be effective.

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Table 1. A partial analysis of Chess with respect to EASLE layers Genre

A well-defined board game with distinct player pieces.

Game Play Mechanics

Turn-based. Each player starts with a different colour. Each player starts with 16 pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns. Each player can move one piece per turn (with the exception of castling where the player can move two pieces). If one player’s piece moves onto a square with another player’s piece the first player takes the second player’s piece off the board and places their piece on that square. etc.

Game Rules

The rook moves in a straight line, horizontally or vertically and cannot jump over other pieces. The bishop moves in a straight diagonal line and cannot jump over other pieces. The knight moves first one step in a horizontal or vertical direction, and then one step diagonally in an outward direction and can jump over other pieces. etc.

Theme

Usually medieval in nature.

Icons

Pieces are modeled and named after a medieval hierarchy, e.g., queen, king, bishop, knights and pawns.

Scenes

The game itself is one scene. No specific levels.

Story

With 1050 possible piece positions, Chess allows for an unprecedented number of different stories to be told by the players as to how the game unfolded.

Spotfire: A simPle series gAme To illustrate the EASLE architecture presented here, this section will contain an analysis of a prototype serious game called Spotfire. This application was created to demonstrate the use of games in human resource training and focuses on teaching players about different types of fire extinguishers and fire causing fuels. The objective of the game is to teach players about the different types of fire extinguishers and their distinct markings and to provide a guide as to which extinguisher is most appropriate for putting out fires started with a variety of fuels. The game was created using the existing open source Apocalyx Game Engine (http://apocalyx.sourceforge. net/) and the free modeling software QeRadiant

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(http://apocalyx.sourceforge.net/) which makes maps compatible with Quake. The game was completed in two weeks by the author and two team members from the ALIVE Research and Development lab at the University of Southern Queensland (http://www.alivex3d.org). Table 2 defines the game of Spotfire with respect to the game design process described herein. The creation and game play of Spotfire illustrates how a high-quality serious game can be created in a short amount of time using existing free and open source tools by following the EASLE architecture.

Designing Games-Based Embedded Authentic Learning Experiences

Table 2. Analysis of Spotfire game with respect to EASLE

Genre The Apocalyx Game Engine produces games in first and third person 3D for mat. As the ALIVE team was familiar with this genre it was selected for the game. Figure 2 illustrates the game environment. It is a factory containing many different fire hazards. Also in Figure 2, the Fire Instructor is shown. His job is to instruct the player how to play the game. Figure 2. The third person Spotfire game environment

gameplay mechanics The mechanics employed in Spotfire are very simplistic. The player navigates the environment by moving their character around with the arrow keys, picks up a fire extinguisher by clicking on it and uses the extinguisher by pressing the space bar. Figure 3 is a screen shot of the game world after the player has navigated their character up onto the scaffolding using the arrow keys to move up the stairs. Figure 4 illustrates the player using the mouse to move over a desired fire extinguisher which brings up a popup help as to the contents of the extinguisher and gives the player the choice of clicking on it to pick it up. Figure 5 shows the player’s character putting out a fire. This is achieved by positioning the character with an extinguisher in front of the fire and pressing the space bar.

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Figure 3. The players character navigated up onto the scaffolding in the environment to provide a wider angle view of the factory floor

Figure 4. The player can pick up a fire extinguisher by moving the mouse over the desired extinguisher and clicking on their choice

Figure 5. The action of extinguishing a fire by pressing the space bar and pointing the character with the extinguisher at the flames

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Figure 6. The help table within Spotfire for identification of the most effective fire extinguishers for differing accelerants

Figure 7. Before and after spraying water onto an electrical fire

game rules Each fire extinguishing exercise is timed. The first game rule in Spotfire is to find, identify and extinguish a fire before the time runs out. The more extensive rules within Spotfire replicate the real life cause and effect of using different extinguishing fluids on different types of fires. These rules are presented within the game environment and available to the player on pressing the F1 key shown in Figure 6. The rules are also integrated into the game environment and provide necessary feedback to the player on their choice of extinguisher. For example, while a Carbon Dioxide extinguisher may be effective on a gas fuelled fire, a water extinguisher on an electrical fire will be detrimental. This is illustrated in the game where Carbon Dioxide quickly puts out a gas fire, but water on an electrical fire causes the fire to swell (as shown in Figure 7).

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theme The theme in Spotfire is a fire-fighting training environment taking place on a factory floor where there are a number of possible fire causing substances. This dictates the grey/metallic scenery, the numerous safety signs and the industrial nature of the appliances and objects in the scene.

icons The icons in Spotfire which represent items in the real world and provide authentic professionalism within the environment are the markings on each type of fire extinguisher. In Australia, the different markings represent the contents of the extinguisher and the game teaches the player to identify the contents by the colour of the strip around the extinguisher body. All of the extinguishers in Spotfire hang next to each other on the same wall where the player can compare and make their selection (shown in Figure 8). Figure 8. The colours of the fire extinguishers are the icons in Spotfire

Figure 9. The training level of Spotfire

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scenes Although Spotfire is played out on the same game map, there are several levels of difficulty from which the player can select. On entering the game, the player can select from a tutorial or training level which explains the elements of the gameplay or they can choose to start playing the game. The training level (shown in Figure 9) takes place on the same game map as the rest of the game in a room off to the side of the map (behind the wall where the fire extinguishers are hanging). In the training level, the tutor character shows a series of slides to the player and explains each of the fire extinguishers. The next set of game levels involves actual fire identification and extinguishing. When the practice level is chosen the player gets another choice of three levels. The only difference between any of these levels is the amount of time the player gets to put a fire out. If the player runs out of time the game resets to this menu as shown in Figure 9. Figure 10. Levels of Difficulty in Spotfire

story The back-story to Spotfire is dictated by the Theme and without any explanation to the player and through the use of icons it is obvious the game is about fire fighting in a factory. But that is where the story created by the game developer ends. There is no elaborate chronicle about how the player came to be in the factory or why this particular factory seems to have a rather high rate of fire incidences. Where the factory is located geographically is immaterial as is the use of the factory. The aim of EASLE is to have the story created by the player. The player can then reflect on and share their experiences to gain a deeper understanding of the skills and knowledge they have obtained. It is one thing to tell a student that water will exacerbate an electrical fire and quite another thing for that student to see the factory burn down as a result of them putting water on an electrical fire. Figure 11 shows two situations win which the player can find themselves.

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Figure 11. Two situations the player can find themselves in during gameplay

imPlicAtions To date COTS games have been the most popular choice for the use of high-quality computer games in the classroom. While there is no doubt from numerous studies that these games promote collaboration, cultivate engagement, immersion and motivation and develop critical thinking skills (Becker, 2005; de Freitas, 2006; Sandford, 2006; Tüzün, 2007), the educator is at the mercy of the content and mechanics the game developer has implemented. Many COTS games do include factual information about processes, logistics, and history, and there is no doubt a student will learn something beneficial while playing them. For example, Sid Meier’s original Pirates game included a hard copy, beautifully illustrated and accurate map of the 17th century Spanish Main. Through game play the player would learn about the geography of this region including the location of towns and islands. Furthermore, the game included ship fairing craft from the era and taught players things such as a sloop being smaller and more maneuverable than a galleon. However, unless an educator is personally involved in the development of such games they cannot be sure where the game developer has stuck to the facts of the real world and where the

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fantasy component begins. Today, COTS games are being used to teach numerous problem solving and soft skills such as logistics, project management, and interpersonal skills. Nevertheless for educators who want more control and confidence in the subject matter in such serious games, the game design and development process needs to be dramatically streamlined. The EASLE architecture has many implications for educators, serious about serious games. The general list of these is outlined in the following: 1.

2.

Simple Design Document. Existing game design document templates such as those recommended by the International Game Developers Association (IGDA) and Chris Taylor (http://www.ihfsoft.com/designdocuments.htm) require a lot of technical specifications and focus on a strong story line. EASLE removes the technical details and main story and allows educators to focus on game mechanics and the integration of pedagogical content and process. Demystifies Game Design. There is a common saying in the games development industry which maintains if you want to take all the fun out of a game give it to an

Designing Games-Based Embedded Authentic Learning Experiences

3.

4.

educator. EASLE deliberately leaves out any reference to fun. Although the literature suggests serious games are at risk of not being fun (Peters, 2007; Quinn, 2005) there is also a plethora of COTS games in the discount bin at the local games store which are also not fun! EASLE focuses the game designer (whether educational or not) onto the mechanics and content of the game to make a robust product. Concentrating on Crucial Layers. As illustrated in Figure 1, the layers of EASLE requiring more definition by the game designer are shown as the larger bottom layers. With the exception of genre which is really a simple decision on behalf of the designer as to how they want the game to appear and be played, the designer need only fully define the game mechanics, rules, theme and icons. Player Reflection. Unlike games which focus on the story, EASLE allows for the creation of a game in which players direct their own journey. This provides them with the experiences that they can learn from and share with others.

A more significant impact on designing a game with EASLE is when the game is made to be a social multi-user environment. This, as is the case with Chess and other non-computer games, puts the onus of ensuring rules are followed on the players. The game designer needs only to provide the rules to the players not have them specifically programmed into the environment and in this way the players can police themselves.

conclusion Games by very definition are fun. All games whether they are intended to be educational or not teach the player something. The learning and knowledge acquisition of the player is through

interacting with an authentic environment modeled on some component of the real or fantasy world. Civilisation, for example, teaches players much about human history and the progression technological progression of the race. In addition it provides players with an accurate map of world geography. The EASLE architecture provides and easy to follow and succinct game design process which educators can follow to produce effecting e-learning applications. The architecture consists of seven key layers including genre which defines the nature of the game environment (FPS, RTS, multi-player online, etc.), game mechanics which outline the basic risk and reward schedules, game rules which determine how the game mechanics interact with one another and the game environment, theme which declares game scenarios and meta-game problems, icon which provide players with an authentic playing environment, scenes containing pre-scripted events and game progression milestones, and story which is not a layer specifically addressed by the game designer but an emerging outcome from game play. The EASLE architecture outlined herein should herald a new phase in the domain of games-based learning. In the past, games have been defended and proven to be affective learning and teaching tools. Now it is time to empower the educator, beyond being at the mercies of COTS developers, to create their own engaging educational pedagogical tools.

reFerences Adams, E. (2005). Educational games don’t have to stink! Gamasutra, January. Retrieved from http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20050126/ adams_01.shtml Aldrich, C. (2004). Simulations and the future of learning. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.

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Becker, K. (2005). How are games educational? Learning theories embodied in games. Digital Games Research Association Conference 2005. Retrieved July 16, 2007, from http://www.digra. org/dl/order_by_author?publication=Changing% 20Views:%20Worlds%20in%20Play Boud, D. (1985). Problem-based learning in perspective. In D. Boud (Ed.), Problem-based learning in education for the professions (pp. 1318). Sydney: Higher Education Research Society of Australasia. Bruckman, A. (1999). Can educational be fun? Game Developer’s Conference, San Jose, California, March 17. Costikyan, G. (2002). I have no words & I must design. In F. Mäyrä (2002), Conference Proceedings of Computer Games and Digital Cultures (pp. 9-33). Tampere University Press. Cruickshank, D. R. (1980). Classroom games and simulations. Theory Into Practice, 19(1), 75-80. Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. Teachers College Press. de Byl, P., & Taylor, J. A. (2007). A Web 2.0/Web3D hybrid platform for engaging students in e-learning environments. The Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 8(3), 108-127. de Freitas, S. I. (2006). Using games and simulations for supporting learning. Learning, Media and Technology, 31(4), 343-358. Dickey, M. D. (2005). Engaging by design: How engagement strategies in popular video games can inform instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 53(2), 67-83. Dirkx, J. (2001). The power of feelings: Emotion, imagination, and the construction of meaning in adult learning. The new update on adult learning theory. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

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Elliot, J., Adams, L., & Bruckman, A. (2002). No magic bullet: 3d video games in education. Proceedings of ICLS 2002, Seattle, Washington. Galarneau, L. (2004). The elearning edge: Leveraging interactive technologies in the design of engaging. Effective Learning Experiences, Proceedings of e-Fest 2004, Wellington, New Zealand Gee, J. (2005). What would a state of the art instructional video game look like? Innovate, 1(6). Retrieved May 29, 2007, from http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=article&id=80 Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. McArdle, G., Monahan, T., & Bertolotto, M. (2006). 3D Collaborative virtual environments for e-learning and m-learning, Proceedings of the 5th IASTED International Conference on Web-Based Education. Mexico: ACTA Press. Means, B., & Olson, K. (1994). The link between technology and authentic learning. Educational Leadership, 51(7), 15-18. O’Reilly, T. (2005). What Is Web 2.0: Design patterns and business models for the next generation of software. O’Reilly Media, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/oreilly/tim/ news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html Peters, J. (2007). World of Borecraft: Never play a video game that’s trying to teach you something. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://slate. com/id/2169019/ Prensky, M. (2001). On the horizon. NCB University Press, 9(5). Q u i n n , C. N. (20 05) Soapbox: Ma king learning fun. Gamasutra. Retrieved July 15, 2007, from http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20050818/quinn_01.shtml Rogers, D. (2000). A paradigm shift: Technology integration for higher education in the new

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millenium. Educational Technology Review, Spring/Summer 2000, 19-33. Rollings, A., & Adams, E. (2003) Andrew Rollings and Ernest Adams on game design. Berkeley: New Riders. Sandford, R. (2006). Teaching with games: COTS games in the classroom. JISC Innovating e-Learning 2006: Transforming Learning Experiences Online Conference. Retrieved July 16, 2007, from http://www.online-conference.net/jisc/content/ Sandford%20-%20teaching%20with%20games. pdf Sharples, M. (2005). Learning as conversation: Transforming education in the mobile age. Proceedings of Conference on Seeing, Understanding, Learning in the Mobile Age, Budapest, Hungary (pp. 147-152). Tüzün, H. (2007) Blending video games with learning: Issues and challenges with classroom implementations in the Turkish context. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 465-477 Van Eck, R. (2006). Digital games-based learning: It’s not just the digital natives who are restless. EDUCAUSE Review, 41(2), 16-30. Winn, W. (1993). A conceptual basis for educational applications of virtual reality. Report No. TR-93-9. Human Interface Technology Laboratory. Retrieved July 5, 2007, from http://ftp.hitl. washington.edu/publications/r-93-9/

Key terms Avatar: A game players personae in a virtual environment. In many games the player is represented in the game world by some kind of humanoid animated character. COTS: Commercial off-the-shelf software. This is software which is bought from a third party as opposed to the software being written by

the user. In the domain of games-based learning, COTS are large budget games which have modding functionality such that the educator can tweak and customize the game for their own purpose. Game Play Mechanics: The processes which the player can implement within the game environment to move them toward their goal. Genre: A two-pronged classification for defining both game play style and layout and the game theme. In this chapter genre and theme are separated, however more traditionally in the gaming domain, genre can refer to game play dynamics which define the player’s interface such as first person or isometric while on the other hand it can refer to visual, audio, and narrative styles such as science fiction or adventure. Icons: Objects and images in the game environment which insight authenticity within a game worlds. Icons represent real-life paraphernalia which give players genuine experiences and assist them in thinking and acting like real-life practictioners. Modding: Gamer terminology for the “modification” of a game. Many games developers release modding tools with their games for their players to change features such as character behaviours and level maps. Web 2.0: A set of philosophies for social online software centering on the idea of a collective intelligence which evolves from hyper-linking, Web services, platform-independent software, re-usable and re-mixable content and, above all, user participation.

endnote 1

The research and development in this chapter has been supported by the University of Southern Queensland, Australia and the ALIVE team members.

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Chapter LXIII

Bridging Game Development and Instructional Design James Belanich U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral Social Sciences, USA Karin A. Orvis Old Dominion University, USA Daniel B. Horn U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral Social Sciences, USA Jennifer L. Solberg U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral Social Sciences, USA

AbstrAct Instructional video game development is occurring in both the commercial game development and the instructional design/development communities, but regularly in isolation from one another. While many proclaim that game-based learning offers an instructional revolution, the empirical results on instructional effectiveness have been mixed. These mixed findings may be due to the contrasting approaches utilized within these two communities. These communities differ with respect to prioritizing goals and design/development processes. However, the creation of an effective instructional video game—one that both motivates and teaches—is dependent on the successful partnering of these communities. Accordingly, this chapter elucidates the commonalities and differences in the development goals and approaches of these communities and discusses how best practices of each community should be blended for optimal instructional video game design. This chapter also includes relevant experiences from an instructional PC-video game development project, illustrating challenges faced and new opportunities afforded via a collaborative development effort.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Bridging Game Development and Instructional Design

introduction With traditional instructional methods, such as formal classroom instruction, one fundamental challenge can be motivating students to fully engage in the instructional content. PC-based instructional video games have become an increasingly popular instructional medium, as many proclaim that video games engage and motivate learners in ways that traditional instruction hasn’t in the past (Gee, 2003; Herz & Macedonia, 2002; Prensky, 2001). Further, some proponents of instructional video games suggest that today’s learners (and game-players) are wired differently than learners of the past, and that game-based learning leverages this difference, capturing their motivation to learn (e.g., Prensky, 2001). While many assert that game-based learning offers a new revolution in instruction (Gee, 2003; Herz & Macedonia, 2002; Prensky, 2001), the empirical results concerning its effectiveness with respect to student knowledge acquisition and retention have been mixed to date (Hays, 2005). Thus, utilizing this engaging medium may help alleviate the concern of low student motivation; however, motivation alone is not a sufficient condition for learning. This suggests that the important question for instructional game developers is not whether a learner is fully engaged in game play; rather, is the “engaged” learner actually learning the instructional objectives embedded in the video game or merely playing the game? In short, both student motivation and pedagogical structure are necessary determinants of the effectiveness of instructional video games. The development of instructional video games represents new territory. Experts in the instructional design/training development community have typically developed tools used for instruction, while commercial game development experts have mastered the development of video games for entertainment purposes. Video games designed specifically for instructional purposes represent a gray area, with training game development oc-

curring in both communities but many times in isolation from one another. It is possible that the demonstrated mixed effectiveness of instructional video games (e.g., Beal, 2005; Hays, 2005) can be attributed to the contrasting approaches utilized within these two communities. Many believe that the commercial game development and instructional design/training development communities differ greatly with respect to their fundamental goals (i.e., entertainment versus learning) and processes involved in design/development (i.e., game development versus instructional design processes). The creation of an effective instructional video game—a game that motivates and also successfully teaches the intended instructional objectives—is dependent on the successful partnering of these two communities. While these communities may hold different goals or definitions of a successful development initiative, these goals are not incompatible. Further, while on the surface these communities may appear to utilize unique design/development approaches, these two communities actually embrace complementary approaches. Accordingly, the purpose of this chapter is to elucidate the commonalities and differences in the development goals and approaches of these two communities, and discuss how the best practices of each community should be blended for optimal instructional video game design. The remainder of the chapter is organized as follows. First, the overarching development goals of both game developers and instructional designers are described. This includes how these goals differ, as well as overlap. Next, is a description of the different developmental processes that game developers and instructional designers are likely to follow in product development. Again, differences and similarities in the product development processes of both communities are highlighted. Further, to illustrate the challenges faced and new opportunities afforded when these two communities partner in the development of an instructional game, examples from experiences

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during the development of a training game called ELECT BiLAT are provided. This game-based training tool was designed to provide U.S. Army officers instruction on preparing for and conducting bi-lateral, cross-cultural negotiation meetings. Specifically, in ELECT BiLAT, learners are confronted with a series of scenarios that involve meetings with leaders in an Iraqi village. In order to successfully accomplish their mission, learners must correctly plan and execute these meetings, thereby demonstrating proper cultural, negotiation, and decision-making skills. ELECT BiLAT is based on a commercial game engine and includes interactive computergenerated characters and automated instructional feedback/coaching. Although ELECT BiLAT uses a 3D game engine, it is not a first-person-shooter game; in fact, there is no shooting in the system, and most user interaction is accomplished through a menu system. Figure 1 displays a sample screen shot from ELECT BiLAT. In this portion of the game, the learner is engaged in a negotiation meeting with the local police chief. The choices

of available actions (for the learner) are selected from the menu at the lower left corner of the screen, and the computer-generated character verbally responds to the learner’s choice. In the lower right window, there is an on-going printed transcript of the interaction, along with hints and coaching from an intelligent tutor built into the game. The ELECT BiLAT project described here has been sponsored and managed by the U.S. Army Research, Development, and Engineering Command’s Simulation and Training Technology Center (STTC). The development of ELECT BiLAT was a collaboration between the University of Southern California’s Institute for Creative Technologies and three U.S. Army research agencies (STTC, the Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, and the Army Research Laboratory—Human Research Engineering Directorate). In order to maximize the potential success of both the development and implementation of this instructional game, this collaborative effort brought together multiple researchers and practitioners in the fields of game

Figure 1. Screenshot of ELECT BiLAT, depicting a negotiation meeting with the police chief (©2007 University of Southern California. Used with permission)

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design, human factors, and instructional design, along with U.S. Army trainers and students. Additional details about ELECT BiLAT can be found in Hill et al. (2006).

develoPment goAls Commercial game developers and instructional designers do not have incompatible goals for product development (e.g., instructional video game development); however, their priorities may be a bit different. At a general level, both game developers and instructional designers want to develop a successful product; however, the standards with which these groups measure success differs. For game developers, if the game results in a high sales volume and users want to play it, they are successful. Thus, the primary goal of a commercial game developer is to maximize player enjoyment and motivation to continue playing the game. For instructional designers, they are only successful if the students learn the instructional content. It doesn’t matter how much the learners enjoy the game and want to continue playing if

they are not learning as a result of game play. Accordingly, the primary goal of an instructional designer is to assure that the student has achieved mastery over the learning objectives. Both the primary goal of the game developer and of the instructional designer are critical to the success of an instructional video game, in that a successful instructional game must maximize player motivation/engagement, as well as knowledge acquisition and retention (see Figure 2). Further, to ensure that both goals are optimally achieved, the utilization of a multi-disciplinary team, consisting of both game developers and instructional designers (as well as team members with other qualities like training domain subject matter expertise, graphic artists, and product management) is critical. Game developers are skilled at designing games that are engaging and have motivating and intriguing story lines (Dickey, 2005); whereas, instructional designers are skilled at structuring information within a learning environment so that learning will take place (Branson, 1978; Dick & Carey, 1990). Both skill sets are required for development of an instructional video game.

Figure 2. A depiction of the overlapping goals of commercial game developers and instructional designers when they work together to build an effective training game

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Table 1. Examples of goals and obstacles for commercial game and instructional designers Primary Goal

Games

Instruction

Motivation

Learning

A multi-disciplinary team may initially struggle in the process of instructional game development because of their varied world view of product development. The initial struggle can be minimized through clarifying each others’ objectives, common terminology, and processes for meeting their overarching goals (i.e., motivation or learning). During the development of ELECT BiLAT, there was a realization that the two communities possessed different operational definitions for the same term. For example, on the instructional design side, the term “content” relates to the information/domain to be trained (e.g., negotiations and cultural norms). On the game development side, “content” relates to objects that appear on the screen (e.g., buttons, characters, and background items). Another example of a term that needed clarification was training support material. The instructional design view was that background information on the training domain was the primary component of supporting material, while the game development view was that supporting material consisted of mainly instructions on how to use the game. To assist in minimizing such misunderstandings of “common” terminology used, a list of shared vocabulary was developed—a comprehensive list of terms and definitions that the different partners used. Discussing and clarifying the differences provided a means to communicate more clearly across specialties and to better understand

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Objectives

Obstacles

Engaging

Lack of Interest

Playability

Confusion

Challenge

Boring

Skill Acquisition

Skill Degradation

Mastery

Confusion

Attention

Lack of Interest

each community’s goals and objectives for the project. This also helped to mitigate some of the challenges of bringing together individuals from fields that have distinct cultures (Finholt & Birnholtz, 2006). While the fundamental goal of game developers and instructional designers may not be identical, they do share the desire to avoid the same obstacles to success (see Table 1). No game developer or instructional designer wants an uninteresting and confusing product that is easily forgotten. Thus, one way to help circumvent this initial difficulty in collaborating is to shift the focus of the team to minimizing obstacles to training game success. For example, if during the development process the instructional designers realize that the game, as currently conceptualized, fails to teach all aspects of the intended set of competencies, then the game developer (and team) should take that as an opportunity to modify properties of the game to more effectively link it with the learning objectives. Conversely, if a game developer observes that the training game appears to be a little boring, then the team can work together on alternative ways to engage the learner and maintain learner attention. Just because the primary goals and objectives of game developers and instructional designers are not identical, does not mean that they are incompatible. By working together during the development process, they can achieve both

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goals—a training game that is motivating to play and maximizes acquisition and retention of the instructional content. Each group must be aware of the other’s perspective (likely through extensive communication) and respect the other’s position while working toward the common goal of developing an effective training game.

develoPment Processes In this section, the general approaches that the two groups take toward product development are described (see Table 2). The terminology used for the various steps of design/development across the gaming and instructional design communities are explained, followed by a discussion of how the operational definitions of some of the terms vary between these groups. The goal is to illustrate that while these two groups have distinctly different design/development steps, they share many similarities. The instructional design approach tends to be structured rather linearly with respect to product (instructional system) development. While the specific processes used by instructional designers may vary to some extent (e.g., Branson, 1978; Dick & Carey, 1990; van Merriënboer, Clark, & de Croock, 2002; Winston, 1968), with some processes involving an iterative component, for the most part, the linear approach seems to be the norm when applied. For instance, a commonly used approach for instructional systems design is

captured by the acronym ADDIE, which stands for the steps of: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. These steps are well known by instructional designers and frequently utilized to guide their development of instructional software. In the commercial game industry, there is also a fairly standard process for developing a product. Many game developers have previous experience with software development; this is why the computer game development processes often share many similarities with well-known software development processes (Boehm, 1988; Royce, 1970). Generally, the first step is to choose a goal/topic/theme for the game, followed by the steps of research, design (preprogram & storyboard), program/playtest, delivery, and post mortem (Crawford, 1997). For commercial game development, many of these processes tend to be very fluid, with multiple steps being worked on at any one point in time and with continual revisiting of any given step. This iterative process may include potential users playing paper-based and software-based prototypes, with feedback being used to make modifications to the design. Also, the first “working” version is not thought to be the final version, but a work in progress. There tends to be a good deal of testing, continued modification, and retesting until the developers are ready to “go gold” (i.e., have a final version ready to deliver to users). The steps and processes used by game developers share many features with those used in the

Table 2. A comparison of the five steps in the development processes of instructional designers and commercial video game developers →→ → Development Process → → → Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Step 5

Instructional Design

- Analysis

- Design

- Development

- Implementation

- Evaluation

Computer Game Design

- Choose goal/topic

- Design

- Program

- Deliver

- Post mortem

- Research

- Storyboard

- Playtest

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instructional design approach, in that they both have analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation phases. The remainder of this section describes in detail the similarities and differences between the processes used by these two communities, and provides examples of how game developers and instructional designers can effectively combine their efforts throughout the development of an instructional video game. Step One. For an instructional designer, the “analysis” phase involves identifying what needs to be learned (Branson, 1978). The primary aspect of this is to specify explicit learning objectives. This also includes determining the current knowledge base of the intended learners, as well as the gaps in their knowledge, skills, and abilities that need to be addressed by the training to be developed. For a game developer, the first step involves making decisions about: (a) the type/genre of game they plan to build (e.g., first-person-perspective, multi-player), (b) the development and delivery platform to utilize (e.g., licensing an existing game engine versus creating a new one), and (c) who will be their target audience. In the design of an instructional video game neither of these “analysis” decisions needs to supersede the other; and it is suggested that all of these decisions are valuable and should be explicitly considered. One clear parallel between the worlds of game developers and instructional designers is the analysis/research of the intended audience. Game developers may ask questions about their target audience, the complexity of the set of rules governing game play, and the game’s story line. Whereas, instructional designers may ask questions about the intended trainees, such as their current level of understanding of the topic of instruction (as well as the intended mastery level post-training), the ability of the students to use the training technology, and how this fits into their broader curriculum. Both sets of questions address who the targeted end user will be. Understanding the characteristics of this user in turn will facilitate the development of the most

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effective training game—one that meets the needs of the learner. The choice of game genre is another important decision for both commercial game developers and instructional designers intent on creating a training game. From the commercial game perspective, the choice of game genre is often driven by factors such as the expertise and experience of the design team, with teams playing to their strengths. Marketing and sales concerns also play a role in this decision. As an example, not only is a company with a history of producing sports games likely to be better at producing sports games than other types of games, this company is also more likely to have a greater understanding of the sports gaming market. If such a company were to decide to create a strategic war game, they would face a number of challenges—both in the development and sale of a new title. With the exception of a few highly popular franchises (e.g., Star Wars), game purchasing behaviors are more likely to remain within genre than between genre (Horn, 2006). For the instructional designer, there are two key aspects to the decision of game genre: (a) game-training content match, and (b) learners’ prior video game experience. With respect to the former, the training content of a game can be intrinsic or extrinsic to the game genre. An intrinsically instructive game is one in which the training content is a fundamental aspect of the game mechanic—for example, using a flight simulator to train pilots. Research suggests that by selecting a game with similar attributes to the training domain, less effort will be required for the learner to transfer what is learned in the game to the real-world context where they must apply those lessons (Auffrey, Mirabella, & Siebold, 2001). An extrinsic training game is one for which the training content is not directly related to the underlying game mechanic, but instead uses the game as a way to deliver unrelated content. Prenksy’s Straight Shooter!, a first-person-shooter game designed to teach bankers about deriva-

Bridging Game Development and Instructional Design

tives policies and practices, is a good example (see Prensky, 2001, pp. 248-253). If the training content is particularly well suited for a particular game genre (e.g., a flight simulator for some basic flying concepts and skills), it is often advantageous to use that game-training content match. However, even when there is a clear game-training content match, the decision to develop that particular type of game is not necessarily warranted. As an example, consider attempting to train infantry squad leaders. While it may seem natural to use a first-person-shooter, if the goal is to train decision-making and strategy it may be better to rely on a more strategic (perhaps even turn-based) game-style in order to encourage more deliberative thought. In short, one needs to seriously consider the knowledge and skills to be trained before selecting the game genre of the instructional game. In selecting the genre of a training game, it is also useful to consider the prior video game experience of potential learners; as aforementioned, the analysis of who will be using the training game is critical. If the users are not familiar with a particular game genre, then there may be time wasted trying to teach the learner how to use the game interface, sacrificing time devoted toward learning the training domain. Further, research suggests that learners who have previous experience with video game genres similar to the training game are more likely to demonstrate positive training outcomes, such as enhanced training performance, training satisfaction, and time spent engaging in the training game (Orvis, Horn, & Belanich, 2006; Orvis, Orvis, Belanich, & Mullin, 2007). For ELECT BiLAT, on the instructional design side, the analysis step/phase started with interviews of Army instructors and other subject matter experts (SMEs) to understand the targeted training domain and typical gaps in trainees’ knowledge, skills, and abilities (Hill et al., 2006). A set of learning objectives was developed to clearly identify what should be learned by the

students. There was also a discussion about the game technology that would be most appropriate for the target group of learners. Since the target learners were Army officers with considerable years of military experience (typically in their 40s), it was noted that these individuals were not typical gamers (Belanich, Orvis, Moore, Horn, & Solberg, 2007). Thus, a training game involving complex movements through a 3D world would likely be foreign to many of them and require a good deal of up-front training on the game technology, with little added value to training the instructional domain. Accordingly, the decision was made to simplify the game mechanics and interactions with computer-generated characters as negotiation meeting partners. There was a focus on more familiar types of buttons and menus in the user interface to best meet the needs of this group of learners. On the game development side, the choice was made to use the rendering capabilities of a 3D game engine to provide an engaging environment for the training that would immerse the students in the training scenarios. All of this minimized the time needed to learn how to use the training game, allowing more time to be spent learning while engaging in the game. Step Two. For both instructional designers and commercial game developers, the design phase includes developing a plan that will accomplish the goal of making a successful product. Instructional designers frequently accomplish their overarching goal of maximizing student learning by breaking down what needs to be taught into small chunks and then organizing these instructional chunks in a structured, sequenced way (i.e., an organization scheme that leads a learner toward mastering the learning objectives) (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Branson, 1978; Moreno & Mayer, 2002). Typically, commercial game developers would work toward accomplishing their overarching goal of maximizing player motivation/engagement by creating a general story or path that they want the player to experience as part of the game, filling in details as they proceed. This process would end

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with the development of paper-based storyboards which include the sequence of events that are likely to occur during the game experience and what the different game screens would look like to the user. In short, instructional designers tend to take a bottom-up approach, starting with small chunks and organizing them into a whole. Conversely, game developers tend to adopt a top-down approach, working from a general story idea/theme and progressively adding detail. These processes do not need to be incompatible; in fact, they can be integrated. For example, instructional designers can first develop their learning chunks/nuggets. Then, the game developers can utilize this information to develop a general story line that will include all of the learning chunks. Both groups can then work together to fill in the gaps so that there is a meaningful organization of chunks within the story line. In fact, it can be argued that the story line and the teaching points must be fully integrated; building the instructional content into a story line is key for an instructional game (Dickey, 2006). Research has shown that learners are more likely to learn information in an instructional video game when it is integrated into the story line or progression of the game versus information that is superfluous to the overall flow of the game (Belanich, Sibley, & Orvis, 2004). There are several techniques for aligning instructional content with the game story line (see Dickey, 2006). The practical take home point is that story development and training domain development should not occur in isolation. The instructional content must be fully integrated into the overall story line of the game to maximize effectiveness. One caution when developing a story line is that even if it shares an overall theme with the training domain, it may not match up well with the specific teaching points/learning objectives that are required. For example, playing a game like Rollercoaster TycoonTM may make a player aware of some of the aspects of building and

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maintaining a theme park that the player wasn’t aware of before. However, it won’t teach a person the engineering skills of building an actual rollercoaster or the accounting/business practices of running an actual theme park. To avoid this issue during the development of ELECT BiLAT, active collaboration between the instructional designers and game developers was critical, as well as seeking input from training domain content experts. First, instructional designers identified the tasks and learning objectives that were to be trained, and made sure that they were integral parts of the immersive story line (Hill et al., 2006). This involved performing a detailed task analysis, identifying the skills and behaviors necessary for planning and engaging in bi-lateral meetings. This task analysis was based on interviews with Army instructors and other SMEs, a review of Army doctrine, and a review of the published literature on culture and negotiations. Results from the task analysis were later fed back to the SMEs and instructors to ensure that it accurately represented the training domain. Further, in order for the game developers to build an engaging but realistic story line for the training scenarios, direct questions were asked to the SMEs, such as “When you are engaging in Task A, what are the most important aspects to be aware of?” In addition, some examples of critical incidents pertaining to this task were requested (i.e., real-world situations of when they had effectively/ineffectively engaged in the task) (Anderson & Wilson, 1997). These “important aspects to consider” and SME-provided critical incidents were then woven into the story line, paired with the identified skills and concepts to be trained. Another important variable to consider in the design phase is the level of challenge that will be most appropriate for the training game. This is important on an instructional level, in that you want to push learners to gain new knowledge and skills; however, you also do not want to overwhelm the learners by asking them to perform

Bridging Game Development and Instructional Design

tasks that are well beyond their current mastery level (Bowman, 1982; Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell, 2002; Rieber, 1996). The appropriate level of challenge is also important on a motivational level, in that to maintain high levels of motivation, the task being performed should be neither too easy as to become boring, or too hard to be frustrating (Belanich, Sibley, & Orvis, 2004; Crawford, 1997; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Malone & Lepper, 1987). With ELECT BiLAT, we knew it was possible that some of the target learners might possess limited prior experience with the training domain; therefore, starting the game at a high challenge level would have been problematic. However, it was also critical to include scenarios that would challenge those with greater levels of prior experience, as well as learners that had improved their knowledge and skills over the course of using the game. Accordingly, a series of progressively more difficult negotiation scenarios were developed and used in the game (Hill et al., 2006). The design phase is critical for instructional video game development success, and will require game developers and instructional designers to communicate their wants and needs. Because the product is in the conceptual stage at this point, it is not that easy to clearly explain what is required and why it is important across the two communities. Simple prototypes or examples from products that share similar features can help in this interchange of ideas. With ELECT BiLAT, the game developers created a paper-based prototype to show instructional designers (and later potential users and Army instructors) how the training game would work. From these “show and tell” sessions with users and instructors, the game developers and instructional designers gathered extensive feedback (in terms of engagement of the story, ease of use, and if the game adequately captured the instruction domain). This feedback was used to improve the design and update the prototype. Over time, the prototype was iteratively refined and tested until the major game-play elements and

instructional components were deemed sufficient and fully integrated. Step Three. During the development/programming step, the plan (created during the previous step) is used to produce the actual video game. This is where the programmers start typing out computer code, working to implement the plan. In order to minimize any misunderstandings as the paper plan is being translated to software code, it is important that the plan is clear, both in terms of instructional content and motivational game features (e.g., realism of graphics, usability of interface, challenge level presented). As with any plan, once it is put in motion there are often modifications that need to be made. While both instructional designers and game developers tend to use iterative development models (to some capacity), there are some differences in the kind of feedback that loops back into the development process. For instructional designers, feedback is typically provided by someone in the role of an instructor. This feedback entails the aspects of the instructional tool that they think would be effective for teaching their students, as well as what components need modification. Ideally, instructional designers are able to obtain some level of in-class evaluation using a pilot group of learners (e.g., whether through cooperative agreements with instructors intending to use the instructional tool or through individuals recruited to participate in a focus group). Game developers typically involve people from the actual target audience to play-test alpha and beta versions of the game. The game developers observe the play-testers using the game and ask for their opinions about different aspects of the game (e.g., Is it fun? Is it challenging enough? Did they find the storyline interesting? What worked and what didn’t?). Play-testing is very important because the best way to determine if intended users will enjoy the game is to have them play it and then capture their feedback (Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). In addition to using such a pilot group of play-testers, commercial game

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developers are often able to glean feedback from the player community through alpha and beta versions which have been released to the public. This feedback, while valuable, typically focuses on issues that are of concern to experienced, highly motivated players—making it a bit more difficult to predict the types of problems that novice game players may face. Commercial game developers attempt to get as much feedback as they can at this point in the product development process because they typically do not have the opportunity to make significant revisions once they go to the delivery phase. (It should be noted that while game patches have become relatively common among computer games, they have been historically difficult or impossible with console games. This is starting to change as the newest generation of consoles typically have Internet access.) Conversely, instructional designers are expecting to also get feedback at a later stage (i.e., Step 5—Evaluation) and this information is frequently used to make further revisions. In short, game developers have a tendency for a shorter feedback loop for each iteration of the game. Further, they will develop segments of the game and get feedback on their development all within this step. In contrast, instructional designers have a tendency for a longer feedback loop in that they will develop the training tool (Step 3), formally evaluate how well the training worked (Step 5), and use the results of this evaluation to update/revamp the training tool. With ELECT BiLAT, an iterative development process with both short (within step) and long (across Steps 3-5) feedback loops was used (Hill et al., 2006). Examples of short feedback loops include when the game developers/programmers would demonstrate their work for the team and make quick modifications based on feedback received. Also, when the software was at a stage to be play-tested, a pilot group—representing the population of instructors and students in which the training was intended—were asked to try out the

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instructional game and give extensive feedback both in terms of instructional content and playability/engagement. An example of a long feedback loop includes the iterative delivery of versions of the game to individuals in the U.S. Army course where the game was to be implemented. During this roll out, multiple versions (based on the suggested feedback) were delivered and formally evaluated for instructional impact (i.e., did they learn?), usability, and motivational factors. The cooperation and patience of Army instructors during this process was critical. The detailed, expert assessment that instructors, students, and other SMEs were able to provide enabled both incremental and significant improvements relatively quickly. Had this tool been created by a team without direct access to the target group of learners/instructors, this type of user feedback (across Steps 3-5) would likely not be available. Step Four. In Step 4, the end user gets to actually use the game. For instructional designers, the term implementation is used because the instructional tool is often part of a course or some larger curriculum. When used as part of a course/curriculum, there is the possibility that guidance on the instructional tool will be provided to the learner by an instructor or someone else who provides this support function. Learners are not necessarily expected to utilize the tool independently. In contrast, with entertainment games, the term delivery is used because it is expected that the system will stand on its own. Game directions are important and needed to guide users. However, if users have questions that go beyond the provided directions, gamers are usually more than willing to search around for answers. For example, users may go to gaming Web sites or read other material that may provide the answers they seek. It is important to note that in both the instructional and entertainment domains, there is a need to provide sufficient guidance regarding how to use the game. Further, the guidance provided may need to be expanded with an instructional

Bridging Game Development and Instructional Design

game. For example, there typically is a need to provide support to not only the learner, but also the instructor, who may not have expertise with computers or video games. This “train-thetrainer” effort plays an integral role in the success or failure of an instructional video game, as an otherwise excellent training game can fail if it is not effectively implemented in a course (Belanich, Mullin, & Dressel, 2004). Several pitfalls can lead to poor implementation/delivery of training games. Belanich, Mullin, and Dressel (2004) described various obstacles to successful training game implementation. One of the main reasons for ineffective implementation is that the game is not clearly integrated into the curriculum of the course. For instance, learners are never explicitly told the purpose of this instructional tool or what they should seek to achieve by engaging in the game. Without a reason as to why the learners are devoting effort to play the game, students may wonder, “What’s the point?” It should be clear to students what they are expected to gain from playing the training game (i.e., the learning objectives to master and/or competencies to be developed). Also, if the instructor does not know how to use the training game (e.g., maneuver through the user interface), this can lead to wasted time as the students have to learn how to use the game on their own. Furthermore, the students may gain the impression that the instructor doesn’t really know the instructional material. Clearly, proper implementation is critical for a training game to be fully effective. With ELECT BiLAT, the intended implementation was for the game to be used as an in-class exercise (to take only a few hours) as part of a two-week course. First, the instructor would highlight some of the topics to be addressed within ELECT BiLAT. The instructor would also go through some of the procedures that the students would have to complete as they were progressing through the game. Then as the stu-

dents used ELECT BiLAT, the instructor would be available for assistance. Fortunately, the lead instructor had been involved in early discussions and demonstrations of the game and was motivated to provide feedback, which were critical to making the implementation of the game successful. There has been discussion regarding the best way to ensure that this knowledge is available to students in other contexts (e.g., contexts with less active/knowledgeable facilitators or no facilitator), and future versions of ELECT BiLAT will include additional support information. Among the solutions being discussed is the inclusion of a video introduction to the game and its interface. This is a key area which must be considered if gaming savvy instructors will not be available at the implementation site. Step Five. For instructional designers, the evaluation phase is not necessarily the end. Based on the results of the evaluation, they are likely to revamp the design and may go through another cycle of development. Because there is often an instructor overseeing the use of the training tool, the instructional designers might get feedback from the instructor’s perspective. If there is a formal evaluation conducted, which is not always the case (Hays, 2005), student feedback may also be available. With game development, there are different avenues to gather feedback on the success/failure of an effort. The evaluation of a commercial game may rely on sales data and player critiques on game Web sites. If the game is successful, there might be a second version—only “bigger and better,” with new features. If the game is not successful, they may chalk it up as experience and develop a completely different game. The market response to entertainment games is relatively quick—if gamers are not satisfied, a game will not sell well. Additionally, the gaming community has evolved to a point where there is a good deal of feedback provided via online forums, magazines, and so forth. With instructional games, sales often rely

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on slower procurement processes, with decisions often being made not only by instructors, but by other administrators. The challenge of evaluating the effectiveness of an instructional game, both in terms of accuracy and time, may not enable the development team to assess market satisfaction quickly. This can significantly delay the feedback loop. A combination of the aforementioned methods to evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional game might be most appropriate. This evaluation should address both instructional (did learning occur) and motivational (was it engaging to the learner) aspects of the instructional game. The evaluation of ELECT BiLAT has been ongoing, and has relied on measures of learning, performance data logs, student feedback/satisfaction, and instructor feedback. Again, because of a close relationship with the course instructors, detailed feedback was provided which influenced subsequent updates. The initial results indicate that the students are learning due to this implementation. There is always room for improvement, and based on the initial evaluation, additional modifications are currently being made.

conclusion Instructional designers and game developers may be quite different, and their experiences and priorities might, at times, appear to be at odds with one another. However, when developing instructional games, they do share a similar overarching goal—to build a successful product, and in this case, a successful instructional game. Remaining focused on this common goal as the priority should assist these two communities in bridging their diverse perspectives and expertise in order to develop the optimal instructional video game. Throughout this chapter, it has been argued that the critical determinant of the success of video games as instructional tools lies in the willingness

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of commercial game developers and instructional designers to work with one another, as well as their ability to successfully integrate their central goals and design/development processes. The primary implication of this work suggests that a collaborative team with members of different specialties working together is essential for achieving the goal of building a game that is both instructional and motivating to use. Unfortunately, according to Squire (2005), who conducted a series of case studies of video game-based learning product development, organizations may use interdisciplinary game development teams, but they do not include instructional designers as part of the team. A typical team includes program managers, graphic artists, and programmers—no instructional designers. Without specialists who understand how to provide instruction, it isn’t surprising that many instructional games do not effectively teach the intended instructional objectives (Hays, 2005). To provide insight into how a successful merging of these two communities can be accomplished, relevant research in both game development and instructional design has been presented, and practical lessons learned from experiences during the development of an instructional video game were provided. A mutual understanding is key to successful partnerships, and this requires consistent communication and a respect for the skills and attributes that partners with different backgrounds bring to the team. Game developers may benefit from understanding and incorporating several processes used by instructional designers (Bransford et al., 1999; Dick & Carey, 1990; Moreno & Mayer, 2002). Likewise, instructional designers may benefit from understanding and incorporating several processes used by game developers (Bethke, 2003; Crawford, 1997; Salen & Zimmerman, 2004; Squire, 2005). In short, communicating and understanding the commonalities and differences of the expectations and processes of their partnering community should facilitate their successful collaboration. Further, the unique

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elements of each community’s approach should be blended for optimal instructional video game design—an instructional video game which is both intrinsically motivating and pedagogically sound.

AcKnoWledgment Statements and opinions expressed in this chapter do not necessarily reflect the position or the policy of the United States Government, and no official endorsement should be inferred. The ELECT project described here has been sponsored and managed by the U.S. Army Research, Development, and Engineering Command’s Simulation and Training Technology Center. The chapter authors (from the Army Research Institute) would like to express their appreciation to the partners who collaborated on ELECT BiLAT (i.e., STTC, the Army Research Laboratory—Human Research Engineering Directorate, and the Institute for Creative Technologies).

reFerences Anderson, L., & Wilson, S. (1997). Critical incident technique. In D. L. Whetzel & G. R. Wheaton (Eds.), Applied measurement methods in industrial psychology (pp. 89-112). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Auffrey, A. L., Mirabella, A., & Siebold, G. L. (2001). Transfer of training revisited (Research Note, No. 2001-10). Arlington, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Beal, S. A. (2005). Using games for training dismounted light infantry leaders: Emergent questions and lessons learned (Research Report, No. 1841). Arlington, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.

Belanich, J., Mullin, L. N., & Dressel, J. D. (2004). Symposium on PC-based simulations and gaming for military training (ARI Research Product 20001). Arlington, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Belanich, J., Orvis, K. A., Moore, J. C., Horn, D. B., & Solberg, J. L. (2007). Fact or fiction-soldiers are gamers:Potential effects on training. Paper presented at the Interservice/Industry Training Simulation and Education Confererence, (I/ITSEC), Orlando, FL. Belanich, J., Sibley, D., & Orvis, K. L. (2004). Instructional characteristics and motivational features of a PC-based game (Research Report, No. 1822). Arlington, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Bethke, E. (2003). Game development and production. Plano, TX: Wordware Publishing Inc. Boehm, B. W. (1988, May). A spiral model of software development and enhancement. Computer, 61-72. Bowman, R. F. (1982). A “Pac-Man” theory of motivation: tactical implications for classroom instruction. Educational Technology, 14-16. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Branson, R. K. (1978). The interservice procedures for instructional systems development. Educational Technology, 18(3), 11-14. Crawford, C. (1997). The art of computer game design. Retrieved October 1, 2007, from http:// www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/gamebook/Coverpage.html Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper and Row, Inc.

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Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1990). The systematic design of instruction (3rd ed.). New York: Harper Collins.

Development of the ELECT BiLAT simulation. Poster presentation at the 25th Army Science Conference, Orlando, FL.

Dickey, M. D. (2005). Engaging by design: How engagement strategies in popular computer and video games can inform instructional design. Educational Technology Research & Development, 53(2), 67-83.

Horn, D. B. (2006). Patterns of videogaming experience: Implications for game-based training. Poster presented at the American Psychological Association Division 21/19 Mid-Year Symposium.

Dickey, M. D. (2006). Game design narrative for learning: Appropriating adventure game design narrative devices and techniques for the design of interactive learning environments. Educational Technology Research & Development, 54(3), 245-263.

Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: a taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning and instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Finholt, T., & Birnholtz, J. P. (2006). If we build it, will they come? The cultural challenges of cyberinfrastructure development. In W. S. Bainbridge & M. C. Roco (Eds.), Managing nano-bio-infocogno innovations: Converging technologies in society (pp. 89-101). The Netherlands: Springer. Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33, 441-467. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Hays, R. T. (2005). The effectiveness of instructional games: A literature review and discussion (Technical Report, No. 2005-004). Orlando, FL: Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division. Herz, J. C., & Macedonia, M. R. (2002). Computer games and the military: Two views. Defense Horizons, 11. Retrieved October 1, 2007, from www. ndu.edu/inss/DefHor/DH11/DH11.htm Hill, R. W., Belanich, J., Lane, H. C., Core, M., Dixon, M., Forbell, E., Kim, J., & Hart, J. (2006). Pedagogically structured game-based training:

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Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2002). Learning science in virtual reality multimedia environments: role of methods and media. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3), 598-610. Orvis, K. A., Horn, D. B., & Belanich, J. (2006). Video game-based training success: The impact of trainee characteristics – Year 2. (Technical Report, No. 1188). Arlington, VA: U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Orvis, K. A., Orvis, K. L., Belanich, J., & Mullin, L. N. (2007). The influence of trainee gaming experience on affective and motivational learner outcomes of video game-based training environments. In H. O’Neil & R. Perez (Eds.), Computer games and team and individual learning. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Ltd. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Rieber, L. P. (1996). Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games. Educational Technology Research & Development, 44(2), 43-58. Royce, W. W. (1970). Managing the development of large software systems. Proceedings, IEEE WESCON (pp. 1-9).

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Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Squire, K. (2005, February). Game-based leaning: Present and future state of the field. Masie Center e- Learning Consortium. Retrieved June 27, 2007, from http://www.masie.com/xlearn/ Game-Based_Learning.pdf van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Clark, R. E., & de Croock, M. B. M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: the 4C/ID-Model. Educational Technology Research & Development, 50(2), 39-64. Winston, J. S. (1968). A systems approach to training and development. Training & Development Journal, 22(6), 13-21.

Key terms ADDIE: The ADDIE model is commonly used in instructional systems design. The acronym stands for analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. The output of each stage serves as the input for the subsequent stages. Instructional System Design: The practice of creating and organizing media in a way that enables individuals to learn effectively. Instructional system design incorporates a variety of disciplines including education, psychology, information technology, graphic design, and others.

Iterative Development: A model of system development in which the ability to rework and revise aspects of the software is scheduled. In this approach, the developer benefits from prototype evaluation during the development process. Learning Objective: A specific, measurable task (or class of tasks/actions) a learner should be able to perform as the result of training. It should include the conditions under which the task should be performed as well as the criteria by which performance will be judged. SME (Subject Matter Expert): An individual with a high level of knowledge in a particular domain—subject matter to be taught. Although an SME typically may not have an expertise in training or instructional design, he or she can play an integral role in the design of instructional games. Spiral Development: An iterative model of system development in which software is built in progressive phases. In each phase, a prototype of the software is reviewed by the customer and evaluated prior to further development. Following the review, another prototype is built and evaluated. This process continues until the final product is delivered. Storyboard: A graphic means of presenting the story line of a video game, movie, or cartoon. In serious games, this depicts the plot of the video game in which learning objectives are embedded.

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Chapter LXIV

GaME Design for Intuitive Concept Knowledge Debbie Denise Reese Center for Educational Technologies®, Wheeling Jesuit University, USA

AbstrAct Game-based, metaphor-enhanced (GaME) design is a process for engineering instructional games to prepare learners with the prior knowledge they need to learn later, more complex science concepts. The key step in the method is specifying a domain’s relational structure and then developing a game world based upon that structure. Reviewing relevant game design, cognitive science, and learning science theories, the author argues: (a) the need for GaME design; (b) that game worlds, complex concepts, and mental models are analogous systems; (c) how game-based technologies can provide a pragmatic and embodied context for making complex, introductory concepts intuitive; and (d) that the pragmatic, physical, and procedural aspects of games make them powerful learning tools that must be carefully designed. The author illustrates GaME design using Selene: A Lunar Creation GaME. Rigorous methods for design of instructional games will enhance control over learning outcomes.

designing gAmes For intuitive concePt KnoWledge Meaningful learning requires activation of relevant prior knowledge (Ausubel, 1962, 1963). Learners who encounter a new concept equipped with relevant, activated, adequate prior knowledge will find the new concept intuitive. When concepts are not intuitive, learners often struggle and may fail (Hestenes, Wells, & Swackhamer, 1992). When learners do not have prerequisite

knowledge, instruction should provide relevant experience (Merrill, 2002). This chapter summarizes how game-based, metaphor-enhanced (GaME) learning objects can help learners construct viable prior knowledge from game play experience. Learners play a GaME to construct prerequisite knowledge that will prepare them for direct instruction. The GaME research program is founded on the assumption that game-based technologies are powerful learning tools (Gee, 2003, 2005a).

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

GaME Design for Intuitive Concept Knowledge

The program specializes in one type of learning objective and one event of instruction: • •

Learning objective: Complex, introductory concepts Event of instruction: Prior knowledge

GaMEs are engineered to make complex concepts both embodied and intuitive. A GaME: •

•

•

•

Is game-based. A GaME has goals, a system, and game play. The goal is to motivate targeted learning. In addition, transactions within the game world connect learning to the player’s sensory and perceptual systems. Is metaphor-enhanced. GaME design applies cognitive science theories of analogical reasoning. The GaME world, its relational system, and the game goal are analogs for the targeted conceptual domain. The GaME lets learners construct sound and viable mental models of targeted conceptual domains. Is a learning object. A GaME functions as a self-contained, decontextualized instructional module. Accelerates the experience. A good novel or movie focuses on experience salient to its story and compresses days, years, and even lifetimes in a few hours. GaMEs focus on experience relevant to the targeted conceptual domain. Over a few hours of engineered game play, players experience days, years, and even lifetime equivalents of viable transactions with the target domain.

A GaME design team specifies the relational structure of the target domain and then defines an analogous GaME world of time, space, and the objects and relations that define them. Within the GaME world these become relevant lived experience for learners. Learners construct a model of how to progress through the GaME system. They form hypotheses and test them, developing

a mental model analogous to the targeted domain by creating viable prior knowledge. Research has shown that lived experience in the physical world often leads to mental models that make science concepts counterintuitive (Hestenes et al., 1992). GaMEs are engineered for lived experience within a GaME world that makes science concepts intuitive. A team of researchers, content experts, programmers, and designers has produced the first GaME prototype, Selene: A Lunar Creation GaME. In Selene players learn key lunar geology concepts: stratigraphy, accretion, differentiation, impact cratering, and volcanism. Selene is a concrete, transactional analog of introductory lunar geology.

embodied KnoWledge cAn mAKe science counterintuitive Students often find abstract, introductory science concepts counterintuitive in domains like chemistry (Gabel, 1999; Gabel & Sherwood, 1983), biology (Baker & Lawson, 2001), and physics (Hestenes et al., 1992). Gabel and her colleagues explained that chemistry concepts challenge students because people function on a macro (sensory or embodied) level, and chemistry requires thinking in a symbolic way about the sub-micro (particulate) level. Hestenes and his colleagues showed that people build intuitions about how the physical world functions based upon their perceptions of the effects of physical forces on their bodies and surroundings. These common-sense mental models are extremely robust and make introductory physics concepts counterintuitive: Specifically, it has been established that: (1) commonsense beliefs about motion and force are incompatible with Newtonian concepts in most respects, (2) conventional physics instruction

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produces little change in these beliefs, and (3) this result is independent of the instructor and the mode of instruction. The implications could not be more serious. Since the students have evidently not learned the most basic Newtonian concepts, they must have failed to comprehend most of the material in the course. They have been forced to cope with the subject by rote memorization of isolated fragments and by carrying out meaningless tasks. No wonder so many are repelled! The few who are successful have become so by their own devices, the course and the teacher having supplied only the opportunity and perhaps inspiration. (Hestenes et al., 1992, p. 142) Analogical reasoning is a cognitive process for understanding something complex and abstract by comparing it to something concrete or familiar. Educators often use metaphors in their instruction, and students invent metaphors to help themselves learn. For example, as medical students attempt to learn the heart’s physiology and physics, they learn metaphors about the heart presented by their teachers during direct instruction and invent their own metaphors (Spiro, Feltovich, Coulson, & Anderson, 1989). Once the heart metaphors instantiate within an individual’s knowledge structures, they are robust. Unfortunately, many of these metaphors are poor analogs for the heart because alignment between the heart and the analogs is based on limited or superficial similarity rather than large overlap of relational structure. Recognizing both the importance of metaphor within instruction and learning and the “serious impediments to fuller and more correct understandings” (p. 498) caused by poorly specified metaphors, Spiro and his colleagues have argued for metaphor polymorphism (Feltovich, Coulson, & Spiro, 1988). That is, they recommend that instructional systems engage students with multiple metaphors mapped to one targeted concept. Each metaphor would compensate for the inadequacies of the other metaphors in the set. In other words, Spiro’s approach: (a) expects

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misalignment between the target domain and any specific analog and (b) corrects for this by offering many misaligned, but complementary analogs. GaME uses conceptual task analysis (Smith & Ragan, 1993) to take a different approach. The GaME method actively designs to avoid misalignment. I use the term isomorphic (iso=equal; morph=structure or form) to mean a one-to-one relational correspondence between one conceptual domain and another. A GaME is an isomorph—an analog of the relational structure of a targeted conceptual domain. Selene is the analog for introductory lunar geology. Selene’s isomorphism is an instructional design choice informed by structure mapping theory (Gentner, 1983). With structure mapping theory as its framework, GaME design is based on the cornerstone of cognitive science analogical reasoning (Gentner, 1980, 1989; Gentner & Holyoak, 1997; Gentner & Markman, 1997).

meAningFul leArning Learning is meaningful when the result is coherent, viable, robust, and flexible domain knowledge. Knowledge of a domain is self-coherent if it forms its own integrated system. A larger coherence is achieved when the domain’s knowledge structures integrate within subsuming mind systems. Knowledge is viable when it accurately models the targeted domain system. Knowledge is robust when it is resilient. Knowledge must also be flexible—nimble at highlighting salience and forming new associations. Coherent, viable, robust, and flexible knowledge is so firmly interwoven within the conceptual system that it functions as a cognitive collaborator. Over the last quarter of a century, Rand Spiro and his colleagues have developed cognitive flexibility theory (CFT) to guide design of learning environments that support advanced learning and learner ability to transfer knowledge to address novel problems. Advanced learning is that stage

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between introductory learning and expertise. These scientists study how to “prepare people to apply their knowledge flexibly, adapting prior understandings and experiences to fit the needs of new situations that often differ radically from the initial conditions of learning” (Spiro, Collins, Thota, & Feltovich, 2003, p. 5). Unlike the GaME research program (which targets introductory learning in structured domains), CFT concentrates on advanced learning within ill-structured domains. These are complex domains that occur in fields such as “medicine, history, or literary interpretation,” in which: (1) Each case or example of knowledge application typically involves the simultaneous interactive involvement of multiple, wide-application conceptual structures (multiple schemas, perspectives, organizational principles, and so on), each of which is individually complex (i.e., the domain involves concept and case complexity); and (2) the pattern of conceptual incidence and interaction varies substantially across cases nominally of the same type (i.e., the domain involves acrosscase irregularity). (Spiro, Feltovich, Jacobson, & Coulson, 1992) More recently, Schwartz, Bransford, and Sears (2005) have worked in a similar area with a slightly different approach. They explain that routine knowledge, even routine expertise, is insufficient to support the type of flexible thinking required to solve novel problems. This is because routine expertise is procedural in nature, algorithmic (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986). A routine expert is an individual who has learned to perform efficiently and effectively but lacks an integrated understanding of “the meaning and nature of their object” (p. 263). To approach the cognitive flexibility necessary for adaptive thinking within a domain, learners must first develop domain-specific conceptual knowledge that is coherent, robust, and integrated (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986; Linn, Davis, & Bell, 2004). When learners lack relevant, viable

experience, instruction must prepare them with requisite prior knowledge. Game-based, metaphor-enhanced learning objects provide one way for learners to adaptively construct viable prior knowledge needed for introductory learning of a concept. A GaME engages the player in domainspecific, goal-driven, reflective activity. Reflective cognition involves “comparison and contrast, of thought, of decision making” (Norman, 1995, p. 17). The GaME method designs for reflective cognition within a game world that is analogous to the targeted conceptual domain. When games are successful, they evoke the focused, productive, intrinsically rewarding perception of experience known as flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Fullerton, Swain, & Hoffman, 2004; Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). GaME design is a technology to engineer reflective cognitive activity: • •

GaMEs are designed to engender flow during reflective cognition GaMEs are designed to make complex, introductory concepts intuitive

constructing sound metAPhors through APPlied structure mAPPing theory Concepts, games, and mental models are each systems (see Table 1). A conceptual domain is composed of subconcepts, their properties, and the relations between them (Gentner, 1983). A game system is composed of objects, their properties, and the relations between them (Fullerton et al., 2004). And a mental model, as described for discourse, is composed of tokens, token properties, and the relations between them (Johnson-Laird, 2006). Analogs share relational structure. Because these three systems share relational structure, they are analogs. GaME design applies analogical reasoning theory toward design and development of games that help learners to construct viable mental models of targeted concepts. When a field

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Table 1. Three system-three analogs: The conceptual domain, the game systems, and the mental model Row

Conceptual Domain1 (target)

Game System2 (source)

Mental Model3 (for discourse)

1.

Sub-/concepts

Objects

Tokens

2.

Sub-/concept properties

Object properties

Token properties

3.

Relations between sub-/concepts

Relations between objects

Relations between tokens

1

(Gentner, 1983).

2

(Fullerton et al., 2004)

3

(Johnson-Laird, 2006)

is an established science, its scientific community has defined its core introductory concepts (Kuhn, 1993). GaME designers work with the subject matter experts to select challenging concepts that are essential within an introductory science domain and to specify the relational structure of each concept. Then the GaME team works with game designers to transform each relational structure into an analogous game system. A GaME player, transacting with the game system, transforms the GaME system into a personal mental model. Successfully engineered, a GaME bridges between the to-be-learned concept and the learner’s mental model of that concept. This means that an instructional game design team can use relational structure as a design element. This is the key component of the GaME instructional design process. The GaME design process (Reese, 2007) derives from applied structure mapping theory (Gentner, 1983; Gentner & Kurtz, 2006) informed by pragmatic constraint theories (discussed in the next section). GaME design enhances control over the alignment among three systems: the analog’s domain structure, the target domain’s relational structure, and the mental model constructed by the learner. Structure mapping theory explains how people put domains into alignment. The process is called mapping. Domains are composed of objects, their properties, and the relations that join them. In Figure 1 each concept is represented by a labeled

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oval and each relationship by a labeled arc. Think of a domain as a tree with bright light bulbs at the end of each branch. Imagine two trees, with one illustrating the target domain (the to-be-learned concept). The target light bulbs represent subconcepts; the branches are relations connecting the sub-concepts. The other tree represents the source domain (the concrete, or relatively familiar, domain). In GaME design the source domain is the game world. It has a light bulb for every game world object type. A third domain is the learner’s mental model of the target domain. Imagine this as a third tree. Structural alignment means that the shapes of the three trees are identical. Each target domain bulb maps to one and only one source domain bulb in the same location within both trees, and each source domain maps to one and only one bulb in the same location within a learner’s mental model. In truth, domain mappings are more like major rivers because branched tributaries may join the primary body or may meander off from the primary body and may then reconnect to the primary body. GaME uses structure mapping theory to engineer the game world. The GaME team works with the target domain expert/s to specify the target domain’s sub-concepts and the relational structure that connects them (see Figure 1). Then the team substitutes game world analogs for each sub-concept. This is the process for translating the target domain map into the map for the source

GaME Design for Intuitive Concept Knowledge

Figure 1. Structure mapping between game world and target domain expressed as concept maps. In general, the concept map on the left represents the source domain. In GaME design the source domain is the game world (GW). In general, the concept map on the right represents the target domain. Within GaME design the to-be-learned domain is the target domain. (Maps excerpted from concept-mapped domain and game specification of 101 Selene subconcepts © 2007 by Debbie Denise Reese and Charles A. Wood. Reprinted with permission of the authors.)

domain. The relational structure of the game world is engineered isomorphic to the target domain. However, although every GaME world analog is isomorphic to the target domain, any particular GaME world may contain multiple isomorphic metaphors for any particular region of the concept map. This may occur when GaME modules map to analog regions of the target domain that overlap. A concept map (see Figure 1) illustrates a domain’s relational structure, as divided into: (a) levels: hierarchical organization of concepts and the subconcepts they subsume; (b) branches: differentiation into conceptual sub-strands (like river tributaries branching off); and (c) crosslinks: integration between sub-strands (like river tributaries rejoining the main body, see Novak & Gowin, 1984, for a description of concept mapping theory and practice). A domain with a large number of levels, branches, and cross-links has deep, rich, or profound relational structure (Gentner, 1980, 1983). According to structure mapping, there is a direct relationship between the richness of shared relational structure and the probability

that a person will construct a mapping between a source and target domain. This is the structure mapping systematicity principle. Systematicity is another correspondence between games and concepts; people also prefer games with deep relational structure (Hawkins, 2000; Wright, 2003). GaME design follows from the path suggested in Table 1; a richly structured concept translates into a game with deep play that translates into a learner’s well-structured mental model.

constructing sound metAPhors through gAme-bAsed technologies “It is generally accepted that people seek and use analogies to achieve their goals” (Holyoak & Thagard, 1997, p. 37). Goal structures serve as pragmatic constraints. They set limits on analogy making (Holyoak & Thagard, 1989, 1997; Spellman & Holyoak, 1996). Holyoak and his colleagues have demonstrated that, although people prefer to make isomorphic relational mappings,

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they will override this preference if necessary for a specific purpose. In a series of three experiments, Spellman and Holyoak (1996) found that “manipulations of participants’ processing goals influenced their preferred mappings” (p. 307). “The purpose favors mapping hypotheses that fit with the goals of the analogist,” which may motivate many-to-one mappings, or object-torelation mappings. This means that instructional design models that apply analogy theory must include consideration of pragmatic constraints. This motivates identification of instructional environments in which goal structures are an integral component. Within games game play is motivated by game goals. For this reason gamebased technologies provide an excellent context for metaphor-enhanced design. Any virtual environment might be designed as an analog of targeted relational structure. Game-based environments include game goal and sub-goals. Game-based, metaphor-enhanced environments are designed so that game goal structure supports viable mapping from the game to the targeted domain. CFT proposes that knowledge formation is more flexible when people learn from multiple cases (e.g., Spiro, Coulson, Feltovich, & Anderson, 1988). A GaME engages learners with experience cases throughout each game module. Each case is relationally consistent with the GaME world system, but each case is an idiosyncratic experience. Player transactions with concrete metaphors are engineered to invoke embodied mental models of the targeted concept because the transactions are designed to support a game goal that is isomorphic to a targeted learning goal.

the chAllenge For instructionAl designers People construct conceptual knowledge based upon iterative experiences of hypothesis formation, testing, and refinement (Jonassen, 2006). Because the human is an embodied creature

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engaged in sensory transactions within a physical world, domain novices attempt to construct understanding by elaborating upon what they have perceived from their transactions with that world (Hestenes et al., 1992; Lakoff, 1987; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1999). In well-defined domains such as introductory study in the physical sciences, students are often unable to map unfamiliar concepts to relevant concrete prior experiences of their own (Johnstone, 1991). This is because the concepts are complex and defined (Lawson, Alkhoury, Benford, Clark, & Falconer, 2000). The concepts often concern processes or effects that occur on scales that are too large or too small or too quick or too slow for adequate interpretation via human sensory information and perception. When learners do spontaneously map lived experience to an abstract concept, the concrete experience may be inappropriate or misinterpreted (Hestenes et al., 1992). But learning is facilitated when embodied experiences enable students to form viable preconceptual knowledge (Merrill, 2002). This presents a challenge for instructional designers. They must engineer learning environments that emulate the real-world characteristics leading to concept formation while ensuring that the preconceptual knowledge formed is viable. Game-based, metaphor-enhanced learning object design is one approach.

leArning concePts through gAme PlAy by design The engineering of any game world requires that it make concrete some relational structure. For example, game design luminary Will Wright says that the lessons he learns in his predevelopment game research have the potential to change his players in a very deep way (Sheffield, 2006; Wright, 2003, 2004, 2006a, 2006b) when that research becomes the framework underlying game mechanics and dynamics. GaMEs apply the same

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approach toward instructional game design. By playing in such a game world, players experience episodes of game play that provide direct experience analogous to targeted learning.

PrinciPled design The GaME method follows four design principles: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Specify relational structure Design pragmatic constraints Connect the GaME to the flow state Design reflective tools

game design Principle 1: specify relational structure Higher order learning requires students to construct a viable mental model of the target domain (e.g., Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Gentner, 2003; Linn et al., 2004). This is why GaMEs can be such powerful learning tools. GaME design follows from the structure mapping approach, which asserts that people prefer to make analogies in which they project the relational structure of the source onto the relational structure of the target (Gentner, 1983; Gentner & Kurtz, 2006). Inference results when people align the source and target domains and project the structure of the source domain onto personally undiscovered components of the target domain. Using Figure 1 as a representation of a conceptual domain, think of the source domain as a map of the game world (GW) and the target domain as map T. Alignment according to relational structure means that GW and T are identical, except for the labels within the concept ovals. Players of electronic games (via game consoles or computers) interact within a computer-based interface. Players conduct transactions with the virtual game world just as individuals conduct transactions with the real world. The game world

is a system of game objects, their properties, and the relations between them (Fullerton et al., 2004). Thus, the game world is a correlate of a conceptual domain. In GaME design the target (to-be-learned) domain is represented as a concept map (see Figure 1 map on left). The GaME designers then use the concept map to develop a virtual world that is relationally isomorphic (in one-to-one correspondence) with the target domain. For every concept within the target domain map on the left, there is a corresponding object within any one GaME world analog. The relational structure connecting any two target domain concepts constrains the GaME world engineering of the relationship between any two GaME world object types. In GaME design the concept mapping both directs and constrains design. Thus, the first GaME design principle is to specify the target (to-be-learned) domain and constrain a GaME world so that its components are relationally isomorphic to the target. Concept maps are an accessible, low-tech tool for this purpose. However, domain specification is a time-consuming, painstaking process requiring a team composed of subject matter experts, a GaME specification expert, and game designers. In a more general form domain specification is known as a task analysis (Smith & Ragan, 1993). Because GaME design is an application of analogical reasoning theory, domain specification must also adhere to structure mapping principles (Reese, 2003, in press). The subject matter experts must teach the conceptual domain to other members of the team. The team will specify the target domain concept map. This map is the primary game design document, as it blueprints the GaME system’s relational structure. The team will also specify the map of the source domain. As illustrated within Figure 1, the relational structure of the two domains is identical. There are two aspects of the GaME design method that are led by the game designers. The first occurs once the target domain specification is complete. This is when the game designers invent

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a game concept. Once invented, the game concept is specified as a GaME. GaME specification means the designer must map backward, translating the relational structure of the target domain (sub/concept to sub-/concept and relational property to relational property) as the GaME system. One way to do this is to prepare a version of the target domain that deletes the concept labels but retains the labeled arcs. This is illustrated in the concept map on the left in Figure 1, excerpted from a GaME system concept map (i.e., a source domain template). The right-hand side represents a component of the targeted conceptual domain. The game designers map from the target domain to the source domain (the GaME world) by filling in the GaME analogs for the target subconcepts. It is important for the instructional design team, especially the metaphor specialist and the primary subject matter expert, to review the game concept and GaME frequently while the design concept is developed and prototyped so that game world goal structures, properties, and relations align with the targeted domain structure. If an instructional game does not align with the targeted domain, players might learn the targeted content, but they will learn it wrong.

game design Principle 2: design Pragmatic constraints Although analogical reasoning is ubiquitous in human cognition, people typically are not even aware they’re engaging in it (Hummel & Holyoak, 1997; Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). An individual’s goals and current context constrain aspects of the mapping; that is, how people structure the target domain to fit the source domain (Holyoak, Gentner, & Kokinov, 2001; Spellman & Holyoak, 1996). Different goals can lead to different mappings. Thus, when analogical reasoning is applied to designing instructional environments, it is essential that goals within the environment motivate learners to construct the targeted mental model from the source domain. Holyoak and

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his colleagues conceptualized the effect of goal structures as the pragmatic constraint that determines how people will approach the mapping process. Game-based environments are ideally suited to metaphor-enhanced design because they are goal driven (Fullerton et al., 2004; Gee, 2003, 2005b; Salen & Zimmerman, 2004). The task is to design game goals that are isomorphic to the targeted learning goals. When the learning outcome is complex concepts, the GaME must require the player to discriminate the concept and properly apply it in order to advance toward winning the game. This second GaME design principle requires the GaME specialist and subject matter expert to enumerate the outcomes supported by the conceptual relations mapped within the target domain concept map. The instructional team will use the target domain concept map to produce a set of learning objectives. The game designers must then translate these learning goals into game goals. Game goals require the player to correctly apply the targeted conceptual analog in order to progress toward the game goal.

game design Principle 3: connect the GaME to the Flow State Flow is an intrinsically rewarding state of intense focus and high productivity. Social scientist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi discovered flow and developed techniques and instruments to study it through years of qualitative and then quantitative research; defining it as: . . . a state in which one concentrates in the task at hand to the exclusion of other internal or external stimuli. Action and awareness merge, so that one simply does what is to be done without a critical dualistic perspective on one’s actions. Goals tend to be clear, means are coordinated with the goals, and feedback on one’s performance is immediate and unambiguous. In such a situation, a person has a strong feeling of control—or personal causa-

GaME Design for Intuitive Concept Knowledge

tion—yet, paradoxically, ego involvement is low or nonexistent so that one experiences a sense of transcendence of self, sometimes a feeling of union with the environment. The passage of time appears to be distorted: While some events seem to take a disproportionately long time, hours generally seem to pass by in minutes. It is because of the flow experience that games, creative activities, and moments of religious ecstasy are so enjoyable as to be intrinsically rewarding. (Csikszentmihalyi & Larson, 1980, p. 184) Game companies invest vast resources to ensure their games are engineered to evoke flow. Their goal is to sell games or game player memberships. The military has also invested vast resources in research and testing of flow-inducing simulations and games. Drawing on America’s Army as an exemplar, we can infer military goals of recruitment and training. When the goal is instructional (specifically, targeted conceptual knowledge), designers must engineer game play experience that evokes flow in support of game goal or sub-goal achievement. According to Csikszentmihalyi (1990) and game theorists (Fullerton et al., 2004; Salen & Zimmerman, 2004), a flow-evoking game environment must provide a goal structure and feedback that lets players know if they’re progressing toward the goal. It must provide the player what is termed a “paradox of control” in an uncertain situation (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 58). This means the player has a sense of control over the environment but not complete control, and the player is able to influence the outcome, but the outcome is not assured. Fullerton, Swain, and Hoffman advise that the choices game designers provide to players must be meaningful choices (p. 85). These aspects (goal structure, feedback, meaningful choices, and paradox of control) may place an individual in flow if that individual perceives that level of skill and challenge are balanced and relatively high. The individual will not remain

in flow unless perceived levels of skill and challenge continue to grow and remain balanced. Game designers are the specialists in provoking flow through game play. The challenge is for the game designer to invent game play that engages the player in reflective flow concerning the learning goal analog.

game design Principle 4: design Reflective Tools Norman (1995) contrasted two types of cognition: experiential and reflective. He also recognized that flow can result from either. While experiential cognition is “practiced by experiencing it . . . effective reflection requires some structure and organization . . . systematic procedures and methods . . . [that are] learned primarily by being taught” (p. 17). Reflective tools are designed to support reflective flow experiences. Reflective tools (p. 52): 1. 2. 3.

Help people to contemplate experience Help people to compare and contrast Help people to find new ways to interpret or test alternate courses of action

To serve as reflective tools, game play must be learner paced, allow players to compare and contrast, and engage learners in hypothesis building. For instructional games to engage learners in reflective flow experience while preparing them with apt preconceptual knowledge, the game must comply with all four design principles.

design PrinciPles As APPlied Within SELENE Selene was designed and developed according to GaME design principles. In this section I’ll refer to the Selene GaME to illustrate their application.

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selene and relational structure The primary subject matter expert (SME) and a GaME specialist worked for a month on the domain specification for introductory lunar geology. The specialist interviewed the expert, taking notes, making diagrams, and organizing the content, eventually using Inspiration® software to translate the notes into a concept map. The SME, the specialist, and an additional domain expert spent another eight hours refining the map by tracing each relational path and revising where necessary. The work resulted in a relational structure of 101 concepts. The concept map segment in the right-hand box of Figure 1 was excerpted from a larger Selene concept map containing 101 sub-concepts. It is a component of a Selene GaME module concerning the sub-concept accretion, which is concept 2b and the superordinate concept of the accretion branch. According to contemporary lunar science theory, the Earth’s Moon was formed by projectiles that collided (concept 4b) above Earth. When masses collided with low enough velocity, the resultant kinetic energy (concept 13b) was low enough to allow the particles to stick together, or accrete, to form the Moon (concept 17). When kinetic

energy was too high, collisions resulted in debris (5b). The Moon acts as a cosmic vacuum cleaner (concept 6) as debris accretes. The game designers used this map to develop a GaME world concept with an isomorphic relational structure. Initial mapping from the target domain specification to the GaME world was conducted by game designers over the course of a month and a half, with weekly conferences vetting ideas with the subject matter and GaME design experts. Figure 2 is a screen capture from the GaME world analog for accretion, taken during midmodule game play. It illustrates how the concept map relations have been incorporated within the game. The early Earth is represented by a blue and white disk at the left. The projectiles are orbiting in a ring about Earth. Accretion game play involves only one player gesture: the slingshot gesture. The player selects particles and slingshots them into a protomoon (the central cluster of circles, colored red and green at this stage of the game). At and below optimal velocity, the particles stick to the protomoon. Above optimal velocity, all or part of the Moon shatters into debris. Some of the slingshot gesture parameters (relational properties) are speed, direction (measured as accuracy

Figure 2. Selene accretion interface (scale 3) with meters, projectile example, protomoon, and best match indicator components identified by labeled arrows (Copyright 2007 Debbie Denise Reese. Used with permission)

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in hitting the protomoon), and mass (the mass of the projectile).

demonstrates how the game designers translated learning goals into game goals and game play:

selene and Pragmatic constraints

Accretion

The GaME goal must align with the targeted learning goal. This alignment ensures that game play supports players’ development of a preconceptual mental model for the targeted concept. Typically, the end-goal for a game designer is engaging game play. The higher-order requirement of isomorphism between the game goal and the target domain is probably a new concept for even gifted game designers. In the case of Selene, this execution of alignment was so challenging that the concept map specification did not provide enough direction for the game designers. Although the concept map (see excerpt in Figure 1) determined the relational structure of the Selene game world prototypes, it was clear that initially prototyped game play and game goals did not support the targeted learning goal. To assist the game designers as they corrected alignment, it was absolutely necessary for the GaME specialist and SME to specify learning goals for each game module. The Selene SME and GaME specialist developed the learning goals as investigation questions, key understandings, and underlying science for each of the Selene GaME modules. For the accretion module these were:

The player’s goal for this module is to collect enough mass to be considered “moon-sized” (an arbitrary value set by the game developers) while also collecting enough heat to properly differentiate during module 2. At a higher level the goal is to grab materials in the proper proportion so that the end result will have the properly sized core and mantle. Choices in this game will also affect the overall density of the moon, which will affect how much gravity is present (and, therefore, how ejecta and lava behave in module 3: surface features). Given a particular chunk of debris fired at the moon, there should be three possible outcomes:

• •

•

Investigation question: How did the Moon form? The accretion module key understanding: An extra large collision at the end of the accretion of the Earth ejected Earth material that re-accreted to form the Moon. Underlying science statements: High-energy collisions result in fragmentation. Low energy collisions result in accretion.

The following excerpt is taken from the Selene design document, written by Selene game designers, Will Hankinson and Matt Gilbert. It

• • •

Too slow: More mass added, but not much heat generated Just right: Proper ratio of mass/heat added for “good” progress Too fast: Too much kinetic energy could cause the player’s protomoon to shatter

Pragmatic constraints are further supported by a game’s feedback systems, such as awarding points to players. A scoring system was embedded into the overall Selene accretion module structure. The accretion module is sectioned into three parts (scales). Each scale increases in task complexity, presenting increased challenge to players. The point scoring system is key in guiding players to create a proper moon, and it also becomes more complex as it incorporates additional parameters at scale changes. The three accretion module scales are: • •

Scale 1: Slingshot projectiles into moon to increase mass. Scale 2: Slingshot projectiles of varied densities into protomoon to increase mass. Players

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•

must make “best match” to the projectiles’ density selected by the GaME. Scale 3 (see Figure 2): Slingshot projectiles of varied densities into protomoon to increase mass. Players must make “best match” to the projectiles’ density selected by the GaME. Players must also slingshot with sufficient velocity to increase kinetic energy but beneath the critical velocity at which the protomoon is destroyed. As kinetic energy of the impact increases, the heat within the protomoon increases. Players must also slingshot enough radioactive particles that the Moon will have enough radioactivity to cause melting of the Moon’s mantle during module 3: surface features. Selene provides feedback to the player during game play with displays that report: (a) present game score, (b) target and current mass of protomoon, (c) target and present composition of the protomoon by density, (d) target and present heat of protomoon, and (e) target and current amount of radioactivity.

selene and connecting the game to the Flow State If principle 2 is followed, game play will support the targeted learning goal analog. If this game play engenders flow experience, then that flow state concerns embodied transactions in a concrete domain isomorphic to the targeted domain. Following methods established by flow scholars, the Selene environment collects players’ self-reported levels of skill and challenge through prompts delivered at predetermined, random times (Csikszentmihaly & Larson, 1987; Csikszentmihalyi & Schneider, 2000; Hektner, Schmidt, & Csikszentmihalyi, 2007). Within Selene the prompt is a flowometer (see Figure 3), which has been incorporated into the interface. Selene collects flowometer data at a predetermined random time within every five-minute interval of a learner’s interactions within the Selene game and greater research environment.

Figure 3. The Selene flowometer (Copyright 2007 by Debbie Denise Reese and the Center for Educational Technologies®. Used with permission)

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Selene and Design of Reflective tools Experiential game play supports experiential flow and player engagement with the game world. Reflective experiences support learner development of adaptive expertise and deep understanding. Reflective experience requires the design and development of interactive reflective tools that enable players to meet the game play goal. Contemporary physics education research supports the use of reflective tools that allow players to model Newtonian physics concepts (Hestenes, 1992; Hestenes et al., 1992; Wells, Hestenes, & Swackhamer, 2003; White & Frederiksen, 1998). Within a GaME the reflective tool should be designed as an integral component of game play to motivate and sustain the reflective flow experience. Preconceptual knowledge is learned through innovation and discovery while playing within the guidance of a GaME system. Within Selene accretion each slingshot gesture is a new decisionmaking event, complete with hypothesis, testing, and evaluation. Each gesture becomes a new case for reflective experience. The game play scaffolds players to build a skill set and knowledge base while engaged in a process of inquiry. On average across the first 1,000 Selene players, any one Selene player has logged 265 slingshot gestures. The maximum number of slingshot gestures recorded for any one player to date is 1,290. Each actuation of the gesture procedure is another opportunity to compare and contrast, to make decisions, to reflect on their consequence, and to modify future actions. The Selene environment serves as a reflective tool because it is aligned to the targeted domain in relational structure, game play, and game goals; it is player driven rather than game environment driven; and game play requires constant decision making. To the extent that Selene is flow inducing, that flow experience is reflective flow. Because Selene learners construct a theory of moon accretion through many

iterations of exploration with diverse iterations of mass, velocity, and collision factors, they build a preconceptual model through a concepts-in-use (Jonassen, 2006) process rather than through rote memorization or a procedural routine. Spiro and his colleagues (Spiro et al., 1989) cautioned that single metaphors often result in inert, rigid knowledge structures that support misconceptions. GaMEs are engineered to address problems of inadequate metaphor specification that lead to misconceptions. GaME worlds are developed as a mapping from full relational specified targeted domains. The variety built into the iterative game play gestures is designed to support formation of flexible knowledge structures that support adaptive expertise. Games set goals for players; games set parameters that make goal attainment difficult. Players must learn the rules (relational system) of the game world to attain the game goal. Players do this by making hypotheses, deciding to act by testing those hypotheses on the game world, and by revising hypotheses based upon the game world’s feedback. The Selene design experience suggests that when game play allows players to control the game environment in areas such as the temporal aspects of the game world, and when the world and game goals are aligned with targeted domain structure and the targeted learning goal, the game can provide reflective play.

bAlAncing reFlective And exPerientiAl cognition Reflective cognition is paced by the individual. Experiential cognition is paced by the environment (here, the GaME). The Selene accretion module balances reflective and experiential experiences. It does this by creating an illusion of time pressure when game play is actually player paced. Green, gray, and beige projectiles (see Figure 2) float into and out of the player’s browser window, simulating a ring of asteroids encircling Earth.

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During accretion scales 2 and 3 players must read the density “best choice meter,” then select and slingshot the correct projectile into the moon at an optimal velocity for increasing mass and heat without destroying the moon. Players may select asteroids at their own pace. The rate of projectile selection makes no difference to the game. However, our research team’s observation of nine college-age players over three weeks showed that players impose a high level of self-induced time pressure during accretion as they slingshot projectiles into the moon. At the same time, players can, and do, pause and watch the effect of any collision as the protomoon components react to the impact: Bits and pieces may jostle and remain in the moon, they may change color as they heat or cool, and they may be shattered as they join the ring of debris or move off into space. Plotting of individual cases of player game play trajectories and statistical analyses of game play trajectories aggregated across Selene players has shown that players perceive increased levels of both skill and challenge as they progress through the three stages of accretion. Levels of challenge are significantly greater than these players’ pregame levels and also significantly greater than levels of challenge reported by participants randomly assigned to study conditions in which they watch Selene accretion game play rather than play themselves. Selene game play has been described as applying “godlike, Will Wright-style procedural play to learning about planetary science” (Losh, 2007). Selene accretion game play engages players to contemplate experience (the creation of the moon) by comparing and contrasting the combined effects of projectile density, slingshot velocity, and protomoon size and heat.

constructing mentAl models through gAme leArning An anecdote from my own experience describes an embodied mental model derived through Selene

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game play. Before I began production of Selene, I knew very little about lunar geology. Design, development, and testing of Selene required me to spend hours engaged in Selene game play. Just about a year into the project, I’d purchased a $1,000 telescope and had been out moon watching. Once back inside, I began to study photographs of a lunar crater I’d seen. A visualization suddenly materialized in my mind, a mental model of how that crater had formed. The salient visual cues within the crater image prompted mental simulations of impact crater formation (simulations of Selene game play). Of course, the formation of any real crater takes place over time, but my mental model of it was an instantaneous picture of the entire event system, from the projectile’s approaching impact to the ejecta and surface rebounds. What I envisioned might be thought of as cubist or as a section through the contiguous layers of space time. I can only liken it to the remembrance of things past inspired by an aroma. All the relevant events and perceptual stimuli were immediately and simultaneously present. Within the parameters of the concept, events and stimuli were at once organized into all of their multifarious relationships over time and space. I had formed similar craters while playing Selene. When cued by the photograph, my prior knowledge automatically modeled the Selene version of the crater’s birth. Impact cratering is becoming a body-syntonic (firmly related to my sense and knowledge about my body, see Papert, 1980, pp. 63, 221) process for me. At the instant of the visualization, I held a mental model that encompassed the history of the impact and subsequent events. I suspect my Selene game play had made me “overlearn” salient processes of impact cratering. The Selene GaME functions as an iconic representation of introductory geology. Mental model theorists have suggested that “inspection of an iconic diagram reveals truths to be discerned over and above those of the propositions that were used in its construction” (Charles Sanders Peirce, 1931-1958, 92.279. 4.530, as cited in Johnson-

GaME Design for Intuitive Concept Knowledge

Laird, 2006, p. 182). We have repeatedly found that the process of GaME mapping from target to source domain and back from the source to the target even engenders insights for our subject matter experts. For example: •

•

While negotiating with Selene game designers about introduction of basin-forming impact behavior and its effect upon the GaME environment, the SME initially argued against implementation implications (they could not be valid) until the SME realized that the effects produced by the Selene algorithms correctly modeled the interplay between basin-forming impacts, the craters they cover, and lava flow. While mapping during a separate GaME project targeting a chemistry concept, that team’s primary SME decided that the source domain chemistry concept analog must be wrong because it caused him to infer target domain characteristics that could not be true. After a brief analysis of both source and target domains, that SME too realized that what the concrete domain had suggested to him about the chemistry was correct. After thinking deeply about the incident, he explained:

It’s not that the mapping made me know something new. I probably knew this once upon a time, when I was first learning this chemistry. I just forgot that I knew it, because it’s so fundamental to me now. The mapping made me aware of what I think when I do this chemistry.

imPlicAtions For instructionAl gAme design, reseArch, Policy, And PrActice Lived experience and metaphors often lead people to construct robust mental models that make

science concepts counterintuitive. Instructional games are metaphors for targeted learning domains, and they provide [virtual] lived experience. The procedural, pragmatic, and embodied characteristics of game play make games a powerful learning technology supporting knowledge construction that is robust and persistent. If the mapping between the game system and goals to the targeted learning domain is inadequate or inconsistent, game play may support knowledge construction that is robust, persistent, yet wrong. Games can help to make science concepts intuitive but only when game systems and goals are analogous to targeted learning domains. Games must be carefully designed and developed from thorough and viable domain specifications. Game goals must reinforce targeted learning outcomes. Methods like GaME design require expertise, time, and money. The scope of the GaME design process suggests large-scale and collaborative investment.

expertise Educational games serve different instructional purposes. At the generative end of the continuum, students may create their own games. When they do, expense and requirements for external expertise will be minimal. Students might create a game to practice or explore applying a concept or procedure. However, when games like Selene are designed to prepare students for future learning of complex concepts, GaME design and development require teams and sub-teams involving game designers, subject matter experts, and pedagogy and diversity experts. A GaME design specialist must guide and supervise the entire process. Additional staff may include database specialists, data mining specialists, researchers, graphic designers, composers and sound engineers, and quality assurance and play-tester personnel. Design and development of the Selene prototype required a primary staff of 16 and nine auxiliary play-testers. Three game designers worked on the development

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of the alpha game for five months. We estimate that a fully funded development cycle of testing and revision will take three years. The point to take away is that GaME design requires teams of experts with diverse skill sets. GaME design is not something undertaken by a dedicated teacher working alone with a game mod package.

Judicious selection of target domains Instructional GaME design and development are expensive. Costs for the first year of Selene design and alpha development (learning environment, game, and database framework) totaled about $400,000. In addition to GaME production costs there are learner costs. Learners must devote significant time to “winning” any game. GaMEs are no different. GaME play requires time and serious player commitment to meeting the game goal. These production and learning costs dictate judicious selection of suitable target domains. There is little justification for expensive GaME design and development when traditional or non-GaME delivery systems are effective. Target domains are suitable for GaME development when they are abstract, complex, and counterintuitive. Counterintuitive domains elude learners because real-world experience fails to support or misinforms construction of a viable mental model. A GaME world can provide viable virtual experience. GaME designers, subject matter experts, researchers, and educators should identify learning goals within the target domain, learning outcomes, and the game-based design patterns that best support them for any particular learner.

games Are a component of a larger instructional system Although a developed discussion is beyond the scope of this chapter, it is important to realize that

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GaMEs are but one component of an instructional system. A GaME leaning object is a preliminary instructional event. GaMEs prepare players for future learning. The learning environment must follow a GaME with direct instruction that helps the learner to: (a) explicitly map the connections between the game world and the targeted concept and (b) practice application of the concept (the interested reader will find a more extensive treatment of this topic in Reese, 2006, 2007).

national stem education learning objects repository as a coordinated effort The cost of GaME design and the need for sound specification of content knowledge vetted and supported by an entire field of experts suggest that GaME development is best undertaken as a collaboration by domain-specific content experts and the nation’s businesses, industry, government, and educators. One or more GaME specialists should lead each GaME design project. The nation approaches a juncture where the widespread collaboration required for specification, development, and implementation of GaMEs will be possible. The 2007 National Science Board Commission on 21st Century Education in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics warned that “students do not always obtain mastery of key concepts at the elementary and middle school levels, this limiting academic success at the high school level” (p. 4) . . . with the result that almost 30% of high school graduates enter college or the workplace unprepared. The commission advised creation and adoption of horizontal and vertical science content guidelines outlining essential knowledge and skills (p. 1). Collaborations of stakeholders throughout the United States concur (e.g., American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1990, 1993, 2001; Bransford et al., 2000; National Research Council, 1995) and even suggest an educational games R & D agenda (Fed-

GaME Design for Intuitive Concept Knowledge

eration of American Scientists, 2006). Together, these support the viability of a national repository of empirically tested, effective GaMEs aligned to horizontal and vertical content coherence and enhancing readiness for domain-specific learning of science concepts.

conclusion Carl Sagan (1980) wrote:

People learn intuitively when learning is bodysyntonic, that is, when the behavior of learning entails and derives from embodied experience. The mind processes new experience through the lenses of existing cognitive structures. Instructional games can provide those lenses: embodied experiences that support construction of sound mental models of introductory concepts. Gamebased technologies are uniquely structured to support concept learning because they are relationally isomorphic to conceptual domains. GaME design is one way to develop instructional games that prepare learners to construct viable conceptual knowledge. Students can learn in an in-between world, a GaME world where students change things according to patterns, rules, or as GaME design calls them, analogs of the laws of nature. GaMEs make it possible to figure things out. Through effective GaMEs students can begin to learn the underlying concepts of science and, with an understanding of these concepts, improve their lives.

If we lived on a planet where nothing ever changed, there would be little to do. There would be nothing to figure out. There would be no impetus for science. And if we lived in an unpredictable world, where things changed in random or very complex ways, we would not be about to figure things out. Again, there would be no such thing as science. But we live in an in-between universe, where things changes, but according to patterns, rules, or as we call them, laws of nature. And so it becomes possible to figure things out. We can do science, and with it we can improve our lives. (p. 46)

Author note

In a similar manner, a GaME is an in-between world, designed for a distinctly human scale of perception and transaction. Janet Murray (1998) explained that a game is interactive because it is procedural and anticipatory. Because it’s also spatial and to the extent that it is encyclopedic, a game is immersive. By deriving the immersive and interactive properties of a GaME from targeted relational structure, a GaME translates scientists’ shared mental models about targeted laws of nature into procedural game play. GaME goals motivate players in guided discovery of the laws of the game world as players initiate game world behavior. Because these laws are analogs of scientific concepts, players construct an internal, preconceptual mental model of targeted concepts. GaMEs are designed to mediate the transformation of scientific models into viable personal knowledge.

Debbie Denise Reese is a senior educational researcher at the Center for Educational Technologies® at Wheeling Jesuit University in Wheeling, WV. This research was supported by NASAsponsored Classroom of the Future grant NNX06AB09G. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this chapter are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the position, policy, or endorsement of the funding agency. Charles A. Wood is the subject matter expert for Selene: A Lunar Creation GaME and the research environment instructional videos. Ian Bogost and his graduate students, Will Hankinson and Matt Gilbert, are the creators of the original Selene game concept and developed the prototype. James Coffield and Andrew Harrison programmed the Selene online research environment and database. Coffield designed and developed the flowometer instrument. Lisa McFarland is the

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project research assistant. Don Watson produced the Selene instructional videos. Some sections of this chapter were presented in a paper at the 2007 Association for Educational Communications and Technology Annual International Convention. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Debbie Denise Reese, Center for Educational Technologies, Wheeling Jesuit University, 316 Washington Ave., Wheeling, WV, 26003. E-mail: [email protected]

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Hawkins, T. (2000. Keynote address. Paper presented at the Computer and Video Games Come of Age conference, a National Conference to Explore the Current State of an Emerging Entertainment Medium, Boston. Retrieved June 1, 2006, from http://web.mit.edu/cms/games/keynote.html Hektner, J. M., Schmidt, J. A., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2007). Experience sampling method: Measuring the quality of everyday life. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hestenes, D. (1992). Modeling games in Newtonian world. American Journal of Physics, 60(8), 732-748. Hestenes, D., Wells, M., & Swackhamer, G. (1992). Force concept inventory. The Physics Teacher, 30, 141-158. Holyoak, K. J., Gentner, D., & Kokinov, B. N. (2001). Introduction: The place of analogy in cognition. In D. Gentner, K. J. Holyoak, & B. N. Kokinov (Eds.), The analogical mind: Perspectives from cognitive science (pp. 1-20). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. (1989). Analogical mapping with constraint satisfaction. Cognitive Science, 13, 295-355.

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Holyoak, K. J., & Thagard, P. (1997). The analogical mind. American Psychologist, 52(1), 35-44. Hummel, J. E., & Holyoak, K. J. (1997). Distributed representations of structure: A theory of analogical access and mapping. Psychological Review, 104(3), 427-466. Johnson-Laird, P. N. (2006). The history of mental models. In K. Manktelow & M. C. Chung (Eds.), Psychology of reasoning: Theoretical and historical perspective (pp. 179-212). New York: Psychology Press. Johnstone, A. H. (1991). Why is science difficult to learn? Things are seldom what they seem. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 7(2), 75-83. Jonassen, D. H. (2006). On the role of concepts in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology, Research, & Development, 54(2), 177-196. Kuhn, T. (1993). Metaphor in science. In A. Ortony (Ed.), Metaphor and thought (2nd ed., pp. 533-541). New York: Cambridge University Press. Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought. New York: Basic Books. Lawson, A. E., Alkhoury, S., Benford, R., Clark, B. R., & Falconer, K. A. (2000). What kinds of scientific concepts exist? Concept construction and intellectual development in college biology. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 37(9), 996-1018. Linn, M. C., Davis, E. A., & Bell, P. (Eds.). (2004). Internet environments for science education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Losh, E. (2007, March 28). Virtual politik. Retrieved September 24, 2007, from virtualpolitik. blogspot.com/2007/03/curiosity-cabinets.html Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology, Research, & Development, 50(3), 43-59. Murray, J. H. (1998). Hamlet on the holodeck: The future of narrative in cyberspace. New York: MIT Press. National Research Council. (1995). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Norman, D. (1995). Things that make us smart: Defending human attributes in the age of the machine. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Novak, J. D., & Gowin, D. B. (1984). Learning how to learn. New York: Cambridge University Press. Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. New York: Basic Books. Reese, D. D. (2003). Trees of knowledge: Changing mental models through metaphorical episodes and concept maps. In R. E. Griffin, V. S. Williams, & J. Lee (Eds.), Turning trees: Selected readings. International Visual Literacy Association. Reese, D. D. (2006, September). Foundations of serious games design and assessment (No. COTF/LVP/Sep-2006). Wheeling, WV: Center for Educational Technologies, Wheeling Jesuit University. Reese, D. D. (2007). First steps and beyond: Serious games as preparation for future learning. Journal of Educational Media and Hypermedia (JEMH), 16(3), 283-300. Reese, D. D. (2008). Engineering instructional metaphors within virtual environments to enhance visualization. In J. K. Gilbert, M. Nakhleh, & M. Reiner (Eds.), Visualization: Theory and practice

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in science education. (pp. 133-153). New York: Springer. Sagan, C. (1980). Cosmos. New York: Random House. Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Schwartz, D. L., Bransford, J. D., & Sears, D. (2005). Efficiency and innovation in transfer. In J. P. Mestre (Ed.), Transfer of learning from a modern multidisciplinary perspective (pp. 1-51). Greenwich, CT: Information Age. Sheffield, B. (2006, April 1). The Wright stuff: Will Wright on life, the universe, and everything. Game Developer. Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (1993). Instructional design (1st ed.). New York: Merrill. Spellman, B. A., & Holyoak, K. J. (1996). Pragmatics in analogical mapping. Cognitive Psychology, 31(3), 307-346. Spiro, R. J., Collins, B. P., Thota, J. J., & Feltovich, P. J. (2003). Cognitive flexibility theory: Hypermedia for complex learning, adaptive knowledge application, and experience acceleration. Educational Technology, 43(5), 5-10. Spiro, R. J., Coulson, R. L., Feltovich, P. J., & Anderson, D. K. (1988). Cognitive flexiblity theory: Advanced knowledge acquisition in illstructured domains. In Tenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 375-383). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Coulson, R. L., & Anderson, D. K. (1989). Multiple analogies for complex concepts: Antidotes for analogy-induced misconception in advanced knowledge acquisition. In S. Vosniadou & A. Ortony (Eds.), Similarity and analogical reasoning (pp. 498-531). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., Jacobson, M. J., & Coulson, R. L. (1992). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. In T. Duffy & D. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction (pp. 57-75). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Wells, M., Hestenes, D., & Swackhamer, G. (2003). A modeling method for high school physics instruction. American Journal of Physics, 63(7), 606-619. White, B. Y., & Frederiksen, J. R. (1998). Inquiry, modeling, and metacognition: Making science accessible to all students. Cognition & Instruction, 16(1), 3-118. Wright, W. (2003, March). Dynamics for designers. Paper presented at the 2003 Game Developers Conference, San Jose, CA. Retrieved May 31, 2006, from http://www.gamasutra.com/features/ gdcarchive/2003/Wright_Will.ppt Wright, W. (2004, November). Sculpting possibility space. Paper presented at the Accelerating Change 2004: Physical Space, Virtual Space, and Interface conference (keynote address), Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA. Retrieved June 16, 2006, from http://cdn.itconversations.com/ITC. AC2004-WillWright-2004.11.07.mp3 Wright, W. (2006a). Dream machines [Electronic Version]. Wired, 14(4). Retrieved June 1, 2006, from http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.04/ wright.html Wright, W. (2006b, March). What’s next in game design. Keynote Session: 2006 Game Developer’s Conference, Game Developer’s Conference TV, San Jose, CA. Retrieved June 30, 2006, from http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20060324/ sanchez_01.shtml

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Key terms Analogical Mapping: The process of putting two domains in correspondence by aligning each object in one domain with objects in another according to perceived relational structure. Analogical Reasoning: The cognitive process of placing two domains in correspondence by mapping relational structure from a concrete or familiar domain (the source) to a second domain (the target). (See structure mapping and mapping.) Body-Syntonic: Syntonicity refers to things that are in harmony (e.g., piano strings) or oscillating at the same frequency (e.g., electrical circuits). Seymour Papert (1980) coined bodysyntonic to refer to experiences that are related to one’s knowledge and sense about one’s body. Papert derived it from Sigmund Freud’s use of “ego syntonic” to describe instincts or ideas in resonance with the ego. Domain: A system of objects, their properties, and the relations between objects. Game Mechanics: The formal elements of the game, such as players (number, roles, interaction patterns), objectives, procedures, rules, resources, conflict, boundaries, and outcomes (Fullerton et al., 2004).

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Game Play: The player’s experience of a game derived through interactions with the game system. Game World: The game system of objects, their properties, and the relations between objects. Isomorphic: (iso=equal; morph=structure or form) A one-to-one correspondence. As used in cognitive science analogy theory, this refers to a one-to-one relational correspondence between one conceptual domain and another. Metaphor: A specific instantiation of analogical reasoning in which a source domain is mapped to a target domain. Structure Mapping Theory: The well-established analogical reasoning theory by cognitive scientist Dedre Gentner that people prefer to transfer relational structure from a known or relatively familiar domain to a relatively unfamiliar domain when the two share the same, dense relational structure (deep systematicity). The shared relational structure may be due to a higher order domain (the vehicle) that subsumes both the source and target. Analogizers highlight salient relational correspondences. They use the source domain to make inferences about the target domain.

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Chapter LXV

Leveraging the Affordances of an Electronic Game to Meet Instructional Goals Yuxin Ma University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Douglas Williams University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Charles Richard University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Louise Prejean University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA

AbstrAct Electronic games have the potential to support learning by doing and enhance student motivation. However, there is little guidance in the literature on how to leverage the affordances of electronic games to design effective instruction. This chapter is our effort to start to accumulate knowledge to guide the design of electronic educational games. We present a case study describing how the unique components of electronic games enabled the design of Conquest of Coastlands, a learning environment delivered as an electronic game. We describe how our team synthesized two sets of design principles from the literature on electronic games, instructional design, and intrinsic motivation and how these principles informed the design of Conquest of Coastlands. The principles and the related case study may inform the design of future electronic educational games and generate research questions to be investigated in empirical research. Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

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introduction The Federation of American Scientists (FAS) released a report in October 2006, proposing digital games as a solution to reshape education (2006). The report lists a series of research and development challenges. One main area of challenges focuses on the design of games for learning. How can we design games that contribute to instructional goals? To answer this question, we need to understand the affordances (Gibson, 1977) of the electronic games, the potential and possibilities that the media may offer to enable effective learning. Electronic games have two affordances for impacting learning: the promise to support learning by doing (Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2003) and the motivational effects of games. Supporters of electronic educational games emphasize the potential of electronic games in providing simulated real world experiences. Squire (2006) considers game playing as designed experience, in which students learn through participating and performing in the game world. Gee (2007) states that the games that he is interested in “are digital simulations of worlds that are ‘played’ in the sense that a player has a surrogate or surrogates through which the player can act within and on the simulation” (p. 1). These are epistemic games (Shaffer & Gee, in press) in which learners play the role of professionals such as engineers, urban planners, journalists, or lawyers in authentic simulations of a society. It is argued that these games help learners develop ways of thinking and knowing valued by respective professions. Advocates of electronic educational games often cite the work on intrinsic motivation to support the use of games in education. Psychologists (Lepper & Malone, 1987; Malone, 1981) analyzed computer games and identified a list of elements that are motivating, including challenge, curiosity, fantasy, and control. Flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991) is another theory related to motivation. It describes a sense of control, deep engagement, and

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exhilaration when one is involved in an optimal experience. Research shows that intrinsic motivation and flow positively contribute to learning (Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Csikszentmihalyi, 1991; Hektner & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). These views provide valuable insights on the effective dimensions of electronic games in education. However, how do instructional designers transform the two affordances of electronic games to enhance motivation and simulated experience into effective design of instruction? How should elements of electronic games be designed to meet instructional goals? This chapter explores these questions by presenting a case study of how the unique components of electronic games enabled the design of Conquest of Coastlands, a learning environment delivered as an electronic game. This chapter starts with a theoretical framework that identifies the components of electronic games and describes two instructional design models and a motivation theory, all of which are guiding the design of our learning environment. Then, it presents an overview of the game and the quest that we are developing. Next, it describes the instructional elements identified for the quest and discusses how we leverage two affordances of the game to support effective instructional design.

theorecticAl FrAmeWorK components of electronic games Electronic games usually have two components: story and game play. Although some game designers argue that story is not a necessary element in all games, we consider it a key element in electronic educational games (Williams, Ma, Prejean, & Richard, in press). A story in an electronic game consists of characters, settings (context), and events (plots) (Stapleton & Hughes, 2006). Characters act to pursue the object of their desire or motivation. This action constitutes the plot. In the course of their pursuit or quest, characters

Leveraging the Affordances of an Electronic Game to Meet Instructional Goals

encounter obstacles or problems that interfere with their achieving of the goal. This is the source of conflict, which is the essence of drama. Characters seek solutions to problems and take action to overcome obstacles. The drama consists of the ongoing friction between the characters’ motives, the obstacles they confront, and the choices they make in confronting them. Game play describes “what the player does” in the game. It can be broken down into the constituent game mechanics, including goals, rules, tools, cause, effect, and consequence (Stapleton & Hughes, 2006). It describes how the player follows the rules and uses the tools and resources to achieve the goals of the game and how the game responds to the player’s action based on certain cause-effect-consequence rules.

Four-component instructional design (4c/id) model The four-component instructional design (4C/ ID) model (van Merrienboer, 1997) is a model for teaching an integrated set of knowledge and skills required for solving complex problems and completing complex tasks. There are four interrelated components in the 4C/ID model: learning tasks, supportive information, part-task practice, and just-in-time (JIT) information. Learning tasks. Learning tasks are the concrete, authentic whole-task experiences similar to complex real-world problems. Repeated practice of learning tasks allows learners to generate abstract schemata from concrete experiences. Learning tasks are categorized into simple-tocomplex classes. The order of the task classes and the specific instances of the tasks define the overall sequencing of the instructional content. Supportive information. Supportive information is provided to assist with the non-recurrent aspects of the learning tasks. It includes mental models, cognitive strategies, and cognitive feedback related to reasoning and problem solving. Inductive-inquisitory and inductive-expository

strategies are appropriate for teaching supportive information. Part-task practice. Although learning tasks may provide enough practice for the recurrent skills, part-task practice may be needed to reach a high level of automaticity for these skills. Parttask practice is a “divide-and-conquer” approach in which the learner practices constituent skills required to complete the whole task. The 4C/ID model advocates teaching the whole task at the beginning of the instructional program and embedding part-task practice in the context of the whole task. Just-in-time (JIT) information. JIT information provides the step-by-step knowledge needed for part-task practice. JIT information is offered when it is relevant; it fades away when the learner acquires more expertise. The strengths of the 4C/ID-model lie in its strong theoretical base. We concur with Merrill (1999) that this model has synthesized the best from existing instructional design models and incorporated theories derived from current cognitive psychology research. The 4C/ID model is not only influenced by the classic works on instructional design (Gagne, 1985; Merrill, 1983; Reigeluth, 1983), which are based on behavioral and cognitive psychology; it has also integrated components from more recent constructivist instructional design theories and models (Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991; Spiro, Feltovich, & Jacobson, 1991). The integration of instructivist and constructivist approaches are made possible in this model because of the influence of cognitive load theory (Sweller, van Merrienboer, & Pass, 1998). The impact of the cognitive load theory is best reflected in the concept of “reflective expertise” (van Merrienboer, 1997) discussed in the model. Reflective expertise is the ability of a learner to generalize learning using two transfer mechanisms: domain-specific automated process to address familiar aspects of problems; and heuristics operating on cognitive schemata to solve unfamiliar aspects of problems. With

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such expertise, when presented with a problem, a learner can quickly solve the familiar aspects of the problem by automatically applying the rules, thus freeing up working memory to deal with unfamiliar aspects of the problem using heuristics and cognitive schemata induced from previous experiences and examples. The learning tasks and supportive information are primarily designed to promote schema-based transfer. Constructivist strategies such as cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et al., 1991) play an important role in achieving this transfer. Part-task practice and JIT information may enable rule-based transfer. Instructivist strategies (Gagne, 1985) that take a “divide-and-conquer” and “drill-and-practice” approaches can be of value to facilitate rulebased transfer. The 4C/ID-model not only has a solid theoretical foundation, but also features a strong research base. Empirical evidence of the model has been demonstrated in a series of studies. Research has been conducted with regard to the training of fault management (Jelsma & Bijlstra, 1990; Morris & Rouse, 1985), computer programming (van Merrienboer & De Croock, 1992), and statistical analysis (Pass & van Merrienboer, cited in van Merrienboer, 1997). The studies demonstrate that strategies based on the 4C/ID-model tend to provide better transfer than the conventional strategies (van Merrienboer, 1992). The 4C/ ID-model informed the design of ADAPTIT, a computer-based training design tool that helps professionals to design training courses for complex cognitive skills (The ADAPTIT Consortium, 2003). Analysis of evaluation data indicates that this tool has met the expectations for efficiency and effectiveness.

cognitive Apprenticeship Cognitive apprenticeship (Collins et al., 1991) is an instructional design model built on traditional apprenticeship. In traditional apprenticeship adults teach children skills such as speaking, farming,

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and sewing by showing them how to complete the tasks and helping them when it is their turn to try. In cognitive apprenticeship teachers help learners acquire transferrable cognitive skills by demonstrating the thought process for completing certain tasks and guiding the learners as they work on the tasks themselves. Cognitive apprenticeship advocates six instructional strategies: modeling, coaching, scaffolding, articulation, reflection, and exploration. Modeling, coaching, and scaffolding strategies help students acquire knowledge and skills through observation and guided practice. Modeling. Cognitive apprenticeship typically starts with modeling, which provides students with an opportunity to observe expert performance of a task in order to build a conceptual model of the processes for completing the task. Jonassen (1999) categorizes modeling into two types, including “behavioral modeling of the overt performance and cognitive modeling of the covert cognitive processes” (p. 231). After students observe the expert performance, they are engaged in the completion of the task themselves. Coaching and scaffolding. Coaching and scaffolding strategies provide the support students need to accomplish the task and to bring students’ performance closer to expert performance. Coaching involves observing students’ performance and providing hints, feedback, further modeling, reminders, and new tasks to address specific issues in students’ performance. Scaffolding can be provided by offering suggestions, help, cue cards; the teacher can even perform parts of the task that are beyond students’ ability. Coaching and scaffolding should gradually fade as students become more competent in performing the tasks. Articulation and reflection. Articulation and reflection strategies enable students to gain access to and control over their own thinking. Articulation refers to requiring students to articulate their knowledge, reasoning, and problem-solving processes. Teachers can encourage students to articulate their thinking by asking for explana-

Leveraging the Affordances of an Electronic Game to Meet Instructional Goals

tions and elaborations, or requiring them to explain their ideas to peers in cooperative groups. Reflection involves helping students compare their own problem-solving processes with those of the experts, thus making it possible for them to modify their processes. Techniques to enhance reflection focus on reproducing or replaying both expert and students’ performance to offer opportunities for comparison. Exploration. After students become competent in solving the problems with no support, exploration should occur. Exploration involves pushing students to find and solve problems on their own. Students may be given general goals (e.g., exploring why the stock market crashed in 1929) and they can focus on specific sub-goals of interest to them. The purpose of exploration is to encourage students to become automatic in setting problem goals and solving the problems. The 4C/ID model and cognitive apprenticeship are the two main instructional design models that inform the design of Conquest of the Coastlands. To conceptualize the complementary role of these two models, we identified two categories of instructional elements: problem and support (Table 1). These are the main elements in instructional design models that emphasize the role of authentic experience in learning (e.g., Hannafin, Land, & Oliver, 1999; Jonassen, 1999; Schank, 1999). In these learning environments, the student is presented with a problem, a project, or a task in a rich context. A variety of resources and tools are available to support the learner. From the perspective of this framework, the learning task

in the 4C/ID model is the problem to be solved. Supportive information, JIT information, and part-task practice offer support for accomplishing the whole task. Cognitive apprenticeship offers additional support to guide student learning through observation and guided practice.

intrinsic motivation Malone and Lepper (Lepper & Malone, 1987; Malone, 1981) developed a theory of intrinsic motivation after analyzing related literature and conducting experiments on electronic games. They identified four categories of design features that enhance intrinsic motivation, including challenge, curiosity, fantasy, and control. The first category of features focuses on developing an optimal level of challenge for the learner. Performance goals should be personally meaningful and the attainment of the goals should be uncertain. However, the sense of uncertainty should not be to the extent that it damages the learner’s self-esteem; instead, the completion of the challenging goals should contribute to enhanced feelings of self esteem. To achieve this, there should be goals of varying difficulty so that the learner can work at a level appropriate for their ability. Hidden information and randomness may also enhance the uncertainty of the goals. The purpose of the second category of design features is to enhance curiosity, including sensory curiosity and cognitive curiosity. Sensory curiosity can be facilitated with the use of perceptual stimuli such as light, music, animation, graphics,

Table 1. Instructional elements based on 4C/ID and cognitive apprenticeship Instructional Elements Problem/Project/Task Support

Learning task Supportive information JIT information Part-task practice Cognitive apprenticeship strategies

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and video and audio effects. However, the enhancement of sensory curiosity should not distract the learner from instructional tasks. “Cognitive curiosity is evoked by the prospect of modifying higher level cognitive structures” (Malone, 1981, p. 363). It is the desire of the learner to better organize one’s knowledge. The key to evoke the desire is to create a cognitive dissonance (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959) by highlighting the incompleteness, inconsistency, or a lack of parsimony in the learner’s understanding. The third category of design features is concerned with giving the learner a sense of personal control by providing choices and personalization opportunities. For example, the learner can be given the choices concerning the characters, names, fantasies, icons, and other bells and whistles irrelevant to the instructional aspects of the activities. Information and feedback is personalized based on these choices. The last category of design features relates to fantasy. Malone defines fantasy-inducing environments as those that evoke “mental images of things not present to the senses or within the actual experience of the person involved” (American Heritage Dictionary, cited in Malone, 1981). Fantasy is appealing because of its cognitive and emotional impact. The cognitive benefits of fantasies lie in that fantasies provide analogies and metaphors that enable the learner to use existing knowledge to make sense of the new information. Fantasies have emotional appeal in that they arouse strong emotions through stories related to conflict and war, competition, and interpersonal relationships. There are two types of fantasies: endogenous and exogenous. In endogenous fantasies, there are inherent connections between the fantasy and the content and the goals of the fantasies match the instructional goals. For example, Civilization is an endogenous game for teaching history. In this game, the player builds civilizations and ensures its growth by balancing issues related to infrastructure, resources, diplomacy and trading, technological advancement, city management, and

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military. The fantasy advances as the civilizations evolve. Social studies can be taught by using this game. On one hand, the player needs the historical knowledge to succeed in the fantasy. On the other hand, the player needs the fantasy as a context to understand historical knowledge. In exogenous fantasies, the connections between the fantasy and the content are superficial; the same fantasy can be used as “sugar-coating” for a variety of content. For example, a Speedway game in which the students’ race cars move at the same speed as they correctly answer arithmetic questions is considered an exogenous game. In reality, arithmetic skills are not required for car racing; it is an artificial connection. The same game can be attached to any other content. Researchers argue that endogenous games are more interesting and more instructionally effective than exogenous fantasies because of the inherent relationship between the fantasy and the content.

conQuest oF the coAstlAnds And the glim Quest Conquest of the Coastlands is a role-playing electronic educational game with a science fiction/fantasy setting. Pursuing larger strategic objectives, the player character will be challenged with a variety of problem solving “quests,” which form the main plotlines of the interactive narrative and will provide the immediate motivations for player-character activities in the game. Each quest is designed to achieve specific learning goals. The game takes place amid an ancient conflict between two sentient species and their struggle for dominance on a planet in another solar system. While not technologically sophisticated, the planet’s two rival sentient species have reached a turning point in their evolutionary history where it is likely that one—the Mruk-ma—will likely drive the other—the Sheft-ma—into extinction. The Mruk-ma are aggressive, sea-faring species, while the Sheft-ma are city-builders who

Leveraging the Affordances of an Electronic Game to Meet Instructional Goals

make their home in “The Coastlands,” along the marshy seashores and river valleys of Mertis’ lone continent. For the vulnerable Sheft-ma, the strategic key to their self-defense is a deteriorating system of fortifications built in the coastal wetlands surrounding their cities. But these wetlands are mysteriously disappearing at an alarming rate, and the threat of invasion by Mruk-ma fleets is growing. A decisive change comes when the survey ship of an advanced alien race crash-lands in the oceans of Mertis. Arriving in escape pods from their doomed spaceship, the strangers, called Cilati, are scattered around the planet. Now hopelessly stranded on Mertis, some of the alien crew manages to make their way to The Coastlands, where they are warmly welcomed by the Sheft-ma. The Cilati survey team brings with them precious scientific knowledge, technology, and methods that could dramatically shift the balance of power in the conflict between the two rival species. The survival of the Sheft-ma will depend on whether they can effectively utilize the science and tools of the Cilati to rebuild their crumbling forts and defend their disappearing coastlines. The Cilatis are a highly advanced race of space-faring explorers. Extremely long-lived, they traverse the galaxy in pursuit of knowledge about other planets and other life forms. Cilati ships have visited countless worlds, quietly observing the species that inhabit them. Generally, they never interfere in the cultures they study, and they seldom even make their presence known. However, it quickly becomes apparent that the Mruk-ma have adopted a radically new strategy in their struggle with the Sheft-ma: ecological warfare. By attacking the delicate environment on which their peaceful rivals depend, the Mrukma hope to wreck the Sheft-ma civilization and eliminate their species. Our team is currently developing the glim quest in Conquest of the Coastlands. It is a four-week life science and environmental science curriculum for children ages 11-13. The curriculum consists

of approximately 10 hours of electronic-game activities followed by approximately 10 class periods of hands-on, classroom-based activities. The primary goal of this curriculum is to teach an integrated set of knowledge and skills that allow students to address environmental issues. For professionals, such expertise may take years of education and experience to develop. Our fourweek curriculum will focus on relatively simple but still complex and authentic problems.

instructionAl comPonents oF the glim Quest The 4C/ID model provides an overall framework to structure the instructional aspect of the game. This section describes the four instructional components of the glim quest: learning tasks, supportive information, part-task practice, and just-in-time information.

learning tasks In this curriculum, the learning tasks involve addressing environmental issues similar to those found in the real world. The tasks are organized in a simple-to-complex order. The electronic game addresses problems that have less variables/factors at play, followed by classroom activities which present more complex problems. Much support is provided in the game because students have little experience dealing with these issues. Performance constraints and modeling examples are offered to reduce the cognitive load. The central problem presented in the glim quest focuses on exploring a drastic reduction on the harvesting of glim, a fish found in the coastal regions, which is a key staple of the Sheft-ma diet. The game provides an opportunity for the learner to explore an ecosystem that has been disturbed by an invasive species and other biotic and abiotic factors. Performance constraints are provided; learners are required to follow a set of scientific

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inquiry heuristics to approach the problem. At the beginning of the inquiry process, they are asked to create a data collection plan; during the process, they write a progress report from time to time; toward the end of the process, they develop a final report in order to draw conclusions and discuss findings. A modeling example is available to illustrate how scientists follow the inquiry process and develop various plans and reports to solve an environmental problem related to acid rain.

supportive information Supportive information, including the mental model of the balance of the ecosystem, scientific inquiry skills, and cognitive feedback, is provided to assist with the non-recurrent aspects of the learning tasks. They are related to two primary learning outcomes: scientific inquiry and the balance of the ecosystem. Students are expected to acquire knowledge and skills needed to understand and conduct scientific inquiry, including “asking questions, planning and conducting investigations, using appropriate tools and techniques to gather data, thinking critically and logically about relationships between evidence and explanations, constructing and analyzing alternative explanations, and communicating scientific arguments” (National Research Council, 1996, p. 105). Students should also obtain an improved mental model of the interdependence and balance of the ecosystem components. We employ both inductive-inquisitory and inductive-expository strategies to design the instruction for supportive information. For example, the inductive-expository strategy is used to help the learner understand how various factors lead to the imbalance of the ecosystem and related consequences. We present several case studies of coastal issues and then draw out the relationship among various factors such as farm run-off, construction of levees, and the introduction of invasive species. We use the inductive-inquisitory strategy to teach complex relationships among organisms

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as well as between organisms and the environment. For example, a principle that we want the students to learn is that an invasive species can disrupt the balance of an ecosystem; the change in the ecosystem caused by the invasive species may impact a native species directly or indirectly. To teach this principle using the inductive-inquisitory strategy, we provide an analogical encoding (Gentner & Markman, 1997) tool, which presents two examples illustrating the impact of invasive species and the learner is guided to identify the common principle underlying both examples. Research shows that analogical encoding is more effective than the pure discovery approach. For more information on the analogical encoding tool, see the work of Williams, Ma, Feist, Richard, and Prejean (2007).

Part-task Practice The learning task of the game involves recurrent skills such as interpreting graphs of fish catch data and water quality data. These are the secondary learning outcomes of the curriculum. Part-task practice provides opportunities for the learner to acquire these skills. To give the learner a sense of context, part-task practice should be embedded in the game rather than as a prerequisite for playing the game. More part-task practice is available in the associated classroom activities.

Jit information JIT information provides the step-by-step knowledge needed for the learner to perform the recurrent aspects of the learning tasks. For example, for the learner to practice reading and interpreting graphs, a tutorial is available to teach the knowledge and skills necessary for the practice. The tutorial presents concepts and principles related to graph interpretation, gives examples, and provides corrective feedback to the practice.

Leveraging the Affordances of an Electronic Game to Meet Instructional Goals

leverAging the AFFordAnces oF the gAme to Promote leArning by doing Components of electronic games can be leveraged to support the instructional elements. Table 2 shows how the instructional elements in Table 1 are mapped with the components of the electronic game to guide the design of instruction. For example, two components of electronic games, story and game play may serve as devices to situate the problem and the context. The story describes the characters, the settings, and the events related to the problem. The game play presents the goals for the learner and defines the rules and tools for achieving the goals. To provide support to the learner, characters in the story and tools in the game play may deliver supportive and JIT information as well as facilitate part-task practice and enable cognitive apprenticeship strategies.

designing the story and the game play to Present the learning task Presenting the learning task in the context of story and game play may enhance a sense of authentic experience. In contrast with traditional methods of knowledge representation, games provide a rich description of situations and tasks which are more meaningful to students. They allow the players to identify fully with a character, act on the plot, and experience the cause-and-effect of their ac-

tions. This is important because contemporary learning and instructional theories (Jonassen, 1999; Schank, 1999; Spiro et al., 1991), including the 4C/ID model (van Merrienboer, 1997), all emphasizes the role of an authentic context in facilitating learning by doing. Presentation of the glim quest learning task is primarily through three elements: the game cinematic that introduces the back-story of the entire game, an interactive cut scene that focuses on the specific challenge in the quest, and several interactions between the learner and non-player characters. The following aspects of story and game play design have a critical role in developing a rich context for the learning task. Setting. A compelling story begins with a rich setting. In our game, the opening cinematic introduces the learner to the setting: a fictitious planet where two opposing species are in conflict. Each quest has its own detailed setting that contributes to the overall game story. Characters. Characters add to the richness and authenticity of the learning task. For example, the learners first come to know details about their own character’s motivations and other key figures in the opening cinematic. The player character’s main motivation in the game is to preserve and restore the Sheft-ma’s fragile coastal ecosystem. The cinematic also provides a glimpse of the dreaded Mruk-ma scouts who are spying on the Sheft-ma coastlands. As the player character begins each quest, characters facilitate presenting

Table 2. Instructional elements and components of the electronic game Instructional Elements Problem/Project/ Learning task Task

Components of the Electronic Game Designing the story and the gameplay to present the learning task

Support

Delivering supportive information, part-task practice, and JIT information by characters in the story and tools in the game

Supportive information JIT information Part-task practice Cognitive apprenticeship strategies

Implementing cognitive apprenticeship strategies via characters in the story and/or tools in the game

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the goals and details of each learning task. For example, in the interactive cut scene for the glim quest, the learner takes on the role of the player character, a talented and courageous young apprentice who is given a task to investigate a fish depletion problem that is threatening the survival of the Sheft-ma. Events/plots. The opening cinematic and the interactive cut scenes depict the back-story of the game and quests and provide a context for each learning task. During the interactions with non-player characters, task goals are clarified and needed details are provided. As the plot unfolds, the player character encounters obstacles such as determining what data to gather and how to interpret the data. Goal. Providing the player with clear goals, consistent with those in the game narrative, is essential to effective game play and further facilitates presentation of the learning task. The goal of the glim quest matches the player character’s motivation to preserve and restore the coastlands, and is clearly presented to the player character. Rules. Rules help clarify the end goal of the learning tasks. There are two sets of rules that define the winning of the glim quest. The first set of rules concerns whether the player character follows the instructions of the mentors to successfully complete the scientific inquiry process. The second set of rules is related to Sheft-ma values, including knowledge, stewardship, practice, and critical thinking. The player character may gain more points if s/he adheres to these values. These rules are presented during the interactions between the player character and the non-player characters. Tools. The presentation of the learning task is coupled by an introduction of tools that the player character has available to complete the task. During the interaction between the Cilati mentor and the player character prior to his/her departure on the quest, the mentor provides the player character with a personal digital assistant (PDA), a versatile device based on the Cilati’s

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advanced technology. This serves as the primary tool for the player character to complete the quest. Other tools common to electronic games, such as a map tool and an inventory, are also available to the player character.

delivering supportive information, Part-task Practice, and Jit information by characters and tools Providing support by characters and tools as the story and game play unfold adds to the authenticity of the experience. As the plots evolve, the opportunities for providing support naturally occur when the player character encounters obstacles. In the pursuit of the goal, the player character confronts the problems with the support provided by characters and tools in the game. In the glim quest, the learner is mentored by two non-player characters, a Cilati and a learned Sheft-ma elder. The Cilati provides support and guidance to the player in conducting research. The Sheft-ma elder is learned in many disciplines possessing a folk understanding of the forces at play in the natural world. To help the learner with the quest, the Sheft-ma elder discusses his hypotheses based on his own experience and folk knowledge. The Cilati mentor guides the learner through the scientific inquiry process, introducing conceptual information needed to complete the inquiry and taking into consideration of the Sheft-ma elder’s folk understanding. The PDA is a main tool that provides support to the learner. It facilitates communication between the learner and the Cilati mentor, allows data collection and analysis, and enables presentation of case studies and related information. Case studies are used extensively to provide the supportive information. The cases are stored in the case library in the PDA and the analogical encoding scaffold is also embedded in the case library. Part-task practice and JIT information on how to interpret graphs is facilitated by a tutorial embedded in the PDA.

Leveraging the Affordances of an Electronic Game to Meet Instructional Goals

implementing cognitive Apprenticeship strategies via characters and tools The story elements in the electronic games can easily support cognitive apprenticeship strategies. In stories, the hero usually has a mentor (Campbell, 1949) who provides tools and advice to support the adventure. Meeting with the mentor not only advances the plot in the story but also offers an opportunity to use cognitive apprenticeship strategies. A more interesting example of how the characters and tools in this game support cognitive apprenticeship strategies involves the interaction supported in the PDA sketch tool. The tool allows the learner to work as a forensic sketch artist to determine the key characteristics and classification of the invasive species. Near the start of the quest, a non-player character shares a strange skull with the player character. The skull is not of any creature with which the local Sheft-ma are familiar. In order to determine what the organism is, the Cilati asks a series of questions concerning the organism’s characteristics. For example, the Cilati begins by discussing the teeth embedded in the skull, explaining that examining these can provide hints on the types of food they eat, which is a key factor for determining where the organism fits in the classification taxonomy. The sketch tool, appearing to be under the control of the Cilati, displays teeth of herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores found on Earth, and asks the learner to select the ones that most closely resemble those found in the skull. The Cilati confirms or rejects the learner’s selection, eventually guiding the learner to understand that the invasive species is an herbivore, and concludes the interaction by drawing the teeth in the sketch tool. The Cilati goes on to guide the player through examining the other features of the skull. The sketch tool interaction allows the Cilati to model the cognitive processes involved in identifying the features of an organism.

The next two cognitive apprenticeship strategies, coaching and scaffolding, are facilitated through the interaction between the learner and the Cilati. For example, the Cilati asks the learner to follow the scientific inquiry process to investigate the fish depletion problem. Scaffolding is provided by requiring the learner to use a set of scientific inquiry heuristics. A particular noteworthy aspect of the game is its affordance to facilitate coaching via the non-player characters and within the context of the story. The learner develops and submits a progress report to the Cilati, who reviews the report and provides individualized feedback. In reality, it is the teacher who provides the feedback. However, the game allows the teacher to deliver the feedback assuming the role of the Cilati, thus maintaining the authenticity of the story and keeping the learner immersed in the context. The game also enables the implementation of articulation and reflection. The learners are encouraged to articulate and reflect on their scientific inquiry process in several communication reports they submit to the Cilati: the data collection plan, the progress report, and the final report. These reports are supported by the PDA. The final strategy of cognitive apprenticeship, exploration, is not implemented in this version of the game. However, it is supported by the classroom activities. The learners are given openended, broad research issues, and they work in teams to generate research question and conduct investigations to answer the questions.

leverAging the AFFordAnces oF the gAme to enhAnce motivAtion From the theory on intrinsic motivation, we identified four principles to inform the design of the glim quest. The following describes how our effort in applying these principles.

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developing a meaningful challenge with Optimal Levels of Difficulty

Providing choices and Personalization opportunities

Our first effort to enhance intrinsic motivation (Lepper & Malone, 1987; Malone, 1981) focuses on developing a meaningful challenge with an optimal level of difficulty. In our game, the challenge is for the learner to identify why fish catches decline dramatically for Sheft-ma fishermen. This challenge is meaningful because: (a) it is a problem in a rich context with a potentially devastating impact on the well-being of the Sheft-ma, and (b) it resembles authentic environmental problems on Earth. To ensure that the performance goals are challenging but attainable, we provide various types of support described earlier in the chapter. We have not implemented other strategies that may provide the optimal level of difficulty, such as designing performance goals at variable difficulty levels and adding hidden information and increasing randomness. We will explore these strategies in the future development of the game.

In Conquest of Coastlands, we give the learner a sense of control by providing opportunities for choosing names and gender, customizing the clothing, and selecting a secret code. These elements are irrelevant to the instruction, but they provide a sense of control that is motivating to the learner. In addition, we also personalize some of the feedback. The teacher, responding in character as the Cilati, provides personalized feedback on the reports submitted by the learner. We expect this feature to be both motivating and instructionally valuable. It is costly to design elements for personalization and choices, so we have limited these features in the current quest. We will further explore and evaluate these strategies in the future.

enhancing sensory and cognitive curiosity

To develop an endogenous fantasy, we align the goals of the story and the game with instructional goals. In Conquest of Coastlands, the goal of the story and the game is to address an environmental issue. This goal also serves as the instructional goal. Different fantasy context appeals to different people because learners have different emotional needs and different fantasies address different needs. To attract diverse learners, we try to address a variety of human emotional needs such as fear, love, hope, trust, faith, and fortitude. For example, in Conquest of Coastlands, we use vivid 3-D and 2-D arts as well as cinematics to depict Mruk-ma as dreadful creatures that perform deadly attacks on Sheft-ma villages. Drastically declining fish catches may soon lead to famine in the Sheft-ma city state; the learner is driven by the love for his or her country to investigate the problem.

Commercial electronic games enhance sensory curiosity with the design of three dimensional (3-D) environments, cinematics, as well as stirring audio effects and music. Styled after the commercial games in terms of the interface design, Conquest of Coastlands integrates these state-of-the-art media with the design of the story, the game play, and the instruction. The game is also designed to augment cognitive curiosity by evoking cognitive dissonance in the learner. We adopted Socratic method (Collins & Stevens, cited in Malone & Lepper, 1987) as a means to trigger a sense of cognitive dissonance through dialogs between the Cilati mentor and the learner. The mentor asks questions and provides feedback in order to reveal problems in the learner’s thinking and therefore to generate interests in learning.

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developing an endogenous Fantasy that is emotionally Appealing

Leveraging the Affordances of an Electronic Game to Meet Instructional Goals

conclusions And imPlicAtions In spite of the growing interest in developing electronic educational games, there is little guidance in the literature on how to design effective electronic educational games. Educators have little experience in designing electronic educational games and the computer game industry lacks expertise in integrating effective pedagogy into game design. This chapter is an effort to start to accumulate knowledge to guide the design of electronic educational games. It presents a case study of our experience in leveraging the affordances of the electronic game to design a learning environment delivered as an electronic game. It describes how we synthesized two sets of principles from the electronic games, instructional design, and intrinsic motivation literature and how these principles informed the design of Conquest of Coastlands. The first set of principles describes how we align components of the electronic game with instructional elements to meet instructional goals. The second set of principles presents our effort to leverage the affordances of Conquest of Coastlands to enhance motivation. This chapter may be beneficial to both game developers and researchers. For developers of electronic educational games, the principles and related examples presented in the chapter may inform the design of their games. Although some of the principles are specifically related to the 4C/ID model and cognitive apprenticeship model, they should be relevant to developers who choose any design models that emphasize student-centered learning and learning by doing, because these design models (e.g., Hannafin et al., 1999; Jonassen, 1999; Schank, 1999) all underscore the roles of authentic problems, supporting resources, and scaffolds in learning. These models share similar instructional strategies with the 4C/ID model and cognitive apprenticeship. For researchers, this chapter presents a list of theory-based principles that need to be examined in empirical research. Research questions may be

generated from these principles. For example, one principle concerns implementing cognitive apprenticeship strategies through characters or tools in the game. Coaching and scaffolding require the mentor to provide individualized feedback and customize the learner’s tasks on the fly. Currently, we are building a Web interface for the teacher to access the documents that the learner submits and to facilitate providing feedback, in character as the Cilati. We are yet to evaluate the effectiveness of this strategy. The main drawback of this approach is that feedback from teachers may be time-consuming; students may not be able to continue to play the game until feedback is provided. Research is needed to evaluate and develop technologies that facilitate more efficient and effective coaching and scaffolding. For example, natural language processing technologies such as latent semantic analysis (LSA) (Landauer & Dumais, 1997) may be promising technologies for implementing coaching and scaffolding strategies. Another example relates to design principles that may enhance motivation. The implementation of these principles (e.g., the enhancement of sensory curiosity) with the cutting-edge technology is expensive. Although theoretically these strategies may enhance motivation, the motivational gains may not be significant enough to justify the cost. Future research is needed to address this issue.

reFerences Campbell, J. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator, 6-11, 38-46. Cordova, D. I., & Lepper, M. R. (1996). Intrinsic motivation and the process of learning: Beneficial effects of contextualization, personalization, and choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(4), 715.

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Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. NY: Harper Perennial. Federation of American Scientists. (2006). Submit on educational games. Retrieved May 23, 2007, from http://fas.org/gamesummit/Resources/Sum mit%20on%20Educational%20Games.pdf Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58, 203-210. Gagne, R. M. (1985). The condition of learning (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Gee, J. (2007). Why are video games good for learning? Retrieved March 3, 2007, from http:// www.academiccolab.org/resources/documents/ MacArthur.pdf Gentner, D., & Markman, A. B. (1997). Structure mapping in analogy and similarity. American Psychologist, 52, 45-56. Gibson, J. J. (1977). The theory of affordances. In R. Shaw & J. Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, acting and knowing (pp.67-82). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Hannafin, M. J., Land, S. M., & Oliver, K. (1999). Opening learning environments: Foundations, methods, and models. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. 2, pp. 115-140). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hektner, J. M., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). A longitudinal exploration of flow and intrinsic motivation in adolescents. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. Jelsma, O., & Bijlstra, J. P. (1990). PROCESS: Program for Research on Operator Control in an Experimental Simulated Setting. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 20, 1221-1228. 1140

Jonassen, D. H. (1999). Design constructivist learning environments. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. 2, pp. 215-239). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Kirriemuir, J., & McFarlane, A. (2003). Literature review in games and learning. Retrieved October 10, 2005, from http://www.nestafuturelab.org/research/reviews/08_01.htm Landauer, T. K., & Dumais, S. T. (1997). A solution to Plato’s problem: the Latent Semantic Analysis theory of acquisition, induction and representation of knowledge. Psychological Review, 104, 211-240. Lepper, M. R., & Malone, T. W. (1987). Intrinsic motivation and instructional effectiveness in computer-based education. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning and instruction: III. Conative and affective process analyses (pp. 255-286). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Malone, T. W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 5(4), 333-369. Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning and instruction: III. Conative and affective process analyses (pp. 223-253). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Merrill, M. D. (1983). Component display theory. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status (Vol. I, pp. 279-333). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Merrill, M. D. (1999). Customer book review. Retrieved August 31, 2001, from http://www. amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0877782989/1038020527-1852605

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Morris, N. M., & Rouse, W. B. (1985). The effects of type of knowledge upon human problem solving in a process control task. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 15, 698-707. National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Reigeluth, C. M. (1983). The elaboration theory of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status (Vol. I, pp. 335-381). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Schank, R. C. (1999). Learning by doing. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. II, pp. 161- 181). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Shaffer, D. W., & Gee, J. P. (in press). Before every child is left behind: How epistemic games can solve the coming crisis in education. Retrieved May 31, 2007, from http://www.academiccolab. org/resources/documents/learning_crisis.pdf Spiro, R. J., Feltovich, P. J., & Jacobson, M. J. (1991). Cognitive flexibility, constructivism, and hypertext: Random access instruction for advanced knowledge acquisition in ill-structured domains. Educational Technology, 31, 24-33. Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29. Stapleton, C. B., & Hughes, C. E. (2006). Believing is seeing: Cultivating radical media innovations. Computer Graphics and Applications, 26(1), 88-93. Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Pass, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251-296.

The ADAPTIT Consortium. (2003). Final report of the ADAPTIT project (scientific version) [Electronic Version]. Retrieved October 15, 2007 from http://www.adaptit.org/files/ADAPTIT%20 final%20report%20(scientific).pdf. van Merrienboer, J. J. G. (1992). Training for reflective expertise: A four-component instructional design model for complex cognitive skills. Educational Technology Research & Development, 40(2), 23-43. van Merrienboer, J. J. G. (1997). Training complex cognitive skills: A four-component instructional design model for technical training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & De Croock, M. B. M. (1992). Strategies for computer-based programming instruction: Program completion vs. program generation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 8, 365-394. Williams, D., Ma, Y., Feist, S., Richard, C., & Prejean, L. (2007). The design of an analogical encoding tool for game-based virtual learning environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), 429–437. Williams, D., Ma, Y., Prejean, L., & Richard, C. (in press). Integration of narrative development and instructional design in the creation of an electronic game-based learning environment. In R. E. Ferdig (Ed.), Handbook of research on effective electronic gaming in education. Information Science Reference.

Key terms Affordances of Instructional Media: The potential and possibilities that instructional media offer to enable effective learning Endogenous Fantasy: In endogenous fantasies, there are inherent connections between

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the fantasy and the content and the goals of the fantasies match the instructional goals. Flow: Flow is a theory on motivation (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991). It describes a sense of control, deep engagement, and exhilaration when one is involved in an optimal experience. Game Play: It describes “what the player does” in the game. It can be broken down into the constituent game mechanics, including goals, rules, tools, cause, effect, and consequence (Stapleton & Hughes, 2006). It describes how the player follows the rules and uses the tools and resources to achieve the goals of the game and how the game responds to the player’s action based on certain cause-effect-consequence rules.

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Just-In-Time (JIT) Information: JIT information provides the step-by-step knowledge needed for the learner to perform the recurrent aspects of the learning tasks. Learning Task: Learning tasks are the concrete, authentic whole-task experiences similar to complex real-world problems. Part-Task Practice: Part-task practice is a “divide-and-conquer” approach to teach one or a limited number of constituent skills at a time in order for the learner to reach a high level of automaticity for these skills. Supportive Information: Supportive information includes mental models, cognitive strategies, and cognitive feedback related to reasoning and problem solving. It is provided to assist with the non-recurrent aspects of the learning tasks.

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Chapter LXVI

Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory Wenhao David Huang University of Illinois, USA Tristan Johnson Florida State University, USA

AbstrAct This chapter proposes an instructional game design framework based on the 4C/ID-model and cognitive load theory, its associated theoretical foundation. The proposed systematic design framework serves as the processing link to connect games’ powerful characteristics in enhancing learning experience with desired learning outcomes. In this chapter we focus on the cognitive aspect of learning outcome: the development of transferable schema. This chapter introduces design guidelines to attain specific game characteristic by prioritizing the design components in 4C/ID-model. Each game characteristic consists of three levels of design emphasis: preliminary, secondary, and tertiary. The ultimate goal of this chapter is to initiate a series of dialogue between cognitive learning outcome, systematic instructional design, and instructional game design thereby seeking to improve the overall game design and instructional efficiency.

introduction In recent years, the use of games for teaching and learning has grown significantly in the training industry and K-16 educational settings. There is,

however, a lack of understanding between what games readily provide (i.e., games’ characteristics) and what the learners need from games (i.e., learning outcome). Such deficiency makes it difficult for instructional designers to systematically apply a

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Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory

design framework as well as to justify their decisions in using games to enhance learning. Being equipped by their multi-dimensional characteristics, the instructional potential of games therefore cannot be fully utilized until there is substantive evidence linking specific instructional benefits to various game characteristics. Moreover, the lack of systematic instructional game design process supports unnecessarily prolonged, costly, and inefficient game design. Games today are usually designed and developed based on generic film production procedures as well as filmmakers’ mental models. Entertaining is the key design objective. All actions taken in game design are focused on one reason: to entertain the players. But what happens if we are to design instructional games? Does the entertainment element still override everything? While this key objective works for game developers, if games are to become a viable tool with instructional value, games need to more than entertain, they need to facilitate learning. This chapter believes that the design focus should be shifted to enhancing learning experience while still utilizes entertainment to support learner engagement. The ultimate goal of designing instructional games is to preserve the complex nature of games in order to optimize their impact on learning. The lack of a systematic design framework, however, often leaves some games’ learning-enhancing features unexplored. As a result, instructional games’ capabilities are not fully manifested for the purposes of enhancing learning and learning transfer to performance settings. The purpose of this chapter is to describe a systematic instructional game design framework to address the issues just presented. We identify the cognitive load theory-based 4C/ID-model as the prototypical model to base the instructional game design framework, emphasizing the 4C/IDmodel’s focus on schema construction for complex learning and performance transfer. The following sections first discuss games’ characteristics based on previous studies. Second, the chapter intro-

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duces the 4C/ID-model in the context of cognitive load theory; and third we propose an instructional game design framework based on 4C/ID-model to attain specific game characteristics in support of complex cognitive learning. Finally, the chapter proposes a design framework for future research with the intention to initiate meaningful dialogue on how we can empirically investigate the learning impact of instructional games.

bAcKground What Are games A game is a context in which individual and teamed players, bounded by rules and principles, compete in attaining identified game objectives. There is a series of decision-making processes are required by the game players. Elliot Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith (1971) explained that game playing is a voluntary exercise of controlling a system (i.e., the game) intended for a state of disequilibrium. In other words, game players continuously try out new methodologies and strategies during the game-playing process based on the system’s feedback until they achieve the game objectives or the equilibrium state. The following section explains several game components that include: • • • •

Games create experiences Rules and interactions in games Games are complex Games are models

Games Create Experiences Games are known for their capabilities to promote collaborative and active learning (Downes, 2004; Klabbers, 2006; Vygotsky, 1978). Game players learn from their success and mistakes in order to improve their gaming skills and playing strategies. Players learn about the games and how to win the games from playing games and reflecting on

Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory

the game interactions. The process begins with concrete playing experience. Players observe how the system responds to their actions in the form of scoring. Players then revise their playing strategies and try them out at similar situations. A player can play the game many times and never quite get the gist of the game (experience along is not sufficient). At some point, however, a player who thinks about what they are trying to learn (reflection and self feedback) can begin to master the game.

Rules and Interactions in Games Games requiring individual participation offer a rich environment for players to be interactive with the game system (UNIGAME, 2002). Games comprise a system that consists of rules, process, and interactions that players must experience in order to attain desired outcome. Game rules help players connect the game contexts with players’ existing schema; they also impose limits and guidelines on actions and to ensure that all players are seeking to achieve the game goals. Rules represent the criteria for evaluation of the player performance in the form of scoring, as well as to acknowledge players’ performance during the game-playing process. Rules further enable players to analyze the interrelationships between different rules to generate feasible and “winning” strategies (Bennett & Warnock, 2007; Björk & Holopainen, 2003; Garris, Ahlers, & Driskell, 2002; Hays, 2005; Leemkuil, de Jong, & Ootes, 2000). Interactions in games are considered as structural components allowing players to interface with other players, game context, and the system. It is the interaction component that makes the game rules and the playing process meaningful (Asgari , 2005; Crawford, 1982; de Felix & Johnson, 1993; Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2006; McGrenery, 1996; Myers, 1990; Thornton & Cleveland, 1990; Waal, 1995) The interactions within a game allow players to directly acquire

first-hand experience thereby helping them to learn about the system presented in the game.

Games Are Complex An engaging game can be more complex than a boring game. Players must consider multiple factors before finalizing a winning decision. Sim City™, for example, players are responsible for planning, developing, and sustaining a prospering city. Building a new hospital is usually an effective strategy to attract new residents to move to the “simulated” city. The decision-making process for players is everything but simple and straightforward. One game play or action could impact the overall outcome since all pieces are causally connected by the game rules and system. Games are capable of linking critical elements together and hence can create a complex learning environment, that helps learners see the complex nature of a given model and also can help to develop transferable and predictive problem-solving strategies (Björk & Holopainen, 2003).

Games Are Representations Models Games can embody abstract concepts and rules. The winning game play or game strategy is the translation of problem-solving strategies intended by the game model. The game adds contextual information to the model as to how to apply the information in different situations. This contextual information is often represented by a story line which implicitly or explicitly guides the players throughout the process. Simulation games, for example, are powerful in creating authentic situations for players to experience realistic and immediate performance feedback. Learners playing simulation games can directly interfacing with the intended model in a tangible way (Bennett & Warnock, 2007; Björk & Holopainen, 2003; Garris et al., 2002; Hays, 2005; Leemkuil et al., 2000).

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gaming characteristics

Rules

An exhaustive literature review has identified 11 prominent and yet interrelated characteristics found in games regardless of their delivery formats. Each game characteristic is described in Table 1.

Rules of games serve as the guidelines for players’ actions. Fair play is also sustained by the enforcement of game rules. Players need to learn about the game rules either by designated training or via the actual playing experience. In the context of games for learning, game rules could be the direct or indirect translations of intended instructional materials such as scientific concepts of economic principles (Bennett & Warnock, 2007; Björk & Holopainen, 2003; Garris et al., 2002; Hays, 2005).

Challenge A challenging activity provides an achievable level of difficulty for game players that consists of clearly identified task goals, unpredictability, immediate performance feedback, and a sense of accomplishment and conquering after completing the activities (Baranauskas, Neto, & Borges, 2001; Belanich, Sibley, & Orvis, 2004; Bennett & Warnock, 2007; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Garris et al., 2002; Malone, 1981; Malone & Lepper, 1987; McGrenery, 1996; Rieber & Matzko, 2001).

Goals Goals in games clearly state the final status for players to attain via a series of planned tasks and actions by following the game rules. Sub-goals in games are often presented to present various stages of accomplishment for motivational and evaluation purposes. The presence of goals is also the major difference between games and simulations (i.e., simulations could be goal-less) (Bennett & Warnock, 2007; Björk & Holopainen, 2003; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; de Felix & Johnson, 1993; Gredler, 1996; Hays, 2005; Hirumi, 2006; Leemkuil et al., 2000; Malone, 1980).

Competition Competition stimulates players to take risk-taking actions in a consequence-free environment enriched with social interactions. Players develop their skills during the game-playing process by matching and exceeding the opponents’ skill levels. The competition can be implemented between individual players, among teams, and even between players and the system (Baranauskas et al., 2001; Crawford, 1982; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Leemkuil et al., 2000; Rieber & Matzko, 2001; Vockell, 2004).

Fantasy and Changed Reality Fantasy creates entirely unreal situations and environments for game players. This characteristic encourages players to take risks in a safe environ-

Table 1. Game characteristics

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1.

Challenge

7.

Engagement and Curiosity

2.

Competition

8.

Role-Playing

3.

Rules

9.

Control

4.

Goals

10.

Multimodal Presentation

5.

Fantasy and Changed Reality

11.

Task

6

Story or Representation

Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory

ment. Fantasy also motivates players to follow the story line to achieve desired game goals (Bennett & Warnock, 2007; Garris et al., 2002; Kirriemuir & McFarlane, 2006; Malone, 1981; Malone & Lepper, 1987; McGrenery, 1996). Changed reality in games allows players to have exaggerated experiences in a specific context, which must reflect a certain degree of reality, but not entirely. Usually changed reality separates itself from reality by altering time, space, role-playing, and the complexity of situations (e.g., simplified reality) (Belanich et al., 2004; Björk & Holopainen, 2003; Crawford, 1982; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).

Control

Story or Representation

Role playing in the game involves the player becoming a character embedded in the story line of the game. Usually the player’s role is pre-identified with specific position, access to resource and control, dominance over the progression of the game, functionality (if within a team), and behavioral patterns. Role playing helps players establish connection with the fantasy world of the game in order to better engage players with the game-playing experience (Björk & Holopainen, 2003; Gredler, 1996).

Story line or representation in games provides paths for players to interact, react, and progress. It summarizes the game goals, rules, constraints, role playing, and contexts for players in a seamlessly interconnected and embedded fashion (Hirumi, 2006; Rieber & Matzko, 2001). Players usually favor the representation of game rules in stories since it not only informs them the game guidelines, but also provides a holistic view of the entire game context.

Engagement and Curiosity Engagement created by games allows players to become deeply involved in the game where players lose their sense of realistic self. In other words, players perceive themselves as part of the game and enjoy the intrinsically motivating game-playing experiences. Playing the game itself is rewarding enough without extrinsic motivators. Implementing elements of mystery and curiosity is also considered effective in creating engaging game experiences (Asgari, 2005; Bennett & Warnock, 2007; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Leemkuil et al., 2000; Malone, 1980; Malone & Lepper, 1987; McGrenery, 1996).

Control in games enables players to determine and predict the outcome of actions or events. Providing options or choices to players, for example, is an effective approach to allow players to exercise control over the game progression (Belanich et al., 2004; Bennett & Warnock, 2007; Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Garris et al., 2002; Gredler, 1996; Malone, 1981; Malone & Lepper, 1987; McGrenery, 1996; Waal, 1995).

Role Playing

Multimodal Presentation Games usually utilize multimodal presentation to effectively enhance the interest and instructional effect. This is particularly true in video games. Aural, visual, and textual presentations are combined in order to enrich the experience. Animations, for example, are popular as a major game component since they seamlessly integrate multimodal presentations and can be easily modified for different game contexts (Bennett & Warnock, 2007; Björk & Holopainen, 2003; de Felix & Johnson, 1993; McGrenery, 1996).

Task Within the game mission, there are several tasks that comprise the building block of a game’s goal.

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Players often are required to take on sequences of tasks in order to achieve the game’s final goals. Task feedback or performance scores serve as player assessment of accomplished tasks that help players improve their playing strategies (Björk & Holopainen, 2003; Gredler, 1996). Games tasks can be derived from a learning task analysis and can be used to help players reach of intended learning goals.

designers use the underlying principles found in the 4C/ID-model (van Merriënboer, & Sweller, 2005). This model is based on cognitive load theory (Chandler & Sweller, 1991; van Merriënboer & Paas, 1998), to address several of the concerns presented. The 4C/ID-model is suitable for designing and researching instructional games due to the model characteristics that include:

Problem

•

In addition to the aforementioned finding on game characteristics, the literature review (Johnson, Spector, Huang, & Novak, 2007) did not reveal a systematic nor pedagogically sound design model available for optimizing games’ effects on learning. Further, there was no evidence that suggested that a specific gaming characteristic or gaming strategy was linked to a specific learning goal. Given the multi-dimensional and multi-layered characteristics of games, the lack of practical design model diminishes the power of the game design to supporting complex learning and also prolongs the design cycle. The absence of empirical design model for instructional game also poses an immediate concern to the evaluation of games’ pedagogical impact. A majority of studies on games and their impact on learning are conducted as post-hoc analyses (O’Niel, Wainess, & Baker, 2005). Without a validated design model to purposefully control the inclusion and exclusion of design elements based on intended learning outcome, it is only possible to speculate the linkage between game characteristics and desired learning outcomes (O’Neil et al., 2005).

•

solution In order to enhance the decision-making associated with game design, we propose that game

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•

• •

Affordability to design complex learning environments; Flexibility to be applied for non-linear and compact design sequence; Scalability for design projects in various scopes; Validity and reliability of measuring learning outcome; and Emphasis on performance transfer.

cognitive load theory Cognitive load theory (CLT) (Chandler & Sweller, 1991; van Merriënboer & Paas, 1998) has established a sound theoretical foundation to connect cognitive research on human learning with instructional design and development (van Merriënboer, Clark, & de Croock, 2002). The purpose of CLT is to bridge the gap between information structures presented in the instructional material and human cognitive architecture so learners can use their working memory more efficiently (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003). “Learning,” in the context of CLT, is thought to involve acquisition and automation of schema. Acquisition of schema is the process of how learners construct schema and store them in long-term memory, whereas automation is how learners perform certain tasks without accessing working memory. Information required for the performance of a task is retrieved directly from the long-term memory (Paas et al., 2003). Successful construction and automation of schema will lead to a more efficient use of working memory for desired performance since both attributes require little working memory capac-

Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory

ity and yet are critical to meaningful learning (Mayer, 2001). Three types of cognitive load are suggested by CLT to construct cognitive load: intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane cognitive load. When combined, the three types of cognitive loads compose the total cognitive load, which can never exceed learner’s working memory capacity for learning to occur. The total of extraneous cognitive load and germane cognitive load is assumed to be equal to the overall cognitive load minus the intrinsic cognitive load. Since the intrinsic cognitive load is fixed (i.e., the load cannot be manipulated by instructional design), instructional design’s main purpose is to reduce the extraneous cognitive load while increasing the germane cognitive load (van Gerven, Paas, van Merriënboer, & Schmidt, 2003). Intrinsic cognitive load is associated with the element interactivity inherent to the instructional material itself. Element interactivity is described as the degree to which information can be understood alone without other elements’ involvement (Paas et al., 2003). As suggested by Paas et al. (2003), information with high element-interactivity is hard to understand because it usually depends on the involvement of other information units in order to see the full interaction. Therefore, instructional material with high element interactivity is assumed to induce a higher intrinsic cognitive load since the instruction requires more working memory for information processing (Pass et al., 2003). The intrinsic cognitive load is also considered to be independent of instructional manipulations because the manipulation only involves the amount of information a learner needs to hold in working memory without decreasing the inherent element interactivity (Pollock, Chandler, & Sweller, 2002). The extraneous cognitive load and germane cognitive load, in contrast, can be manipulated by instructional design (Brünken, Plass, & Leutner, 2003). Extraneous cognitive load is also known as ineffective cognitive load as it only involves

the process of searching for information within working memory as opposed to the process of constructing schemas in long-term memory (Paas et al., 2003). This type of cognitive load can be influenced by the way information is presented and the amount of working memory required for given learning tasks. The extraneous cognitive load is considered as the necessary cost of processing information that is not related to the understanding of information. Instructional design’s purpose therefore is to reduce the ineffective (i.e., extraneous) cognitive load (Brünken et al., 2003). Well-designed instructional multimedia components have been found to be effective in reducing the extraneous cognitive load (Khalil, Paas, Johnson, & Payer, 2005a, 2005b; Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Cobb (1997) suggested similar multimedia application in designing instructional materials to increase “cognitive efficiency, where he used multimedia component (non-verbal and non-textual components) as cognitive capacity external to learners’ working memory, to facilitate cognitive information processing. Consequently learners should spend less cognitive effort in understanding given information. In contrast to the desired low degree of the extraneous cognitive load, instructional materials should be designed to increase the germane cognitive load. The germane cognitive load, also known as effective cognitive load, is described as the effort learners invest in order to facilitate the process of constructing schema and automation (Paas et al., 2003). Higher germane cognitive load is suggested to lead to a deeper learning since learners are compelled by the design of the instructional material to reexamine every new piece of information (de Crook, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). In summarizing CLT, the overall goal of manipulating cognitive load with instructional design is to decrease the level of ineffective cognitive load (i.e., extraneous cognitive load) and to increase the effective cognitive load that promotes deeper learning (i.e., germane cognitive

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load) (Paas et al., 2003). The CLT further suggests that the combination of extraneous and germane cognitive load should remain relatively constant after removing the fixed intrinsic cognitive load (Paas et al., 2003). The decrease of extraneous cognitive load should lead to the increase of germane cognitive load, or vice versa (Paas et al., 2003; van Gerven et al., 2003). In order to better apply CLT in practical instructional design, van Merriënboer, Clark, and de Croock (2002) proposed the four-component instructional design system (4C/ID-model) for designing complex learning environments (van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005). The following section will discuss the 4C/ID model in detail and its applicability in designing complex game-based learning environments.

4c/id-model (Four components/ instructional design model) 4C/ID-model is a non-linear, systematic, integrated, and performance transfer-oriented instructional design model intending to reduce extraneous cognitive load while increasing germane cognitive load during the learning process in complex learning environments. The model includes four non-linear, interrelated design components: learning tasks, supportive information, just-in-time (JIT) information, and part-task practice. All design actions center around the learning tasks component. Learning tasks are concrete, authentic, wholetask experiences that are provided to learners to promote schema construction for non-recurring aspects and, to a certain degree, rule automation. Learning tasks must be complex and require the coordination and integration of all constituent skills. Task classes are used to define simpleto-complex categories of learning tasks and to steer the process of selection and development of suitable learning tasks. Learning tasks within a particular task class are equivalent in the sense that the tasks can be performed on the basis of

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the same body of knowledge (i.e., mental models and cognitive strategies). Learners are required to elaborate upon their existing knowledge base when given a higher task class. Various supports are also provided with learning tasks. Learner support informs learners about the problem in hand and guidance for generating effective solutions; product-support provided solution models in terms of worked-out examples and case studies; process-oriented support explains performance requirement and criterion reference for learners. The design should primarily aim at the induction process. That is, the design should focus on constructing schemata through attentive abstraction from the concrete. Supportive information mainly supports the learning and performance of non-recurring aspects of intended tasks. Theories and models are often included in supportive information since learners can apply them universally for problemsolving in the same task class. The design of learning environments aims at the construction of meaningful relationships between learners’ prior experiences and the learning tasks with experiential approach. More importantly the design should promote the elaboration process with cognitive feedback (Reigeluth, 1999) thus to enable learners to develop complex schemata. JIT information facilitates learners’ development in generating automated responses. Rules and principles are embedded in this design component and applied with the part-task practice. This design component uses demonstrations and instances to effectively explain the rules for all classes of learning tasks. Part-task practice promotes rule automation for selected recurrent aspects of the intended complex task. The design approach aims to gradually develop learners’ ability to automate the performance of recurrent skills via small task building blocks. In addition to help learners develop desired skill levels separately, the 4C/ID-model stresses the integration and coordination of different levels

Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory

of skills with intentional design, which traditional ISD models seem to lack. The main design goal of 4C/ID-model is to situate learners in authentic, complex learning environments with realistic contexts. The attainment of desired performance is more than just “assembling parts” together. Efforts also should go into the identification, evaluation, selection, combination of learned separated skills (constituent skills), to solve complex problems. 4C/ID-model suggests the necessity to purposefully design the relationships among different constituent skills (i.e., the outcome of task analysis) in complex learning environments. The relationships could be temporal as desired tasks need to be performed step-by-step; it is also possible that learners need to demonstrate proficient performance on different task procedures simultaneously (e.g., air traffic controllers must monitor multiple aircrafts at the same time). The model operates under these assumptions: (1) an upper level learning skill can be attained by assembling sets of simplified task procedure; and (2) performance transfer can be easily achieved after completing simplified learning tasks (van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005). It further divides constituent skills in general into two categories: non-recurrent skills and recurrent skills. Nonrecurrent skills morph themselves from problem to problem. As a result they require learners’ cognitive reasoning since every situation is different from their previous experiences. Cognitive strategies are applied to extract existing schema in order to facilitate the problem-solving process in a novel context. Recurrent skills, on the other hand, are less effortful for learners to process and perform. Problem-solving process, in the case of recurrent skills, is very close to what learners have experienced before. The design of the learning environment should focus on the abstraction of effective problemsolving process for non-recurrent skills since the goal is to enable learners to redevelop their own schema under various scenarios. In other words, the abstraction helps learners transfer the desired

performance from context to context. The design approach proposed by this model is to provide concrete cases for learners to fully experience the cycle of abstraction and schema redevelopment. Additionally supportive information is utilized as one of the design component, to facilitate the development of non-recurrent skills, which will be discussed later in this section. When designing for recurrent skills, authentic and full application of rules and principles is crucial. The goal is to help learners automate the desired performance procedures with the least effort. This model proposes a layer-by-layer approach to compile rules and procedures in the form of part-task practices. The entire task is dissected into interrelated part-task practices and learners are only asked to finish one of them at a time. The repetitive application of rules in order to accomplish all the part-task practices strengthens learners’ automated responses toward similar problems. Moreover learners should have spontaneous access to rules and principles while accomplishing part-task practices. The just-in-time (JIT) information thus is proposed in the design model to facilitate the automation development process. By addressing both aspects of skill sets with 4C/ID-model’s design approaches, learners will be able to transfer the desired performance efficiently into different contexts. See Figure 1 for the visual presentation of the 4C/ID-model (van Merriënboer et al., 2002).

using 4c/id FrAmeWorK For gAming design In this section we describe use of the 4C/IDmodel as the framework to compare the design components with games’ characteristics in order to answer following questions: •

What game characteristics, based on previous literature reviews, should be able to directly support cognitive learning?

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Figure 1. Visual presentation of the 4C/ID-model (in van Merriënboer, Clark, & de Croock, 2002, p. 44)

•

How are design components of 4C/ID-model capable of informing the design of specific game characteristic?

game characteristics and cognitive learning Cognitive learning, as described in the context of cognitive load theory as well as the 4C/IDmodel, mainly focuses on the construction of transferable schema (van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005). Such construction requires integrations of interrelated knowledge units and problem-solving processes. Learners should be able to understand the relationship among them and be able to apply them effectively in different and most of the time, new, problem-solving situations. Learners not only construct new schema as the result of the learning process, but also relate, flex, and expand existing schema to make the learning experience more meaningful. The instructional information should be delivered as the building

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blocks for developing learners’ cognitive structures in the forms of solved and unsolved cases, worked examples, process-explicit solutions, and so forth. Each building block is self-contained and yet interconnected with other pieces. The learning environment (i.e., instructional games) must help learners acquire what is included in each building block as well as how to assemble all building blocks together. Below is the list of game characteristics that can potentially support the schema construction process: Challenge: To encourage learners explore and experiment new processes, in other words, to flex their existing schema. Competition: Learners strive to facilitate the problem-solving process with effective solutions, in order to defeat the opponent(s), be it the game system, or competing units. Rules: Rules in instructional games provide learners with information that guide the problemsolving process. They also can be composed in a

Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory

way that requires learners to abstract and modify their existing schema. Goals: Goals of instructional games oftentimes are not explicitly related to the cognitive tasks intended in the game. But they provide specific performance objectives for learners to pursue in the forms of scores, accomplished missions, and conquered territories. In another words, goals are the performance criteria of assessing learners’ newly developed schema. Fantasy and Changed Reality: This is where instructional games can flex learners’ existing cognitive structure. Fantasy enables learners’ imaginations based on their experiences. Learners voluntarily extract existing schema that might be useful to accomplish given tasks in the fantasized context. The difference between fantasy and changed reality is manipulated by the foreignness of the gaming context perceived by learners. Learner’s prior experience plays a critical role in designing meaningful fantasy or changed reality in instructional games. Story and Representation: This characteristic in games illustrates operational schema for learners. Ideally, a story contains a problem to be solved, resources required to solve a problem, conditions necessary to implement the solution, and the outcome of applying such solutions. In instructional games the story should be incorporated as the contextual information for learners to see the big picture of the game. Rules of the game can also be implicit in the storylines to guide the learners’ actions. Engagement and Curiosity: Engagement sustains learners’ attention during the learning process while curiosity drives learners to explore and experiment. This set of game characteristic enables learners persistently expand their existing cognitive structure. Role Playing: Role playing does not necessarily have to be in a fantasized context. Learners can be assigned with a completely different set of skills and environmental and situational characteristics to experience the instructional

game. This game feature could enable learners to transfer problem-solving principles from role to role. It also familiarizes learners with various bodies of knowledge given different roles’ diverse expertise. Control: Learners prefer to control their own schema development processes. Self-pacing is one popular mechanism in playing games. Learners are able to monitor their progress in the process of achieving game goals with accumulated scores and number of mission accomplished. Multimodal Presentation: This is an important game characteristic that affords effective manipulations of cognitive load during the learning process. Application and variation of multimodal presentation aims to reduce unnecessary usage of learners’ cognitive capacity therefore facilitating schema development. Task: Tasks represent a structure on which to construct schema for learners in instructional games. They are the building blocks of a game. Learners are required to accomplish sequenced or classed tasks in order to attain the final game goal. Each task encompasses all the aforementioned game characteristics in an operational form.

4c/id-model design components and game characteristics This section focuses on the process of using 4C/ID-model design components to create the instructional game environment, which bears the aforementioned game characteristics that are capable of facilitating cognitive learning process. Each game characteristic is paired with a primary component (denoted as 3 for highest priority), a secondary (denoted as 2) component, and tertiary design components (denoted as 1) from 4C/IDmodel based on each component’s definition to attain corresponding game characteristics. The radar graph in each game characteristic visually depicts the design priority we suggest. The combination of all components (learning tasks,

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part-task, supportive information, and just in time) aims to optimize the design outcome.

Tertiary Design Component Part-task practice and JIT information are suggested to the tertiary design components.

challenge Primary Design Component Learning task is the main design focus to create a challenging game-based learning environment. Tasks are designed with various difficulty levels of attainable task objectives. Task variability also allows designers to manipulate the challenge levels of the learning environment.

Secondary Design Component Supportive information needs to be carefully designed in order to create a challenging instructional game. The amount of supportive information available to learners in the game should be determined by learners’ performance in prior tasks. Providing all supportive information to learners without performance analysis might reduce the level of challenge perceived by learners.

Game Design Guideline for Challenge Characteristic When creating learning games, designers need to focus on using varying levels of the learning task as the primary focus for creating a challenging game. If game challenge is based on other nontask factors, players will not spend the resources engaging in the critical tasks to be learned. Games need to engage and provide experiences related to the key learning tasks. Challenge can be presented in the form of a score or winning, but the score or success determinant needs to be directly related to the learning task. When designing game challenge, supportive information and part-task practice need to be aligned with learning tasks, thereby strengthening the learning focus of the game. The degree that these design features are present determines the degree of challenge. For example, if supportive information is present

Figure 2. Design emphasis for challenge

Learning T asks 3 2 1 JIT Inform ation

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Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory

then the degree of challenge is less then when the supportive information is absent.

Game Design Guideline for Competition Characteristic

competition

To facilitate game competition, players need to get immediate feedback on their performance. This feedback is presented primarily in the form of supportive information as well as JIT information. The learning tasks and the part-task practice are related to the game play, but not fundamental to enhancing the competition aspects of games. Competition is based on one player’s interest compared to another player or a specified performance standard. The comparison information is either a score or performance feedback for both the player and the competition. This would be considered primarily supportive information. This information can be used as feedback to help the player regulate their level of game involvement.

Primary Design Component Competition requires immediate feedback on learners’ performance as well as information regarding model performance or peer performance. Therefore the primary design components for this game characteristic include supportive information, that provides cognitive feedback, and JIT information that provides corrective feedback.

Secondary Design Component Competition loses its attraction while every participant has similar skill level or resources as the result of practicing. Designers need to be cautious about not providing excessive part-task practices thus the competition feature can be fully demonstrated.

rules Primary Design Component Rule acquisition is best instilled via repetitive practice. In most cases game rules are translated from intended instructional information. Learners need to be able to automate the use of rules into

Tertiary Design Component Learning tasks is the tertiary design component for this characteristic.

Figure 3. Design emphasis for competition

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recurrent aspects of problem-solving tasks. Both supportive information and part-task practices are cable of achieving this game characteristic.

development of games rules is important. Providing supportive information as well as part-task practice can facilitate rule acquisition. Supportive information is direct and can quickly support rule acquisition. Practice allows players to test out their understanding and revise their rule models. Rules as part of JIT information does not give learners the information at the decision making and strategic point. Plus the use of the rules needs to become automatic for the learners. Optimal task performance occurs as part of the players having a fluent understanding of the game rules.

Secondary Design Component Designers need to be cautious about inserting too much information about intended rules with the JIT information component. Although it is important to support learners’ performance with the recurrent aspect of task by providing learners with JIT information such as rules, the instructional game should aim to develop learners’ automation without any support external to learners’ cognitive structures.

goals Primary Design Component

Tertiary Design Component

Goals should be identified in the learning task. The game goals should directly connect to the learning goals with explicit rationales.

Learning task is the tertiary design component for this characteristic.

Game Design Guideline for Rules Characteristic

Secondary Design Component Supportive information and JIT information need to provide cognitive as well as corrective feedback to ensure learners are staying on the right track to attain the game goal.

One of the first tasks in game playing is learning the rules. Once the rules are acquired, players are able to formulate appropriate decision making to compete successfully. Facilitating players’

Figure 4. Design emphasis for rules

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Instructional Game Design Using Cognitive Load Theory

Fantasy, changed reality, and role Playing

Tertiary Design Component Part-task practice is the tertiary design component for this characteristic.

Primary Design Component

Game Design Guideline for Goals Characteristic

The design of learning task is the key component for this characteristic. Contextual information in each learning task enables learners to situate themselves into the specific game setting.

Of the various components of the 4C/ID model, learning tasks need to be aligned with the game goals. If the game goals and the learning tasks are not parallel, then the game goals that drive the game play will be more deliberate thereby diminishing the learning tasks.

Secondary Design Component Designers need to make sure that supportive information can provide additional support for

Figure 5. Design emphasis for goals

Learning Tas k s 3 2 1 JIT Inform ation

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Figure 6. Design emphasis for fantasy, changed reality, and role-playing

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individual tasks’ function to contain necessary elements in order to complete certain pieces of the story, this part of the design also needs to focus on the connectivity between tasks. Thus learners are able to assemble all pieces together and finish the story.

learners to be able to operate effectively in the fantasy world. Common senses or general knowledge might not be sufficient to accomplish given tasks in an unrealistic context.

Tertiary Design Component

Secondary Design Component

Part-task practice and JIT information are the tertiary design components for this characteristic.

Similar to the design of fantasy or changed reality, designers should to provide sufficient background information for learners to see the whole story line as soon as possible. Supportive information should be designed closely with the background story of learning task.

Game Design Guideline for Fantasy, Changed Reality, and Role-Playing Characteristic Learning task and to a lesser extent supportive information are important in the development of these game characteristics. The context of the learning tasks will support or weaken the intended setup for fantasy, reality, or role play. The critical element in making the set-up believable is that both the task and supportive information are aligned with the intended environmental setup.

Tertiary Design Component Part-task practice and JIT information are the tertiary components.

Game Design Guideline for Story and Representation Characteristic

story and representation

Similar to fantasy, reality, or role play, the contextual setting for the learning task needs to be primarily considered in the creation of the story or game representation. Aligning the game design with the learning task will impact the quality of the overall game story and representation.

Primary Design Component Designers should focus on the learning task for this characteristic. In addition to emphasize

Figure 7. Design emphasis for story or representation

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engagement and curiosity

Game Design Guideline for Engagement and Curiosity Characteristic

Primary Design Component The design focus should aim to maintain learners’ interests in continuing participating in the gameplaying process. From the viewpoint of cognitive learning, the learning environment needs to be relevant to learners’ prior experience and be able to attract learners’ attention in the initial stage of the learning process. Therefore the JIT information needs to be emphasized since it provides learners with support on prerequisite information, which must closely aligned with the learning task.

Engagement and curiosity can be support with JIT information. This type of information can provide players with assistance to decrease frustration levels as well as prompt players with hints about the specific game play. By providing JIT information, players are given information to string them along the game and facilitate their personal interest and curiosity.

Secondary Design Component

Primary Design Component

Given the complexity involved in creating an engaging instructional game, designers should focus on the learning task and supportive information to continuously guide learners to explore new ways of processing information as well as to stretch their existing cognitive structure.

In order to perceive their full control in a game, learners want to have options in actions taken in a game. Players also need consistent and meaningful feedback from the system and other game participants to support decision-making to best help maintain control. The emphasis of design lies with supportive information for its cognitive feedback and JIT information for its corrective feedback.

control

Tertiary Design Component Part-task practice is the tertiary design component for this characteristic.

Figure 8. Design emphasis for engagement and curiosity

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Secondary Design Component

Multimodal Presentation

Learning task should be designed to offer learners multiple paths to solve one problem. Clear performance indicator during the game playing process also needs to be included (e.g., performance scores, enemies defeated, etc.).

This design principle can effectively reduce the overall cognitive load induced by the game-based learning environment. Designers need to be extremely cautious about not overloading learners’ cognitive load with abundance of multimedia stimuli. Rather, multimedia components should be utilized in a way to serve as the peripheral cognitive capacity for learners to process information.

Tertiary Design Component Part-task practice is the tertiary design component for this characteristic.

Game Design Guideline for Control Characteristic The learning task is predefined and offers little control for the player outside of the standard learning task steps. However the JIT information as well as the supportive information provide players with information about how they can better control the game play as well as giving them information about the game options thereby allowing them to control the decision-making tasks, thereby ultimately giving them control over the game. This is akin to the saying, “knowledge is power.”

Game Design Guideline for Multimodal Presentation Characteristic While multimodal refers to varying types of media, the 4C/ID-model automatically considers multimodal strategies: learning tasks, supportive information, JIT information, and part-task practice. These four components are collectively considered multimodal. Each one is unique, yet they all are focusing on different aspects of the game environment. In considering the components, this will allow the player game support from multiple directions.

Figure 10. Design emphasis for control

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Figure 11. Design emphasis for multimodal presentation

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Figure 12. Design emphasis for tasks

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task Primary Design Component Similar to what 4C/ID-model suggested, tasks are the central piece of the design for most of the games. Game task is the embodiment of schema that learners must develop as the result of the learning process. The interconnection between game tasks is equally important as the content within each game task. Designers should focus on the learning task component for this characteristic. Additionally the supportive information and JIT information must be sufficient to provide

the connection between all tasks, to develop learners’ fluidity in applying intended skill sets to different contexts.

Secondary Design Component Part-task practice can be inserted between main game tasks to reinforce the automation of intended skills.

Game Design Guideline for Tasks Characteristic This game characteristic focuses on the game task. As mentioned earlier, the learning task ide1161

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ally needs to be aligned with the game task. In as much as these two are similar, the game design will enable players to simultaneously engage in learning during the game-play periods.

conclusion This chapter, based on cognitive load theory and the 4C/ID-model, proposes a systematic design framework for designing pedagogically sound instructional games. The ultimate goal is to initiate series of empirical inquiries on how designers can link game characteristics with intended learning outcome via systematic design processes.

imPlicAtions The adoption of 4C/ID-model not only presents viable opportunities for designing pedagogically sound games, but also reminds us the need for rigorous design research to continuously examine existing instructional design models for instructional game design and more importantly, to identify innovative design models and theories across disciplines. For example, Johnson (2001) proposed the “emergence perspective” to advocate a decentralized and multi-lateral system design approach based on his observations on ant colonies and human cities, which is considered an efficient design approach for video games (Irlbeck, Kays, Jones, & Sims, 2006). The feedback generated by the interactions between existing design model components, intended learning outcome, and preferred game characteristics should guide the overall design process, as opposed to following rigid and linear steps seen in conventional instructional design approach.

Future trends In terms of systematic design process for developing instructional games, it is likely to see more streamlined process emerging from the field. We also anticipate more joint effort between computer science, learning technologies, and the game industry. The key is to connect theories of learning with design practices that are feasible by current industry standards for many reasons. First and foremost is to promote instructional games as efficient tools to enhance learning experience and to sustain improved performance. Second, designers want to be able to make design decisions with strong empirical support on the pedagogical effect of instructional games. Third, industry wants to be able to manage the design and development process with more efficiency and confidence. On the research front of investigating instructional games’ impact on learning and performance, we foresee research frameworks consist of all aspects of learning (behavioral, cognitive, and attitudinal), blended methodologies (quantitative, qualitative, and physiological measurement), and human performance improvement. The outcome of such eclectic research undertaking will not only inform all stakeholders about the effect of instructional games, but also will provide concurrent evidence, from various disciplines, to further our understanding on human learning.

reFerences Asgari, M. (2005). A three-factor model of motivation and game design. Digital Games Research Conference (DIGRA), Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Avedon, E. M., & Sutton-Smith, B. (1971). The study of games. New York: John Wiley & Son. Baranauskas, C. C., Neto, N. G. G., & Borges, M. A. F. (2001). Learning at work through a multi-

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user synchronous simulation game. International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life Long Learning, 11(3), 251-60. Belanich, J., Sibley, D. E., & Orvis, K. L. (2004). Instructional characteristics and motivational features of a PC-based game. U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Bennett, J., & Warnock, M. (2007). Instructional game characteristics. Retrieved January 5, 2007, from http://iit.bloomu.edu/Spring2006_eBook_ files/index.htm Björk, S., & Holopainen, J. (2003). Describing games: An interaction-centric structural framework. Digital Games Research Conference (DIGRA). Brünken, R., Plass, J., & Leutner, D. (2003). Direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 53-61. Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format of instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 8, 293-332. Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1992). The split-attention: Tactical implications for classroom instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62, 233-46. Cleveland, J. N., & Thornton, G. C. (1990). Developing managerial talent through simulation. American Psychologist, 45, 190-99. Cobb, T. (1997). Cognitive efficiency: Toward a revised theory of media. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45, 1042-62. Crawford, C. (1982). The art of computer game design. Retrieved January 5, 2007, from http:// www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/gamebook/Coverpage.html Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Finding flow: The psychology of optical experience. New York: Harper Perennial.

de Crook, M. B. M., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). High versus low contextual interference in simulation-based training of troubleshooting skills: Effects on transfer performance and invested mental effort. Computers in Human Behavior, 14(2), 249-67. de Felix, J. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1993). Learning from video games. Computers in the Schools, 9(2/3), 119-34. Downes, S. (2004). Learning by doing: James Paul Gee at RIMA ICEF. Retrieved January 7, 2007, from http://www.downes.ca/cgibin/website/view. cgi?dbs=Article&key=1079385148 Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. Gredler, M. E. (1996). Educational games and simulations: A technology in search of a research paradigm. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 521-540). New York, Macmillan. Hays, R. T. (2005). The effectiveness of instructional games: A literature review and discussion. Orlando, Florida: Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division. Hirumi, A. C. (2006). Serious games: In search of quality. Retrieved December 11, 2006, from http://www.jointadlcolab.org/newsandevents/ifests/2006/presentations/Dr_Atsusi_2C_Hirumi. ppt Irlbeck, S., Kays, E., Jones, D., & Sims, R. (2006). The phoenix rising: emergent models of instructional design. Distance Education, 27, 171-85. Johnson, S. (2001). Emergence: The connected lives of ants, brains, and software. New York: Simon & Schuster.

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Johnson, T. E., Spector, J. M., Huang, W. D., & Novak, E. (2007). Instructional gaming effects on learning outcomes and instructional strategy selection. Technical Report prepared for Conventional Training versus Game-Based Training Project, Naval Air Warfare Center, Training Systems Division and JXT, Inc, Dayton, OH. Kasvi, J. J. J. (2000). Not just fun and games: Internet games as a training medium. In P. Kymäläinen & L. Seppänen (Eds.), Cosiga: Learning with computerised simulation games (pp. 23-34). HUT: Espoo. Ke, F. (2007). Classroom goal structures for educational math game application. Retrieved March 5, 2007, from http://delivery.acm.org/10. 1145/1160000/1150080/p314-ke.pdf?key1=11500 80&key2=9021013711&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID =15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 Khalil, M. K., Paas, F., Johnson, T. E., & Payer, A. F. (2005a). Interactive and dynamic visualizations in teaching and learning of anatomy: A cognitive load perspectives. The Anatomical Record Part B: New Anatomist, 286B, 8-14. Khalil, M. K., Paas, F., Johnson, T. E., & Payer, A. F. (2005b). Design of interactive and dynamic anatomical visualizations: The implication of cognitive load theory. The Anatomical Record Part B: New Anatomist, 286B, 15-20. Kirriemuir, J., & McFarlane A. (2006). Literature review in games and learning. Futurelab Series, Futurelab. Klabbers, J. H. G. (2006). The magic circle: Principles of gaming & simulations. Rotterdam: Sense Publisher. Leemkuil, H. T., de Jong, T., & Ootes, S. (2000). Review of educational use of games and simulations. EC project KITS. Malone, T. W. (1980). What makes things fun to learn? A study of intrinsically motivating com-

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puter games. Palo Alto, CA: Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. Malone, T. W. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 4, 333-69. Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction (3, pp. 223-253). Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43-52. McGrenery, J. (1996). Design: Educational electronic multi-player games: A literature review. University of the British Columbia. O’Neil, H. F., Wainess, R., & Baker, E. L., (2005). Classification of learning outcomes: Evidence from the computer games literature. The Curriculum Journal, 16(4), 4 5 5 474. Paas, F. G. W. C., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory: Instructional implications of the interaction between information structure and cognitive architecture. Instructional Science, 32(1), 1-8. Paas, F. G. W. C., van Merriënboer, J. G., & Adam, J. J. (1994). Measurement of cognitive load in instructional research. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 79, 419-30. Pollock, E., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2002). Assimilating complex information. Learning and Instruction, 12(1), 61-86. Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). Instructional-design theories and models. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Rieber, L. P., & Matzko, M. J. (2001). Serious design of serious play in physics. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(1), 14-24. UNIGAME. (2002). Game-based learning in universities and lifelong learning. Minerva Project: 101288-CP-1-2002-1-AT-MINERVA-M. Retrieved March 2007, from http://www.unigame. net/html/project_game.html van Gerven, P., Paas, F., van Merriënboer, J., & Schmidt, H. (2003). On the role of modality, variability, and aging in complex skill training. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AERA, Chicago, IL, April 21-25. van Merriënboer, J. J. G., Clark, R. E., & de Croock, M. B. M. (2002). Blueprints for complex learning: The 4C/ID-model. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(1), 39-64. van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive load theory and complex learning: Recent developments and future directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 147-77. Vockell, E. (2004). Educational psychology: A practical approach. Retrieved January 5, 2007, from http://education.calumet.purdue.edu/Vockell/EdPsyBook Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Key terms 4C/ID-Model: 4C/ID-model is a non-linear and systematic processing model for designing complex learning environment based on cognitive load theory. The model consists of learning tasks, supportive information, part-task practices, and just-in-time information. The design focus of

this model is on the integration and coordination of various levels of intended problem-solving skills. As a result, learners are able to transfer desired performance to various contexts with efficiency. Cognitive Load: The amount of mental effort learners invest during the learning process. Which is also closely associated with learner’ working memory capacity. The purpose of instructional design is to optimize the allocation of cognitive load to induce the deep learning process. Extraneous Cognitive Load: This type of cognitive load only associates with the searching and organization of information, which should occupy the least amount of working memory. Instructional designers should utilize multimedia and other cognitive-oriented design to reduce the extraneous cognitive load. Game: A game is a context in which individual or teamed players, bounded by rules, compete in attaining identified game objectives. Germane Cognitive Load: This type of cognitive load is directly associated with the construction of schema. Instructional designers should aim to increase the level of germane cognitive load, induced by the instruction, as much as possible. Intrinsic Cognitive Load: This cognitive load is inherent with the difficulty of the subject matter (e.g., organic chemistry versus multiplication). The cognitive load level cannot be manipulated by instructional design. Schema: A schema is a memory unit stored in learners’ long-term memory. Schema consists of mental models for reasoning and cognitive strategies for problem-solving.

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Chapter LXVII

Motivation, Learning, and Game Design Mahboubeh Asgari Simon Fraser University, Canada David Kaufman Simon Fraser University, Canada

AbstrAct While there are thousands of educational computer and video games in the market today, few are as engaging and compelling as entertainment games. Some entertainment games have also been used in classrooms and have proven to produce incidental learning (e.g., Civilization III, SimCity). This has demonstrated that learning can occur through playing computer and video games, although it does not address the question of how to design engaging games for learning that incorporate specific learning objectives. As educators, we generally design instruction by specifying our learning objectives and then developing our learning materials to address these objectives. The authors of this chapter argue that there are a number of elements used in entertainment games that motivate players, and using these elements in the design process for educational games based on learning objectives would create motivational and engaging educational games. This chapter outlines the elements needed to develop such games.

introduction During the past 40 years, computer games have been played with a variety of technologies and on a variety of devices: from a floppy disk; CDROM; through the use of e-mail; on the Internet;

with handheld machines such as the Game Boy, mobile phones, and game consoles such as the Sony PlayStation 2 or Nintendo’s GameCube. These powerful tools have the potential to create environments that increase motivation, engage learners, and support learning (Cordova, 1993;

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Dempsey, Haynes, Lucassen, & Casey, 2002; Gee, 2003, 2004; Lepper & Malone, 1987; Rieber, 1996; Rosas, Nussbaum, Cumsille, Marianov, Correa, et al., 2003; Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2005; Squire, 2004, 2006; Stewart, 1997). They have a great appeal to teachers and for learners, making it important to examine the characteristics that help with the design of educational games that are motivating and engaging. While there are thousands of educational computer and video games in the market today, there are very few as engaging and compelling as entertainment games; the best known examples are Where in the World is Carmen San Diego? (Broderbund Software, 1985) and The Oregon Trail (Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, mid-1980s). Meanwhile, there are some entertainment games that have been used in classrooms as an add-on to the regular curriculum materials and instruction, such as Civilization III, and SimCity, and proven to produce incidental learning though they were not initially designed and intended for education. This demonstrates that learning can occur through playing computer and video games, although it does not address the question of how to design games for learning that incorporate specific learning objectives while providing engagement. As educators, we generally design instruction by specifying our learning objectives and then developing our learning materials to support learners in meeting these objectives. The authors of this chapter argue that there are a number of elements used in entertainment games that motivate players, and if these elements were used in the design process for educational games based on prescribed learning objectives, then we could create motivational and engaging educational games. This chapter outlines the elements needed to develop such games. The authors first address the importance of motivation in engaging students and increasing their learning. Knowing that computer and video games are motivating and engaging, the authors

discuss the need for integrating these games in education and examine the positive affect of games on learning. Civilization III and SimCity are then explained as entertainment games that have been used in regular classrooms and have produced incidental learning. Finally, the elements incorporated in the design of such engaging entertainment games are outlined so they can be applied to the design of educational games that are based on prescribed learning objectives.

motivAtion And leArning To design games for learning, one fundamental factor needed is to incorporate features that increase motivation. Motivation plays an important role in engaging students doing activities and increases their learning. Learner’s motivation in learning is an important evidence-based psychological principle reported by American Psychological Association (APA, 1997). What is learned, and how much is learned, are both influenced by the learner’s motivation. According to the APA, learner’s positive emotions such as curiosity can increase motivation and facilitate learning; however, negative emotions and related thoughts such as anxiety, worrying about competence, or failure can decrease motivation and interfere with learning. In addition, tasks that are personally relevant, meaningful, interesting, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the level of learners’ abilities and skills, provide personal choice and control, and tasks that learners believe they can succeed, can stimulate learner’s intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, providing an opportunity for learners to interact and collaborate with others can enhance motivation and learning. Learning may be enhanced when the learner’s current level of arousal increases, increased intrinsic motivation may heighten the learner’s attention toward the instruction, enhanced motivation may change learner’s “depth of processing” or active involvement in the activity, or change the learner’s

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mood state. Finally, a learner may recall or transfer abstract problems better when such problems are presented in familiar representations (Lepper & Malone, 1987). As a result, motivation is important since it has a direct effect on learning outcomes, the desire to continue to learn, and in general, what and how to learn. Because of the role of motivation in doing activities and learning, we need to include the features that are motivating and engaging in designing computer games for learning. Before examining the motivating features of computer and video games, we first explain why we believe that these games should be used in education.

comPuter gAmes And leArning Over the past three decades, researchers have shown interest in integrating computers in educational environments. The rationale for embedding game-like elements in instructional material rather than presenting material in a non-motivationally embellished context has been mainly about the “effects” that such motivational embellishments could have on learning. Since then, two opposite approaches have been proposed. Diana Cordova (1993, citing from Davis et al., 1997; Lesgold, 1982) states that advocates of using computers in educational environments see such integration as enhancing learning because they increase children’s enjoyment, attention, effort, and concentration; however, opponents indicate that such activities may distract children from the educational content and may weaken learning (Cordova, 1993, citing from D’Attore, 1981; Psotka, 1982). While opponents perceive these activities as undermining motivation and learning in the long term, empirical research seems to show the opposite, that is, using computer and video games in presenting instructional materials provides opportunities for students to actively become involved in problem solving (Garris, Ahlers, &

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Driskell, 2002). It has positive effects on selfregulation of students’ learning process (Rosas et al., 2003), and strengthens their attention and concentration on the content (Cordova, 1993, citing Lesgold, 1982; Garris et al., 2002, citing Ricci et al., 1996; Rosas et al., 2003). It also increases students’ enjoyment and effort (Cordova, 1993, citing Lesgold, 1982), and increases their motivation and ultimately their learning (Chen, Shen, Ou, & Liu, 1998; Cordova & Lepper, 1996). Through creating simulated worlds and recruiting identities, computer and video games can offer opportunities for students to practice, automatize their skills, and trigger deep learning (Gee, 2003, 2004; Squire, 2004, 2006). In addition, considering the new generation of students as the “video game generation”, Marc Prensky (2005) recommends the integration of computer and video games in education since this generation do not respond well to traditional instruction. Because of the number of hours today’s students spend on using computers, video games, cell phones, digital music players, and the like (digital tools), Prensky proposes two essential reasons for using computer games for learning: (1) Learners have changed radically and (2) They need to be motivated in new ways. Prensky believes that growing up with digital technology has dramatically changed the way the new generation—digital natives, as he calls them—think and process information. To keep this generation of young people motivated and engaged with lessons in classrooms is a challenge. Such a generation familiar with digital technologies, no longer learn by just being “told”; they learn through questions, discovery, construction, interaction, and most importantly, through fun. Similarly, David Shaffer and his colleagues (2005) state that we need video games in schools because they create new social and cultural worlds. They allow students to experience realities and make it possible “to develop the situated understandings, effective social practices, powerful identities, shared values, and ways of thinking

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of important communities of practice” (p. 11). They are new ways of learning for a new information age.

using entertAinment gAmes in educAtion While many entertainment style video games have been extremely successful in motivating players and engaging them for long periods of play, educational games have generally failed to engage learners in a significant way. Meanwhile, there are some entertainment games that have proven to produce incidental learning and have been used in some classrooms as an add-on to the regular curriculum materials and instruction. Civilization III and SimCity are two games that have been used considerably by teachers in their classrooms. They offer both entertainment and educational value. In the online strategy game Civilization III, students can choose a geographical region and develop it through resources, skills, technological advancements, military power, and other elements they obtain in order to build an empire and civilization. The game mediates players’ conceptions of world history. Using the game for ninth-graders to learn about history, Kurt Squire (2004) explains how the game provided the students with a space to bring their own experiences to the study of world history, and so provided a different way to learn history. This is due to the possibility of exploring new positions and identities that both James Gee (2003, 2004) and Squire (2004, 2006) talk about. For instance, African-American students who are used to have the position of being colonized by the oppressors had the opportunity to explore a different image of self—questioning why Africans did not colonize America or Europe—offer a new image of their self, and for example, overthrow colonial oppressors. SimCity is a great resource for understanding urban planning. In this game, players can be the

mayor of their own city and try to make their city to a better place to live. Learning to master the game can help players with developing the concepts of systems thinking. SimCity, as Squire (2002) points out, can “depict social bodies as complex dynamic systems and embody concepts like positive feedback loops that are central to systems thinking” (p. 4). In this simulation game, players learn about politics, ecology, economics, and geography while forming and growing their cities. SimCity has the potential to teach the players about the power wielded by mayors and that politics, ethnicity, and race play a role in urban planning (Squire, 2002, citing Kolson, 1996). Through an experiential project using SimCity, Sasha Barab and his colleagues (cited by Squire, 2002) reported that students developed some basic concepts of how cities form and develop. For instance, a six-year-old player realized that having electricity in his city encouraged people to move in there since electricity was a need for them to see in the dark. Such an example shows “how the process of interpreting game play, of drawing analogies between symbolic representations in the game and their real-life analogs is one of active interpretation, and suggests that students might benefit from systematic explanations or presentations of information.” (p. 6) These examples of using entertainment games in education demonstrate that incidental learning can occur through playing computer and video games, although they leave unanswered the question of how to design games for learning that incorporate specific learning objectives while also providing engagement. In the following section, we examine the key elements of motivational entertainment games that have been documented in the literature. We suggest that if these elements were used to develop educational games, based on prescribed learning objectives, then we could create educational games that are both motivational and engaging.

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gAme design Knowing that computer and video games can increase students’ motivation and affect their learning positively, we need to determine which features make such games motivating and engaging for students, and which design features should be taken into account while designing games for learning. In this section, we discuss the features of motivating games previously documented in the literature. We have organized these features into six categories: learning, structural, individual, technical, social, and emotional.

1. learning Features Different kinds of learning occur over the course of a game. Learning starts with determining how to start and play the game, and continues through practicing and developing skills to master different levels of the game. The best games, as Prensky (2001) asserts, are the ones that are easy to learn while providing many challenges. Here are some features that help players learn the game and get immersed in it. Clear and Concise Instructions. Integrating clear instructions into the opening sequence of the game can help players learn complex games (Gee, 2003). Players start learning a game by using trial and error and then they look for guidance by reading instructions or hint screens. Therefore, instructions should be clear and concise (Dempsey, Lucassen, Haynes, & Casey, 1996). Similarly, in their review of the literature on the use of computer and video games, Mitchell and Savill-Smith (2004) state that games should have a simple start-up and instructions, provide players constant access to information to help their navigation, and give them the chance to correct and learn from their errors in order to learn the game and make progress in it. Hints. Including help functions, tips, and “winning prototypes” (examples of how to play the game) helps learning the game and as a result

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sustains players’ engagement. Players can then transfer winning prototype learning strategies to other learning tasks (Dempsey et al., 1996). Informational Feedback. It is recommended that games provide clear, constructive, and encouraging feedback (Malone, 1980; Reeve, 1992). Performance feedback can engage and enhance the player’s self-esteem. Out of the two types of feedback, controlling and informational (Deci, 1976), the latter influences the individual’s feelings of competence and self-determination, enhances intrinsic motivation, and ultimately learning the game. Prensky (2001) also mentions the importance of providing instant feedback in the game for learning.

2. structural Features Challenge. An activity is intrinsically motivating when it has the characteristics of an optimal challenge. An optimal challenge is one in which the person’s skills and the difficulty level of the task match (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Thomas Malone (1980) states that to make games appealing, they should provide an appropriate goal. Challenging games with clear goals and the participants’ desire to discover the object of the games are motivating for players (Dempsey et al., 1996). Having a moderate challenge has been described through different terms in the research. While Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi calls it as “flow state”—a psychological state that occurs as the result of pure involvement when the individual’s skills and the level of challenge are in balance— Edward Deci (1976) refers to it as “perceived competence”. Similarly, Gee (2003) states that a good video game needs to operate within the player’s “regime of competence”: that is, the game is challenging but not “undoable” (p. 70). Likewise, a game should have a smooth “learning curve,” so that it is not so hard as to frustrate the player but challenging enough (Crawford, 2003; Snider, 2003; Waal, 1995).

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Complexity, Novelty, and Unpredictability. Complex, novel, and unpredictable activities are motivating because such activities invite curiosity and exploration (Reeve, 1992). Repetition in stimuli, whether it is visual, auditory, or other, reduces novelty and decreases an individual’s exploration and interest. In other words, as novelty declines, exploration decreases because the activity is not unpredictable anymore. Therefore, games that are complex, novel, and unpredictable are motivating. Rules. Having clear and meaningful rules are motivating and engaging in games (Becta, 2001 cited by Garris et al., 2002; Mitchell & SavillSmith, 2004; Prensky, 2005). Designers should make the rules of a game reasonable as players are constantly judging whether the rules of the game are fair, meaningful, and reflect the real world or not (Prensky, 2005). Fantasy. Thomas Malone and Mark Lepper (1987) define a fantasy environment as one that “evokes mental images of physical or social situations not actually present” (p. 240). They state that including the element of fantasy in activities such as games is motivating. According to Malone (1980), fantasy makes computer games more interesting. People can satisfy emotional needs that are not available for them in real life, such as power, success, and fame, with the different kinds of fantasies and imaginary characters that computer/video games provide for them. Cordova (1993) suggests that personalizing the given fantasy and making it more relevant to the background and interests of learners can enhance the motivational appeal of educational activities for them. Curiosity. According to Malone and Lepper (1987), curiosity is the result of a knowledge gap. In order to stimulate the individual’s curiosity, the level of discrepancy between the new information and the individual’s knowledge should not be too low or too high, but moderate. Malone and Lepper divide curiosity into sensory (audio and

visual effects) and cognitive curiosity (surprises and constructive feedback). Cognitive curiosity is more important in the context of designing instructional environments. Control. Control is the ability to regulate or direct actions in the game. Being able to choose actions and strategies freely, and to manage the direction of the activities in a game, is motivating for players. Having control over as many options as possible such as speed, level of difficulty, timing, sound effects, and feedback is desirable for players (Dempsey et al., 1996; Malone & Lepper, 1987). At the same time, it is important to present an intermediate number of choices to players and give them a moderate control over the features of the game (Malone & Lepper, 1987; Snider, 2003; Waal, 1995). Feedback. It is recommended that games provide clear, constructive, and encouraging feedback. Performance feedback can engage and enhance the player’s self-esteem. There are two types of feedback: controlling and informational (Deci, 1976). Controlling feedback leads to the individual’s dependence on the reward, which consequently reduces intrinsic motivation. However, informational feedback influences the individual’s feelings of competence and self-determination, which as a result enhances intrinsic motivation. Rewards. Gee (2003) states that good video games reward innovative thinking. It is disappointing if there is no reward for the effort a player puts in; therefore, a good video game rewards different players differently, but rewards them all. Similarly, Suzanne De Castell and Jennifer Jenson (2003) point out that good games reward their players within the rule and game structures. Malone and Lepper (1987) talk about rewards through “recognition”, that is, they assert that it is important to recognize and reward the efforts that the player makes. This can be done through making the results of the game visible to others. Players enjoy having their efforts and accomplishments recognized and appreciated by others. In addition, external rewards can make an activity

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attractive to the person and so worth pursuing (Deci, 1976). Interactivity. According to Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman (2004), playing with a game, a toy, a person, or an idea implies interactivity. When people play a game, they make choices within a game system and the system responds in some way; that is, players interact with the system of the game through the process of action and outcome. The interaction between the player and the designed system of the game can lead to meaningful play. Salen and Zimmerman see interaction happening across all levels, “from the formal interaction of the game’s objects and pieces, to the social interaction of players, to the cultural interaction of the game with contexts beyond its space of play” (p. 58). It is due to the explicit interaction of the player that a game moves forward. It is important that the game is not designed in a way that limits and holds the interaction between the game and the player. The player needs to have the opportunity of limitless interaction and immersive navigation (De Castell & Jenson, 2003). The interaction between the player and the tasks of the game is meaningful and immersive only if the tasks are embedded intrinsically and naturally through narrative structures, characters, and game play, not instrumentally and extrinsically (De Castell & Jenson, 2003; Fabricatore, 2000, cited by Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004). This way, the players can become full participants and game environment becomes a “community of practice”, as defined by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger (1991).

3. technical Features Good video games make use of desirable technical features to sustain interest in the game. These features include: Graphics and Sound. Strange or unfamiliar sound effects and dynamic graphics can be com-

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pelling for players; however, if overused, this can have the opposite effect (Malone & Lepper, 1987). Most players want a rich variety of graphic representations. They like to have high quality screen design, color, animation, a higher level of detail, texture depth, and immersive experience, as well as sounds, visuals, and situations that attract them (Dempsey et al., 1996; Malone, 1980; Prensky, 2001; Waal, 1995). Similarly, Lloyd Rieber (1991) states that instructional computer activities that contain animated graphics are more appealing to students than those with no dynamic graphics. However, these must be done in an appropriately professional manner. Today, game development companies try to constantly improve games graphics quality and complexity. Along with the progress in games development, more games get closer to photo-realistic graphics displayed in real-time (Irish, 2005). This is because of the attraction and motivation they can create in players as well as their benefits in the marketing process; that is, the marketing department may use video, screenshots, sound clips, and other technological features to infuse the initial motivation (Becta, 2006). According to interviews with four game development companies done by British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (Becta, 2006), high quality graphics and sounds may not only develop the initial interest in game players, but they may foster an emotional response in players. Therefore, soundtracks and sound effects are as important as visuals. Just like movie sound tracks, video game soundtracks also introduce new artists. They aurally describe the “reality” of the game (Irish, 2005, p. 245). In general, graphics, soundtracks, and sound effects are critical components of the interactive and immersive experience for the player. High Speed. Players would like to see the game as a real-time performance. Fast and more responsive games engage their players (Dempsey et al., 1996; Prensky, 2001; Rosas et al., 2003). Having a high-speed game is dependent on both

Motivation, Learning, and Game Design

the way a game has been designed and the type of platform a player is using. For instance, with PCs, upgrading the computer’s memory help the game speed. In addition, the designers should consider the rendering strengths and the frame rate speed at which the game runs. They need to maximize such speed and also keep memory usage minimal, since the more memory is used the slower the game is run (Irish, 2005). Therefore, it is part of the game designer’s job to develop a game that attracts the player through high speed. Including a Useful Interface and “Save Game” Feature. Being able to save the progress and load the game to the saved level is desirable for players (Prensky, 2001). Players prefer to be able to save frequently and start the game from the level they had already finished. It is not fun to replay a level multiple times with no success. At least, they should have the chance to succeed. Then, it will be their choice to stop long enough to recharge between different levels or parts of the game. Therefore, it is compelling for players to be allowed to save their progress or recharge after major encounters (Byrne, 2005).

4. individual Features While those characteristics focus on the game activity itself and the design issues, we need to consider the players’ experiences and their differences. Finding a game compelling and fun is not completely dependent upon the features of the game and its design but it is also related to the connection that the player makes with the game. This connection may be associated with the player’s self-perceptions, his/her personal characteristics in terms of whether one is competitive, cooperative, or individualistic, what their goal orientations are, and how they identify themselves with the characters in the game. The following is a description of these characteristics. Individual Self-Perceptions. An individual may become involved in an activity because of his/her individual needs, such as the need for

competence and self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Reeve, 1992). According to Edward Deci and Richard Ryan (1985), competence is “the accumulated result of one’s interactions with the environment, of one’s exploration, learning, and adaptation” (p. 27). Self-determination is the capacity to have a choice and to be the origin and determinant of one’s own actions. Deci (1976) and Johnmarshall Reeve (1992) state that it is the psychological need to master their environment that pushes people to have a constant relationship with their environment. In doing so, people need to feel competent in their interactions with their surroundings. This is the essence of intrinsic motivation, which stimulates human beings to explore, play, and solve problems. To satisfy the need for competence, people set a challenging goal, engage in the activity, and perform it until the goal is achieved. One’s perceived competence influences his/her intrinsic motivation (Deci, 1976; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Reeve, 1992). Therefore, games that provide interaction between the players and the game, present choices to their players, let them take actions and feel they are the determinant of their actions, can enhance perceived competence and self-determination, which in the end would increase the players’ intrinsic motivation. In the meanwhile, the type of feedback that is provided for the person affects the individual’s self-perception since negative feedback can imply incompetence. Competence and self-determination are intertwined and both are necessary to increase intrinsic motivation. Individual Differences. Individual differences may be predictive of players’ preferences for certain types of game themes or of preferences for game play itself. Peter Vorderer & Tilo Hartmann (2003) divide individual differences into three dispositions: competitive, individualistic, and cooperative. Individuals holding competitive orientations try to maximize their own benefit in relation to benefits obtained by others; those who are individualistic maximize their own satisfaction; and cooperative individuals are those who

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care about their benefits as well as others. In relate with computer games, those holding competitive disposition are likely to be more motivated to search for competitive computer games, while those with cooperative dispositions avoid competitive games. Furthermore, those with competitive orientation only select those games that they are confident to master and are capable of managing the competitive situation. Goal Orientations. Different types of goal orientations exist among individuals. These goal orientations have been contrasted as task goals versus ability goals (Lumsden, 1995; Urdan et al., 1997), process goals versus outcome goals (Blumberg, 2000, citing Schunk & Swartz, 1993; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 1997), and learning goals versus performance goals (Elliott & Dweck, 1988). However, generally, two major types of goals are identified in the most documented literature as mastery and performance goals (Ames & Archer, 1988). Those with performance orientation believe more in ability than effort; therefore, they are interested in being perceived as competent. They would like to see ability in terms of doing better than others, outperforming others, and acquiring success with the minimum effort. On the other hand, those who are motivated by mastery goals, focus on developing new skills. They value the process of learning itself and put effort to attain mastery. When encountering failure, this group shows higher level of persistence than those with performance orientation. Therefore, individuals with mastery goal orientation tend to be interested and motivated by more challenging games than those with performance orientation. If the latter finds an activity too challenging and difficult to accomplish, they do not participate in order to avoid failure or minimize the effect of feeling less able. Identity. Games, especially role-playing video games, can motivate their players through the characters they let them develop—characters with whom players can identify and create emotional bonds. These characters need to have a high degree

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of personal relevance so that they can reach people of different age, gender, class, race, and ethnicity. According to Gee (2004), it is motivating and important for players to make connections with their character, care for that character as an extension of themselves, and project their own identities onto that virtual character. Motivational games can produce powerful identities through emotions and efforts that players put into the game. Similar points have been made by Anne-Marie Schleiner (2001). In her words, over the course of a role-playing game, players develop their characters and construct their identities through the reflective connectivity that their identification has with their character’s movements in the game space. Therefore, the virtual character that players choose to be, for example, whether to be a female or male, thin or fat, or a particular race or age, operates as an externalized Lacanian “mirror image” of the player. In other words, as the players are exploring their identity through their virtual characters, they are reflecting themselves through those images as they want others to see them. In these games, the characters and personae that players choose to be, can work for them as a digital mirror that reflects them. This process of “mirroring” and the emotional bonds players make with their characters and other people playing online is motivating and engaging for them. In designing game activities and experiences, the identity of all groups of people—regardless of their race, gender, class, and ethnicity—and their identification with the game and gaming communities should be taken into account. This makes the interactions more meaningful and engaging for the players.

5. social Features In addition to the learning, structural, and technical features of the game, as well as the individual characteristics, we need to pay attention to how much of the element of motivation and engagement in a game is related to social features, that

Motivation, Learning, and Game Design

is, motivation occurs as a result of interactions with other people. These interactions can occur both during and after playing the game. During the playing of the game, social features only come into play if the game is enabling multiple players to play at the same time, that is, massive multi-player online games (MMPOGs), one-on-one competition, or a group playing at the same time. Social features are intertwined with individual differences in terms of whether the player holds a competitive or cooperative disposition. For instance, the element of competition in a game can enhance motivation in someone who is competitive. This is because such a competitive setting can make him/her compare his/her skills to others’ and give the player a sense of achievement (Reeve, 1992, citing Weinberg & Ragan, 1979). A competitive environment should be structured in a way that gives all the participants a chance to win a game; that is, those who are more able players have more chance to win but less able players still have some chance of wining (Chang, Yang, Chan, & Yu, 2003). Vorderer and Hartmann (2003) call competing against another user, or the computer, as social competition. In social competition, individuals compete in order to maintain their own interest to the disadvantage of others. Every competition leads to an emotional state. In a social competition, the individual who is in the leading position will experience positive emotions. Thus, it is likely that through social competition and social comparison, a player’s self-esteem and mood will change. Whether a computer and video game is played on a team or against another player, it can effectively provoke situations of social competition and players can use these situations to maintain or enhance their self-esteem and struggle for positive moods. Furthermore, a person may play the game because of the need for social communication, that is, he/she plays the game to be able to exchange information with his/her friends and peers who play the same game (Waal, 1995). While the

social interactions that occur during and/or after the game are important, we need to consider the significant role that teachers and peers play after playing a game in an educational setting. As learning can be considered as a social constructivist process (Vygotsky, 1978), there is evidence that reflecting on the game after it is completed, for example, through a debrief with other players or the teacher, can transform the experience into learning (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb, 1997; Lederman, 1992; Peters & Vissers, 2004). Therefore, in designing motivating and engaging educational games, it is important to include the critical element of debriefing and discussing what the players have experienced. This should be done in a way that helps players conceptualize and explore the meaning of their experience, and connect their experiences gained throughout the game to their real-life situations.

6. emotional Features Emotions are the basis of our motivation to become engaged in activities (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Deci and Ryan declare that emotions including interest-excitement (citing Izard, 1977) and joy (citing Csikszentmihalyi, 1975) are the basis of intrinsically motivated behavior. Interest-excitement can play an important role in the direction and strength of attention and also in the adaptation, development, and coordination of human behavior. According to Deci and Ryan, “interest and excitement are central emotions that accompany intrinsic motivation, and the concept of flow represents a descriptive dimension that may signify some of the purer instances of intrinsic motivation” (p. 29). Thus, games with features that invite emotions including interest-excitement are motivating for players. As we stated previously in social features, the player’s success or loss in the game affects his/her emotional state. If the player succeeds, the game leaves positive effect on the player, which is related to high arousal. This emotional state will

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give enjoyment; consequently the motivation to continue the game and take the next competitive step is increased. As winning can increase the motivation for further progress and improvement, losing may bring disappointment and destroy interest (Chang et al., 2003; Vorderer & Hartmann, 2003). In case of winning, the individual’s intrinsic motivation increases because it enhances his perceptions of competence, and the intrinsic motivation decreases in case of failure because the individual’s feeling of competence decreases (Reeve, 1992). To summarize, we are arguing that a well-designed educational game should incorporate the motivational features of engaging games, take into account key individual and social features, and pay attention to the interaction that occurs among these features.

summAry And discussion In this chapter, we asserted that computer and video games have the potential to motivate students and increase their learning. Through describing the computer games Civilization III and SimCity, we noted that such entertainment games have proven to offer both entertainment and educational value. While incidental learning can occur through playing computer games, the question we addressed is how to design games for learning that incorporate prescribed learning objectives and yet remain engaging. Through an extensive literature review on the features of motivating computer games, we described the following categories of features needed to develop such games: learning, structural, technical, individual, social, and emotional. We discussed the crucial connection between motivation and learning as well as the importance of integrating computer games in education for the new generation of students. We explained that a well-designed computer game provides an

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environment that stimulates the players’ curiosity, applies a story format using the element of fantasy, and offers moderate challenges. The challenges need to be doable and moderate so that the players feel competent while participating in the game activities. Good games provide their players with control over as many options as possible such as speed, level of difficulty, timing, sound effects, and feedback. This level of control gives them a sense of self-determination and agency as they find themselves the determinant of their actions. In addition, their arousal can be maintained through the use of high quality graphics and audio effects. Features include speed, responsiveness, help functions, tips, examples of how to play the game, and clear instructions into the opening sequence of the game. In addition, effective games have rules, are complex, novel, and unpredictable, and provide clear, constructive, and encouraging feedback. Furthermore, in such games, there is informational (not controlling) feedback available when players need help. This keeps the players motivated. Good games reward players’ innovative thinking, as it can be disappointing if there is no reward for the thinking and efforts players put into the game. Players also need to feel a sense of achievement; thus, no matter what level the player’s skills is, there should be some levels that he/she can achieve and feel competent and accomplished. A good game needs to be inclusive of different abilities, skills, and interests of players, and provide different themes and levels of difficulty for them. At each level of difficulty, players should confront new challenges and problems to solve. They should also be afforded the chance to correct and learn from their errors. Since the risks and consequences of actions are lowered in computer games, players can practice, improve their skills, and accomplish their goals. With the experience and skills they acquire throughout the game, they learn how to solve the next problem.

Motivation, Learning, and Game Design

Therefore, they do not repeat the same actions and behaviors over and over, but develop newer and higher level skills. As people play a game, they make judgments whether they want to continue playing the game or not, and whether the game is fun and engaging or not. These decisions are made based on individuals’ features such as their differences in being competitive or cooperative, their goal orientation, personality traits, gender differences, and age differences. As a result, well-designed computer games consider the differences that players bring with them into the game and offer them enough choices so that they can relate to the game personally. Meanwhile, a good game provides an environment where has all players have a chance to win. While winning is the most powerful confirmation of success, losing is a representation of being extinct. As winning can increase the motivation for further progress and improvement, losing may bring disappointment and destroy interest. Therefore, everybody’s difference, whether competitive or cooperative, should be taken into account in a good game as the players’ success or failure affects their emotional state and their motivation. Moreover, players can become emotionally involved in a game through their characters and the ways they see themselves in the game. Computer and video games can help people explore their identities and experiment with dimensions of their selves that they are not always comfortable expressing in real life via their characters. They can create worlds where people can have meaningful new experiences, and have the potential to be used as learning tools by creating simulated worlds where both children and adults can practice, develop skills, and experiment new and powerful identities. Through projecting their own identity, values, and beliefs onto their character in a game, players can create emotional bonds with their character and reflect themselves through those emotions and images.

In designing educational games, we need to know that learning objectives should be congruent with game objectives, otherwise, games may distract the players and sway them to focus on completing levels, getting scores, and winning rather than retaining learning (Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004, citing Clark, 2003). In addition, learning tasks should be embedded and contextualized into the game play naturally so that they will be perceived as a true element of the game by the players. In other words, the game needs to be designed to eliminate the barrier separating learning from gaming (Fabricatore, 2000, cited by Mitchell & Savill-Smith, 2004). In conclusion, to design a motivating and engaging educational computer game, it is important to take into account the relationship among motivation, learning, and the learning, structural, technical, individual, social, and emotional features of the game so that while the game is educational, it invites the players to continually return to the game.

imPlicAtions For reseArch, Policy, And PrActice In this chapter, we discussed how educational computer games should be designed based on what we have already learned from designing engaging entertainment games. Given the huge expense involved in creating computer and video games, designers need to follow guidelines based on theory and supporting evidence rather than on their personal views. It is clear that a large body of knowledge exists on motivation and the important role it plays in what and how much is learned. Therefore, designers should effectively engage learner’s motivation through learning, structural, technical, individual, social, and emotional features that we discussed in this chapter. We would recommend that educational game designers pay more attention to these motivating features since the current generation of students who have grown

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up with digital technologies, think, process information, and learn in new ways. We suggest that the listed features described in this chapter are as influential and important as cognitive issues in students’ learning and so need to be carefully considered in educational game design. While the previously-mentioned educational game design considerations would provide a first step toward students’ benefiting from this new technology, there are other important factors that need to be considered if educational games are to achieve their full potential as educational tools. First, anti-gaming viewpoints in our school systems need to be changed to a more welcoming approach in regard to using new technologies and new practices in their curricula and teachinglearning approaches. Teachers and administrators will need to be more open to computer and video games as learning environments where students can play and learn. Second, school districts need to create policies for the appropriate educational use of computer and video games both inside and outside of classrooms (e.g., homework and assignments). This will require continuing professional development for school district administrators and especially teachers to support the development of more positive attitudes toward computer and video games in classrooms and to understand their impact not only in the classroom but also outside the classroom because of the social practices that these powerful tools develop. Teachers also need to understand the direct relationship between motivational games and enhanced learning in order to see the pedagogical benefits of these new technologies. There are a number of resources, both print and media, available that address these issues (see the References section). It is important to emphasize that in this chapter, we are not discussing how to fit the educational content into a motivating entertainment game or how to use the good lessons of a game in an educational setting, but we are explaining how to design a motivating game from scratch based on

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the content and learning objectives so that learning occurs while it is engaging and fun. While we have described the theoretical aspects of “how” to design such games, further practical research needs to be done on “how” to include these aspects and design such games in practice, and to find the challenges in incorporating these design features. Throughout this chapter, we have described the motivating features of entertainment games that need to be included in educational game design. We have also explained that educational games need to be based on learning objectives. However, further research should be done on how to embrace these two so there are fewer trade- offs, and the learning objectives and game design elements are not in opposition. As our educational system begins to increase its emphasis on developing cognitive, social, and emotional intelligence, for example, problem-solving, decision-making, teamwork, and social skills, educational video games will take on a higher profile. Therefore, future educators will need to know how to employ video games effectively in their curricula.

AcKnoWledgment We gratefully acknowledge the support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) for providing funding through an INE Collaborative Research Initiative grant for the “Simulation and Advanced Gaming Environments (SAGE) for Learning” project (www.sageforlearning.ca) under which this work was completed.

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gust 7, 2005, from http://website.education.wisc. edu/kdsquire/dissertation.html Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Video games as designed experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29. Stewart, K. M. (1997). Beyond entertainment: Using interactive games in Web-based instruction. Journal of instruction delivery systems, 11(2), 18-20. Vorderer, P., & Hartmann, T. (2003). Explaining the enjoyment of playing video games: The role of competition. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Entertainment Computing, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Waal, B. D. (1995). Motivations for video game play: A study of social, cultural and physiological factors. Master’s thesis, School of Communication, Simon Fraser University Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

Key terms Computer Game: This usually refers to games played using a personal computer. Prensky (2001) defines computer games by a set of key characteristics including: rules, goals and objectives, outcomes and feedback, conflict/competition/challenge/opposition, interaction, and representation or story. Educational Game: This is a game whose design and game play is based on a set of educational objectives or learning outcomes. Entertainment Game: A game that is designed to give pleasure to the player while the

player is actively involved in game activities. Although entertainment games are not specifically designed for purposeful learning, incidental learning happens while playing such games. Game: Generally, a game is defined as a set of voluntary activities which has participants, goals, rules, and some kind of competition (physical or mental). The competition can be against oneself, others, or a computer. Salen and Zimmerman (2004) define a game as “a system in which players engage in an artificial conflict, defined by rules, that results in a quantifiable outcome” (p. 80). In their definition of a successful game, they emphasize the creation of “meaningful play” while designing a game. Game Design: According to Wikipedia, game design is the process of designing the content and rules of a game. Salen and Zimmerman (2004) define the idea of design as “the process by which a designer creates a context to be encountered by a participant, from which meaning emerges” (p. 41). In relation to game design, the designer is the game designer; the context includes spaces, objects, narratives, and behaviors; the participants are the players; and the meaning is the meaningful play defined by Salen and Zimmerman. Motivation: Motivation is a key factor for an individual’s engagement in an activity. It is defined as the willingness or desire to satisfy a need or to engage in an activity. According to Rosemary Garris and her colleagues (2002), “motivation refers to an individual’s choice to engage in an activity and the intensity of effort or persistence in that activity” (p. 451, cited in Pintrich & Schrauben, 1992; Wolters, 1998). The two types of motivation commonly recognized in the literature are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Video Game: According to Wikipedia (The Free Encyclopedia), this is a computer game where a video display such as a monitor or television is the primary feedback device. According to Carlo Fabricatore (2000, cited by Mitchell & Savill-

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Smith, 2004) there are two key elements that distinguish video games from computer games: (1) video games always have an interactive virtual playing environment; and (2) the player always

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struggles against some kind of opposition in a video game. Today, the terms computer game and video game are used interchangeably.

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Chapter LXVIII

Designing Games for Learning Scott J. Warren University of North Texas, USA Mary Jo Dondlinger University of North Texas, USA

AbstrAct This chapter discusses two games that were designed to target learning as well as implications for the design of future games intended for this purpose. It illustrates how the ADDIE model of instructional design can be leveraged to produce digital game spaces as well as the limitations that designers face based on the goals of the project, the chosen technology, and the audience chosen for the digital intervention. The goal of this chapter is to use real-world examples of learning game design processes in order to prepare instructional designers for the complexity of using game and instructional design principles as a means of improving student motivation, learning, and other psychological factors that prepare them for engaging meaningfully in the educational experience.

“Program a map to display frequency of data exchange, every thousand megabytes a single pixel on a very large screen. Manhattan and Atlanta burn solid white. Then they start to pulse, the rate of traffic threatening to overload your simulation. Your map is about to go nova.” From William Gibson’s Neuromancer, p. 43

introduction Gibson’s 1984 novel depicted a future world in which everyone is online, data exchange is a primary profession, and computer viruses complicate a worldwide digital network dominated by large corporations. Since then, many of his predictions have come true and our learners live in a world full of digital media, video games, data exchange,

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and the daily threat of viruses turned against their home computer systems. Over the last decade, students have begun to regularly participate in online learning environments of the 2-D variety like WebCT Vista and Blackboard that deliver instruction and course content, assess learning, and provide them with opportunities to share with one another on a massive scale. Beyond their immersion in these flat digital realms, a secondary phenomenon has emerged along with a $10 billion dollar industry. In their non-academic or work time, learners are playing video games on various dedicated consoles from the XBOX 360 to the Nintendo Wii and their mobile phones. According to the Entertainment Software Association, 36% percent of U.S. parents say they play computer and video games while 80% of these parents note that they play games with their kids who now make up 28.2% of all game players according to the industry (Entertainment Software Association, 2007). Beyond games, online 3-D environments such as Linden Labs’ Second Life, have become homes for learning with lectures taking place in dedicated spaces, movies being made available for learners to view, and objects providing additional, interactive information that learners can use to better understand models through simulating real-world experience. During that same period, an additional challenge has arisen in academic institutions from kindergarten through undergraduate education in which student motivations to engage in academic tasks are noted to be in decline over the last decade (Anderman & Leake, 2005; Anderman, Maehr, & Midgely, 1999). Video game usage among all age groups has been steadily increasing for the last decade with one recent study suggesting that one in five individuals over age 30 are gamers (ESA, 2007). These observations have raised questions, such as how can we as researchers and designers leverage this interest to improve our learning environments whether they are dedicated entirely to teaching, support face-to-face instruction directly,

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or used occasionally as motivating activities in our classrooms? The creation of these environments pose special challenges to instructional designers, content developers, researchers, the classroom teachers who use them, and the students themselves. This chapter will explore several of the issues that arise during the design, development, implementation, and evaluation phases of two games designed for learning. The first is a 3-D multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) called Anytown that was developed in order to support student-writing practice, note-taking skills, reading comprehension, and recall by leveraging a multi-path set of linear stories in which students engage in a role-playing game as investigative reporters (Warren, 2006b; Warren, Barab, & Dondlinger, in press; Warren & Dondlinger, under review). The second is an alternate reality game (ARG) (Martin & Chatfield, 2006) called The Door that was part of a hybrid undergraduate course that focused on engaging students with a contextual immersion in a two-tiered story from which students earned learning tasks that required them to engage in problem solving using word processors, spreadsheet programs, and Web tools as part of their solution rather than as the end objectives for the course (Warren & Dondlinger, 2007). Both of these worlds were designed in order to increase the amount of data flow between students, perhaps not to the simulation threatening degree to which Gibson alludes to, but instead in a manner that improves student communication, helps researchers understand the underlying functions and design elements necessary in video games that result in high levels of student engagement, and lead to higher levels of student satisfaction than are currently reported.

bAcKground While the new frontier for learning technologies identified by theorists in the field has been

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video games and digital simulations (Aldrich, 2003; Barab, Warren, & Ingram-Goble, 2006; Cassell & Jenkins, 2000; Jenkins, Squire, & Tan, 2003; Squire, 2006; Squire & Steinkuehler, 2005; Steinkuehler, 2004), the research on using games and simulations or multi-user virtual environments for learning thus far has been sparse, limited to a few quantitative studies focusing on K-12 populations, mainly at the elementary (Barab et al., 2006; Barab et al., 2007; Warren, 2006b) and middle school level (Dede, 2006; Dede, Ketelhut, & Ruess, 2006), while studies on their effectiveness for adult education have been concentrated on military simulations (Nieborg, 2005), many of which have not been released. Few games or simulations have been reported at the undergraduate level, especially in introductory courses. Although some are in the design phase, they have yet to be tested or reported (Hughes, 2005; Saurbaum & Brown, 2006). Moreover, those quantitative results (Barab, Scott et al., in press; Barab, Zuiker et al., in press; Dede, Ketelhut, & Ruess, 2006; Nieborg, 2005; Samsonov, Pedersen, & Hill, 2006) and qualitative snapshots of student work conducted in the game spaces (Squire, 2004; Squire & Steinkuehler, 2005; Steinkuehler, 2004) tend to provide only rare glimpses in the instructional design that went into creating the game or MUVE since the reporting focus in the majority of articles is necessarily on the data due to tenure and publisher requirements. Without specific reports of the design and development processes of these games or simulations for learning, there is little chance that they will have significant impact on the educational community because the community at large has no understanding of the underlying processes that have been used, successfully or not, to develop those systems from which the data is being reported. Further, due to space limitations and an understandable need for researchers to paint their findings in the best light possible, the challenges and limitations of game system designs for both student learning and research reporting

tend to be condensed to a few sentences at the end of an article or mentioned in response to a question during a presentation at a conference. Consequently, there are significant gaps in the education community’s knowledge about the game design process, especially the limitations of the use of games in classrooms and the principal challenges that are part of such an undertaking versus the possible payoff in terms of motivation (Tuzun, 2004), gains in knowledge construction (Barab, Scott et al., in press; Barab, Zuiker et al., in press; Dede, Ketelhut, & Ruess, 2006; Foley, Jones, & McPhee-Baker, 2002), or understanding of student literacy (Gee, 2003; Steinkuehler, 2004; Warren, Barab, & Dondlinger, in press). While many theorists advocate for the use of video games and other forms of digital worlds from the perspective that they are popular among students in their free time, there are many challenging issues related to developing a game for a course at any level. For example, designing even the simplest game requires access to a technically proficient staff or a personally high level of technical skill, proficiency in a software program that lends itself to game development, knowledge of databases that can capture and properly handle information input by learners and that records learner actions, provides them with feedback, and affords appropriate and necessary interactions in the game environment. Moreover, knowledge of the basics of game design, the necessary components of a game such as rules, conflict, and win scenarios is required in order to provide learners with an experience that leverages the elements of a game that may make them useful for improving learning (Warren, 2006a). Development time is long and requires beta testing and usability or iterative pilot testing to ensure that the product functions as intended prior to implementing the game influenced curriculum with live students (Jones & Warren, 2007a; Warren, Whitworth, & Dondlinger, 2007). The game design alone is further complicated by the choice of instructional model and theory the designer ascribes to as they

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create or redesign an existing course, for the critiques and limitations of a given method are then applied to the learning design as well.

mAin Focus oF the chAPter design Process and challenges of Two Games for Learning The design, development, and research of two learning games inform this discussion of the challenges involved with designing electronic games for education. While there have been a large number of games used for learning over the last 50 years, there is insufficient space to discuss all of them and their results here. Further, most of the results of studies on these games have dedicated very little of their discussions to the actual processes used in designing the games themselves and thus, we are limited in our discussion of the design processes employed in these game designs (Dondlinger, 2007). This limitation may have been due to the focus of the research journals and often, the need of the authors to report research in the interests of career advancement; however, we have access to the design and development documentation for the design process employed for these two learning games. As a result, we specifically discuss a single design process used separately for two distinctly different learning games with focuses on different forms of literacy; the first is a game built within a multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) for the purpose of improving elementary school student reading and descriptive writing, while the second is an alternate reality game (ARG) (Martin & Chatfield, 2006) that targets introductory technology application skills and knowledge at the undergraduate level. The main purpose of the first example, Anytown, is to illuminate the process of instructional game design while providing examples of the challenges that arise during the technological design, development,

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implementation, and research of complex, immersive 3-D worlds for instruction. The second example, The Door ARG, compliments the process and challenge discussion in the first example by presenting a design strategy that addresses many of those challenges while pointing to additional ones. The following sections provide further details of the two chosen games. Anytown: A Writing Game Built Within the Confines of a MUVE. The Anytown multi-user virtual environment was created using the Active Worlds browser that is the underlying digital system for the National Science Foundation’s Quest Atlantis grant project. While other locations elsewhere in Quest Atlantis are fantastic, otherworldly realms, the design of the Anytown environment was intended to create a small town feeling in which the locations, people, and other objects would be mostly familiar to the majority of participating students. The design followed this plan in order to set student learning in an authentic environment with which students already have some background knowledge, a design element advocated by Salen and Zimmerman (2004) as the “modeling reality characteristic” that helps to situate the learner in a modeled space not radically different from his or her own experience. This design consideration was expected to allow students to readily recognize the affordances of particular locations such as the general store, the school, and the library. Moreover, this MUVE was designed to facilitate writing instruction rather than scientific discovery. Figure 1 presents one of the fictional characters used to aid with writing instruction within Anytown. The overarching narrative context of Anytown situated learners in the role of cub reporters investigating a series of mysterious events: vandalism, a burning building, and strange occurrences in the local park. Design of the environment incorporated mindful feedback, embedded scaffolds, and clue resources to provide additional scaffolding for learning tasks when needed and impart

Designing Games for Learning

Figure 1. Anytown’s character “Ghost Face” in the Dark Lakes mini-game (© 2006 Scott J. Warren. Used with permission)

directions to learning tasks as part of the rules of their overall experience. Further, the classroom teacher played the role of editor of the newspaper and provided both positive and negative feedback to student writing tasks via the Anytown system after each session. Each element was intended to leverage technology in a way that supported students in a problem-based learning context and made the method less time-consuming for the instructor in terms of planning, development of resources, and directing learners in the classroom while increasing the level of important feedback for students on their writing. The Door: A Distributed, Online, Multiple Media Learning Game. Given the complications of designing immersive game worlds that include both the narrative plot and the requisite scaffolds to facilitate learning, alternative media that leverage these elements are desired. One such alternative is to embed game activities that reveal enabling information and resources in a variety of media, distributed across the Internet rather than a fully integrated, stand-alone product. This approach maximizes resources, such as MySpace, Web logs, Podcasts, course-specific developed Web

sites, YouTube, and the 3-D digital environment of Second Life, which many students use as part of their daily lives, leveraging the popularity of each to create game-like structures, learning activities, and tasks that better match the reality of the Internet as it evolves. As such, it creates an open system of resource distribution that more authentically mirrors the context to which learners will transfer the skills and knowledge gained in the learning activities. This design stems from a conception that multiple media are hosted on the Internet and developed by multiple authors for myriad purposes, but can then be collected by the course designer and reintegrated into a course with the purpose of allowing students to solve simulated real-world problems that would have close transfer to future student work. Further, this conception also allows designers to exploit the many free online resources that exist while blending them together to give learners a situated, coherent narrative that carries them through their learning experience and provides them with a cognitive scaffold from which to retrieve knowledge and skills necessary to their future work and learning. Figure 2 shows the instructor’s office space within Second Life.

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Figure 2. Linden Labs’ Second Life: “Acheron Office Space” location in The Door (© 2006 Scott J. Warren. Used with permission)

The Door ARG was designed with a 2-tiered task narrative. The first tier of this narrative engaged students with fictional clients who “hired” students to complete authentic tasks—a problembased narrative approach. However, these clients also had alternate personas, hidden beneath their client identities, and all of them were embroiled in an underlying conflict with each other as well as the unsuspecting student players. This underlying 2nd tier of the narrative was more game-like in nature as it involved mysterious happenings, artificial conflict, and “win” conditions that rewarded players with additional information and resources for completing first tier, PBL tasks. This 2-tiered design was intended to leverage the affordances of authentic contexts for situating problem-based tasks while concurrently engaging student interest in the more fantastic, other-worldly narratives that typify entertainment products, be they television shows, films, or video games.

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A Process for designing games for learning The creation of both The Door and Anytown followed a standard ADDIE instructional design model as posited by theorists in the field of instructional systems design (McCombs, 1986; Molenda, Pershing, & Reigeluth, 1996). In this conception, the process of designing instruction includes the following steps: (A)nalysis (D)esign (D)evelopment (I)mplementation (E)valuation (or Control)

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During the first phase, instructional designers conduct analysis to determine the needs of the learners, review existing instruction for flaws that impede learning, and identify possible alternate avenues of training or improvements that can be made to the existing instruction. During the design phase, designers lay out in document form the new or improved forms of instructional activity that will lead to the development of the actual instruction. The implementation phase is where the designers test the product with the end user which is then followed by evaluation to determine the overall effectiveness of the revised or newly produced instructional design when compared with the original instruction or training. While, due to space constraints, this is necessarily an overly simplified depiction of the process; aspects of each phase will be further illuminated in the following sections that examine the difficulty of designing games for learning at each stage of the process.

Analysis Phase While the analysis phase of the ADDIE model specifies examining the instructional needs and learning problems to be met by the design of a game or intervention for learning, the model neglects to call for an analysis of the epistemic stance held by the stakeholders in the design process, an element that can substantially complicate the design, development, and research phases of the process. Three main epistemic stances have been identified by Prawat and Floden (1994), which direct the discussion in this section: the objectivist, the constructivist, and the relativist. In the case of the objectivist designer and researcher, their view that reality can be known through the senses makes the design of the game simpler because instruction can be controlled and delivered through the visual and audio affordances of the game such as interactive objects like pedagogical agents or embedded Podcasts containing instruction. However, due to the complexity of the game

spaces and the length of time required for most to show an impact on student learning, controlling the myriad variables that exist both within the game and external to it that could impact learning becomes very difficult. These variables confound the research outcomes, often leading to no significant differences in the findings or to significant findings with little understanding as to whether it was the use of the game that impacted learning or some other factor such as classroom instruction, learner interactions with peers outside of the game space, or even transgressive behaviors such as cheating. The relativist approach, in which all learners’ views and constructions of reality are held to be equal (Bernstein, 1983; Hollis, 1994) and therefore are required to be addressed by the instructional designer, makes developing games for these learners difficult at best. Instead of games, designers of environments such as these tend to leverage digital worlds that allow the learners to develop their own realities in online spaces such as Second Life or Teen Second Life, which essentially function as a massive chat room full of user-created content or as a sandbox for building structures and objects such as buildings, airplanes, clothes, and art (Jones & Warren, 2007b). This presents a challenge for determining learning impacts beyond the individual students because every student is creating his or her own learning goals and whether each student meets them has no bearing on any other student. Moreover, for the relativist instructional designer, the goal is to meet the needs of every individual student; therefore, generalizability to other students is neither the goal of instruction nor curricular development whether in or out of a digital world. Mixed methods approaches that blend constructivist and objectivist research methods to evaluate learning in game spaces have become popular due to requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act (Education, 2002) that all curricular developments be assessed against objective, standardized test measures in order to determine

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if learning has occurred. However, when the games themselves were developed using principles taken from inquiry-based learning and problem-based learning, their theoretical bases deny the usefulness of objective measures in favor of those socially agreed upon by the learners and instructor in concert (Barab, Scott et al., in press; Barab, Zuiker et al., in press; Dodge et al., in press; Warren, 2006a). However, the necessity of funding for the development of most games for education requires these objective measures, so the disparity between the theoretical foundation of the design and that of the research methods is a necessary evil in order to answer the larger questions of more importance to the researchers. Some researchers attempt to overcome this issue by using accompanying qualitative measures such as grounded theory or critical ethnography as a means of contextualizing or helping to explain the findings and frame future research questions while appeasing those funding agencies that make design and development possible. By taking and holding to a particular epistemic stance, designers provide themselves with a blueprint for what knowledge is, how it can be had or constructed, and by what means it may be evaluated. However, remaining firmly wedded to these beliefs can create difficulties when it comes time to publish the findings depending on the epistemic stance of the editors and reviewers of the journal selected. If the means of analysis and reporting are at odds with the underlying design, there is a higher chance of having the article rejected because the findings do not follow from the epistemic stance of the instructional methods employed. For example, if a social constructivist, problem-based learning approach was employed in order to design a game in which learners were expected to improve their ability to communicate with peers in groups and solve specific problems to the expectation of outside experts, researchers will also need to provide students a pre- and post-test on standardized test items to determine whether

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they show significant learning gains. However, if considerable confounding variables that may have impacted learning are not controlled, reviewers will not accept the objective findings related to these test scores even if those related to communication and problem solving are well controlled and meaningful. Further, reviewers who also hold a constructivist epistemic stance may oppose the use of objective findings because using such measures is not commensurate with the tenets of social constructivism. If the article also contains hermeneutic qualitative data and analysis that provide context for student gains and tell the story of learners using the game, they may either recommend dropping the objective measures or using the qualitative data to provide evidence that the game was actually the means by which all forms of learning claimed by the researchers were delivered.

design and development Phases The length of time required for a full needs analysis as well as alpha, beta, usability, and pilot testing is another considerable challenge to designing and researching games for learning. This duration leads some to skip vital phases of the process which compromises usability or yields designs that don’t align well with curricular objectives. Such challenges are particularly poignant in developing game-like immersive 3-D worlds, as experienced in the case of the complex and detailed Anytown MUVE, and given time constraints and minimal personnel, similar issues arose in the creation of The Door ARG. Paper and Pencil. Upon the completion of the needs analysis requisite to entering the design phase and the basis for the instructional design underlying the learning game, designers often begin with a pencil and paper design phase or game planning which typically includes writing scripts and engaging in storyboarding similar to that which is done for film production. The reasons for completing such an analog design

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are myriad, but have two main benefits: (1) It cuts down on the cost of developing the system by allowing the game to be created in coherent sections, which is especially important when it is designed with an accompanying story in mind and (2) It allows for rapid prototyping of the first 20% of the game without using the digital game so that it can be easily revised based on usability, alpha, and beta testing phases without requiring high levels of programmer or digital designer work in a digital space. In the instance of Anytown, the paper and pencil prototyping phase consisted of using a series of black Moleskine notebooks to sketch out maps of the 3-D world, identify necessary non-player characters (NPCs), character and learner roles, identify necessary 2-D and 3-D objects for the world, draft learning tasks and their links to the standardized testing objectives identified in the needs analysis, and develop base dialogue and conditions for student and NPC actions in the 3-D space. The main difficulty of this method is that it is time consuming; the paper and pencil design phase took nearly seven months in the first iteration of the game and an additional four months in the redesign and second iteration which was based on feedback in the pilot. While a long process, this process provided the designers with a strong design framework from which to draw as well as a set of historical design documents that could be used to refer back to when reviewing design decisions and their expected impact on learners in later phases. Digitizing the Design. Once the paper and pencil design phase of Anytown was completed, the design elements stipulated in the notebooks were transferred to MS Word documents for review by subject-matter experts before the game interactions were designed, a model of the town was created in the 3-D environment in order to provide the content developers with places and characters on which to hang dialogue containing instruction, story, and game play elements. These were transferred from the Word documents

containing NPC speech actions that would drive student action in the world. It is important to keep in mind, however, that developing game interactions and play in the 3-D world is not recommended because designers are forced to create a large amount of content in the space in which is difficult to complete rapid change in response to feedback from testing. However, the existing design system did not yet permit 2-D iterative prototyping and usability testing, so development of the Anytown world proceeded in 3-D, which required many time-consuming, iterative developments in the space that could have been circumvented with a 2-D system. Based on this experience, we recommend that an intermediary 2-D system in which users can interact with content be developed to precede 3-D game development so that usability, alpha, and beta testing can be conducted prior to expending funds or developer time on a design that is non-functional or requires significant changes ( Jones & Warren, 2007a). Designing a prototype, whether digital or analog, can reduce development time and help prevent negative impacts on intended users and research. Further, as a researcher, reporting steps in the design process is important and aids the education community at large in understanding how such games are created as well as the pitfalls that impact usability or play. While important, usability and beta testing in order to prevent problems before the game product goes out to the users are not always possible, as was the case in both Anytown and The Door. When Anytown was being developed, the developers were on too short a timeline for implementation and a lack of suitable participants to conduct usability or beta-testing studies necessitated a pilot with a sample from the expected end-user population which led to contamination of the population in future studies because students shared information about the game with non-sample peers. Findings from the pilot led to a 70% revision of the game prior to its use in the intended study, and many of the problems with use, content, instruction could

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have been prevented by pre-pilot studies. In the case of The Door alternate reality game (ARG) course, limitations on such testing stemmed from the distributed nature of the product which existed across many different digital applications such as proxy e-mail addresses, Second Life, and MySpace. A full pilot was also necessary for this product since the game required an entire semester to play and required groups of 3-4 students to complete the problem-based learning activities. However, because the 3-D component of The Door was limited to a few small spaces in Second Life where students could look for clues or meet to discuss their problems at a distance, the notebook design, identification of Web 2.0 applications to be leveraged, MS Word layout of learning goals, background narratives, and creation of main and secondary learning activities took place in a much shorter, month-long period. Technological Challenges in Design. Another major challenge to developing a world with complex interactions that respond to learner/player action is barriers within the technology systems themselves: in the case of Anytown design, the Quest Atlantis scripting system. This scripting system is proprietary to the QA project and was developed in order to address the lack of interactivity present in the Active Worlds system. It allows for textual interactions through clickable objects within the 3-D window that results in hyperlinked and plain text as well as 2-D objects for players to read and react to as they use the system. Within the design system, a pre-programmed set of “conditions” governed when particular objects would display different sets of Web tests, provide objects, take objects from user inventories, or teleport players to other areas in the space and were dependent on objects in a player’s inventory. The conditions were displayed in topdown, chronological order with the most recent piece at the top. However, the designer also was required to script those conditions, which governed interactions in the space by setting “if”,

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and “then” conditions, a task made difficult by the linear display. By the end of the project, QA programmers had developed an improved system for scripting interactions by creating branches of dialogue that stemmed from specific access conditions that governed individual objects in the 3-D space. By then, it was too late for Anytown developers to take advantage of this advancement in the system, but it does point to the need for an easy to use scripting system that supports the development of game content in any digital environment. With this development, the designers of another world in the system were saved 10% of the time it took to develop Anytown, albeit on a slightly less complex game environment. During most of development of the Anytown environment, this back-end system for interacting with the database that managed player interactions with the digital environment was not designed to manage the level of complex object text dialogue needed for scripting the conditions by which the dialogue changed or appeared. For example, at the beginning of the design process, the designers wanted the following action to occur: when a player acquires the Matchbook object, a piece of dialogue for the Freddie character would appear that would direct players to the hardware store owner and his dialogue, in turn, would change. However, the system forced the dialogue script to appear in top-down, chronological order with the most recent piece at the top, a display that was completely disorganized. With more than 2,200 pieces of dialogue in the end product, the designers had difficulty keeping an approximate idea of where a character’s dialogue might appear in the Web page that displayed all objects concurrently. When designing a game, it is important that the designer side of the system is as easy to use as possible and sufficiently flexible to allow for designing the kinds of complex interactions that are necessary for rapid feedback to players, developing “win conditions,” and conflicts neces-

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sary for the system to be considered a game rather than simply a linear story.

implementation and research Phases While many of the issues that arise in the implementation and research phases can result from design and development pitfalls of the game product itself, some are created by the systemic affordances of the educational setting in which the game is used, the instructor’s perception of the intended use of the product, and situations created by the designers as they seek to research the game in a naturalistic setting. While each challenge can be overcome as it arises, it helps to be aware of the possible problems that can arise during the use/implementation phase of a game as the learners use it. Some can be overcome by examining the student and teacher use of other digital products in the classroom in the weeks prior to an implementation. Rapport Between Researchers and Participants. Where the use of a learning game went well was in the case of using Anytown game world with the pilot class, for the researchers and designers knew and were known well by the instructor and students because they had been participants in a study of another QA world in the months preceding the implementation (Warren & Stein, under review). As such, the two to three researchers who collected data for the first Anytown study had been present in the classroom and students were comfortable with them, as they had observed students working with both other QA activities and other digital products like MS Word and Excel in previous class periods. This allowed the pilot of Anytown to go smoothly, and the data collected using audio recordings or opportunistic interviews and occasional video of student discourse was rich. The teacher required little direction to use the environment and barely glanced at the teacher curriculum booklet that was provided to her. In the end, she and her students

were valuable sources of information about the Anytown design and led to many of the revisions that were expected to improve the overall product prior to the full research implementation that was to be conducted the following fall. Teacher and Student Expectations. The full research implementation, however, was a much more difficult case. Hype and fanfare surrounded the second study of Anytown, and several additional researchers were recruited or volunteered to work on the data collection during the month-long study. In order to restrict tampering with the instructor prior to use of the Anytown system, the designers/researchers conducted an hour-long training session and provided a 10 page curricular guide to the teacher. However, the teacher self-professed to have limited knowledge or ability with technology applications and had used the QA worlds sparingly, mainly focused on the embedded science curricula, during the previous year. She had been chosen to minimize the impact that a teacher with strong technical ability and a strong history with the QA product would bring to the use of the environment and limit the impact of such strengths on the quantitative findings. Further, while the researchers observed her teaching in the classroom, she spent no time in the computer lab prior to the implementation of the game because standardized testing in the computer lab had precluded her from using other technology products that would have exposed her style of technology use to the researchers and guided their preparation of her. She also noted at the beginning of the implementation that she had been unable to spend time completing the game herself, leading her to have little understanding of what students could expect in the game or how to help them if they encountered difficulty. As a result, the teacher exhibited some behaviors that interfered with the intention of the Anytown system. For example, at the beginning of the implementation, the teacher prohibited students from submitting written assignments to the system without prior on-screen review by

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herself or the teacher’s aide, which defeated a purpose of the system, namely to have the teacher review the work using in-system affordances. This undercut student buy-in to the background narrative, which placed the teacher in the role of the editor non-player character that would provide feedback. Only researcher intervention overcame this prohibition; however, nearly an entire class period of the eight was lost as students waited with hands raised for prior review by the instructor. Further, an entire period at the beginning of the implementation of the game was lost to student use of a short tutorial, also created by the instructional designers. While it had taken other classes only 15 to 20 minutes to complete it, student lack of computer use in the preceding month due to the testing created a situation in which they were uncomfortable with using the computers without strict supervision by their teacher. Therefore, a set of self-directed learning activities like those found in the QA tutorial or the Anytown game was very different from their existing classroom expectations. Participant Preparation. As a result of these difficulties, the designers recommend that, regardless of student or teacher competency with the game, a detailed, highly directive set of instructions be provided to the teacher and students in order to help them clearly understand the instructional intention of the game as a means of holding both the students and the teacher accountable for what the rules of the game are. Had students also known what it was they were allowed and not allowed to do with the game, we believe that, as they did in the last two class periods, they would have worked within the rules of the game and demanded the same of the instructor. The rules of the game should not just function within the designers’ game, but also govern the behavior of participants outside it. Further, it may also be appropriate to have one of the designers model and record those teaching behaviors that are appropriate to the game design as a means of preparing the teacher for use of an unfamiliar

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game as a means of reducing well-intentioned, but subversive behaviors that thwart the intention and functions of the designed game system. Evaluation Phase Evaluation is not a final phase in the process though the linear ADDIE model suggests that it is. Rather, as noted throughout this discussion, evaluation occurs all through the analysis, design, development, and implementation process and the results of this phase feed the next iteration of redevelopment and future designs. However, since many of the challenges that result from evaluation throughout this process have been previously noted, this section will identify additional challenges in evaluating student learning and their overall experiences in Anytown and The Door game designs. Game Design Components and Tasks. While both the problem-based and alternate reality narrative tiers in The Door were intended to work in concert, a last-minute concession to a peer instructor removed the requirement that students complete the alternate reality game tasks in order to successfully complete the course; consequently, these game tasks were optional extra credit activities in the pilot test. As reported in interviews with students, the elimination of this requirement diminished their motivation to participate in the game activities except by a few, high achieving members of the class who expressed concern about their grades (Warren & Dondlinger, 2007). This example contrasted with Anytown in which there were both required and optional game activities that were clearly useful within the narrative for completing all learning tasks and understanding the larger context within which they were accomplished. However, because the design of this game allowed students to complete the free choice game activities in the lab while they awaited feedback on their required learning tasks, it is unknown whether they would have participated in the free-choice activities if they were not confined to the computer lab during their waiting

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period. It is still of note that the Anytown students completed 26 free choice activities in six class periods while the comparison class completed none (Warren, 2006a). As such, we recommend that all components within a learning game include both a required set and a minimum number of free choice activities that are integrated within the overall narrative that frames and situates the learning game tasks. However, the inclusion of optional activities should be evaluated dependent on the audience for the game, and based on our research, it should be noted that younger learners are more willing to engage in extra credit, free choice learning activities than older learners. The undergraduate participants pointed out that their everyday activities such as work, social life, and other courses made them less willing to engage in non-required learning activities, even when framed in game terms (Warren & Dondlinger, 2007). Game Design System. As noted in the design and development section, the intention of the system used to design the game can be an extremely limiting factor for what the game can be or if it will indeed satisfy the myriad definitions of the term “game.” If we take Salen and Zimmerman’s (2004) simple definition of “game” to include: (1) a central conflict that drives player action, (2) rules, and (3) one or more scenarios that allow a player to win the game, then the system and the tool by which the system is designed must allow these or they must be modified to allow these characteristics to be present and therefore recognized as a game. Active Worlds, the 3-D Web browser that is the system underlying Anytown and the rest of Indiana University’s Quest Atlantis as well as Harvard University’s River City MUVEE, is not a game engine, is not intended as one, and limits player actions to clicking on objects within the left-hand, 3-D screen or on links in the right-hand screen. Developing a world with the three main characteristics of a game required that the central conflict be presented and driven by the text-based dialogue system through which students clicked

on NPCs in the left screen in order to engage in communication with them in the right screen by clicking on pre-determined links to character dialogue. This was time consuming for many students and cognitively dissonant from their idea of a video game which tended toward the more violent fighting games like Soul Calibur II with instant feedback to their actions and reactions. Moreover, the interface was confusing because clicking on one window disabled the other. Further, the rules of the game were delivered through the text as well as the game goals in the form of investigations to be completed, all of which were communicated by the characters within Anytown via this cumbersome text-based interface even though it was embedded in an immersive, 3-D world. The limitations of the Active Worlds system, the QA scripting system, as well as student preconceptions of video games complicated the evaluation of whether games or even game-like environments do indeed impact the learning experience.

imPlicAtions A number of implications result from our discussion of designing instructional games. These relate to the epistemic stance of the design itself, the instructional design model, technological tools used for design and development, implementing a game for learning, and determining the effectiveness of the design. 1.

Taking a stand: Determining the world view underlying the design

It is very important to determine which epistemological stance will structure the learning experiences present in a learning game. Further, it will inform the instructional design processes most appropriate to the design and therefore, the possible structures of the game. In the instance of Anytown, the designers came to the design

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from a subjectivist stance and therefore felt that using a problem-based learning model was most appropriate to the game’s design. Therefore, they included a series of ill-structured problems for students to solve in the form of game mystery, ill-structured problems that they could work together on with peers that had no specific expected end result, which met the overarching views of the subjectivist. 2.

Choosing an instructional design model: Limitations and affordances for design

The challenges described throughout the chapter have implications for the chosen instructional design model, for continued research on games and simulations for learning, and for the conception of learning games as technologies that are often strictly limited by the instructional models that inform their development. In our examples, we went into the design process acknowledging that the ADDIE model has been criticized as linear and reductive (Bichelmeyer, 2005) while recognizing the fact that its being general would allow us to develop our social constructivist game without being limited by the objectivist views underlying some of the other models. The use of the ADDIE model was further viewed as being appropriate because it is a structured, step-by-step model that is easily reported, whereas problem-based learning (PBL) literature has had a tendency to report what was or must be present in order for the instruction to qualify as PBL rather than providing a step-by-step process for how to construct an environment that qualifies as appropriate for PBL (Warren, 2006a, 2006b). Further, while we would have preferred a more complete, recursive application of the model from start to finish, followed by circling back through the process for reanalysis, redesign, redevelopment, reimplementation, and re-evaluation, designers should recognize that it is often untenable given the time limits imposed on designers and researchers by funding, reporting cycles, as well

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as those time factors present for learners that restrict how much time they can spend playing an electronic learning game, it often is not possible. It is important for designers of games to ensure that either: (a) the instructional design model chosen fits with the larger epistemology that governs the game and is most appropriate to the learning being targeted or that (b) the model is general enough that it will have minimal impact on the end design from an epistemic standpoint as was done with these two examples by using the ADDIE instructional design process. 3.

The technological systems: Challenges and uses

While the game environment and technological scripting system that accompanies it are the main vehicle by which we design games, our designs are also therefore limited by these same developmental systems. On the one hand, Active Worlds allowed the designers of Anytown and other Quest Atlantis spaces to develop complex, immersive 3-D environments with characters, objects and some interactivity as a means of seeking to reduce the instructional load required by problem-based learning from the teacher in terms of providing feedback and resources. Conversely, this feat required extensive scripting in a limited scripting system and also required later development by the team programmer to ensure that a more robust alternative was available for future QA developments. The design of the game interactions required expertise and time that took team members away from the primary tasks of the grant in some instances, though the technological developments provided for some liberation of the teacher in the computer lab. It is important to remember that the tasks that a teacher engages in while teaching are extremely complex, so the development of any interactions in a technological system to replace those must be equally complex, which is extremely time consuming for developers.

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Further, the technological design of the environment is often easier to focus on than the face-to-face training of the teacher that is also required before they use the system. Unless adequate training is provided for the instructor, a painstaking game development may be fruitless in terms of impacting learning. This training must include providing the instructor with opportunities to experience the system itself to become aware of the learning and instructional affordances of the game so that they can readjust their expectations of the instructor’s role in the classroom or lab. It is only when teachers are aware of the affordances of a design and agree to implement them accordingly that they have the potential to be effective. 4.

Assessing an instructional game design: What worked and what did not?

Researching and evaluating the effectiveness of a learning game will be extremely important for determining which components of the product were effective at targeting the learning outcomes. While these outcomes may be largely focused on learning, it is also important to examine learner attitude, satisfaction, and engagement with the game. This should not just focus on summative data to see how the game worked overall, but also formatively to determine how individual sets of instructional game play were received by the learner. This will provide you with specific components of the game that require revision rather than a general sense that it either worked or did not. While the system of publication in academic settings privileges quantitative research findings that demonstrate statistically significant results combined with substantial effect sizes, it is important to recognize the need for qualitative data in the form of learner and instructor interview, video, and audio of learner interaction with the game as well as peers. Valuable lessons about systemic impediments such as student and in-

structor behavior in relationship to the product may have been learned from such data and result in revisions that work around such obstacles. For example, during the second implementation of the Anytown game, the researchers noticed that the unit was taking far more time to complete than had been observed in the previous study. Upon observing and video taping the instructor, it was discovered that she was impeding student use of the system by placing artificial restrictions on the students in terms of what they were allowed to do in the game space, resulting in long periods where students could not engage in using the game, sitting with hands raised (Warren, 2006a, 2006b). As a result, the designers were able to speak to the teacher and intervene which allowed the game to be used as had been detailed in the teachers manual rather than be subverted to meet the perceptions of the instructor. It is important to note that the supremacy of quantitative findings over qualitative explanations or interpretation of results can have a devastating impact on the flow of information about the design and development phases process, focused as it is on results and limited by those that are statistically significant rather than significant in and of themselves in that they may prevent another from replicating a “failed” intervention. Without the qualitative data gathered in the Anytown study, the game would have resulted in a quantitative failure because there would have been no opportunity for the designers to intervene and ensure that the design was used as it was intended.

Future trends What will happen with future instructional game design processes? There are some trends we believe must occur for the use of electronic games for learning to continue. 1.

Designers will increasingly share instructional game design processes in journals.

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The issue of “publish or perish” is a looming one in the field of educational academia; however, this tends to only refer to the publication of research articles, and often, those based on quantitative data. As a result, those of us working in the field of instructional game design are often left to ponder how a particular researcher’s instructional design resulted in statistical significance when perusing a research article because only a paragraph or two was dedicated to describing the general design of the product. While there has been some report of conjectural analysis related to learning games (Dickey, 2007), reports of actual design processes has been sparse. Further, the actual instructional design process, whether derived from ADDIE, constructivist learning environment approaches, or other is rarely reported within the article or in a separate pieces. There simply is not the page space or word count to allow for an adequate description. Without outlets for sharing the instructional design processes used to generate our designs, there is little chance that successful processes will make their way into new game products. While several important journals like Educational Technology Research and Development and Tech Trends readily report instructional design process, there is a strong need for existing journals to report these processes or for new ones that focus on instructional design processes, their consequences, and their products so that we can move the field of instructional, electronic game design forward. Further, it is important in academia that promotion and tenure committees begin to recognize the important contributions of process reporting articles to the field as part of the tenure review process and as a part of the distribution of findings about researched instructional designs.

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2.

3.

Increased research on the effectiveness of reported instructional game design processes. Coupled with sharing instructional design process is a need for the processes to be stringently tested by allowing a large number of outside designers to have access to our processes and use them to design and develop their own products. This will allow for transparency of process and confirmatory studies that can help us best determine what works and what does not. Through this, instructional designers in the field can determine what works best and further create innovative processes that can increase the effectiveness of our game designs in the future. This allows for repeatability not just in the research, but also in the process of instructional designs that have shown promise. However, it also means exposing our processes to others in the field along with the possible criticisms that will accompany that exposure. Game design tools that allow for advanced development without high expertise. As noted throughout this chapter, the game design tools that were available to the designers of the Anytown environment led to some of the limitations of the effectiveness of the game product. Therefore, it is important that there are increased game design tools that allow for flexibility in the designs, reduced need on the part of the designers to have high levels of expertise or a programmer on hand, and increased interactivity. Currently, many instructional game designers use what they have at hand and what costs as little as possible, forced to rely on opensource products that are incomplete or in development. With such tools, designers can rapidly produce and test products that can have high impact, focused more on developing a strong instructional design than on troubleshooting the design product. If these tools do not become widely available, it is

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4.

likely that designers will turn to different forms of instructional game design such as alternate reality games that leverage free resources on the Internet to develop distributed games like The Door ARG described in this chapter. Increased funding for both development and research of electronic games for learning. There has been some funding for the design of electronic games for learning through public sources such as the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health and private sources such as the MacArthur Foundation’s Digital Media and Learning Competition (Foundation, 2007). Given that sources of public funds have been reduced through decreased funding of education in the United States (Peterson, 2006), and government studies that indicate that instructional technology is not impacting learning, private sources have become increasingly important. The development of future sources of funding for the development of these games may come in the form of partnership with the gaming industry, private grant awards from institutes, and partnerships between school districts and universities.

conclusion While Gibson portrays a world of information on a grand scale in which digital tools deal with massive fonts of data that are distributed to learners in an instant, the design and development of these tools is a thorny process that is easier imagined by a science fiction writer than done in educational settings. In the case of complex games that manage player behaviors, mimic human reactions, and, in the case of education, contribute activities that help students learn, ensuring that the game is playable, fun, time and cost effective, and concurrently educational is a struggle that is rarely

depicted in the literature. Beyond the doors of the classroom, challenges inherent to the systems in which formal education at any level is situated can present barriers to the analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation of games for learning. Some of these challenges stem from the imperatives that govern educational policymaking, funding, research, and publishing. Other challenges result when time constraints prohibit deploying the comprehensive process requisite to designing and developing curricular games. The policies of the institutions in which game design is being used present additional challenges, and yet others arise from the underlying system used to create the product or products used as part of the games themselves. Moreover, while these challenges must not daunt our efforts to continue evaluating the impact of electronic games on student learning experiences, we must be very careful that in our excitement about learning games we are not impacting students negatively as they use our products. It is important that as researchers we are mindful of the challenges discussed here so that we might devise strategies to overcome them as we seek answers to the burning questions that drive our desire to learn more about how learning games can improve the educational experiences of our students.

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Journal of Research and Development in Education, 32, 131-147.

Dede, C. (2006). MUVEEs project. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.

Barab, S. A., Scott, B., Ingram-Goble, A., Goldstone, R., Zuiker, S., & Warren, S. J. (in press). Contextual embodiment as a curricular scaffold for transferable understanding. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34.

Dede, C., Ketelhut, D., & Nelson, B. (2004). Design-based research on gender, class, race, and ethnicity in a multi-user virtual environment. Paper presented at the AERA, San Diego, CA, April 12-16.

Barab, S. A., Warren, S., & Ingram-Goble, A. (2006, TBA). Academic play spaces. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA.

Dede, C., Ketelhut, D., & Ruess, K. (2006). Designing for motivation and usability in a museumbased multi-user virtual environment. Retrieved March 11, 2006, from http://www.gse.harvard. edu/~dedech/muvees/documents/AELppr.pdf

Barab, S. A., Warren, S. J., Zuiker, S., Hickery, D., Ingram-Goble, A., & Dodge, T. (2006). Transfer of learning in complex learning environments. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, San Francisco, CA, April 7-11. Barab, S. A., Zuiker, S., Warren, S. J., Hickey, D., Ingram-Goble, A., Herring, S., et al. (2007). Embodiment as a curricular scaffold for transferable understanding. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annnual Meeting, Chicago, IL, April 9-13. Barab, S. A., Zuiker, S., Warren, S. J., Hickey, D., Ingram-Goble, A., Kwon, E.-J., et al. (in press). Designing embodied curriculum: Situating socioscientific inquiry for schools. Journal of Science Education. Bernstein, R. J. (1983). Beyond objectivism and relativism: Science, hermeneutics, and praxis. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Bichelmeyer, B. (2005). The ADDIE model: A metaphor for the lack of clarity in the field of IDT. IDT Record (AECT 2004 IDT Futures Group Presentations). Cassell, J., & Jenkins, H. (Eds.). (2000). From Barbie to Mortal Kombat. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

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Dickey, M. D. (2007). Game design and learning: A conjectural analysis of how massively multiple online role-playing games (MMORPGs) foster intrinsic motivation. Educational Technology Research & Development, 55(3), 253-273. Dodge, T., Barab, S., Warren, S. J., Stuckey, B., Heiselt, C., & Stein, R. A. (in press). Cultivating self: Learning and meaning in the digital age. Journal of Interactive Learning Research. Dondlinger, M. J. (2007). Educational video game design: A review of the literature [Electronic Version]. Journal of Applied Educational Technology, 4, 1-11. Retrieved July 19, 2007, from http://www. eduquery.com/jaet/index.htm. Education, U. S. D. o. (2002). Strategic Plan, 2002-2007. Retrieved March 10, 2004, from http://www.ed.gov/about/reports/strat/plan200207/index.html Entertainment Software Association. (2007). Facts and research. Retrieved October 14, 2007, from http://theesa.com/facts/index.php Foley, B., Jones, M. S., & McPhee-Baker, C. (2002). Why girls got to Whyville.net: A girl friendly online-community for science learning. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

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Foundation, M. (2007). Digital media and learning competition. HASTAC Initiative. Retrieved October 14, 2007. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy New York: Palgrave-Macmillan. Hollis, M. (1994). The philosophy of social science: An introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Hughes, D. (2005, July 25). Student creates writing game. The State News. Jenkins, H., Squire, K., & Tan, P. (2003). Entering the education arcade. Computers in Entertainment, 1(1), 17. Jones, J., & Warren, S. J. (2007a). Affordances of digital worlds. Paper presented at the National Educational Computing Conference, Atlanta, GA, June 24-27. Jones, J., & Warren, S. J. (2007b). Chalk house: Iterative design in a K-12 literacy game. Paper presented at the National Educational Computing Conference, Atlanta, GA, June 24-27. Martin, A., & Chatfield, T. (2006). Alternate reality games white paper - IGDA ARG SIG. Mt. Royal, New Jersey: International Game Developers Association. McCombs, B. L. (1986). The ISD model: Review of those factors critical to its successful implementation. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 34(2), 67-81. Molenda, M., Pershing, J. A., & Reigeluth, C. M. (1996). Designing instructional systems. In R. Craig (Ed.), The ASTD training and development handbook (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Nieborg, D. B. (2005). Changing the rules of engagement: Tapping into the popular culture of America’s Army, the official U.S. Army computer game. Unpublished Study, Universiteit Utrecht, Utrecht, NL.

Peterson, K. (2006). Bush budget cuts education [Electronic Version]. Stateline.org. Retrieved April 19, 2007, from http://www.stateline.org/ live/ViewPage.action?siteNodeId=136&languag eId=1&contentId=86486. Prawat, R. S., & Floden, R. (1994). Philosophical perspectives on constructivist views of learning. Educational Psychologist, 29(Winter), 37-48. Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play: Game design fundamentals. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Samsonov, P., Pedersen, S., & Hill, C. (2006). Using problem-based learning software with at-risk students: A case study. Computers in Schools, 23(1/2), 111-124. Saurbaum, J., & Brown, R. (2006). Econ 201: Principles of microeconomics. Retrieved February 22, 2007. Squire, K. (2004). Replaying history. Unpublished Unpublished dissertation, Indiana UniversityBloomington, Bloomington, IN. Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29. Squire, K., & Steinkuehler, C. (2005). Generating cyberculture/s: The case of Star Wars Galaxies. In Cyberlines: Languages and cultures of the Internet. Albert Park, Australia: James Nicholas Publishers. Steinkuehler, C. (2004). The literacy practices of massively multiplayer online gaming. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA. Tuzun, H. (2004). Motivating learners in educational computer games. Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN. Warren, S. J. (2006a). A pre-service teacher experience: The Council Actors. Paper presented at the Society for Information Technology and

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Teacher Education International Conference, Orlando, FL, March 20-24. Warren, S. J. (2006b). The impact of a multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) teacher instructional time, voluntary student writing practice, and student writing achievement. Unpublished Dissertation, Indiana University-Bloomington, Bloomington, Indiana. Warren, S. J., Barab, S. A., & Dondlinger, M. J. (in press). A MUVE towards PBL writing: Effects of a digital learning environment designed to improve elementary student writing. Journal of Research on Technology in Education.

scripts that govern physical behavior in the form of instantly teleporting players to new spaces or worlds and “bumping” them to new location. ADDIE: The ADDIE model of design is intended to provide designers with a consistent process for designing instruction. It includes the following phases: (1) analysis, (2) design, (3) development, (4) implementation, and (5) evaluation. Alternate Reality Game (ARG): Alternate reality games are story driven games with pieces of that story found in many places such as Web sites, e-mail addresses, video, and audio clips.

Warren, S. J., & Dondlinger, M. J. (2007). CECS 1100: An iterative course redesign. Paper presented at the Transforming Large Enrollment Classes Symposium, Denton, Texas, Center for Distance Learning, May 25.

Epistemology: This is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, methods, limitations, and validity of knowledge. It explores the questions: “What is knowledge?”, “How is knowledge acquired?”, and “What do people know?”

Warren, S. J., & Dondlinger, M. J. (under review). Educational game as learning tool: Benefits, challenges, and tensions arising from the use of a game for learning in schools. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education.

Multi-User Virtual Environment (MUVE/ MUVEE): These are digital environments that allow many simultaneous participants to engage in virtual contexts, interact with digital objects, represent themselves as “avatars,” communicate with other participants, and, using their avatars, participate in collaborative learning activities (Dede, Ketelhut, & Nelson, 2004).

Warren, S. J., & Stein, R. (under review). Writing in the “real” world: Findings from an exploratory study of a game-MUVE designed to support writing practice. Journal of Interactive Learning Research. Warren, S. J., Whitworth, C., & Dondlinger, M. J. (2007). The Door: CECS 1100 iteration One. On Design + research collaborative [Online Course and materials]. Denton, Texas: University of North Texas.

Key terms Active Worlds: A 3-D, online virtual reality platform designed within a functioning Web browser that allows users to explore other user created content such as objects, buildings, and

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Non-Player Character (NPC): A character that contributes to human player interactions in a game by communicating with them through text or audio, providing clues, deceits, information, items, or other activities that allow the player to complete a game. While most are benign or beneficial, some become enemies during the course of interactions with the player. Quest Atlantis (QA): The National Science Foundation’s Quest Atlantis grant project is a 3-D multi-user virtual environment in which students engage with simulated real-world problems that arise as they interact with characters and objects that are embedded within the digital space.

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Scripting System: This is an input system governed by a server side Web programming language such as PHP that allows for the development of interactions within a larger interactive system, such as a MUVE or video game, by designating which information or actions will display onscreen in response to player actions.

Second Life: An online, virtual world developed by Linden Research that functions as a social network in which users can develop their own content in the form of buildings, clothing, jewelry, and scripts which cause their characters to act in different ways such as dancing, firing weapons, and breathing fire.

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Chapter LXIX

Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design Panagiotis Zaharias University of the Aegean, Greece & Athens University of Economics and Business, Athens, Greece Anthony Papargyris Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece

AbstrAct E-learning is emerging as one of the fastest organizational uses of the Internet as a supplementary or alternative mode for corporate training. However its effectiveness is questioned and most of e-learning courses and applications have been accused of being quite static, non-authentic and superficial, poorly designed, and thus non-motivating. Their philosophical assumption views learning as an isolated phenomenon, a static knowledge in a can that could be transmitted to the learners. In this chapter it is argued that many useful lessons for e-learning designers can be learned from game design and especially from the design of massive multi-player online games (MMOGs). A review on instructional quality of games and design elements of MMOGs is conducted under the perspective of adult learning, in order to identify, adapt, and propose design implications for e-learning design.

introduction Games have long provided a structured environment for rich learning experiences. Besides some typical definitions, games can be defined in terms

of their learning and/or instructional nature. For instance, Aldrich (2004) defines games as, “interactive and entertaining sources of play which can be used to learn a lesson”. It should be noted that games support the development of

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Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design

procedural rather than prescriptive knowledge: Learning activities such as observation, conversation, trial-and-error efforts are very common. Such practices help gamers while interacting with the game world to solve a task, reach a goal, and implement a certain strategy. Computer games can also facilitate adult learning in a great extent. Computer-based role-playing games can help adults explore skills, methods, and concepts rapidly within an engaging non-threatening environment ripe with experiential and behavioral learning components. On the other hand e-learning technology and applications provide exciting possibilities for supporting students in educational settings (schools and universities) and adult learners, professionals, and employees in organizational settings seeking new training and learning innovations. Especially for the latter, e-learning is emerging as one of the fastest organizational uses of the Internet as a supplementary or alternative mode for corporate training. The problem is that much of its quality is questionable. Poor e-learning design and usability problems cause frustration and create many barriers in learners’ interaction with e-learning courses. Additionally the pedagogical foundations of most e-learning designs are not stable and e-learning courses—as the cornerstone of e-learning—fail to provide authentic learning environments. These problems are even harder in contexts such as business settings, organisations, and so forth, where adult professionals and employees interact with e-learning applications as part of corporate training and development initiatives. Adult learners need to feel responsible for their own learning and seek to find applicable knowledge that will help them out with their daily work activities and tasks. The authors support that many useful lessons for e-learning designers can be learned from game design and especially from the design of massive multi-player online games (MMOGs). There is much research evidence that learning takes place in the immersive worlds of MMOGs,

which are mostly based on problem-based and project-based learning assumptions (Lee, Eustace, Fellows, Bytheway, & Irving, 2005). New gamers of MMOGs are immersed into the socio-cultural practices of the community and master new skills through the interaction with “experts”. In this chapter, the focus is to delineate the learning-instructional quality of games, especially the respective quality of MMOGs. As a consequence the objective is to explore what and how gamers learn within an MMOG setting that can be successfully transferred to different situations especially in the context of e-learning design. There is a growing interest and demand for designing immersive e-learning experiences, therefore it is critical to systematically extract the best design practices from MMOGs and adapt them for e-learning design.

e-leArning design And the neW chAllenges Design issues directly affect e-learning adoption and sustainability. The problem thus far is that focus is being placed more on technology issues and not on quality of learning. In many cases poor pedagogical design of e-learning applications has been accused of being the main determinant for the high dropout rates in e-learning courses. Non-interactive learning content, poor instructional assessment and instructional feedback, distractive use of media along with issues such as lack of control and navigational disorientation are the most commonly reported nuisances in several studies (ASTD, 2001; Bonk, 2002; Massy, 2002). As already mentioned e-learning courses are the cornerstone of e-learning initiatives nowadays. The majority of e-learning courses support asynchronous self-paced interactivity. The use of instructional design in e-learning has mainly been concerned with designing online training materials and applications for individual learners. According to Clark and Mayer (2003) most

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of them can be characterized as receptive, which is about information acquisition. Main design characteristics are the plethora of information with limited interaction and practice opportunities, where collaborative and social learning processes are inadequately supported. However learning just like gaming is not an isolated phenomenon. In addition, users of e-learning especially in corporate training settings keep complaining about the non-authentic educational content, exercises, and tools embedded in e-learning courses and applications. The dominant design paradigm so far is based on objectivist principles and guidelines, which practically mean that most of the e-learning courses present instructional information in small steps, require overt responses to frequent questions, provide immediate feedback, and allow for learner self-pacing. Most of the e-learning courses follow the traditional model of e-learning as being a type of content, produced by publishers, trainers, instructors, organized and structured into courses and consumed by learners. This kind of e-learning systems seems to be inadequate for today’s increasing complexity. More and more users are immersed in an increasingly digital world and learners are seeking richer and more engaging learning experiences. Instructors and trainers try to explore innovative ways to use technology, to foster interaction, collaboration, and excitement for learning. Such requirements call for a solid implementation of constructivist e-learning environments. Constructivist approaches to learning consider that subjectivity is critical in contrast with behavioral and cognitive theories that assume the external world is real and the goal of instruction is to have learners acquire responses and knowledge that exist in the world (Ertmer & Newby, 1993). Constructivism espouses the creation of meaning from experience (Jonassen, 1991). Learning must occur embedded in the context in which it occurs. Cognition is situated in contexts and instruction must be presented in those contexts (Derry & Lesgold, 1996). Social context of learning is

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emphasized through peer collaborative groups, apprenticeships, and social models (Derry & Lesgold, 1996; Webb & Palincsar, 1996). Constructivist learning theories are becoming widely accepted in all fields of training and education, including e-learning. Web technologies easily lend themselves to constructivist principles by providing learners with opportunities to communicate with other learners or experts all over the world, discuss issues, and learn collaboratively. Especially adult learners expect learning opportunities in exciting and engaging formats where they have some control and responsibility over their own learning. Adults become ready to learn something when, as Knowles explained, “they experience a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems” (Knowles, 1980). It is important that e-learning courses should be concrete and relate to learners’ needs and future goals. The e-learning designer must encourage learners’ readiness by designing experiences, which simulate situations where the learner will encounter a need for the knowledge or skill presented. A more participatory design process where learners actively get involved and provide input into the design and development of e-learning courses can help them to take ownership of the learning process. All of this information reveals that constructivism provides a more “appropriate” and solid theoretical background for developing effective e-learning systems and applications. Nevertheless application of constructivism in e-learning design is not without problems. Constructivist theories and instructional design models have been criticized for being vague at times and that constructivist principles do not provide clear guidelines for designing instruction (Schunk, 2000). The absence of specific learning objectives and outcomes has also earned the criticism for constructivism as inefficient and ineffective. Consequently assessment may be a problem. Constructivists have been accused of showing

Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design

little concern for certifying the competency levels of learners (Dick, 1992). Authors support the idea that e-learning designers can overcome many similar design problems by borrowing best practices from games design area. In order to overcome the aforementioned problems and implement authentic and truly collaborative e-learning experiences, thorough and systematic synergies between e-learning designers and MMOG designers should be established. In this chapter the authors review some characteristics of games design with an emphasis on MMOGs so as to identify and sort out design practices and features that could be transferred in the context of e-learning design and more particularly in corporate e-learning settings where the users are adult learners.

gAmes And leArning Play theory is based around the observation that like other animals, humans learn more through the games they play in their early years than they do in any other corresponding time in their lives (Van Eck, 2000). Computer games represent one form of play, which grows rapidly in the last two decades with the advent of information and communication technologies. Computer games are designed “to be learned” and therefore provide models of good learning practices. In order to highlight the educational and learning value of games, Chris Crawford, author and designer of Atari game argues that games are “…the most ancient and time-honoured vehicle for education. They are the original educational technology, having received the approval of natural selection” (Crawford, 1982, pp. 16-17). Some of the main characteristics of games that support learning are as follows: •

Games challenge and support gamers to approach, explore, and overcome increasingly complex problems and thereby learn better

•

•

•

•

how to tackle those problems in similar contexts in future. Games offer the capacity for gamers to try out alternative courses of action in specific contexts and then experience consequences. Learning by playing games is a process of constant practice and interaction in progressively more challenging tasks through which gamers gradually reveal underlying sets and systems of rules. Another important aspect of learning with games relies in the social and collaborative practices, which emerge around them. The rich media and multiple representations of games can boost affect and motivation, which are dominant parameters for learning effectiveness.

A remarkable difference with conventional software is that game design is based on the maximization of the users’ experience. Game designers try to imagine what players will experience as they work their way through the game, trying to deliver the most exciting and compelling experience possible. It is important to note that many game designers use methods, which are based on principles being discovered in recent research on human learning. As Gee (2004) asserts many “non-educational”, commercial, off the shelf, (COTS) games exhibit the use of techniques that demonstrate sound learning principles—to an even greater degree than most so-called “educational” games. Authors support that this is also the case in e-learning software and applications. This may sound as an oxymoron schema, but it is supported that elearning designers have much to learn from best design practices in game design and especially MMOGs.

the cAse oF mmogs MMOGs (or MMORPGs) represent a new genre in the online games industry. The emergent mas1207

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sive multi-player online games (MMOGs) allow users to interact with other users around the globe in real-time. They are immensely popular and many MMOGs report millions of subscribers. These games are considered to be the evolution of text-based multi-user dragons (MUDs). The first MUD was developed in 1979, and it was allowing text-based communication between gamers in numerous chat rooms. With the introduction of graphics, the first MMOG was launched in 1984, and since then, many new titles were introduced into the market. At the moment, there are over 100 commercial MMOGs released, and about 94 more in the stage of development or beta testing1. In MMOGs, information is available and used upon demand. The immediate application of such knowledge elevates the learning process and excites the learners. Character development, friendships, and partnerships are very common activities in MMOGs. Gamers might develop character roles and be better known for such roles than for their real-world occupations, thereby granting them a status that they may not have previously experienced. According to Baron (1999), much of the social and psychological foundations in multi-player games revolve around the sense of glory and shame that they promote. In one of the first social studies in MMOGs, Fine (1983) reports that these game virtual worlds are actually social worlds that support sub-cultures online. Indeed, most players treat MMOGs like a space where they can meet with their friends, form teams, and compete against others. Recent studies on game-based learning indicate that engagement in MMOGs can benefit gamers to acquire new skills (e.g., Papargyris & Poulymenakou, 2005). Just like gamers who are active participants, learners can be involved in a problem space where expertise is built over time and challenges increase (Downes, 2004). MMOG players use modern technological arrangements such as wiki and blogs, which enable everyone to become “editors” of the collective knowledge and memory and better organize

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their collective actions. Indeed, shared stories in a community constitute an important part of its collective memory and it has also been recognized that storytelling “is the preferred sense-making currency of human relationships among internal and external stakeholders” (Boje, 1991, p. 106). Through networked technologies and despite occasional flaming, most gamers engage in narrations and storytelling for broadcasting their ideas, share their experiences, and build trustful relations with others. More particularly in MMOGs, millions of gamers with different ages, cultures, objectives, needs and agendas, come together and compete through collaboration and participation into meaningful collective practices. In spite of the fact that learning and knowledge sharing in virtual communities of gamers in MMOGs is not a pre-requisite for playing the game, gamers are intrinsically motivated to voluntarily contribute their ideas and share knowledge with other gamers or the game developers. Indeed, it is this level of freedom on players’ course of actions that allows gamers to explore various aspects of playfulness and learning. This is in contrast with the majority of objectivist type of e-learning courses where learners follow pre-defined paths and take courses within a pre-defined curriculum.

virtuAl communities in mmogs As Rickard and Oblinger (2004) point out, “gaming—especially massive multi-player games— builds communities of gamers who will continue playing as long as they can” (p.16). In general, different level of engagement (i.e., immersion and engrossment) with an MMOG allows the establishment of different types of communities. In short, we can identify four types of communities: the communities of gamers, of developers, of players, and the in-game communities (see Figure 1). An individual may be a member in many different communities, but it is this multi-membership in different teams and communities, that permits

Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design

cultural diffusion between groups of players (Fine, 1983). •

•

•

•

Communities of gamers: This represents a wide community of MMOG enthusiasts that enjoy playing such games. They often gather online in chat rooms or forums and share their experiences. Such communities may move further and even decide to create their own open-source MMOG, like the Daimonim2 game. Communities of players: These communities are game-specific and they form around a single MMOG. They consist of players with a common interest in a games’ aspect (for example on trading resources), and they share knowledge on their best practices. These task-oriented communities are usually informal and without a specific structure, membership requirements or a specific scope. But some of them may become more “official” and active and create a wiki or blogs for providing supportive material like detailed game manuals and guides. Community of developers: Game developers are usually referred by the players as game masters (GMs) or as “gods”. GMs keep an open channel with the community of players and volunteers and provide continues feedback in various technical or game-play issues. They are responsible for any content updates and act as a referee in resolving online conflicts. An important role of a GMs is the community manager, who serves as the main link between community of players and the community of developers. In-game communities: Finally, inside the game itself, we can observe the formation of various communities based on a common interests, game style, and objectives. During our research, we observed and participated in numerous creations and destructions of corporations. The population of a corporation may vary from few friends that play together

to hundred of gamers. Crowded corporations move farther and adopt a leadership and organizational model. Usually, these large corporations operate like nation-states and they have their own organizational structure with a CEO and many directors in different departments, a common “wallet” and hangars for storing virtual goods. The CEO also holds the corporation’s shares and can create open votes for the corporation members to vote and make collective decisions. Most of the corporations and alliances maintain their own Web site, kill-boards, and other promotion (i.e., newsletters) and recruitment mechanisms. These electronic repositories serves not only for storing common knowledge but also as “a mechanism for evaluating the trustworthiness and reciprocity of others within the community” (Cook & Brown, 1999, p. 838). In time, members of such communities form trustful and intimate relationships and develop a high degree of commitment and sense of belonging (Kollock & Smith, 1999). New members, are enculturated into the communities history and practices though the engagement on collective actions (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). As regarding the case of virtual communities and e-learning design, it can be supported that most of the times what constituted a “learning community” was quite artificial. Communities are typically limited to a given group of learners, have a fixed start and end-point, and rarely approached Wenger’s et al. (Wenger, McDermott, & Snyder, 2002) vision. According to the main authors’ proposition, many of the technological and design foundations of the MMOGs can be exploited and adapted for e-learning designs. For instance, by incorporating collaborative technologies such as wikis and blogs into the learning/training procedures, e-learning

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Figure 1. The establishment of communities based on the player’s level of engagement with a MMOG

HIGH

Level of engagement

-

Communities of Developers

-

In-game Communities (‘guilds’)

-

Communities of Players

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Communities of Gamers

LOW

applications can be less formal but more substantial while at the same time can be transformed from a single system into an interactive environment. The next section presents several implications that can enrich design practices toward this goal.

imPlicAtions For designing e-leArning exPeriences In this section authors have selected certain design features and characteristics of the MMOGs that can be transferred in e-learning design. As already mentioned, the focus is on designing corporate e-learning applications where adult professionals are the e-learners. Therefore these characteristics have been chosen according to the needs of adult learners and in alignment with the constructivist key tenets underpinning MMOGs’ design. In this section some core principles of adult learning are discussed along with key design issues that can be transferred from MMOGs. Following this discussion, implications for designing e-learning experiences are presented in the form of design guidelines.

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Recent views of adult learning share many common characteristics with constructivist approaches, which are reflected in adult learning principles as follows (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998): 1.

The learners’ need to know: Adults need to know why they should learn something. They want to know the reason they need to learn something or how it will benefit them. The design of e-learning can incorporate not only learners’ original reflections but can solicit feedback about the relevance of the ongoing learning process throughout the course or application. E-learning environments should be safe, trial and error environments where learners can pursue meaningful goals, fail to meet the goals, try again, and eventually develop a theory of how to improve (Schank, 1997). The reasons when the learner fails can be analyzed and discussed in a learning guild and the interjection of another similar learning story from a peer may be extremely helpful.

Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design

2.

3.

The learners’ self-concept: Knowles et al. (1998) emphasize “…adults resent and resist situations in which they feel others are imposing their wills on them”. Adult learners need to feel autonomous and selfdirected; they need to take responsibility for their own learning and the direction it takes. A design that provides a non-linear structure allows an adult to follow the path that most appropriately reflects their need to learn. It becomes extremely important for the designers of e-learning courses to use branching, the ability to skip sections a learner already understands, and multiple forms of presentation of material, which can assist learners with various learning styles. Additionally multiple points of view or perspectives on the same learning events, allowing learners to choose their perspective and interpret the information provided to form their own conclusions. The role of the learners’ experience: Adults want to use what they know and want to be acknowledged for having that knowledge. Acknowledgment is an extremely powerful incentive as it is in MMOGs. As already indicated, the social support, challenge, feedback, and sense of identity that players receive online in MMOG often provides psychological fulfillment that they may not be receiving in real life. A similar situation must be supported in e-learning courses and applications. The design of e-learning must include opportunities for learners to use their knowledge and experience. Case studies, reflective activities, group-based projects are examples of the type of learning activities, which will facilitate the use of learners’ already acquired expertise. The creation of learning spaces and the formation of an analogue of MMOGs’ guilds can boost the transfer of learners’ knowledge and experiences. In an MMOG, the newcomer has opportunities to observe as well as actively

4.

5.

participate within a community of practice. Here, the learner can watch expert performance and internalize it prior to becoming an active member or legitimate peripheral participant. Learners’ readiness to learn: Adults become ready to learn something when, as Knowles explained, “they experience a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems” (Knowles, 1980). It is important that e-learning courses should be concrete and relate to learners’ needs and future goals. In addition, a designer can encourage learners’ readiness by designing experiences, which simulate situations where the learner will encounter a need for the knowledge or skill presented. Learners’ orientation to learning: Adults are life, task or problem-centered in their orientation to learning. They want to see how what they are learning will apply to their life, a task they need to perform, or to solving a problem. Design of e-learning courses can be more effective if it uses reallife examples or situations that adult learners may encounter in their life or on the job. Flexibility in the design of an e-learning course facilitates learners’ input on issues that need to be addressed in a learning or training process. For example learners can bring real-life examples to a chat session in an e-learning course; such an activity can make learners anxious to participate and gain the practical experience, which will help them to do better at their job. Furthermore, the designers need to create opportunities for what Mezirow (1990) calls “reflective learning”. Reflective learning activities can assist learners in examining their biases and habits and move them toward a new understanding of information presented. Using e-learning courses to have learners reflect on learning activities, for example, put themselves in a different character in a

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Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design

6.

case study or scenario, may cause adults to re-evaluate already learned information or patterns. Another best practice that support learners’ reflection is to embed learning transcripts, learning session histories which might be replayed or evaluated immediately after they are recorded or after a significant delay. Learners’ motivation to learn: E-learning designers just like game designers should make artefacts that maximize the learners’ experience. The e-learning environments should be enjoyable, engaging and fun and provide a positive experience for the learner, which appeals to the “head,

heart, and gut” of the learner (cognitive and emotional aspects) rather than just the “head” as in typical corporate training situations. While adult learners may respond to external motivators, internal priorities are more important. Factors such as increased satisfaction, self-esteem, value, interest, arousal, and enjoyment are important in giving adults a reason to learn. Activities that build learners’ self-esteem, or sense of accomplishment through, for example, the completion of goals or modules that can be checked off in a sequence, may help motivate completion of a long e-learning course or application. Several motivational scholars

Design Guideline # 1: Design for Social Interaction • • • • •

Provide the ability to know who is available and participating in the course along with their current location. Provide private, within-group communication, including ability to see others’ learners statistics. Allow for different, complementary roles with individual abilities, mirroring real-life complementary roles and boosting the functionality and desirability of teaming. Provide rewards for group accomplishments rather than focusing on the work of individual players. Develop permanent groups of learners, such as guilds.

Design Guideline # 2: Design for Authenticity • • • • • • • •

Use realistic visual and audio design: heightened authenticity to foster transfer to the job. Provide job-related scenarios: meaningful, authentic problems with risk and consequence. Provide access to a wide range of learning resources and job aids: links to real-world information. Provide problems without “right” answers: stimulating speculation and creativity to achieve success. Provide feedback that is contextual and relevant to the problem or task in which the learner is engaged. Provide opportunities for review and reflection: develop tools that learning transcripts: Session histories might be replayed or evaluated immediately after they are recorded or after a significant delay. Foster learning from mistakes and learning histories. Dialogues should be supportive of the learner’s task; simple, intuitive, non-intrusive and accurate.

Design Guideline # 3: Design for Motivation • • • •

The e-learning course or application should give rewards that immerse the learner more deeply in the learning environment by increasing their capabilities (power-up), and expanding their ability to customize. The learning environment should not frustrate the learners or prove too complicated while remaining challenging. Develop learning spaces where participatory and supportive learning events facilitated by instructors/content experts take place. Use narrative and storytelling techniques: learners must participate in and possibly contribute to the story.

Design Guideline # 4: Maximize the E-Learning Experience • • • • • •

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Develop holistic learning focused on high-level competencies. Learning objectives should be performance-based and job oriented. Provide multiple perspectives, present different points of view. Provide ways to test learners’ ideas: a “safe” environment in which to fail, try again and succeed. Use audio / visual effects to enhance challenge and fantasy, to support feedback and rewards. The e-learning environment should have different difficulty levels and each should have multiple levels of goals. Make it funny, challenging and fair. Focus on learners’ emotional responses such as joy, fun and pride.

Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design

have pointed out the importance of a supportive but challenging environment, choices, short-term goals, and immediate feedback on performance (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996; Reeve, 1996; Stipek, 1998). The authenticity and hands-on nature of these environments is another key motivator. In addition, learners’ active involvement and input into the design and development of e-learning courses can help learners to take ownership of the learning process. Learners just like MMOG gamers should be interested in the story line. The story experience relates to their real life and grabs their interest. Storytelling techniques can immerse the learners, moving away from the traditional roles of storyteller and passive audience. The narrative should not only stimulate the learner cognitively, but also emotionally and physically. Learners must be able to customize or personalize the e-learning environments so they feel they can contribute to the story. As Whiteside (2002) asserts “providing a core of fixed content that is supplemented by live ‘dispatches’ or other synchronous events not only adds authenticity, but a sense that the story or action is happening in real time”. According to this discussion, we present some basic design guidelines as adapted from other game studies (Ang, Avni, & Zaphiris, 2007; Bonk & Dennen, 2005; Desurvire, Caplan, & Toth, 2004; Sellers, 2002) along four dimensions: social interaction, authenticity, motivation, and e-learning (users) experience.

Future trends E-learning design, online games, and simulations will converge in a great extent. In this process games designers should work closely with corporate trainers and e-learning designers from the beginning of the development process, to ensure

the end product is appropriate from a pedagogical, practical, and business viewpoint. E-learning courses and applications will incorporate games and simulations for learning content presentation, instructional assessment, and feedback. In addition technologies embedded in MMOGs will be used more intensively for social interaction and collaborative learning processes. Learning communities that mimic the MMOG guilds are expected to emerge. There is an increased focus on cultivating communities of practice in the business world (Wenger et al., 2002) as well as learning communities in education. Consequently it is expected that research on the apprenticeship process in MMOGs will provide highly interesting and informative results. Furthermore, virtual world technology emerges as a strong future trend, which is expected to significantly enhance the experience and transfer of learning. Advances in pedagogical agent technology will provide additional layers of guidance, challenges, and control (Bonk & Dennen, 2005). As agents and artificial intelligence as well as additional customization and options are added to the MMOG experience, there will be increasing avenues for education, training, and performance support within these environments. Under an organizational perspective, new roles may emerge and new skills must be developed. Online training with games and simulations requires significant familiarity with games on the part of trainers, subject matter experts, and human resource development officers. Trainers should be clear about the exact learning goals they are hoping to achieve when using game-based e-learning courses. Motivation, reward, curricular objectives, development of skills, and competencies are all valid modes of use and learners (trainees) need to know in advance what they are expected to get out of interacting and playing with such interactive applications.

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conclusion Games have long been used as educational and training tools. Their instructional and learning quality is evident in several contexts and situations, and the advent of MMOGs will further increase their popularity. On the other hand e-learning applications emerged as “official” alternative—and most of the times supplementary—mode for corporate training purposes. However their effectiveness and quality have been questioned. There is too much focus on technological issues and less on their pedagogy. In addition their design follows the old instructivist-learning paradigm, which views learning as the acquisition and accumulation of a finite set of skills and facts and assumes that there is a particular body of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to a learner. Nevertheless learning like gaming is not an isolated and static process. It requires a lot of social interaction, exploration, critical reflection, and collaboration. Such activities are effectively supported in MMOGs where players are active participants in different types of communities. Authors support that much of games and MMOGs’ design experience and practice can be transferred into the e-learning design in order to overcome well-known problems and deficiencies. Some implications for e-learning design in the form of design guidelines are presented along four dimensions, that is, social interaction, authenticity, motivation, and user experience. Since the special focus of this chapter is on corporate e-learning designs, all these implications are combined with adult learning principles. In conclusion it is supported that thorough and systematic synergies between e-learning designers and MMOG designers should be established. So far these two communities work in parallel. There are very few studies that take an integrative view. Most of them are conceptual and theoretical in nature. Empirical works and user studies are needed to further enlighten the

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learning processes within these applications and the quality of users’ experience.

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Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge Books.

Derry, S., & Lesgold, A. (1996). Toward a situated social practice model for instructional design. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 787-806). New York: Macmillan. Desurvire, H., Caplan, M., & Toth, J. A. (2004). Using heuristics to evaluate the playability of games. CHI ‘04 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Vienna, Austria, April 24-29. Dick, W. (1992). An instructional designer’s view of constructivism. In T. Duffy & D. Jonassen (Eds.), Constructivism and the technology of instruction: A conversation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Good, R., Wandersee, J., & St. Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-70. Fine, G.-A. (1983). Shared fantasy: Role-playing games as social worlds (B. Robert, Trans. Second ed.). Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press. Gee, J. P. (2004). Learning by design: Games as learning machines. Paper presented at the Game Developers Conference, San Jose, CA, March 22-26. Retrieved from http://www.gamasutra. com/gdc2004/features/20040324/gee_01.shtml Jonassen, D. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: do we need a new philosophical paradigm? Educational Technology Research & Development, 39, 5-14.

Kollock, P., & Smith, M. (1999). Communities in cyberspace. In M. Smith & P. Kollock (Eds.), Communities in cyberspace (pp. 3-25). New York: Routledge. Lee, M. J. W., Eustace, K., Fellows, G., Bytheway, A., & Irving, L. (2005). Rochester Castle MMORPG: Instructional gaming and collaborative learning at a Western Australian school. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 21(4), 446-469. Massy, J. (2002). Quality and elearning in Europe: Summary report 2002. BizMedia 2002. Retrieved from www.elearningage.co.uk Mezirow, J. (1990). How critical reflection triggers transformative learning. In J. Mezirow (Ed.), Fostering critical reflection in adulthood (pp. 1-20). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Papargyris, A., & Poulymenakou, A. (2005). Learning to fly in persistent digital worlds: The case of massively multi-player online role playing games. ACM SIGGROUP Bulletin, 25(1), 8. Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (1996). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill Reeve, J. M. (1996). Motivating others: Nurturing inner motivational resources. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Rickard, W., & Oblinger, D. (2004). Higher education leaders symposium: Unlocking the potential of gaming technology. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation. Schank, R. (1997) Virtual learning: A revolutionary approach to building a highly skilled workforce. New York. McGraw-Hill.

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Schunk, D. (2000). Learning theories: An educational perspective (3rd ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Sellers, M. (2002, September 16). Creating effective groups and group roles in MMP games. Gamasutra. Retrieved from http://www.gamasutra. com/resource_guide/ 20020916/sellers_01.htm Stipek, D. J. (1998). Motivation to learn: From theory to practice (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Van Eck, R. N. (2000). The effect of advisement and competition on transfer, advisor use, and attitude toward mathematics using a computerbased simulation game (Doctoral dissertation, University of South Alabama, 2000). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61(1), 146A. Webb, N. M., & Palincsar, A. S. (1996). Group processes in the classroom. In D. Berliner & R. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 841-873). New York: Macmillan. Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating communities of practice: A guide to managing knowledge. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Whiteside, A. (2002). Beyond interactivity: Immersive Web-based learning experiences. The e-Learning Developers’ Journal, September.

Key terms Adult Learning (Andragogy): Andragogy, thanks to the work of Malcolm Knowles (1980), has once again been accepted and widely-used term. Basically, it represents an educational philosophy, which is the anti-thesis of pedagogy. Whereas pedagogy is the instruction of a dependent personality (the child), andragogy is the for the instruction of a non-dependent personality (the adult). Adult learners are considered to have more experience, a greater need to be self-direct-

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ing, and a greater interest in life-centered topics. Whereas children are more commonly referred to as “students” who are “taught”, adults are more commonly referred to as “learners” who are “facilitated.” Constructivism: It is one of the two major epistemological beliefs in learning and educational research: The constructivist perspective describes learning as a change in meaning constructed from experience (Newby et al., 1996). Constructivists believe that “knowledge and truth are constructed by people and do not exist outside the human mind” (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991). This is radically different from what objectivism, which is the other dominant epistemological belief, conceives learning to be. Design Guidelines: Design guidelines are one of the most widely used design techniques. Guidelines have long been used to capture design knowledge and to help designers in using that knowledge when designing user interfaces (Dumas & Redish, 1993). E-Learning: E-learning can be defined as the use of electronic technology and media to deliver, support, and enhance teaching and learning. A definition of e-learning which is more closely to corporate training is the following (Goodyear, 2000): “E-learning is the systematic use of networked multimedia computer technologies that can empower learners, improve learning, connect learners to other people (peers, instructors, experts, etc.) and resources supportive of their needs, and finally integrate learning with performance and individual with organisational goals”. MMOGs: Massive multi-player online games are highly graphical 3-D videogames played online, allowing individuals, through their selfcreated digital characters or “avatars”, to interact not only with the gaming software (the designed environment of the game and the computer-controlled characters within it) but with other players’ avatars as well.

Interaction with MMOGs and Implications for E-Learning Design

Objectivism: To the objectivists, “knowledge and truth exist outside the mind of the individual and are therefore objective” (Runes, 1962, pp. 217). “Learners are told about the world and are expected to replicate its content and structure in their thinking” (Jonassen, 1991, p. 6). The role of education in the objectivist view is therefore to help students learn about the real world. It is asserted that there is a particular body of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to a learner. Learning is thus viewed as the acquisition and accumulation of a finite set of skills and facts.

Virtual Communities: “Virtual communities are cultural aggregations that emerge when enough people bump into each other often enough in cyberspace. A virtual community is a group of people who may or may not meet one another face-to-face, and who exchange words and ideas through the mediation of computer bulletin boards and networks” (Rheingold, 1994, p. 57-58).

endnotes 1 2

http://mmorpg.com http://www.daimonin.net/

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Chapter LXX

Narrative Development and Instructional Design Douglas Williams University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Yuxin Ma University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Charles Richard University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA Louise Prejean University of Louisiana at Lafayette, USA

AbstrAct This chapter explores the challenge of balancing narrative development and instructional design in the creation of an electronic game-based learning environment. Narrative is a key factor in successful commercial games. The hero’s journey is explained and proposed as a model narrative structure for developing educational role-playing games and informing instructional design. Opportunities to embed various instructional strategies within the hero’s journey structure are presented.

introduction With annual proceeds that exceed the movie industry, the popularity of entertainment video games is stunning. In January 2007, Blizzard Entertainment announced that their massively multi-player online role-playing game (MMORPG), World of

Warcraft, had more than 8 million subscribers (Blizzard Entertainment, 2007). The result has been a call by many, including the Federation of American Scientists (2006), to explore digital games as a viable approach for teaching in K-12 and higher education. An increasing number of game-based learning environments are currently under development or

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have recently been released in which the learner is placed in virtual worlds and asked to engage in various tasks. For example, River City, for children ages 11-14, is a multi-player virtual environment emphasizing player tasks designed to develop higher order thinking skills and content knowledge in biology and ecology (Ketelhut, Dede, Clarke, & Nelson, 2006). Quest Atlantis, for children ages 9-12, immerses children in a virtual world with an emphasis on developing social responsibility (Barab, Thomas, Dodge, Carteaux, & Tuzun, 2005). PeaceMaker provides opportunities for a player to develop an understanding of the IsraeliPalestinian conflict through an engaging simulation (Impact Games, 2007). With this heightened interest in digital game-based learning, comes a need to explore methods and models for designing effective educational games. One of the key issues in the design of electronic game-based learning environment involves aligning the requirements of multiple components of a game, such as narrative, gameplay, and instruction, to create a game that is both engaging from the narrative and gameplay perspectives and effective from the instructional design perspective. For many game genres, a compelling narrative context is essential to engage players fully and provide them with an appealing range of options and outcomes in creating their own stories. In developing electronic game-based learning environments, balancing the development of a compelling game narrative with instructional design needs can be challenging. There is little guidance in the literature on how to create stories that meet instructional goals and how to develop educational content in the context of stories. The purpose of this chapter is to share our own experience in aligning the demands of good interactive storytelling on the one hand with sound instructional design on the other, in the creation of a role-playing game for teaching life science and scientific inquiry for children ages 11-13. The implications for design outlined in this chapter will likely inform instructional designers of how

narrative can be effectively utilized in educational game-based learning environments.

literAture revieW the Art of narrative One only has to look into the face of a child as she listens to a story to realize the power of this medium to entertain and to educate. On a daily basis, we engage in storytelling with those around us. The use of stories to pass on knowledge is common in all cultures. Storytellers seek to expand one’s conceptual understanding of a topic or share relevant experiences that others have had (Burke, 1993). Parents often share stories with their children in order to teach some lesson. Grandparents may pass on family knowledge in the form of stories. Stories, in some form, are an essential part of everyday life. Stories can provide a meaningful context for learning through the description in rich detail, engaging characters, and illustration of knowledge in context. In contrast with typical methods of knowledge representation, stories provide a rich description of situations which are more meaningful to students. By and large, the conventions of Western narrative are founded on aesthetic principles advanced by Aristotle, who argued that, at its best, narrative has the capacity to be both entertaining and edifying. The most lasting influences of Aristotle’s Poetics on Western narrative are found in the conventions of character and plot (Aristotle, trans. 1997). Character may be understood broadly to refer to the personal forces at work in a story, shaping—and shaped by—the plot. Plot is the unfolding of action and the arrangement of incident in the story. For the reader or audience, characters provide the point of access, so to speak, for understanding and appreciating that unfolding action. Reduced to its most basic components, the Aristotelian model of narrative operates such that:

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characters have a given motivation or desire; characters pursue the object of their desire (i.e., often presented as a quest); they encounter antagonists or obstacles that interfere with attaining their goal, resulting in a source of conflict; characters seek solutions and take action to overcome these problems, resulting in a progress toward the object of desire or motivation. Ordinarily, these struggles create a sense of rising action, described as narrative tension, which leads to a climax or series of climaxes, resolving that tension. As much for us today as for Aristotle and the Greek dramas he analyzed, the appeal of any narrative is rooted in observing the relationship between the actions a character chooses and the problem he or she confronts. Therefore, in one sense, narrative can be defined as a record of the choices and problemsolving efforts of characters in pursuit of their goals. The dynamic described previously can be easily identified at work in virtually any Western narrative, from the simplest of stories, like “Cinderella”, to the most complex of dramas, like Hamlet (Shakespeare, 2003). The latter provides us with a familiar illustration. Hamlet’s moral code pre-disposes him to seek revenge when he was told that his father was murdered by his uncle. Thus the motivated Hamlet sets about to take action against his uncle. However, in the course of that pursuit, he is confronted by a series obstacles—specifically, doubts about whether his uncle is actually guilty of the crime. Hamlet’s moral code also requires that, before he can act and carry out his plan, he must be absolutely certain that his uncle did indeed murder his father. Hamlet is therefore faced with difficult choices: Should he obey the commands of his father’s ghost and kill his uncle, despite his uncertainties? Or should he allow his uncle to live and therefore continue to suffer the haunting of the ghost? Hamlet chooses to investigate his father’s murder further and seek answers to his doubts, so he devises a series of tests to determine whether his uncle is genuinely guilty of the crime. With

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each successive test comes renewed motivation as well as new doubts and new obstacles for Hamlet to overcome in his pursuit of the truth and of justice for his father’s murder. So it is that Hamlet is loved by audiences as a great detective drama as well as a probing psychological study. From its most primitive beginnings, narrative dramas have served ritual and didactic roles in the societies that produce them. Plays were meant, in part at least, to instruct audiences and to edify them. Aristotle described the most desirable outcome for the dramas of his time as catharsis. Aristotle also observed that the instructive value of plays was organically bound to their capacity to entertain: Audiences sitting in the amphitheatre must be made to sympathize with King Oedipus and his motives, for example, in order to invest emotionally and cognitively in the problem-solving exercises of the characters on the stage below. This touches the central problem for conventional narrative: audiences are simply spectators to the drama, passively observing the motives, decision-making, and actions of characters onstage. Spectators are distinct from the characters they are observing. So, traditionally, the chief challenge for narrative artists has been to find ways to distract the spectator from that distinction; to immerse their audiences ever more deeply in the characters they create and to engage them more fully in the action of the plot. Addressing this challenge is the primary objective of interactive narrative.

role of interactive drama in electronic games For the most part, interactive drama emerges from the very same traditions as conventional drama and operates according to the same root principles. Interactive drama relies on fundamental assumptions about character, motivation, and plot; about characters’ will and capacity to act; about obstacles, conflict, and the role of choice-making

Narrative Development and Instructional Design

in pursuit of desired ends. What distinguishes interactive drama from conventional drama is erasing the distinction between spectator and character. In effective drama, the spectator will understand and even empathize with a character. But when the spectator identifies fully with a character, the narrative ceases to be a traditional drama and instead becomes an interactive drama (Crawford, 2004; Mates, 2004; Murray, 1997) or a game. Murray (1997) suggests that interactive drama can be analyzed from three aspects: immersion, agency, and transformation. Immersion is the feeling of identification with the protagonist and being present in the place depicted in the drama. It is the goal of both traditional drama and interactive drama to provide the audience or player a willing suspension of disbelief. Agency is a sense of control and empowerment experienced by the players when they take actions based on their own intention and when their actions have an effect on the world where the interactive drama takes place. Transformation has three meanings. The first involves having the audience and the player take on the role of someone else. The second refers to transformation as variety, meaning that the interactive drama provides variations of game experiences to the player depending on the choices made and actions taken by the player. The third meaning is the personal transformation of the player in the game. Immersion and some aspects of transformation already exist in the traditional drama (Mates, 2004). We argue that what distinguish the interactive drama from Aristotelian drama are two related elements identified by Murray (1997): agency and transformation as variety. In a conventional narrative drama, the audience passively observes the characters without the opportunity to act on their own motives. In interactive drama, however, the players have a sense of agency. They take action based on their own intentions. In conventional narrative drama, characters face a limited array of possible options when confronting a problem.

The plot then moves in linear fashion to trace the cause-and-effect outcomes of the single option that the character selects from that array. This can be termed a “fixed-structure” drama. In interactive drama or game, to enable player agency and to allow for the player’s free choice in pursuing his motives, all of the cause-and-effect outcomes for all of the options must be calculated to provide transformation as variety, that is, variations of experience on a theme. Therefore, unlike a conventional drama which follows a single, fixed-structure plot-line, an interactive drama or game must be structured for a large (but limited) number of possible plot-lines; that is, a “flexiblestructure” story. Although “flexible-structure” stories may allow player choices and provide a sense of agency, there has been a debate among two camps of players, developers, and scholars: those who favor narrative and those who focus on player agency and game interactivity. To the root of the debate is the conflict between player agency and narrative. Narrative is driven by the direction planned by the writer; whereas interactivity and learner agency depend on the motives of the players. In an effort to reconcile the conflict, Henry Jenkins develops a persuasive argument for viewing games “less as stories than as spaces ripe with narrative possibilities” (2004, p. 119). Game developers such as Will Wright strive to create a compelling space of narrative possibilities in which players can “define their own story arc” (Perlin, 2004, p. 13). For example, in his strategy games such as SimCity and The Sims, there are no specific goals or objectives. The players make decisions as to which cities or characters they wich to create and what goals they want to achieve. Clearly, by allowing the spectator to become a participant in the fiction, computer games have the potential to engage audiences in the conventions of character and plot in much richer, deeper ways than conventional dramas. Aristotle would remind us, however, that there may be much more to this than just increased exhilaration for audi-

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ences. If we attend to the Aristotelian premise that drama has the capacity to be both entertaining and edifying, then we must acknowledge that the interactive form of this medium has special virtues over its conventional antecedents. It is in the design of the narrative possibilities of the game space that one must also integrate the “educational possibilities”. The design of the narrative must be such to support player quests and tasks that provide opportunities for construction of desired knowledge and understanding.

importance of narrative in game genres Narrative plays a role in most game genres, though its importance varies. Action games, such as platformers, shooters, and racing games, often have story elements, though story is less important than the play experience (Dickey, 2006). In platformers, such as Super Mario Brothers, the story is simplistic. The player takes on the role of Mario (or Luigi) avoiding obstacles, or King Bowser (the villain) and his henchmen in order to rescue Princess Peach. Story, in the form of text, is displayed at the beginning of each level. The story creates valuable context for the game, but, in of itself, is less important than other factors such as game play to the overall game experience. First-person shooters (FPS) and third-person shooters (TPS), such as Halo and Doom, often utilize brief cinematics to provide some measure of background information on the player character, setting, and overall goal. In these types of games, narrative plays a greater role than in platformers. But designers must approach this greater role cautiously in shooters, never allowing narrative to get in the way of game play and its immediacy. In adventure games (e.g., Myst) and actionadventure games (e.g., Tomb Raider), narrative is important in order to create a rich space for the player to explore. Often these games rely on intriguing story to propel the player to explore the world. Both of these genres provide rich worlds

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for exploration, conundrums, and obstacles that integrate with a compelling storyline. Role-playing games (e.g., World of Warcraft, Guild Wars) provide rich worlds in which players can experience their own characters’ growth in ability and strength as they seek to complete tasks. A richly developed narrative is essential to role-playing games because they are slower paced, providing more time for the player to experience and reflect on the story. Extensive back-story, varied non-player character types with complex motivations, and plot twists are critical to compelling role-playing games. The importance and complexity of narrative grows greater as we move through platformers, shooters, adventure, and role-playing games (see Figure 1). Role-playing games (RPG) are a genre that may be well suited for the development of educational games that target higher order educational goals such as those that fall into the following categories in Bloom’s cognitive learning domain: application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Rich virtual worlds found in RPGs provide opportunities for students to be immersed in contexts that allow them to satisfy their curiosity and need to explore. Woven from narrative, audio, 3D graphics, and interactivity, these rich contexts are rife with educational possibilities. Player characters are able to follow their own interests as they learn more of the world through experience. Many contemporary theories on learning environments emphasize the role of experience in a rich context (e.g., Barrows, 1996; Jonassen, 1999; Schank, Fano, Bell, & Jona, 1994; Spiro & Jehng, 1990). A second beneficial characteristic of RPGs is that they tend to be slower paced than platformers or FPSs. The emphasis in RPGs is not placed on high intensity action (e.g., killing and destroying as in FPS) but on reflective action driven by intellectual deliberation. The gradual uncovering of the story, the unfolding of a mystery, the increasing grasp of a problem—these complex narrative features of RPGs create fertile conditions for motivating students.

Narrative Development and Instructional Design

Figure 1. Importance and complexity of narrative in game genres Platformers Less

Shooters

Adventure/Action-Adventure

Role-playing Games

Importance and Complexity of Narrative

More

Table 1. Role-playing game characteristics that lend themselves to educational games Role-Playing Game Characteristic

Benefit for Educational Game

Rich Worlds for Exploration

Compelling learning contexts

Slower Pace for Experiencing Story and Reflection

Facilitates reflective action driven by intellectual deliberation

Character Growth in Ability and Strength

Players can experience their own intellectual growth explicitly represented in their player character; game characters can model desirable characteristics

Series of Challenges

Supports progression of educational

Another compelling characteristic of RPGs is the chance for players to experience the growth of their character over time. An educational RPG provides a means for students to experience their own intellectual growth, directly represented in their player character. The characteristics made explicit and emphasized in the player and nonplayer characters provide opportunities to model those characteristics we desire in our students. Finally, the structure of role-playing games, a sequence of progressively more difficult challenges, is consistent with how instructional experiences are organized as a progression of increasingly difficult educational experiences (van Merrienboer, 1997). Table 1 summarizes role-playing game characteristics that may lend themselves to educational games.

narrative structure In its simplest form, stories have three acts: beginning, middle, and end. At the beginning of the story we try to capture the attention of the audience and place the protagonist in a situation where they are faced with some challenge or problem. This creates an imbalance that compels

the protagonist to take action in order to restore equilibrium. During the “middle” of the story, the protagonist continues to face obstacles, make choices, and experience the consequences of those choices. It is these experiences that result in the character growth needed to ultimately overcome the overarching problem. The story ends when the character’s “world” has been restored to balance by solving the problem and achieving the goal. In his work, Joseph Campbell explored the power of myth through comparative analysis, drawing out certain universal truths that transcend culture and history. His work, The Hero with a Thousand Faces, draws forth a common story structure, which he calls a monomyth, which underlies many of the world’s most compelling myths and legends (Campbell, 1949). This “hero’s journey” is a model story structure that fits well with the development of role-playing games and has been used in cinema and commercial game development. For example, the structure of movies such as Star Wars (Burns, 2007) and the Lion King were openly derived from the hero’s journey structure outlined by Campbell. Indeed, with books like Christopher Vogler’s (1998) The Writer’s Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers,

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the monomyth has now become a virtual normative for writers working in popular entertainment media. The hero’s journey has three main stages that correspond with the three-act story structure: departure, initiation, and return (Campbell, 1949). •

•

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Departure: ° Call to Adventure: The story begins with the hero in their “ordinary” world. The hero receives a call to adventure; a call to leave the comfort of his or her everyday existence. ° Refusal of the Call: Often times the hero refuses the call hoping the problem will go away or that another “more worthy” will take up the call. The resistance to accept the call is often based on a sentiment we all share in common; a fear of the unknown. Eventually the hero accepts the call, though with trepidation. ° Mentor: A wise mentor provides encouragement, guidance and support to the hero as she prepares for the journey. ° Crossing the Threshold: The hero embarks on the journey, crossing from the familiar to the unknown. Initiation: ° Road of Trials: The hero is confronted by a series of obstacles; help is provided. These trials prepare the hero for the ultimate battle to come. ° Ultimate Trial: The hero must face and defeat the ultimate evil. In myths highlighted by Campbell, these trials often involve reconciling a disconnect between truth and ones’ own beliefs, or reconciling the good and bad characteristics of a father figure in order to better understand oneself. ° The Prize: After passing through the trial, the hero is able to obtain the prize

•

he sought; the object or understanding that will benefit the place she left behind. Return: ° The Journey Home: The hero may initially refuse to return home having grown to love the new world and abilities. But eventually he is compelled to return home in order to help those that he left behind. ° Bestows the Prize: At the conclusion of the journey, the hero arrives home with the object that was sought. The object or knowledge restores equilibrium to the world.

In addition to effective story structure, a number of storytelling devices can enhance the quality of a narrative. Noteworthy are character design, creation of conflict, and plot twists. Character development is a crucial part of good story design. Compelling game-based narratives are often written from the player character’s point of view. Action in the game narrative is driven by player character decisions as she faces obstacles and choices in pursuing a goal. The conflict the character experiences results in growth. Designers can bring to bear various character types commonly found in conventional storytelling. Vogler (1998) defined seven archetypes in his popularization of the hero’s journey. The hero (protagonist) is the main character typically promoting the action in the story. The shadow is usually the main opponent often the cause of the hero’s problems. Mentor characters play a larger role in helping the player along their journey. Shapeshifters are characters whose real intentions are hidden from the main character. Guardian characters are those that block the path of the hero. Some games employ guardian characters which the player must defeat to move to the next level. The trickster distracts the hero from his quest. The herald brings news to the hero.

Narrative Development and Instructional Design

Conflict is an essential ingredient to a compelling narrative. Conflict propels the narrative forward and facilitates effective game play. As in narrative development, we must infuse conflict into the game in order to cause the character to act thereby propelling the story forward. One can create conflict through a unity of opposites: two characters desire to posses the same object. A ticking clock, or “time-lock,” is another example of a conventional narrative mechanism that can facilitate conflict. Plot twists are yet another device that designers can employ to enhance the narrative. Plots twists include “red herrings” (i.e., providing clues in order to mislead the player character) and reversals (i.e., a story that moves predictably down a path suddenly turns in an unexpected direction).

conQuest oF the coAstlAnds Our team is currently developing a role-playing game that features intriguing storylines, immersive 3-D representation of context and quests (problems), simulations, tools and resources that support quest completion, choice of roles and tasks, levels of play, record keeping, as well as real time interaction and feedback. Quests in the virtual environment are supplemented by classroom-based activities, which address students’ knowledge gaps revealed during game play and extend problem solving from the virtual and fictitious world to similar problems in the local community. Styled after highly successful commercial products like World of Warcraft and Everquest, the role-playing game features a science fiction/fantasy setting. Pursuing larger strategic objectives, the player character is challenged with a variety of “quests” that is, player-characters must pose questions and seek answers, investigate mysteries, formulate hypotheses, gather evidence and information, use appropriate tools and techniques, and ultimately take action to solve problems pre-

sented within quests. These quests form the main plotlines of the interactive narrative and provide the immediate motivations for player-character activities in the game. Each quest is designed to achieve specific learning goals. The game takes place amid an ancient conflict between two sentient species and their struggle for dominance on a planet called Mertis in another solar system. It is a warm, wet world of stormy oceans, dotted with countless islands and a single small continental landmass. While not technologically sophisticated, the planet’s two rival sentient species have reached a turning point in their evolutionary history where it is likely that one—the Mruk-ma—will likely drive the other—the Sheft-ma—into extinction. The Mruk-ma are an aggressive, sea-faring species, while the Sheft-ma are city-builders who make their home in “The Coastlands,” along the marshy seashores and river valleys of Mertis’ lone continent. For the vulnerable Sheft-ma, the strategic key to their self-defense is a deteriorating system of fortifications built in the coastal wetlands surrounding their cities. But these wetlands are mysteriously disappearing at an alarming rate, and the threat of invasion by Mruk-ma fleets is growing. A decisive change comes when the survey ship of an advanced alien race crash-lands in the oceans of Mertis. Arriving in escape pods from their doomed spaceship, the strangers, called Cilati, are scattered around the planet. Now hopelessly stranded on Mertis, some of the alien crew manage to make their way to The Coastlands, where they are warmly welcomed by the Sheft-ma. The Cilati survey team brings with them precious scientific knowledge, technology, and methods that could dramatically shift the balance of power in the conflict between the two rival species. The survival of the Sheft-ma will depend on whether they can effectively utilize the science and tools of the Cilati to rebuild their crumbling forts and defend their disappearing coastlines.

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The Cilati are a highly advanced race of space-faring explorers. Extremely long-lived, they traverse the galaxy in pursuit of knowledge about other planets and other life forms. Cilati ships have visited countless worlds, quietly observing the species that inhabit them. Generally, they never interfere in the cultures they study, and they seldom even make their presence known. It quickly becomes apparent that the Mruk-ma have adopted a radically new strategy in their struggle with the Sheft-ma: ecological warfare. By attacking the delicate environment on which their peaceful rivals depend, the Mruk-ma hope to wreck the Sheft-ma civilization and eliminate their species. The future of their civilization now depends on whether the Sheft-ma will be able to master the mysterious science of their alien allies, the Cilati. To put it in the epic terms that are conventional to RPGs of this genre, it is only amid desperate circumstances like these that heroes emerge…Heroes who know that understanding the world around them is the first step in controlling it…Heroes who recognize that well-armed fleets and fortresses alone will not be enough…Heroes who foresee that the secrets of science will be the key to Conquest of the Coastlands.

integrAtion oF nArrAtive develoPment And instructionAl design In our development process we view story development and instructional design as intricately interdependent. We began our process by developing a story concept. Effective storytelling often relies on conventional story structure. We adopted the traditional three-act story structure and the “hero’s journey” as frameworks to guide our story development. The hero’s journey is a model framework for not only guiding the development of a compelling story, but an equally effective framework for thinking about instructional design.

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employing episodes In the development of Conquest we found it useful to think of the game narrative as a series of episodes (i.e., quests) with each having its own story with a beginning, middle, and end. These quests have their own plot, usually utilizing the hero’s journey, which contributes to an overarching story for the entire game. In each quest the player completes some learning tasks. For example, in one Coastlands quest, the glim quest, the player character, the hero, is called upon to research a devastating threat to the Sheft-ma’s food supply: a more than 70% reduction in harvests of a fish, called the glim, which is a primary food source for the Sheft-ma. This quest begins with the player character being called to appear before the council and tasked with learning all they can. As the quest story unfolds, the player learns the cause of the fish depletion, but also gains valuable information about the overall plotline. That is, what are the root causes of the devastating deterioration of The Coastlands. The glim quest has a clear story arc with outcomes that not only satisfy its own story but also contribute important information to the overall story of the game.

hero’s Journey: call to Adventure/ refusal of the call The hero’s journey begins with a call to adventure. Just as the hero desires to escape the ordinary but often fears the unknown of the quest, we often desire to embark on adventure yet fear that we may not be up to the task. This theme is an integral part of human nature and one to which many students can relate. Students are naturally curious and desire to learn yet must be drawn into the adventure of learning. This aspect of the hero’s journey provides a way to dispel some of the inertia that may hold a student back from fully engaging in the learning process. Gaining students attention and engaging them in an intellectually challenging task is a key as-

Narrative Development and Instructional Design

pect of many instructional models. For example, Robert Gagne’s “events of instruction” begins with gaining the learner’s attention (Gagne, 1985). Madeline Hunter (1982) argued for the anticipatory set in order to “hook” the learner. Keller (1983) advocated gaining attention through perceptual arousal and inquiry arousal. In Conquest of the Coastlands we utilize an opening cinematic to gain the student’s interest in the overarching game storyline in a call for the player to engage in the adventure. The game cinematic provides the player important back-story that will serve them later in the adventure. Similarly, as we present each quest, we utilize interactive cut scenes in order to set up the problem and gain the student’s interest in accomplishing the goal. For example, in the glim quest, the cut scene opens with the player character being called before the High Council. As the scene unfolds, the player character expresses eagerness to help her species and an innate curiosity to know and understand. Yet she also shows fear in accepting the task. Ultimately, she overcomes the reluctance to take on the quest and commits fully to the adventure.

hero’s Journey: mentor Provides support In the hero’s journey, the mentor often motivates the character to accept the call and provides needed support for the journey. The development of the mentor concept in our game was not only informed by the hero’s journey, but also the cognitive apprenticeship model, an instructional design model that emphasizes the role of mentors in supporting learning (Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991). In our game, we provide mentors to aid the player character. The first mentor is Ikiru, the player character’s elderly uncle, who is learned in many disciplines, possessing a folk understanding of the forces at play in the natural world. The player is first introduced to Ikiru in the opening cinematic where learned that Ikiru has a growing concern about the changes he sees in

The Coastlands. As the player character prepares for the journey, Ikiru provides encouragement and help. For example, in the glim quest, Ikiru provides the player a list of potential hypothesis, based on his folk understanding, as to what may be causing the reduced catches. As the quest unfolds, the player meets with the Cilati, the other mentor, who having unique expertise as an accomplished scientist, facilitates the recasting of the folk hypotheses into viable scientific hypotheses thereby scaffolding the player. The Cilati also provides technology, a personal digital assistant (PDA) that has tools and resources to aid the player in the investigation.

hero’s Journey: crossing the threshold As in a hero’s journey, we strive to create learning environments where the student is truly committed to the quest of “making the material their own”. Just as the hero fears to accept the call to adventure, students have fears that prevent them from fully engaging in an activity. If we have done well in gaining their attention with a compelling adventure, we hope to see engagement. In Conquest of the Coastlands, the player character shows hesitancy to accept the call to explore the glim quest yet ultimately confronts her fears and commits to the task.

hero’s Journey: road of trials In the hero’s journey, the road of trials is a series of challenges, often placed by the antagonist, that help prepare the hero for the ultimate test to follow. These increasingly difficult challenges help the hero grow in strength and wisdom. Similarly, instructional models advocate a sequence of increasingly challenging problems and content. For example, the instructional design model adopted by our team, the four-component instructional design (4C/ID)model, advocates a sequencing of task classes from simple-to-complex (van Merrienboer,

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1997). The 4C/ID model consists of four interrelated components: learning tasks, supportive information, part-task practice, and just-in-time (JIT) information. Learning tasks, most relevant to this discussion, are the concrete, authentic wholetask experiences similar to complex real-world problems. These learning tasks are categorized into simple-to-complex classes. The order of the task classes and the specific instances of the tasks define the overall sequencing of the instructional content. In Conquest of the Coastlands, we follow a progression from simple-to-complex for the game (i.e., quests are progressively more challenging) and within each quest (i.e., tasks within each quest are progressively more challenging). For example, earlier quests in the game have the player engage in partial scientific inquiry whereby some of the inquiry task are already completed (e.g., problem statement defined, hypothesis developed). Later quests in the game will have students engaging in full inquiry and open inquiry. Similarly, a quest such as the glim quest begins with simple tasks (e.g., summarizing data provided by non-player) shifting to more complex tasks (e.g., analyzing and interpreting water quality data).

hero’s Journey: ultimate trial The ultimate trial of the hero’s journey is a climactic moment where the hero, after much personal growth as a result of confronting obstacles, faces, and overcomes a great challenge. In this stage of the journey, the emphasis is on the hero’s transformation. Similarly, we strive for the design of educational experiences that are transformative. Many of us have experienced a master teacher or mentor who provided us a challenging task that truly transformed our thinking about a concept or topic resulting in a new found understanding. As in a story where the hero “faces death” in the ultimate trial and survives, the learner works at the edge of their ability to accomplish a challenging task and thereby is transformed. So too should this ultimate learning experience be for

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the player character. In our game, we are striving to provide a sequence of quests that culminates in an ultimate trial. For example, in earlier quests the player character engages in supported inquiry. As the player progresses, we increase the difficulty of the challenges presented and fade the scaffolding provided. At the conclusion of the game, the player character engages in independent scientific inquiry; demonstrating, we hope, a new found depth and breadth of knowledge. Similarly, within a quest, the sequence of tasks can progress toward an ultimate trial.

hero’s Journey: the Prize In this stage of the hero’s journey, the hero is rewarded by gaining the object of their desire. This sort of narrative device provides a clear motivation for the character thereby driving the story forward. In the framework of the hero’s journey, the prize is the object or elixir that initially propelled the hero to begin his or her journey. This plot device helps focus the player character on a clear goal. Similarly, from an educational perspective, the goal or prize should drive the educational activities. Wiggins and McTighe (2001) suggest we begin with the end in mind. In instructional approaches such as goal-based scenarios (Schank, Fano, Bell, & Jona, 1994) and problem-based learning (Barrows, 1996), the goal or problem becomes the organizing focus of the activity. The goal should be interesting and motivating to the player and should result in the development of knowledge and skills desired. In the development of Conquest of the Coastlands, we strived to create clear story goals in the game (e.g., learn why the glim are dying in order to avert famine) that corresponded to clear learning goals (e.g., with guidance, learners are able to articulate the question or problem at hand, design an investigation, gather data, draw conclusions, and communicate the results and research process, National Science Content Standard A).

Narrative Development and Instructional Design

hero’s Journey: the Journey home As the hero begins the journey home, there are still challenges to overcome. These challenges further motivate the player as they continue their quest.

Hero’s Journey: Bestowing the Prize At the conclusion of the hero’s journey, the protagonist returns home triumphantly, and bestows the prize, elixir, or wisdom upon those that she left behind. This mechanism provides a way for the learner to synthesize the key aspects of what was accomplished and learned in the quest providing a beneficial learning activity for the player and a valuable artifact for evaluation. Two strategies from the cognitive apprenticeship model (Collins, Brown, & Holum, 1991), reflection and articulation, provide insight into the benefits of this final stage of the journey. Articulation refers to requiring students to articulate their knowledge, reasoning, and problem-solving processes. These explanations and elaborations require the student to make their thinking explicit providing opportunities for feedback from others and serving as a source for their own reflection. Reflection involves helping students compare their own problem-solving processes with those of experts, thus making it

possible for them to modify their processes. This final stage of the journey provides an opportunity for players to articulate their thinking and then reflect upon it. In Conquest of the Coastlands, a key element of Sheft-ma culture is the manner in which the Sheft-ma preserves and communicates knowledge. At the conclusion of each quest, the player character returns to the Chief Cantor, a key figure whose role in this fictional society is to document what is learned in the hero’s various adventures and provide a synthesis of the learning. These quest summaries are noted in scrolls, and the learning acquired through heroic questing is then shared with the rest of the society, delivered in song by the Chief Cantor in order to entertain and educate the populace. The hero’s journey is thus completed with the bestowal of the prize.

story devices In addition to effective story structure, a number of storytelling devices can enhance the quality of a narrative and facilitate instructional design. Noteworthy are character design, creation of conflict, and plot twists. Character development is a crucial part of good story design. Compelling game-based narratives are often written from the player character’s point of view. Action in the game narrative is driven by

Table 2. Comparison of the hero’s journey with instructional design Stage of Hero’s Journey

Instructional Design

Call to Adventure Refusal of the Call

Gaining students attention and engaging them in an intellectually challenging task is a key aspect of many instructional models.

Mentor Provides Support

The mentor helps motivate the character to take on the journey and provides help and support.

Crossing the Threshold

Compelling goals/tasks create a context in which the learner is committed to the learning tasks.

Road of Trials

Instructional models advocate a sequence of increasingly challenging problems and content. The road of trials corresponds with this aspect of instructional design.

Ultimate Trial

As in a story where the hero “faces death” in the ultimate trial, the learner works at the edge of their abilities to accomplish a complex challenging task.

The Prize

Clear educational goals infused with the story goals.

The Journey Home

These challenges further motivate the player as they continue their quest.

Bestowing the Prize

The sharing of the “prize” through a final report or synthesis of what was learned.

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player character decisions as she faces obstacles and choices in pursuing a goal. The conflict the character experiences results in growth. Designers can bring to bear various character types commonly found in conventional storytelling. The hero (protagonist) is the main character typically promoting the action in the story. The shadow is usually the main opponent often the cause of the hero’s problems. Mentor characters play a larger role in helping the player along their journey. Helpers are characters that provide other types of support to the main character. Guardian characters are those that block the path of the hero. Some games employ guardian type characters the player must defeat to move to the next level. The trickster distracts the hero from his quest. The herald brings news to the hero. In our own development, we utilize various character types such as player character as hero, Murak-ma as shadow or antagonist, and mentor characters in the form of Uncle Ikiru and the Cilati. Conflict is an essential ingredient to a compelling narrative. Conflict propels the narrative forward and facilitates effective gameplay. As in narrative development, we must infuse conflict into the game in order to cause the character to act thereby propelling the story forward. One can create conflict through a unity of opposites: two characters desire to posses the same object. For example, in Conquest of the Coastlands, a unity of opposites is created whereby the Sheft-ma (i.e., player character species) are directly competing with the Murak-ma non-player character species to locate and retrieve Cilati escape pods scattered about the planet. The escape pods have important technology that may help one species overcome the other. In this example, the task of finding escape pods provides a clear goal for the player (facilitates gameplay) and creates conflict that is motivational. The escape pods provide a fun way to introduce technology that is needed for the student to achieve the curricular goals. A ticking clock, or “time-lock,” is another example of a conventional narrative mechanism that can

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facilitate conflict. In Conquest of the Coastlands the player character learns that the escape pods are made of a material that causes them to disintegrate within a limited time when exposed to the elements. Plot twists are yet another device that designers can employ to enhance the narrative. Plots twists include “red herrings” (i.e., providing clues in order to mislead the player character) and reversals (i.e., a story that moves predictably down a path suddenly turns in an unexpected direction). For example, in our game, there is a rumor that fish depletion is caused by an alien monster, a ferocious predator that eats both fish and fishermen. In reality, the monster is an invasive herbivore. It disrupts the coastal environment by consuming a large amount of marsh grass. Fish depletion is caused by the environmental change triggered by the monster. The rumor serves as a “red herring” that not only enriches the story and but also provides an opportunity to challenge the player to think critically and to distinguish superstition from science.

imPlicAtions The literature review and our experience in designing an educational role-playing game has led to the identification of several principles that may provide instructional designers guidance in the creation of educational role-playing games.

conceptualize game narrative in Quests Design the game narrative as a series of quests with each having its own story with a beginning, middle, and end. These quests have their own plot, utilizing the hero’s journey, which contributes to an overarching story for the entire game. Additionally, each quest consists of a series of tasks that support quest learning goals and contribute to the overarching learning goals for the entire game.

Narrative Development and Instructional Design

Begin Quests with a Call to Adventure The hero’s journey call to adventure provides a mechanism for gaining the students attention and engaging them in an intellectually challenging task. Children can relate to a character that has fear of embarking on an adventure, but ultimately commits to the task at hand. An opening cinematic or an in-game cut scene can facilitate gaining the students attention and facilitating full engagement in the learning task.

develop non-Player characters that Act as mentors A common element of narratives that employ the hero’s journey is the mentor who motivates and supports the hero throughout the quest. Non-player characters can be modeled after the mentor figure in the hero’s journey and can also be informed by the cognitive apprenticeship model. These nonplayer characters can assist by assigning quests, providing needed clues, and implementing cognitive apprenticeship strategies (e.g., modeling, coaching, articulation, reflection).

Provide for a series of challenges/ultimate challenge The hero’s journey and instructional design models advocate for a series of challenges that prepare the hero/learner for the ultimate test to follow. Provision of concrete authentic experiences of increasing difficulty provides for compelling learning opportunities. As the series of challenges increase in difficulty and the player gains skill and confidence, scaffolding can be faded.

utilize Plot device to drive narrative Forward and Focus Player on Clear goals In the hero’s journey, the protagonist’s desire or need for an object provides a clear motivation for the character thereby driving the story forward. Utilizing this plot device helps focus the player character on a clear goal. Similarly, from an educational perspective, the goal or prize should drive the educational activities. The goal or problem becomes the organizing focus of the activity.

design narrative to Provide Opportunities for Reflection and Articulation At the conclusion of the hero’s journey, the protagonist returns home triumphantly, and bestows the prize upon those left behind in the hero’s ordinary world. This narrative element can provide a way for engaging the learner in synthesizing the key aspects of what was accomplished and learned in the quest. This narrative element can facilitate opportunities for students to articulate their knowledge, reasoning, and problem-solving processes. Articulation provides a source for students to compare their own problem-solving processes with those of experts.

conclusion Electronic games provide unique opportunities for utilizing interactive narrative to create compelling learning environments where students are engaged in shaping a narrative; a narrative that is not only entertaining but also results in new knowledge and skills. This chapter shares our experience in balancing narrative development with instructional design. The hero’s journey emerged as a model narrative structure for developing interactive narrative and informing

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instructional design. It provides opportunities to embed various instructional strategies, such as gaining attention at the beginning of instruction, mentoring, sequencing learning tasks from simple to complex, clarifying the learning goal, and articulation and reflection of learning. The hero’s journal may serve as a narrative structure for game developers to align narrative development and instructional development in the process of creating effective electronic gamebased learning environments. It is our hope that this chapter may guide developers of electronic game-based learning environments and will begin a dialog as to the importance and strategies for aligning interactive narrative development with educational game development.

reFerences Aristotle. (1997). Poetics (M. Heath, Trans.). New York: Penguin Classics. Barab, S., Thomas, M., Dodge, T., Carteaux, R., & Tuzun, H. (2005). Making learning fun: Quest Atlantis, a game without guns. Educational Technology Research & Development, 53(1), 86-107. Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A brief overview. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 68, 3-12. Blizzard Entertainment. (2007). World of Warcraft surpasses 8 million subscribers worldwide. Retrieved February 16, 2007, from http://www. blizzard.com/press/070111.shtml Burke, R. (1993). Intelligent retrieval of video stories in a social simulation. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 2(4), 381-392. Burns, K. (Producer & Director). (2007). Star Wars: The legacy revealed [Motion picture]. United States: Prometheus Entertainment. Campbell, J. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Holum, A. (1991). Cognitive apprenticeship: Making thinking visible. American Educator, 6-11, 38-46. Crawford, C. (2004). Chris Crawford on interactive storytelling. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders Games. Dickey, M. (2006). Game design narrative for learning: Appropriate adventure game design narrative devices and techniques for the design of interactive learning environments. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54(3), 245-263. Federation of American Scientists. (2006). Summit on educational games. Retrieved from http://fas. org/gamesummit/resources/Summit on Educational Games.pdf Gagne, R. M. (1985). The condition of learning (4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Hunter, M. (1982). Mastery teaching. El Segundo, CA: TIP Publications. Impact Games. (2007). PeaceMaker: A video game to promote peace. Retrieved February 16, 2007, from http://www.peacemakergame. com/game.php Jenkins, H. (2004). Game design as narrative architecture. In N. Wardrip-Fruin & P. Harrigan (Eds.), First person: New media as story, performance, and game (1st ed., pp. 199-130). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Jonassen, D. H. (1999). Design constructivist learning environments. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol. 2, pp. 215-239). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Keller, J. (1983). Motivation design of instruction. In C. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status (pp. 383-434). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Ketelhut, D. J., Dede, C., Clarke, J., & Nelson, B. (2006). A multi-user virtual environment for building higher order inquiry skills in science. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.

van Merrienboer, J. J. G. (1997). Training complex cognitive skills: A four-component instructional design model for technical training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Mates, M. (2004). A preliminary poetics for interactive drama and games. In N. Wardrip-Fruin & P. Harrigan (Eds.), First person (pp. 19-33). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2001). Understanding by design. Upper Saddle River, NJ: PrenticeHall, Inc.

Murray, J. H. (1997). Hamlet on the holodeck: The future of narrative in cyberspace. New York: Free Press.

Key terms

Perlin, K. (2004). Can there be a form between a game and a story? In N. Wardrip-Fruin & P. Harrigan (Eds.), First person: New media as story, performance, and game (1st ed., pp. 12-14). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Shakespeare, W. (2003). Hamlet, Prince of Denmark (The New Cambridge Shakespeare). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Schank, R. C., Fano, A., Bell, B., & Jona, M. (1994). The design of goal-based scenarios. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(4), 305-346. Spiro, R. J., & Jehng, J.C. (1990). Cognitive flexibility theory: Theory and technology for the nonlinear and multidimensional traversal of complex subject matter. In D. Nix & R. Sprio (Eds.), Cognition, education, and multimedia (pp. 163-205). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Backstory: The history of events that preceeds the start of a narrative. First-Person Shooter: A computer game genre where the player character has a first-person perspective. Interactive Narrative: Narrative in which the spectator is able to make choices that guide the outcomes. Monomyth: A common story structure which underlies many of the world’s most compelling myths and legends. Platformer: A genre of computer game where the player navigates among platforms while avoiding obstacles. Role-Playing Game: A game where the player takes on the role of a character. Unity of Opposites: A narrative devise whereby two characters desire to possess the same object.

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Chapter LXXI

Children as Critics of Educational Computer Games Designed by Other Children Lloyd P. Rieber The University of Georgia, Athens, USA Joan M. Davis The University of Washington, USA Michael J. Matzko Independent Consultant, USA Michael M. Grant The University of Memphis, USA

AbstrAct We have long worked collaboratively with middle school students to help them design their own educational computer games. An interesting question has emerged from this work: Do students, other than those who do the designing, find the games to be motivating? We gave a classroom of middle school students the opportunity to play educational games created by other middle school students. These students’ opinions of the games were studied and compared to their actual play behavior. This study also explored the reasons behind the children’s play behaviors and critiques through interviews. Important game characteristics identified by the children included the following: (1) storyline or context; (2) challenge; and (3) competitive affordances, especially those that promoted social interaction. Interestingly, two game characteristics touted in the literature were not found to be important to these children: (1) integration of a game’s storyline and educational content; and (2) a game’s production values.

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Children as Critics of Educational Computer Games Designed by Other Children

introduction Electronic gaming has become an integral part of the everyday lives of children, and they devote much time to gaming activities (Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001, 2006; Provenzo, 1991; Turkle, 1995). Children also spend tremendous amounts of time in school. Unfortunately, children often find schoolwork uninteresting and disconnected from their lives. Student motivation continues to be one of the most difficult aspects of teaching (Ames, 1992; Ruenzel, 2000). We have long wondered if there is a way to merge the natural interests of children outside of school with the demands placed on them inside school. One effort to do so is Project KID DESIGNER, in which elementary and middle school children have been given the opportunity and support to design their own computer games to teach classroom content (Noah, Nolan, Sharma, Matzko, Bourdeau, & Rieber, 1999; Rieber, Luke, & Smith, 1998a; Rieber et al., 1998b). While schools have typically resorted to extrinsic motivating factors, including reward systems, praise, and punishments, Project KID DESIGNER has relied on the students’ intrinsic motivation based on their personal goals, objectives, and curiosities. Project KID DESIGNER has also freed the children from external criteria for how their products would be judged. Instead, the children generated their own criteria, though negotiated in design teams, for what makes a superior game. The historical and philosophical roots of Project KID DESIGNER are founded on principles closely associated with constructionism (Harel & Papert, 1991; Kafai & Resnick, 1996; Papert, 1991; Rieber, 1996; Rieber, Smith, & Noah, 1998c). Consequently, the focus of Project KID DESIGNER has been on the role of the “child as designer” of computer games. Project-based approaches typically have students design and build working prototypes or other artifacts which represent, at least in part, their understanding of the content on which the design is based. Learn-

ing from these approaches comes from ways students must translate their understanding of the content into a design that can be shared in a public forum. Such a design process also helps students to see where gaps or inconsistencies exist in their understanding. In our previous research, we have used a research methodology best known as design research (Brown, 1992; Cobb, Confrey, diSessa, Lehrer, & Schauble, 2003; Edelson, 2002). With this methodology, “the researcher sets a pedagogical goal and finds out what it takes in terms of materials, organization, or changes in the technology to reach the goal” (Newman, 1990, p. 10). Among the advantages of using design research are that it provides a useful perspective for theory development and it produces results that are directly relevant to the improvement of school curricula (Edelson, 2002). Some of the most powerful examples of project-based learning are when students work collaboratively in design teams. A good example is a study by Kafai and Ching (2001) in which elementary school students developed computer projects in teams about neuroscience. Kafai and Ching found the team-based project approach afforded many unique opportunities for discussions about science during the design process. Planning meetings gave students an authentic context to engage in systemic discussions about science. Team members who had prior experience in the team project approach often extended these discussions to consider deeper relationships. A key assumption in all project-based approaches is that the students will find the project authentic and relevant (Blumenfeld, Soloway, Marx, Krajcik, Guzdial, & Palinscar, 1991). One way to determine this is to look at what children do with computers when given the freedom to choose. As Papert notes, a good computer project “must have roots in the culture of children; it must feel to a kid like it is connected with the kinds of things that kids do, and in particular with the kinds of things that kids do with computers” (1996, p. 114). Papert contends that the two best

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established examples of what children do with computers are playing games and surfing the Internet. Consequently, Papert feels it is “quite respectful to work with kids on understanding these activities and looking for ways to make them richer in one way or another” (1996, p. 114). This aptly sums up much of our work with Project KID DESIGNER. Contemporary reviews of research on gaming, youth, and media culture support the value of investigating these issues from the children’s point of view (e.g., Sefton-Green, 2006, Squire, 2002). Central to constructionism is the belief that learning is enhanced “…in a context where the learner is consciously engaged in constructing a public entity, whether it’s a sand castle on the beach or a theory of the universe” (Papert, 1991, p. 1). The elementary and middle school students who participated in Project KID DESIGNER over the span of eight years have created 15 games. These games were the result of design activities to help them learn more about the content of the games in an authentic and motivating way. These children were all told that they should design their games to help other students learn this content. However, the extent to which these artifacts are considered as authentic and worthwhile resources by other students has not been investigated. Do children, other than those who designed the educational computer games, find these games motivating? This is an important question because an underlying assumption of constructionism is that the design activities have social relevance for all students in the setting. Artifacts are designed with the expectation that they will be shared with other members of the community. In the case of Project KID DESIGNER, the community primarily consists of other students. As Kafai (1996) contends, when learners design their shared artifacts, they are in “continuous dialogue with their own ideas and with the ideas of intended users...” (p. 72). Thus, the games reflect not only the designers’ ideas but also a shared meaning among designers and users. This question was the

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focus of this study and was investigated by giving another classroom of middle school students the opportunity to play these educational games while documenting their critiques of the games along with their play behavior. A second goal of the study was to document the characteristics of the games that children found particularly compelling. In other words, when given the role of “children as critics,” what features of non-commercial games (again, those designed by other children) do middle school students feel are exemplary and noteworthy? Subsequently, how do these identified characteristics compare to those characteristics of good gaming and intrinsic motivation as established in the literature (e.g., Malone & Lepper, 1987)? Initial answers to these questions were derived from an analysis of the games that the students preferred in combination with explanations they gave in follow-up interviews after the game play period of the study had ended. In these interviews we also explored the reasons behind the children’s play behaviors and critiques. Of course, questions related to the motivational appeal of learning materials and resources, at least those given to students by adults, are not new. The study of intrinsic motivation (Cameron & Pierce, 1996; Lepper, Keavney, & Drake, 1996; Ryan & Deci, 1996) and its relationship to game design (Dempsey, Lucassen, Gilley, & Rasmussen, 19931994; Malone, 1981; Malone & Lepper, 1987) have been favorites among researchers. However, attempts to bridge these two literatures are sorely lacking (a notable recent exception is Dickey, 2005, 2006a, 2006b). An interesting aspect of doing so is the degree to which adult perspectives actually correlate with those of children. For example, little attempt has been made in the literature to correlate motivational constructs, such as Turner and Paris’ (1995) six C’s of motivation (choice, challenge, control, collaboration, constructive comprehension, and consequences) to actual game playing behaviors of children. Similarly, some of the hallmarks of good educational game design,

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such as integrating the educational content with the game context, often fly in the face of commercial success. Math Blasters, one of the all-time best selling educational titles, largely fails in the integration of game and content. We believe the means of resolving this conflicting information resides in understanding better the views of the children who play these games. There is also a practical purpose to asking the question of whether children, other than the designers, find the games interesting and worth their time to play. Constructivist ideals are often thwarted by social and political constraints of schools. It takes school children a great deal of time to design an educational game. Sadly, even if administrators, teachers, and parents agree that children’s depth of knowledge, understanding, or motivation is enhanced with a constructivist project, a school is often unwilling for children to spend such time if this means they are unable to keep up with the breadth of content usually required by a school’s curriculum. However, if the time spent by children results in a reusable artifact that the school can then use to motivate and teach other students, then the time spent within such a constructivist process may be seen as justified on economic grounds—there is an instructional “return” on the constructivist “investment.” Creating a situation where a learning approach based on constructivist principles is valued based on the secondary instructional outcomes is a pragmatic means of improving the chances it will be adopted and implemented. Digital gaming is beginning to attract much attention in the academic community. Commercially available games, such as Civilization III and SimCity, are becoming the basis of educational research (e.g., Charsky, 2004; Noah, 2002; Squire, 2004, 2006). There are now a notable number of credible educational gaming Web sites cofounded with academic institutions, such as the Education Arcade (http://www.educationarcade. org) and the Games-to-Teach project (http://www. educationarcade.org/gtt/), the latter being a part-

nership between MIT and Microsoft to develop conceptual prototypes of interactive educational gaming. Also, a number of online multi-user, virtual educational gaming environments are being developed, the most notable are Quest Atlantis (http://atlantis.crlt.indiana.edu/), a role-playing online game with activities tied to a user’s local community, and River City, a fictional American city of the 1880s (Dede, 2004). Recently, Gee (2003) has argued that the principles of learning embedded in the most successful commercial video games equate closely to the best theories of learning derived from cognitive science. Gee is not trying to say that the content being delivered in such video games is necessarily worthwhile, only that the games themselves ably provide the context and means for promoting engaging, deep, and sustained learning—exactly the aims of schools. So, he suggests educators might learn something about learning by an examination of the best video games. For the purposes of this study, these add reasons and cause to explore the role and value of gaming in education, especially from the point of view of the children who play them.

methods The primary data of this study were collected using quantitative descriptive research methods. We recorded and tracked the game playing behavior of the participants—which games they chose to play and how long they played them. These data were collected as part of a computer management system that recorded and tracked individual participant game playing activity, such as game selection, order of selection, game playing duration, and survey data consisting of game ratings. Data were collected both during the three-week period of the study and at the end of the study. The data we collected represented individual perceptions and opinions of the participants. However, we encouraged social interaction among the participants throughout the study. We felt it

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was important to preserve the social influence on the data, a point of view that is in keeping with contemporary perspectives on research in the learning sciences (Barab & Kirshner, 2001). In addition to the quantitative data, short interviews were also conducted with a subset of the participants after the quantitative data collection concluded to explore further the themes emerging from the quantitative analysis. These interviews were meant to supplement and provide insights into the results of the quantitative data.

Participants Participants were 30 children (12 girls and 18 boys) in two sixth-grade classes at a public, rural middle school in the southeastern United States. Twentytwo of the participants were students in a science class, while the remaining eight participants were students in a Title I reading class. Both classes were taught by the same teacher, who supervised

all game-exploration sessions. All participants had previous experience using computers.

Procedures For three weeks participants explored and evaluated the 14 computer games1 that were designed by other students over the past eight years and one game designed by an adult (a member of the research team) called Mineshaft, a game of estimation (as illustrated in Figure 1). This game, constructed with the same look and feel as the other games designed by children, was included in order to explore whether the children would perceive differences in it, even though they did not find out until the end of the project that it was designed by an adult. Different versions of Mineshaft have also been used successfully with hundreds of children since it was first designed in the early 1980s, so there is some external validity as to its motivation for children of this age. Hence,

Figure 1. A screen snapshot of Mineshaft. Each player inputs a number to estimate the level at which the miner’s ax is located. The player with the closest estimate “wins” the ax, which is transported to the surface and dumped onto that player’s side of the screen. The first player to successfully retrieve five axes wins the game.

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Mineshaft provides a good external benchmark for comparison purposes to the other games. The participants accessed the games via a computer management system specifically written for this study. The computer management system presented a menu of the 15 games to the participants and collected quantitative data as the participants explored and played with the games. We also collected qualitative data in the form of observations and follow-up interviews. The computer management system and games were installed on four computers in the teacher’s classroom as well as on at least 20 computers in the school’s computer lab. On two occasions participants evaluated the games in the computer lab; otherwise, game-exploration sessions were held in the classroom. After the games and computer management system were installed and before data collection

began, two of the researchers conducted a twoday orientation to the project. The purpose of the orientation was to acquaint the participants with the purpose of the project and to outline the project procedures. During the first day of orientation, the researchers briefly demonstrated each of the 15 games and responded to children’s questions about the games and about the research project. Demonstrating all 15 games in a non-judgmental way to the children was very important in order to ensure that their initial exposure to all the games was balanced and non-biased. The second day of orientation was also the first day of data collection, as children began to explore the games on their own. We were available in case the children or teacher had additional questions about the project procedures or encountered problems with the software. No problems were observed.

Figure 2. The menu screen of the computer management system. Participants were able to choose to play any of the games available as often as they wished, in any order that they wished, and for as long as they wished (though given the time constraints of a typical school day). When they chose to stop playing (by clicking on the “I’m done for today…” button), they were then prompted to rate the games played during the session as well as those played so far during the project.

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data collection

1.

Game-Exploration Sessions and Surveys

2.

During the game-exploration sessions, each student freely chose from a menu of 15 games as illustrated in Figure 2. As soon as a game was chosen, the computer management system logged the name of the game and then launched the game. After the student finished playing the game, the computer management system recorded the amount of time, in seconds, that the student spent exploring the game, and then returned the student to the game menu. Then the student was free to choose again from the menu of 15 games. When the student decided not to play any more games, the session ended and the computer management system presented a brief exit survey to the student. (Examples of the various screens of the exit survey are illustrated in Figures 3, 4, and 5.) The survey included the names of the games explored during that session along with the following three questions:

3.

Please rate the game [game name]. (Ratings ranged from 1 – 5: 1 = poor; 2 = not bad; 3 = fair; 4 = good; and 5 = great) Of the following games you played during this session, which was your favorite? Of all the games you have played so far during this project, vote for up to 3 games you think are the best.

There were no preset dates for the game-exploration sessions. The participating teacher allowed the students to evaluate the games frequently as opportunities during a typical school day permitted throughout the three weeks. This was accomplished using computers in both the classroom and in the lab. Researchers only observed participants as they played with and evaluated the games in the computer lab.

Final Survey Upon the conclusion of the three weeks during which the participants were allowed to play

Figure 3. At the conclusion of the session, participants were asked to rate each of the games they played during the session.

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the games, the researchers met with each class separately to give the participants one final opportunity to vote for their top three games from all of the 15 games. This voting was administered as a paper-and-pencil survey.

QuAntitAtive results Of the various data sources used in the quantitative analysis, the ratings of participants on the final survey administered on the final day of the study is believed to be the most valid single indicator of their overall ratings of the 15 games. As shown in Table 1, of the 15 games, five distinct groups emerged from the participants’ final ratings. One game, SuperCross (illustrated in Figure 6), emerged as the top game, gaining 19 “top 3” votes cast by 65.5% of the participants2. The second group consisted of two games, Mineshaft and Stone Cold Brown, gaining 16 and 14 top three votes, cast by 55.2% and 48.3% of the participants, respectively. The third group consisted of two

games, Cat’s Revenge and Magic Carpet, gaining 10 and 8 top three votes, cast by 34.5% and 27.6% of the participants, respectively. The fourth group consisted of five games gaining top three votes ranging from five to three. The final group consisted of five games, two of which gained only one top three vote each and the other three did not gain any top three votes. These ratings were very consistent with the children’s game playing behavior, as evidenced by the total amount of time they actually spent playing the games (see Table 2). SuperCross was played for a total of 524 minutes (compiled across all of the participants over three weeks) and Mineshaft was played for a total of 405 minutes. The remaining games were played for a total amount of time that matched the ordinal ranking of ratings with few exceptions ranging from 309 minutes to 43 minutes. In other words, the participants’ actions accurately mirrored their final ratings. The participants’ game ratings on the final survey are also very consistent with their game ratings during the game-exploration sessions

Table 1. Top 3 votes for each game cast in the final survey (administered after the game-exploration sessions had concluded) Name of Game Super Cross Mineshaft Stone Cold Brown Cat's Revenge Magic Carpet Columbus Travels in Time Preserved Men in Black Haunted House Space Race The Brilliant Science Teacher Maze of the Minotaur Ocean Exploration Herb I. Vore Underwater Seaquest Zeus' Electricity

Votes

% of Participants

19 16 14 10 8 5 4 3 3 3 1 1 0 0 0

65.5 55.2 48.3 34.5 27.6 17.2 13.8 10.3 10.3 10.3 3.4 3.4 0.0 0.0 0.0

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Table 2. Total time (in minutes) each game was played by the participants during the game-exploration sessions Name of Game Super Cross Mineshaft Magic Carpet Stone Cold Brown Cat's Revenge Maze of the Minotaur Columbus Travels in Time Preserved Men in Black Haunted House Space Race Herb I. Vore The Brilliant Science Teacher Zeus' Electricity Underwater Seaquest Ocean Exploration

Time (minutes) 524 405 309 285 220 187 187 133 119 115 109 97 93 54 43

Table 3. Top 3 votes for each game cast during the game-exploration sessions

Name of Game Super Cross Stone Cold Brown Mineshaft Cat's Revenge Magic Carpet Columbus Travels in Time Haunted House Space Race Preserved Men in Black The Brilliant Science Teacher Maze of the Minotaur Ocean Exploration Zeus' Electricity Underwater Seaquest Herb I. Vore

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Top 3 Votes 60 39 29 28 21 20 19 17 15 15 6 5 4 3 2

Children as Critics of Educational Computer Games Designed by Other Children

Table 4. Top 3 votes by gender for each game cast in the final survey (administered after the game-exploration sessions had concluded) Name of Game

Votes

% of Participants

Girls Super Cross Magic Carpet Stone Cold Brown Mineshaft Cat's Revenge Columbus Travels in Time The Brilliant Science Teacher Preserved Men in Black Haunted House Space Race Herb I. Vore Maze of the Minotaur Ocean Exploration Underwater Seaquest Zeus' Electricity

75 65 6 43 32 32 3 21 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

8 0 50 3 5 5 25 7 8 8 0 0 0 0 0

Boys Mineshaft Super Cross Stone Cold Brown Cat's Revenge Columbus Travels in Time Haunted House Magic Carpet Preserved Men in Black Space Race Maze of the Minotaur Ocean Exploration Herb I. Vore The Brilliant Science Teacher Underwater Seaquest Zeus' Electricity

conducted over the three weeks of the study. As shown in Table 3, Super Cross was again clearly the top rated game. Also, while there were minor

12 12 8 7 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0

71 71 47 41 12 12 12 12 12 6 6 0 0 0 0

differences in the actual ordinal rankings of the games (such as Stone Cold Brown being ranked as second and Mineshaft being ranked third), the

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overall pattern is very consistent with the final survey ratings. These data indicate that the participants’ ratings were very stable and consistent over time. With few exceptions, the rankings did not differ widely by gender, as shown in Table 4. This is interesting because there is prior documentation that several of the games were designed along gender lines, that is, several games were designed by teams consisting of all boys and all girls. SuperCross is an example. It was designed by a team of all boys on a theme that appears on the surface to be more male-related. However, SuperCross was ranked as the top game by both boys and girls (though girls’ ratings were more evenly spread across their top three games): boys cast 71% of their top three votes, and girls cast 58%, for SuperCross. Similarly, Cat’s Revenge was designed by an all-girl team, yet boys cast 41% of their top three votes, and girls cast 25% of their top three votes, for it. However, another game designed by an all-girl team, Magic Carpet,

involved the traditional storyline of a princess being rescued by a prince, resulting in a likewise rating traditionally across gender: girls cast 50% of their top three votes for it in comparison to only 12% of the top three votes by the boys. These quantitative data are particularly interesting given the nature of the games that surfaced as the most popular. For example, from an educational point of view, SuperCross and Mineshaft are designed in completely contrary ways: SuperCross presents mathematics in a way that is completely external or separate from the game element, whereas Mineshaft presents mathematics and the game in an integrated form. Indeed, in SuperCross, mathematics is imposed on the player as a penalty for poor racing performance! Clearly, these data show that the degree to which educational content and the game are integrated fails to serve as a useful design criterion in predicting students’ critiques, despite its primacy as a benchmark in the educational game design literature.

Figure 4. After each of the games played during the session was rated individually, participants were then asked to choose their favorite game (if any) played that session from a context-sensitive screen (i.e., only those choices of games actually played during the session were active).

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intervieWs Although the quantitative data presented in this study provide interesting patterns into the children’s opinions and game playing behaviors, many questions remain unanswered. Therefore, at the end of the study, and after all quantitative data had been collected, short interviews were conducted with 12 of the 30 participants to complement and extend the quantitative data (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The interviews lasted approximately 15 minutes each and were conducted one-on-one using semi-structured interview protocol (i.e., a short list of planned questions were asked while allowing the conversation to cover other issues addressed by the participant). The following topics were explored in all of the interviews: (1) What makes a game fun? (2) What are characteristics of good games? (3) What are characteristics of poor games? and (4) What subject matter learning occurred as a result of playing the game? They were also asked to describe characteristics of the games they felt were especially important in the best games played. Several themes emerged from the interviews. First, the game’s context, or storyline, was an important influence in the children’s critique. Of the top three games, these included, respectively, motorcycle racing (SuperCross), mining (Mineshaft), and “cops and robbers” (Stone Cold Brown). In the interviews most of the participants admitted that they did not read the rules before playing the games. Thus, participants seemed to prefer games that had a familiar or meaningful context or narrative. SuperCross is similar in function and aesthetics to commercial arcade video games. The same can be said about the cops and robbers storyline of Stone Cold Brown. Mining, on the other hand, was not a familiar context. Yet, the rules for playing the game were closely tied with the context, making the context more meaningful. Second, the participants preferred games that provided competition. Of the 15 games, only one,

Mineshaft, met this characteristic adequately, and the interviews confirmed this influenced its popularity. The value of competition is probably best understood by the social needs of middle school students. For example, participants reported that the games were often discussed outside of class. This fact may also shed some light on the gender results. For example, part of the popularity of some of the games, especially SuperCross, appeared to be based in part on the social dynamics of middle school. The high ratings of SuperCross may have had a “snow ball” effect—popularity often begets popularity with children of this age group. For example, Marie3 commented on just how much her friends had talked about the games outside of class: “Yeah, I heard a lot of people talk about SuperCross. I think that was the majority’s favorite. And they, and I know a lot of them liked that Stone Cold Brown where you could get blown up. A lot of the guys always talked about that one.” Interestingly, participants did not focus on a game’s production values. In the interviews, participants consistently stated that although they like the high-quality graphics and sound of commercial video games, the amateur-like quality of these children-designed games was not a problem or an important factor in their critiques. This runs contrary to the popular myth among adults that children are seduced by the “mind numbing” visual and aural effects of video games. If anything, these participants appreciated the fact that their peers had been able to design fairly interesting interactive computer games. Another way to look at the qualitative data is to compare it to some of the well-entrenched design literature related to motivation, especially intrinsic motivation, since it most closely relates to the free choice procedures used in this study. Intrinsically motivated learning is defined as a situation when a learner is interested in the learning activity itself and does not engage in the activity for some external reward or fear of punishment (Brophy, 1998; Csikszentmihalyi, 1985; Lepper & Chabay,

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1985; Malone & Lepper, 1987). Many researchers have proposed constructs that could be integrated into an instructional activity or game in order to improve a learner’s intrinsic motivation for playing. A review of the literature has revealed, but is not limited to, some of the following strategies: challenge, curiosity, control, fantasy, personalization, cooperation, competition, and recognition (Brophy, 1987, 1998; Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Csikszentmihalyi, 1985; Deci, Betley, Kahle, Abrams, & Porac, 1981; Keller, 1983; Lepper & Malone, 1987; Malone & Lepper, 1987). The remainder of this section will discuss a few of these constructs that most closely matched the goals and outcomes of this study.

challenge Challenge refers to maintaining an optimal level of difficulty in the instructional task being attempted.

By maintaining an optimal level of challenge—not too difficult, not too simple—students are constantly engaged in the activity as they are able to achieve success when applying reasonable effort (Brophy, 1998; Csikszentmihalyi, 1985; Malone & Lepper, 1987). When an activity is too easy, the learner may find it monotonous; when the activity is too hard, the learner is frustrated. In either case, the learner may disengage from the task (Brophy, 1987). For example, Marie commented that she enjoyed SuperCross: “And it was really, like, challenging. You had a goal to get to.” Angela commented on the importance of optimizing challenge in Mineshaft: “It depends on, like, what level you wanted it on. Like most of these like had two or three levels, like low, medium, and high. And you could like, in Mineshaft, you could put it at like a million, and like negative a million and you had to guess between that. So, you could make it really hard.”

Figure 5. After participants chose their favorite game (if any) for the session, they were then asked to vote for up to three games they thought were the best from a list of all the games they had played throughout the project using a context-sensitive screen (i.e., using a database of their individual game playing information, only those choices of games actually played so far during the project were active).

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Sam commented on the importance of challenge in Mineshaft, especially in the way in which it helped him in the process of estimating: “It was kind of challenging. It kind of makes you think these certain thoughts that it’s this number or that number.”

control Providing users with a sense of control gives them a sense of autonomy where they feel that they are in charge of what they are constructing. Studies have shown that when users are given choices in the activity, they show better performance and persistence in that activity (Brophy, 1987; Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Malone & Lepper, 1987). Ed commented on the fact that he liked Mineshaft because he likes math and also because he is able to control aspects of the game’s parameters, also allowing him to optimize the challenge: “Yeah, I like math. I like the estimating, too. And I like how you could set the number—the

highest number and the lowest number. So you could have a really hard one like 1000 and 0. Or, one time I had –1 and 0 and it was really hard. So you could set your, um, you could set what you had to guess between. And that was one of the best things about the game….so you could make it really hard or really easy.”

cooperation A review of the literature has shown that there could possibly be many benefits to having cooperative interaction in a game playing experience. Cooperation can also improve intrinsic motivation for the following reasons: (1) peer comments and ideas can spark further interest in other students; (2) high achievement peers can provide supportive models for other students to emulate; (3) peers provide a gauge for other students to measure their achievement; and (4) when there is an obligation to a group goal, individual persistence is enhanced (Paris & Turner, 1994). Kafai and Harel (1993) found that collaboration plays a role in construct-

Figure 6. A screen snapshot of SuperCross, a math game in which players have to maneuver their motorbike to the finish line. If the bike’s speed is too slow as it goes over one of the “jumps”, a math problem appears. If the player answers correctly, the player continues; if the player answers incorrectly, the bike is returned to the starting position to try again. After reaching the finish line, the player is presented with a new race course.

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ing software projects. In these projects, students’ collaboration served to assist students in developing their ideas together; for example, when one student did not need assistance but served as an example to others, or a student needed assistance in developing an idea and looked to others for ideas (Kafai & Harel, 1993). Marie commented on the social aspects of playing the games and learning subject matter from the games: “Well, there was this one, and it had a bunch of science questions. I can’t remember what it was. But they were hard and I, actually, after I played it a lot, I’ve always got friends, I got some help from my friends and so I could learn those questions.” The social side of cooperation is reflected in Susan’s definition of fun: “Hanging out with friends. Being able to laugh. Having a good time.”

competition Perhaps one of the most obvious motivational embellishments in the design and playing of games is competition. Competition takes place when different individuals strive for the same goal in a situation where only one can achieve it. Much of the literature pertaining to the use of competitive strategies in the classroom has shown that many drawbacks are involved (Ames, 1981; Ames & Ames, 1978; Ames, Ames, & Felker, 1977; Deci et al., 1981; Harris & Covington, 1993; Kohn, 1991). These drawbacks are primarily focused around the students who are not the winners in a competitive situation. Thomas commented on the interesting technique that several students used to introduce competition into the game SuperCross, even though person-to-person competition was not part of its original design: Thomas: “They’ll be like on a different computer, but we’ll start at the same time. And we’ll race against each other to see who’s the fastest.”

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Interviewer: “And so, what makes it fun with two different players at the same time?” Thomas: “Because it challenges you to answer the questions faster, use your brain faster, and like move fast through the game. Makes your technique better each time you play.” Thomas also commented that he liked Mineshaft for the way he was able to compete against a friend, while at the same time obviously learning some “deep” strategies for being successful at the game: “Mineshaft, now I liked it because it was two players, and you had to guess. And I would always race with my friend. We used to pick numbers, and then whoever is closest to it, gets the ax. You have to get five axes to win. Either him or me always ends up winning. It’s fun. We have to get our guessing ability more. When you see half the bar, it goes to the half point and you remember it’s five. If it goes back near that spot, then you be like it’s the half point so it’s not all the way on half point, so you will be able to guess correctly, accurately.” On the other hand, Ed related the importance of challenge to some of the negative aspects of competition while competing against another player with Mineshaft: “Because you got to challenge the other person. It was a 2 player game and you can do it together. And it’s funner when you do it with another person. And then you have bragging rights against them. You can kind of taunt them all through the year. Well, not really taunt them. You get to play around with them. So it’s something you remember. It’s like ‘I beat you at that!’ And they’re like, ‘OK….yeah.’ It’s just funner to play against each other.”

Achievement Finally, success in playing a game, not surprisingly, contributed to a person’s perception of the game’s design. For example, consider the comments of Jessica as she reflected on the importance

Children as Critics of Educational Computer Games Designed by Other Children

of success at playing a game in her critique of the games: Interviewer: “Let’s see. The first time you played Super Cross, you gave it a 1. Why? [pause] You didn’t like it at first? Jessica: “No, ‘cause I couldn’t beat it.” Interviewer: “So you gave it a low rating? But the second time you played it, you gave it a 5. What happened between the first time and the second time?” Jessica: “I got halfway through level 3.”

discussion The first research question of this study explored whether educational computer games designed by elementary and middle school students are perceived as fun, interesting, and relevant by other students. The results of this study showed that although these participants are sophisticated and demanding computer game players, they found the best of these games to be worth their time. They also showed clear preferences—they clearly liked some of the games and greatly disliked others. The second research question attempted to document the characteristics of the games that children found particularly compelling. It is important to note that this study focused on questions of motivation, not learning. That is, this study did not try to investigate whether the students would learn from the games. The data from this study point to some very interesting themes. First, children’s game playing behavior was very consistent with their critiques. That is, those games that they rated most highly were also those games that they played the most. Second, the children’s critiques were consistent and coherent. Games that were considered the most fun and interesting to play seemed to have the

following commonalties: (1) strong game context or storyline; (2) challenge; (3) competitive affordances; and (4) student preference for the game’s educational subject matter. Some of these, such as the importance of challenge, are consistent with the literature (e.g., Malone & Lepper, 1987). However, there was little support for time-honored characteristics such as the need to integrate the content with the game. Instead, the children were perfectly content with games that, from the adult perspective, “sugar coated” educational content with an interesting game context. However, the children’s emphasis of the importance of the game’s context or storyline over production values suggests that these participants recognized the importance of a game’s “deep structure” over that of surface features such as graphics and sound. This is consistent with the documented relationship between good stories and good games (Schank, 1990). Furthermore, in a study investigating gender differences in children’s construction of educational games, Kafai (1996) found that narrative was a popular element in games designed by both boys and girls. She speculates that students used narrative as the “glue” for connecting scenes in the games with the educational content. Based on the findings of our study, one could postulate that the narrative also provided shared meaning between the designer and the user. The competitive affordances were evident either in the game’s design (such as the two player feature of Mineshaft), or in creative adaptations of the game by participants. For example, many participants sitting side-by-side would boot up SuperCross on their respective and separate computers, then start the game simultaneously to see who would get to the finish line first. Follow-up interviews indicated that the social consequences of competitive game playing were an important consideration for these participants. Participants enjoyed the social connectivity afforded by a few of the games, but were careful not to allow competition to threaten their social standing. Finally, interviews with participants indicated that their

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critiques were also influenced by the educational subject matter. Games that focused on school subjects they liked were rated more positively. The participants clearly understood that the opportunity to play these games was not meant as mere entertainment, but rather as a creative way to get some practice with the content. If we take the social side of constructionism seriously, we should expect the value of “learning by designing” to extend beyond the individual designers. Much constructionist research has used the goal of designing a game for others as an effective pedagogical strategy (i.e., Kafai, Ching, & Marshall, 1997). Playing computer games is an important activity to middle school students and the rationale underlying the goal of designing a computer game suitable for another student to play is well understood by them. However, little data are available which validates whether these artifacts are, in fact, viewed as motivating school resources by other children. This study shows that games designed by one group of children can be valued by other students. The implication of this instructional side benefit should not be overlooked by constructionist advocates. Not only are the children-designed artifacts potentially useful as learning resources, assuming their content and accuracy have been validated by teachers, but they can also serve as an authentic model and motivation for other children to engage in constructionist activities. It is easy to imagine a classroom or school engaging in a cycle of game design, development, and evaluation beginning with the evaluation of educational games designed by students who came before them. Such a cycle would be the basis of a culture of design and critique focusing on higher-order thinking skills (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Gagné, Wager, Golas, & Keller, 2005). Interestingly, and somewhat ironically, leveraging student generated games for learning would bridge the use of design activities with more traditional views of gaming in education (Dempsey, Haynes, Lucassen, & Casey, 2002; Gredler, 2003; Rieber, 2005).

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Of course, it is one thing to casually suggest to teachers that they engage in game design with their students, it is another to suggest how, exactly, they should do this. The games designed by the children in this study were created in collaboration with university personnel—the children designed the games, they wrote the directions, they created the graphics, but we programmed them into working prototypes. This is not a realistic and certainly not a scalable plan. In response to the practical matter of helping teachers realize the potential of game design in a regular classroom setting without extra resources (software or people), the team at the University of Georgia has been advocating for the use of Homemade PowerPoint Games where PowerPoint is used as a game design tool (Rieber, Barbour, Thomas, & Rauscher, in press). Although PowerPoint may not seem at first glance to be an appropriate tool for designing games, our work to date suggests otherwise. While other tools are certainly much better suited to game design, PowerPoint has proven to be suitable for many games, such as those that capitalize on its hyperlinking features. Examples of games designed with PowerPoint can be found at the following Web site: http://it.coe.uga.edu/wwild/pptgames/ The Homemade PowerPoint Project has several attributes worth mentioning here. First, and most obvious, is that it takes advantage of an almost ubiquitous software tool in the schools. Second, teachers value developing skills in PowerPoint, so their work in facilitating projects created by their students leads them to developing skills they see as useful too. Third, a teacher can begin by having their students evaluate and play an existing Homemade PowerPoint Game, which is likely to trigger design ideas in their students. This leads to the fourth attribute, which is the open-source nature of the project. All authors of Homemade PowerPoint Games on our Web site must agree to allow others to take and modify their game so

Children as Critics of Educational Computer Games Designed by Other Children

long as a credit history of authorship is maintained. The benefit of this is that when a group of students play an existing game, they often think of ways to either improve the game, or modify it to match their own local context. For example, one existing game, called “The Traveling Georgia Artist,” is a math and geography game featuring the state of Georgia. Students who enjoy the game but live in another state are free to modify the game accordingly (i.e., “The Traveling Pennsylvania Artist”), thus using their time more efficiently by not requiring them to create a new game from scratch. Another important outcome of this research is the importance of the degree to which gaming influences and supports social relationships among the players and their peers (Blanchard, 1995). Indeed, one could argue that the design elements of narrative, competition, and challenge of which the children spoke all relate in some way back to the social dynamics of their daily relationships. Of course, individualistic attributes are involved here as well, but the social needs of the children were articulated very consistently throughout the interviews. Relatedly, other data from the interviews also showed how gaming was a bridge between school and home, again speaking to the importance of the children’s social networks. Beyond the results related to educational computer game design, the consistency of the participants’ responses, both quantitative and qualitative, reveal that middle school students are thoughtful critics when given time, opportunity, resources, and appropriate venues for recording their perceptions and beliefs. The procedures and results of this study offer promise in developing additional strategies for taking advantage of students’ opinions and ideas, something anyone interested in developing interactive multimedia for education should consider. In conclusion, interactive multimedia created by one group of middle school students can be motivating school resources for other groups of

students. Also, the views of children and adults often clash when it comes to what is important in the design of educational activities, especially activities as central to students’ lives as games. This study points to the sophistication, seriousness, and usefulness of children’s views on software evaluation. One other interesting fact surfaced during the interviews. Despite the prevalence of computer and video games in the everyday lives of these children, it was interesting to note that during the interviews many children also mentioned their enjoyment for playing traditional games, such as Monopoly and Yahtzee!. Although not a focus of this study, this also points to the social connectivity of gaming. It is likely these children learned to play these traditional games in the same manner most of us learned them, through playing them with family and (usually) older members of our communities. Games are ways in which we connect socially to each other. Such social connectivity appears likewise to be an important part of the educational gaming experience.

reFerences Ames, C. (1981). Competitive versus cooperative reward structures: The influence of individual and group performance factors on achievement attributions and affect. American Educational Research Journal, 10(3), 273-287. Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261-271. Ames, C., & Ames, R. (1978). The thrill of victory and the agony of defeat: Children’s self and interpersonal evaluations in competitive and noncompetitive learning environments. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 12(1), 79-87. Ames, C., Ames, R., & Felker, D. W. (1977). Effects of competitive reward structure and valence

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of outcome on children’s achievement attributions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 69(1), 1-8. Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman. Barab, S. A., & Kirshner, D. (2001). Guest editors’ introduction: Rethinking methodology in the learning sciences. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 10, 5-15. Blanchard, K. (1995). The anthropology of sport: An introduction—A revised edition ( 2nd ed.). Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey Publisher, Inc. Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palinscar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26(3 & 4), 369-398. Brophy, J. (1987). Synthesis of research on strategies for motivating students to learn. Educational Leadership, 45(2), 40-48. Brophy, J. (1998). Connecting with students intrinsic motivation. In J. Brophy (Ed.), Motivating students to learn (pp. 126-161). Boston: McGraw-Hill. Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating complex interventions in classroom settings. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2, 141-178. Cameron, J., & Pierce, W. D. (1996). The debate about rewards and intrinsic motivation: Protests and accusations do not alter the results. Review of Educational Research, 66(1), 39-51. Charsky, D. (2004). Evaluation of the effectiveness of integrating concept maps and computer games to teach historical understanding. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley.

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Cobb, P., Confrey, J., diSessa, A., Lehrer, R., & Schauble, L. (2003). Design experiments in educational research. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 9-13. Cordova, D. I., & Lepper, M. R. (1996). Intrinsic motivation and the process of learning: Beneficial effects of contextualization, personalization, and choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(4), 715-730. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1985). Emergent motivation and the evolution of the self. In D. A. Kleiber & M. Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 4, pp. 93-119). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Deci, E. L., Betley, G., Kahle, J., Abrams, L., & Porac, J. (1981). When trying to win: Competition and intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 7(1), 79-83. Dede, C. (2004). Engaging viewers, virtually. HGSE News, Harvard Graduate School of Education. Retrieved November 1, 2004, from http://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/features/ dede08012004.html. Dempsey, J. V., Haynes, L. L., Lucassen, B. A., & Casey, M. S. (2002). Forty simple computer games and what they could mean to educators. Simulation and Gaming, 33(2), 157-168. Dempsey, J., Lucassen, B., Gilley, W., & Rasmussen, K. (1993-1994). Since Malone’s theory of intrinsically motivating instruction: What’s the score in the gaming literature? Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 22(2), 173-183. Dickey, M. D. (2005). Engaging by design: How engagement strategies in popular computer and video games can inform instructional design. Educational Technology Research & Development, 53(2), 67-83. Dickey, M. D. (2006a). Girl gamers: The controversy of girl games and the relevance of femaleoriented game design for instructional design.

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British Journal of Educational Technology, 37(5), 785-793. Dickey, M. D. (2006b). Game design narrative for learning: Appropriating adventure game design narrative and techniques for the design of interactive learning environments. Educational Technology Research & Development, 54(3), 245-263. Edelson, D. C. (2002). Design research: What we learn when we engage in design. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 11, 105-121. Gagné, R., Wager, W., Golas, K., & Keller, J. (2005). Principles of instructional design (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thompson Learning. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Gredler, M. E. (2003). Games and simulations and their relationships to learning. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (2nd ed., pp. 571-581). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Harel, I., & Papert, S. (Eds.). (1991). Constructionism. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Harris, A. M., & Covington, M. V. (1993). The role of cooperative reward interdependency in success and failure. Journal of Experimental Education, 61(2), 151-168. Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14-26. Kafai, Y. B. (1996). Electronic play worlds: Gender differences in children’s construction of video games. In Y. Kafai & M. Resnick (Eds.), Constructionism in practice: Designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world (pp. 97-123). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kafai, Y. B., & Ching, C. C. (2001). Affordances of collaborative software design planning for elementary students’ science talk. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 10(3), 323-363. Kafai, Y. B., Ching, C. C., & Marshall, S. (1997). Children as designers of educational multimedia software. Computers and Education, 29, 117126. Kafai, Y., & Harel, I. (1991). Learning through design and teaching: Exploring social and collaborative aspects of constructionism. In I. Harel & S. Papert (Eds.), Constructionism (2nd ed., pp. 85-110). Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation. Kafai, Y., & Resnick, M. (Eds.). (1996). Constructionism in practice: Designing, thinking, and learning in a digital world. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status (pp. 383-434). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Kohn, A. (1996). By all available means: Cameron and Pierce’s defense of extrinsic motivators. Reveiw of Educational Research, 66(1), 1-4. Lepper, M. R., & Chabay, R. W. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and instruction: Conflicting views on the role of motivational processes in computerbased education. Educational Psychologist, 20(4), 217-230. Lepper, M. R., Keavney, M., & Drake, M. (1996). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards: A commentary on Cameron and Pierce’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 66(1), 5-32. Malone, T. (1981). Toward a theory of intrinsically motivating instruction. Cognitive Science, 5(4), 333-369.

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Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction, III: Conative and affective process analysis (pp. 223-253). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Newman, D. (1990). Opportunities for research on the organizational impact of school computers. Educational Researcher, 19(3), 8-13. Noah, D. (2002). An analysis of narrative-based educational software. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Georgia, Athens. Noah, D., Nolan, M., Sharma, P., Matzko, M., Bourdeau, G., & Rieber, L. P. (1999, April). Between fact and fiction: The conservation of propositional knowledge across representation modes. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal. Papert, S. (1991). Situating constructionism. In I. Harel & S. Papert (Eds.), Constructionism (pp. 1-11). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Papert, S. (1996). The connected family: Bridging the digital generation gap. Atlanta, GA: Longstreet Press. Paris, S. G., & Turner, J. C. (1994). Situated motivation. In P. R. Pintrich (Ed.), Student motivation, cognition, and learning: Essays in honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie (pp. 213-237). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Parker, L. E., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). The effects of fantasy context on children’s learning and motivation. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York, NY. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Prensky, M. (2006). Don’t bother me, Mom, I’m learning!: How computer and video games are

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preparing your kids for 21st century success and how you can help! St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. Provenzo, E. F. (1991). Video kids: Making sense of Nintendo. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Rieber, L. P. (1996). Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games. Educational Technology Research & Development, 44(2), 43-58. Rieber, L. P. (2005). Multimedia learning in games, simulations, and microworlds. In R. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (pp. 549-567). New York: Cambridge University Press. Rieber, L. P., Barbour, M., Thomas, G., & Rauscher, D. (in press). Learning by designing games: Homemade PowerPoint games. In C. T. Miller (Ed.), Games: Their purpose and potential in education. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Rieber, L. P., Luke, N., & Smith, J. (1998a). Project KID DESIGNER: Constructivism at work through play. Meridian: Middle School Computer Technology Journal [On-line], 1(1). Retrieved from http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/index.html Rieber, L. P., Luke, N., Smith, J., Noah, D., Nolan, M., Matzko, M., Sharma, P., & Bourdeau, G. (1998b, December). Project KID DESIGNER: Collaborating with children in the design of educational computer games. Presented at the Third International Conference on the Learning Sciences, Atlanta. Rieber, L. P., Smith, L., & Noah, D. (1998c). The value of serious play. Educational Technology, 38(6), 29-37. Ruenzel, D. (2000). Gold star junkies. Teacher Magazine, 11(5), 25-29.

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Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (1996). When paradigms clash: Comments on Cameron and Pierce’s claim that rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation. Review of Educational Research, 66(1), 33-38. Schank, R. C. (1990). Tell me a story: a new look at real and artificial memory. New York: Scribner. Sefton-Green, J. (2006). Youth, technology, and media cultures. Review of Research in Education, 30, 279-306. Squire, K. (2002). Cultural framing of computer/video games. The International Journal of Computer Game Research, 2(1). Retrieved from http://www.gamestudies.org/0102/squire/ Squire, K. (2004). Learning world history through playing Civilization III. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington. Squire, K. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experience. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29. Turkle, S. (1995). Life on the screen: Identity in the age of the Internet. New York: Simon & Schuster. Turner, J., & Paris, S. G. (1995). How literacy tasks influence children’s motivation for literacy. The Reading Teacher, 48(8), 662-673.

Key terms Challenge: The degree to which an activity confronted by a learner is viewed as difficult or easy. In game design, the goal is usually to achieve optimal challenge, or challenge that is perfectly suited to the player’s current skill level. Optimal challenge is a dynamic concept such that the challenge steadily increases (or decreases) to match the player’s current skill level.

Competitive Affordances: Attributes of an activity that support, enhance, or encourage competition. Constructionism: A theory of learning and a strategy for education that suggests that learners are likely to make new ideas when they are actively engaged in making some type of external artifact (e.g., computer game). Constructivism: An epistemology (i.e., what it means to know) that accepts that knowledge of and about the world is a personal construction; views learning as an active process where individuals construct their own knowledge through meaningful interactions with the world. Educational Computer Game: Competitive rule-based activity involving one or more players with an expressed goal of performing or meeting a goal at a superior level (i.e., winning) either in relation to a previous performance (one player game) or in relation to the performance of other players. Success in the activity requires use of subject matter in some way. The game is played in whole or in part on a computer. Intrinsic Motivation: A type of motivation where the reasons to engage and persist in a task stem from personal motives; an activity that is intrinsically motivating is pleasurable for its own sake and is not dependent on external rewards. Project-Based Learning: An instructional method based on the learner selecting, designing, and developing a project that has personal relevance. The motivation and guidance for the project is based on a “driving question”—a question posed by the student about a topic or phenomenon of great interest to the student and that also helps guide the learner as to the type of project to create.

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endnotes 1

2

3

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One of the 15 games produced during Project KID DESIGNER, Weird Castle, had technical difficulties early in the implementation of this research project, consequently, it was removed from the project. One student was absent on the final day of the study, resulting in an n of 29 for the final survey data. Pseudonyms are used for all of the participants quoted in this chapter.

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Chapter LXXII

Video Game Creation as a Learning Experience for Teachers and Students Leanna Madill University of Victoria, Canada Kathy Sanford University of Victoria, Canada

AbstrAct This chapter explores changing conceptions of learning brought about by technological changes and opportunities and examines more closely the understanding of video game creation as a learning experience. Based on the first year of a three-year ethnographic research study of the educative value and potential of video games within a school setting, this chapter examines the powerful learning and teaching practises in classes of information technology and programming in which video game creation has been used as entry points into learning programming skills. Observations, interviews, and video recordings coupled with students’ articulation of their process were used to examine the depth of students’ learning and revealed the development of their multi-literacy skills, social skills, and their learning process awareness. Suggestions within this chapter include how a social constructivist classroom involving technology and popular culture can be developed and valued.

introduction This chapter explores changing conceptions of learning brought about by technological changes and the opportunities these afford. In this chap-

ter we examine more closely the understanding of video game creation as it relates to learning through an ethnographic study of two high school information technology and programming classes. Video games are a powerful learning tool (Gee,

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Video Game Creation as a Learning Experience for Teachers and Students

2003; Johnson, 2005), and we explored the learning involved with video game playing and creation in multiple ways, examining operational, cultural, and critical aspects of literacy (Green, 1997); we believe that we must find ways to enable teachers and students to raise critical questions relating to these texts as well as gaining proficiency, technological expertise, and social capital in video game play and design. Designing and creating video games in a high school classroom is a fantasy-come-true for some students, but it is a reality in computer classes at a large-sized Western Canadian high school. Classes of information technology and programming have been using video games as the entry point into learning programming skills. Powerful learning and teaching practises are apparent and through observations, interviews, and video recordings, coupled with students’ articulation of their process, we have been carrying out the first year of a three-year ethnographic research study of the educative value and potential of video games within a school setting. We consider how a social constructivist classroom incorporating technology can be developed and valued, how skills learned in these technological places can transfer to other learning experiences, and how spaces for reflection are critical for both students and teachers as they engage so intensely with computers.

bAcKground The term “video game” is one whose definition has been elusive and highly contested since its entry into academic and educational worlds. While there are many varieties and levels of complexity of video games, it is generally recognized that all games have the following characteristics, to a greater or lesser degree: graphics; sound; interface; gameplay; and story (Newman, 2004). Given these complex and overlapping components, it is easy to see video game design and creation

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as a rich potential site for learning. Learning itself is a complex concept to define, and for the purposes of this chapter we are understanding “learning” to encompass focused activity that enables individuals, groups, or communities to acquire and apply new knowledge and skills, to adapt to changes and challenges, make choices, solve problems, and create new learning. Learning is defined as “acquisition and development of memories and behaviours, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values, and wisdom” (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning) and is generally gained by experience or instruction. As Gee (2003) claims, video game play provides good principles of learning related to, among other things, active critical incremental learning where practice is a requirement of successful play and a stimulus for repeated voluntary engagement. The world of new technologies surrounds us, and as we explore these spaces, it appears that males are more often, at more sophisticated levels, engaging with new technologies. From pre-school age, it is not uncommon for young boys to spend hours playing video games, trying out new strategies, puzzling their way through engaging and interactive “texts” (Alloway & Gilbert, 1998; Newkirk, 2002). As we have examined boys’ practices with these texts (Blair & Sanford, 2004; Sanford & Madill, 2007) it has become evident that many skills are being learned through new technologies. Gee (2003), Johnson (2005), and Shaffer, Squire, Halverson, and Gee (2005) present compelling arguments related to sophisticated learning developed through video game engagement. We see that video game play can be powerful interactive learning (Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001), and we are also aware that it is predominantly boys who engage with these alternative texts. There is, we believe, a disconnect in the subtle yet powerful messages given to boys and girls about the importance and accessibility of new technological skills and understandings, and between the opportunities afforded to boys and to girls in both school and out-of-school spaces

Video Game Creation as a Learning Experience for Teachers and Students

(Sanford, 2006). It is clearly evident that while some girls and women are accessing technologies for learning and entertainment, the realm is still highly dominated by boys and men. This disconnect can affect how boys and girls live out their personal and workplace lives, offering very different opportunities for them based on gendered expectations (Hammett & Sanford, 2008). Therefore, the inclusion of technologies, such as video games, in schools promotes access to and confidence with new technologies and multimodal thinking for all learners. If, as suggested earlier in this chapter, learning relates to acquisition of skills and memories, and girls have not acquired skills and memories that encourage them to engage in technologies and multimodal thinking, they will be seriously disadvantaged in future learning and career opportunities. Those who have spent years, even decades, learning how to learn by playing and creating video games and other complex technological innovations (i.e., males) will have the dispositions that will enable life-long learning. These issues need to be taken very seriously by educators as they create opportunities for constructivist learning and social engagement with new ideas

sociAl constructivism And video gAmes Video game play, design, and creation provide spaces for powerful and meaningful learning. What do we understand to be powerful, meaningful learning? Paulo Freire (1970/1995) writes that “Knowledge emerges only through invention and re-invention, through the restless, impatient, continuing, hopeful inquiry human beings pursue in the world, with the world, and with each other” (p. 53). Winnicott (2005) emphasizes the importance of play as the space where understanding of the world occurs. de Castell and Jenson (2004) also view play as a critical aspect of learning which they argue is not recognized, valued, or practiced

in schools beyond primary levels except to spur extrinsic motivational behaviours. Learners thrive when given the freedom to be able to create knowledge through choice and experiences, and are guided and supported when needed (Gee, 2005). Engagement with video games is recognized as providing this type of powerful immersive experience enabling players the freedom to produce characters, worlds, and experiences where they invent and reinvent identities and scenarios (Friedman, 1995; Gee, 2003; Johnson, 2005; Wolf & Perron, 2003). It is the ability to play video games that enables the transfer to video game design and creation. It is the extensive knowledge of the way games work through the playing of various types of video games that enables designers to create new games. Video game play and design incorporate social constructivist learning environments, where knowledge, experiences, and abilities are co-constructed between the player, game, and possible other players when played online. Social constructivism is a sociological theory of knowledge that suggests that all of our knowledge is constructed through mediating forces such as language and culture. In a dynamic interaction, teachers and learners together provide opportunities through engaging activities that enable learners to construct knowledge and understanding through interaction with others and see them as situated within a socio-cultural context (Richardson, 1997). Learners are seen as active makers of meaning. Vygotsky’s (1962) zone of proximal development (ZPD) provides spaces for novices to learn more challenging and complex concepts through more advanced peers or adults, scaffolding the learning in manageable incremental stages, who are more advanced and points to the importance of culture, language, and context in the process of constructing knowledge. It is important that constructivist approaches are modeled so that they can be utilized by students in future learning situations (Kroll & LaBoskey, 1996). Players are able to learn at the pace they

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need because games have been created strategically by game companies to be user friendly and meet individual needs. As well, social interaction is often necessary in order to enjoy or succeed at the game. In these environments, learning does not seem like disconnected work with the purpose of future evaluation in the form of testing; rather the learning is scaffolded and connects with various needs of the learner. Video game creation as well as play demonstrates ways that technology can be used to enable and support social constructivist learning environments. Shaffer et al. (2005) argue that video games have the potential to change the landscape of education as we know it…beyond the traditional academic disciplines—derived from medieval scholarship and constituted within schools developed in the Industrial Revolution—and toward a new model of learning through meaningful activity. Students learn programming language, how software supports creative endeavours such as constructing an avatar, and applying rules to their avatar and to their game play. Learning is integrated into the process and not developed solely for a final assessment; assessment is occurring consistently for the video game producer. Just as knowledge is built into the video game avatars, weapons, and settings (Gee, 2005), video game design can be developed similarly as it is with Game Maker (http://www.yoyogames.com/; Game Maker Software, 1999-2007), a software package that includes tutorials to enable students to learn from multiple sources in independent and collaborative ways. Social networking was encouraged in the classroom where our study took place; the classroom teachers encouraged students to help each other, allowed students to examine video game code from various online sources, and guided students through problem solving in one-to-one contexts. Video game play and creation generally encourages and supports a community of learners in various ways, including face-to-face interactions,

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blogs, Web sites, and sharing of “cheats”. These processes are viewed as part of the video game player’s learning experience and are not dismissed as cheating, inappropriate behaviour, inability to complete every aspect of the activity on their own, or an unacceptable process for getting the specific outcome. Instead, students are determining their desired outcomes, within a guided setting, and through trial and error they become more aware and more articulate about their own learning needs—an essential ability in becoming life-long learners, a goal of most North American school mission statements. Squire (2005) noted that “game-based learning environments start with failure” (p. 3); students figure out how something works in the game by trying a hypothesis, testing it and determining what to do next based on that result. The recognition that failure is essential to meaningful learning contradicts many messages given to students about learning.

sociAl constructivism And schools Although video game play and creation offers exciting hope for enabling powerful, meaningful learning, most schools continue to be constructed on the “factory models of education where the goal is to efficiently produce standardized learners and, most importantly, sort students into those groups” (Squire, 2005, p. 4). Halverson (2005) argues that even when teachers create inspirational and meaningful game-based environments for their students, this instructional approach is seldom encouraged across school contexts, which Halverson implies is the responsibility of the educational leaders who can impede or encourage these critical and thoughtful learning spaces and practices. Gee (2005) refers to traditionalist educational approaches in contrast to socially constructed approaches, as “content fetish” and Freire (1995) calls it the banking model. Either metaphor

Video Game Creation as a Learning Experience for Teachers and Students

describes the practice of transferring content, information, facts, or opinions, not necessarily in a context, from teacher to students with the purpose of “filling up” the students’ knowledge base. Social constructivists believe that students come with meaningful background experiences and knowledge and that collaboratively and purposefully they construct new knowledge as needed within significant contexts. The shift between traditionalist philosophies of teaching and social constructivist philosophies of teaching are occurring because, explains de Castell and Jenson (2004), new media has empowered learners to seek out purposeful means of knowing and experiencing. They suggest that in the past schools have excelled at demanding and maintaining attention from their students through rules, fears, and positioning of the spaces in classrooms; however, teachers cannot provide or hand over all possible knowledge and learning, since knowledge and learning is composed of more than simply information being spoken or read. As Gee (2005) suggests, “knowledge is composed of ways of doing, being, and seeing” (p. 2) that media sources are enabling students to experience and from which they gain knowledge. Consequently, the potential for social constructivist learning through popular media texts such as video games is already occurring as de Castell and Jenson (2004) point out, where “this collision of the hitherto relatively disconnected spheres of education and entertainment has changed how both teachers and students can ‘do’ schooling” (p. 383).

sociAl constructivism, schools, And criticAl thinKing If social constructivist learning is already happening in many out-of-school contexts, how can teachers create vibrant and active learning spaces in classrooms and how will this affect

school-based learning that is measured by examinations and graduation requirements? Video game content, play, and computers in general can appear problematic if we observe them through the perspective of Freire’s banking model (1995) or Gee’s “content fetish” (2005), where learners are simply empty vessels who consume every piece of information without wonderment or questions. Students can learn in semiotic domains through video games that create new knowledge and skills and transform learning at a rapid pace (Gee, 2003); students come to the classroom with an already developed wealth of experience and knowledge about how the 21st century world of knowledge production and mobilization works. Hagood’s (2000) meta-analysis of studies that examine students’ out-of-school literacy practices reveal a clash with their in-school prescribed literacy activities. Alvermann and Hagood (2000) suggest that students need skills to develop critical perspectives of how “all texts (both print and non-print) position them as readers and viewers within different social, cultural, and historical contexts” (p. 193), thus enabling them to develop critical skills. School literacies as a broad definition (including music, hypertexts, drama, art, and video productions, etc.) need to be valued across curriculums so that students can engage in critical thinking and teachers can begin learning with their students as partners for future knowledge (Freire, 1995).

context In a high school with a population of approximately 1,300 students, two technology teachers chose to use video games as motivational entry points for students to learn the abstract concepts of computer programming. Paul had been teaching for five years and was teaching two classes of information technology to grades 9 and 10 during the year. Taryn had also been teaching for approximately five years and was teaching a class of program-

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ming to grade 11 and 12 students, and a class of information technology to grade 9 students. The programming 11 and 12 classes used the open source software program called Kid’s Programming Language (KPL) (http://www. kidsprogramminglanguage.com/; 2005-2007) that makes programming language more accessible and offers online support. These students created a variety of video games, for example, a lemonade stand simulation game. The information technology 9 and 10 classes used the open source software called Game Maker (http://www. yoyogames.com; 1999-2007) that has built-in programming language; using Game Maker, and the many tutorials included with the software, students were able to make a variety of types of video games. Initially, the students developed a conceptualization of their game, drawing from their extensive knowledge of the types of games that exist and recognition of their own limited capabilities in game design and creation. From their conceptualization (usually a puzzle or maze game, similar to Tetrus or PacMan types of games) they began to create their game space, including background, the characters they would use, and the levels that they would include in their game. They wrote code or imported it from other games they could find on the Internet, moving fluidly from creating to testing and back again. It was important that they determined whether the programming they had done actually worked, so there was considerable movement between the two spaces. The students’ ability and experience with video games and technology in both classes was quite diverse. Some students had rarely played video games, while others were considering careers in the video game industry. Approximately 80% of students in both classes were male. During a typical day, the bell rang and teenagers of all shapes and sizes came milling individually and in small groups into the air-conditioned, one windowed classroom, the computer hard

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drives humming away, awaiting a day of concentrated use. Paul, the teacher, sat behind the large computer monitor searching the network while Taryn, the other information technology teacher, explained to us how one of her very capable students was struggling to figure out an aspect of the video game software. Paul suggested searching the Internet to which she responded that she had already done that; Paul then picked up the new Game Maker manual and flipped through it. The bell had already rung in the background and most of the students were sitting in front of their computers with their various projects up on their screens. Paul and Taryn left the problem to be solved later in Taryn’s class (in fact, the student figured the problem out on his own during the beginning of that class), and Paul began assisting students whose names were listed on the front board for help. No “good morning class,” “announcements,” “this is what we are going to do today,” “please sit down and get to work.” Not your typical class beginning. Not your typical class.

Accessing the students’ KnoWledge Many methodological approaches were considered and attempted in this ethnographic case-based study as we tried to understand the students’ thinking and creating processes. We believe they are important to mention in this chapter because of the obstacles other researchers or educators might face as they try to examine the powerful learning that we now know to be occurring during video game production. Initially we drew from our own notes as observers in the classrooms, and our transcriptions of individual and focus group interviews with participants. However, in order to get at the rich knowledge and experience of the participants that did not surface in these data collection approaches, we began to use videotape to first capture the work that the participants were

Video Game Creation as a Learning Experience for Teachers and Students

doing in front of the computer screen, and then to play back to the participants so they could elaborate on their thinking processes from viewing their own activity. A typical description of one student’s hour and 20 minute class includes a range of activities and strategies for completing their video game projects and might look like the following: Open the last project they were working on in Game Maker. Test the game. Go back into the program and try to add or fix an aspect of the game. Test the game again. Add another dimension to the game (a new rule, sprite, setting, etc.) or continue to fix the part of the game that needs to be tweaked. After a few attempts, ask his friend nearby who will know and explain, or is unsure. If no sufficient answer is provided, locate and read the tutorial, browse through various instructions until the appropriate information is found. More attempts at the programming and more testing, until at last the solution has been found or he writes his name on the board for help from the teacher. While waiting for help and not knowing how long until the teacher reaches them, or if he will actually know a solution immediately, other aspects of the game creation will be worked on, or the particular problem will continue to be tested and figured out. Often the students have figured out the problem before the teacher is available to help them. Depending on the day, or the energy of the particular student, they might take a break and work on homework from another class, socialize with friends—usually in relation to their media creation (video game, photoshop, Web site, or flash animation)—or work on another project due for this class that they may have left unfinished from weeks ago. The knowledge sophistication and decision making is initially hidden from an observer during a class scenario such as this one. Observing students sitting at a computer screen reveals very

little beyond the technical/operational skills that they have acquired; they can click around the screen, they are reading icons, printed words, colours, and seem to be understanding to some degree of what they are reading, and viewing. We questioned, as we watched, the purpose of this operational knowledge. However, after two interviews with the students and videotaping them as they worked on creating their video games, the complexities involved in their video game creation and the student’s awareness of their learning process became much clearer. What we initially saw as “off-task” behaviour became understood as socially-constructed knowledge; flicking from one screen to another, to the Internet and back again, because understood as ways that their learning was transferring from one situation to another. The first interview with the student participants involved questions about their background experience with computers and video games, what they were learning while creating a video game, and how the learning in this class compared to other classes. The students’ answers were short and often the students seemed unsure about how to answer the questions. The next stage of examination of their learning involved videotaping the student sitting at their computer while they were working on their video game. Instead of interrupting the student while they were working, we waited until approximately 15 minutes of time had passed and then asked if we could interrupt to ask some questions. We then asked them to watch the 15 minute video clip of themselves working while we asked them clarifying questions about what they were doing, what choices they were making and why. This second interview revealed students who were knowledgeable, articulate, highly literate in programming, and able to think critically and creatively. In this interview and videotaping space we have been able to examine more closely the social constructivist learning that develops their literacy skills, social skills, and understanding of their own learning processes.

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WhAt students Are leArning through video gAme design The teachers involved in this study originally incorporated video game creation into their classrooms as a motivational strategy, to engage students more easily and to enable programming language to be more accessible. Over the last year, we have examined how incorporating video game creation into a classroom appeals to students for multiple reasons and in a variety of ways. In the learning environments created by the teacher participants, employing social constructivist principles, allowing for application of skills and knowledge from one context to another, and thinking in critically reflective ways, several themes have emerged. The students in these classes have opportunities to share ideas and problem-solving strategies with others, they feel empowered by creating something important to them, they experience the freedom to create something of their own, they progress in ways that can be suited to their own specific needs allowing them to draw on background knowledge, and the social or “cultural” (Green, 1997) environment is enhanced for them. The students’ interviews revealed that these aspects are indeed important to them and the development of their social skills, multi-literacy skills, and critical thinking skills demonstrate the potential of social constructivist classrooms.

social skills Despite fears that video games are isolating and anti-social activities, these types of technologies actually enable new interactions to occur between people in many ways. One adolescent we worked with shared his opinion that online communication was often easier for those people who were shyer and it can be a more comfortable way of communicating. Another participant explained that having online friends meant that he was not limited to only being with his school friends, many

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of whom hung out and did drugs. It seems, then, that video games and online communications have considerable social potential for many adolescents as an alternative to large busy high schools. In the information technology classrooms in which we were working, the social networking included students calling out to each other a few computers over, getting out of their seats to walk over to their friend’s computer and watching or playing a video game, going online to try out other video games or find code that others have created, or simply chatting about or looking at a peer’s computer screen beside them. On first glance, the students seemed to be off task; the teacher was not monitoring their conversations or standing up to oversee the entire classroom; rather, the teacher was sitting in front of an individual student’s computer screen listening and explaining instructions. However, upon closer examination and over time, we came to recognize that these interactions were a critical part of the learning and knowledge-making that continually occurred in this classroom. Out of necessity and out of interest, the students came to rely on each other for furthering their learning. Students were keen to ask for and to give advice to their peers and the most common answer to the interview question, “What’s been probably the most rewarding experience in making a video game?” was the peer feedback they received. For example, Carl’s response was “When you, like, get your friends to play them and they’re, like, ‘Ohhh, that’s a really awesome game,’ and stuff like that.” Another student, Matt, responded, “Watching other people play them…and then getting good feedback from them…and seeing what they really enjoy so that you can go out and make another game that’s even better.” Students also realized very quickly that their peers could be excellent support systems as they figured out how to code, or navigate the software program. One student, Leah, explained how she shifted from asking the teacher for assistance to instead asking her peers around her: “I prob-

Video Game Creation as a Learning Experience for Teachers and Students

ably ask people more now, ‘cause they know more…Yeah, ‘cause like sometimes, sometimes just like talking to people who are learning too helps. ‘Cause then you can all kind of figure it out together.” The social networking in the class also encouraged the students to be aware of their intended audience for their video games. Kate described the audience she had in mind: “If it’s [the video game] hard enough for them, like if it’s going to challenge them and they’re not going to get bored by it. Usually I compare it to Scott because he’s very smart, so I make it, is Scott going to get this, is it going to stump him.” The opportunity to have Internet access in the classroom has enabled students to use more than one source to find answers to their questions. The teacher becomes a facilitator of the learning that the students deem important to them during that classroom, and teachers can handle a class size of 25 because students can turn to their peers or the Internet. Matt explained how unconventional social networks helped to prepare him and other students to figure out what is expected from the video game field: I’ve found that actually looking at behind-thescenes games and reading about like developer diaries and stuff like that—that’s a good way to get to know it instead of just playing the game…yeah, you can read their [online] diaries and stuff about what they were doing and how it’s progressing. Finally, another grade 11 student, Rob, described his most rewarding experience from making video games: “Um, the people. I mean you meet a lot of people in the classes, get to know them better, help them out, they help you, yeah. You get to understand each other, the games, the teacher; you get help when it, when you need it.” These comments shed light on the critical and helpful role that peers can play in creating and working in a social constructivist environment. The students see themselves as contributors to the knowledge creation, and they view each other as

essential aspects to their own learning process. As educators we might have been conditioned to believe that classrooms need to be silent and still for productive learning to occur, but as these examples reveal, powerful learning occurs through discussion, movement, and online searching. Although these students were not explicitly taught how to support each other and contribute to knowledge construction, they were highly capable of figuring out and thriving in this environment. These social interactions also enabled the students to understand and be more articulate about how their own learning process happened.

learning transfers: multi-literacy skills Students we worked with were able to draw on skills they had learned in other contexts, notably literacy and mathematics, in order to make sense of their technological video game making tasks. And although students did not generally recognize the transfer of skills from one context or class to another, we observed them using these more traditionally practiced skills (reading, writing, problem-solving) to create their video games. There were a few recognizable literacy practices observed, such as students reading the semiotic signs on the computer screen or referring to the tutorials. Scott explained how he used expected literacy skills to try to figure out how to fix an aspect of his game. He transitioned between reading instructional steps within the programming, creating hypotheses, and then testing his hypotheses: So, ahh it’s still messed up, but now, yeah, I can look at the… there’s a big list of tons of things. I’ve searched down; I find the keyboard one and I go, ‘hmm that’s a blurb;’ I try to click on it to see if it tells me exactly what it does…it doesn’t. So, that’s great…that’s so great. I don’t have a clue what I’m doing here. I ahhh I shut my eyes I go, ‘ahh I don’t have a clue’…okay, so I go back to

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my guy and I look at a whole bunch of different steps and they all work and I’m trying to figure out why that worked and why this isn’t working. And I’m looking at going into each event and I’m opening stuff up and I’m ripping stuff apart and I’m throwing it all over the place putting it in my event trying to get this guy to stop, but he won’t stop. This problem-solving process is recognizable in constructivist science or math class. Scott demonstrated his ability to read and decode iconic symbols as well as alphabetic text, a skill that is of importance in programming and video game design. During the initial interviews, students were asked if they had ever made video games before this class, and quite a few students did have experience creating video games in their minds, as a script, as a board game, or editing existing games, creating machinimas, or creating mods (modified off-shoots of an existing game that can be played). One student, Carl, explained his background experience with editing that he drew on when creating video games in class: “I play a lot of computer games; I like to make them and edit them… if I can; it depends on if the people who put out the computer game will allow you edit it. So usually I put mods on the games and think about them.” Not only is transfer of schoolbased skills such as literacy and mathematics of importance; skill in video game playing is clearly of importance for designing and creating new video games. The students in this information technology class were engaged in a great deal of editing of a variety of types of texts as they created new games. The following two students gave examples of how mathematics skill is embedded within their process. Carl refers to the cultural and mathematical skills that are practiced as he created his own maze formatted video game: “…in each there’s bonus score things and then little cheats and stuff… and ahhh you got bonus points for

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collecting certain symbols or getting out.” Rob also referred to math knowledge several times during his interview: “I learned that it’s very difficult and that you have to know a lot of math. And uh, that’s been the tough part for me ‘cause I’m not really a completely math smart person. So, it’s like learning and relearning everything, so. But I’m getting better at it now.” Then again later in Rob’s interview, he made the connection between math and language again: “Yah, I didn’t know I had to know math and stuff, and uh, well, I knew I had to learn some math, but uh, nothing of a really higher grade than I expected. It’s kind of more difficult than I thought it would be.” The researcher then asked him which aspect was the most difficult and Rob responded, “Probably understanding the different languages you have to learn for each programming thing. And uh, certain words that you can use to make a program. Or, ones that don’t work.” Matt also commented, “I learned a lot more about programming, my knowledge of syntax and a whole bunch of programming languages have increased, definitely.” The interweaving of literacy, math, and technology reveals the complexity and interdisciplinary skills involved in video game production. Other transferable skills evident in their games included the writing, of both story and instructions, that students incorporated into their games. One example was provided when Rob described his characters and plot in his Pirates of the Caribbean rendition video game. Uh it’s a game for three people, you uh, can choose if you want to be like Jack Sparrow, Elizabeth Swan or William Turner…Uh, they’ve been captured by Captain Barbosa, and they have to, they’ve decided to make a game out of it, so they’re going to make them swab the decks of their ship, and the winner gets set free and the other two walk the plank. I made little characters for them and a wood deck and uh they go around and there’s moving like, mucks, too ‘cause it’s a phantom-like ship thing, and different kinds of

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messes everywhere and you collect points, you get more points for the moving ones, less points for the ones that stay still. Um, pretty easy controls, up down, left right, uh W, S, D, A. Like, down up and left right keys. Another example of recognizable skill transfer was the instructions that students incorporated into their games in order for someone else to be able to play their game. Terry explained how his instructions work: When you start the game the main menu will pop up and it’ll have the title of the game and it’ll have the “start game” and instructions. So you click “start game” and it goes through a list of different types of games you can play. If you click instructions it’ll go to a room that has umm all the different instructions for the game. What is important for educators is to realize the vast range of skills being practiced when technology is being used. Without first-hand experience with the technological tools there is a temptation for teachers to judge the activity or tool as not valuable or a waste of time; however, as these examples show, within a social constructivist classroom, the students are at various stages and various times integrating sophisticated knowledge and skills. Ideally, students would get an opportunity to see themselves as knowledgeable and well-rounded because of their awareness of these skills being identified.

critical thinking skills Many of our conversations with students revealed their self-knowledge and awareness of their own learning styles. As was explained in the methodology section, observing students facing computer screens did not give us much insight into what each student’s learning process might be and when we interrupted them to question their choices and their progress, we often interrupted

the very process they were engaging in. Therefore, interviewing students away from the computer screens was helpful, but also having them watch themselves work on their video games allowed them to speak about what was happening. We thought that students might struggle to articulate how they were learning or what process they experience as they learned about video games, but their interactions with each other appeared to allow them to compare learning styles. The various support texts (tutorials) enabled them to identify themselves as being a visual learner, or someone who prefers to figure out problems without a teacher’s assistance, or as multi-taskers—they liked to split their engagement between class work and other homework commitments during their information technology class. The following examples reveal the depth of understanding that the students had about their learning styles, pace, or processes. After observing Kate for awhile, we had noticed that she had a piece of paper beside her computer screen and most students did not have things beside them during class because their information mostly came from each other or the computer. When asked about how she works, Kate explained the relevance of the paper. “Well, I’m also thinking about my PE project that I have to do and also that I have to get this [video game] done by next Monday, so it’s like I have to focus and not like play around…That’s my PE project…Yeah, I was doing that; I was trying to start that at lunch [previous to this class].” Another female student named Laura also described how the classroom environment allowed her to monitor what kind of learning she required or which learning needed priority and when: I think most classes you have like a teacher standing over you and like teaching you and taking notes and all that so it’s definitely different because she just, we just come in and you start working…So, if you need like a kind of a lazier day ‘cause you’re tired or you know, you’ve been doing so much

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and you just want to relax a little, then it’s fine, but and then sometimes if you just sort of want to work you can do that. So it could be social if you wanted it to be, but I definitely try to work. Another student, Brent, described his friend’s video game design process in order to help explain how he himself works on a video game; he ended up acknowledging and viewing both of their processes as valid: It’s just kinda, I like making my games look fancier like I put more work into it. Scott’s kinda rushing his a little, but not really ‘cause he’s working on the levels, so he’s doing it very well, but he’s kind of working on all the stuff and then fixing how the details afterwards so…that’s a good way to do it too. Scott, another grade 9 student, was very capable and was able to describe and explain much of his thinking process as the video displayed him working away on his video game: I’m going…“please work”’ I’m actually not realizing my hands are in the wrong position so one of my guys is going to start shooting, not that you can see it but ahh my right hand’s in the wrong position and I just died. Now I’m all…Yeah and so I was like awww crap. I don’t know what I’m gonna do. I think Daren’s [his friend] going to come over soon and try to help me out here but he can’t do anything so ahh yeah I’m still trying to figure this out…I go right back into code…actually, I think now I go and look at variables soon to go and see if I can type something down on the keyboard that the computer will understand instead of the game...‘Cause maybe the game is messing up but the computer will be able to understand my variables. So that’s typing down keyboard underscore and then the key that I want if it’s being pressed; oh no if it’s not being pressed to stop and that doesn’t work.

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When asked how he learned how to figure out how to understand the software, Scott answered, “Troubleshooting alllll over the place…Actually there was tutorials at the beginning that taught us some basics, but pretty much we teach ourselves.” Terry, another student, also explained how his learning began before the course, but that this IT course also offered further learning: “Just experience. I’ve spent a lot of time around computers and you just learn things eventually…That and ahhh use tutorials and stuff…they tell you lots of things.” Kate also confirmed that her learning process is similar in that she recognized the need to problem solve as she learns; she explained what she was working on in her video game here: Yeah, that was an accident. There was a lot of screw-ups in this, like if you get it wrong you’re going to get it wrong a lot in making games and stuff so I just have to restart or fix it up…because like that’s how it is. You’re going to make mistakes because nothing’s going to work perfect the first time. And so if you make a mistake then you just fix it after or you just fix it then I don’t know… Matt was very aware of how engrossing the process was for him and although he was passionate and fully engaged, he appeared to perceive his learning process in a negative way; he explained that he needed to stop himself sometimes in case he lost track of too much time: “Sometimes I get caught up in it so I won’t leave my room or I just keep programming…and I just lose touch with the real world…it’s probably one of the negative sides…yeah so then like you have to go outside and stop.” However, Matt later explained how impressed he was with the learning that occurred for him during video game programming: “I like the hands on learning…the fact that I can sit at the computer and actually make a game instead of just reading about it in a book…that’s really good.” These contradictions between immersive learning

Video Game Creation as a Learning Experience for Teachers and Students

being viewed as negative and yet felt as positive reveal the complexities that occur in learning as expected in a school environment and learning as it occurs in the lives of our participants. Video games have been blamed for drawing players into the system and distracting them from “real life”. As students move from being simply consumers of video games to producers of video games we began to see the same engagement that we might wish we saw with adolescents in other classroom settings. As we begin to value the sophisticated learning occurring with video game creation in a lab setting and the highly complicated knowledge and skills they demonstrate in order to complete a product of significance for them, we can begin to question how these learning practices can be incorporated and supported in other learning environments.

imPlicAtions The findings of this study suggest some significant implications for ways that educators think about and utilize video games. First, social constructivist theory speaks to the ways in which classroom learning environments need to be developed. The traditional rows of students working individually do not provide opportunities to work collaboratively, to share their expertise, and to develop collective knowledge and understandings. It is evident from this study that classrooms need to be shaped in ways conducive to learning with new technologies. Even though educators are aware of theoretical reasons for encouraging collaboration, providing scaffolding in their lessons, and connecting learning to relevant aspects of students’ lives, very few schools are able to create a developed social constructivist approach to learning across the entire school because of the political, economic, and philosophical expectations that promote traditional and ongoing notions of “schooling”. Technology, when used aptly in innovative ways, can enable powerful learning

environments to develop despite the limitations teachers often feel. A second implication of this study correlates to the importance of being able to transfer learning from one context to another and the need for teachers to make transfer an explicit outcome of their courses. Students in our study articulated the powerful learning they were engaging in during interviews about their experiences in creating video games. Their ability to create working video games for themselves demonstrated their ability to transfer knowledge in one domain (e.g., mathematics problem-solving, story creation, application of rules) to another situation. This transfer enabled reinforcement of learning that suggested to them the importance of the concepts and skills they were learning. Additionally, the learning they were doing in outof-school experiences, such as using video game “cheats”, using the Internet, playing MMORGS, also provided models for them to transfer knowledge from one context to another. The teachers, too, were able to articulate their own conceptions of learning and they recognized and reflected on their teaching purposes and conceptions for these courses. However, the social constructivist notions that were foundational in the instructional technology courses did not transfer into other courses that the same teachers were doing, for example, mathematics and science. They need to explicitly articulate their conceptual understandings of learning and teaching in order to recognize it as a basis for all learning, not just that with a technology focus. We argue that adolescents and teachers need to be listened to; without the opportunity to express themselves and reflect on what learning is important to them—both students and teachers—we miss opportunities to embrace and support powerful learning. A further implication of this study relates to the need for recognizing students’ ability and potential, capable of constructing meaning from the knowledge and environment around them. Teachers need to challenge traditionalist educational approaches or “content fetishes” as

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they engage with powerful technology applications such as video game design and creation. Further, classrooms need to provide opportunities for students to recognize and value learning processes as well as products. Although we will never be able to teach students all the information or knowledge they will need to progress through their lives, we can teach them how to access and make sense of new information. As we explore the potentials of video game creation in the classroom we need to ask ourselves if and how these learning engagements in school are helping our students prepare for life-long learning beyond the school years. How closely are school based learning and real-world learning aligned? How can we make the connections more closely linked? Although it would be easy to make gendered assumptions about technology learning and engagement with video games, a final implication relates to the impact of gender on learning about and through video games. If, as seen in this study and as many have suggested, video games are more appealing and accessible to males, we need to consider how this will impact future careers and engagement in learning for females. Will they once again be ignored as males dominate video game spaces and all that is connected to these spaces? A final implication relates to the preparation and education programs for future teachers. We see a great need for new teachers to be gaining experience with various technologies and learning how to deconstruct these texts. Understanding the learning which adolescents are engaging in outside of school is critical to making school learning relevant, challenging, and meaningful. We need teachers and parents to feel confident to create spaces for thoughtful conversations to occur around video game ideologies, ideologies that are often embedded in many “real-world” contexts as well: competition, violence, gender roles, war, relationships, communication, power, and so forth. Our hope is that students will be guided

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to critique these issues and create their own texts (video games, stories, poems, brochures, zines, plays, websites, comics, etc.) in which they can disrupt these societal values and practices, encouraging their audiences to question the hegemonic, dominant values and beliefs of society.

conclusion First impressions of a social constructivist learning environment can make some educators feel uncomfortable; however, as this study reveals, critical, sophisticated learning occurs in a classroom where students are empowered to practice interdisciplinary skills, value and support peers as resources, and try out various learning processes until they find what works best for them. The information technology class, as an elective and a classroom full of computers, appears to be an ideal setting to enable these social constructivist practices; the challenge for educators is to create spaces within their other disciplines for multi-literacies to be valued, peers and multiple resources to be acknowledged, and opportunities for students to articulate the various ways of learning they need. In these ways, students will become more likely to become confident engaged life-long learners rather than consumers full of others’ ideas. Video game creation has proven to encourage a powerful learning environment, a chance for students to produce rather than simply consume; a means to learning more about themselves and their peers, and a way for teachers to move into an authentic facilitator role.

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Shaffer, D. W., Squire, K. R., Halverson, R., & Gee, J. P. (2005). Video games and the future of learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(2), 104-111. Squire, K. (2005). What happens when video games enter the classroom? Innovate. Journal of Online Education, 1(6), 1-7. Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and language. Trans. Alex Kozulin,. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Winnicott, D. W. (2005). Playing and reality. London: Routledge. Wolf, M., & Perron, B. (2003). The video game theory reader. New York: Routledge. Yeo, M. (2007). Teacher conceptualizations and con(texts) of language and literacy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Victoria.

Key terms Content Fetish: James Gee’s term for the traditional practice of schools to separate subject areas in school and assign definitive content to each subject area that can then enable knowledge and knowing to be evaluated in a standardized test. Cultural Literacy Dimensions: Competence with the meaning system of literacy as social practice. Critical Literacy Dimensions: Awareness that all social practices, and thus all literacies, are socially constructed and “selective”. Machinima: Artistic films created using video game tools such as characters, weapons, and environments.

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Mod: Video game modifications that video game players can make to some computer games that include adding new weapons, characters, or even entire new environments or story lines. Multi-Literacy: A term used by the New London Group (1996) to review the complexities of literacy so to recognize and value the various ways of meaning making (reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, representing) and to be aware of how meaning moves between cultural and linguistic contexts. Operational, Cultural, and Critical Aspects of Literacy: Green’s (1997) theory of the three domains of literacy practices: Operational Literacy Domain: Basic competence with the skills of reading and writing. Recognizable Literacy Practices: Traditional literacy practices are understood to be mostly reading with some writing practiced, and literature to be the most referenced texts. Scaffolding: Support offered to a learner to build their skills and confidence to have them become competent at one stage and ready to move onto the next stage. Scaffolding can be in the form of teacher modeling, texts, guidance, or feedback. Social Constructivist Learning: Theory that meaningful learning is constructed in social contexts because knowledge and knowing exists within individuals (past experiences, cultures, and beliefs) and continues to be co-created through social interactions. Socio-Political Critical Thinking: Consideration of the complexities of issues in light of social, economic, political, racial, religious, gendered perspectives.

Section VIII

The Future of Educational Gaming

Each of the chapters in this book includes implications for research, policy, and practice. In describing their research or their syntheses, the authors directly or indirectly address future trends and issues with educational gaming. I invited four authors to directly address the question of ‘what’s next?’ This section of the book contains insight into what might be the short-term and long-term future of educational gaming. Magerko focuses on the future of educational gaming by looking at the current advantages of real-world education that are thus far lacking in educational games. Squire discusses emerging trends by examining the game as a new medium; he suggests that educators interested in gaming must take advantage of the uniqueness of the new medium. DeMaria presents a direction he hopes the industry could take, a direction he calls the ‘positive impact model.’ Finally, Harms, using his work on the dangers of Internet and computer-based education, addresses the concerns game makers and educators need to face in integrating educational gaming. The purpose of this section is to provide readers with insight on the short-term and long-term future of educational gaming. It is also to remind readers that there is tremendous potential in the use of educational gaming, but our future must not be approached haphazardly.

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Chapter LXXIII

The Future of Digital Game-Based Learning Brian Magerko Georgia Institute of Technology, USA

AbstrAct This chapter discusses the potential future of games for learning through the lens of current advantages of real-world education that are thus far lacking in educational games. It focuses on four main facets of the real-world educational experience: adapting content to an individual student, the rigorous evaluation of educational media, the ease of modification of educational games, and the application of games to new domains and teaching techniques. The chapter then suggests how we as designers and developers can make strides towards incorporating these lacking elements into how we build and use educational games. The author hopes that this discussion can be used to foster discussion about where the field could be and should be going in the near future.

introduction Here we are at the edge of the frontier. The serious games movement has gained momentum by leaps and bounds in the past decade. The Serious Games Initiative has helped foster a community of academics and industry designers interested in combining game design with educational

techniques to create digital game-based learning experiences. New school curriculums have been funded by the MacArthur Foundation that focus heavily on employing games for learning (Barab et al., in press; Chaplin, 2007). We are coming into our own as a community as games for learning gain slow acceptance from funding agencies, the education community, and the

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general public. As we learn more about how to build educational games that are well designed, we should also reflect on the current state of affairs and ask ourselves, “What is missing?” or more specifically, “What aspects of proven real-world educational experiences are we currently lacking in educational games?” Once we come to some answers to this question, we then finally need to ask, “What can we do about it in the future to maximize the potential of games as a medium for learning?” The first aspect of real-world education missing in educational games thus far is individualized adaptation to focus a digital game-based learning experience on a particular student’s needs. Students in a traditional classroom have varied learning styles that require different teaching techniques for them to effectively comprehend the material (Felder & Silverman, 1988; Riding & Sadler-Smith, 1997) (e.g., presenting a physics lesson in lecture by giving the formula and examples, then going into the lab and letting students physically play around with the principles covered). Educational games are typically not designed to attack a learning problem in this kind of multidimensional model. They are instead designed as a typical entertainment game is, aiming for a single design for a rough population of users (e.g., 10th -12th graders). In an ideal learning situation, students get their individual needs met in small classrooms or one-on-one teaching or tutoring sessions. Students perform significantly better when given this kind of attention compared to general classroom learning alone (Bloom, 1984; Cohen, Kulik, & Kulik, 1982). The educational games community has started to look at how intelligent tutoring system (ITS) technology, which provides some of the positive results of real-life human tutoring, can be employed to monitor student aptitude in a game and select material to address learning needs (Gomez-Martin, Gomez-Martin, & Gonzalez-Calero, 2004; Johnson, Vilhjálmsson, & Marsella, 2005; Van Eck, in press). The defining

feature of an ITS is that it carefully oversees a learner’s work on problems to provide needed guidance and content selection. An ITS models the actions and interventions of a human tutor, which is the most effective means of instruction (Bloom, 1984). ITSs identify the need for instructional interventions by comparing a model of expert performance with a model of the learner’s performance (Koedinger, Anderson, Hadley, & Mark, 1997). ITSs traditionally employ a model trace, which is a fine-grained cognitive model designed to identify what strategies a student is employing to solve a problem. When the student is having trouble arriving at the correct answer, the systems can use the model trace to identify specifically what is wrong with the strategy being employed and what is the student proficiency in the various topics being taught and select content to address student deficiencies in that content. We as researchers have taken the initial steps to identify the need of individualized teaching in games and a usable technology that can help address that need. Games have already employed intelligent tutoring systems to teach such topics as language (Johnson et al., 2005), computer programming (Gomez-Martin et al., 2004), and interpersonal and intercultural skills (Lane, Core, Gomboc, Karnavat, & Rosenberg, 2007). However, is the traditional ITS model of providing individualized guidance and selecting content as far as we can go? Educational games can expose the student to educational content in both a declarative manner (i.e., presenting text or graphics that communicate some learning concept), as ITS systems typically do, and a procedural manner (i.e., through the act of employing game mechanics to change the game world in some meaningful way). There is a rich future in exploring how we can take advantage of adapting both the declarative and procedural content of games to provide a game experience that is tailored to an individual’s needs along a series of dimensions, not just the typical ITS adaptation of declarative content. The second aspect of real-world education to

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address is the benefits of public acceptance of teaching techniques and methods for classroom instruction. Lectures, workbooks, reading, and writing assignments, role-play exercises, and so forth, all are generally accepted parts of training exercises and classroom education. Using computer games is still on the fringe in terms of public acceptance and more importantly in terms of broad integration with classroom and training curricula. Gaining broader acceptance is a desirable goal we must reach in order to maximize the potential and use of games for learning. Intelligent tutoring systems, such as the algebra tutors from Carnegie Mellon University, are examples of digital-based learning that have found their way into classrooms, industry training systems, and military applications (Koedinger et al., 1997). The main reason this approach has had success is that they have successfully proven the techniques of model and knowledge tracing through both rigorous lab experimentation as well as through case studies in classroom environments. Simply put, they have shown that students learn better with their technology. We as a community seem to put much more focus on the fact that our creations exist compared to showing how incredibly useful what we have created is. Piece-meal evaluations of some games are done, but we have yet to cross that threshold into broad use by showing with large-scale evaluations that games/designs/technologies can guarantee improvements in student learning. Third, part of integrating with classrooms and other forms of education is how easily educators can adapt/modify/instantiate technologies to fit their classroom’s needs. A typical educational game that is built is typically standalone. If someone wants to modify it, they go back to the game company, if at all. User-created content is rarely a function of the design. Unlike the entertainment industry, the educational game industry rarely supports “mod communities” or authoring tools for educators to create or augment games they use. There are some counter examples, such as

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MIT’s Scratch (Peppler & Kafai, 2007) or the Scribe authoring tool (discussed next) that accompanies the Interactive Story Architecture for Training (ISAT) (Medler & Magerko, 2006). However, these examples are easily in the minority. In order for educational games to gain wide usage, putting authorship into the hands of the students and educators using the technology seems imperative. Finally, the last aspect of education in the real-world that has yet to transfer into the realm of educational games is the plethora of learning domains that have yet gone untouched. Digital games are not used to teach good acting skills, jazz improvisation, or how to analyze fiction—why? Is the barrier that these kinds of games are simply more difficult to design? Are there technological barriers to creating certain kinds of games that make it currently impossible to do them well or at all? Are educational games just not suitable for these and other domains? Games are good at involving students in a procedural experience that they learn from. Is the problem that we don’t understand the process of some domains (e.g., jazz improvisation) well enough to appropriately model them on the computer? Understanding the answers to these questions will go a long way to understanding just how far reaching the potential of this educational medium is. Along with identifying new domains for games, we can also focus on using games in different ways for teaching, such as building games—as opposed to playing them—as an educational exercise. For example, Grade 10 students in Alberta have used Neverwinter Nights for learning the basics of writing stories (Carbonaro et al., 2005). Students in Austria have used building games to research many topics, from the fine arts to medicine (Pivec & Kearney, 2007). The Global Kids organization had involved urban youth in building games to learn about issues with poverty (Ua’Siaghai & Joseph, 2006). Building games inherently teaches good teamwork skills, technology literacy, brainstorming skills, and time

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management. These skills alone are important for students to have as they enter the workforce or go on to advanced degrees in their studies. Beyond the intrinsic lessons of building games, games are potentially a positive and engaging medium for representing models on various topics of study. The integration of games in many different courses of study seems likely to be a big part of the future of games for learning.

hoW cAn We get there? Adaptation Good design and the smart use of artificial intelligence techniques, such as using intelligent tutoring techniques for guidance and selection of content, are essential to providing game experiences that provide an individualized experience for a student. The key concept to consider is that while intelligent tutoring systems only adapt declarative knowledge in an educational experience (e.g., tutoring guidance or selected lessons) for certain kinds of domains, educational games can adapt the procedural content as well as the declarative content. Game players literally learn by playing the game (Gee, 2003). The mechanics of a game afford how the player can affect the game world (e.g., jumping across difficult chasms, shooting numbers with a blaster, or aiming a virtual fire hose at the right location to quell a raging fire). If different people learn in different ways and like to play games for different reasons (Bartle, 1996), why not adapt the actual mechanics of the game as well as the declarative content to provide an experience that suits a particular student? Games have the enticing potential to identify key characteristics of the student that directly relate to the learning effectiveness of the gaming experience, such as: student knowledge (e.g., model and knowledge tracing), which is already used in some systems; the student’s learning style

(Carver, Howard, & Lane, 1999); the student’s play style; social interactions with non-player characters (NPCs) and other human players; and the student’s involvement as a character in a dramatic experience. The following sections describe two prototype systems in different stages of early development that adapt to player input in an attempt to tailor the learning experience. The first system, S.C.R.U.B., adapts game content based on player learning style and play style. The second, the Interactive Story Architecture for Training (ISAT), places the player in a dramatic scenario that provides in-game feedback and selects, adapts, and refines story content based on both the player’s dramatic and pedagogical need.

S.C.R.U.B. As part of a collaboration between the Experimental Game Lab (EGL) at the Georgia Institute of Technology and the Games for Entertainment and Learning (GEL) Lab at Michigan State University, we are currently developing a prototype game called S.C.R.U.B. (Super Covert Removal of Unwanted Bacteria), an exemplar adaptive digital game-based learning experience that teaches about anti-bacterial resistant microbe evolution and transmission set within a hospital. S.C.R.U.B. is designed to be a collection of mini-games that address different facets of microbe evolution and transmission, such as how hand washing with different materials affects microbes on the hands, how microbes can quickly adapt to antibiotics used incorrectly, and how microbes can easily transfer from surface to surface through physical contact. Figure 1 is a screenshot from the first mini-game under development, which teaches about hand washing techniques by giving students the opportunity to see what happens when soap is applied to the skin at the microscopic level. Students can select soap, anti-bacterial soap, or alcohol-based cleanser to

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Figure 1. Screenshot from S.C.R.U.B. mini-game

“shoot” at the microbes. The different effects of each are visualized (e.g., normal soap “sticks” to microbes until they are washed away and “sticks” to water molecules to be washed away). S.C.R.U.B.s main research foci are: a.

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The creation of a game that can adapt during play to become an ideal educational game experience for different student learning and playing styles. This addresses a principle already well known in the education community: not everyone learns the same way. The “one way to teach fits all” strategy to education suits the constraints of a classroom with 30 students, but it fails to meet the needs of every student (Bloom, 1984; Cohen et al., 1982). The philosophy behind S.C.R.U.B.s design is that people learn and play in different ways. Games can recognize and accommodate these differences.

b.

c.

Mini-games are both selected and adapted to these differences. The dynamic identification of student learning style and play style during play to let the game know how to optimize the experience for each individual player-learner. Our current work addresses four player-learner styles, derived from reviews of the literature on learning styles and play styles (Bartle, 1996; Kolb, 1984). Individuals are classified along two axes—motivation (intrinsic versus extrinsic) and cognition (reflective versus active). Each quadrant has significant implications for preferred learning and play style in a game. The design of the educational game itself, which is a significant contribution to the growing body of design research in serious games. We are exploring how to appropriately represent the interactions in

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the microbial domain that severely impact human and societal health. We seek to convey these intersecting domains in a manner that vividly and effectively communicates the processes of how MRSA (methicillinresistant staphylococcus aureus) becomes resistant, how it is transmitted, and steps to prevent transmission. This challenge brings together art, science, medicine, game design,

and learner cognition. Solutions will inspire and inform other science games that need to incorporate micro- and macro-interactions. The current hand washing mini-game employs exemplar adaptations that reflect the general design and intent of S.C.R.U.B. Students are identified in a pre-test as one of four different learning

Extrinsic (Achiever)

Intrinsic (Explorer)

Reflective

- Use tutorial (player would like to see what is coming and have time to prepare) - Unlimited Resources (though this player is fueled by extrinsic values, the need to acquire resources may hinder their ability to reflect on how and why resources work in different situations.) - Static UI (the player is mainly fueled by achievements, which score and time are key, and so would have no need to get rid of them.) - Score (part of Static UI) - Timer (part of Static UI) - Pause button (to allow the player to pause and reflect on the situation) - Buffs (Score based) (part of achieving, while they have unlimited resources, getting extra points or abilities are still achievements) - Information stops game play (for reflection, they want to have time to see the content) - Receive points for information gathering (while they may want to reflect on the content they would also like to receive some achievement for how much content they have experienced) - Levels - provide content and points (levels in the game give an educational value, how different layers of the skin react to washing)

- Use tutorial (player would like to see what is coming and have time to prepare) - Unlimited resources (the need to acquire resources will hinder their ability to reflect on how and why resources work in different situations.) - Modifiable UI (to view score) (does not need to see score or time to enjoy the game, but may choose to, for exploring purposes) - Pause button (to allow the player to pause and reflect on the situation) - Buffs (Unique abilities) (part of exploring, they want to find new abilities that they can use to find and make sense of content) - Information stops game play (for reflection, they want to have time to see the content) - Ability to watch game instead (they are not fueled by achieving, or actively participating in the game, and wish to learn the information and have time to figure problems out on their own. - Levels provide content (levels in the game give an educational value, how different layers of the skin react to washing)

Active

Table 1. Initial mapping of hand washing adaptations to player learning style

- No tutorial (players wish to jump right in, they want to learn by doing not by being told) - Limited resources (they need to achieve and be active in their performance, so they need to be challenged on how they manage their resources) - Static UI (the player is mainly fueled by achievements, which score and time are key, and so would have no need to get rid of them.) - Score (part of Static UI) - Timer (part of Static UI) - Buffs (Score based) (part of achieving, while they have unlimited resources, getting extra points or abilities are still achievements) - Information separate from game play (they do not necessarily care too much about finding learning content and just wish to experience the game. The content is placed elsewhere for them to access.) - Levels provide points (levels are seen as achievements, higher level means the player feels they are doing better)

- No tutorial (players wish to jump right in, they want to learn by doing not by being told) - Unlimited resources (the need to acquire resources will hinder their ability to explore how and why resources work in different situations.) - Modifiable UI (to view score) (does not need to see score or time to enjoy the game, but may choose too, for exploring purposes) - Buffs (Unique abilities) (part of exploring, they want to find new abilities that they can use to find and make sense of content) - Information available during game play (play continues) (they are interested in learning the content but want to experience on their own terms and not have it pushed on them) - Levels provide content (levels in the game give an educational value, how different layers of the skin react to washing)

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types based on dimensions identified in Kolb’s research on student learning styles. Those learning styles are also mapped to the relevant Bartle play styles (1996). Both models were selected for their ease of use and broad acceptance in their respective communities. Students are identified in the processing dimension along a spectrum of how active or reflective they are in regards to preferring active experimentation or reflective observation. In the motivation dimension, they are identified as to how much they seek extrinsic rewards (e.g., getting an item in a game) versus intrinsic rewards (e.g., satisfaction from exploring a game world). The concept of extrinsic and intrinsic learners maps very closely with Bartle’s player types of “achievers” (players who try to accomplish concrete goals set up by the game) and “explorers” (players who get fulfillment from exploring the details and boundaries of the game world). Game content and mechanics are then selected based on which combination of styles (e.g., reflectiveintrinsic) best suits them. Table 1 displays the current mapping (which is subject to change based on play testing) being employed in the hand washing mini-game. For example, intrinsic-active learners prefer to actively experiment for the sake of internal rewards (i.e., explore for the sake of learning as opposed to the goal of getting a high score). Therefore, informational pop-ups that convey related facts to microbe transmission are available during game play while play continues. They are given the chance to absorb information in real-time (as opposed to stopping and reviewing/reflecting on information) and to learn within the gaming experience as opposed to separately. This adaptation of game mechanics and content directly reflects the hypothesis that games can mirror the kinds of pedagogical adaptations seen in real-life teaching situations beyond the traditional ITS model. Future iterations of the design and development will map learning styles and play-style preferences together to address both

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how students learn best and how they like playing. We will conduct evaluations of this hypothesis with the initial hand washing mini-game in the near future, once the prototype is mature and thoroughly playtested.

the interactive story Architecture for training (isAt) The field of interactive story (also called “interactive drama” or “interactive narrative”) attempts to provide dramatic experiences typically that involve the player as a main character in an unfolding story within a game world. Per Chris Crawford’s definition of interactivity, an interactive story system observes player inputs (e.g., flirting with an NPC, grabbing an important item, or yelling incoherently in a public market), thinks about how to respond (e.g., flirting back with the character), and performs an action in response (Crawford, 2004). Mateas and Stern’s Façade (2003) is an oftcited work that is arguably the first if not the most polished full-fledged interactive story experience. New systems have begun to integrate techniques in interactive story into approaches to training, such as employing a “drama manager” intelligent agent to coordinate the behavior of NPCs in response to both player actions and pre-authored or generated story content (Magerko, Stensrud, & Holt, 2006; Riedl & Stern, 2006). While it is still unclear whether or not the interactive story is a viable medium for entertainment, it is much clearer how the problems addressed in the field are similar to those seen in interactive training. Both are concerned with presenting an interactive experience to the player in a virtual world. Both have author-specified content that the system presents to the player. Both have a tension between interactivity and authorship—that is, the player wants to have control in how the story develops, as does the author of the story or learning scenario. However, in the interactive story, the primary goal is providing an engaging experience to the player (having fun)

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while in interactive training the main goal is usually having the student learn how to apply some knowledge or demonstrate a skill. “Fun” may be a goal (if a learning experience is enjoyable the student is likely to participate enthusiastically and frequently) but is usually subsidiary to the learning goal. There is not only story (or scenario) content that is authored and given as an input to the system, but there is the additional constraint to be sure that the player experiences that content, while still providing an interactive experience. The implication of this desire is that there is a weaker, though still existent, connection between player choice and the resulting experience. In an interactive story system, we can imagine a boundless world, where a vast amount of novel and interesting stories is possible based on the choices we make. In contrast, an interactive trainer is built to teach a particular set of principles, skills, or information. These requirements bias the experience to lean toward making sure the desired skills/knowledge/and so forth is taught and/or tested. The Interactive Story Architecture for Training (ISAT) is an approach to training that combines aspects of intelligent tutoring systems and interactive story to provide a learning experience that adapts content based on both pedagogical and dramatic concepts. ISAT employs an intelligent director (or drama manager) that coordinates the behaviors of the NPCs (i.e., gives them new goals to fulfill or actions to execute) based on a preauthored learning scenario and the actions that the student executes in the environment. ISAT is currently instantiated in a combat medic trainer (called the tactical combat care trainer) (Magerko, Stensrud, & Holt, 2006) but is designed to be appropriate for process-based learning content where students learn how to select and execute appropriate actions in the real world (as opposed to more abstract learning topics, such as physics or programming). The director takes pre-authored scenario as an input from a human trainer that details the story

content and the skills taught/tested within that content. The player is allowed to move through the story as they wish. If they go off path of what has been scripted, the director alters the story world to try and bring the player “back on course” (e.g., having the staff sergeant yell “Hey, we need a medic over to stay with his squad. Get over here!”). If the student is having particular difficulty with the learning content, the director employs in-environment scaffolding and fading effects through directing NPC behaviors. For example, if the trainee has just started learning how to be a medic and doesn’t show aptitude in how to prioritize which casualties to aid first, the director may give heavy-handed feedback from a nearby soldier (“Go treat the burn victim first! What are you doing??”). As the trainee gains proficiency, the aid fades in severity (e.g., the burn victim only yells loudly to get the trainee’s attention as opposed to the trainee being directly told to treat the burn victim). The director also selects which authored story events (called plot points) should happen next based on both what skills they address and what the director’s skill model of the player reflects in terms of teaching needs. For example, if the trainee is particularly bad at applying tourniquets, a plot point may be selected that creates a situation where tourniquets are needed (e.g., an explosion in a courtyard). Selection of plot points is also based on dramatic relevance—more “tense” plot points are chosen as the experience moves to or away from a climax. The director is also designed to fill in the details of plot points to reflect the specific dramatic choices a student has taken, but instantiation of plot content has yet to be developed. ISAT provides an adaptive experience that alters both narrative and pedagogical guidance based on its model of the student. S.C.R.U.B. alters what mini-games are selected and how they work depended on a model of the player’s play and learning preferences. These systems are prototype exemplars that hint at the promise of

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how intelligent game adaptation can help define the effectiveness and quality of engagement of educational games of the future.

Evaluation The single most important thing that we as a community can do to broaden the acceptance and usage of digital game-based education is to work with educational systems, both in terms of schools and industries, to perform rigorous evaluations of our games in classrooms where the proverbial rubber hits the road. Evaluations like these will improve the overall quality of work in our field as well as encourage a shift in public perception of the potential of games as an educational medium. The medical and military domains have already taken the first step in this regard, employing games in training facilities and military installations. The catch, of course, of doing such evaluations is that there is a fuzzy line between evaluating games as an approach and evaluating the quality of games. Using game technology does not instantly equal a good learning experience. The fuzzy arts of game design and educational design make it difficult to make broad claims about an approach. In contrast, intelligent tutoring systems have well-defined processes for building their components—they are much more technologydriven (e.g., building an accurate student and expert models or new approaches to intelligent guidance) than design-driven and therefore easier to evaluate. This is all the more reason for us to focus compulsively on evaluating the games we build and not easily accepting games that have not been evaluated. Educators/psychologists/trainers do not typically adopt teaching methods en masse without firm theoretical and experimental foundations; they tend to use what they know works. Our community can be equally as particular if we decide to be. For example, the prototype systems mentioned earlier, S.C.R.U.B. and ISAT should not

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be considered successes until they are experimentally shown to work. If we focus on not only the production of systems, but the quality evaluation of those systems, we are only doing ourselves a favor in terms of showing us and outsiders what works and what does not. Show that our games are “engaging” and effective, and educational games will have an even stronger story to tell.

Authoring Tools As mentioned earlier, languages and environments, such as Scratch and Alice, have been developed to make it easier for non-programming students and educators to make (normally fairly simple) games. However, the field has focused far less on making educational games modifiable for educators and students alike. In conjunction with the points made earlier about the future of educational games, authoring tools for educational games may make a significant impact on their adoption and ease of use in traditional educational settings. The advancement of educational games in terms of authoring tools requires the forward thinking to develop authoring environments that do not require programming skills to create/edit game content. For example, the ScriptEase authoring tool developed at the University of Alberta (Carbonaro et al., 2005) allows users who have never created a game before to create a Neverwinter Nights plot solely by using a menudriven experience. Though not specifically for an educational serious game, the design of this tool is an important lesson in usability for nonprogrammer users. A more relevant example to the educational game domain is the Scribe authoring tool created for ISAT (Medler & Magerko, 2006). Scribe is a tool that is designed specifically for trainers to be able to encode training scenario content for an ISAT-controlled interactive story. Given the same game world, art assets, and so forth, an educator can use Scribe to encode varied training scenarios

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that teach/test the specific principles that they wish. Scribe has three editing modes: element placement mode, story creation, and debugging. Element placement mode (as shown in Figure 2) offers the user a 2.5D representation of the physical environment. The user can instantiate the different physical elements used in the scenario (e.g., characters, objects, spawn points, and “zones” that describe regions) and edit their properties. This authoring mode acts as a “virtual dollhouse” where the user can configure the world and then use story creation mode to capture the dollhouse’s configuration as conditions and actions for an event that is to occur in the scenario. Debugging mode, which is still in design, is intended to give the user an opportunity to rapidly play through the story and director actions without working directly in the game environment. The ISAT director is connected to Scribe and then queried with various game world configurations to see: (a) what

the director would do in that situation and (b) if the story plays out as intended by the user. This tool allows an educator with no programming background to visually author new content for an interactive training environment shipped with the ISAT architecture. The intention of this design is to avoid the back and forth between subject matter experts (or educators) and developers that can take place when scenarios need to be developed or modified. The addition of these kinds of tools to educational games, though expensive to include, may increase the longevity and usefulness of the games that we create. Mod communities in the entertainment game realm give us an extreme example of what is possible if you allow users to modify the games that we create. For example, a mod community first developed the wildly popular game CounterStrike (Cliffe & Le, 1999), which has its current incarnation now shipped by Valve with the game Half-Life 2 (Valve, 2004).

Figure 2. Element placement mode screenshot from Scribe

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Accessibility in New Domains There are plenty of domains that have yet to be explored in the context of digital game-based education. For example, games rarely exist—if at all—that teach in domains that involve complex audio input (e.g., music performance or speech), video input (e.g., sign language or karate), or semantic reasoning (e.g., music composition or rhetoric). If computers are typically bad at interpreting these kinds of inputs (i.e., visual, audio, and semantic input), how can we as designers expect to branch into new fields that depend on them? One answer is that we can put the “hard stuff” onto other human players or interactors. For example, the Ink project uses an online game as a means of connecting students with guides at the Michigan State University Writing Center (Buchanan, 2006). One can imagine using that metaphor for other difficult domains, such as a jazz piano improvisation game. A game could give students the ability to alternate playing solos and rhythm parts in a big band piece while using microphone or MIDI inputs or alternatively creating a Web site where solos are posted and students vote on each other’s performances and vie for superior ratings from their peers and educators. The creative incorporation of other human players in a game setting may make a difficult problem, such as the comprehension and analysis of a piece of writing, doable. Another approach to handling hard domains is to collaborate with ongoing artificial intelligence research to attempt to adequately solve some of these problems. For example, there is no doubt that we will in the not-so-distant future have games that take full-body motion video as inputs to fighting games, sports games, and the like. Daringly pushing the envelope with current advances in technology (e.g., the natural language processing done by Façade (Mateas & Stern, 2003)) can lead to innovative new forms of game play that, though not perfect, provide us

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with novel and useful educational (and entertaining) experiences. As opposed to only focusing on the technology issues with educational games, we can also discuss how games are used for teaching as opposed to simply as a learning experience by playing games. As Marc Prensky (2006) points out, educators have used games in observational exercises to encourage verbal and writing skills, to teach concepts about story construction, and concepts about historical processes. Games are uniquely apt at representing models of processes (e.g., economies, warfare, daily tasks in a household, etc.). The act of building games itself can be a valuable learning tool. In order to build a model of something in a game, such as an economic structure, a planned urban area, or a military strategy, the person building it has to understand that model. Building a game to learn a particular concept, using engines/languages like Alice (Conway, Audia, Burnette, Cosgrove & Christiansen, 2000), Scratch (Peppler & Kafai, 2007), or Processing (Reas & Frye, 2007) or employing off-the-shelf games not originally intended for education (e.g., the Civilization series (Squire, 2005)) that are designed for easily prototyping games, has the potential to be a fun, engaging, and useful tool for educators that may become far more used. The development and adoption of engines and languages such as these is incredibly important to the use of game design and development as a learning exercise. Students need to be able to work on the core concept they are trying to model, such as the micro-economics theory, without worrying about the details that go into the development of a commercial game (which hearkens back to our need for authoring tools for educators as well as students). Implications This chapter discusses one person’s musings on where our field has the potential to go. These directions are intended to be grounded in current research directions, such as adaptation or authoring tools, but they point to the need for a larger

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community effort to adopt these techniques/efforts in order for us to better realize the potential of this exciting medium. What we as individuals in the community can do is the single most import takeaway from this discussion. The bottom line from the example systems discussed in the adaptation section is that, in order for a system or teacher to provide individualized feedback/content/adaptation of content, a model of the student is key. The “one-size fits all” approach to digital game-based learning is only a first step in using the medium. Unlike previous educational media advances, games have the potential to adapt to students in the same way human teachers do, providing a powerful advantage over other noncomputational approaches. Even a well-designed shallow model of the student, such as their learning style, can give the system an enormous advantage in teaching the student. The intention of discussing the importance of evaluation is simple—the more pervasive evaluations of our games and technique are, the more credibility and broad acceptance the field will have. That is not to say that games are not being evaluated. However, we have yet to reach the critical point of expecting evaluations, as opposed to simply marveling at: (a) what seems like a good idea, (b) actually got built, and (c) has sexy graphics (all too common of a pitfall in educational and entertainment games). Getting there as a community will only benefit us in terms of the quality of our creative output as well as acceptance. The development of authoring tools for educators may seem like an unwanted or unnecessary addition to some game projects. However, if we want educators to use our games (as opposed to solely placing them on Web sites for the general public to discover), we need to make them as usable as possible. This means thinking about: (a) who is going to use it (e.g., high school history teachers), (b) what kind of changes they may want to make (e.g., do they need a tool for scripting characters and dialogue, like ScriptEase or Scribe? do they

need to be able to import and manage 2D images? add quiz questions?), and (c) how to make that happen without necessarily relying on conventional game development knowledge (e.g., scripting or programming, 3D level editing, etc.). A focus on accessibility in new domains and the exercise of building games as a learning exercise may be the most Pollyannaish desire to consider here. Exactly what domains games are/are not good at teaching in really has not been fleshed out yet. It could be that a good jazz improvisation game using digital games is simply a terrible idea, all technology issues aside. However, we simply will not know unless we take the initiative to push into new domains that may have imperfect or creative solutions to teaching in them. Designers can consider how to incorporate humans in pedagogical, cooperative, or competing roles to make up for reasoning that computers are poor at. Conversely, games can collaborate with artificial intelligence researchers and adopt new techniques that work well enough to create a completely new game experience. The exercise of creating games as a learning experience itself is a creative way at looking at how games can be used in an educational setting. Considering what model you want students to learn and how you want them to learn it (e.g., exploring possibilities within a model by building a game based on it versus understanding how to behave within it by playing a game based on it) is intrinsic to identifying the best application of games in an educational setting. Educational games have enormous unfulfilled potential. With creative thinking to consider how games can best serve both students and educators in terms of their educational needs, the games they wish to create and play, and the domains they wish to explore, the future of digital gamebased learning looks bright. The issues that we are considering five, twenty, and fifty years into the future will hopefully represent healthy progress for the medium and our community at large.

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AcKnoWledgment Thanks go to Dr. Carrie Heeter and Joe Fitzgerald for their ongoing work on the S.C.R.U.B. adaptive game project; to Drs. Lisa Holt, Brian Stensrud, and Robert Wray at Soar Technology, Inc. for their vision and energy put into the ISAT project; to Dr. Ethan Watrall for being an excellent sanity check; and to Ben Medler for his work on both S.C.R.U.B. and the Scribe authoring tool.

reFerences Barab, S., Dodge, T., Tuzun, H., Job-Sluder, K., Jackson, C., Arici, A., Job-Sluder, L., Carteaux, R., Jr., Gilbertson, J., & Heiselt, C. (in press). The Quest Atlantis Project: A socially-responsive play space for learning. In B. E. Shelton & D. Wiley (Eds.), The educational design and use of simulation computer games. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. Bartle, R. (1996). Hearts, clubs, diamonds, spades: Players who suit MUDs. Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13(6), 4-16. Buchanan, K. (2006). Beyond attention-getters: Designing for deep engagement. Ph.D. Dissertation for the Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Special Education, Michigan State University. Carbonaro, M., Cutumisu, M., McNaughton, M., Onuczko, C., Roy, T., Schaeffer, J., Szafron, D., Gillis, S., & Kratchmer, S. (2005). In Proceedings of 2nd Digital Games Research Conference (DiGRA 2005), Vancouver, Canada. Carver, C. A., Jr., Howard, R. A., & Lane, W. D. (1999). Enhancing student learning through hypermedia courseware and incorporation of

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student learning styles. IEEE Transactions on Education, 42(1), 33-38. Chaplin, H. (2007). Proposed video-game school gets $1.1 million boost. National Public Radio. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.npr. org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=11259040 Cliffe, J., & Le, M. (1999). CounterStrike. Cohen, E. G. (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. Review of Educational Research, 64(1), 1-35. Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. C. (1982). Educational outcomes of tutoring: A meta-analysis of findings. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 237-248. Conway, M., Audia, S., Burnette, T., Cosgrove, D., & Christiansen, K. (2000). Alice: Lessons learned from building a 3D system for novices. Proceedings on CHI: Human Factors in Computing Systems, The Hague, The Netherlands, April 1-6 (pp. 486-493). Crawford, C. (2004) Chris Crawford on interactive storytelling. Berkeley, CA: New Riders Games. Felder, R. M., & Silverman, L. K. (1988). Learning and teaching styles in engineering education. Engineering Education, 78(7), 674. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Gomez-Martin, M., Gomez-Martin, P., & Gonzalez-Calero, P. (2004). Game-driven intelligent tutoring systems. In Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Entertainment Computing (ICEC) (pp. 108-113). Lane, H. C., Core, M. G., Gomboc, D., Karnavat, A., & Rosenberg, M. (2007). Intelligent tutoring for interpersonal and intercultural skills. In the Proceedings of the Interservice/Industry Training,

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Simulation, and Education Conference (I/ITSEC 2007), Orlando, FL.

for training design. International Journal of Training and Development, 1(3), 199-208.

Johnson, W. L., Vilhjálmsson, H., & Marsella, S. (2005). Serious games for language learning: How much game, how much AI? Proc. of the 12th Int. Conf. on AI in Education.

Riedl, M., & Stern, A. (2006). Believable agents and intelligent story adaptation for interactive storytelling. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Technologies for Interactive Digital Storytelling and Entertainment, Darmstadt, DE (pp. 1-12).

Koedinger, K. R., Anderson, J. R., Hadley, W. H., & Mark, M. A. (1997). Intelligent tutoring goes to school in the big city. Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 8(1), 30-43. Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Magerko, B., Stensrud, B., & Holt, L. (2006). Bringing the schoolhouse inside the box: A tool for engaging, individualized training. In the Proceedings of 25th Army Science Conference. Orlando, FL. Mateas, M., & Stern, A. (2003). Facade: An experiment in building a fully-realized interactive drama. Game Developer’s Conference, San Francisco, CA. Peppler, K. A., & Kafai, Y. B. (2007). What video game making can teach us about learning and literacy: Alternative pathways into participatory cultures. In Proceeding of the Digital Games Research Association Conference (DIGRA 2007), Tokyo, Japan. Pivec, M., & Kearney, P. (2007). Games for learning and learning from games. In Proceedings of Information Society, Ljubljana, Slovenia, October 12-13. Prensky, M. (2006). Don’t bother me mom: I’m learning! St. Paul, MN: Paragon House. Reas, C., & Fry, B. (2007). Processing: A programming handbook for visual designers and artists. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Riding, R. J., & Sadler-Smith, E. (1997). Cognitive style and learning strategies: Some implications

Squire, K. D. (2005). Changing the game: What happens when videogames enter the classroom? Innovate 1(6). Ua’Siaghai, A., & Joseph, B. (2006). Reaching new audiences and distribution channels around the K-12 education system. Panel Discussion at Games for Change Conference, New York. Valve. (2004). Half-Life 2. Van Eck, R. (in press). Building intelligent learning games. In D. Gibson, C. Aldrich, & M. Prensky (Eds.), Games and simulations in online learning research & development frameworks. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.

Key terms Adaptation: The intelligent alteration of any elements of a game for learning (e.g., educational content, presentation of that content, user interface, or game mechanics) in order to improve the educational effectiveness of playing that game for an individual student or groups of students. Authoring Tool: An application ideally designed for non-programmers to encode educational content for a game for learning or interactive training system. Intelligent Tutoring System: A digital learning experience that intelligently selects learning content and tutoring guidance based on a student model of the individual using the system.

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Interactive Story: A digital experience that involves the user, typically as a main character, in a structured dramatic experience that intelligently adapts to the player’s actions as a character (e.g., selecting or generating plot content, selecting camera angles, changing scene lighting, etc.). Knowledge Trace: Used by intelligent tutoring systems to identify student proficiency across the target skills for a learning experience. Used for selecting lessons/learning content based on deficits in student aptitude.

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Learning Style: How individuals are best suited to experience learning content in terms of retention and comprehension. Model Trace: Used by intelligent tutoring systems to identify what knowledge students are applying to a problem. Used to select the ideal tutoring guidance to offer that student for a particular problem or situation.

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Chapter LXXIV

Artists in the Medium Kurt Squire University of Wisconsin – Madison, USA

AbstrAct This chapter discusses emerging trends in games and learning. It argues for an approach that examines games as a new medium. With the increased attention being given to games, critiques about the instructional efficacy of games will emerge, and that educators must truly take advantage of the unique capacities of the medium, as well as keep in mind the new forms of learning supported by games. It continues to outline key trends, such as emerging game genres, new forms of productive play, and embedded game assessments. By targeting what kinds of design advances occur in contemporary entertainment games, perhaps games can be designed that will become integrated into educational systems.

“Artists in various fields are always the first to discover how to enable one medium or to release the power of another.” –Marshall McLuhan Video games are “hot” in education. After decades of more or less being ignored by educators (other than to cast their derision upon them), video games are being taken seriously as a medium for learning.

Hopefully, the reader has found convincing reasons for this attention within the pages of this volume. For me, the reason to attend to games is as simple as the McLuhan quote which opened this article: If we look across the last 30 years of technology in education, we see that games have consistently paved the way for innovations, whether it was the relatively simple arcade and computer games of the 70s and 80s that inspired drill and practice and adventure games (and one

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could also argue innovations such as goal-based scenarios), or the networked multi-player games of the early 90s that suggested work on knowledge building communities, or today’s games that meld interactive fiction, real-time simulation, user creation with tools, and robust persistent worlds that educators are trying to leverage for learning. Fundamentally, video games are the entertainment medium of the computer. They are one of the only form of digital content that people consistently pay for. They envelop digital toys (The Sims), virtual life (Nintendogs, Neopets), virtual communities (Habbo Hotel), and simulated worlds (Second Life). Most of these are not games in any classic sense, but the games industry (development and publishing) have subsumed these products so that they are treated with the interpretive frame of “games”. As of this writing, this trend shows no signs of abating. Indeed, looking at a list of currently popular game software, we see interactive music titles (Guitar Hero), test prep software (My Word Coach), in addition to massively multiplayer games like World of Warcraft. For these reasons, I believe that educators ignore current developments in games at their own peril. So what does the future of educational games hold? Anyone following the industry closely can spot this question as a land mine. For example, while announcing the PlayStation 2 at the 2000 Game Developer’s Conference, Sony’s Phil Harrison proudly announced how “games on little disks” were going to be a thing of the past as early as this decade (cited at Harrison, 2000). Games were predicted to be more and more like “interactive movies,” and anyone who would have bet on Brain Age, Wii Sports, or Nintendogs as “killer apps” would have been seen as crazy. Five years ago, everyone thought that Star Wars Galaxies or The Sims were going to break MMOs wide open. When these titles flopped, people had just about to leave the genre for dead, before World of Warcraft shook up the PC industry, the ripples of which are still being felt across the industry.

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With these caveats in mind, I will start with first a warning—a few potential challenges that the field faces before it can reach stability. Next, I turn to trends already evident in today’s industry—with an eye toward what they mean for education.

the imPending bAcKlAsh toWArd gAmes I believe that within the next 12-18 months there will be a backlash of sorts against games. Some of the criticism is certainly welcome. Much of the field (particularly the field of “serious games”) has organized as an industry, rather than academic field, and as such is geared toward generating business opportunities and profits rather than meaningful learning. Meaningful learning certainly can occur from such situations; it is only to say that primary activities surrounding “serious gaming” has been to promote business. Healthy criticism as to whether there are solid learning principles behind these designs, whether they embody good instructional design practices, and perhaps most importantly, what the ideologies are underlying these materials—whose interests are being served by them—is critical. So a first backlash may be that critics will look at the field, and wonder where there is any meaningful learning going on within games, and those operating within this commercial space will need answers better than “but commercial game developers worked on them!” for the field to survive. Indeed, an unfortunate side effect of the (mostly deserved) attention to game designers may be a fetishizing of their skills and devaluing of more traditional instructional design and learning sciences skills within certain circles. From an academic perspective, we might anticipate a second criticism—that game scholars need to generate more careful and empirically backed claims about games and learning. Some will

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argue that government and industry is spending millions on a medium that has not been “proven” to work. Already, we can see some signs of this emerging critique. Critics such as Clark (2007) have perhaps rightly questioned the pedagogical underpinning of many so called serious games, while also calling for more controlled studies of games. This critique is useful, in the capacity to investigate questions that could yield such claims now exists; five years ago, a student wanting to do a dissertation on the learning mechanisms in a massively multi-player game would have had a hard time finding a committee member who understood the phrase. Now, with academic conferences such as GLS, initiatives such as MacArthur’s Digital Media and Learning, and the Department of Education’s recent call for an Instructional Technology Center focused on games, such a topic is squarely within the mainstream field. As particular features of the medium become outlined (see Davidson, 2005; Gee, 2003; Squire, 2006, in press, for examples), we can begin thinking about designing environments based on the effective learning principles of games. And, as a result of these supporting institutional mechanisms (particularly funding for development, graduate student research, and so on), the field is ready to create such designs to begin testing them more rigorously. A third criticism which could arise stems from academic turf wars—and that is that scholars are not asking the right questions, using the proper underlying theoretical framework, or the right kinds of methods that are considered “real” research. Given the national rhetoric around this issue, which is based upon somewhat bizarre notions of “science” as a particular methodology used in the medical/pharmaceutical industry, we might expect this type of criticism to filter down. If such a discourse were aloud to develop, it would really be too bad, as one of the strengths of the field thus far is the diverse range of scholars and

people drawn to it, and the interchanges and exchanges across research projects. For example, the way that Salen and Zimmerman’s (2003) basic work on play, Jenkins’ (2006) work on transmedia storytelling, Gee’s (2003) work on learning and game principles, and Steinkuehler’s (2006) work on apprenticeship has been leveraged by Barab and colleagues (in press) in designing Quest Atlantis suggests how different research traditions can become the basis of a field. Granted, each of these research programs share some common underlying assumptions, such as treating game play as a social practice embedded within cultural contexts. Yet, it is also critical that this kind of work is enriched by conferences, journals, and books that comfortably span basic research on games, historic/poetic analysis of games, phenomenological analyses of game play, ethnographic work on games, and design-based research. To cleave off any one strand of this work into its own academic discipline would rob it of its vitality. Underlying the criticisms suggested by Clark (2007), one senses a core tension within educational technology as whether to look at games as a technology, an instructional strategy, or a medium for learning (or, in the spirit of McLuhan, all three simultaneously). Within educational technology, we frequently carve up the world in terms of technologies (such as VR vs. Web-based learning), seeking to identify the core attributes of technologies (such as synchronous vs. asynchronous communication) (Jonassen, 1996), and then understanding how they intersect with particular instructional strategies (such as online problembased learning). Hopefully, the rapid rate at which games evolve, incorporate new technologies and features (such as online play), reshape themselves in response to one another, and then lead to entirely new modes of interaction reveals the trappings in dwelling too long on defining formal features, as any formal analysis would be outdated before it went to press. A defining way I and many other scholars have approached the field of games,

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learning, and society is to treat gaming as a social practice, meaning that it occurs at the intersection of people’s goals, technological affordances, and social and cultural contexts. Another (unfortunate) potential critique might stem from comparing the learning outcomes from game-based environments with more traditional ones, without asking what new kinds of learning games make possible. This view asks how media reshapes how and what we want to learn, as much as simply can it meet traditional goals more effectively. The sheer existence of games such as Civilization or World of Warcraft dramatically alters what it means to study history or economics if you are a 14-year-old building historical mods or writing programs downloaded by 10,000s of people. Borrowing from comparative media and literacy studies, there is a strand within contemporary work to seek how digital technologies such as games are literally changing what we value as educators, much as the proliferation of print led to decreased emphasis on memorization, and increased emphasis on coherent linear arguments (Ong, 1982). As such, a final emerging critique is that gamebased learning scholars need to be “agnostic” in their study of games. This argument might be made two ways. One way is to suggest that we should have a critical distancing toward games as an instructional method, in case we find out that other means work better. However, if we treat games as a medium, the critique looks different; can one imagine having a critical distancing toward books? Underlying this view, I argue a belief that we might close our eyes and games will go away, or that if we find that games do not produce meaningful learning within the next 18 months, we might forever abandon them. A more pragmatic stance would argue that interactive, immersive, networked, simulation experiences seem destined to exist in some way, shape, or form for years to come. A job for educational technologists is to understand how they work and to research the impact that they have on learning.

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However, there is certainly value in understanding what is gained and lost with different generations of media. The transition toward a more visual culture has had sweeping implications for politics for example, and as games proliferate, we would be wise to attend to what these changes are for politics, education, and so on. Ong and McLuhan both were ambivalent toward the cultural changes accompanying the rise of visual broadcast media and deep reservations about the loss of print culture. Similarly, we might identify some things lost in the transition toward digital cultures. For example, gaming and new media privilege an orientation toward examining situations as systems, and then identifying leverage points for achieving one’s own ends (and then manipulating social networks to obtain those ends). One can imagine an increased cynicism developing, or at least a further erosion of the sense of a common good, something supported by broadcast media. Indeed, as a generation of scholars raised with such media rises through the ranks of the academy, it may be critical for those old enough to remember a time without games or the Internet to remind the field of this historical context.

Future trends in educAtionAl gAming Having identified some potential pitfalls, let us turn toward perhaps more energizing themes that are emerging within the field.

A Proliferation of educational game genres One productive way out of the conundrum of whether or not games “work” and so on, is to refine the level of analysis to describe particular types of games designed to meet specific goals within specific contexts, something that I think of in terms of game genres. Educational genres

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might be thought of as families, or approaches to games that share common goals, assumptions, underlying learning theory, and strategies to solving problems (see also Aldrich, 2003, who called for educational genres). David Shaffer’s (2007) epistemic games for secondary learning are one good example of a genre of game, as are Sasha Barab’s Quest Atlantis (games to achieve social commitment). Elsewhere, I have argued for targeted games, open-ended sandbox games in history, and professional role playing games in science as similar models (Squire, in press). Treating such games as genres may (much as with problem-based learning) enable researchers and developers to come together around a common set of concerns, terms, and research findings and to move forward both tangible designs and theoretical commitments (cf. Barab & Squire, 2004). Such an approach also may allow for developing specialized engines, technical platforms, and assessment tools that are reusable across games. For example, in the examples outlined earlier, we might imagine professional role playing games requiring the ability to render realistic environments in 3D with at least a classroom full of users (technologies that exist). We can also outline some challenges to such a game; for example, conversations with non-player characters (NPCs) are still primitive at best. Further, NPCs respond poorly (at best) to our actions, if they are aware of them at all. To realize the potential of this genre, these are but two areas that would need to be improved. Defining genres thusly would enable developers to create targeted solutions such as conversational systems. This would imply some common platform infrastructure/tools. A major challenge facing the industry has been coming up with common technology platforms. Platforms such as ActiveWorlds have successfully been used for multi-player game scenarios such as Quest Atlantis and River City, although they have severely limited these projects’ ability to capitalize on various aspects of the medium. For example, ActiveWorlds can

easily support movement in 3D space, and limited agent-based modeling, but complex interactions with the world and other characters, something core to creating simulation or interactivity are difficult. Government, industry, or military support in a toolset to support a particular genre, such as professional role-playing games might help solve the problem of projects recreating technologies over and over again, and allow custom tools and solutions to be traded among them. As we see such genres forming, however one challenge will probably be to outline the limits of where they work; as Reigeluth (1999) commented in his Instructional Design Theories and Models Volume II, educators (researchers in particular) seem better at outlining the potential of an approach than defining its boundaries or limitations. Ask most any person pursuing computer supported collaborative learning, problem-based learning, or professional role-playing games when they work less well, and you usually get a very garbled answer. Part of this is because each pedagogical approach is somewhat defined by its theoretical goals and commitments; Scardamalia and Bereiter (1994), for example, outline very clearly that the goal of their work is to create knowledge building communities, as it is a core need and function of the knowledge economy. Gee’s (forthcoming) work with game designer focuses on the need for innovative problem solving in technologically mediated environments, and as such, emphasizes design. However, for the field to advance, and to aid educators and policy makers in making the kinds of decisions they need to, we may need mechanisms for deciding and choosing among these various approaches. One way to move forward could be more strategic collaborations across groups, although such collaborations are difficult given the reality of academics. One could imagine implementing an epistemic game and a professional role playing game back-to-back within a classroom, or alternating classrooms (or doing any sort of a number of things), and exploring the results. However, the

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current structure of academics disincentives this type of research. My own approach has been to work in multiple settings with multiple groups (such as open-ended sandbox games for history learning, and place-based augmented reality games for science literacy) in order to keep from being too invested in one approach, and keeping each of my own team honest on the limitations of our work. This approach is quite time intensive, however.

New Input Devices As educational gaming genres proliferate, I believe another trend will be advances in input design that create a proliferation of games that look less and less like what we call games today. In part, advances in input design create new ways of interacting with a computer/console, as we have seen most notably with the Wii, but also with Karaoke Revolution, Donkey Konga, Samba de Amigo, Guitar Hero, Rock Band, and the Nintendo DS. Indeed, if one examines the current best seller list as of this writing, it is dominated by games that exploit a new input device to create new and interesting forms of interaction with the computer. Indeed, the runaway success of Wii Sports, Brain Age, or Guitar Hero each of which has avoided the pitfall of “bigger games with more polygon counts” should encourage educational designers that a successful game can be built around an innovative game experience, rather than simply fancier graphics. Wii Sports with its many modes shows how relatively simple game ideas can be reshaped into new game experiences. Brain Age takes very simple drill-and-practice activities and makes them fun by providing us an overarching compelling fantasy arc to the activity (getting younger), employing assessments devices intelligently, and using basic input devices such as the microphone and stylus in new ways. Of the many ways that future games might innovate, one worth spotlighting here is the role

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that haptic devices might play in giving players instantaneous feedback on fine motor skills. In addition to the more obvious uses of these (such as surgery), one might imagine haptic devices unlocking more of the creative capacity of the medium, as the player uses the haptic device to carve an object out of wood, or steer a ship in a more immersive fashion. These are simple, unformed ideas, but they suggest how new devices could radically alter the kinds of games available. Already, with the success of games such as Trauma Center on the DS, we see proto models of such game play. For this reason, educational technologists might keep an eye on games as a site of innovation, functioning as a “free research and development lab” for innovation.

Mobile Gaming Platforms Not only input devices, but new mobile gaming platforms themselves are changing our gaming practices which should have a dramatic impact on education. Already, we see how smart phones are reconfiguring our relationship to information and social networks, and perhaps putting pressure back on schools. Stories about kids taking pictures of tests on their phones, e-mailing them, and looking up answers over lunch are just the beginning. With Google in the pocket of every iPhone or gPhone user, it seems self-evident that schools will (someday) need to rethink the contemporary social organization of schools. With today’s technology—most of which students will have in their pockets whether schools purchase them or not—students will be able to access not just information sources such as Google, but their social networks. If they do not know an answer to something, they can do what any smart person does—ask someone. Already, studies of students working with instant messenger describe a new form of social interaction, something called persistent social presence whereby people fluent with messenger technologies maintain loose copresent ties with their entire buddy list, at all times,

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whether through a desktop computer or cellphone (see Little, Eisenstadge, & Denham, 2007). In a case study of supporting games literacy through playing Sid Meier’s Pirates! (Squire, 2005a), I was surprised to find that middle school students touring Firaxis’ game production facility were most impressed by the fact that knowledge workers used IM programs regularly as a part of their routine practice, whereas teachers were generally unaware that such programs existed. This data point is but one example of the disconnect between schools and contemporary technologies, which are only certain to intensify as tools such as the iPhone become more widely adopted. Such mobile devices open up intriguing new opportunities for games and game-based learning. To some extent the success of “edutainment” games on the Nintendo DS already speaks to the attractiveness of portable games for learning played anytime, anywhere on a personal computing device. There seems to be something pleasurable about having a personalized tutor, set of lessons, or learning environment (which could be networked) carried in one’s purse or pocket. Consider how Brain Age offers a “tutor or mental workout in a pocket”, or the way that Nintendogs offers “a pet in your pocket”, or Animal Crossing enables “an entire village, connected to other villages, creating essentially a massively multi-player game” in your pocket. These games show how creative design innovation can replace high-end graphic quality and enable good games, making this an interesting arena for research. Within my own work, I’ve collaborated with Eric Klopfer (Squire & Klopfer, 2007) in designing mobile games that seek to take advantage of the core affordances of handhelds. Rather than port old games to smaller computers, we have sought to leverage the portability, social interactivity, context sensitivity, connectivity, and individuality of these machines to support new kinds of gaming experiences. This work has resulted in a variety of games across each of our labs which seek to exploit these various affordances.

One type of pedagogy that this technology makes possible are place-based games for learning (Squire et al., 2007). This approach seeks to explore how technologies enable designers to layer a virtual layer of data over the real world, and then create educational experiences that are inextricably linked to place (see Grunewald, 2003). These games allow learners to “see” the history of a neighborhood, solve virtual science mysteries, or explore the consequences of redesigning a local park. There are limitations of this approach in that students have to be permitted to go outside to play (something surprisingly difficult to do in many American schools). Other games, played any time, anywhere may open other kinds of new game experiences.

New Forms of Multi-Player Gaming The runaway success of World of Warcraft has turned many educators’ attention to the power of massively multi-player online (MMO) games for learning. Such games enable many forms of learning, perhaps most powerfully, joint collaboration among novices and experts with unique expertise, allowing for distributed knowledge sharing and production (Steinkuehler, 2005). As a result, one frequently hears calls for massively multi-player style games to teach particular skills. Certainly, MMO style games are worth exploring, and interventions such as River City or Quest Atlantis already suggest how design features such as differentiated roles might be leveraged for learning. To use MMOs as a model for learning, however, requires that we take seriously the features that make them so engaging for players and potentially powerful for learning. Most of these features, such as the availability of a persistent world, the ability to customize an avatar to express an individual identity, the ability to use a variety of skills to influence and act upon a world, the ability to form ad hoc social groups with their own values, and perhaps most importantly, the ability to engage in direct head-to-head competition are

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not present in many of these worlds. The kinds of identity transformation described by Steinkuehler (2004), whereby players spend years developing an identity as a leader of a guild, and then change career paths are simply not available in most educational interventions of this type (nor should they be, necessarily). A future trend, I believe will be a variety of games that use the particular design affordances of MMOs, without necessarily committing millions to creating and maintaining large scale worlds that support tens of thousands of players interacting in real time. The Nintendo Miis are an excellent example of a low tech design that enables players to create and customize avatars, which can have performance data linked to them and linked to other games. This kind of persistent character data across experiences is very similar to how avatars work in World of Warcraft, but they are achieved in a much simpler and cheaper way. (For the ultimate example of this, see Justin Hall’s passively multi-player games, pmog.org). As an example of this kind of innovation (and another example of why games are an interesting thing to “keep an eye on” for educational technologists), consider the PlayStation Home. The PlayStation Home is a community-based service where players create an avatar and “home apartment,” which they can outfit with objects, or display their achievements. Sometimes called a “Second Life killer” the idea is that Home will enable players to create a persistent avatar/identity that functionally accomplishes many of the things that a Second Life or World of Warcraft avatar does in, but through linking players’ performances in many games to a central persistent avatar. Within this “meta-world” players will be able to chat, meet friends, build and display an identity, and create and manipulate objects. One could imagine building similar systems for school based around this model.

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Creative Production within Game Worlds To date, many games for learning have focused on the medium’s capacity to simulate or immerse players in highly graphical worlds. The productive capacity of the medium evident in simulation games where players build civilizations, cities, or railroad networks, in design games where players build towns (The Sims) or skate parks (Tony Hawk Underground), or interactive world games where players conduct a variety of creative acts within an interactive world (Black & White) have been less commonly exploited. This element of educational games may be missing for a variety of reasons, ranging from the recent emergence of consoles, which are constrained by hard drive space and/or input devices, to the standardization demands of school, which privileges learning processes and products that more or less look the same. Design games are one genre that leverages the design and simulation capacity of the computer in compelling ways and seems to have potential for learning. Certainly, there are signs of this in terms of the work I and others have done with Civilization or Sim City, or Steinkuehler’s work, which suggests the potential of modding for supporting academic learning. More work with such titles (particularly if/when Spore is released) seems like a productive path for investigation. A second path is to design games that are specifically built around design as a form of game play. Some little-known games such as Pontifex: Bridge Builder or Mind Rover, both illustrate this potential well. Within our local augmented reality games, we have sought to integrate design into game play, as players redesign a local park or waterfront. Shaffer’s (2007) epistemic games also often involve a degree of design, such as in redesign a local shopping district. These design games leverage the simulation capacity in particularly interesting ways, enabling participants to see the consequences of their actions on a system.

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One reason for pursuing this route is that games can foster productive identities with technology (Gee, 2007). Gamelab’s GameStar Mechanic takes this form of game play to another level, exploring the potential to make “a game about game design”. The explicit goal behind this project is to leverage the kinds of interesting intellectual practices that go into game design (thinking about systems, designing experiences), and to develop a sort of design expertise in players. Researchers are currently investigating how it prepares players to think about other situations as “design” problems. This sort of design project, where gaming tools are tools to create games about phenomena seems like a particularly fruitful area for exploration.

games that span the real and virtual There is an emerging connection between design games and games that span the real world and the computer. Whereas we commonly think of games as entirely contained within the computer, a variety of games (ironically perhaps in the educational space) suggest the potential for games that span across real and play objects. Mind Rover is an excellent example of a game where players design programming routines on the computer (through an iterative series of game levels), and then are able to deploy these scripts on robots. Mind Rover is but one example, but one can imagine other games built on a similar model. For example, virtual gardening games could come with starter plants (which have been used in biology classes), enabling players to use the virtual game as a prototyping environment for their “real-world” plantings. As more and more ordinary objects in our environment have processing and communication capabilities, one can imagine a variety of other games that are played in a hybrid real-fantasy environment. Reversing this set-up, games such as Building Homes of Their Own or Shark Runners tie the real-world with games by integrating real-time

data into the game system. In Building Homes of Their Own, players design and build homes with a design simulator which culls data from online catalogs, meaning that players can determine the real cost of their homes. Similarly, the Discovery Channel’s Shark Runners enables players to track sharks in real time over the Internet, and players attempt to earn money and build a crew throughout their voyages. One can easily imagine a much broader range of games where participants bring the real world into the game, perhaps enabling designers to use the gamers as the prototyping environment to investigate strategies. A third type of connection between the virtual games that connect to 3D printing services, enabling players to create items virtually in 3D and then “print” them out on 3D object printers. Services such as Fabjectory allow participants to design objects in 3D on their Nintendo Wii or in Second Life, and then print them and send them to end users for a fee. The potential of educational applications of such an application are not even scratched, but one can imagine this technology having immediate uses in science, art, or architecture, for example.

bite-sized gaming With all of their complexity and polish, it is easy (and perhaps good) to be swept away by the potential of large-scale, high production polish games for learning. Indeed, to date we still have yet to see educational games with a fraction of the development budget, tools, or techniques of commercial entertainment games. Hopefully, this area will be explored in upcoming years. However, another emerging trend is bite-sized gaming, gaming experiences that are smaller (often built in Flash) and provide more discreet, targeted game experience. Designers such as Ferry Halim (http://www. ferryhalim.com/) have shown how compelling games can be made in environments such as Flash and deployed over a Web browser. Admittedly,

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these games, due to their duration if nothing else, contain fewer of the design principles identified by Gee (2003) or Squire (2003). However, one can imagine stringing together such games within a world that is linked through a persistent avatar system (such as PlayStation Home), and put together a more seemless gaming experience that, if designed together well, could integrate many of these properties. Such bite-sized games are interesting in that they could overcome many of the traditional obstacles of games in schools, including time and difficulty to play, diverse player interests, and technological problems deploying games in schools (Squire, 2005b). The ability to play games in a browser alone makes this an intriguing area for development, as browser-based games are now playable on computers, consoles, and soon phones. The trick for designers will be how to create other curricular experiences that tie together these smaller doses of game play into a coherent, designed experience for meaningful learning (Squire, 2006).

integrating Assessments into game Play (embedded Assessments) A final trend is integrating more assessments directly into game play. In his analysis of Rise of Nations, James Paul Gee (2007) describes several key features of how games provide feedback, including information to be used in the service of learning and future action and multiple modes of information and feedback. Gee emphasizes how in games such as Rise of Nations, these are forms of diagnostic feedback for players, feedback, and embedded assessment mechanisms designed to improve learning and performance (formative feedback) rather than provide summative assessments of performance. In our studies of Civilization communities (this volume, see also Squire & Giovanetto, in press), pouring over these data to learn about performance also becomes part of the play. Players

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enjoy using data to reconstruct events and develop theories about how the game system works, what strategies are effective, and to plan future action (see also Gee, 2007). This last idea, that embedded assessments exist in order to improve future performance, is particularly endemic to games and should be of interest to educators. One can imagine this framework being exploited within formal learning environments, connecting exercises, activities, and tests to future actions. This suggests one interesting challenge for educators: Because little time or energy is spent nurturing and cultivating students’ interest in topics, so that most school-based activity is what Perkins (1992) calls ritualized. With most secondary schooling being preparation for more tests or further schooling, it’s hard to imagine what future activities most students would be dissecting the results of their pre-algebra tests in order to prepare for, other than future tests. A mature game-based curriculum might tie together multiple forms of game play so that one reason students analyze data about their performance in a scientific role-playing game is to some day excel at an epistemic game, in a multi-user virtual world, or perhaps ideally, in some activity outside the walls of the classroom. Here the kind of work we have been exploring with place-based augmented reality games for learning. These games, played on mobile digital devices take place out in the community. Specific game features, such as seductive details about local history or scientific issues are designed to elicit further questions about the environment which can be the seeds for inquiry activities. In game characters are role models for forms of scientific and literacy activities and identities that players might aspire to (such as fiction writers, business developers, outdoor enthusiasts, or naturalists). Thus far, reaching these goals (getting students to ask questions and become more interest in key local issues) has been quite successful, as this pedagogical goal seems work naturally in place-based games.

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Multi-player games where players collaborate in joint endeavors, such as World of Warcraft are particularly intriguing contexts for looking at assessment. As social games, they inherently reflect the social nature of assessments, and we see how communities use a variety of tools for gauging their own and others’ performance. In World of Warcraft for example, damage and threat meters (which are mandatory in many guilds) enable players to monitor in real time their relative performance, or how well they are doing in a group. It is intriguing to note how these tools were actually created by the community itself as a way to improve learning, performance, and hold one another accountable. Although they were not included with the original game, players themselves filled this void by creating tools for assessments. The tools are used in a variety of ways—including high stakes kinds of situations such as raids, or low stakes situations like informal groups. Because these tools are instantiated and used in collaborative, community contexts, they are interesting models to think through the potential of today’s technologies and the challenges that will be faced when educators start to integrate similar tools into games. An issue surely to arise is how to balance the need for a “freedom to fail” in games, with the high stakes demands of schools, and in games such as World of Warcraft, we can see players already working through these issues. It is not hard to imagine, for example, players having a variety of tools that monitor their in-game performance in real time, as well as social tools that they could use to monitor one another, recognize excellent performance, and confer status within the community. Peer-rating systems, reputation systems, and social networks are all tools commonly used across gaming and other digital contexts, but not yet in educational software in many ways. Imagine, for example, that a group has just completed a mission where they investigate a murder mystery by a lake. Players might review their decisions to see where mistakenly

interpreted data or followed an ineffectual conversational path. Afterwards, players might rate one another along any number dimensions, which would contribute to a profile that would affect their ability to find a group next time. These are just a few simple examples of design features already working in commercial entertainment games. A project now for educational technologists will be to integrate them into educational games.

creAting comPelling mediA It has always fascinated me that if one were to review the history of media and education, it seems that materials developed for commercial entertainment have most frequently had the largest impact. With film and television, series such as NOVA, Donald Duck in Mathmagicland, or the Bell Labs Science films were uses for decades in classrooms. With computers, few applications have had the broad adoption that Oregon Trail has (with all of its flaws and so on). In fact, one could go through the history of games and see how educational interventions have mapped pretty closely to what is happening in the commercial/ entertainment space, albeit a few years behind. I have argued here that if you want to predict the future of education and games, the best route may be to look at what contemporary commercial entertainment games are doing right now. New genres of gaming appear to be emerging, with innovations in input mechanisms, forms of multi-player play, game play that spans the virtual and the real, game play broken into smaller time frames, and integrated assessments all point positive future directions for gaming. Looking across the landscape of contemporary games, it is indeed quite surprising just how despite all of the attention payed to games for learning, how few of the contemporary developments in commercial entertainment games are being exploited. With Sim City, 3D real-time graphics, realistic physics, networked game play, and even MMOs each

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being over 10 years old now, the lack of games for education that take advantage of any of these affordances is surprising. Fortunately, many of the advances we see being made in contemporary games (such as new input mechanisms) appear to ease some of the production and distribution barriers games have traditionally had. Although this chapter has argued for the importance of attending to what artists are doing with the medium, I do not want to suggest that instructional designers or learning scientists have no role in the future of the medium. As the first generation of “edu-gaming titles” emerge, if anything, it is clearer that designers with a background and training in learning and education are required to create compelling titles for learning. For the field to move forward and for truly compelling educational materials to emerge, interdisciplinary teams consisting of educators, content area specialists, and game designers—each with at least a basic familiarity with the work of the others—are required. As a new generation of students enters the field, many of whom are coming back to graduate school after working in the industry, or who are game designers by calling but who have an interest in learning enter the industry, hopefully these sorts of collaborations and cross-functional teams will become the norm, rather than the rarity and we can finally begin to explore the untapped potential of the medium.

Herring, S. C. (in press). Situationally embodied curriculum: Relating formalisms and contexts. To appear in Science Education.

reFerences

Jonassen, D. H. (Ed.). (1996). Handbook of research on educational communications and technology. New York: Macmillan.

Aldrich, C. (2003). Simulations and the future of learning: An innovative (and perhaps revolutionary) approach to e-learning. Pfeiffer. Barab, S. A., & Squire, K. D. (2004). Design-based research: Putting our stake in the ground. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1-14. Barab, S. A., Zuiker, S., Warren , S., Hickey, D., Ingram-Goble, A., Kwon, E.-J., Kouper, I., &

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Clark. (2007). Davidson, D. (2005). Plotting the story and interactivity in Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time. Paper presented at the Media in Transition 4: The Work of Stories, Cambridge, MA. Retrieved from http://waxebb.com/writings/plotting.html Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave/St. Martin’s. Gee, J. P. (2007). Good video games and good learning: Collected essays on video games, learning and literacy. New York: Peter Lang Publishers. Gee, J. P. (forthcoming). Game designer. Grunewald, D. (2003). The best of both worlds: A critical pedagogy of place. Educational Researcher, 32(4), 3-12. Harrison, P. (2000). The future of PlayStation. Keynote address at the 2000 Game Developer’s Conference, San Jose, CA. Retrieved November 11, 2007, from http://www.gamasutra.com/features/index_video.htm## Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence cultures. New York: New York University Press.

Little, A., Eistenstadge, M., & Denham, C. (2007). MSG Instant Messenger: Social presence and location for the “ad hoc learning experience”. Milton Keynes, UK: Knowledge Media Institute, The Open University. Retrieved November 1, 2007, from http://kn.open.ac.uk/public/document. cfm?docid=10452

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McLuhan, M. (1964/ 1997). Cited in E. McLuhan & F. Zingrone (Eds), The essential McLuhan. New York: Routledge 1997. Ong, W. (1982). Orality and literacy: The technologizing of the word. London; New York: Methuen. Perkins, D. N. (1992). Smart schools: Better thinking and learning for every child. New York: Free Press. Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). Instructional design theories and models, Vol II. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2003). The rules of play. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1994). Computer support for knowledge-building communities. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(3), 265-283. Shaffer, D. W. (2007). How computer games help children learn. New York: Palgrave. Squire, K. (2003). Video games in education. International Journal of Intelligent Simulations and Gaming, 2(1). Squire, K. (in press). Possibility spaces: The design of learning environments for the interactive age. To appear in K. Salen (Ed.), MacArthur foundation series on new media literacies. Chicago, IL: MacArthur Foundation. Squire, K. D. (2005a). Toward a theory of games literacy. Telemedium, 52(1-2), 9-15. Squire, K. D. (2005b). Recessitating educational technology research: Design based research as a new research paradigm. Educational Technology, 45(1), 8-14. Squire, K. D. (2006). From content to context: Videogames as designed experiences. Educational Researcher, 35(8), 19-29.

Squire, K. D., Jan, M., Matthews, J., Wagler, M., Martin, J., Devane, B., & Holden, C. (2007). Wherever you go, there you are: The design of local games for learning. In B. Sheldon & D. Wiley (Eds.), The design and use of simulation computer games in education (pp. 265-296). Rotterdam, Netherlands: Sense Publishing. Squire, K., & Klopfer, E. (2007). Augmented reality simulations on handheld computers. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 16(3), 371-413. Steinkuehler, C. A. (2004). Learning in massively multi-player online games. In Y. B. Kafai, W. A. Sandoval, N. Enyedy, A. S. Nixon, & F. Herrera (Eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of the Learning Sciences (pp. 521528). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Steinkuehler, C. A. (2005). The new third place: Massively multi-player online gaming in American youth culture. Tidskrift Journal of Research in Teacher Education, 3, 17-32. Steinkuehler, C. A. (2006). Massively multiplayer online videogaming as participation in a Discourse. Mind, Culture & Activity, 13(1), 3852.

Key terms Bite-Sized Gaming: Games that are designed to be played in relatively short periods of time, particularly on handheld devices. Civilization: A historical simulation gaming series developed by Sid Meier. Embedded Assessments: Assessment devices and mechanisms included within the game experience players and educators to make inferences about learning. Massively Multi-Player Online Game: An online game consisting of thousands of players

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logged on to a server in real time within a persistent environment. Modding: A gaming practice whereby players change the game’s artwork or underlying rule structure to create a new gaming experience

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World of Warcraft: A massively multi-player online game in which players play as members of one of two factions, leveling up their characters and engaging in a variety of forms of battle.

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Chapter LXXV

The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games Rusel DeMaria DeMaria Studio, USA

AbstrAct What is the future of video games? Is it more realism? More violence? Better physics? Artificially intelligent characters? More social networking games? Free to play and advertising supported? Games for non-gamers? More controversy, political scapegoating, and legal challenges? It’s probably all of the above, and more. In fact, while we may expect to see more of the same from the commercial video game industry, there is always the potential for surprises, both pleasant and not-so pleasant. One area of the future of games is less often discussed, but represents one of the most powerful and positive directions the industry could take. I call it the “positive impact model,” and for the rest of this chapter, I will attempt to provide some insight into what that phrase is meant to convey.

PreAmble I’ve been a video game player for nearly 40 years. As I’ve matured, so have video games—both as an industry and as a technology. And with maturity and years of game analysis and design, I’ve come to alter my perceptions of what video games actually mean in my life, and more importantly, what they could accomplish in the lives of gamers all over the world. So, even though I’m

not an educator or a university professor… even though I have no desire to design or even play educational games, I do want to design and play games that educate, and that inspire and model and even simulate some aspect of what we like to call “life.” Looking at it another way, I want to learn, grow, challenge and deepen my self-knowledge and expand through video games. And I want to have a ton of fun doing it, as part of a varied and balanced life. If I want that experience for myself,

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The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

I also want it for the millions of game players all over the world. If I were looking for a mission in life, one of the options on my list would be to develop and proselytize the idea that video games can be simultaneously fun, financially successful and intentionally beneficial to players and to society. So what sets me apart from many people today who are working to combine learning and game technologies? I think it’s the angle—the angle from which people approach the situation. For instance, who knows what inspired Will Wright to create SimCity or The Sims? In neither case was the inspiration about a game, but rather an exploration of an idea from outside the game industry. So my premise is that mainstream, extremely commercially viable video games can also include elements that benefit players—by conscious design. I say “conscious design” because people are beginning to put forward some well-conceived arguments that video games already have many intrinsic benefits, ranging from eye-hand coordination to stress relief to improvements in critical thinking and problem solving. However, nobody today is saying that the current crop of video games, overall, represents an obvious or intentional positive force in the world. In fact, most people focus on the negative aspects of commercial video games and more or less ignore most of their positive contributions. But is it enough to say, simply, I have a subject or idea I want people to learn or understand, and I’m going to make a video game to teach it? I think it depends on how much you understand games, game players, and game structures. I’ll take it as a given that you understand your subject matter. Where Will Wright may have been inspired by architecture and books like A Pattern Language, he did not create games about architecture specifically, nor did he attempt to turn A Pattern Language into a game. Instead, he used his inspirations to fuel an inquiry that ultimately led to hugely successful games like SimCity and The

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Sims. Where Sid Meier had an interest in history and the advancement of technology, he did not just create a pedantic teaching tool that looked like a game, but was a textbook in disguise. He created Civilization, a game that’s so much fun to play, nobody complains that they might also be learning something. Now, to be fair, none of Will Wright’s games, or Sid’s for that matter, replace real education on a subject. They are not intended to do that. They are intended to be fun to play, and ultimately to make money. So why are they important? I think the idea is that each tool has its purpose, and video games can be adjuncts to learning, just as audio tapes can be adjuncts to learning a language, but can’t make you fluent without other practice, such as actually speaking the language in real conversations. But we’re talking about subject matter here, and it largely depends on what the subject is—how deep and involved. Video games are fine for training, such as the Cold Stone Creamery training game that teaches its employees how to make and serve their ice cream treats, or any number of corporate games designed to provide procedures practice. Video games can do more than teach specific subject matter or act as training aids. I believe they can help people learn to think more effectively, to gain emotional connection with situations and subjects, to explore their emotions and even to experience a part of history or what it feels like to make a great discovery that changes the world. Through simulations, they can understand something about science or technology or what it’s like to drive a car around a track at 500 miles per hour or fly a Spitfire in a dogfight to protect Mother England during the Battle of Britain, or even what it might be like to live in a politically perilous society where any mistake can mean death. Much of what I suggest in this chapter probably sounds idealistic and impractical. After all, out of the thousands of video games, there have been only a handful that really came close to the mark

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of being educational or inspirational, transcending their consumer entertainment goals. Of course, the fact that several games from that handful have been among the most successful games of all time does lend some hope and credibility to my idealism. Still, the question remains, how do you create the games I’m suggesting if you’re not a Will Wright, Sid Meier or Peter Molyneux? In order to create commercially successful games, it’s pretty much a prerequisite that you understand games from different perspectives. Video games have evolved a great deal from the days of Pong, Pac-Man and even Mario Bros. If your last experience with a video game was Asteroids or Missile Command, then you may want to consider: (1) playing about a hundred newer games or (2) teaming up with a video game expert/designer/consultant. However, even if you have a pretty current knowledge of video games today, you may not have considered in depth how they can be adapted toward what I like to call a positive impact model of design. For the rest of this chapter, I will offer my specific analysis and view on how to achieve this positive impact in commercial games. I will introduce what I think are the key elements of games and how we might use them to provide a deeper experience for players—and one that perhaps teaches or inspires them in some way.

game structures and opportunity It may seem obvious what a game is, but it’s surprising how many times I’ve seen, and even participated in, debates on just what constitutes a game. When you begin to delve deeper into a game, it becomes even more apparent that people—even very dedicated gamers—often fail to understand the structural elements that make a game what it is. So, while it may seem obvious to some of you, I want to spend a little time on the structures of games and how they can be used to accomplish the kinds of impact I’m suggesting in this chap-

ter. The information in this section would apply no matter what kind of game you were creating, but I’ll offer a few examples of how these game structures can be used to accomplish the positive impact model.

The Designer’s Role The game designer’s role is to come up with all the elements of the game, to consider all the possibilities and options, and to accomplish the goals of the game design. In all cases, the primary design goal is to make the game fun, but simultaneously it can be about how the game ultimately impacts the player. In that context, the specific choices the designer makes can determine whether the game frightens, amuses, thrills, frustrates, challenges, teaches, or inspires in specific ways or not. So, while choice is an integral part of playing a game, choosing is a primary aspect of a designer’s role—choosing what actions, situations, contexts, consequences, and outcomes are to happen throughout every aspect of the game.

Message & Impact What is your intention when making the game? What kind of message and impact do you want the player to receive? In addition to your clear intention of making a game that is fun to play, successful in reaching a wide audience, and (in many cases) a commercial success, is there anything else your game can stand for? The positive impact model is not a single idea, but simply a way of thinking, the primary question being, “What can I do to improve a player’s experience, knowledge or self-knowledge, skills or perspective through the structures, actions and design of this game?” So what impact do you want to have on players? Do you want them to come away knowing themselves better? Communicating better? Understanding history or world events or social, political, or ecological issues better? Do you want

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The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

to offer a message about global warming, seeking alternatives to violence, racial diversity and tolerance, or the appreciation of great art? To follow the positive impact model, you must be a designer who wants to make a difference in the lives of the people who play your games. You must be someone who is content only when your game is a success by all standard metrics, but also goes beyond mere commercial success and inspires people or improves their lives or outlook somehow. I can’t imagine what fuels your passion. The key is that you have some passion and continue to believe that you can share that passion with others through video games. If you truly have the passion and believe you can share it with others through video games, then you can use the positive impact model to “design games and influence people,” to paraphrase the old Dale Carnegie motto. So, what’s your message? For the rest of this chapter, I’ll suggest some ways you can implement positive impact content in your games, starting with issues of action, choices, consequences, and outcomes.

Actions, choices, consequences, and outcomes: What We do and Why it matters All games contain action, both real and virtual. On the real side are the controls players use—buttons and keys for the most part, although there are various devices designed for game input, ranging from joysticks, driving wheels, and dance pads to the Nintendo Wii motion controllers. In today’s games, just learning the control systems can be a significant endeavor in itself, and the complexity of today’s games would have thoroughly boggled the minds of players in the early days of video games. Today’s players take such complexity as a given, and have adapted to learning dozens of buttons, triggers, and analog stick combinations or keystroke shortcuts—each of which serves a purpose in playing the game.

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However, it is more often the virtual or implied action in a game that is the focus of the player’s attention and the source of the immersion, and often identification, that the game inspires. Because action in a game can be anything from running and jumping to fighting to flying to doing very realistic or totally impossible stunts and activities, there’s no point in describing all the actions available to game designers. Surprisingly, even the most mundane of activities can be fun, if the designer understands what makes that activity fun. For instance, for most people being a waiter or waitress in a restaurant does not sound like a good subject for a fun game, but Diner Dash proved that theory wrong for many players. The highest-selling game of all time, The Sims, features in its repertoire of activities taking showers and using the toilet, cooking and cleaning up, going to a job, reading books, watching TV, and so forth. Of course, it is the virtual social interactions with other virtual characters that perhaps justifies all this daily maintenance, but certainly The Sims hit upon something unique among video games, yet immensely popular—the virtual life. Apparently, in the right context, a lot of people can find fun in the mundane, even if doing the dishes and cleaning up the trash is not something they find fun in their real lives. My point is that action is always present, and it doesn’t always have to be shooting and fighting. Everything is action, based on choices, which provide meaning through consequences and outcomes. So action alone is not nearly as important as the context and the choices game designers provide, and the consequences and outcomes associated with each choice. In many games, the choices are meaningful from the perspective of doing well within the game’s context, but do not really provide any real life lessons or useful information. Do I take the east road or the west road? Do I kill the strongest enemy first, or the weakest, the archer, magician, or knight? Do I run away or risk my last traces

The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

of health in hopes of winning a difficult battle? While you might make a case that there’s something useful in assessing a situation and making a tactical choice, such decisions do not do much to prepare people for real life or to increase their self-knowledge or their knowledge of useful subjects, nor do they generally provide a deeper understanding of human emotions or empathy. However, the structures of action and consequences do provide the opportunities for learning. For instance, given the choice of killing someone or sparing their lives, what might be the consequence of that choice? Given the choice of fighting someone or working things out, what might a player learn? This is where the designer has to consider the consequences—reward or punishment, or neither—associated with each action. And often, in a well-designed game, it’s the less likely, most risky, or most dangerous choice that often leads to the most desirable outcome. Several factors come into play when trying to add more socially relevant choices into a commercial video game. One is whether it is fun. Clearly, from a video game point of view, fighting is far more fun and satisfying than talking. So, given a choice, most players would prefer the “action” choice. However, there are other factors. For instance, if a choice is to be meaningful, it has to lead to some consequences, and in the sense of “winning” the game, the consequences of fighting may be worse than the consequences of talking. Because players are motivated not only to win, but to win in the “best” way, the talking option, with the right context and outcomes, could be the preferred method. However, the freedom of choice has to exist. Players must be able to choose fighting or, in some cases, killing, for the choice to be meaningful. Because games can be saved and scenarios often replayed—or the whole game can be replayed—players can try different options. So in this simple example, if talking leads to a better outcome, and if it is realistically depicted, it might, for instance, offer players an experience

in a conflict resolution scenario. If this scenario is embedded within a larger game context that is also fun and rewarding, it can be a lesson. If the lesson is reinforced through the game, and perhaps in other games as well, it could become a new thinking pattern among players to stop and consider that communication might lead to more satisfactory results than conflict, that there may be a time when violence is justified or even necessary, but that it doesn’t have to be the first choice, and often is not the best choice for future outcomes. In the previous paragraph, some key words are choice, fun, and motivation. While choice and fun may seem obvious factors in the equation, understanding the player’s motivation to win, and win well, is the key to open up possibilities beyond the ordinary simplistic activities offered in most video games. Players will be highly motivated to make the choices that lead to better overall results from the perspective of the game. It is the game designer who decides on what consequences each choice will have, and therefore, who determines, to a significant degree, what choices players will be motivated to make. It’s important to remember motivation and to achieve some balance in the game. A game that attempts to use dialog or less action-oriented content may need to find ways to keep the experience immersive and satisfying to players by including other types of game play elements, such as pure action or what I call the “pressure factor,” which I discuss in the section on Keeping Players Motivated. In summary, actions, combined with choices, lead to consequences and outcomes. Using player motivation, you can provide learning or inspirational opportunities by what choices you offer, and by the outcomes of those choices in the relevant context of the player’s experience in the game.

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The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

Keeping Players motivated: obstacles, Puzzles, challenges, and the Pressure Factor Certainly the desire—almost an obsessive need—to overcome obstacles provides one of the most powerful tools in game design, and one that can be used effectively to motivate players. This is also one of the keys to creating a learning environment in which players may gain some insight, skill, or understanding. Obstacles can come in many forms, and by placing them in the player’s path and providing a variety of ways to overcome the obstacle, we can provide learning opportunities. In essence, we are creating puzzles, over and over again, in games, and puzzles have often been used as teaching tools. A game puzzle might be as simple as finding a way to open a door when you don’t have a key. If we wanted to give people an opportunity to learn about the kindling temperature of wood, for instance, we might provide them with various materials and ways to create heat. Only those methods that would heat the wood sufficiently would actually ignite and burn through the door. Giving the player a way of reading the temperature achieved through each method, and information about the actual kindling temperature of wood might further reinforce that lesson. On the other hand, we might require that the player solve a number sequence, mathematical formula, or other logic puzzle to open the door. The fact that the player really wants to open that door provides sufficient motivation to make them seek a solution. Another puzzle would involve finding the best way to get information, or an important object, from another character in the game. Perhaps your options are to threaten, hurt or kill, reason, offer an exchange, offer to do something for the other character, or offer a compromise. Taking any one of these actions will have consequences, and if your goal is to promote healthy negotiation and communication, then you would structure the

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game so that the consequences and outcomes of choosing more communicative approaches over violent ones would be the better of the outcomes from the player’s perspective in the game. This is the designer’s choice, again, and completely consistent with what message or experience you want the player to come away with. When designing a game, I believe it’s vital to consider the game play first and any other factors after, meaning that you want to create a great game that people will want to play for hours, ideally replaying the game again and again because it was so much fun the first time, and the fifth, and the umpteenth. However, once you have a pretty good idea how to make the game playable and fun, then you can look for every opportunity to provide that extra attention to detail that can provide positive impact on the player. Depending on the type of game it is, and depending on how you’ve designed it, those opportunities will present themselves contextually if you’re looking for them. If done well, they can provide fresh and meaningful experiences for players that go beyond the mere entertainment value of the game. Another way to keep players motivated is what I call the “pressure factor.” The pressure factor is something that pushes the player along in the game. It can be “real,” in the sense of a charging rhino bearing down on you, or imaginary, such as a statement or implication that if you don’t accomplish some task all hell will break loose, or the pressure of having an adversary who will kick your butt if you don’t kick his/hers first. An example of imaginary pressure was seen in many early games, where the ultimate goal of the game was to rescue a kidnapped princess or save the world from destruction. The implication is that something terrible would happen to the princess/world if you didn’t succeed. The reality is that nothing ever happened to the princess/ world because she/it was nothing more than a motivational device and a contextual prop to get you to perform superhuman stunts on the way

The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

to the games’ dénouement when you do, indeed, rescue the hapless lass/save the world. Another example of the pressure factor can be seen in so-called strategy games, such as the turn-based game Civilization, and popular realtime strategy games like Command & Conquer and Starcraft. These games feature a constant threat from enemies—either player-controlled or computer-controlled. The pressure in realtime games is real in the sense that everything is happening simultaneously. Your enemies are building their arsenals and resources as quickly as they can, and in order to succeed, you must move quickly and decisively, choosing among different strategies and managing a large number of game elements simultaneously. The pressure in a turn-based game like Civilization is more subtle. There’s no time pressure at all. You could take hours between moves and nothing will change. However, the genius of games like Civilization is that you always feel the pressure anyway. It’s really difficult to stop playing Civilization. You always want to take “just one more turn” in the way that you want to read the next page of a really great novel. This kind of “one more turn” pressure is embedded in good game structures, where the player can see a goal—or even several goals—ahead, and because they can visualize future goals, they are highly motivated to take the steps to accomplish them. By stacking goals in a game, you can keep players wanting to play, while their heads spin with options. Ultimately, using the pressure factor to motivate players, while a valuable tool in any game designer’s bag of tricks, is also useful for designers wanting to promote teaching or inspirational situations. By providing pressure and stacking goals, player motivation increases and with motivation you can get them to do complex tasks without considering how complex the tasks really are. For instance, borrowing a page from Alfred Hitchcock, suppose the player knows there’s a ticking time bomb somewhere. Perhaps they know

precisely where it is but can’t get to it without overcoming some challenges. Or perhaps they have no idea where it is and must locate it before it detonates. In any case, this is certainly a pressure situation, especially if the consequences of failure are extreme. So now, what do you, as a designer, do? Depending on the specific situation, there are probably some obvious solutions, so the determining factors are both the specifics of the situation itself, and whatever you want to teach or inspire. For instance, if you wanted to teach something about the laws of physics, you might embed a physics puzzle into the game that players would have to solve in order to reach the bomb and successfully disarm it or dispose of it. Such a physics puzzle could possibly involve calculating mass, acceleration, and trajectories to launch an object or person successfully over a barrier. Or perhaps it might involve calculating the angles to adjust a series of mirrors to fire a laser beam to disable the bomb remotely. Or, perhaps your solution might involve social and communication issues. You might have to convince someone that there is a dangerous situation, and perhaps they don’t believe you. How do you communicate the problem clearly so that you are understood? Or perhaps you can’t get to the bomb or disarm it without help, so you must find a way to engage others in your cause. Perhaps, again, this could come down to an opportunity to learn better communication methods. Imagine, for instance, that the authorities think you placed the bomb, and you have to reason with them to get them to understand that you did not do so, and that you are trying to disarm it. Perhaps you have to use logic to convince them, by providing them with the clues and explanations needed. In any case, pressure situations, perceived or real, can be motivators, and how you use the motivation they inspire is mostly a matter of being creative at accomplishing your specific goals of teaching or inspiring.

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The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

context: stories, events, characters, and dialog It might seem to the outside observer that video games are all essentially the same. You go here or there, kill this or that, shoot, run, jump, or match three items of the same color. Doesn’t that just about sum it up? It really doesn’t matter what graphics you use, the game is always one of only a few variants. Right? While there’s a small element of truth to such an assessment, it turns out that context does matter more than one might think. In most cases, players in games are the “good guys,” and even when they aren’t there is generally some justification provided by means of story elements that provides the necessary context for players to do what would under other circumstances be seen as very anti-social and even criminal. On the other hand, playing the bad guy occasionally can be cathartic in a society where shades of gray have replaced the black and white assessment of values, and personal empowerment, especially among young people, is often missing or very limited. I contend that context matters in games—not just a little, but a lot. Even in a game as simple as Pac-Man, the concept was that the ghosts would hurt Pac-Man if he didn’t stay away from them, but when he ate a power pill and was able to turn the tables on the ghosts, it was only fair. After all, it was self-preservation, wasn’t it? Video games establish context in several ways, most notably by the use of characters and dialog, and by back story and events. The main difference is that the story is the whole game plot and context, while an event is a specific element of the larger story. For instance, while a whole game story might involve a complex plot to take over the world, or the unfolding story of an interstellar war, or an exploration by one character into his or her past, events can be smaller elements within the story. In non-interactive terms, an event could be a pre-programmed sequence that fills in some

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of the story when the player has reached a certain point in the story. In interactive terms, an event could be a task or quest given to the player that provides more entertainment, exploration or even story exposition. Both stories and events serve to provide context and direction to players, and both are very useful tools when exploring the positive impact potential of games.

Stories and Events The use of story to set context in video games covers a wide range. Some games feature elaborate back stories, complex plots, and twists and turns and all the fictional devices you might find in novels and movies. Other games can sum up their stories in a single line or concept. In the hit game Doom, the whole story was summed up simply by stating that you were a space marine, alone on a ship swarming with enemy aliens. Your job was to destroy the aliens. Period. There was no elaborate Star Trek-like back story. No questions asked or answered. You didn’t need to know what a space marine was and where he came from, how you got there or why the aliens were so nasty. You had weapons. They had weapons. They would kill you if they saw you first. Your job was to make sure that didn’t happen. While such a simple concept left little room for elaboration or nuance, it was refreshing to players in its simplicity. There was no ambiguity about it. However, for our purposes in creating games with a positive impact model, this minimal story doesn’t help us much. “Kill everything that moves” may make a fun video game, but it doesn’t seem to offer much else. However, simple concepts can have other impacts. For instance, try replacing “Kill everything that moves” with “Do no harm” or Star Trek’s “Prime Directive” of non-interference with other societies and civilizations. Or imagine a game in which players are robots and must obey Asimov’s 3 Laws of Robotics. With such simple concepts, whole sets of video game challenges,

The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

situations and opportunities suddenly come to mind, meaning that it’s not necessary to create a very long and involved story for a game to set up the possibilities for learning and inspiration. Simply by setting constraints on players, you can create situations where adherence to these constraints requires that they learn a new way of thinking or acting. Simple directives like these are actually rules, and all games are based on sets of rules. It just happens that the rules you set before the player affect their goals, options, and perspectives. And while there are always a lot of underlying rules in a game, some visible to the player and some working “behind the scenes,” certain rules, such as the “Prime Directive,” profoundly affect the options available to players as much by limitation as by context. Let’s look for a moment at the concept/rule, “Do the most good possible.” What does this imply to us in video game terms? This is a great video game concept because it allows players a lot of latitude to assess what the “most good” might be, but at the same time, as designers, we can create additional rules and systems that assess whether the player has accomplished the goals we have set. A great example of this concept is the game Lemmings. The premise of Lemmings was that hordes of mindless lemmings would keep walking in one direction until they fell to their deaths. Your goal was to save as many of them as you could. You could assign different lemmings to tasks, such as digging tunnels or building ramps. However, since each of the Lemmings levels was essentially a puzzle to solve, you sometimes had to sacrifice a Lemming by turning it into a Bomber or Blocker. These Lemmings would be sacrificed to accomplish tasks that were necessary to completing the puzzle and saving the rest of the Lemmings. In this case, you had to make the tough decisions because you couldn’t save them all, but to do well in the game you had to save the most possible. Lemmings was immensely popular

when it first came out, and in fact has recently been resurrected on the PlayStation 3. But looking more closely at the concept of “Do the most good possible,” it’s clear that we could create games with far more subtlety, or far more complexity. We could create a game of world politics to explore whether wars ultimately “do the most good” or we could examine a complex social system to see if our intervention in dangerous situations would ultimately result in better or worse results, and why. We could offer players options to eliminate predators from an ecosystem and see if that ultimately resulted in a more stable environment or if our interference in nature’s balance caused unanticipated negative outcomes. Without our directive of “Do the most good possible,” we haven’t given players a real goal, and their actions have little meaning or context. With that directive, we not only frame the entire game (or event within a game) in very clear context, but we can also assess the results according to criteria we, as designers, have determined, and provide feedback in the form or scores or analysis to the players. While simple directives can be used to provide limits and useful context, larger and more complex storylines offer any number of opportunities for creating situations, challenges, and learning opportunities. In a political thriller, it might be possible to teach some political history, or even model some principles of political science. It might also be possible to help players understand the realities of political situations far better. In war games, it might be possible to let players learn about military discipline, the tactical or logistics side, or even the human side… what does it really take to kill another human being when they aren’t just a mindless automaton placed in the game as a challenge? There is one kind of video game story that I haven’t mentioned, but it definitely needs to be considered. It’s what is called the “emergent” story. In essence, every time a player picks up

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The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

a game and gets immersed in it, they are experiencing an individual story, made up largely in their own minds. With some games, the story is pretty explicit, so that the experience is reasonably predictable, within limits. However, some games intentionally avoid explicit story elements, providing more of a framework than a specific plot. Within that framework, which is made up of rules, environments, and possibly characters, the story unfolds based on what the player does and how the underlying programming algorithms and structures interpret and respond to that player’s actions. While emergent stories are harder to predict, it is possible to create a system that provides players with opportunities for learning. This is true in single player games, and even more common in multi-player games, where players are not only interacting with NPCs, but with other players as well. When you add human players to the mix, the possibilities grow exponentially, yet the context still affects the direction of the game. Look at the difference between a game like City of Heroes, in which players are superheroes saving the day again and again, versus its counterpart City of Villains, in which players are super villains doing the bad stuff. Yet both games are structurally almost the same, and it’s only the context that changes. Personally, I’d like to see stories that explore the many sides of the human psyche—our ways of communicating, coping, and our belief systems. Can these aspects of our inner selves be revealed and explored through video games? I think they can, with the right context and execution. To do so will require good story elements as well as characters and ways to interact with them.

Characters and Dialog Many games feature what are called non-player characters, generally abbreviated as NPCs. These NPCs play a role of some kind in the game. They are often shop keepers or characters who offer services to the player that are specifically game related, such as a skill trainer. Other NPCs are

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simply in the game for atmosphere, and even if they do have dialog, it’s nothing more than a form of local color. Some NPCs, however, are information givers, and many of them offer tasks and quests, which are essentially story elements that lead to action, challenges, and rewards for the player. Some of these tasks and quests further the overall story of the game, while others offer what we call “side quests.” Side quests are generally optional, but offer more game experiences and rewards, as well as opportunities to explore other aspects of the game world. Often, it is by completing side quests that players gain special gear or other rewards, while at the same time being able to say (to themselves or others) that they completed the whole game, not just the story part. For many dedicated players, finding everything, doing everything, ending up having completely mastered the game, all are important. Characters can represent archetypes and serve metaphorically to provide meaning, as in fairy tales, or they can be created as more individual virtual people. They can be vacuous robots spouting the same lines over and over again, or they can respond directly to events in the game and to the player’s responses. There are experimental programs in artificially intelligent conversation that may one day result in very lifelike game characters. For now, however, even in games that attempt to create good dialog, the options are generally limited. Most attempts at a dialog system work like expert systems, with responses coded based on various flags within the game. For instance, if the player has not yet spoken with the NPC, the response will be an introductory one, possibly offering a task or quest. Future conversations might depend on whether the player has accepted the task or quest, whether they have completed it or not, what the outcome was, and so forth. A few games have experimented with lively dialog. The Adventure of Monkey Island was one of the first to use humorous dialogs successfully to drive the game; however, for the most part, complex dialogs in games are seen as mostly

The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

boring. Despite that, the possibilities for modeling and teaching better communication skills or critical thinking, or even how to perform in an interview are all possible within the game context. The trick is to make it fun and interesting—and to give it a context that matters from the gamer’s point of view. So far we don’t have natural language systems in games that allow players to type in anything they want to say and have the NPCs respond in character and appropriately. This means that current dialog systems, in addition to be limited to simple choice trees, also require that the player’s responses within the dialogs be predetermined— generally as some sort of multiple choice list. Again, this is not the most elegant or engaging method of generating NPC dialogs, and as such it should be used sparingly, and within a context in which most if the player’s time is spent doing something more enjoyable. All these disclaimers notwithstanding, I believe it’s possible to create situations in which the dialog is both fun and rewarding to players, while simultaneously presenting opportunities for learning or for modeling communications. I see this as possible over a wide range of human interactions. In my book, “Reset: Changing the Way We Look at Video Games,” I offered an example of a video game event that could lead to learning and to good game play. In the scenario I presented, the player might happen upon a couple arguing about something. If the player chooses to get involved, he or she has the opportunity to mediate for the couple. If designed correctly, they might learn something about how to mediate an argument. Why would they do this? Because there would be a pretty good reward for success. If the dialog system was created to be interesting and believable, it could be an interesting diversion within a larger game concept. So, again, I wouldn’t make a game all about mediation, but might include it in another type of game as an optional experience. The fact that it would offer a useful reward means that players would likely engage in

it. In my book, I suggested that the reward could be a very valuable item or information leading to something special in the game. On the other hand, I suggested a scenario in which the player is invited to visit the couple in their house, where they turn out to be deadly vampires and the whole context shifts dramatically. Even in that case, players would enjoy the intensity of the situation and the challenge of defeating the vampires. But even to get to that opportunity, they would have to succeed at the mediation challenge. In any game where dialog is used, I believe the opportunity exists to influence players in various directions. The trick is to build in meaningful rewards and not to overuse dialog as too large an element of game play. Another way that dialog can be used is to humanize NPCs by giving them personalities. Making NPCs seem more like real people can deepen the experience of the game. While some of what I hope to see in games is more learning and inspiration, another element is simply the depth of emotions we feel, and how we learn about ourselves and others in the same way we do from other storytelling arts. A good example is in the game Oblivion, in which every NPC appears to have an individual personality, and some seem to have very specific stories. In many games, fighting with or killing NPCs, where allowed, doesn’t evoke much emotion on the part of the player, but killing an NPC in Oblivion does. If the character is clearly an evil character, killing them does feel more satisfying, especially if it saves someone else. On the other hand, getting to know an innocent person and then killing them feels quite unpleasant in a way that is rare in video games, but perhaps could become more common.

grAPhics And AnimAtion Games today are highly graphical, and where a picture is worth a thousand words, what we depict on the screen can have a profound effect. Perhaps

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The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

the most powerful element of graphics and animation that we can use as a tool toward the positive impact model is our growing ability to depict emotion through face and body language.

The Power of Emotion If you look at emotion in films, it’s obvious that good actors all convey emotion through face and body. Great actors do it exceptionally well—they “sell” us on the reality of what they are experiencing, even if it is entirely artificial. Likewise, in the digital world, characters such as Golum in The Lord of the Rings trilogy and Sandman in Spiderman 3 were brilliantly created to express strong and believable emotions through the use of a talented actor and excellent animation and motion capture techniques. However its accomplishment of the ability to convey emotion can be the key to “humanizing” the games we create and opening up whole worlds of impact on players. We can depict horror, tragedy, joy, grief, suspicion, fear, and the entire gamut of emotional responses. By creating games that use not only obvious facial expressions, but sophisticated body language cues, we could actually help train players to recognize and respond to non-verbal clues that they see but do not understand in real life. By doing so in games, we have the opportunity to increase the emotional intelligence and complete the communication ability of players. Imagine a game in which success was partially determined by making the right choices when dealing with non-player characters, and being able to read their emotional messages would determine if you got what you needed or not. A character showing signs of nervousness might not be trustworthy. Or the player might need to find out what they are nervous about. A character who is too manic might also bear some further scrutiny. And a very forthright and sincere character might be trustworthy, but of course some people can appear sincere and be lying. In our daily lives,

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we may not face life and death decisions often, and we may not have to assess people to as great an extent as we do in fantasy adventures, but the tools of communication are often misunderstood or unknown to most people. With games, we could change that with the technologies that are being developed. And combined with artificial intelligence, which one day will come, we can model just about any human interaction. To be clear, this kind of sophistication would require that the designers of the game either understand the subtleties of verbal and non-verbal communications or that they work with experts. However, I believe that the results of integrating human emotion and communication more deeply into video games would catapult games to a new level of power and relevance, and provide game designers with a rich field of new design opportunities. On the social side, the ability to depict emotion through graphics and animation may one day become a part of people’s online social opportunities. Imagine a player with a camera that is scanning his or her facial expression in real time and a sophisticated animation technology that transfers that information directly to the player’s avatar, allowing them to convey facial emotions to other people with whom they are interacting. In the world of social networking and persistent world games, this could be a powerful tool to increase the level of interaction between people online. What can we learn, teach, or inspire using this technology? That depends entirely on what kinds of environments we create for players and what risks and rewards we can build into the emotional content of the interaction, but it’s something I believe will inevitably develop when the technology is available.

deceiving Appearances Graphics can have other effects. They can easily show us ethnicities, economic indicators (by how people are dressed, for instance), and subtle clues

The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

about a character through actions they take. These types of graphic effects are already being used in games, but not with a lot of conscious attention to how they might teach or inspire us. For instance, we can teach a lot about racial stereotyping and bigotry by how we depict different racial types in games, especially if we allow players to form the most stereotypical reactions to characters and then show them through action and events how they have misjudged someone based on surface judgments. As easy as this would be to accomplish, I have never seen it done in a video game, so it’s a lost opportunity that’s entirely available to us today. Likewise, we make judgments of people based on their economic standing, their religion, gender, and so forth. All of these judgments can be shown to be inaccurate without additional information, and often completely wrong. This section just touches the surface of the impact of graphics in games. We also can change atmosphere and mood through lighting and scene design. We can show people through their actions and reveal a lot about them. We can show details of systems and locations that can be used to create intrigue or to reveal how something works through simulation or demonstration. The future is only going to reveal more opportunities as graphics and animation continue to approach filmic quality. What will we do with these increasingly sophisticated tools?

game genres Games are not made alike. Different types of games provide different opportunities, and some offer more latitude than others for content that can teach or inspire. However, with cleverness and dedication, I think any type of game can have some value in addition to its purpose as a medium of entertainment. The challenge is to work within the strengths and limitations of each genre, and in some cases to create hybrids. There was a time when people would tell you that you can’t combine elements of one game genre

with another. Everything, they thought, had to be pure. If it was a first-person shooter, that’s what it had to be—period. If it was a strategy game, you didn’t introduce elements of a shooter or role-playing game into it. The situation has changed. One of the games that disproved the “purist” theory of game genres was Final Fantasy VII, often considered the best Final Fantasy game of all. In FFVII there were lots of “mini-games,” such as breeding and racing your pet Chocobos, for instance. Later, games like the original Warcraft migrated from straight real-time strategy (RTS) games to combinations of role-playing and RTS. Today, the options are wide open, and with clever design you can combine role-playing elements in a first-person shooter with strategy and arcade elements. Just about anything is possible. What does this mean to us? It means that we can work within the various strengths of any genre to create games that teach and inspire. Where adventure and role-playing—story-based game types—excel at creating stories and characters, action games excel at creating tension and heart-pounding events. Strategy games excel at providing thinking and planning challenges, tactics, and resource management. Simulations, of course, provide opportunities to practice in a sandbox environment whatever it is that’s being simulated. The range of simulations is vast and to date we haven’t even scratched the surface of what could be simulated. And it’s entirely possible to incorporate simulation elements in other game genres, allowing designers to put very specific practice and learning opportunities into games that otherwise might not be able to incorporate those opportunities. It’s outside the scope of this document to go into detail about all the possibilities. I will simply end with a general synopsis of a game I once designed. The game was set in a period of history. It was accurately researched and accurately designed to help people learn about that time in history.

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However, it also placed the player in a world in which moral dilemmas were frequent, communications and trust issues were matters of life and death, and the need to plan and consider strategic choices was fully integrated into the game play. There were elements of the game design that allowed players to learn more about the real history of the period, but seamlessly integrated into the design, and there were historical characters and events realistically added to the experience along a realistic historical timeline. It might sound like this was a very cerebral teaching game, but in fact it was a game that allowed players to fight, shoot, use stealth, blow things up, and cause all kinds of mayhem. It was primarily an action game with role-playing and strategic elements, and it was adaptable to the play style of the player, meaning it was almost infinitely replayable. In this game, players would have all kinds of typical fun from the action and strategy elements of the game, but they would also learn something of history, something of being human and communications, and probably something about themselves, based on the choices they made and the consequences of those choices.

summAry In this chapter, I’ve suggested that perhaps the greatest upcoming evolution of video games could be their ability to influence players’ lives positively. I call my approach the positive impact model of design, and I suggest that the very structures of video games lend themselves to this kind of impact through teaching, modeling, simulating, and inspiring players. There’s no limit to what you can do if you’re clever and if you understand what makes a great game. You can use the player’s own motivation to succeed to lead them to the opportunities you provide, through action, choices and conse-

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quences, dialog and story, emotional depiction, and much more. So step one is to understand games and game design. Know what’s fun and what’s not. Step two is to have passion for something that you want your players to experience, learn, or consider in their lives. Step three is to use the techniques suggested in this chapter (and others you will discover for yourself) to achieve your combined goals of a great game in its own right, and one that offers a real positive impact to its players. What I anticipate is that one day designers will use all the tools at their disposal to create games that far exceed today’s games in their impact on our emotions and our minds. This, to me, is the most significant next step in video game design.

Key terms Choice: In video game terms, choice is one of the keystones of game design. Without choice, there is no game, so choice is what provides opportunities for players to succeed or fail, and therefore to learn. Consequences: In video game terms, and especially in the positive impact model, consequences are essential to learning and to assessing progress. If actions in the game had no discernable consequences, there would be no way to make progress, and to learn. Essentially, consequences are one of the key elements used in games to provide learning opportunities. Interactivity: Interactivity, in video game terms, is the process by which players experience the results of their actions, in which the game changes the player’s behavior and the player’s actions and choices change the game’s behavior or options. Modeling: In life, we model behaviors or attitudes through our actions, and this same kind of modeling can be done in video games.

The Positive Impact Model in Commercial Games

Although there are other definitions of modeling in the computer world, in the context of the positive impact model, modeling is a method for presenting information by example. Positive Impact Model: In a general sense, a positive impact model is one that assesses an event or process for its overall impact on the person engaging in it. In terms of video games, it refers to a model for designing games that have an overall positive impact on players through teaching or inspiring them in their lives.

Simulation: In video game terms, a simulation is a computer model of a real or imaginary system in which the player has the opportunity to experiment with its driving and critical elements, allowing the opportunity to explore cause and effect within the computer model, and often to extrapolate results to realworld processes. Virtual Life: Basically a simulation that models aspects of real life. Prime examples are The Sims and Second Life.

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Chapter LXXVI

Education and Exploitation Off the Virtual Trail to Oregon Chad M. Harms Iowa State University, USA

AbstrAct By retracing the tracks of the popular educational game, the Oregon Trail, this chapter presents both positive and negative realities of the incorporation of computer-based education that will necessitate students venturing away from safe, closed systems to access information in the open frontier of the Internet. Information presentation is increasingly multimodal. The fidelity of that information is not always clear. Access to information, though often assumed, is not always available. Individuals’ selectivity to the variety of information can influence how it is internalized. Exposure to violent and sexual content can result in desensitization. Bias opens opportunity for fragmentation. And our connections to others, though overwhelmingly positive, also make us vulnerable to aggression and exploitation. Certain research and news stories presented here detail the most disturbing acts of humankind; those that children must be safeguarded against.

introduction Setting out on the Oregon Trail has been the first human-computer interaction for many elementary school children in the United States. The history of the original game can quickly be recalled from Wikipedia (if a person can indeed

trust the fidelity of that as a reference source) and is slightly more detailed than any one person’s own personal account. It was the first time we had heard of dysentery, and though having no idea what it was, we learned that it could be quite painful and could lead to death, as it did for so many young students on their first trek across

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Education and Exploitation Off the Virtual Trail to Oregon

the American northwest. A video game that the teacher allowed you to play in class; the idea of it seemed too good to be true. And now, 160 years later, as per the timeline of the game, we set off again down that same familiar trail. On this journey however, students will increasingly be able to forage out on their own. Gaming systems continue to incorporate wireless communication platforms that extend beyond their controllers. As they acquire more autonomy on networked computers, students will, either by expectation or free will, leave closed systems for the open Internet. Their electronic-based learning is not limited to the time they spend in front of the schools’ computers. The focus of this chapter is to look past the positive aspects of this action and highlight the potential hazards; because at that point, the dangers are no longer fictional and acknowledging them is imperative. In this chapter we will analogously explore the potentials and pitfalls of allowing students’ access to the Internet. Communication, both textual and visual, is the manifestation of education. In communication, the transmission of information and our connection to others present dualistic effects that educators must consider as they set out to teach future generations growing up in this world of information technology. An active model of communication simply details the passage of information from source to receiver. This passage requires that the presented information be accessible to the receiver, allowing for internalization. Presentation of information can be multimodal, portrayed independently or in any combination of oration, text, and visual communication. The fidelity of the presented information is often subject to question based on the intension and credibility of the source and its dilution across the channel. Access, though often assumed, is not always available. Internalization can be both positive, increasing empathetic appreciation and openness to heterogeneity, or negative, making individuals susceptible of fragmentation, desensitization, and addiction. Each of these then

in turn dramatically impacts the way the receiver connects with others. In that reconnection with the source or with another individual, interaction is established. By completing this cycle of communication, a source and receiver are able to engage in transactional interdependence allowing for both positive and negative social exchange. Positive social connectedness emerges in the form of the sense of community, perceived empathy, and interrelated teamwork. However, by connecting ourselves to others, humankind also reveals its dark interpersonal side. Behavioral antisocialism plays out in both aggression toward and exploitation of others. Verbal and physical aggression, as well as financial and sexual exploitation, can physically and psychologically harm a person in irreversible ways. Awareness of dualistic effects communication can have on interactants provides both optimism and caution as we set out on this familiar trail of mediated education.

inFormAtion PresentAtion Decisions needed to be made at the outset of the Oregon Trail. Resources were limited and without experience, misappropriation of funds was highly likely. Without a clear understanding of the eminent dangers and challenges, appropriate amounts of needed food and supplies were typically miscalculated and pioneers died. You were almost certain to parish in your first attempt at the game. The future convergence of electronic gaming and education is most certainly centered on the multimodal information presented to students. Information is not sufficient as knowledge, but it is necessary. Games continue to regenerate and incorporate real-world content and imagery. Today, the Internet allows the human collective the ability of present seemingly infinite amounts of information. Most of that information is positive and advances innovation and creativity. But

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some information depicts hatred and depravity. Multimodality allows various forms of presentation to occur independently or in numerous combinations. Information is produced for both visual and audible reception. Three particular distinctions of information are discussed here including: visual referents, digitalization of text, and mediated social environments. Visual referents have spanned the ages, allowing for increased vividness of ambiguous thoughts and events. For centuries, text has also allowed the record and transmission of ideas over time and space. Now, computer technology allows for the creation of intangible mediated social environments through which receivers can become immersed in information and connected to one another. The fidelity of that information is at times relative to the receiver. Fidelity across all three forms of information presents concerns regarding the manipulation of images, plagiarism, and realism. The clarity in information presentation, the intension of its utility, and the credibility of its source are all pivotal in how it will be interpreted. Visual referents are the first recorded communication known in human history. The well known cave drawings of Lascaux, in southern France, date to somewhere between 15,000 and 13,000 BC, with others expected to date as earlier. This predates the earliest ideograms, or symbolically represented language, by some 10,000 years. Their hypothesized function was to recall stories of hunts to those who may not have been present (Biocca & Harms, 2002). The progression of recordable images from Daguerreotype to the Lumiere brothers to the digital camera in less than 150 years has been amazing, but not always positive. The ability of digital cameras to record images without chemical processing has greatly increased the amount of photographs individuals shoot. By eliminating out-of-hand processing, it has also influenced what they shoot. Sadly, too often in the age of digital photography, news reports tell of cameras being misused, such as, “…videos depicting forcible sex and painful sa-

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domasochistic activity as a 15-year-old boy cried” (Frieden, 2001). The shear number of images and span of distribution associated with these child pornography crimes is unfathomable. During a resent international sting, a UK man was arrested. “When Suffolk forensic teams examined [his] computer they found 75,960 indecent and explicit images in addition to evidence that he had supplied 11,491 images to other site users” (CEOP, 2007). Though these such images are typically limited to networked computers, video game depictions of sexually-charged game characters and the results of violence (blood and dismemberment) are present and act as criteria for the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) ratings of games. Mature and adult-only games and their contents are never completely inaccessable to individuals under the determined appropriate age, and are usually highly sought after because of forbidden nature. Fidelity of digital photography is an important topic. New products such as Photosynth ®, a collaborative innovation developed by Microsoft® with the University of Washington, have the potential to bring high fidelity to the 3D virtual world. By connecting various digital images of a similar setting this program can recreate the environment in a new and exciting presentation. Microphotography allows students to see into the world that surrounds them with new appreciation. Satellite imagery continues to deliver spectacular visions of galaxies, planets, and our own earth. YouTube brings use moving images collected and distributed by anyone with a cell phone, camera, or video recorder. But just as we allow ourselves to be amazed by these images, we must continually question their authenticity. The saying, “a picture never lies,” tended to hold true for traditional film photography, but too often that cannot be said of digital images. Adobe® Photoshop® allows a photo to be “doctored” in such a way that laypersons would have little chance of identifying a phony. Ricchiardi (2007) reported that at an ethics session at the

Education and Exploitation Off the Virtual Trail to Oregon

2007 National Press Photographers Association Photo Summit in Portland, Oregon, nearly all of the audience informally acknowledged knowing someone that they worked with that had potentially violated ethical practices in photography. This violation calls into question the validity of photographs we see everyday in our newspapers and magazines. Typically these cases involve manipulation of actual photos. The inverse has also caused difficulties and controversy. In 2002, Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition (Ashcroft, 2002) determined that child pornography, if computergenerated, was not considered illegal if no actual child was used in the production of the images. This made it the responsibility of law enforcement to prove that an image of child pornography depicts a “real” child. Experts agree, however, that this atrocity perpetuates the generation of even more child pornography. Visual communication presents powerful vivid records that can tell stories without words. Words, however, can often complete a picture in a profound way, one of personal relevance. History is written language. Print, the origin of mass communication, continued to evolve from the Sumerians, to the Chinese, to Johannes Gutenberg. Inexpensive newspaper and book publishing brought literacy and education, once reserved for the well-to-do, to the masses. And now, what was once an effective and superior way to display the depth of human experience and understanding, bound pieces of paper connected by hardened glue, have become a seemingly limited way to understand the past, present, and future. Access to knowledge need not be limited to the tangible shelves of a library, for the electronic library is limitless. In a lecture to students and educators at Iowa State University, Adrian Sannier, University Technology Officer at Arizona State University stated, “It is absurd that we use textbooks…. If you had them digitally, they could be part of your web of stuff that you could look up anytime…use in your own Google search…right? To be able to find things, see them, interact with them. This

is clearly what we should be doing” (Sannier, 2007). Text also plays a large role in how people connect with each other with well over than 300 billion text messages being exchanged annually worldwide. Texting among teens is highly valued and has shown how language continually evolves, with acronyms having shared meaning being substituting for entire sentences (Grinter & Eldridge, 2003). In Xinhua, China, one million text messages were effectively used to protest the building of a controversial chemical plant in 2007. There are several ethical issues involving text, including plagiarism and usage. The use of print or text communication is plagued with concerns of authenticity, or more appropriately, authorship. Plagiarism in this era of electronic media is considered a major concern in higher education and attitudes about it vary (Larkham & Manns, 2002). Student expectation and the realities of easily accessible prepackaged term papers online often times spell a recipe for cheating. However, software and search engines tend to be able to quickly identify portions of copying and pasting (Martin, 2005). Finally the use of communication technologies to send text messages has become an increasing problem in school settings, with students covertly connecting to each other and disrupting class time as a form of modern day note passing (Grinter & Eldridge, 2003). Mediated social environments are the last type of information presentation to be discussed. Broadly defined, mediated social environments allow individuals to exist and interact with others across the Internet via synchronous and asynchronous communication. Mediated social environments encompass both virtual environments and social networking environments. Virtual environments are graphics-based and individuals’ profiles are connected to an avatar, or digital representation of themselves. Early text-based versions were once identified with the acronym MUD (multi-user dimension/domain or dungeon among gaming formats). Consistency in terminology is lacking as these Internet-based

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platforms have also been termed shared virtual environments (Basdogan, Ho, Srinivasan, & Slater, 2000), collaborative virtual environments (Bailenson, 2006), immersive virtual environments (Bailenson, Blascovich, Beall, & Loomis, 2003), tele-immersive environments (Mortensen, Vinayagamoorthy, Slater, Steed, Lok, & Whitton, 2002), collaborative interfaces (Gerhard, Moore, & Hobbs, 2004), massively multi-player online role-playing games (MMORPGs) (Yee, 2006) (e.g., World of Warcraft), and virtual worlds (e.g., Second Life). Most often constructed in a three-dimensional display, two-dimensional environments are also populated with avatars (e.g., Palace). According to Bennahum (1994), the first MUDs were built around 1978, centered on gaming and interestingly at a certain point, “People no longer played to win the game; they played to be with other people. A virtual community began to form” (p. 22). A community of individuals connected together, forming a network. Here, perhaps more than anywhere, opportunities for education are limitless. Social networking Web sites, the second classification of mediated social environments, have exploded in popularity with adolescents flocking to them. The most populated of these is MySpace, now in late 2007, with more than 289 millions registered accounts (though not all accounts are individuals and any individual can have multiple accounts). Accounts allow individuals to connect to other individuals as well as a variety of conjoined information. Hundreds of others much smaller in stature also exist and tend to be more private in nature. Mediated social environments allow for every combination of information presentation, making them truly multimodal, and they are in the infancy of their existence. Fidelity, with reference to mediated social environments then, can refer to both the accuracy of visual images and the truth of text content. In virtual environments there is currently little expectation of visual fidelity. Avatars, objects, and structures tend to be “blocky” to keep the

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number of polygons, “the basis of objects created in the 3D environment” low, allowing for increased rendering speed (Giambruno, 1997). As bandwidth and processing speed grow faster however, fidelity in virtual environments is likely to increase. This will increase the ability of avatars to more accurately express affect and increase engagement with others (Garau, 2006). Fidelity in social networking Web sites reverberates back to the issues surrounding both visual and text-based communication. Representation of information depends on the intensions and creditability of the source. For example, 29,000 registered sex offenders were recently indentified on MySpace. As one might imagine, none of the individuals had posted this significant information about themselves. Presentation of information has become multimodal. People can become informed by the combination of reading, viewing, and experiencing information presented in electronic formats quickly without leaving the convenience of their own computer desk. As quickly as someone can find information, it is theirs for consumption. But, access is not always available.

inFormAtion Access To the extent that the Oregon Trail would have had information about the most common mistakes others had made in allocating resources and made that information accessible to new players, success could have been increased tenfold. That however was not part of the game. One had to experience the information presented and by doing so develop knowledge that would be used when tried again. Access to electronic-based information has been simplified by the advent of the Internet and tools developed to navigate around it. Not all people have access to information and not all information is accessible to people. This may sound redundant, but the constraints caused by economic bias and censorship are very different. In this section, a

Education and Exploitation Off the Virtual Trail to Oregon

brief progression of games, the allowances of the Internet, the conception of the digital divide, and the act of censorship are discussed. Pong amazed game players both young and old when it first came out in 1972. Kent (2001) thoroughly walks through the progression of the video game with 30 years of development. Gaming systems went from being a frill to a staple in industrialized homes around the world. Video games of today are quite complex and incorporate real-world context and imagery (Gee, 2003). Grand Theft Auto became one of the most popular games of all time. Success in the game depended on gamers ability to steal vehicles and cause death and destruction throughout the city. Players access to graphic images and violence left parents awestruck. Games were once restricted to the individuals in the same shared space. Current game systems allow gamers to play and communicate with others in their vicinity. The Nintendo DS® system has PictoChat®, a wireless chat program, built into it that allows individuals to interact without even connecting to the Internet. From the safety of their living rooms, children and adolescents can be accessed by anyone within range. The Internet, as most of the world knows it, has not even been around for two decades. But in that time frame, its growth, both in terms of individuals using it and the amount of information presented upon it, has grown exponentially. Its development was ignited by the need to access information. During the cold war, the U.S. Department of Defense realized that if attacked, they would potentially lose the majority if not all of the electronic information in storage including classified, financial, procedural, and general data. In the early 1960’s the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in collaboration with university-based computer scientists began developing ways to move or “switch” data from one computer to another. The network that grew from that project, now simply referred to as the Internet, no one could have expected. In

1989 the World Wide Web publishing platform was created, but it wasn’t until 1993 when the first popular graphics-based browser Mosaic was released, that the Internet, as we know it, became accessible to the public. With the amount of information presented on the Internet came the problem of information overload. Sifting through and finding relevant information was simplified with the development of search engines, or information retrieval (IR) systems. Numerous search engines exist and are used by those accessing the Internet, but none have quite received as much recognition as Google Inc. Its popularity spurred the creation of a new transitive verb (to google: to obtain information about ___ on the World Wide Web). The ability of search engines to find, organize, and give access changed the practices and behaviors of Internet users. Though it seems to have penetrated to every corner of the world, the Internet (and its contents), is not available to all because of penetration inequity and censorship. Adult U.S. statistics showed that in 2006, 73% of respondents (about 147 million adults) were Internet users (Pew Internet, 2006). Those that are not online tend to be those of low socio-economic status and primarily minorities. The digital divide is a concept separating the “haves and have-nots” regarding information technology (Norris, 2001). “The international digital divide is often viewed as between the United States and the rest of the word” (Kuttan & Peters, 2003, p. 105) though the primary indicator is income. In addition to income, infrastructure, religion, and openness are also contributing factors to the lack of penetration (Dimitrova & Beilock, 2005). At odds with not having access is the idea of not being allowed to access. In 2006 Google announced that it would be expanding its service to China, but that it would allow the Chinese communist government to determine what content would be blocked from its national residents (O’Rourke, Harris, & Ogilvy, 2007). Throughout history there have been those who would deny others from perspectives and ideas

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that differ from their own. Acknowledging the constraints in one’s immediate vicinity and a half a world away can allow for a more complete understanding.

inFormAtion internAliZAtion By reading the fates of those accompanying you on the Oregon Trail you came to understand that the journey was not fun and enchanting, so much as arduous and real. That was the point, to let students see for themselves and glean from the experience something that they could not perhaps acquire from simply reading about the journey or looking at a diagram of a covered wagon, what the life of a pioneer was truly like. Through internalization, people absorb information and develop their own perspective. Access to differing information can lead to greater appreciation of others and better informed judgments. However, excessive selectivity can at times, solidify predispositions and increase the likelihood of habitual dependency. This section details values of heterogeneity, dangers of fragmentation, and products of desensitization. The vast amount of information in games and on the Internet can take most of us farther than we will ever physically travel, allowing us the ability to experience cultures with which we may otherwise have little or no contact. By spending time observing and interacting with another culture’s people and tradition we can increase our empathy for that culture and its people (Chung & Bemak, 2002). Empathy increases altruism (Batman, Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley & Birch, 1981) and is positively correlated with healthy relationships (Davis & Oathout, 1987). Information heterogeneity provides a mix of ideas from multiple perspectives. The strength of weak ties perspective, which stems from a network theory (Granovetter, 1982), details that the more expansive a network becomes the more heterogeneity is achieved. Value placed on variety is relative

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however. Multiple perspectives that result from a heterogeneous group can be advantageous for groups (Hamilton, Nickerson, & Owan, 2003), but can possibly decrease cohesiveness. Too little can result in “groupthink,” where maintaining group norms outweighs optimal decisions (Janis, 1982). According to Hirokawa and Scheerhorn (1986), this results in the establishment of a flawed information base, and as a result, flawed reasoning. Similarity in thought can lead to greater small group cohesion, but social cohesion may decrease due to fragmentation, where individuals segment themselves according to ideologies and media choice. Fragmentation can become quite seductive to individuals as the information they receive continually reinforces group and self identity. With the vast amounts of information available on the Internet, individuals have little problem finding ideas that make their side of an argument correct and others wrong. This allows anti-social groups, such as cults (e.g., Heavens Gate) the ability to lure new members (Dawson & Hennebry, 2004), and hate groups (e.g., Ku Klux Klan) the ability to spread their bigotry (Bostdorff, 2004). Continually subjecting oneself to messages of intolerance, hate, and prejudice can lead to desensitization. Desensitization refers to the elimination of the natural reactivity to a topic or behavior as a result of continual internalization of language and images. Young people, in particular, can become desensitized to violence portrayed in the media to which they are exposed (Anderson et al., 2003). That desensitization can then lead to more aggression and negatively impact interpersonal relationships. Video game violence becomes entertainment and its impact has serious results (Anderson, 2004). Similar changes in perspective have been found in the repetitive viewing of violent pornography (Donnerstein, 1980; Malamuth & Ceniti, 1986). Repetition can also lead to various levels of perceived dependency or the formation of habits. To the extent that either of these should be classified addiction, remains to be seen.

Education and Exploitation Off the Virtual Trail to Oregon

As educators require students to step further and further outside of closed electronic educational systems and into the unchartered frontier of the Internet to search for knowledge, it will become increasingly difficult to shield them from the boundless amount and diversity of information. The information communicated to students will be multimodal. They will not only hear and see things they have never been privy to, but they will interact and participate as well. In 2001, entrepreneurs behind a company called DigiScents® prototyped iSmell®, a chemical-based aromatic synthesizer, when connected to your computer, would allow a matrix of thousands of odors to be emitted. Imagine being able to smell the pine trees as you traverse a mountain pass on your way to Oregon. Haptic output devices like the PHANTOM® from SensAble technologies® provide force-feedback to users allowing them to feel and manipulate 3D objects in virtual environments. As we are immersed in information we can be subsumed in an illusion of non-mediation, experiencing a sense of presence (Lombard & Ditton, 1997). Most information will be positive, but not all. And unfortunately, the information we come in contact with is not nearly as harmful as the predators we cross paths with out on the trail.

connection to others The Oregon Trail brought us in contact with a number of fictional entities. Some entities were scripted to help us though resource exchange or by providing guidance and support. Others were less friendly, being aggressive, and looking to exploit our weaknesses. Predators, thieves, and opposing groups would spontaneously disrupt our positive progression westward. At times we were able to ward off the aggression. We were able to shoot and kill, without concern that it would lead to more violent acts. At other times, no warning was given, and we simply dealt with the ramifications by starting over. As electronic gaming

and education meld together through curricular expression and pedagogical change, increased usage of the Internet is inevitable. Students, teachers, parents, administrators, counselors, information technology support staff, and guests will connect in order to stimulate education and give direction to the future. The vast majority of social connections will be primarily positive increasing collaborative teamwork, providing inspiration, and strengthening social ties of community. However, some will be devastating and disastrous. Stories of aggression and exploitation will hit us unexpectedly, and their shadow will be cast much farther than the positive exchanges that are typically taken for granted. As stated earlier, acknowledging the dangers before they are upon us is imperative. George Washington said, “To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual means of preserving peace.” Many of the authors in this collection have discussed various ways in which electronic gaming and education have and will positively come together in the future. The future looks bright. Discourse on the exchange of ideas and perspectives, increased collaboration, and effective learning abound. And because of their extensive coverage of the positive social connectedness, no more will be said of it. Instead, the remainder of this chapter will spotlight the dark corner to reveal those things that cause us fear. Anti-social behavioral is dichotomized into two categories: aggression and exploitation. Aggression consisted of psychological violence in the form of cyber-bullying and physical violence. Exploitation is divided into financial exploitation such as fraud and identity/information theft and sexual exploitation. Students have and will always have the possibility of coming into contact with aggression either indirectly or directly. Psychological aggression via cyber-bullying plays out through all forms of communication technologies from the computers to cellular phones. Patchin and Hinduja (2006) found that one third of adolescents surveyed had

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been victims of cyber-bullying. Cyber-bullying has been defined as an “aggressive, intentional act carried out by a group or individual, using electronic forms of contact, repeatedly and over time against a victim who can not easily defend him or herself” (Smith, Mahdavi, Carvalho, & Tippett, 2006, p. 6). It can involve harassment, intimidation, taunting, ridicule, and threats. In their report, Smith et al. (2006) detailed seven sub-categories of cyber-bullying: text message bullying, picture/video clip bullying (via mobile phone cameras), phone call bullying (via mobile phone), e-mail bullying, chat-room bullying, bullying through instant messaging, and bullying via Web sites. Anonymity allows bullies to continually harass others without recourse. At times they are able to take on the role of another individual and spread rumors and send disturbing or degrading messages under a false identity. Two commonly used terms that would constitute as cyber-bullying are “flaming,” defined as hostile online communication (Reinig, Briggs, & Nunamaker, 1998), and “griefing,” which are purposeful activities meant to disrupt others’ experiences (Mulligan & Patrovsky, 2003). “Griefing,” which simply put, is meant to cause others grief, is often considered acceptable to game players as it is something done in the context of the game to give one player advantage over another. Cyber-bullying, in general though, can have detrimental effects on adolescents, causing them to feel shunned, isolated, depressed, and suicidal (Nansel, Craig, Overpeck, Saluja, & Ruan, 2004). Another concern stemming from electronic media usage is that of physical violence. Cyberstalking and the linkages made between exposure to violent media and transference into real-world violence are frightening. Cyber-stalking, which is at times used synonymously with cyber-bullying (Ellison & Akdeniz, 1998), can escalate into actual physical violence. Perpetrators can use personal information they acquire over the Internet about a targeted victim, to identify opportunities to carry out various levels of violent acts (Harms,

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in press). School shootings continue to shock the world. Anderson (2004) presented an overview of research that paints an obvious connection between violent video games and real-world aggression. He states that, “the magnitude of these effects is also somewhat alarming” (p. 120). Exploitation is the final topic to be discussed in this chapter. Financial exploitation presents law enforcement with inexhaustible case loads. The U.S. Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act of 1998 legally defines identity theft as, “knowingly transfers or uses, without lawful authority, a means of identification of another person with the intent to commit, or to aid or abet, any unlawful activity that constitutes a violation of Federal law, or that constitutes a felony under any applicable State or local law” (U.S. ITAD ACT, 1998). The U.S. Federal Trade Commission reported that between 1998 and 2003 more than 27.3 million citizens were victims of identity theft resulting in the loss of billions of dollars by businesses and consumers. Sproule and Archer (2006) feel the term identity theft is inaccurate and articulate the crime as identity fraud. However, Internet fraud can encompass more than just identity theft, including auction fraud, consumer fraud, hidden and automatic payments, security fraud, investment scams, money letters, online gambling, gray markets, fake charities, adoption fraud, mail-order brides, education scams, credit or tax scams, employment scams, and phishing (Henderson, 2005). Sexual exploitation of children is the most horrendous crime plaguing our society. The Internet allows predators cloaked in anonymity to reach vast numbers of children without regard to geographic proximity (USDOJ, 2000). Predators are able to identify likely victims by searching through large populations that have volunteered personal information about themselves through their social networking Web sites (Harms, in press). It truly has become epidemic with 1 out of ever 7 children online being sexually solicited (Wolak, Mitchell, & Finkelhor, 2006). “Groom-

Education and Exploitation Off the Virtual Trail to Oregon

ing” is defined as the communication process by which a perpetrator applies affinity seeking strategies, while simultaneously engaging in sexual desensitization and information acquisition about targeted victims in order to develop relationships that result in perceived need fulfillment (Harms, 2007). Deceptions of intensions or profiles allow them access (Berson, 2003). Adolescents are more likely to engage in conversation with strangers in online games than through any other communication format (Greenfield, Gross, Subrahmanyam, Suzuki, & Tynes, 2006). By presenting themselves as likable and developing a trusting relationship with a victim, predators are able to lower a child’s defenses through discourse about sex and introduction of pornographic images. The problem of Internet-based pornography, as mentioned earlier, has become ineradicable (Carr, 2004). Victims around the world are subject to production of child pornography, prostitution, and mortality. To educate and inform the public, Rick Woody, a grieving father, forces himself to retell the tragic story of the loss of his daughter. Kacie Woody was killed in 2002 at age 13 by an Internet predator posing as a 17-year-old in a Christian chat room. She was kidnapped, raped, and murdered. This story serves as a reminder that the dangers are real and that we must acknowledge them if we are to prevent them.

conclusion “Man, biologically considered,...is the most formidable of all the beasts of prey, and, indeed, the only one that preys systematically on its own species.” –William James The reality is that most connections we make with others are positive, but we can not ignore the negative. Aggression and exploitation are part of the Internet landscape, and just because, “not one mention of online child exploitation

being a problem at schools or libraries” (Stupak, 2006) has arisen yet, does not mean it might not spontaneously pop up on our screen tomorrow. Be prepared and educate. Numerous educational programs exist that enable educators and parents to broach difficult topics such as identity theft and sexual exploitation (e.g., NetSmartz). Knowing the limitations, requirements, and expectations of games, both offline and on, is essential. Computers should always be kept in a public space, and usage should be monitored. As young people continue to educate themselves about the functions and components of electronic information technologies such as gaming systems and the Internet, so to must their parents, caregivers, and teachers. The implications of not doing so can be disastrous, but the potentials of positively produced video games and the Internet are immeasurable. The cycle of communication: The presentation, access, and internalization of information, completed by interactions with others, will allow for effective education to occur by way of electronic technologies. Students may begin in closed systems, but eventually what they learn by using the computer placed in front of them will lead them out into the Internet. The future must be viewed with a dualistic lens, seeing both the bright side and the dark shadow. When those that made it through the Oregon Trail completed the game, they were rewarded with a score. Many just started over trying to improve that score and make it to the top ten list. All who played came away with positive memories of their educational video game experience. That is how it should be, and with planning and preparedness, that is how it can be for all who travel that way.

reFerences Anderson, C. A. (2004). An update on the effects of playing violent video games. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 113-122.

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Anderson, C. A., Berkowitz, L., Donnerstein, E., Huesmann, L. R., Johnson, J. D., Linz, D., Malamuth, N. M., & Wartella, E. (2003). The influence of media violence on youth. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4(3), 81-110. Ashcroft. (2002). Ashcroft v. free speech coalition, 535 U.S. 234. Bailenson, J. N. (2006). Transformed social interaction in collaborative virtual environments. In P. Messaris & L. Humphreys (Eds.), Digital media: Transformations in human communication (pp. 255-264). New York: Peter Lang. Bailenson, J. N., Blascovich, J., Beall, A. C., & Loomis, J. M. (2003). Interpersonal distance in immersive virtual environments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1-15. Basdogan, C., Ho, C., Srinivasan, M. A., & Slater, M. (2000). An experimental study on the role of touch in shared virtual environments. ACM Transactions on Computer Human Interaction, 7(4), 443-460. Batman, C. D., Duncan, B. D., Ackerman, P., Buckley, T., & Birch, K. (1981). Is empathic emotion a source of altruistic motivation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(2), 290-302. Bennahum, D. (1994). Fly me to the moo: Adventures in textual reality. Lingua Franca, 1, 22-36. Berson, I. R. (2003). Grooming cybervictims: The psychosocial effects of online exploitation for youth. Journal of School Violence, 2(1), 5-18. Biocca, F., & Harms, C. (2002, July). Course 49: Understanding virtual environments: Immersion, presence, and performance; Social presence. SIGGRAPH Course Proceedings, San Antonio, TX. Bostdorff, D. M. (2004). The internet rhetoric of the ku klux klan: A case study in Web site

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community building run amok. Communication Studies, 55, 340-361. Carr, J. (2004). Child abuse, child pornography and the Internet. London: NCH. CEOP. (2007, June). Global online child abuse network smashed—CEOP lead international operation into UK based paedophile ring. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www. virtualglobaltaskforce.com/ Chung, R. C., & Bemak, F. (2002). The relationship of culture and empathy in cross-cultural counseling. Journal of Counseling & Development, 80(2),154-159. Davis, M. H., & Oathout, H. A. (1987). Maintenance of satisfaction in romantic relationships: Empathy and relational competence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(2), 397-410. Dawson, L. L., & Hennebry, J. (2004). New religions and the Internet: Recruiting in a new public space. In L. L. Dawson & D. E. Cowan (Eds.), Religion online: Finding faith on the Internet (pp. 151-176). London: Routledge. Dimitrova, D. V., & Beilock, R. (2005).Where freedom matters: Internet adoption among the former socialist countries. Gazette: The International Journal for Communication Studies, 67(2), 173-187. DOJ. (2000, March).The electronic frontier. Appendix C: Online child pornography, child luring, and related offenses. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/ append.htm Donnerstein, E. (1980). Aggressive-erotica and violence against women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(2), 269-277. Ellison, L., & Akdeniz, Y. (1998). Cyber-stalking: The regulation of harassment on the internet. Criminal Law Review, Special Edition: Crime, Criminal Justice and the Internet, 29-48.

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Frieden, T. (2001, March 26). Russia, U.S. arrest suspects in global child porn ring. CNN. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://archives.cnn. com/2001/LAW/03/26/child.porn.02/index.html Garau, M. (2006). Selective fidelity: Investigating priorities for the creation of expressive avatars. In R. Schroeder & A.-S. Axelsson (Eds.), Avatars at work and play: Collaboration and interaction in shared virtual environments (pp. 17-38). London: Springer. Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave/Macmillan. Gerhard, M., Moore, D., & Hobbs, D. (2004). Embodiment and copresence in collaborative interfaces. International Journal of Human Computer Studies, 61, 453-480. Giambruno, M. (1997). 3D graphics and animation: From start up to standing out. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders Publishing. Granovetter, M. (1982). The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited. In P. V. Marsden & N. Lin (Eds.), Social structure and network analysis (pp. 105-130). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Greenfield, P. M., Gross, E. F., Subrahmanyam, K., Suzuki, L., & Tynes, B. (2006). Teens on the Internet: Interpersonal connection, identity, and information. In R. Kraut, M. Brynin, & S. Kiesler (Eds.), Computers, phones, and the Internet: Domesticating information technology (pp. 185-200). UK: Oxford University Press. Grinter, R., & Eldridge, M. (2003, April). Wan2tlk? Everyday text messaging. In Proceedings of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Fort Lauderdale, FL; New York: ACM Press. Hamilton, B. H., Nickerson, J. A., & Owan, H. (2003). Team incentives and eorker heterogeneity: An empirical analysis of the impact of teams on

productivity and participation. Journal of Political Economy, 111(3), 465-497. Harms, C. (2007). Grooming—Part 1: An operational definition and coding scheme. Sex Offender Law Report, 8(1), 1-2, 9-12. Harms, C. (in press). Grooming—Part 2: Information-seeking tactics in social networking websites. Sex Offender Law Report. Henderson, H. (2005). Internet predators. New York: Facts On File, Inc. Hirokawa, R. Y., & Scheerhorn, D. R. (1986). Communication in faulty group decisionmaking. In R. Y. Hirokawa & M. S. Poole (Eds), Communication and group decision-making (pp. 63-80). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Janis, I. L. (1982). Groupthink: Psychological studies of policy decisions and fiascoes (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Kent, S. L. (2001). The ultimate history of video games. Roseville, CA: Prima. Kuttan, A., & Peters, L. (2003). From digital divide to digital opportunity. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Larkham, P. J., & Manns, S. (2002). Plagiarism and its treatment in higher education. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 26, 339-349. Lombard, M., & Ditton, T. (1997). At the heart of it all: The concept of presence. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 3(2). Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://ascusc. org/jcmc/vol3/issue2/lombard.html Malamuth, N. M., & Ceniti, J. (1986). Repeated exposure to violent and nonviolent pornography: Likelihood of raping ratings and laboratory aggression against women. Aggressive Behavior, 12(2), 129-137. Martin, D. F. (2005). Plagiarism and technology: A tool for coping with plagiarism. Journal of Education for Business, 80(3), 149-152. 1329

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Mortensen, J., Vinayagamoorthy, V., Slater, M., Steed, A., Lok, B., & Whitton, M. C. (2002, May). Collaboration in tele-immersive environments. In Eighth Eurographics Workshop on Virtual Environments (pp. 93-101).

between age and gender in cyberbullying: A report to the anti-bullying alliance. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.anti-bullyingalliance. org.uk/downloads/pdf/cyberbullyingreportfinal230106_000.pdf

Mulligan, J., & Patrovsky, B. (2003). Developing online games: An insider’s guide. Indiana: New Riders.

Sproule, S., & Archer, N. (2006, April). Defining identity theft: A discussion paper. Prepared for the Ontario Research Network in Electronic Commerce Identity Theft Research Program (pp. 1-37).

Nansel, T. R., Craig, W., Overpeck, M. D., Saluja, G., & Ruan, W. J. (2004). Cross-national consistency in the relationship between bullying behaviors and psychosocial adjustment. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 158, 730-736. Norris, P. (2001). Digital divide? Civic engagement, information poverty and the Internet in democratic societies. New York: Cambridge University Press. O’Rourke, J. S., Harris, B., & Ogilvy, A. (2007). Google in China: Government censorship and corporate reputation. Journal of Business Strategy, 28(3), 12-22. Patchin, J. W., & Hinduja, S. (2006). Bullies move beyond the schoolyard: A preliminary look at cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 4(2), 148-169. Pew Internet. (2006, April). Internet penetration and impact. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/182/report_display.asp Reinig, B., Briggs, R., & Nunamaker, J. (1998). Flaming in the electronic classroom. Journal of Management Information Systems, 14(3), 45-59. Ricchiardi, S. (2007). Distorted picture. American Journalism Review, Aug/Sept. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.ajr.org/Article. asp?id=4383 Smith, P., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., & Tippett, N. (2006). An investigation into cyberbullying, its forms, awareness and impact, and the relationship 1330

Stupak, B. (2006, July 26). Deleting Online Predators Act of 2006: Discussion by the United States House of Representative Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.govtrack.us/congress/record.xpd?id=109-h20060726-41 USDOJ. (2000, March). The electronic frontier: The challenge of unlawful conduct involving the use of the internet. A Report of the President’s Working Group on Unlawful Conduct on the Internet. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www. usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/unlawful.htm U.S. ITAD ACT. (1998). U.S. Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.ftc.gov/os/statutes/ itada/itadact.htm Wolak, J., Mitchell, K. J., & Finkelhor, D. (2006). Online victimization of youth: Five years later. Alexandria, VA: National Center for Missing and Exploited Children. Yee, N. (2006). The psychology of MMORPGs: Emotional investment, motivations, relationship formation, and problematic usage. In R. Schroeder & A. Axelsson (Eds.), Avatars at work and play: Collaboration and interaction in shared virtual environments. London: Springer-Verlag.

Key terms Cyber-Bullying: Psychological aggression facilitated via mediated communication technologies where as often times anonymous individuals

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repeatedly harassment, intimidation, taunt, ridicule, threaten, and spread rumors about another individual. Desensitization: The elimination of the natural reactivity to a topic or behavior as a result of continual internalization of language and images. Exploitation: Manipulating and taking advantage of others vulnerability and naivity, often through financially or sexually. Fidelity: Accuracy in representation in both level of detail and completeness of information.

Grooming: The communication process by which a perpetrator applies affinity seeking strategies, while simultaneously engaging in sexual desensitization and information acquisition about targeted victims in order to develop relationships that result in perceived need fulfillment. Mediated Social Environments: Internetbased Web sites or portals that allow individuals to exist (presenting profiles and digital representations of their “self”) and interact with others via synchronous and asynchronous communication channels. Multimodal: Related to, using, or identified by two or more formats.

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Section IX

Appendix:

Glossary of Terms

Each of the chapters in this book contains 7-10 key terms that have been defined by the authors of that chapter. Those key terms help readers with new concepts or to understand how the author(s) operationally defined terms key to their research. In this appendix, I have asked Clark Aldrich and Joseph DiPietro to describe and define a collection of terms that are important to understanding educational gaming. Many of these terms have also been operationally defined throughout this book. This final glossary is not meant to be all encompassing, but rather to provide a start to the shared conversation about the jargon used in educational gaming research, policy, and practice. The purpose of this appendix is to provide readers with a look at some of the key terms used by educators, researchers, and policymakers when discussing educational gaming.

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Appendix A

An Overview of Gaming Terminology: Chapters I – LXXVI Clark Aldrich SimuLearn, USA Joseph C. DiPietro University of Florida, USA

AbstrAct This appendix introduces and defines commonly used terms and phrases from the world of video gaming. It seeks to bridge the gaps between researchers, gamers, and educators so that a more thoughtful and productive conversation may be had. The authors hope that this appendix adds to the understanding of and appreciation for both consumer-based and educational video games, furthers academic research within this field, and serves as a valuable tool for anyone interested in learning more about video games and related terminology. Fifty-two entries are discussed within this appendix serving as a solid, yet not all-encompassing, foundation for future inquiry and discussion.

introduction This appendix seeks to highlight and explore important terminology used within the sphere of gaming; both educational and consumerbased markets are discussed. The information serving as the foundation of this appendix may also be found at Clark Aldrich’s Style Guide for Serious Games and Simulations available at

http://clarkaldrich.blogspot.com. Some terms have been bolstered with extension websites, articles, or studies for optional review by the reader. This list is by no means exhaustive and seeks only to provide a foundation of critical terms that have permeated the lexicon of game researchers and players alike. The dynamic nature of language is inherently expansive and, in these exponential times specifically, simply keeping up with the terms and

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

An Overview of Gaming Terminology

vocabulary within a given field can be an arduous task. The terms discussed in the following pages are not meant to be the be-all and end-all regarding the language of gaming but rather a starting point for interested researchers, educators, and readers. The intent of the authors is to empower and share so that more informed voices may join the conversation and better direct the future course of gaming research and development. 1. Advergames A fairly recent phenomenon within the gaming world is the introduction of the concept of advergames. The term has evolved to encompass both free and pay-for-play games developed by businesses or major companies. The purpose of these games is often to promote a product or service. As Hein (2006, p. 15) puts it, “the allure of advergames for marketers is simple: create a game that consumers might actually want to play, so they will spend an extended period of time with the brand.” The initial goal of advertisers and companies was to reach the niche market of males aged 13to-34 through video game content (Stanley, 2006). The success of advergames is growing by the day with more and more companies rolling out titles. A notable and recent advergame found fast food giant Burger King working with Microsoft in order to release a series of Xbox games centered on Burger King characters. 2. Alignment Alignment refers to the condition or skill of influencing or creating positive or negative associations between factions, people, or ideas. Politicians set up activities like PR operations and perform actions like shaking hands or appearing in news clips to seek to form alignment with groups of people. Corporations try to create alignment between consumers and their products, often through branding. Creating productive alignments is often called “winning the hearts and minds” in a war. Alignment may also be referred to as faction. 1334

3. Alternate reality game (ARG) Alternate reality games can best be thought of as “incredibly complex scavenger hunts, using puzzle solving, trivia, travel and online communities” (Telling, p. 114). Oftentimes, some component of the game takes place in “real” life supplemented by computer interactions of some kind. Online ARGs are growing in popularity thanks in large to the community that not only creates but supports them. For more information on ARGs, refer to http://www.argn.com. This website, Alternate Reality Gaming Network, is home to a host of useful information, examples, definitions, and related material all focused on ARGs. The user community is supportive and knowledgeable making the learning curve of this game genre much more manageable. 4. Asynchronous A conversation or communication that is either turn-based (where the response comes minutes, hours, or even days after the query, as opposed to real-time), or where one side has much more to say (or information to pass) than the other side. Emails and chat rooms are asynchronous for the first reason, and movie trailer downloads are asynchronous for the second reason. In casual conversation, asynchronous can mean one-way; this term is the opposite of synchronous. 5. Attributes Qualitative descriptions of the way a unit or map location interacts with its environment, including with other units, maps, and systems. Attributes also answer the question, how do units or locations differ from other units or locations? And how does one unit or location differ from an earlier or later version of itself, including amounts of energy? Attributes show variation in units. For example, in Transport Giant, vehicle units have 15 attributes, including cost, road requirements,

An Overview of Gaming Terminology

acceleration, maximum speed, speed in curves, carrying capacity, and traction. Different units in different sims need different attributes. For example, “freshness” or “flammability” might be relevant for some and irrelevant for others. Map squares can also have attributes. Some attributes are strengthened through use, such as a character’s skill in negotiating, and others are weakened by using, such as a piece of rope. One type of attribute is the way others interact with it. For example, the attribute of a toaster might include the animation of a character putting bread in it, pushing down the plunger, and then coming for it when it is done. Attributes are almost always capped. When randomly generated, attributes often follow bell curves. Also called stats. 6. Augmented reality game An augmented reality game is a game which incorporates an augmented view for the player. Perhaps the best explanation of this term can be reached by examining the components of this augmented view. An augmented view combines the real world, a virtual world, and (optionally) a heads up display (HUD). For example, doctors might operate on patients using video goggles that present an aggregated view of internal organs, computer generated blood flow, and primary variables such as heart rate. For a research-based perspective on augmented reality games, refer to the following study: Liarokapis, F. (2006). An exploration from virtual to augmented reality gaming. Simulation & Gaming, 37(4), 507. 7. Avatar In the sim display, an avatar is the abstracted or virtual representation of a person or other

character; the player’s “physical” presence in the game world or play space. The avatar can be the form of an abstracted person, vehicle, animal, or even a completely abstract token. The avatar, often some form of character, is almost always capable of movement. The avatar is often the hero of a story that provides context and motivation for specific tasks/quests. The location of the avatar on a map or the relationship to another unit can activate a context specific trigger, such as in-game tips/directions, the sound of traffic if the avatar is near a road, or a context specific menu, such as the opportunity to talk if the avatar is near another character, or even use a copier if the avatar is near a copier. Often the object of a game is to get the avatar to certain key locations. The camera’s point of view in a virtual world often is governed by the position of the player’s avatar, either first person, third person, overhead, or isometric. Being able to see your avatar during the course of the simulation enables more complex actions, and also creates a stronger sense of character. The avatar can be customized in many ways. The look of the avatar can be customized as game element to add levels of “buy-in.” This includes changing wardrobe, face, or even importing a photograph. The avatar has certain attributes, such as speed, health, and persuasiveness. The abilities of the avatar can often be increased or decreased, either permanently or temporarily, through various activities including found power-ups and the accomplishment of certain quests. In role-playing frameworks, the player might have choices in terms of development opportunities, such as between increasing sales skills or technical skills. Avatars can also represent a person in a chat room or other community tools. In many tycoon games, god games, and strategy games, the player is not represented by an avatar.

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8. Backstory The story before the story, or, what happens before the student/player joins in. Backstories provide motivation for many characters, explanations for any out-of-the-ordinary starting conditions, are often written early on in the development process, and are stored in the project’s story bible. Most backstories for sims, if directly shared with students/players at all, are static and told in cut scenes or browseable documents. But in cold-war dictator-sim Tropico, players choose their own back-story for bonuses. For example, if players choose their dictator to have risen to power through a CIA coup, the dictator begins with a better relationship with the United States. Here, the dictator-to-be starts as a leftist author, which increases his or her starting alignment with certain communist and worker factions, as well as provides other perks. The backstory of a hero in a hero’s journey is, by design, mundane. 9. Blog An online journal, updated regularly, often with links to other items on the Internet, with the goal of reflection and/or sharing thoughts. Blogs, derived from the term web log, often allow others to comment. Increasingly, students are asked to keep blogs in conjunction with courses that involves significant “outside the classroom/doing” experience. This is both to get credit for time spent and also to reflect on the experiences. For example, if, throughout a course, students are asked to explore Second Life on their own, they might write on it once a week. Or, if a students were learning leadership or project management or other big skills, they might use the skills in real life situations, and reflect on their blog how successful or not they have been. 10. Boss A boss is a powerful, end of level antagonistic unit.

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The exaggerated attributes of bosses can include size, speed, and energy. The most powerful boss, sometimes called a big boss or master boss, is typically at the end of the last level of the sim. These bosses may also have significance in the plot, such as being a recurring antagonist; thus their defeat moves the story along as well. The defeat of a boss is often followed by a cut scene. 11. Branching story An educational simulation genre in which students make a series of multiple choice decisions to progress through and impact an event (or story). Specifically, students start with a briefing; they advance to a first multiple-choice decision point, or branch; then, based on the decision/action they make, they see a scene that provides some feedback, advances the story, and then sets up another decision; students continue making decisions, traversing some of the available branches, until they either “win” or “lose,” by reaching either a successful or unsuccessful final state. Students then get some type of after-action review. 12. Character and character attachment A unit or avatar with distinctiveness, depth, unique competencies, and/or attractiveness, often with some pre-scripted part, and with which the player has some emotional interest or connection. Characters can invoke endearment, humor, or competition. Characters are described through looks, animation, dialogue, story, strategies, and tactics/abilities. A character, for example, might speak in colloquialisms. Characters might have important roles to play in any story, including hero’s journey archetypes such as mentor or villain, and themselves have backstories. Some characters have unique AIs (artificial intelligences) that prioritize certain behaviors. Finally, character can die. Other uses of character:

An Overview of Gaming Terminology

• • •

An end of level boss might have a strong character. Any hero is almost always a character. Players should align towards some characters and away from other characters. Also called personality.

13. Complex games A type of computer game that represents investments of time and resources to create on par with those that are commercially viable today, between 5 and 20 million dollars if developed in the United States. A complex game typically has advanced graphics, campaign/single and multiplayer options, complex systems, and compelling and well-honed gameplay. The gameplay expected is between 15 and 50 hours. Typically and inevitably, a player learns high level skills, such as personal responsibility for results and problem solving. Most first person shooters (FPS) are examples of complex games. In contrast, all current educational simulation genres like interactive spreadsheets or branching stories are not. For educational simulation genres, practiceware comes closest to sharing the attributes of a complex game. Opposite of simple or mini game. 14. Cut scenes Full motion video triggered to present backstories, awards, briefings, and end of level resolution, as well as other level milestones. In cut scenes, the participant looses all control except to possibly skip the scene. Care must be given to make sure cut scenes are task-relevant, not task-redundant. Cut scenes work best when short, less than a minute. If the same game engine is used to render the cut-scene as the core gameplay, and the cut-scene happens in the middle of a task, black bars conventionally appear at the top and bottom of the

screen to give a letterbox, wide-screen appearance, to differentiate it from the interactive portions. 15. Digital divide The term digital divide refers to “haves and have-nots” in the realm of technology. Socioeconomic factors play a large part in the allocation and disbursement of technology, and a great deal of contemporary educational technology literature is devoted to decreasing or eradicating the gap in technology access for all. For more information regarding the digital divide, refer to the following resources: http://www.digitaldivide.net Mehra, B., Merkel, C., & Bishop, A. P. (2004). The Internet for empowerment of minority and marginalized users. New Media & Society, 6(6), 781. Digital immigrants / Digital natives An interesting component of digital divide research is the concept of digital immigrants and natives. As one would think, a digital native is someone having grown up surrounded by and immersed in technology. A great number of today’s students would fall into this category. Sadly, a great number of the educators that work with them would be considered digital immigrants as they are either late adopters of technology or perhaps prone to exhibiting Luddite tendencies. Refer to http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/default.asp for further information on the digital divide, digital natives, and digital immigrants. 16. Educational simulation Educational simulations are a broad genre of immersive learning simulations that focus on increasing participants’ mastery level in the real world. Educational simulations differ from computer games in that they:

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• •

• • • •

Do not have a goal of being fun for participants; Are part of a formal learning program, and are built primarily to nurture specific learning goals in participants (called students or learners), while adhering to program goals, to achieve desired results. As such, they are often chosen or paid for indirectly by program sponsors, not the participants themselves; Often are supported by real coaches/facilitators; Tend to have lower production values than full, complex game; Focus on replay using different approaches; and May be uniquely critical tools for developing middle skills and big skills;

Yet like with all sims, educational simulations: •

• •

•

Require participants to necessarily develop skills, and do so through emergent learning; Can be single player, multiplayer, or massively multiplayer; Are first described in design document, before programmed, debugged, and distributed; Can be complex or mini.

Educational simulations, which like serious games are a type of immersive learning simulation, include the genres of: • • • •

practiceware; interactive spreadsheets; virtual experience space; branching story.

17. Edugames / Edutainment Both of these terms mean exactly what one would expect: the mixing of education with some

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other medium. Edugames are a genre of games often centered on drill and practice type activities. Parents and educators feel they can trust the software manufactures in many situations when the prefix “edu-“ is placed on a video game package. Edutainment is a much broader genre. It could include edugames but also incorporates educational television and music as well as other digital multimedia. For more information on edugames, refer to: Vogel, C. (2007). Games Students Play. District Administration, 43(5), 43-46.

to:

For more information on edutainment, refer

Okan, Z. (2003). Edutainment: is learning at risk? British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(3), 255-264. 18. Endogenous educational games The term endogenous refers to a variable in a system that is only impacted by the system itself, not external forces. An endogenous view of a system looks only within the system for cause and effect. For more information on endogenous educational games, refer to the following article: Habgood, M. P. J., Ainsworth, S. E., & Benford, S. (2005). Endogenous fantasy and learning in digital games. Simulation & Gaming, 36(4), 483. 19. ESRB (Entertainment Software Rating Board) According to their website, the ESRB is “a non-profit, self-regulatory body established in 1994 by the Entertainment Software Association (ESA).” Essentially, the role of the ESRB is to assign ratings to video games in a similar fashion as to how movies are rated. Adult themes will

An Overview of Gaming Terminology

qualify a game for a more mature rating while innocuous puzzles and similar content would earn a more family- or child-friendly rating. For more information on software ratings, refer to http://www.esrb.org. 20. Extended reality game See alternate reality game; the two are very similar in concept. Extended reality games are becoming more indicative of mass media spin offs from film and television. Only time will tell if a true split occurs between alternate and extended reality games. 21. Fantasy This term refers to increasing engagement through the game technique of having the opportunity in a virtual world to do something that you want to do but would not or could not or in the real world. Arthurian legend and medieval themes are often imbued into the fantasy content found in many role-playing games. Other themes of fantasy, ranging from war to building amusement parks, may be seen in various gaming titles. 22. First person shooter A computer game genre in which the player seeing the world through the eyes of his or her onscreen counterpart, usually down the barrel of a weapon. The player is a fantasy hero. FPS interface The interface is built around movement and aiming. The point of view is first person, augmented with a heads up display (HUD). FPS systems The player traverses a 3D map in real-time, trying to reach key locations and solving simple puzzles while shooting (winning conflict by clicking quickly and accurately) and being shot at by artificial intelligence (AI) controlled avatars. Primary attributes include health/armor, loca-

tion on map, amount of supplies, and perhaps capability. The genre is mature; it has evolved dramatically. It consists of complex games. As the title implies, like branching stories, it is first person. Unlike branching stories, you can move around physically, which is satisfying. The physics, interface, graphics, level design, and puzzles are all so much more refined than even ten years ago. Innovative games have added sneaking around, decisions about which weapons to bring, even what skills to upgrade. When one adds up all of the developer time spent on creating and improving the genre over the years, it probably adds up to about a billion dollars of research and development. Few other computer applications have been the recipient of so many resources. The result is that most FPSs are very accessible. On the other hand, FPSs are optimized around fun, not learning. The underlying framework is not very interesting. There are very few real activities in the last few centuries that line up with the systems and interface that are modeled in FPSs (traversing mazes, finding, picking up, and delivering things, killing things). 23. Flow Flow refers to the mental state of immersion and clarity. Athletes often refer to “being in the zone;” this is characteristic of flow. Proposed by psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, the term has made its way into a number of fields including video game research. For more information on flow and its role in gaming, refer to the following article: Kiili, K. (2005). Digital game-based learning: Towards an experiential gaming model. The Internet and Higher Education, 8(1), 13-24. 24. Game-based models With the goal of “making learning fun,” students engage familiar games and puzzles such as

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Wheel of Fortune, solitaire, or memory, with important pieces of awareness or task-based content replacing trivia or icons. For example, the player might have to answer a correct question to draw the next card in a solitaire game. While making heavy use of game elements, and being more diagnostic than instructional, gamebased models work well to support compliance programs and other situations where broad audiences need to cover some basic information. Examples may be found at http://www.vocabulary.co.il/index_main.php. 25. Heads up display (HUD) In a display, the pedagogical technique of superimposing information on one’s first person point of view/field of view creating an augmented view; the information can be about one’s internal state, such as energy, including health. It may include lists of tasks. The information can be about the external world, such as a compass, clock, signal strength of wireless networks, bread crumbs, and locations of objectives, friends/buddies, or foes. It can provide access to alternative points of view, such as overhead, and present these either in a toggled full screen or in an embedded radar, with photographic or abstracted quality. It can also potentially use different lenses and filters, such as infrared, x-ray, or motion sensitive. HUD elements also might do some analysis, such as an enemy units’ probable location in five seconds based on current movement, identification of landmarks, facial recognition, ETA to next coordinates, or other situational awareness. In sims Some sims/games allow users to configure what information their HUD presents, the amount of transparency, and sometimes even the color scheme. Many sims allow participants to toggle between different HUD levels (full, light, and off), and individual elements.

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Dreamwork’s Trespasser tried not to use any HUD, as the designer’s felt it ruined the fidelity of the experience. Instead, the main character would say key pieces of information, such as “Hmm, I’d better climb up that hill,” as if talking to herself. Because HUD graphic elements light up one part of the display for a long period of time, they increase the chance of burn-in on a monitor. 26. Health One type of energy that, when depleted, causes the unit to die. It can be physical health, political relevance, financial health, even organizational tolerance (when it is gone, a unit is fired/expelled). 27. Hero In relation to video games, a hero is the character that, often uniquely, can bring about success in an experience. There are literature genres, including myths and inspiration examples, around the hero’s journey. These include specific character archetypes such as mentor/guide, gatekeeper, and villain/ boss; specific moments such as gaining possession of a rare and powerful item and battling in arenas; and even acts such as introduction, establishment of problem, or resolution of problem. In sims In single-player computer games and serious games the player becomes the person, represented by an avatar, who has the power to save the day, and/or make all of the decisions. This is a standard game element across all game genres. But this role of “a hero” is less appropriate in many educational simulations. Programming the user to be the hero has fidelity issues. Should a designer give the participant the unique power to make a difference? If yes, the sim feels false; if no, the sim is unsatisfying. Heroes often break rules, something that every centralized department hates. Yet, every good

An Overview of Gaming Terminology

organization rewards heroes with praise, even if it is along the narrow definition of performing a traditional activity with unusual vigor. Here, perhaps, the model of massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPGs) becomes the best. Teams come together to overcome tough obstacles by fitting together to accomplish goals. This not only works from a gameplay, but also in real life. 28. Interactive narrative Requiring or reacting to input from the user. In a real-time interactive situation, no input is still an input. 29. Interactive spreadsheets An educational simulation genre in which students typically try to impact three or four critical metrics indirectly by allocating finite resources along competing categories over a series of turns/intervals. Students get feedback on their decisions through graphs and charts after each interval. The entire sim might continue for between 3 and 20 intervals. For example, the head of a non-profit organization might try to optimize the variables of funding and impact to community by allocating his or her time during the course of each week between: • • • • •

fund-raising; creating new services; doing menial tasks; doing paper-work; and evaluating existing services.

This is often done in a multi-player or teambased environment, with significant competition between learners, and often with a coach/facilitator. Interactive spreadsheets are often the cornerstones of multi-day programs to align a fractured department or organization by building shared knowledge and understanding.

Interactive spreadsheets typically focus on business school issues such as policy, supply chain management, product life-cycle, accounting, and general cross-functional business acumen. Despite the genre name, spreadsheets are not a platform for deploying these models, although may be used in the design document. Their subtlety, unpredictability, and variability make them appropriate for training business school students and high-potential supervisors through the direct reports to the CEO. They require, and are a pure introduction to, dynamic systems. Some interactive spreadsheets also use cut scenes to set up a scenario and provide feedback. Also called business acumen simulations or systems dynamic simulations. 30. Inventory An accumulator for items in possession of a resource, structure, unit, or character. At a personal scale, an inventory is what a character is carrying. In a sim, it can either be infinite (determined by what a character has found so far), or finite. Finite inventories can be limited by an absolute number (e.g. a character can have seven items), or by carrying capacity (some items are larger or heavier than others, therefore taking up more “room”). Where inventories are finite, choosing what to bring and what to leave becomes strategic. 31. Isometric In a display, a participant’s point of view in the world that is between first person and overhead view, much the way fans watch a football game when they are in the bleachers. Ideally, an isometric view captures some of the excitement of “being there,” and some of the perspective of seeing a strategic/contextual view. Also known as three quarter’s view.

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32. Maps Almost all games and sims use maps. From Chess to Monopoly to Defender to The Sims to World of Warcraft, the concept of a map focuses the activities. Card games are an interesting exception. This is not surprising, as maps are a critical part of the context of life. Maps are where units exist. Humans, with an optical bias for yellowblue light as an example, are optimized for Earth. One’s location on a map determines so much, from country of birth to locating a specific gate in an airport. Finally, taking possession of a map is often a critical step in a hero’s journey. Different places on the map have different values. Therefore, maps are often the context of competition. Players strive for control, management, growth, personalization, and optimization of their part of the map, incursions, take-overs, and surgical strikes in other parts. Players have to allocate resources strategically across a map (given where strengths are, and where the player wants to go, and player’s tolerance for risk/failure, where is the next best move). In some cases there are self-balancing (or need to be balanced) ecosystem, perhaps more in Tycoon games than others. There might even be vacuums, places that are easy to move into, or well defended places that are very hard to move into.

make the player a President or CEO and therefore purchases and achievements are entire buildings and control is at a country scale.

Maps as levels Maps provide the world for computer games, and often contain maze attributes.

33. Microcosms The genre of real environments/experiences that serves as a case study, analogy, or training ground for a larger, more important, and less controllable environment.

Maps in big skills The role of maps in educational simulations that focus on big skills like leadership and relationship management (other than the easy logistical and sales and marketing issues) is less clear but more important. Some maps zoom in and present analogies and microcosms (i.e. running a single office demonstrates all of the skills of running an international non-profit organization). Some maps zoom out and

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Conceptual maps Finally, there are conceptual maps, include process, organizational, and market maps. And people try to contain secrets or market positions just as much as water and crime scenes and private property. Layers Maps come in layers. Layers can include: • • • • • • • •

Global condition or capability Climate Territories Units Structures Geography/Topology Infrastructure Resources Saving locations Favorite locations can be bookmarked.

Abstractions Maps can be abstracted into state based models, such on a checker board or other game board.

• • • •

A lemonade stand can be a microcosm for any business. Growing a garden can be a microcosm to develop stewardship. Running a meeting can be a microcosm for Leadership. Social Networking can be a microcosm for working in a community.

An Overview of Gaming Terminology

•

Running a business unit can be a microcosm for being CEO.

Real-world microcosms can potentially have as much pedagogy and coaching and structure as an educational simulation, and while more expensive and impossible to fully scale, are also less contrived. As with a sim, microcosms encourage emergent learning. Unlike a sim, however, microcosms can take a long time to play out, are "unfair," and are susceptible to noise. Microcosms are also necessary in designing a simulation interface as part of the abstraction process. For example, a meeting can present a microcosm for all leadership. 34. Mini games The genre of small, easy-to-access sims. Mini games are “one-note” in terms of gameplay, built to be addictive, and often focus on simple actions and abstracted systems. Mini games uses: • Editorial Take Back Illinois http://www.takebackillinoisgame.com/play.aspx

• Explanation Binary Numbers http://forums.cisco.com/CertCom/game/binary _ game.swf

Dean for America game http://www.deanforamericagame.com/play.html

Running a business http://spapps.go.com/hsb4/landing/

•

Marketing/messaging

Dr. Pepper Speedway Rush http://www.medcalf.com/games/racing/index.html

General Electric’s Ecomagination http://geoterra.ecomagination.com/indexFlash.html

Monster.com Climbing the Corporate Ladder http://promotions.monster.com/ladder/game/game. html

•

Commerce

Where players will play a few free levels, and then buy the full game. Mini games can sometimes provide an awareness of some more complicated issue. Mini games are often created in Adobe Flash, sometimes in less than three weeks, resulting in generally a lower cost than other genres of sims. The visual style of mini-games is closer to comics or illustration than photograph. Mini games are the opposite of complex games and practiceware; they may be best compared with game based models. 35. Massive multiplayer online game (MMOG) Persistent virtual worlds, exhibiting varying of degrees social networking and sim, that are capable of concurrently hosting hundreds (and often thousands, or tens of thousands) of real people, and in which participants can both enter and exit in an open-ended manner and are enabled to meaningfully interact (including instant message, perform tasks/objectives/goal/missions, trade, and create artifacts) with each other and the environment. Participants are often represented as avatars. MMOs can include unstructured environments such as Second Life, and games, called (MMORPGs), such as World of Warcraft (WoW). MMOs as educational As with real role-plays, the ability of MMO’s to serve as an educational simulations and produce specific learning goals is completely dependent on the activities of the other participants. Creat-

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ing two sides, say cowboys and Indians, is only valid if the participants on the cowboy side actually behave as real cowboys, and the players on the Indian side actually behave as real Indians. Otherwise, the result could just as easily be negative training. MMOs may also be called Virtual Interactive Environments (VIEs). 36. Massive multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) MMORPGs may best be thought of as MMOs that incorporate elements of fantasy and role-playing. Subscribers often pay a monthly service fee in order to access their virtual world of choice. For more information on MMORPGs and respective subscriber data, refer to http://www. mmogchart.com. 37. Mods A mini-program that changes aspects of a commercial off the shelf (COTS) computer games. The word mod is short for custom modification. Mods can add or change levels, skins and models, items available, cheats, special effects, interface options, and game balancing. Mods cannot change the underlying game genre. In some situations, serious games, although not educational simulations, can be created from modding computer games. The culture of modding Mods are created by people called “modders.” The act of creating a mod is called “modding.” Modders are often very dedicated to their activities, and can work in elaborate teams and spend more time modding than their full time job. Some modders aspire to be professional game developers. Mods can increase the value of a computer game, and are often encouraged by the game developer and distributor. Mods can be downloaded from fan sites. In cultures around games that are

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heavily modded, a non-modded version of the game is called a vanilla version. Web delivered applications cannot be modded, but can be hacked. Modding and the future of learning Modding will enable a role for students as content creators, not just consumers. They might take an existing historical sim built on a project management genre engine (say, constructing a barn in colonial New England), and rebuild it to apply to their sports team’s fund-raiser, or the characters of a movie executing a plan to take over the world, or whatever interests them. Building and modding sims, and even evolving, open-source genre engines, will be a critical job for schools. A backlash against modding Computer game companies may reduce the ability of the users to mod their games. This is because of a combination of both some users creating and distributing anti-social mods, such as “nude” skins for The Sims or Oblivion and the infamous Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas Hot Coffee Mod, and the public, press, and politicians holding game companies responsible for third party mods. 38. Movement Movement refers to the broad attribute of a unit to change locations on a map. For example, living things move towards sources of health, including plants towards sunlight and associate professors towards recognition and grants. All maps have one or more layers of topographies including ease of travel and value. Specific movement attributes include: • • •

cost of travel; speed (a critical function of any chase, as well as most processes and activities); accessible terrains and locations (including the ability to go through certain doors);

An Overview of Gaming Terminology

• • •

noise of travel; range; and carrying capacity/inventory.

Movement and AI (artificial intelligence) Even in a simulation, moving requires significant AI, including finding the right path to travel. 39. Multiplayer An environment, such as a game, electronic space, or online forum, that involves more than one participant. •

•

• • • •

•

•

•

Many multiplayer environments are synchronous - the players engage each other in real-time. The players can simple co-exist and communicate, compete with each other, form teams that compete with each other, or collaborate. Players are often represented by avatars. In some situations, an AI controlled player can take the place of a real player. A first time or inexperienced player in a multiplayer environment is called a newbie. An administrator sets up certain attributes, such as victory conditions, maps/arena, passwords, and populations size. Then participants might wait in a lobby, before everyone joins in. Some servers/hosts have matchmaking abilities to bring together players of similar skill levels. Massive multiplayer online role playing games, in contrast, use persistent environments. Even a multiplayer sim needs a single player training level.

In a sim The opportunities and risk of multiplayer in educational simulation can be understood in microcosm by looking at the issue of directing

people. In a multiplayer sim, participants can communicate with other real participants naturally, such as via open-ended speech or text. But the pedagogical opportunity to shape how and why participants talk to each other has to be only in the briefing and debriefing. 40. Multi-user virtual environments (MUVE) MUVEs are also called virtual worlds. These environments encompass the virtual spaces in which avatars exist and interact for MMOs and other multiplayer online games. 41. Newbie A person who is new to a technology in general, or to a specific genre, application, or computer game. The term newbie is used as a designation in, and relative to, a community such as in a chat room or multiplayer game. The term can either be derisive (“You are such a newbie”) or self-effacing (“I know I am a newbie, but I can’t figure out...”). In some environments, newbies are prey for more advanced players. With experience, newbies become full participants/players. Also called novice, noob, or nub. 42. Overhead view In the sim display, a point of view/field of view of the virtual world that is looking straight down, as if from a helicopter. Ideally, an overhead view provides a strategic/contextual view. Also called tops down or down shot. 43. Point of view (POV) In the sim display, the part of the virtual world that a participant sees at any given point. A point of view (POV) can be described in position, direction, angle, and lens (such as wide-angle). Also known as camera or view.

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Similar to a mouse-over, the point of view can serve as a basic input: where one is looking can impact where one moves, the reactions of other characters (looking at a character might have them look back at the participant, even asking a question), or invoke a menu or basic inputs. 44. Power-ups Increasing engagement through the game technique of using items, such as cards, that can be spent to give a player or side a temporary advantage. These items can be part of initial conditions, bought, or awarded after a victory. Power-ups can be obstructed, either from other players or even from the player before bought or traded. Using a hidden power-up can, but not necessarily, reveal it to the other players. Parker Brothers’ Monopoly game has the single most famous power-up, the “Get out of Jail Free” card. Certain genres have standard power-ups. In a racing game a conventional power-up provides the ability to go faster for a short period of time, often called nitro or turbo. 45. Practiceware The educational simulation genre that encourages participants to repeat actions in high fidelity real-time, often 3D situations, until the skills become natural in the real-world counterpart. The first practiceware genre was the flight simulator, used for training pilots. Pieces of practiceware The practiceware interface constantly presents participants with five to twenty different actions, aligned with real-world options, many that require mastery of split-second timing (when to do an action) and magnitude (how hard to do an action). Practiceware also model complex “internal” systems, that:

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• •

are impacted through participant actions; that in turn produce the results.

In summary, the actions impact the system; the system gets the results. Role of practiceware Practiceware is used for learning goals that include implicit knowledge and can be a significant piece of a mastery level program. Practiceware has at least some of the production attributes of a complex game. Its typically high development cost makes it more efficient for most implementing organizations to buy “off-theshelf” or configured rather than built from scratch or even customized. 46. Role-playing game (RPG) This term refers to the educational simulation genre where students practice some real world skills by interacting with other real people, including other students and instructors/actors, with everyone assuming some roles and/or characters. Some role-plays are short, about ten minutes, while others may span out across days, or even part time for an entire semester. Role-plays are a well understood genre of simulations, and highly regarded by formal learning professionals. Their interface, for example, is nearly perfect. They greatly support the learning goals of application of new content and mastery level, and reduce the risk of choking under pressure. However, they have several drawbacks: • •

They tend to be "one-shot," and do not allow participants to repeatedly practice skills. They are very expensive and do not benefit from any economies of scale. At one extreme, it might take five or six instructors to support just one end-learner, such as in a commercial airplane simulator or a senior manager role-play.

An Overview of Gaming Terminology

• •

•

Access to role-plays tends to be very limited. They have fidelity issues in that actors and players may take the simulation more seriously at the beginning of the day and less so as the day wears on. Often, only one or two people are role-playing, while the rest of a class is watching and/or learning.

transferable to the real world, with an interface optimized for quick engagement. Compared to computer games, serious games have specific learning goals and desired results, and often lower production values than a full complex game. 48. Seven types of simulation in a sim

Even though ease of deployment is an issue, most instructors are more likely to support roleplays over other types of sims. While vendors of branching stories are quick to call their experiences virtual role-plays, their multiple choice interface precludes an interpersonal fidelity necessary for legitimate claim to the phrase. Massively multiplayer online environments (MMOs) have a stronger claim, for better or worse, on replicating role-plays. Role-plays are typically used to train peoplefacing roles (including training sales people), and any role that may have to deal with an emergency. 47. Serious games A type of sim that increases awareness of a real-world topics and that can be used both for entertainment and in learning programs. Serious games, the next generation of edutainment, draw from both computer game and educational simulation genres. Some would say that a goal of serious games is stealth learning: learning transferable content without realizing it. Serious games might be most epitomized by the genres of: • •

mini games; game based models.

Compared to educational simulations, serious games tend to be more fun/engaging, with lower fidelity, and with greater abstraction, and less

We all play variations on this type of scenarios: What if someone from two hundred years ago watched us live today? What if an ancestor watched us, say, wash dishes? The steps we took, from scraping off the remaining food, to loading up the dishwasher, to putting some form of soap in a small box, to running the disposal, to pressing some buttons and turning a knob, to walking away for an hour, would seem like we were performing mystical incantations. More specifically, some steps would make sense, some would seem random, and some steps would actually appear to the opposite of what we should be doing. Here are other examples of successful uses of systems:

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•

• •

• • •

A couple falls in love with a house on the market. But when the sales person enters the room, they act disinterested. A project manager, with a deadline fast approaching, fires two programmers. A health-conscious actress, a week before a big scene, injects a neurotoxin into her face. An environmentalist forester cuts down a third of the trees in a grove. A dieter eats a large breakfast. A doctor deliberately exposes a patient to a small quantity of a fatal virus.

The Invisible Layer Systems are the often invisible layer between what we do (action) and what we get (results). Thus some people are continuously surprised by unintended consequences; naively optimizing just one part of a complicated system may have no positive impact on the entire system, and possibly a negative impact. Meanwhile, other people perform concise actions and get remarkable results. These are the people who understand and can use the invisible systems. “Going to where the puck will be, not to where it is now” requires a working knowledge of the system. These hidden systems are often given names, such as “the glass ceiling” or “the invisible hand of the market.”

Our world is filled with systems, as complex as the universe or simpler than a light switch. Complicated systems are made up of simpler systems, equations, variables, relationships, processes, units, and actions. There are seven different techniques for building out educational systems in sims, all compatible with each other, overlapping, scalable, and recursive. 1. Pure Mathematical System Some systems are purely mathematical, where, for example, primary variables are impacted by aggregations of secondary variables, as defined by equations and relationships. This is the primary model for the sim genre of interactive spreadsheets. 2. Units on maps as system Some systems are best captured by the activities of units on maps. Dead reckoning is just one example, Roller Coaster Tycoon another. 3. State based system Some systems are best modeled through the abstracted “units on maps” techniques of state based systems. Almost all board games from chess to Risk use this as one type of system. 4. Artificial intelligence as system Directing or competing against AI characters can represent compelling and repeatable, engaging systems. 5. Work process as system One type of system is a work processes (or even a time line). Just knowing who gets what business form can spell the difference between success and failure for an activity. 6. Middle and big skills as system Some systems are big skills and middle skills.

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•

•

Big skills are the most valued non-technical skills a person can have, including leadership, nurturing /stewardship, communication, and relationship management. Also called soft skills or organizational skills, these are the desired common skills that give individuals the most control over their lives. Middle skills lie within the layer between actions and big skills, such as gathering evidence, directing people, and budgeting.

7. Community as System Perhaps the least predictable system is a real community, such as organized by a social networking model. 49. Simulation or sims Sims are a broad genre of experiences, including games for entertainment and immersive learning simulation for formal learning programs. Sims use simulation elements to model and present situations, including: • • •

Actions, reflected in the interface; How the actions then impact relevant systems; How those systems produce feedback and results. The simulation elements are mixed with:

• • •

Game elements to make it engaging; and Pedagogical elements (including coaching) to make it effective; Organized into tasks and levels to create incrementally challenging practice environments and to leverage linear content.

Sims, when virtual, differ from microcosms, real role-playing, and labs in that they more efficiently leverage economies of scale and pedagogy. Sims can be multiplayer, and may use as a platform, support, and/or be supported by:

• • •

M a s s ivel y Mu lt i pl aye r ( M MO s) / (MMORPGs) environments; Informal Learning; and/or Social networking environments.

Sims often start as educational simulations and increasingly make attributes more entertaining and abstract to suit the needs of the audience. 50. Single-player game A player is someone or something that influences a game or sim at the highest level. When referred to as a player, this can be: • • •

a human participant in a solo experience; a human in a multiplayer experience; or an (AI) controlled player taking the role of a human in a multi-player experience.

When referred to as the player, it tends to be a human, often in a single player campaign. There is debate as to whether to call a participant in an immersive learning simulation a player, which denotes that the experience is a game, such as serious game or computer game. 51. Units A self-contained, distinguishable, discrete object; units exist in a context, typically on a map and/or work process, and with other units. They can move, often along paths, and commonly have attributes. When on a map, their geographical position matters. They can probe, and might have some advantage if close to resources, such as water or the CEO. They also have size. Some can be bought, built, placed, and upgraded. They can be destroyed (when their health is gone), or shut down. More complex units play a role in an ecosystem. These are self-contained and optimized for environments. They have sensors, creating internal views. They may reproduce, and even mutate, as one type of adapting. They may catch and spread contagion.

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Units turn one resource into another. They might turn money into customer satisfaction or they might turn research into finished products. They might even turn time into information. They might consume a constant stream of resources (fixed costs) and/or variable amounts of resources. They may have an organization level, and work in roles and/or formations. Emergent behavior occurs when enough units act simultaneously. These units can represent a complex system by themselves. They may recursively be made up of smaller units and may have goals. They may have items, even an inventory. They may communicate with other units. Skins and meshes can differentiate units; very distinctive units might have character. Memes are ideas that have many of the property of units. Vehicles can be considered a unit. Structures can be considered larger units that cannot move. Units, especially with robust artificial intelligence (AI), can also be called agents. They may run scripts, have situational awareness, conceptual dead reckoning, and intuition. They can even be players themselves. 52. Work processes In models of work, sets of repeatable structured activities that add predictable value (including creation, refinement, transportation, and marketing), while consuming budget-able costs to an enterprise. Processes can be centered on transforming ideas, money, people, and products, delivering a service or message, branching to alternative processes, or triggering an action. There is often the movement and enrichment of some container of value, whether a widget to be painted or a form to be approved (or kicked back). They often have an owner that takes responsibility for them. Managing a process requires the application of middle skills and big skills. Some processes are core while others are tangential.

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Processes can be ongoing (infrastructure), or triggered by an event. Processes also might produce unwanted, and perhaps unintended, outputs, beyond their cost. The refinement, reorganization, or elimination of processes is a high value activity in many organizations, often called process reengineering. And as with other systems, the optimization of one process without looking at the interdependencies can be sub-optimal or even counter-productive. Improvements can also be made within a process (business process redesign). Processes can be simple or complex, and need to be connected to other processes, sometimes through paths. Processes can also be done in parallel. And the integration between the processes is called “the process fit” which can be as strategically significant as the process itself. Business processes maps are also called business process diagrams. Processes often need units and resources, and can be represented on maps by structures; processes can be automated. A process can be done internally (retailer’s employees stock shelves), outsourced (retailers contract independent workers to stock shelves), or transferred completely to another organization (retailer asks vendors to stock shelves, or retailer becomes online retailer and asks vendors to ship directly to customers).

An Overview of Gaming Terminology

Typically, the more important the process, the more ownership the enterprise wants to have. New processes can also have a disruptive effect. In many charts, both processes and activities are represented by rectangles with rounded corners. The completion of some, typically more complex and unique processes, are considered milestones. Business processes should be evaluated against balanced scorecards.

reFerences

Hot Shot Business. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://spapps.go.com/hsb4/landing/. Kiili, K. (2005). Digital game-based learning: Towards an experiential gaming model. The Internet and Higher Education, 8(1), 13-24. Learning Vocabulary Fun. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.vocabulary.co.il/index_main.php. Liarokapis, F. (2006). An exploration from virtual to augmented reality gaming. Simulation & Gaming, 37(4), 507.

Aldrich, C. (2007). Clark Aldrich’s Style Guide for Serious Games and Simulations. Retrieved October 31, 2007 from http://clarkaldrich.blogspot. com.

Mehra, B., Merkel, C., & Bishop, A. P. (2004). The Internet for empowerment of minority and marginalized users. New Media & Society, 6(6), 781.

ARGNet – Alternate Reality Gaming Network. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www. argn.com/.

Monster – How Fast Can You Climb the Corporate Ladder? Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://promotions.monster.com/ladder/game/ game.html.

Binary Game. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://forums.cisco.com/CertCom/game/binary_game.swf. Dean for America: Play the Howard Dean for Iowa Game. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http:// www.deanforamericagame.com/play.html. Dr. Pepper: Speedway Rush. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.medcalf.com/games/ racing/index.html. Entertainment Software Rating Board. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.esrb.org. Geoterra Home. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://geoterra.ecomagination.com/indexFlash. html. Habgood, M. P. J., Ainsworth, S. E., & Benford, S. (2005). Endogenous fantasy and learning in digital games. Simulation & Gaming, 36(4), 483. Hein, K. (2006). Advergaming Attracts Large A-List Players. Brandweek, 47(33), 15-15.

Okan, Z. (2003). Edutainment: is learning at risk? British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(3), 255-264. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital immigrants, digital natives. Retreived October 31, 2007, from http:// www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20%20Digital%20Natives,%20Digital%20Immigr ants%20-%20Part1.pdf. Stanley, T. L. (2006). Advergames, content role juice up marketer’s game. Advertising Age, 77(6), S-3-S-3. Take Back Illinois Game. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.takebackillinoisgame. com/play.aspx. Telling, G. (2006). Puzzling phenomenon. Rolling Stone(1013), 114. The Digital Divide Network. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www.digitaldivide.net.

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Vogel, C. (2007). Games Students Play. District Administration, 43(5), 43-46. Woodcock, B. (2006). MMOGCHART.COM. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://www. mmogchart.com.

endnote 1

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© 2007 Clark Aldrich. Used with permission.

Section X

Appendix:

Selected Readings

Many handbooks of research contain a section with additional chapters related to seminal readings in the field. The goal of such a section is often to contextualize the current readings with studies that have guided the development of the discipline. It is obviously difficult to provide such a section for this handbook due to the relative recency of the work in Electronic Educational Gaming. However, this section contains readings of work in electronic gaming that have been published within the last few years. The purpose in including these chapters is to document part of our autobiographical past; it is to help readers see where we have come within the last few years of research in the field. The hope is that readers will begin to see connections between early work and work presented in this handbook in order to guide future development and research. It is to help us remember to build our work on interdisciplinary shoulders of existing research. Finally, due to the speed at which technology changes, it provides a unique perspective on what is happening today vs. what happened just a few years ago. The first four chapters provide theoretical and pragmatic exploration of games. Akilli and Ang & Zaphiris address theoretical considerations, with the first chapter focusing on instructional design and the second on ludology vs. narratology. Fanning examines the use of mods in education; Galarneau & Zibit engage in a discussion about online games. The remaining five chapters explore specific instances of game use and the resulting implications for educational games. Sardone, Devlin-Scherer & Martinelli examine game-based instruction for learning computer concepts. Hobbs & Rowe present an online tool for teaching girls about media literacy. Jegers & Wiberg describe their FunTain project and the design guidelines that emerged from their analyses. Schrier provides an example of the use of Augmented Reality (AR) games in a history project. The section concludes with a discussion by Sycara, Scerri & Chechetka about social networks and evolutionary games. The purpose of this appendix is to provide readers with some selected readings of recent work in electronic educational gaming.

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Appendix B

Games and Simulations: A New Approach in Education? Göknur Kaplan Akilli Pennsylvania State University, USA

AbstrAct Computer games and simulations are considered powerful tools for learning with an untapped potential for formal educational use. However, the lack of available well-designed research studies about their integration into teaching and learning leaves unanswered questions, despite their more than 30 years of existence in the instructional design movement. Beginning with these issues, this chapter aims to shed light on the definition of games and simulations, their educational use, and some of their effects on learning. Criticisms and new trends in the field of instructional design/development in relation to educational use of games and simulations are briefly reviewed. The chapter intends to provide a brief theoretical framework and a fresh starting point for practitioners in the field who are interested in educational use of games and simulations and their integration into learning environments.

introduction It is unanimously acknowledged that we are living in the information age, taking part in the information society (Bates, 2000; Reigeluth, 1996). What makes these two emerging concepts possible is technology, or rather, the rate of progress

that has been achieved in technology over the past 50 or so years (Molenda & Sullivan, 2003). Throughout this period, technology has been both the generator and the transmitter of information with an increasingly faster speed and wider audience each and every day. It now dominates most facets of our lives, penetrating into the conduct of normal daily life.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

The field of education is not an exception in the permeation of technology. On the contrary, education has always been considered as potentially one of the most productive breeding-grounds for technology, where it would perhaps find its finest resonances and lead to revolutionary effects. Yet, high expectations regarding the revolutionary impacts of technology on education have hardly been realized so far. More specifically, instructional technology, or the use of technology in educational environments, has not contributed significantly to the realization of these expectations (Molenda & Sullivan, 2003; Russell, 2003). It may be argued that the relative ineffectiveness of instructional technology thus far has been caused by the application of the same old methods in new educational media—“New wine was poured, but only into old bottles” (Cohen & Ball, 1990, p. 334). The inconclusiveness of the research is illustrated by the Clark and Kozma debate, started by Clark’s 1983 statement that media do not influence students’ learning (Clark, 1983). Kozma (1991) counter-argued that learning and media are complementary and that interrelationships of media, method, and external environment have influence on learning. Both of them rationalized their arguments by calling on Russell’s (2003) study on, so called, “no-significant-difference” research. Clark (1983, 1994a, 1994b) uses this phenomenon as evidence for his argument, whereas Kozma (1994) uses this phenomenon as indicative of insufficient evidence for his debate. Current models and methods of instructional technology are insufficient to meet the consequences of the paradigm shift from industrial age to information age (Bates, 2000; Reigeluth, 1996, 1999). Consequently, instructional designers are faced with the challenge of forcing learning situations to fit an instructional design/development model rather than selecting an appropriate model to fit the needs of varying learning situations (Gustafson & Branch, 1997). One of the possible novelties in instructional methods is the use of games. Indeed, it may

possibly be wrong to call games a novelty in education, since young children, by nature, begin to learn through games and playing from their earliest years (Rieber, 1996). However, as they grow up, their play and games are being replaced by formal education, the transition of which does not always—especially nowadays—seem to be a sharp one to the extent that games are being used also in some educational environments, yet their success is questionable or at least not rigorously established. In another sense the use of games in education is not so much a novelty, because its history may be traced back well over a thousand years (Dempsey, Lucassen, Haynes, & Casey, 1998). It is now known that even in times before history, games and dramatic performances as representations of real life were effective as teaching tools. In our modern day, with the new technological advancements, I strongly believe that traditional games have been replaced by electronic games, and, in a similar manner, dramatic representations of old have been transformed into role-playing in simulation environments. Hence, electronic games and simulations have begun to enter contemporary formal education. In addition, the “already-present” new generation of learners have grown up with ever-present games. Prensky (2001) refers to them as the digital natives of the “game generation” (p. 65). He states that this new generation is different from the “digital immigrants” (people born before games were digital and ubiquitous) resulting from their different life experiences with games as a part of the “new media socialization” (Calvert & Jordan, 2001; Prensky, 2001, p. 65). Digital natives who play a lot of games are provided with skills, such as dealing with large amounts of information quickly even at the early ages, using alternative ways to get information, and finding solutions to their own problems through new communication paths. The new “game generation” prefers doing many things simultaneously by using various paths toward the same goal, rather than doing one thing at a time following linear steps. They are less likely

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to get stuck with frustration when facing a new situation; on the contrary they push themselves into a new situation without knowing anything about it and prefer being active, learning by trial and error, and figuring things out by themselves rather than by reading or listening. Lastly, they want to be treated as “creators and doers” rather than “receptacles to be filled with the content.” Hence, the game generation is also referred to as the “intellectual-problem-solving-oriented generation” (Prensky, 2001, p. 76). When the above issues are considered, it leads to three main bodies of questions, which shape the main focus and scope of this chapter: 1.

2.

3.

What are games and simulations? What makes something a game or simulation? What are their educational uses? Do they really have an effect on learning? What is happening in the instructional design/development (IDD) field? Is there a place for games and simulations in both the theory and the practices of IDD? If games and simulations are useful educational tools, how can they be used in education? How can instructional designers take them into account, while designing learning environments? Are there any instructional design/development models (IDDMs) that would light up an instructional designer’s path, guiding their journey to integrate games and simulations into their designs?

gAmes And simulAtions: WhAt Are they? Games and simulations are often referred to as experiential exercises (Gredler, 1996), in which there is “learning how to learn” that provides something more than “plain thinking:” beyond thinking (Turkle, 1984). Prensky (2001) defines games as “organized play” (p. 119). Heinich, Molenda, Russell, and Smaldino (2002) define a

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game as “an activity, in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real life [while] striving to attain a challenging goal” (p. 10). Dempsey, Rasmussen, and Lucassen (1996) define gaming in a basic sense as “any overt instructional or learning format that involves competition and is rule-guided” (p. 4). In my opinion, (except for Prensky’s [2001] later and incessant emphasis throughout his book) these definitions are lacking two vital elements: fun and creativity. So my own definition of “game” becomes “a competitive activity that is creative and enjoyable in its essence, which is bounded by certain rules and requires certain skills.” As put forth by many researchers, several game genres can be distinguished, such as action, puzzle, educational, fighting/combat, sports, racing, role play/adventure, flight, shoot’em, platform games, business, board, word, general entertainment, fantasy violence, human violence, non-violent sports, sports violence, and simulation games (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Funk, Hagan, & Schimming, 1999; Media Analysis Laboratory, 1999; Prensky, 2001; Yelland & Lloyd, 2001). Many researchers also assert that games have some characteristics such as “one or more players (decision makers), rules of play, one or more goals that the players are trying to reach, conditions introduced by chance, a spirit of competition, a strategy or pattern of action-choices to be taken by the players, a feedback system for revealing the state of the game, and a winning player or team” (Price, 1990, p. 52), “turn-taking, fantasy, equipment, and some combination of skill versus luck” (Alessi & Trollip, 2001, p. 271). Furthermore, Price (1990) categorizes “educational” games as academic games, which aim to teach and provide practice, while motivating the learners, and life simulation games, which are context simulation games including strict rules in real-life contexts, or open-ended life simulation games including flexible rules and goals in social science contexts. A simulation is defined as an interactive abstraction or simplification of some real life

Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

(Baudrillard, 1983; Heinich et al., 2002), or any attempt to imitate a real or imaginary environment or system (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Reigeluth & Schwartz, 1989; Thurman, 1993). It is “a simulated real life scenario displayed on the computer, which the student has to act upon” (Tessmer, Jonassen, & Caverly, 1989, p. 89). Although both games and simulations are terms that refer to different concepts, they have common characteristics, too. On the surface, both contain a model of some kind of system, and in both of them learners can observe the consequences of their actions, such as changes occurred in variable, values, or specific actions (Gredler, 1996; Jacobs & Dempsey, 1993). Jacobs and Dempsey (1993) state that the distinction between simulation and games is often blurred, and that many recent articles in this area refer to a single “simulation game” entity. One of them is Prensky (2001), who argues that “depending on what it is doing, a simulation can be a story, it can be a game, [and] it can be a toy” (p. 128). Gredler (1996) identifies three important differences between the deep structure of games and simulations. Instead of attempting to win the objective of games, participants in a simulation are executing serious responsibilities with privileges that result in associated consequences. Secondly, the event sequence of a game is typically linear, whereas, according to Gredler (1996), a simulation sequence is non-linear. The player or a team in many games respond to a content-related question and either advance or do not advance depending on the answer, which is repeated for each player or team at each turn. However, in a simulation, participants are confronted with different problems, issues, or events caused mainly by their prior decisions made at each decision point. The third difference is the mechanisms that determine the consequences to be conveyed for different actions taken by the players. Games consist of rules that describe allowable moves, constraints, privileges, and penalties for illegal

(non-permissible) actions. The rules may be totally imaginative, unrelated to real world or events. In contrast, a simulation is based on dynamic set(s) of relationships among several variables that change over time and reflect authentic causal processes. That is, the processes should possess, embody, and result in verifiable relationships. According to Prensky (2001) simulations and games differ in that, “simulations are not, in and of themselves games. In order to become games, they need additional structural elements—fun, play, rules, a goal, winning, competition, etc.” (p. 212). Depending on these definitions and characteristics, as an attempt to derive a general term, I will use game-like learning environments, which will be defined as “authentic or simulated places, where learning is fostered and supported especially by seamless integration of motivating game elements, such as challenge, curiosity, and fantasy.”

eFFects oF gAmes And simulAtions on leArning Although the literature on games and simulations is accumulating day by day, the issue of whether games influence students’ learning in a positive way is still vague. For instance, Molenda and Sullivan (2003) state that among problem solving and integrated learning systems, games and simulations are among the least used technology applications in education. However, there are some studies that describe the effects of games and simulations on discovery learning strategies; problem solving skills and computer using skills; and effects on students’ intellectual, visual, motor skills and indicate how games and simulations impact student engagement and interactivity, which are important for learning environments. Cole (1996) has shown that long-term game playing has a positive effect on students’ learning (cited in Subrahmanyam, Greenfield, Kraut, & Gross, 2001, p. 16). Gredler states that intellectual

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skills and “cognitive strategies” are acquired during academic games (1996, p. 525). However, she also states that certain games require only simple skills such as recall of verbal or visual elements rather than higher-order skills and as a result, provide environments for winning by guessing (Gredler, 1994). Similarly, Prensky (2001) admits that especially with the non-stop speedy games, the opportunity to stop and think critically about the experience is lessened (Prensky, 2001; Provenzo, 1992). Csikszentmihalyi (1990) also supports the belief that during an enjoyable activity, insufficient amount of time is devoted for thinking and reflection. Games are claimed to have cognitive development effects on visual skills including “spatial representation,” “iconic skills,” and “visual attention” (Greenfield, 1984, cited in Prensky, 2001, p. 45; Subrahmanyam et al., 2001, p. 13). Greenfield, deWinstanley, Kilpatrick, and Kaye (1994) claim that as players become more skilled in games, their visual attention becomes proportionally better. Critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Rieber, 1996), drawing meaningful conclusions (Price, 1990), some inductive discovery skills like observation, trial, and error and hypothesis testing (Gorriz & Medina, 2000; Greenfield, 1984, cited in Prensky, 2001; Price, 1990), and several other strategies of exploration (Prensky, 2001; Provenzo, 1992) were other positive effects of games on learning. Subrahmanyam et al. (2001) articulate that playing computer games can provide training opportunities for gaining computer literacy, which is consistent with Prensky’s (2001) statement that games can be used in order to help people gain some familiarity with the computer hardware. Games motivate learners to take responsibility for their own learning, which leads to intrinsic motivation contained by the method itself (Rieber, 1996). Malone (1980) and Malone and Lepper (1987) define four characteristics of games that contribute to increases in motivation and eager-

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ness for learning. These are challenge, fantasy, curiosity, and control. Challenges in a game tend to fight students’ boredom and keep them engaged with the activity by means of adjusted levels of difficulty. Fantasy in a game increases enthusiasm by providing an appealing imaginary context, whereas curiosity offers interesting, surprising, and novel contexts that stimulate students’ needs to explore the unknown. Finally, the control characteristic gives learners the feeling of selfdetermination. According to Rieber (1996), gaming elements have a relationship with enjoyable activities that enable the “flow” stage, a term coined by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). Thus, gaming activities have the potential to engross the learner into a state of flow and consequently cause better learning through focus and pleasant rewards (Prensky, 2001), while increasing their motivation and attainment (Rosas, Nussbaum, Cumsille, Marianov, Correa, Flores, et al., 2003). Other characteristics that ensure the effectiveness of game-based learning are their engagement and interactivity, and active participation (Gredler, 1996; Prensky, 2001; Price, 1990; Provenzo, 1992). Games provide a great deal of highly interactive feedback, which is crucial to learning (Gredler, 1994; Malone, 1980; Prensky, 2001; Rieber, 1996). “Practice and feedback, learning by doing, learning from mistakes, goal oriented learning, discovery learning, task-based learning, question-based learning, situated learning, role playing, coaching, constructivist learning, multi-sensory learning” are applicable interactive learning techniques, when learning through games (Prensky, 2001, p. 157).

educAtionAl use oF gAmes And simulAtions There is evidence that the use of games as instructional tools dates back to 3000 B.C. in China (Dempsey, Lucassen, Haynes, & Casey,

Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

1998). Nevertheless, games and simulations did not become a part of the formal field of instructional design until the early 1970s, despite their entrance into the educational scene in the late 1950s (Gredler, 1996). Seels and Richie (1994) report that in those times audio-visual specialists saw the potential of games and simulations but not of video or electronic games. Although computer games can be considered powerful tools for increasing learning (Dempsey, Lucassen, et al., 1998; Dempsey, Rasmussen, & Lucassen, 1996), there are two major problems that instructional designers encounter. One is that there are no available comprehensive design paradigms and the other is the lack of well-designed research studies (Gredler, 1996). Since the first problem will be handled in the following sections, at this point, it is proper to proceed with a discussion on the second problem. While the literature on games and simulations is growing, a majority of the research studies report on perceived student reactions preceded by vague descriptions of games and simulations or on comparisons of simulations versus regular classroom instruction (Gredler, 1996). The more important questions that need further research remain unanswered (Dede, 1996; Dempsey, Lucassen, et al., 1998): How to incorporate games into learning environments? How do students learn best through games and simulations? What are the significant impacts of games and simulations on learning that differentiate them from other forms of online teaching? Rieber (1996) argues that technological innovations provide new opportunities for interactive learning environments that can be integrated with and validated by theories of learning. Prensky (2001) underscores the need for change in instructional design by claiming that much of the instruction currently provided through computer assisted instruction and Web-based technologies does not contribute to learning, rather it subtracts. People do not want to be included in such learning “opportunities” offered via “new wine into old

bottles” innovative technologies, unless they have to, since these learning “opportunities” possess still the same boring content and same old fashioned strategy as traditional education (pp. 92-93). Prensky (2001) puts forth that learning can best take place when there is high engagement, and he proposes “digital-game-based learning,” which has potential for achievement of the necessary “high learning” through “high engagement” (p. 149). He states that high engagement, interactive learning process, and the way the two are put together will guarantee the sound working of digital game-based learning (Prensky, 2001). Rieber (1996) states that, “Research from education, psychology, and anthropology suggests that play is a powerful mediator for learning throughout a person’s life” (p. 43). In line with this statement, Prensky (2001) further claims that, “Play has a deep biological, evolutionarily important, function, which has to do specifically with learning” (p. 112). However, despite some important psychological and cultural relationships to games, the education profession has long been hesitant about the value of games as an instructional tool or strategy (Rieber, 1996). For instance, as the prevailing philosophy in education has changed over time, the attitude toward play changed accordingly, too. “In one era, play can be viewed as a productive and natural means of engaging children in problem-solving and knowledge construction, but in another era it can be viewed as wasteful diversion from a child’s studies” (Rieber, 1996, p. 44). The seamless integration of beneficial elements of games and simulations into learning, in an endeavor to create “game-like learning environments” seems promising and worth trying. Before discussing the instructional designer’s concerns and reviewing instructional design/development models, I will first provide a brief look into the “instructional design/development” field to catch a glimpse of what is going on there.

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instructionAl (systems) design/develoPment (idd) The need for the development of a linking science and the need for a “middleman” between learning theory and educational practice was first asserted by John Dewey in 1900 (as cited in Reigeluth, 1983), yet, when the origins of instructional design procedures are traced, it is seen that the first research efforts date back only to the time of World War II (Dick, 1987). Moreover, the need for a “middleman” was also put forth by Glaser (1971), who stated that an instructional designer must perform the interplay between theory, research, and application. As the title seems to imply (i.e., is it “design” or “development,” and is it “instruction” or an “instructional system”?), there is no consensus about the name and the definition of, what I choose to call “instructional design/development (IDD).” Basically, my concern here is “instructional design” as an activity rather than the most accurate name that refers to this activity. However, the term IDD is used here as a term of convenience, since it encompasses the width and the depth of these activities in a fairly acceptable manner. The literature shows an interchangeable use of instructional design, instructional systems design (ISD), instructional development (ID), and even instructional technology (IT) (Gustafson & Branch, 1997; Reigeluth, 1983; Schrock, 1995; Seels & Richie, 1994). Even though several attempts have been made to derive standardized definitions and terms (Gustafson & Branch, 1997; Schiffman, 1995; Seels & Richie, 1994), the results have not been widely adopted and used in the literature. Reigeluth (1983) characterizes his views on instructional design as “concerned with understanding, improving and applying methods of instruction” (p. 7), contrasted with instructional development as being “concerned with understanding, improving and applying methods of creating [italics added] instruction” (p. 8). Furthermore, he states that instructional design

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produces knowledge of optimal blueprints about methods of instruction, whereas instructional development optimizes the process of developing the instruction and encompasses design, implementation, and formative evaluation activities. He also emphasizes that design theories are different from descriptive theories due to their prescriptive nature, in the sense that they offer guidelines, without attempting to spell out every detail and allow no variation (Reigeluth, 1983, 1997, 1999). On the other hand, Gustafson and Branch (1997) accept the Seels and Richie (1994) definition, which is “an organized procedure that includes steps of analyzing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating instruction” (p. 31). However, they declare that Seels and Richie (1994) have coined this definition for ISD, instead of instructional development. Shrock (1995) has also made a definition similar to that of Seels and Richie’s (1994), yet for instructional development. Gustafson and Branch (1997) further characterize instructional development as “a complex, yet purposeful process that promotes creativity, interactivity and cyberneticity [communication and control processes]” (p. 18).

WhAt is An instructionAl design/develoPment model (iddm)? Gustafson and Branch (1997) define model as “simple representation of more complex forms, processes, and functions of physical phenomena or ideas” (p. 17). It provides a visual representation of an abstract concept (Schindelka, 2003), helps people to “conceptualize representations of reality” (Gustafson & Branch, 1997, p. 17), and “explains ways of doing” (Gustafson & Branch, 1998, p. 3). In line with Reigeluth’s (1983) opinions about instructional development, Gustafson and Branch (1997) have gone a step further and stated that instructional development models have at least

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four components, which are “analysis of the setting and learner needs; design of a set of specifications for an effective, efficient and relevant learner environment; development of all learner and management materials; and evaluation of the results of the development both formatively and summatively” (p. 12). They have also added that a fifth activity could be the distribution and monitoring of the learning environment across various settings, over an extended period of time. These components help instructional development models serve as “conceptual and communications tool” (p. 13). Gros, Elen, Kerres, Merriënboer, and Spector (1997, p. 48) state that, “instructional design models have the ambition to provide a link between learning theories and the practice of building instructional systems.” The origins of instructional design procedures can be traced to the first research efforts dating back to World War II (Dick, 1987). Gustafson and Branch (1997) state that instructional development models first appeared in 1960s and since then an increasing number of models have been published in the literature. Seels and Richie (1994) highlight the simplicity of the first instructional design models, which had only to master a few techniques and a fundamentally linear theory, since instructional science was an infant and many of the tools and theories of today were not conceivable. Since then, a variety of developments and trends have impacted instructional design practices (Reiser, 2001). However, the introduction of microcomputers in the 1980s has exerted the most significant effect on instructional design practices. With the advent of desktop digital media and the subsequent arrival of worldwide Internet access, discussions began for the need to develop new models of instructional design to accommodate the capability and interactivity of this technology (Merrill, Li, & Jones, 1990). Wide variations have emerged in models in terms of their purposes, amount of detail provided, degree of linearity in which they are applied, and quantity, quality, and relevance of the accompanying operational tools

(Gustafson & Branch, 1997). This paradigmatic change has contributed to the instability of the terminology and shows that the field of IDD is not static; it has evolved in time and is still evolving. This is good, since a field that becomes static and uncreative is likely to become less prominent (Seels & Richie, 1994). Since the 1990s, six factors have had significant impact on instructional design practices (Reiser, 2001). These are performance technology movement, constructivism, Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSSs), rapid prototyping, increasing use of Internet for distance education/ distance learning, and knowledge management endeavors. However, to provide an account of these factors is out of the scope of this chapter, and Reiser’s work should be consulted for a comprehensive discussion.

criticisms About the current stAte oF idd And iddms Gustafson and Branch (1997) assert that there has been a cumulative increase in the number of published instructional development models since the 1960s. However, there seems to be little uniqueness in the structure of these models, although they are abundant in number. In other words, as time passes, models are enhanced in quantity, but not in quality (Gustafson & Branch, 1997, 1998). Some writers have argued that the traditional instructional design models are resistant against substantial changes (Rowland, 1992) and are only fit to narrow, well-defined, and static scenarios, because they are process-oriented rather than people-oriented, and use clumsy, bureaucratic, and linear approaches (Gordon & Zemke, 2000; Jonassen, 1990; McCombs, 1986; Tripp & Bichelmeyer, 1990; You, 1993; Zemke & Rossett, 2002). Contrasting with these criticisms, others contend that over time, problems become apparent in the traditional ISD model and important and perma-

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nent modifications and additions are performed (Clark, 2002; Schiffman, 1995; Shrock, 1995). The procedural stratifications and time-consuming practices of traditional ISD models have drawn much of the criticism. As an alternative, thinking of instructional development as a set of concurrent, overlapping procedures might help both to speed up the process and to overcome many limitations of the traditional instructional design models. One of the most well known examples is “prototyping” or “rapid prototyping,” which is a design approach borrowed from the discipline of software engineering (Tripp & Bichelmeyer, 1990). Both Prensky (2001) and Rowland, Parra, and Basnet (1994) assert that often instructional design is done by the book or by using an overly rationalistic view, which in turn produces “boring cookie-cutter outcomes” (Prensky, 2001, p. 83). These writers emphasize that a move toward more creative methodologies is necessary, in order to lead to flexible, creative solutions to unique situations. Since the existing design theories have not reached perfection, there is need for new theories and models that will guide instructional designers in the use of ideas about learning founded in human development and cognitive science, and in taking advantage of new information technologies as tools for feedback and assessment or for instruction in general (Reigeluth & Frick, 1999). Apart from technological changes, Reigeluth (1999) discusses a paradigm shift in education and training, a major shift from Industrial Age to Information Age thinking, which implies shifts in various attributes for instruction (see Table 1). The change in paradigms, according to Reigeluth (1996), requires a shift from standardization to customization. New models of IDD need to make possible a unique learning experience for each learner, rather than trying to produce a single, clearly defined outcome for all learners. The need for customization is also consistent with Winn’s (1997) and Jonassen Hennon, Ondrusek,

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Samouilova, Spaulding, Yueh et al.’s (1997) criticisms about the positivist basis of ID models. Both disapproved the way that a linear design process assumes the predictability of human behavior, the closed and isolated nature of learning situations, the responsibility for learning belonging to the instructor rather than the learner. New IDD models need to reflect the dynamic, complex, and non-linear nature of the design process, the changing contexts of learning in digital gamebased environments, and the many and varied cognitive, emotional, and social differences in abilities among learners.

neW trends in idd And iddms This section explores a number of new alternative approaches that have been suggested for the improvement of the IDD process. Jonassen et al. (1997) suggest adapting new scientific models, such as hermeneutics, fuzzy logic, and chaos theory. Reigeluth (1996, 1999) suggests customized, learner-centered and social-contextual design conducted by user-designers, which is also articulated by Winn’s (1997) matched timing of design and use of instructional material and Winn’s (1996) statement of necessity to get help from the Human Computer Interaction discipline. Lastly, Hoffman (1997) offers the ideas of plasticity and modularity as a result of linking Reigeluth’s (1983) Elaboration Theory (ET) and hypermedia. There are further suggestions, such as Gros et al.’s (1997) multimedia-facilitated IDD models that depend on multi-perspectival presentation of knowledge or Wilson, Teslow, and OsmanJouchoux’ (1995), and Wilson’s (1997) adaptation of postmodernism to IDD field, which need to be further explored. Hermeneutics emphasizes the importance of the socio-historical context in mediating the meanings of individuals creating and decoding texts; this implies that IDD must strive to introduce gaps of understanding, which allow the learner

Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

to create his/her own meanings (Jonassen et al., 1997). Other chapters in this book introduce the idea that new massively multiplayer online learning environments entail new social processes that align well with social constructivist, hermeneutic philosophy, and methods. Chaos theory finds order in the chaos of natural structures through looking for self-similarity and self-organization, patterns that are repeated at different levels of complexity through a structure, for example, a fractal. It can offer two alternatives to IDD: first complex, dynamic IDDMs that adjust to learners on the fly, and secondly due to its sensitiveness to initial conditions, consideration of learners’ emotions, and related self-awareness, besides cognitive skills and self awareness (Cagiltay, 2001; Jonassen et al., 1997). The last alternative that Jonassen et al. (1997) suggest is fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic is based on the idea that reality can rarely be represented accurately in a bivalent manner. Rather, it is multivalent, having many in-between values, which do not have to belong to mutually exclusive sets. It is a departure from classical two-valued sets and logic, that uses “soft” linguistic (e.g., large,

hot, tall) system variables and a continuous range of truth values in the closed interval [0, 1], rather than strict binary (True or False) decisions and assignments. Since the sequence of events within a project depends on human decisions, which is based on approximate reasoning of human beings, fuzzy logic can be well applied to IDD process. The fuzzy logic perspective implies for IDD that behavior can be better understood probabilistically, using continua, rather than binary measures. Instead of having strictly bounded and sequenced phases, having intertwined phases, which have flexible and fuzzy boundaries, would be more advantageous in that it would allow designers to move freely in between phases throughout the entire IDD process. Jonassen et al. (1997) state that the more one moves away from deterministic approaches to thinking and designing toward more probabilistic ways of thinking, the more useful it becomes in providing methods for assessing “real-life” issues, where things are not blackand-white, but rather any number of different shades of color across the spectrum. Jonassen et al. (1997) further state that it is impossible to predict, let alone describe, what will happen in

Table 1. Key alterations with the shift from Industrial Age to Information Age Industrial Age

Information Age

Industrial Society (Bates, 2000)

Information Society

Bureaucratic organization

Team-based organization

Centralized control

Autonomy with accountability

Adversarial relationships

Cooperative relationships

Autocratic decision making

Shared decision making

Compliance

Initiative

Conformity

Diversity

One-way communications

Networking

Compartmentalization

Holism

Parts-oriented

Process-oriented

Planned obsolescence

Total quality

CEO or boss “King”

Customer (learner) as “King”

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Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

learning situations due to the elusive and complex nature of human consciousness, which is also consistent with Winn’s (1996) opinion that although instructional designers would like them to do otherwise, people think “irrationally,” and reason “implausibly.” Both of these statements support the main definition of fuzzy logic. However, both researchers’ studies lack more specific facets of fuzzy logic. More specifically, the set-theoretic facet of fuzzy logic implies the non-linear, dynamic IDDM phases, which have “fuzzy” rather than strict boundaries. This provides freedom for instructional designers to move back and forth throughout the design process and even conduct more than one activity at a time. Depending on the previously mentioned shift to Information Age, Reigeluth (1999) also suggests an alternative to the linear stages of the ID process. The entire process cannot be known in advance, so designers are required to do “just-in-time analysis” (p. 15), synthesis, evaluation, and change at every stage in the ID process. However, this is not a newcomer to the field, since learner-centeredness and parallel process have been articulated by Heinich (1973) a long time ago (cited in Winn, 1996). Reigeluth (1999) further states that to be capable to meet the demands of the Information Age, the instructional designer should become more aware of the broader social context, within which the instruction takes place, and a point that is also made by various researchers as well (Dede, 1996; Jonassen et al., 1997; Kember & Murphy, 1995; Richey, 1995; Tessmer & Richey, 1997). For example, the instructional designer might consult more broadly with stakeholder groups to reach a common vision of the final instruction and the means to develop it. The social context can expand to include the learners, consistent with Kember and Murphy’s (1995) suggestion that linking the learners to designers supports iterative improvement. Lastly, Hoffman (1997) offered plasticity and modularity as a result of linking Reigeluth’s (1983) Elaboration Theory (ET) and hypermedia.

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He states that the Web-like linking of ideas that characterizes hypermedia is more alike to the functioning of human cognition than is the traditional linear structure found in much educational programming. He further asserted that this kind of model for IDD could lead to the possibility of modularity and plasticity, which would bring along the ease to make changes in response to learner needs without changing the overall structure of the product and rapid development. It could also allow the customization from the user end to allow a more feasible learner control in like manner to that of a Web structure. To sum up the whole discussion, IDD and IDDM should find alternative ways to catch up with the changing world of education due to changes in the world itself. The previously mentioned alternatives are thought to be useful and helpful to renew and strengthen the IDD field against the criticisms. It also reveals the fact that like the other disciplines, IDD also begins to evolve into a multidisciplinary discipline. Indeed, Jonassen et al.’s (1997) statement summarizes the main idea: Like the chiropractor who realigns your spine, we might become healthier from a realignment of our theories. If we admit to and attempt to accommodate some of the uncertainty, indeterminism, and unpredictability that pervade our complex world, we will develop stronger theories and practices that will have more powerful (if not predictable) effects on human learning. (p. 33)

design models For educAtionAl use oF gAmes And simulAtions Theories that inspire game design include “Flow Theory of Optimal Experience” developed by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1990) and “Activity Theory” developed by Alexey Leontiev, a student of Lev Vygotsky (Kaptelinin & Nardi, 1997).

Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

Moreover, there are some myths and principles to be taken into consideration during preproduction and production stages of game design proposed by Cerny and John (2002). Yet, there seem to be hardly any design models except for the instructional design/development model tailored for the creation of game-like learning environments, which is called the FIDGE model (Akilli & Cagiltay, 2006). Hence it is clear that there is a need for IDD models that will help and guide educators to design game-like learning environments, “which requires the ability to step outside of a traditional, linear approach to content creation—a process that is counter-intuitive to many teachers” (Morrison & Aldrich, 2003). This section offers a brief review of different design principles and lessons learned from game design processes before briefly reviewing the FIDGE model. For instance, Amory, Naicker, Vincent, and Adams (1999) identified game elements that students found interesting or useful within different game types, which were the most suitable for their teaching environment and presented a model that links pedagogical issues with these identified game elements. Prensky (2001) presents various principles for good computer game design and other important digital game design elements. For instance, he claims that good game design is balanced in terms of challenge, creative in terms of originality, focused in terms of fun, and has character in terms of richness and depth that make you remember it, tension that keeps the player playing, and energy that keeps you up all night (pp. 133-134). In addition to these elements, he further asserts that a game should have a clear overall vision with highly adaptive, easy to learn but hard to master structure offered via a very user-friendly interface. It should have a constant focus on the player experience that keeps the player within the flow state providing exploration, discovery, and frequent rewards, not penalties. It should provide mutual assistance, which means achieving one

thing in the game helps to solve another, and the ability to save this progress (pp. 134-136). Lastly, as for digital game-based learning, he provides five questions to be asked during the process of designing, again with his emphasis for fun followed by learning. These five questions can be summarized as the appeal of games in terms of fun for other people too, who are not targeted as audience; the self-perceptions of users as “players” not as “students” or “trainees;” the level of addiction and prominence of the game among the players; the level and rate of improvement at player’s skills; and the level of encouragement and enactment for players’ reflection on their learning (p. 179). The “Games-to-Teach” project carried by Massachusetts Institute of Technology proposes design principles for successful games design (MIT, 2003). These are designing educational action games by turning simulations into simulation games; moving from parameters to “power-ups [adjustments made on some traits of the character in the game, such as shifts in player speed, height, and so forth to enhance their attributes];” designing game contexts by identifying contested spaces, identifying opportunities for transgressive play [that enables players to experience new roles via “temporarily letting go of social/cultural rules and mores”]; using information to solve complex problems in simulated environments; providing choices and consequences in simulated worlds; and differentiating roles and distributing expertise in multiplayer games. The most recent study on the subject with a promising design/development model is the “FIDGE model” (Akilli & Cagiltay, 2006). The model consists of dynamic phases with fuzzy boundaries, through which instructional designers move in a non-linear manner. The model’s foundation in the fuzzy logic concept leads to a visualization of the model that is unlike traditional “boxes-and-arrows” representations (see Figure 1). There are two other sets of principles that

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Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

Figure 1. The overall appearance of the FIDGE model (Source: Akilli & Cagiltay, 2006, p. 112; reprinted with permission from IOS Press; reprinted with permission from IOS Press) E VA L U AT I O N Synthesis

Synthesis

Formative evaluations with subject-matter experts

Tool Analysis

Tool Analysis

Control

Formative evaluations Fantasy Challenge Curiosity

LR

Needs A.

LR

Learner A.

LR

Content A.

LR

Assessment

Tool Analysis

Feedback

Scenario Preparation

Updating-& Maintenance-related Issues

Tentative sketches illustrating an example product User guide / Help / Technical support

A N A LY S I S

Attention

Motivation

Instr. App.

Context A.

General goals

Design foundations of game-like learning environment

Risk A.

Selection of tentative goals

Sell-Analysis

Selection of a tentative subject LR

Time Planning

PRE-ANALYSIS

E VA L U AT I O N

Selection of a tentative target group

Cost A. (if needed)

Formative evaluations Control

Formative evaluations with tentative group representative

Synthesis

Summative Evaluation

Control

prototypes

Synthesis

Synthesis

Interact & Engagement

E VA L U AT I O N

DESIGN/DEVELOPMENT

Table 2. Summary of the FIDGE model (Source: Akilli & Cagiltay, 2006, p. 110; reprinted with permission from IOS Press) Issue Participants

Its Property All of actively participating learners and experts

Team

Multidisciplinary, multi-skilled, game-player experience

Environment

Socio-organizational, cultural

Process

Dynamic, non-linear, fuzzy, creative, enriched by games’ and simulations’ elements (fantasy, challenge, etc.)

Change

Continuous, evaluation-based

Evaluation Management

Continuous, iterative, formative, and summative, fused into each phase Need for a leader in the team and a well-planned and scheduled time management

Technology

Suitable, compatible

Use

By (novice/expert) instructional designers and educational game designers for game-like learning environments and educational games

underlie the model, which are related to socio-organizational issues for the design team and to the instructional design/development process itself. Table 2 summarizes the model in its essence. All of these studies deserve appreciation, since educational games are mostly classified as “boring” by students. Moreover, they also show

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that endeavors are being suffered for and steps are being taken toward what Kirriemuir (2002) emphasized: “Computer games provide a medium that engages people for long periods of time, and gamers usually return to the same game many times over. There are obvious lessons here for the developers of digitally-based educational, learning and training materials.”

Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

conclusion

game types and game elements. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30(4), 311-321.

This chapter has provided a brief theoretical framework for the educational use of games and simulations and their effect on learning. It reviewed and addressed some of the main criticisms and new trends in the IDD and IDDM fields. The characteristics of the “game generation,” the importance of games for education, and criticisms about IDDMs’ failure to meet these changing needs lead to the conclusion that instructional designers should strive to seamlessly integrate game elements into their designs and to create game-like learning environments, so that they can armor students for the future and build powerful learning into their designs. However, there seems to be a little number of design guidelines, and only one IDD model exists in the literature, to guide instructional designers through this painstaking process, which at the same time provides an already existent but newly discovered playground for the practitioners in the field. New IDD models are needed to help designers create game-like learning environments that can armor students for the future and build powerful learning into their designs.

Cagiltay, K. (2001). A design/development model for building electronic performance support systems. In M. Simonson & C. Lamboy (Eds.), Annual Proceedings of Selected Research and Development [and] Practice Papers presented at the 24th National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Atlanta, GA (pp. 433-440). Bloomington, IN: Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No: ED 470175).

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Akilli, G. K., & Cagiltay, K. (2006). An instructional design/development model for game-like learning environments: The FIDGE model. In M. Pivec (Ed.), Affective and emotional aspects of human-computer interaction game-based and innovative learning approaches (Vol. 1, pp. 93-112). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press.

Bates, A. W. (2000). Managing technological change. Strategies for college and university leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Baudrillard, J. (1983). Simulations. New York: Semiotext[e].

Calvert, S. L., & Jordan, A. B. (2001). Children in the digital age. Applied Developmental Psychology, 22(1), 3-5. Cerny, M., & John, M. (2002, June). Game development. Myth vs. method. Game Developer Magazine, 32-36.

Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445-459. Clark, R. E. (1994a). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research & Development, 42(2), 21-29.

Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning: Methods and development (3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon Publication.

Clark, R. E. (1994b). Media and method. Educational Technology Research & Development, 42(3), 7-10.

Amory, A., Naicker, K., Vincent, J., & Adams, C. (1999). The use of computer games as an educational tool: Identification of appropriate

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Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 12(3), 331-338. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Perennial. Dede, C. (1996). The evolution of constructivist learning environments: Immersion in distributed, virtual worlds. In B. G. Wilson (Ed.), Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instructional design (pp. 165-175). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Dempsey, J. V., Lucassen, B. A., Haynes, L. L., & Casey, M. S. (1998). Instructional applications of computer games. In J. J. Hirschbuhl & D. Bishop (Eds.), Computer studies: Computers in education (8th ed., pp. 85-91). Guilford, CT: Dushkin/McGraw Hill. Dempsey, J. V., Rasmussen, K., & Lucassen, B. (1996). The instructional gaming literature: Implications and 99 sources (Tech. Rep. No. 961). Mobile, AL: University of South Alabama, College of Education. Retrieved May 30, 2002, from http://www.coe.usouthal.edu/TechReports/ TR96_1.PDF Dick, W. (1987). A history of instructional design and its impact on educational psychology. In J. Glover & R. Ronning (Eds.), Historical foundations of educational psychology. New York: Plenum. Funk, J. B., Hagan, J., & Schimming, J. (1999). Children and electronic games: A comparison of parents’ and children’s perceptions of children’s habits and preferences in a United States Sample. Psychological Reports, 85(3), 883-888. Glaser, R. (1971). The design of instruction. In M. D. Merrill (Ed.), Instructional design: Readings (pp. 18-37). Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Gordon, J., & Zemke, R. (2000). The attack on ISD. Training Magazine, 37(4), 42-53.

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Gorriz, C. M., & Medina, C. (2000). Engaging girls with computers through software games. Communications of the ACM, 43(1), 42-49. Gredler, M. E. (1994). Designing and evaluating games and simulations: A process approach. Houston, TX: Gulf Publication Company. Gredler, M. E. (1996). Educational games and simulations: A technology in search of a (research) paradigm. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp. 521-539). New York: Macmillan. Greenfield, P. M., deWinstanley, P., Kilpatrick, H., & Kaye, D. (1994). Action video games and informal education: Effects on strategies for dividing visual attention [Abstract]. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15(1), 105-123. Gros, B., Elen, J., Kerres, M., Merriënboer, J., & Spector, M. (1997). Instructional design and the authoring of multimedia and hypermedia systems: Does a marriage make sense? Educational Technology, 37(1), 48-56. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (1997). Survey of instructional development models (3rd ed.). Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (1998). Revisioning models of instructional development. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(3), 73-89. Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J. D., & Smaldino, S. E. (2002). Instructional media and technologies for learning (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Hoffman, S. (1997). Elaboration theory and hypermedia: Is there a link? Educational Technology, 37(1), 57-64. Jacobs, J. W., & Dempsey, J. V. (1993). Simulation and gaming: Fidelity, feedback and motivation.

Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

In J. V. Dempsey & G. C. Sales (Eds.), Interactive instruction and feedback (pp. 197-228). Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Jonassen, D. H. (1990). Thinking technology: Chaos in instructional design. Educational Technology, 30(2), 32-34. Jonassen, D. H., Hennon, R. J., Ondrusek, A., Samouilova, M., Spaulding, K. L., Yueh, H. P., et al. (1997). Certainty, determinism, and predictability in theories of instructional design: Lessons from science. Educational Technology, 37(1), 27-33. Kaptelinin, V., & Nardi, B. A. (1997). Activity theory: Basic concepts and applications. Retrieved October 11, 2003, from http://www.acm. org/sigchi/chi97/proceedings/tutorial/bn.htm/ Kember, D., & Murphy, D. (1995). The impact of student learning research and the nature of design on ID fundamentals. In B. Seels (Ed.), Instructional design fundamentals: A reconsideration (pp. 99-112). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Kirriemuir, J. (2002). Video gaming, education and digital learning technologies [Online]. D-lib Magazine, 8(2). Retrieved May 12, 2003, from http://www.dlib.dlib.org/february02/kirriemuir/ 02kirriemuir.html Kozma, R. B. (1991). Learning with media. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 179-211. Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research & Development, 42(2), 7-19. Malone, T. W. (1980). What makes things fun to learn? Heuristics for designing instructional computer games. Paper presented at the Joint Symposium: Association for Computing Machinery Special Interest Group on Small Computers and Special Interest Group on Personal Computers, Palo Alto, CA.

Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In R. E. Snow & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction, III: Cognitive and affective process analysis (pp. 223-253). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). (2003). Design principles of next-generation digital gaming for education. Educational Technology, 43(5), 17-22. McCombs, B. L. (1986). The instructional systems development (ISD) model: A review of those factors critical to its successful implementation. Education Communication and Technology Journal, 34(2), 67-81. Media Analysis Laboratory, Simon Fraser University, B.C. (1998). Video game culture: Leisure and play of B.C. teens [Online]. Retrieved June 11, 2003, from http://www.mediaawareness. ca/eng/ISSUES/VIOLENCE/RESOURCE/reports/vgames.html Merrill, M. D., Li, Z., & Jones, M. K. (1990). Limitations of first generations instructional design. Educational Technology, 30(1), 7-11. Molenda, M., & Sullivan, M. (2003). Issues and trends in instructional technology: Treading water. In M. A. Fitzgerald, M. Orey, & R. M. Branch (Eds.), Educational Media and Technology Yearbook 2003 (pp. 3-20). Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Morrison, J. L., & Aldrich, C. (2003). Simulations and the learning revolution: An interview with Clark Aldrich. The Technology Source. Retrieved August 11, 2003, from http://64.124.14.173/default. asp?show=article&id=2032 Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. Price, R. V. (1990). Computer-aided instruction: A guide for authors. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

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Provenzo, E. F. (1992). The video generation. The American School Board Journal, 179(3), 29-32. Reigeluth, C. M. (1983). Instructional design: What is it and why is it? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status (pp. 3-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reigeluth, C. M. (1996). A new paradigm of ISD? Educational Technology, 36(3), 13-20. Reigeluth, C. M. (1997). Instructional theory, practitioner needs, and new directions: Some reflections. Educational Technology, 37(1), 42-47. Reigeluth, C. M. (1999). What is instructionaldesign theory and how is it changing? In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models (Vol. II): A new paradigm of instructional theory (pp. 5-29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reigeluth, C. M., & Frick, T. W. (1999). Formative research: Methodology for creating and improving design theories. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models (Vol. II): A new paradigm of instructional theory (pp. 633-652). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Reigeluth, C., & Schwartz, E. (1989). An instructional theory for the design of computer-based simulations. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 16(1), 1-10. Reiser, R. A. (2001). A history of instructional design and technology: Part II: A history of instructional design. Educational Technology Research & Development, 49(2), 57-67. Richey, C. (1995). Trends in instructional design: Emerging theory-based models. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 8(3), 96-110. Richey, R. C. (1997). Agenda-building and its implications for theory construction in instructional technology. Educational Technology, 37(1), 5-11. 1370

Rieber, L. P. (1996). Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44(2), 43-58. Rosas, R., Nussbaum, M., & Cumsille, P. (2003). Beyond Nintendo: Design and assessment of educational video games for first and second grade students. Computers & Education, 40(1), 71-94. Rowland, G. (1992). What do instructional designers actually do? An initial investigation of expert practice. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 5(2), 65-86. Rowland, G., Parra, M. L., & Basnet, K. (1994). Educating instructional designers: Different methods for different outcomes. Educational Technology, 34(6), 5-11. Russell, T. (2003). The “No Significant Difference Phenomenon.” Retreived December 10, 2005, from http://teleeducation.nb.ca/nosignificantdifference/ Schiffman, S. S. (1995). Instructional systems design: Five views of the field. In G. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional Technology: Past, present, and future (2nd ed., pp. 131-144). Engelwood, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Schindelka, B. (2003). A framework of constructivist instructional design: Shiny, happy design. Inoad e-Zine, 3(1). Retrieved August 18, 2003, from http://www.inroad.net/shindelka0403. html Seels, B., & Richie, R. (1994). Instructional technology: The definitions and domains of the field. Washington, DC: AECT. Shrock, S. A. (1995). A brief history of instructional development. In G. Anglin (Ed.), Instructional technology: Past, present, and future (2nd ed.) (pp. 11-19). Engelwood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.

Appendix B, Selected Readings: Games and Simulations

Subrahmanyam, K., Greenfield, P., Kraut, R., & Gross, E. (2001). The impact of computer use on children’s and adolescents’ development. Applied Developmental Psychology, 22(1), 7-30. Tessmer, M., Jonassen, D. H., & Caverly, D. (1989). Non-programmer’s guide to designing instruction for microcomputers. Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited. Tessmer, M., & Richey, R. C. (1997). The role of context in learning and instructional design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45(2), 85-115. Thurman, R. A. (1993). Instructional simulation from a cognitive psychology viewpoint. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(4), 75-79. Tripp, S. D., & Bichelmeyer, B. (1990). Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional design strategy. Educational Technology Research and Development, 38(1), 31-44. Turkle, S. (1984). Video games and computer holding power. In The second self: Computers and the human spirit (pp. 64-92). New York: Simon and Schuster. Wilson, B. G. (1997). The postmodern paradigm. In C. R. Dills & A. A. Romiszowski (Eds.), Instructional development paradigms (pp. 63-80). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.

Wilson, B. G., Teslow, J., & Osman-Jouchoux, R. (1995). The impact of constructivism (and post-modernism) on instructional design fundamentals. In B. B. Seels (Ed.), Instructional design fundamentals: A reconsideration (pp. 137-157). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. Winn, W. (1996). Cognitive perspectives in psychology. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology: A project of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (pp. 79-112). New York: Macmillan Library Reference. Winn, W. (1997). Advantages of a theory-based curriculum in instructional technology. Educational Technology, 37(1), 34-41. Yelland, N., & Lloyd, M. (2001). Virtual kids of the 21st century: Understanding the children in schools today. Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, 13(1), 175-192. You, Y. (1993). What can we learn from Chaos theory? An alternative approach to instructional systems design. Educational Technology Research and Development, 41(3), 17-32. Zemke, R. E., & Rossett, A. (2002). A hard look at ISD. Training, 39(2), 26-34.

This work was previously published in Games and Simulations in Online Learning: Research and Development Frameworks, edited by D. Gibson, pp. 1-20, copyright 2007 by Information Science Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).

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Appendix C

Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools: A Computer Game Paradigm Chee Siang Ang City University, UK Panayiotis Zaphiris City University, UK

AbstrAct This chapter attempts to examine computer game theories — ludology and narratology — that explain computer games as play activities and storytelling media. Founded on this theoretical explanation, a game model that incorporates gameplay and narratives is presented. From the model, two aspects of learning in the game environment are identified: gameplay-oriented and narrative-oriented. It is believed that playing computer games involves at least one of these types of learning; thus, this game’s nature can be used in designing engaging educational software. In addition, based on Malone’s theoretical framework on motivational heuristics, there are two methods of applying computer games in language learning: extrinsic and intrinsic, depending on the integration of game designs and learning materials. Then, two cases of language-learning games are scrutinized, using the game model, in order to demonstrate the use of computer games in language learning.

introduction In one of his most influential texts about computer games, The Art of Computer Game Design,

Chris Crawford (1982) states that schools, but not games, are the untested fad and violator of tradition in education. Game playing is a vital educational function for any creature capable of

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Appendix C, Selected Readings: Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools

learning. Hence, games are the most ancient and time-honored vehicle for education. Crawford explores the reasons for people playing games and asserts that the fundamental motivation of game playing is to learn. He also cites an example to support his view by observing the behavior of lion cubs near their mother: the cubs crouch in the grass, creeping slowly toward a butterfly and pouncing on it. The beasts are apparently playing some sort of game and having fun. However, the game is also how lions learn to hunt their prey without being injured. They are learning by doing, with minimum risks. This observation is true not only for animals. Since the dawn of human history, games have been used in the teaching and learning process. Board games, for example, are believed to be the earliest games, and they were battle simulations designed to instruct the young (Murray, 1978). The ability of computer games to spark interest among players can hardly be denied, and some educators have started to see the capability of these highly engaging games. People play games voluntarily, without asking for external rewards. Besides, the use of computer games in learning is parallel with Piaget’s constructivism, in which knowledge is constructed instead of being transmitted. A lot of game-based learning projects have been carried out with an emphasis on this pedagogical epistemology. Nevertheless, most of these projects are centered in science education and mathematics. Not much theoretical work has been done on language learning, although computer games have long been used in this area. This is due to the fact that computer games are too varied and intricate to indicate a clear function in language education. Furthermore, what counts as a game is rather loosely defined. Therefore, a proper study of computer game theories would throw light upon this issue. This chapter is structured as follows: First, we review the theoretical parts of computer games,

which include ludology and narratology. Then, a theoretical model of game is proposed. The next section explains two kinds of learning that occur when playing computer games based on the model. We outline two methods of integrating game designs with language learning. Next, an analysis of two cases of language-learning games is presented. Then, we discuss the future direction of this study; and the final section concludes the chapter.

theoreticAl revieW on gAming Although the use of computer games in learning is gaining attention among educators, there is still a lack of theoretical understanding of the game itself in most studies. Recent literature reveals that the research of computer games falls into two major principles: ludology and narratology. Ludology focuses on the study of computer games as play and game activities, while narratology focuses on the study of computer games as stories. The views between ludologists and narratologists are generally contradictory; the former argues that the pleasure of playing games lies in the gameplay, while the latter treats narrative as the fundamental enjoyment players are experiencing during the play session. In computer games, gameplay is referred to as activities conducted within a framework of agreed rules that directly or indirectly contribute to achieving goals (Lindley, 2002). A narrative is an account of something that happens to someone (Barrett, 1997). It consists of a series of events, from the background setting to the completion of the game. In other words, gameplay is the actions taken by the players, while narratives are an account of these actions. In this section, several kinds of game rules are explicated to better comprehend gameplay. The narrative mechanisms of the game are also scrutinized.

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gameplay and ludology The term ludology first appeared in the text of computer game research in 1999. Gonzalo Frasca (1999) points out in his paper, Ludology Meets Narratology: Similitude and Differences Between (Video) Games and Narrative, that another dimension has been almost ignored when studying computer games: to analyze them as games. He proposes the term “ludology” to refer to the discipline that studies game and play activities as opposed to narratives, and asserts that ludology should be independent from the medium that supports the activity. Frasca (2001) identifies two kinds of game: ludus and paidea. Ludus refers to the games whose result defines a winner and a loser, while paidea refers to the games whose result does not (Frasca, 2001). Based on this difference, Frasca introduces two types of game rules: paidea rules and ludus rules. Paidea rules are established to play the game as paidea, while ludus rules are established to win or lose the game. In chess, for example, paidea rules describe how each token moves, while ludus rules state a condition to end the match. It is noticed that we can easily switch from paidea to ludus and vice versa. In SimCity (see Figure 1) — a paidea game in which no explicit ludus rules are defined — players can engage in paidea by playing with the buildings. Once they establish a goal, say, to build a city with a population of 10,000, they immediately switch to a ludus activity. Not only can we have several paidea rules, we can also have several ludus rules. In chess, we can define the winner by counting the amount and value of each player’s remaining

tokens. Table 1 shows some examples of paidea and ludus rules in computer games. Besides rules, ludologists are also keen on understanding gameplay. Jesper Juul (2002) proposes two types of gameplay based on the relationship between the rules of a game and the actual game sessions played. First is emergent gameplay, where a number of simple rules are combined to form an interesting variation of gameplay. In a game of emergence, the game structure is primitive and defined by a set of simple paidea rules with usually only one ludus rule. Chess, for instance, is a game of emergence. It has a set of paidea rules that define how each piece moves, and one ludus rule, which is to take the opponent’s King. Driven towards this explicitly stated ludus rule, players might construct more ludus rules (such as to take the Knight) and plan for complicated strategies to achieve the goal. Second is progressive gameplay, where separate challenges are introduced serially for the player to solve. Most adventure games, like Myst (see Figure 2), fall into this category. Players are introduced, one after another, to ludus rules of goals to be achieved that lead to the attainment of the ultimate game goal.

narratives and narratology For narratologists, the advent of the computer signifies the birth of a new medium for storytelling. The capability of computers is not limited to performing calculations; computers are a new medium to represent human activities and present narratives in an unprecedented way. In most modern computer games, players can naturalize their actions as the solving of a familiar type of

Table 1. Paidea rules and ludus rules SimCity (Paidea game) Tetris (Ludus game)

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Paidea rules If the crime rate is high, the population becomes low If the blocks fill a layer, the layer is cleared

Ludus rules Nil To keep the level of block as low as possible

Appendix C, Selected Readings: Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools

Figure 1. SimCity 4000 (courtesy Electronic Arts, 2003)

Figure 2. Myst III (courtesy UbiSoft Entertainment, 2001)

problem (Ryan, 1994). In Myst III, the player needs to track down the villain; in Super Mario Bros. 3 (see Figure 3), the player is trying to save Princess Toadstool; and in SimCity, the player plays the role of the mayor and plans for city development. Marie Ryan (2001) tries to understand narratives in computer games, and she proposes a definition of narrative based on mental images: A narrative is defined as a mental image, or cognitive construct, that can be activated by various

types of signs. This image consists of a world (setting) populated by intelligent agents (characters). These agents participate in actions and happenings (events, plot) that cause global changes in the narrative world. Several useful terms are recognized in this definition: world, character and action, and we would like to know to what extent these exist in computer games. First, a game has a spatial representation, whether real or abstract. Espen Aarseth (1998) has claimed in the article Allegories of Space that computer games are es-

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sentially concerned with spatial representation and negotiation. Myst, for example, has a rich description of space represented with high-quality pre-rendered 3D images. The player recognizes the space immediately after entering the game world, and knows what and how they should act because it resembles a real social setting. Pong, on the other hand, represents an abstract space, which might not have a referent in the real world. Players might construct their own mental image about the game, though most players would probably relate Pong with table tennis. The space in Pong is symbolic, while in Myst it is narrative. One thing in common is that these two worlds operate within a strict set of rules that define the

mechanism of the worlds. Second, most computer games feature explicit characters who will interact with the world or the player. In Myst, the characters are descriptive, and players can interact with them as if they are real humans, although the interaction is limited to several chosen aspects. In Pong, even though it does not have an explicit character, the player is apparently playing against an opponent or intelligent agent. The character is not depicted graphically in the game world, but the existence cannot be overlooked. Third, all games involve active actions and reactions of the players. Games are usually discerned from linear narratives by the existence of interaction: the reciprocal actions between players and games.

Figure 3. Super Mario Bros. 3 (courtesy Nintendo, 1988)

Figure 4. A game model of gameplay and rules

Gam eplay

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em erge

engender

Paidea r ules

Ludus rules

Appendix C, Selected Readings: Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools

Figure 5. A game model of gameplay and narratives

Gam eplay em erge

engender

Paidea r ules

Ludus rules

affect

affect Spatial representation

F abula

N arrative

These actions include not only the action of the player, but also the autonomous actions of the characters in the game world.

A gAme model oF gAmePlAy And nArrAtives In this section, we propose a game model of gameplay and narratives that attempts to unify the view of ludologists and narratologists, thus advocating the study of computer games that comprises both gameplay and narratives. From the ludological perspective, we know that game rules are significant in understanding the semantics and structure of the game. Though they constitute a very important part of computer games, rules are not always the only thing one needs to learn in order to play. Game playing is more than simply memorizing the rules. Having learned the rules merely establishes the ability to play, and success-

ful play does not necessarily require learning all the rules (Lindley, 2002). We need to understand something more complex that can arise from the rules: the gameplay. Examining the two types of rules and gameplay closely, it has been found that gameplay emerges from and must conform to the paidea rules that describe the semantic of the game. In addition, gameplay is oriented towards the ludus rules that describe the structure of the game. This relation is described in Figure 4. Usually, paidea rules are fixed and predefined by the game designer. The player cannot breach paidea rules and their planning of strategies should conform to these rules. If the paidea rules state that the game character can only move forward and backward, the player can never move it upward or downward. Ludus rules are more flexible compared to paidea rules. The player may change the ludus rules and get involved in a different gameplay the game designer has intended, although the player might not be able to win the game. Gameplay emerges from paidea rules; but without 1377

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ludus rules, there is hardly any gameplay. Paidea rules can be simple, but ludus rules can lead to complex gameplay. If players do not set the ludus rules while playing SimCity, the gameplay does not exist in the play session, because the players’ actions are not oriented toward achieving a goal. In Super Mario Bros. 3, if players are only playing around with the world without having the intention to solve the level, gameplay does not exist, although the ludus rules are explicitly defined by the game designer. If we view from the prism of narratology, it appears that games and narratives are quite similar, as computer games use narrative structures to organize their worlds. Nevertheless, games are not a mental image; they are a system defined by a set of concrete rules. Within this context, players can act freely as long as their actions conform to the rules. The chain of these actions can then be recounted in narrative discourse. In brief, the difference between narratives in computer games and linear narratives is that a linear narrative presents the facts in an immutable sequence, while a game presents a branching tree of sequences and allows the players to create their own story by making choices at each branch point (Crawford, 1982). However, there are sequences of events in games that do not become or form stories (like in Tetris). Therefore, not all games are interactive narratives; rather, some games can be interactive narratives, and these games can be used as a medium for storytelling. In fact, Frasca (1999) has attempted to relate paidea and ludus with narrative elements: If ludus can be related to narrative plot, paidea can be related to the narrative settings. The ability to perform paidea activities is determined by the environment and the actions. This statement is quite valuable in analyzing the relationship between rules and narratives in computer games. To perceive this subtle rela-

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tionship, we would like to derive two narrative components from the narratological framework: spatiality, the space of the narrative; and fabula, the actions and events that might happen in the space. By applying these to the previous model, we have a more descriptive one (see Figure 5). The game space usually consists of compound worlds (Gingold, 2003). In most games, players travel through many locations, and enjoy the exploration of these multiple worlds and the movement between them. Compound worlds are collections of micro-worlds, which are governed by their own sets of paidea rules. These rules influence how the narrative world operates, while the movement of each world is marked by the changes in description and organization. Music, environment and, most importantly, rules change as the player moves between worlds. Ludus rules, on the other hand, are closely related to the narrative events in the narrative world. The player’s actions are directly or indirectly affected by the ludus rules which, in turn, are changed according to the players’ actions. The relationship between narratives and gameplay is two-way. As narratives change, the rules become different. Evolving fabula can create new ludus rules, new sources of conflict and even new forms of gameplay. In fact, the best evolving stories can effectively change the rules of the game, something that probably would not be tolerated by a player lacking a story-driven reason. Rules in games need not be static. Narratives provide an explanation and meaning of the change of rules so that the virtual world is more believable. To exemplify this relationship, let us presume that Mario eats the mushroom and grows up in Super Mario Bros. 3. This event immediately triggers the creation of a ludus rule: to avoid being touched by monsters. It is very likely that in a certain point of the game, a monster will touch Mario and Mario will shrink. This event then again activates new ludus rules: to eat the mushroom.

Appendix C, Selected Readings: Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools

the gAme model And leArning in comPuter gAmes The game model that binds both gameplay and narratives reveals something about learning activities when players are engaged in game playing. In most modern computer games, the successfully playing of a game involves at least two types of learning: gameplay and the narrative. In this section, we look into these two aspects of learning in games and how we could use them in designing engaging learning software tools.

gameplay-oriented learning This relationship between rules and gameplay has a significant implication on designing pleasurable activities, such as learning. In the article E-Learning as Computer Games: Designing Immersive and Experiential Learning, e-learning software is interpreted as computer games, and several principles in designing interesting learning environments are outlined (Ang & Rao, 2004). If we look into the definition of paidea and ludus, it is not difficult to conclude that most conventional educational software is actually a loose type of game. It has paidea rules: Click the menu buttons and scroll the text with the mouse button, and so forth. Ludus rules are usually stated as the learning objective: to understand the concept of metamorphosis. Although the definition of game is much more intricate than just having these rules, this software could be seen as paidea or ludus games depending on the existence of an explicit goal. We are interested in investigating why it is not as engaging as commercial games with game rules. The internal structure of a game can be characterized by its paidea rules, which can further be classified into two types: symbolic and semantic. Briefly, symbolic paidea rules explain the first layer of game interface — the input and output device interactions; while semantic paidea rules describe the narrative layer of interface. Obvi-

ously, the paidea rules of most learning software are symbolic, and do not impel learners to search for semantic meaning. The enjoyment of users should not be limited to symbolic paidea rules that define how users interact with computer devices. Learners should engage in gameplay by observing, hypothesizing, testing and updating the semantic paidea rules of the narrative environment. The pleasure of paidea should lie in the exploration of the virtual world and the discovery of paidea rules. Some learners find some educational software interesting when they first play with it. They might have fun interacting with the mouse or keyboard. However, they soon will see through the mechanisms of the system: There is nothing more to explore. Besides, understanding the paidea rules does not let them plan for strategies to achieve the goal. Unlike Super Mario Bros. 3, where players play and observe the causality of their actions and the behavior of the spatial system, most learning software does not contain such qualities. The major “gameplay” of this software revolves around the reading of texts, since the paidea rules are oversimplified: Click and read. The game designer not only has to design the paidea rules that define how games work, but also must define the goal of the game (ludus rules). We can further derive two kinds of ludus rules: micro and macro. Micro ludus rules contribute indirectly to winning a game, while macro ludus rules contribute directly. Computer games usually have macro ludus rules, which define the ultimate goal; while most micro ludus rules are either predefined by the game designers or created by the players during the play session. Oriented towards macro ludus rules, the player devises individual micro ludus rules in order to achieve the goal. For a game-based learning system, explicitly stated micro ludus rules can be important to scaffold learning. Micro ludus rules also function as guidance in the virtual world that steers players toward the learning objective. Learning objectives are presented as part of the narrative context. In-

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stead of “to understand genetic configuration of animals,” we can intrigue the learners “to defeat the monsters by breaking the genetic codes.” Besides, this matches task-based learning, while each task is introduced as ludus rules.

narrative-oriented learning Narrative interfaces have been used in the game industry since its infancy and have successfully enticed a large portion of computer users for decades. Unfortunately, most educational software fails to take advantage of this highly effective design. Spatial design is obviously lacking, as most interfaces of conventional learning software adopt the metaphor of a book. The computer screen should not be a representation of a page of book, but a window to a new world. Learners look through the screen like through a window to a new spatial world of knowledge in which the images of real objects act coherently with virtual models (Morozov & Markov, 2000). Like paidea rules, the interface of a game is doubled in an interesting way. First is the interface of the computer: the keyboard and the mouse. An additional interface is the narrative metaphor, which illuminates the narrative space in a new dynamic and interactive medium. The spatial design makes the first interface “disappear.” Learners are not interacting with the keyboard or mouse, but with the story presented from the computer screen (Jaron & Biocca, 1992). Another issue pertaining to the spatiality of the software is that most educational software structures learning contents linearly, offers textual explanations and gives a particular spatial organization that does not reflect physical experiences. Learners should not regurgitate the context-free facts; rather, they expect to use knowledge in a contextually rich situation. Apart from these, educational software does not offer narrativity to its users. There is hardly any action except for the clicking of menu buttons, which is hardly conceivable as stories. As

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Ryan (2001) has pointed out, players do not want to “gather points by hitting moving targets with a cursor controlled by a joystick”; they want to fight terrorists or save Earth from invasion by evil creatures from outer space. It is the same for learning software, which is also a type of game. Learners do not want to click the button to flip through the pages about genetics; they want to defeat monsters by analyzing and breaking their genetic codes.

lAnguAge leArning As extrinsic And intrinsic gAmes We have elucidated two types of learning that might arise when playing a game. But how could these game designs be applied in language-learning software? Malone (1980) has propounded a motivational heuristic of educational games that comprises challenge, curiosity and fantasy. According to his interpretation of fantasy in computer games, two kinds of game design for learning are distinguished: intrinsic and extrinsic games. Intrinsic games rely on the understanding of the subject matter from within the game world, while extrinsic games rely on those external to the game world. Extrinsic games usually consist of a structured series of puzzles or tasks embedded in a game or narrative structure with which they have only the most slender connection. Intrinsic games build in challenges and activities that are more seamlessly integrated, more dependent on the narrative of the game. In brief, extrinsic games are used to attract users to learn a language, while in intrinsic games, the computer game itself becomes the learning activity. Therefore, the game design could be applied in language learning with two methods: the learning of the material as well as the learning of the game itself.

extrinsic game learning In extrinsic game design, the language learning is superimposed on the paidea rules of an existing

Appendix C, Selected Readings: Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools

game, resulting in new paidea rules. This may and may not engender new gameplay, depending on the quality of the bond between paidea rules and the learning material: Does the game world depend on the learning? In fact, this kind of game design is quite commonly used in language-learning games. Kana Warrior, for example, is a combination of first-person shooter and the learning of Japanese characters (Stubbs, 2003). In this game, the game world is dependent on the language skill. The player must improve in the language to make progress in the game. Often, extrinsic games are regarded as not as good as intrinsic games. They are somewhat the same as conventional e-learning software: Learners are not learning the paidea rules or the narrative of the system, but something external — the textual description of the subject matter. This is rather similar to reading books; we are not learning how the book operates, but the contents in the book. However, an extrinsic game could be effective in making some boring aspects of language learning interesting, such as rote learning of Japanese characters. The key factors that make game-based learning appear more interesting than typical e-learning software are its paidea rules and narratives. It is made enjoyable by binding paidea and ludus rules of computer games and language learning with narratives, creating an imaginary learning space that is engaging and immersive. It is very much like inventing a new form of book, in which every turning of the page yields a more interesting experience to the reader. The paidea is made fun, but it does not help the learning process. Theoretically, almost every genre of games from the industry — racing games, board games, action games and so forth — could be used for this purpose. Extrinsic game design can be used to develop language-learning games for spelling, character recognition and vocabulary that require memorization and repetitive learning. Extrinsic design can be characterized as drill and practice, in which learning is context-free. Games-based learning has the potential for motivating drill and

practice by offering an environment in which learners actually enjoy repetition. To fully utilize this design in learning, the following measures are suggested: 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Investigate the type of game that target users enjoy. If learners get no delight in the particular genre of the game, it will not be successful in motivating them. Allow learners to switch off the game in the middle of playing. Although the game is used totally as an extrinsic motivation to attract learners, they might become interested in the subject matter and want to focus only on the learning content. Provide strong narratives to create drama effect. Since the bond between paidea and the subject matter is rather weak, narratives are needed to reinforce the connection apart from creating drama effect. The students must be familiar with the game’s paidea rules. If the learner is unfamiliar with the game, the paidea rules must be simple so that the learning of paidea rules does not interfere with the learning of the subject matter. Ludus rules must lead to the learning objective. Ludus rules should be stated distinctly and give guidance to the learner.

narrative-oriented intrinsic game learning Unlike extrinsic games, for intrinsic game design, learning contents are seamlessly integrated into either narrative or gaming mechanisms. Hence, intrinsic games provide two ways of learning as derived from the game model previously: narrative-oriented and gameplay-oriented. In narrativeoriented game design, players need to understand the virtual world, the event, the character and, most importantly, the story, in order to proceed. Like a book, the game mechanisms are trivial compared to the narrative mechanisms. The learning

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material is woven into the game as a story and, strictly speaking, the learning process is almost the same as for extrinsic games. Although the learning content is woven into a narrative context, the learning is explicit because the learners are shown the learning material in the form of text or graphics. Paidea rules merely define how learners should discover and read the material. This differs from extrinsic game design in that it serves as a complete learning situation. This is most suitable characterized as a computer-based tutorial, in which information is designed to be presented in an effective and interesting way. Material is presented to the student in a narrative structure. This design is useful for learning the cultural aspects of a language by displaying pictorial or animated narratives of social settings, while reading skills could be fostered by exposing learners to textual narratives. In short, in this game design, the learning content or environment is designed as narrative, while paidea is for navigation. To fully utilize this design in language learning, the following measures are suggested: 1.

2.

3.

4.

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Investigate what fantasy theme the target user is interested in. Narratives are crucial factors in this design. If the user does not like the fantasy theme the designer has chosen, it is likely that the design will be a failure. The learning material is designed in the narrative context. The learning content is not presented as detached items of words or characters, but is connected to form a narrative. The narrative should be able to stimulate the player to know what happens next. Curiosity is incited through the twist of narrative plots. Goals are divided into several sub-goals to scaffold learning. Generally, the sub-goals are gradually presented to lead learners to the learning objective.

5.

The control over the program is not as crucial as the control of the flow of the learning content.

gameplay-oriented intrinsic game learning In gameplay-oriented intrinsic games, players learn in a virtual world by interacting with the characters and events with languages. In this game design, paidea rules do not act as a simple interactivity that allows the player to discover predefined material. The learning material is embedded tactfully into the paidea rules of the game. This is used as a game design that prevails, as it demands active experimentation rather than observation, of its subject material. It is also a way to explore, to test models and hypotheses, and to construct and acquire new knowledge in a way traditional media never can. At the extreme end of an intrinsic game for language learning, it would be a computerized conversation game. In fact, a project has been undertaken to develop a language training game in a fully 3D virtual world. The character in the game would be able to respond to what the learner speaks via Natural Language Processing Parser (Johnson, Marsella, Mote, Viljhálmsson, Narayanan, & Choi, 2004). While in extrinsic games, the learning material is read and understood, in intrinsic games, the learning is experienced. In this design, the game designers — rather than implementing the material for the player to experience — implement a system of parts that come together to form the material in the hands of the player. This design can be used for subjects that require logical thinking, where information is not fact-based but rule- or process-based, such as the grammar of a language. It can be attributed to simulation. This simulation, however, is different from scientific simulations. This design is narrative and context-based, rather than simulating a scenario such as the lab experiment that is not relevant to real-life experiences. It provides an enticing problem-solving environment

Appendix C, Selected Readings: Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools

where students play an authentic role, exploring at will, creating their own ideas of its underlying structure and synthesizing strategies, which reflect their understanding of this structure. To fully use this design, the following measures are suggested: 1. The game should have explicit goals. Unlike scientific simulations, which have no goals, this design should provide clear and unambiguous goals. 2. It should have a narrative theme. This is true for three types of design; as, without narratives, the learner will be just manipulating words and alphabets. 3. The games should be able to stimulate the player to know more about the mechanism of the system by giving clear feedback. 4. The control over the program is crucial. The interaction will determine how the learner observes and infers the rules of the system, which are also the subject matter. Table 2 is the summary of game-based learning design.

An AnAlysis oF gAme-bAsed lAnguAge leArning With the gAme model In this section, a theoretical view of games in computer-based learning is elucidated based on the game model and method of game-learning integration illustrated in the previous section. Two case studies are presented to demonstrate the implementation of “Slime Forest” in learning Japanese language, as well as how “Alien Language” is used for learning English, Spanish, French and German.

case study: slime Forest Slime Forest is a game similar to a role playing game (RPG) created to teach three sets of kana (Japanese characters). This is a summary of Slime Forest: The game starts in a cave where the player is required to venture into the world outside to sell potatoes. The player will then be assigned, one by one, several sub-tasks and fight slime monsters in the forest to accomplish the tasks.

Table 2. The summary of extrinsic and intrinsic game design Extrinsic Paidea rules Ludus rules Narrative

Learning

Paidea rules are loosely linked with learning contents Fictional learning objectives Narrative has little or no connection with learning Explicit, Context-free

Intrinsic Narrative-oriented Paidea rules define the navigation of learning contents Fictional learning objectives Narrative provides a context and contents for learning Explicit, Context-based

Gameplay-oriented Paidea rules define the construction of learning contents Fictional learning objectives Narrative provides a context for learning Tacit, Context-based

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Figure 6. Screenshots of Slime Forest (courtesy http://lrnj.com/sfa)

(a) the world map

(b) dealing with one Japanese character

(c) dealing with a katakana word

The game features two complete sets of hiragana and katakana, and 200 kanji, the Chinese characters. The aim of this game is to create a learning environment that provides a fun way of memorizing these characters, which are usually learned in a classroom via rote learning. In addition, players are also expected to learn some words borrowed from non-Chinese foreign languages, written in katakana. The instruction of the game is in English; therefore, this game aims at English speakers who wish to learn the Japanese language. Basically, there are two types of activities: the world, and the battle in which the learning takes place. In the world map, the player plays a role of the game protagonist and explores different locations, such as the cave and the castle. The player needs to gather information about various missions by talking to people in the game. In the forest, the player will get involved in battles to

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fight slime monsters by typing the Romanized pronunciation of a particular kana that appears on top of the monster. If it is answered correctly, the player gains a chance to attack. Actually, the ultimate goal of this project is to design a game for everyone, even for those who are not interested in learning Japanese. We would like to examine the game and learning using the theoretical model of gameplay. Based on the definition of paidea and ludus, one can make learning Japanese a form of game by simply adding ludus rules; say, “Those who manage to write down 10 kanas the fastest win the game.” In Slime Forest, users are more eager to learn the language because they have an interesting goal in mind: to kill the monsters, so they can progress in the game. However, adding ludus rules to a boring activity merely reduces the boredom. This form of game is not fun enough to engage learners for hours. What would have happened if the rules of

Appendix C, Selected Readings: Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools

“Who Wants to be a Millionaire” were reduced to answering the questions and wining $1 million without the “safe havens,” “lifelines” and so on? Apparently, extra paidea rules are added to make the game really interesting. It is noted that without the learning part, the game is a complete RPG game system (see Figure 7). The learning of Japanese characters is integrated, though in a loose manner, with the paidea rules of the battle system, resulting in a new form of gameplay oriented toward the ludus rules of the RPG. Besides, the integration of language learning and entertainment would not have been successful if not for narratives. The narrative in Slime Forest has at least two functions: to introduce fantasy learning goals (to fight monsters and save the princess) and to project the game as a complete virtual space with characters and events that retain the learner’s interests. The narrative gives an explanation why players have to perform certain tasks. It is unlike certain educational software, in which the user is rewarded with a

game playing session after completing learning tasks. By applying a well-integrated narrative, the learning and the game are bound together. Narratives also increase the urgency that pushes learners to complete the learning tasks. It is concluded that the RPG game used in Slime Forest serves only as an external motivation. The integration of game and learning is extrinsic. It by no means aids the users in understanding the language. Some educators argue that games should not be used merely as means to motivate students to learn, and that play and learning must be mutually constitutive (Jenson, 2002). Indeed, learning should be made self-motivating, so learners are willing to learn it voluntarily. However, we should realize that not all aspects of language learning are internally motivating. Some are boring and difficult, and we need to help learners learn. In fact, if the learning was motivating, people may have learned them on their own and we probably need not put them in the curriculum (Prensky, 2001).

Figure 7. Theoretical view of Slime Forest

Slim e F orest A dventure gam eplay

gam eplay Japane se characters T o d efeat enem ies

Gam e W orld

Japanese language Explicit learn ing

R ole P laying G am e Entertainm ent

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case study: Alien language Alien Language is a game distributed over the Internet used to support the teaching of “parts of the body” in four modern languages: English, French, Spanish and German. This is a brief summary of Alien Language: The aliens are on a mission to collect creatures from around the galaxy for the alien zoo. You need to help them transport the creatures, label the specimens and cure the sick aliens. The motivation of this project is to create supplementary material for foreign language education based on a particular topic. The key aspects of language learning — spelling, grammar and sentence construction — are the focus of this project. The game can be used in many

different combinations; for example, learning English for German speakers, learning Spanish for French speakers and so forth. It assumes that learners have known the basic vocabulary and sentences on the target language. However, if they need help, they can get a translation of the game instruction in their native language by pressing the control button. Basically, the learners have three major tasks. First, they need to record the number of each body part the alien has and transport it to the alien zoo. Second, they will label the specimen in the museum by typing the name of a body part. Third, they need to construct sentences from a set of given words to identify the medical condition of the alien. The game includes a trivia game — resembling the popular “Who Wants to be a Millionaire” game — that tests the understanding of the learners. It also contains a simple dictionary of body parts.

Figure 8. Screenshots of Alien Language (courtesy www.alienlanguage.co.uk)

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(a) the dictionary

(b) the transporter

(c) the body museum

(d) the hospital

Appendix C, Selected Readings: Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools

One of the best ways of learning a language is to use it in daily life. When interacting with people, we are actively receiving what people say, reflecting the meaning in our mind and constructing sentences. Different ludus rules could be introduced to create different scenarios to the language learning environment, hence, creating a game-like learning activity. If we examine Alien Language with the game model, we could see that the learning is designed to be part of the paidea rules. Take the hospital activity, for example: It is actually a micro version of a real-life conversation environment, where the player constructs sentences from words, although the sentence construction activity is far less complex than the real-life conversation. Figure 9 shows a similar gameplay model as shown in the previous section. No external learning material is imposed to this internal structure of game. The paidea rules of the game are, in fact, the grammar rules that the player needs to learn in order to proceed in the game. Predefined ludus rules exist for each activity: to construct a meaningful sentence based on a given context, to construct the word and to count the number of each body part correctly. The use of narrative is also obvious in this case. The game projects a fantasy space with imaginative characters. This creates a more experiential learning environment, as the learners are put in a role within the narrative space. The design is coupled with narrative so the learners are not just manipulating the words and grammar rules, but are solving context-based problems and overcoming challenges. Unlike Slime Forest, the learning happens in Alien Language itself. The players learn to play the game, and at the same time, they learn the language. The learning happens internally in the game, as the learning content is an integral part of the game structure. It is a gameplay-oriented intrinsic game design. Instead of learning something external to the game, the learner of Alien

Language plays an authentic role and carries out interesting tasks.

cross-case Analysis The two cases are examined together to find out what elements differentiate them and what they have in common. The observation is done from two perspectives: ludology and narratology, to derive something about computer game designs for learning. First, it is noted that even if the language learning part is removed from Slime Forest, the game is still a complete RPG on its own. The language learning is superimposed on the paidea rules and can be easily changed to something else, such as answering mathematics questions. Therefore, paidea rules of the RPG are used to attract learners into the learning environment. For Alien Language, however, this is quite different, since the paidea rules are actually designed specifically for language learning. The learning contents cannot be swapped without significant modification of the fundamental structure of the game. Second, both have clear and explicit ludus rules that bring about gameplay. The learning objectives are not stated explicitly as the learning of a language. Although both games use fantasy goals, such as defeating monsters and transporting aliens, the goals will eventually lead to language learning, since without leaning the specific language, the goals can never be achieved. Third, both games make full use of the narrative metaphor in designing the user interface. The games are designed as a fantasy world with narrative events. They also feature explicit characters that interact with learners to provide challenges: a fantasy narrative explanation of ludus rules. Some characters in Alien Language also give guidance to the learners regarding language contents. Actions taken by the learner in the game are conceivable and can be recounted as narratives. The following table summarizes the case studies.

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discussion And Future direction By studying ludology and narratology, we are able to derive something on how these theories are useful in designing language-learning software applications. It is maintained that computer game theories provide a better framework for designing language-learning software tools, making the experience of learning more immersive and engaging. Computer game-based language learning is expected to be better than its traditional counterpart from two perspectives: learning effectiveness and motivation. It is more effective in the sense that knowledge is constructed instead of being transmitted, especially for intrinsic game designs. It is also motivating, where it challenges the learners, intrigues their curiosity and brings about fantasy. However, an empirical study needs to be conducted to verify the advantages, and these results should help guide designers of educational games to consider how to effectively balance the demands of motivation and learning. Moreover, implementing game-based learning in light of language education needs detailed studies on the nature of language learning, which could be approached from linguistics, psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics. Each of these fields seems to pose an insightful view of language acquisition from different stands. We believe that the understanding of how a language is acquired and learned, either by an infant or an adult, might open up a new door for a more novel use of computer games in language learning.

summAry We have analyzed two educational games from the perspective of ludology and narratology that explain two important types of game design in language-learning applications. In Slime Forest, computer games are used to attract the learner to learn a language aspect, while in Alien Language,

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the computer game itself becomes the learning activity. By analyzing both cases with computer game theories, we are able to understand them more closely, and thus derive a better principle of designing learning software based on computer games. Both extrinsic and intrinsic games are suitable for language-learning designs, although the latter is more desirable. It not only creates an engaging learning environment, but also an experiential one in which learners experience the knowledge first hand instead of being told.

reFerences Aarseth, E. (1998). Allegories of space: The question of spatiality in computer games. Retrieved March 2005, from www.hf.uib.no/hi/espen/papers/space/ Ang, C. S., & Rao, R. K. (2004). E-learning as computer games: Designing immersive and experiential learning. Pacific Rim Conference on Multimedia, Tokyo, Japan. Barrett, M. (1997). Irreconcilable differences: Game vs. story, Gamasutra. Retrieved March 2005, from www.gamasutra.com Crawford, C. (1982). The art of computer game design. Retrieved March 2005, from www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Coverpage.html Frasca, G. (1999). Ludology meets narratology: Similitude and differences between (video) games and narrative. Retrieved March 2005, from http:// www.ludology.org Frasca, G. (2001). Video games of the oppressed: Video games as a means for critical thinking and debate. Unpublished master’s thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology. Gingold, C. (2003). Miniature gardens & magic crayons: Games, spaces, & worlds. Georgia Institute of Technology

Appendix C, Selected Readings: Developing Enjoyable Second Language Learning Software Tools

Jaron, L., & Biocca, F. (1992). An insider’s view of the future of virtual reality. Journal of Communications, 42(4), 150-172. Jenson, J. (2002, April). Serious play: Challenges of educational game design. Proceedings of the AERA Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA. Johnson, W. L., Marsella, S., Mote, N., Viljhálmsson, H., Narayanan, S., & Choi, S. (2004, June). Tactical language training system: Supporting the rapid acquisition of foreign language and cultural skills. Proceedings of the STIL/ICALL 2004 Symposium on Computer Assisted Learning. Juul, J. (2002). The open and the closed: Game of emergence and games of progression. In F. Mäyrä (Ed.), Computer game and digital cultures conference proceedings. Tampere. Tampere University Press.

Morozov, M. N., & Markov, A. I. (2000, December). How to make courseware for schools interesting: New metaphors in educational multimedia. International Workshop on Advanced Learning Technologies: Design and Development Issues. IEEE Computer Society. Murray, J. J. R. (1978). A history of boardgames other than chess. New York: Hacker Art Books. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw Hill. Ryan, M.-L. (1994). Immersion vs. interactivity: Virtual reality and literary theory, postmodern culture. Postmodern Culture, 5(1). Retrieved March 2005, from http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/ postmodern_culture/v005/5.1ryan.html

Lindley, C. A. (2002, June). The gameplay gestalt, narrative, and interactive storytelling. Proceedings of the Computer Games and Digital Cultures Conference, Tampere, Finland.

Ryan, M.-L. (2001). Beyond myth and metaphor — The case of narrative in digital media. The International Journal of Computer Game Research. Retrieved March 2005, from www. gamestudies.org

Malone, T. W. (1980, September). What makes things fun to learn? Heuristics for designing instructional computer games. Proceedings of the 3rd ACM SIGSMALL Symposium and the First SIGPC Symposium on Small Systems.

Stubbs, K. (2003). E-learning: Kana no senshi (kana warrior): A new interface for learning Japanese character. The International Conference of Computer-Human Interaction (CHI) 2003 Extended Abstracts (pp. 894-895).

This work was previously published in User-Centered Computer Aided Language, edited by P. Zaphiris and G. Zacharia, pp. 1-21, copyright 2006 by InfoSci (an imprint of IGI Global).

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Appendix D

Game Mods:

Customizable Learning in a K16 Setting Elizabeth Fanning The University of Virginia, USA

AbstrAct A game mod describes a modification within an existing commercial, computer-based game that has been created by a user. By game modding, a user can participate in the creative process by taking the setting of their favorite game and customizing it for entertainment purposes or to convey information. For years, commercial computer-based game developers committed considerable resources towards preventing users from “hacking” into or “hijacking” their games. Now several computer-based game developers provide editors with their products to encourage users to create content, and to allow educators, for instance, to take advantage of the benefits and production quality of commercial computer games to create customized instruction. This chapter focuses on mainstream, accessible games with straightforward modding tools that can be easily integrated into a learning environment.

What do computer games have to do With learning? Anyone who thinks there is a difference between education and entertainment doesn’t know the first thing about either. —Marshall McLuhan, Communications Theorist

introduction Learning theorists from Piaget to Jonassen contend that profound, lasting learning culminates from the participant exploring, discovering, and interacting with their environment and culture

to assimilate and create new meaning within their personal schema (Donaldson, 1984; Jonassen, 1992; Satterly, 1987). For a computer-based, constructivist learning environment, the quality of the user’s learning experience is vested in the extent to which the computer responds in a way

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Appendix D, Selected Readings: Game Mods

that is consistent with the learner’s information processing needs (Jonassen, 1988). The level of the user’s interactivity and consequent sense of empowerment and control over their learning experience will affect the extent to which surface or deep learning will occur (Jonassen, 1988). Studies using computer games in learning settings, particularly the classroom, indicate that while student test scores may not improve significantly from using games, students do learn on a more profound level, and are able to describe, for instance, why an answer to a test question is correct or incorrect (Squire, 2002b). While this outcome appears marginal at this point, it is worth exploring what computer games do afford a user: empowerment, motivation, insight, and engagement (Gee, 2003; Prensky, 2001). How one might harness and channel a game’s learning opportunities into the classroom in a way that empowers self-directed learning and the development of conceptual tools? Recognizing that emerging and even current learners have most likely grown up with a mouse in hand or at least developed considerable schema shaped by interacting with computer-based technology, computer games have gone beyond satiating the game playing public as a dalliance or source of entertainment and evolved into a meaningful, socially expressive medium, a platform for discussion and reflection that continues after the game session is over and outside the context of the game. However, the resources needed to create a commercial, computer-based game are formidable, in many cases requiring the expertise of game designers, computer artists, and programmers, not to mention robust marketing support. Many have endeavored to create educational games for the classroom and workplace, but most have neither the resources nor expertise to match the production quality and comprehensiveness of content characterized by more mainstream, commercial computer-based games. Given these requirements and constraints, how might one harness and channel a game’s learning

opportunities into the classroom? Perhaps game mods could provide a means for educators to use the quality and basic format of commercial games to create customized instruction for enabling students to create meaning in their own learning. A game mod describes a modification within an existing commercial, computer-based game that has been created by a user. To do this, a user works with the game’s existing assets to alter a small segment of the game’s graphics, text, audio, or interactivity. In effect, a user can participate in the creative process by taking the setting of their favorite game and customizing it for entertainment purposes or to convey information.

mods: rules oF the gAme And terms oF engAgement For years, commercial computer-based game developers committed considerable resources towards preventing users from “hacking” into or “hijacking” their games (Holt, 2004); however, and perhaps in keeping with the spirit of gameplay, many game users consider these prohibitive efforts simply another challenge to master within the game environment (Holt, 2004). Now several computer-based game developers are providing editors with their products to encourage users to create content (Marriott, 2003; Prensky, 2003). It is important to note that these editors do not reveal the entire code, but only enough for the user to create several levels of modification (Holt, 2004; Marriott, 2003; Prensky, 2003). Why do commercial game developers even offer this much? According to Chaptmann (2004), Holt (2004), and Prensky (2003): •

Within the game cultures, “cool” game companies encourage modding; they are more respected for their responsiveness and their show of confidence in their users’ technical competency

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•

The game developers are ensured continued play and sales, especially as the user can make the game continue to expand to more levels

In keeping with the gaming culture, a game’s modding capability comes with several rules spelled out in the license that comes with the game’s software: • • •

The modder cannot make money off of their mods The modder needs to own the base games The modder cannot combine mods from different games into one mod

To what extend does modding serve the modder? According to Hold (2004) and Prensky (2003): • •

•

The mods are free to make Modding provides a way for gamers to make their own games (“I can do it better”). The modder creates a new free game, and extends gameplay of a game that may otherwise satisfy for two to three weeks The modder can upload their mod to a modders’ forum to showcase their work, and participate in a large community of workers, fans, and game players

Note too that modding can be done at different levels, from a simple change to the appearance of a character to a more complex creation of a completely new setting, complete with AI. For the purposes of classroom use, however, what follows is an examination of how to bring modding into the classroom as a creative learning exercise without the encumbrance of complicated prerequisite technical skills.

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tools for the classroom Two popular computer games, Civilization, created by Sid Meier and published by Firaxis software, and Electronic Arts’ The Sims, created by Will Wright, provide easy-to-use, easy-to access tools for customizing gameplay. Civilization is considered the penultimate commercial educational game (Squire, 2004). Played alone or with several players, Civilization is a geographically oriented and fact-driven world history game. Its gameplay requires the user to use maps and resources to manage the development of a civilization, based on the limits and opportunities presented by topography, resources, cultural affectation, and interactions with surrounding cultures (Squire, 2001, 2002a, 2004). By comparison, The Sims, created by Electronic Arts, is another popular, but less educational game that allows user customization as well, but its outcomes are shaped less by geographic and political landscape and more by social considerations (Squire, 2001, 2004). The Sims is often described of as less of a game and more of a simulation (hence, its name) or a toy, in that it is not designed around a more concrete goal (Fortugno & Zimmerman, 2005). Others argue that the goal of The Sims is to succeed in keeping The Sims going (Wright, 2003). Regardless of the arguments, the game does suggest a potential for application beyond simply engaging the user in a digital dollhouse. The Sims has already been modded for use in language curricula (Squire, 2004). Instructors have gone into the code layer to change the prompting language from English to French, for instance, to encourage incidental language learning via the gameplay experience. Others have taken its modding capabilities even further and into exciting new direction by creating public service advertisements1 and replications of music videos2 with The Sims video capture tools.

Appendix D, Selected Readings: Game Mods

Such machinema, as videos that are created using user-friendly editing and storytelling tools like those provided in The Sims, are also popular venues in Web spaces like www.youtube.com, which allows users to upload videos for anyone to review and even rate.

We spent 20 hours using The Sims’ tools to create Monticello, based on research of the plantation’s blueprints and house plans as well as the historic significance of the time in which it was built. While The Sims has an engine that allows for elaborate construction, it did present some limitations:

building A PlAntAtion

•

To see how game modding can be used in a classroom setting, we used the popular, more flexible game The Sims, created by Electronic Arts. The Sim’s game engine also allows and encourages the user to create buildings as simple as a modest bungalow, for example, or as complex as an historical landmark, such as Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello. We endeavored to create a virtual Monticello (Figure 1) to see how far we could go with The Sims’ game engine to create a mod based on the structure and its social interaction, and then determine the extent to which the final product might foster motivation, game literacy, or media dialogue.

•

Pop art and modern home furnishings that the user can access to “decorate” the structure, thus interfering with the “historical integrity” of the house. Timed programming variables that can be difficult to alter. At one point, a school bus drove by and took Patsy Jefferson with it. It was necessary to wait until another gameplay session for Patsy to return (by bus).

To customize a mod further, a user can venture, as we did, into the online community proliferating around The Sims to find tools for importing furniture. Some of these tools are created by modders not affiliated with The Sims who often expanded on existing Sims editor code to enable more elaborate modifications (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Virtual Monticello

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Figure 2. Jefferson’s revolving bookstand

Figure 3. Peter Fosset description

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Appendix D, Selected Readings: Game Mods

Similarly, to create more “real life” Monticellobased characters, Sims Creator (Start/Programs/ Maxix/Sims/Sims Creator) was used to create a specific type of person, from personality attributes to physical appearance and gender (Figure 3).

reactions: the learner To begin our study, we opened the mod to a group of four high school students. Two of them were regular Sims players. At first, they wanted to sit back and watch, hoping to observe an historical reenactment of what might have taken place in the plantation they had all visited in person at least once. As is typical of female Sims players (Chu, Heeter, Egidio et al., 2004), the girls were more interested in what people in the house were doing and how they got along. Sally Hemmings worked on the first floor. Another cooked in the basement. A butler wandered between the entryway and Thomas Jefferson’s bedroom, where Jefferson stood pensively. Eventually, the cook caught on fire and the girls used their Sims skills to attempt to save the cook—despite their efforts, death intervened. In time, the focus group also explored the mischief that players typically get into by “fooling” the game and directing characters to behave badly to see what would happen (Perhaps this is the digital age version of teasing the cat or a prank phone call). Mischief accomplished or not, the focus group collectively expressed interest in accessing the blueprints for the plantation’s gardens so that they could recreate them within the mod. Hence, despite the shortcomings of our virtual Monticello, our focus group validated Gee and answered the call that beckoned from the computer game: to pursue self-directed learning by solving complex problems (Gee, 2003). Such self-directed exploration to go beyond the boundaries of one’s current understanding to create and assimilate meaning is also of course, rich in constructivist learning implications (Jonassen, 1992; Satterly, 1987).

reactions: the classroom teacher We then presented the Monticello mod to five middle school and high school teachers, for whom we demonstrated the Monticello mod and then asked to explore it on their own. Afterwards, we discussed with them the extent to which they found such a tool feasible for classroom use and how they might use it for learning. All of the instructors in the group were familiar with The Sims, but none had previous experience with it. The instructors’ first response to the virtual Monticello mod was that it looked like a digital replacement of the traditional, second grade diorama in the shoebox assignment. Initial issues with the mod were that it does not quite accurately represent the plantation physically. One indicated that they would like the ability to: • • •

•

Import historically relevant artifacts into the framework Change character attributes to accurately represent historic personalities Change the rules so that characters could not earn “creativity points” based on artistic accomplishments, but rather earn points based on something that would have been important for that character during a given time period—or remove the point option all together. “History is not a game,” as one ardent history teacher explained Reshape the “going shopping” metaphor in the game engine that allows users to spend Sims dollars to construct and furnish the house. We used “cheats” to access Sims dollars to create this mod, following a financing strategy similar to that which Jefferson sometimes used to construct and furnish his own Monticello.

The teachers also expressed concern that a student might be more engaged in the gameplay than the learning. One suggested that in classroom, he would want to use a mod like the virtual

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Appendix D, Selected Readings: Game Mods

Figure 4. Jefferson in his study

Monticello to emphasize its historical significance, toning down the novelty of its gameplay. Another expressed that that they were “excited about the possibility of bringing the past to the present” with mods, citing their value as “an observation tool,” and liked the idea of being able to go in and move around, adding, “I can explore the past and explore interactions!” By doing so, he felt that his students could gain insight through exploration and inference by considering the period characteristic values and experiences of historical figures that might shape their choices and behaviors. Even with its programming limits, most teachers felt that their students could use such mods to experience a “good approximation” of the past, one that would help them to construct their understanding of the time period and issues that shaped decisions. Given this utility, one instructor noted that historically contextual game mods could fortify the development of his students’ mental models—and that as a teacher, he would have better insight in his students’ “historical

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reasoning,” based on the decisions they made within the framework. “I could present [a mod] as an alternative assessment, opposed to a test or paper,” he explained, adding, “That you can change things is very exciting for the study of history.”

contextualizing the mod in the classroom As teachers explored how they might use the virtual Monticello mod in a classroom setting, their ideas for implementation included: •

A class inquiry: The teacher could run the mod on the projector and discuss how to interact with it with the class. Later, the class could work in groups on their own mods to explore and create “shared meanings.” The instructor could alternate between using class and group mods to promote inquiry and discussion. As one teacher pointed out, “There’s a lot of value just in creating

Appendix D, Selected Readings: Game Mods

•

•

the scenario and having the students do the research for that.” An examination of character: “I want to see Monticello and send in Nat Turner,” one explained, to see how a character programmed with Nat’s attributes would react in a plantation setting. One instructor suggested replacing Jefferson with Napoleon for the same reasons A yearlong study: One teacher suggested that the creation of the scenario could be an ongoing project, divided across academic quarters, each dealing with a different part of its construction in a way that parallels the course content delivery

Integrating any type of computer game into a curriculum shifts the culture of the classroom from one that is teacher-driven to a more user-centered learning environment; the teacher becomes a facilitator rather than a proffer of knowledge (King, 2003;Squire, 2004). However, when computer games are introduced into the classroom, the teacher has an amplifying effect on the learning outcome. If the teacher is appropriately prepared to use a game in their curriculum, it augments the learning success. Unfortunately, the inverse is true if the teacher is less aware of how to facilitate learning using computer games (Squire, 2004). Perhaps we can begin managing this amplifying effect by focusing on what the teacher can do to prepare for bringing game-based learning into the classroom, by: • •

•

Identifying the equipment and entry behaviors required for the game Determining the time required for the game to make an impact on learning. Typically, a student needs time to understand how to use a game before they can begin learning with it Recognizing the types of learning computer-based learning facilitates, which is

• • •

•

more knowledge-based and to an extent, subjective Determining how computer-based learning can support the learning goals Choosing an appropriate game or game editor for creating mods Contextualizing the game into the curriculum in a way that encourages exploration, discovery, and the development of “conceptual tools” Including appropriate scaffolding as well as offline activities that encourage reflection, dialog and “shared meanings” among the learners beyond the context of the game

It is also worth exploring if an IT specialist should be familiar with the utility of game-based learning and how to use it in a classroom setting as well in order to support the classroom teachers in meeting their learning goals. This same person could be called upon to create simple learning mods or skeletons for the students to work with, as specified by an instructor, or based on a given curriculum’s learning goals. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the instructor needs to be “game literate,” recognizing and understanding that computer games are a means of expression and representation (Green, 2004), and that like reading and writing, game literacy develops when the learner has the tools and ability to create their own games (Clark, Perrone, & Repenning, 2005; King, 2003).

conclusion The purpose of this discussion is to examine how game mods might provide an affordable, comparable, and customizable alternative to wildly successful commercial games, an alternative that could be used in a classroom setting to facilitate a meaningful learning experience. Current research also suggests that this medium

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may also have application in therapeutic settings for recreating and responding to a past trauma or to explore and practice different ways in which to respond to stimuli and a range of social interactions. However, the success of the use of game mods in a learning or therapeutic setting will depend not only on the novelty of a good idea, or how comfortable the instructor or facilitator and learner are with using computers and making simple changes to existing applications, but also on how well the modding activities are contextualized within the curriculum. Creating meaning still needs to be forged within an evocative and relevant context.

reFerences Boards. The Creative Edge in commercial Production. (September, 2005). Public Health Department, Belgium - Teenage Mum. http:// www.boardsmag.com/screeningroom/animation/1146/ Chu, K., Heeter, C., Egidio, R., & Mishra, P. (2004). Girls and games literature review. Michigan State University Mind Games Collaboratory. Retrieved March 10, 2005 from http://spacepioneers.msu. edu/girls_and_games_lit_review.htm Chaptman, Dennis. (2004). Video-games in the classroom. Wisconsin Technology Network. Retrieved from http://www.wistechnology.com/ article.php?id=513 Clark, D., Perrone, C., & Repenning, A. (2005). Webquest: Using WWW & Interactive Simulation Games in the Classroom. First Monday. Retrieved from http://www.firstmonday.dk/issues/issue5/perrone/ Donaldson, M. (1984). Children’s minds. London: Fontana. Evers, J. (2004). My daughter killed her brother in “The Sims.” IT World.Com. http://www.itworld. com/App/4201/041221sibssims/ 1398

Fanning, E. 2006. The sims in therapy: An examination of feasibility and potential. Under review for publication by The Journal of the American Art Therapy Association. Fortugno, N. & Zimmerman, E.. (2005). Soapbox: Learning to play to Llearn — lessons in educational game design. Gamesutra. Retrieved from http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20050405/ zimmerman_01.shtml Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Green, H. (2004). Researchers and teachers push for games in schools. The Institute of Education, University of London. Retrieved March 10, 2005 from http://ioewebserver.ioe.ac.uk/ioe/cms/get. asp?cid=1397&1397_1=10817 Gorilla Mask. (2005,September). Trapped in the closet performed by the sims (Part 1). Retrieved from http://gorillamask.net/rksims1.shtml Holt, T. (2004). How mods are really built. Serious Games Summit DC. Retrieved March 10, 2005 from http://www.cmpevents.com/GDe04/ a.asp?option=C&V=11&SessID=3305&Mgt=0 &RVid=0 Jonassen, D. (Ed). (1988). Instructional designs for microcomputer courseware101. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Kim, L.S. (1995). Creative games for the language class. Forum, 1(33), 35. King, B. (2003). Educators turn to games for help. Wired News. Retrieved March 10, 2005 from http:// www.wired.com/news/games/0,2101,59855,00. html (). Marriott, M. (2003). Games made for remaking. The New York Times. Retrieved March 10, 2005 from http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/04/technology/circuits/04modd.html?ex=1135227600&e n=0fc160f73ad53e42&ei=5070

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Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw Hill. Prensky, M. (2003.) “Modding”—the newest authoring tool. Marc Prensky. Retrieved from http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/Prensky%20-%20Modding%20-%20The%20Newes t%20Authoring%20Tool.pdf Satterly, D. (1987). Piaget and education. In R. L. Gregory (Ed.). The oxford companion to the mind. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Squire, K. (2001). Games to teach project. Education Arcade. Retrieved from http://www.educationarcade.org/gtt/ Squire, K. (2002a). Cultural framing of computer/ video games. Game Studies, 2(3).Retrieved from the internet September 14, 2007 at http://www. gamestudies.org/0102/squire/

Squire, K. (2002b). Replaying history: Learning world history through playing civilization III. Retrieved from http://website.education.wisc. edu/kdsquire Squire, K. (2004). What happens when games go into any classroom situation? Serious Games Summit DC. Retrieved March 10, 2005 from http://www.cmpevents.com/GDe04/a.asp?optio n=C&V=11&SessID=3250 Wired. (2003). Every sims picture tells a story. Retrieved October 9, 2006 from http://www. bmedia.org/archives/00000330.php

endnotes 1

2

http://www.boardsmag.com/screeningroom/animation/1146/ http://gorillamask.net/rksims1.shtml

This work was previously published in International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, Vol. 2, Issue 4t, edited by L. Tomei, pp. 15-23, copyright 2006 by IGI Publishing, formerly known as Idea Group Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).

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Appendix E

Online Games for 21st Century Skills Lisa Galarneau University of Waikato, New Zealand Melanie Zibit Boston College, USA

AbstrAct 20th century visionaries foresaw that mastery of the dynamic processes underpinning the acquisition and manipulation of knowledge would be critical in the 21st century. Formal educational systems have not yet changed to facilitate the development of these necessary capabilities, and so people of all ages are developing them through a variety of digitally mediated mechanisms. Online games offer one area in which to examine patterns of spontaneously occurring phenomena that represent the natural development of such capabilities. This chapter reviews the character of, and need for, 21st century skills. It also illuminates existing digital domains in which these skills develop organically. Peering through the window of the present into the future, we see that envisioning change in education means taking a long look at what activity produces those skills, regardless of whether that activity is taking place in a formal setting or within entertainment-based worlds where the skills are learned incidentally through play.

The approach of the 21st century has brought a chorus of pronouncements that “the information society” both requires and makes possible new forms of education.

standards, or teacher training. Obviously there is need for improvement in all of those areas. But the primary lack is something very different—a shortage of bold, coherent, inspiring, yet realistic visions of what education could be like 10 and 20 years from now.

We totally agree with this. But we do not agree that tardiness in translating these declarations into reality can be ascribed, as it often is, to such factors as the lack of money, technology,

What we mean by vision is not a blueprint but a compelling view of the “look and feel” of the future—its needs, its opportunities, and how we can prepare ourselves now to act on them. Vision

introduction

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

allows us to look beyond the problems that beset us today, giving direction to our passage into the future. Even more important, vision energizes that passage by inspiring and guiding us into action. (Seymour Papert and Gaston Caperton at the 91st Annual National Governors’Association Meeting, St. Louis, Missouri, August 1999) In recent years there has been no shortage of wellintentioned talk in educational circles about the critical role of vision in the creation of educational systems that properly address 21st century needs. A Japanese proverb says, “Vision without action is a dream; action without vision, a nightmare.” This is how many of us feel about our current education systems: we have far too much action without vision and quite a lot of rhetoric-based vision without action, but not enough of the two combined into a cohesive and effective result. There are, and have been for decades, many visions as to the “look and feel” of the future of education, but they have been largely stymied by an inability to translate via pragmatic means the here-and-now into that ideal. And we have had a great deal of “action” that creates a sense of activity and accountability in the short term, but minus a vision that translates that activity into long-term success. Actionable vision is a problem of connecting the dots, of understanding how the present converges into the future, and what we can do to affect and smooth that passage. It is a common mistake to overlook the fact that our future is not as mysterious as it might seem, but nor is it a point to which we arrive without first journeying through our present. As author and futurist Bruce Sterling (2003) has commented, the future is already being written in our present, if only we know where to look for the hints of what is to come. This chapter will argue that the vision for learning in the 21st century already exists and is being acted upon by millions of people around the world who engage in digital activity such as sharing online information or collaborating with

peers, but most notably in the complex but little understood worlds of online gaming.

leArning in the 21st century The world is now coming to grips with the idea that 21st century people require a different set of skills made mandatory by the complexity and pace of life and work in the face of amazing new communications technologies just beginning to entrench themselves in the social, cultural, and economic fabric of our lives. These skills for 21st century, as they are often called, are those that are necessary to succeed in an ever-changing, global society where communication is ubiquitous and instantaneous, and where software tools allow for a range of creative and collaborative options that yield new patterns and results that we are only beginning to see. The skills include critical thinking, teamwork, problem solving, collaboration, facility with technology, information literacy, and more; they are all fundamental to the success of knowledge workers. But although we have traveled great distances technologically, these needs are not being met in today’s schools, where high-stakes testing and No Child Left Behind (NCLB) policies leave little time for anything besides the standard, highly measurable, content-oriented curriculum. It is striking that many people today are not acquiring 21st century skills through structured learning environments that anticipate these needs, but rather through various “cognitively-demanding leisure” activities they choose to engage with, including to a larger and larger extent, videogames (Johnson, 2005b). Of particular note is the increasing popularity of massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs), a relatively recent videogaming phenomenon enabled by burgeoning broadband penetration1 and a new generation of computers and consoles that allow rich worlds with thousands of participants to be rendered in

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real time. Literally millions of people are now playing these games world-wide. Many of the games are referred to as “virtual worlds” (Bartle, 2003) as they are not simply games in the traditional rules-based sense, but rather “persistent social and material worlds, loosely structured by open-ended (fantasy) narratives, where players are largely free to do as they please” (Steinkuehler, 2004). Still, they are games in the sense that players come to them with a certain expectation to engage in achievementoriented activity, often in collaboration with other players. It is notable that while we tend to think of videogames as competitive spaces, players are encountering intensely cooperative practices in these online gaming environments. The process of play itself leads to, and at the higher levels requires, a high level of achievement across various dimensions of both cognitive and social intelligence. Our perspective is that players of MMOGs develop 21st century skills in a spontaneous and holistic way as a by-product of play, even though learning these skills is not a direct goal of these games. Unlike an educational or “serious” game, where learning objectives are designed into the game, these skills are developed organically, and often quite unintentionally, as a consequence of playing the game. This chapter looks at how we can build visions for the future of education by understanding how technology has challenged our learning process, leveraged our capabilities, and increased the demands on our skills. It also contends that young people, socialized into a digital culture, are developing 21st century literacies as they play MMOGs and engage in other digital activity. Reading the seeds of change in his own present in the early 1990s, author Lewis Perelman (1991) foresaw the possibilities of these types of interactions in his seminal book, School’s Out: The potential impact of advanced simulation and visualization technology on hyperlearning has not yet even been scratched. Einstein developed

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the special theory of relativity by “riding” a light beam in his mind’s eye—those with less vivid imaginations could share Einstein’s “thought experiments” through VR [virtual reality] imagery. The possibilities exceed imagination (at least most adults’). Kids hundreds or thousands of miles apart could act out Macbeth with computer-generated costumes—or even simulated adult bodies and voices—in a camera-captured and video re-created scen e that duplicates the actual Birnham Wood or Dunsinane castle. (p. 49) Outside of school in myriad online game environments, children and adults “hundreds or thousands of miles apart” are already taking on the roles of simulated characters with a variety of bodies and voices, and learning important skills through participation in fantastic endeavors just like in Perelman’s vision. The difference is that this is not occurring in an educational context at all, but through the entertainment activities of millions of people around the world. It is, in a way, an unwitting grassroots movement to learn the skills necessary to life in the 21st century, regardless of whether they are encountered within the context of one’s formal education.

the educAtionAl system And 21st century sKills The affordances of modern communications technologies have brought about a transformation that is readily apparent in day-to-day life across the developed world. They have taken us from the industrial revolution to the information age, and now promise a knowledge society of interconnected people who are fluent in the intricacies of online interactions and in the ways to access the information they need, when and where they need it. The world is increasingly more complex and that complexity brings rapid change that is at once unpredictable and nonlinear. No longer can the set of skills we learned in school last

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

a lifetime. Success depends on being mentally agile and willing to embrace new ways of doing things. This factor is increasingly mandatory in light of the challenges we face on the world stage. Author Thomas Friedman (2005a), in his book The World is Flat, contends that failure to develop such capability could irreparably damage the American economy, given a greater propensity in developing countries like China and India to make moves in this direction. Yet American schools have not caught up with the changes infused into our society by these technological innovations and the cultural shifts that have inevitably followed. As Marshal McLuhan (1967, p. 8) said, “Our age of anxiety is largely the result of trying to do today’s job with yesterday’s tools.” We need students to learn the skills necessary for the 21st century, yet we teach them with yesterday’s tools and measure outcomes using yesterday’s assessments. In fact, our current educational system was designed over one hundred years ago to prepare students for the industrial age. It was incredibly successful at the task of churning out homogeneous, individualistic, and conformity minded factory workers to fuel the rapid, mechanistic, and linear pace of the industrial revolution’s assembly lines. Yet today’s increasingly complex, global world demands that students be outfitted for the unique needs of the 21st century. Initiative, teamwork, decision-making ability, problem-solving, and resourcefulness are the keys to success. Conformity is no longer desirable. Innovation, collaboration, and can-do attitudes are highly valued. However in too many schools, students sit passively listening to teachers talk or repeat decontextualized facts in direct response to teachers’ questions, working individually on problems at desks that are lined up in neat rows. This anachronistic tendency is of grave concern to visionaries like Microsoft co-founder and chairman Bill Gates, who recently told America’s governors:

Our high schools were designed 50 years ago to meet the needs of another age. Until we design them to meet the needs of the 21st century, we will keep limiting—even ruining—the lives of millions of Americans every year. (Friedman, 2005b, p. 25) Gates is not alone in this criticism. Many government officials, not to mention untold numbers of parents and objective onlookers, have called for a “radical redesign of the nation’s antiquated education system” (Murray, 2005, p. 1). High school students themselves are also asking for change. In a national survey in which high school students reflected on what is important, what is needed, and what is missing in their education and in their lives, 90% reported not seeing a connection between what they do in school today and what they might do in the future (NCSA, 2005). Employers, too, have their doubts about today’s schools. A total of 67% of employers believe that “schools are not equipping young people with vital work skills such as team working, communication, and time keeping as cited in a UK survey” (Guardian Unlimited, 2005). Employers are frustrated that young people of all abilities are finding it harder to cope in their early years at work because they have been stifled in the classroom and textbook learning rather than seeing and experiencing how they learn is applied in the world outside. (Guardian Unlimited, 2005) It is worth noting that good commercial games, unlike textbook learning, “are already state-ofthe-art learning games” that can prepare people for employment (Gee, 2005). Regarding the potential for learning through games, Gee states: A good instructional game, like many good commercial games, should be built around what I call “authentic professionalism.” In such games, skills, knowledge, and values are distributed between

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the virtual characters and the real-world player in a way that allows the player to experience first-hand how members of that profession think, behave, and solve problems. Not only are young people not learning the relevant skills for a knowledge society in school, but their fluency with modern technologies is often disparaged as frivolous or a waste of time. So instead of learning the skills for the 21st century in school, young people are becoming fluent in important communication technologies outside of school, engaging in informal learning online through their communities of interest, via blogs, instant messaging, chats, discussions—and through playing online games. Information and communication technologies are raising the bar on the competencies needed to succeed in the 21st century, and they are compelling us to revisit many of our assumptions and beliefs. (Burkhardt, Monsour, Valdez, Gunn, Dawson, Lemke, Coughlin, Thadani, & Martin, 2003, p. 49) To ignore the groundswell of activity among technologically literate children is not simply a missed opportunity, but means ignoring a huge problem in the making. The issue will no longer be the “digital divide,” for nearly all American children will have some kind of access to technology soon enough, but rather a “digital-capability divide” in which the monikers “haves” and “have-nots” refer to kids who have or have not grown up developing both the technological and socio-cultural skills necessary to succeed in a complex, digital world: But what about the children who do not have these opportunities, opportunities now readily available to, and sometimes put to good use by, privileged families? Can they get this in school? Can they get this sort of modern learning system, directed towards preparation for future innovative work,

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in school? Not in a lot of the public schools we’ve seen. Today’s popular culture has great potential to be recruited into such high value learning systems. But this doesn’t happen all by itself. Kids need a network of parents, teachers, and other mentors to use popular culture as a tool for long-term growth into complex thinking, complex language, complex content, and innovative work. In other words, this ability to leverage modern technologies and popular culture for learning is creating a new and massive equity crisis, a crisis not mitigated by—and perhaps even compounded by—today’s technologically impoverished schools. So the looming crisis—our surrender to the challenge of preparing public school children for innovative work—is going to hit the poor harder than the rich. But that’s cold comfort, since everyone will get to suffer amply unless something is done. (Gee & Schafer, 2005, p. 11) As the barriers of distance and time dissolve, one crucial question is whether formal learning can stay confined inside a classroom. And as new online forms of collaboration emerge, can we still expect students to work in isolation or to think that there is a benefit to such practices? As interactive programs that actively engage the learner become pervasive, can we still expect students to be passive recipients of information? In today’s world, everyone is both a learner and a teacher, for learning is facilitated by “a globe-girdling network that links all minds and all knowledge” (Perelman, 1991, p. 22). Not to throw the baby out with the bathwater, but if we are to challenge our old assumptions about education and schools, can we then look at the possibility that what young people are doing online, or through games and simulations, may in fact help prepare them for the 21st century? The next few paragraphs provide an overview of what experts—economists, academics, government officials—define as 21st century competencies from various perspectives.

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

competencies for the 21st century 1991 was a watershed year. The nation was confronting globalization. Multi-national corporations were moving complex production outside the United States, and the demands of the workplace were changing quickly. Experts voiced concerns about U.S. ability to maintain competitiveness in a fast-paced world economy intricately connected through telecommunication networks. The National Science Foundation lifted its restrictions on the commercial use of the Internet, and various businesses began to take advantage of the network and its commercial opportunities. In 1991, just like in the 1950s Sputnik era, the government was concerned about the need to improve our educational system and undertook a study that resulted in the Secretary of Labor’s Commission Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) report: The need to keep abreast of technological change and to participate effectively in today’s highperformance workplace requires each worker to possess a set of basic competencies and a foundation of skills and personal qualities. (SCANS, 1991, p. vii) The basic skills described went far beyond the traditional reading and math to include a whole range of capabilities such as thinking creatively, making decisions, solving problems, knowing how to learn, and reasoning, as well as interpersonal skills like working on teams and teaching others (SCANS, 1991, p. vii). It was the same year that Robert Reich wrote The Work of Nations citing the end of economic nationalism and defining a new type of job for the 21st century: symbolic analysts, those who could use technology to solve problems. The skills people need to develop have to do with problem solving and identification, developing critical facilities, understanding the value of experimentation, and the ability to collaborate... (Reich, 1992, p. 177)

And in 1991, Perelman’s book School’s Out and its vision for hyperlearning served as a wake-up call for educators. For even though it was highly controversial, many of his observations rang true with a range of individuals. He saw the potential of technology to bring new “knowledge-packed porta-tools” that allowed personal “just-in-time” learning wherever and however the opportunity warranted (Perelman, 1991, p. 48). He went so far as to forecast the dissolution of concrete and mortar schools, to be replaced with virtual education. Although Perelman provocatively labeled our educational system obsolete, he was not so far from the SCANS report’s call for educational reform where “learning to know” should not be separated from “learning to do” and should link what students are taught and how they learn to the realities of the work world.2 After the SCANS report, schools did attempt educational reform as evidenced by the 1997 President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) report on the Use of Technology to Strengthen K-12 Education in the United States. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, computers were added to classrooms so that by the year 2002, 99% of schools had access to the Internet and 84% of students used computers in schools (NCES, 2003). Fast-forward 10 years to the 21st century. Countries like Australia and New Zealand have integrated softer standards into their curricula, initiating a focus on core life skills in addition to traditional literacies. The International Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has developed five key competencies in education that underscore a global initiative to broaden the scope of education to include skills needed for “a successful life and well-functioning society” (OECD, 2005). However, in the U.S., attempts at reform were short-lived. Educational priorities have shifted from long-term—focused reform to short-term—focused high stakes testing, now the core of the Bush administration’s No Child Left Behind (NCLB) program. But

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while American schools are still using traditional methods and are now more than ever focusing on testing, in the world outside schools the pace of change has accelerated. Our increasing use of the computer and other electronic devices, as well as the “enormous effects of instantaneous electronic communication and universal access to knowledge, have pushed the envelope of what is possible, and concomitantly our capacity to perform” (Haste, 2001, p. 94). Again reports call for 21st century skills that echo those in the SCANS report (1991): “digital age literacy, inventive thinking, effective communication, and high productivity” (Burkhardt et al., 2003, p. 49). Of promise are one-to-one computing initiatives—classrooms in which every student has a computer. The computers allow students access to different modes of learning—sound, pictures, and movies, as well as text and animations. One teacher said, “It’s making us think about what makes things interesting for kids, and instead of just memorizing a bunch of facts, we’re learning there are better ways to teach them and they really retain the concept” (Zucker & McGhee, 2005, p. 18). These projects are leading to very positive gains in student engagement, interest, increases in academic performance, group, and independent work (Bebell, 2005; Zucker & McGhee, 2005). Still in the early phases, it will take some time and effort before teachers can use these 21st century tools to facilitate the learning of 21st century skills, for example, thinking creatively, decision making, and problem solving. Nonetheless, it is progress. Teachers use the computers to enrich the curriculum, for example, accessing current information on the Internet instead of using outdated textbooks, using tools for visualization or manipulation of data to deepen student understanding resulting in increased student interest and, consequently, better retention of the material (Zucker & McGhee, 2005). Outside the educational system, the corporate world is also coming to grips with the importance of 21st century skills. Referred to by a range of

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monikers, “soft skills,” “emotional intelligence,” or “enterprise skills,” recognition is now arising that competent employees are a combination of content expertise and skills and capabilities that help them function well in a social, networked world. As Daniel Goleman (2000), author of Working with Emotional Intelligence, has commented: The rules of work are changing. We’re being judged by a new yardstick: not just how smart we are, or our training and expertise, but by how well we handle ourselves and each other. This yardstick is increasingly applied in choosing who will be hired and who will not, who will be let go and who retained, who passed over and who promoted. (p. 1) Goleman’s perspective, while somewhat controversial because of its alleged lack of support for “legitimate, empirical construct” for emotional intelligence (Daus & Ashkanasy, 2003), is based, at least loosely, on a well-established psychological tradition looking at emotional intelligence, as well as myriad studies involving tens of thousands of workers in real workplaces. And his core argument is more or less universally accepted: what people know is taking a back seat to how people work together. The star performers are those who display literacy in social practice and interpersonal communication, as well as knowledge of the specific tasks at hand. The world is definitely waking up to these ideas. In 2005, a news headline announced that North Carolina is the first state with an initiative to infuse 21st century skills into its schools. Although this initiative has admirable goals, “to ensure every child’s success as citizens and workers in the 21st century,” the competencies suggest those outlined 10 years ago: “information and communication technology (ICT) literacy, critical thinking, communication, collaboration, global awareness, and business, economic, and civic literacy.” Today’s requirements go “beyond

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

discrete skills such as literacy and numeracy” (Haste, 2001, p. 94) and beyond those outlined in the SCANS report. The competencies and skills needed for today are about learning; those that help us “learn something, do something or reach an aim,” and they “involve creativity, ability for innovation, mobility, flexibility, endurance, reliability and precision” (Sperber & Dupuy, 2001, p. 75.). “These competencies show an ability to learn from unforeseen situations and circumstances and to cope with life situations” (Sperber & Dupuy, 2001, p. 76). The need for change in America’s educational system is palpable. The sheer magnitude of human knowledge, world globalization, and the accelerating rate of change due to technology necessitates a shift in our children’s education—from plateaus of knowing to continuous cycles of learning. (Burkhardt, 2003, p. 5)

leArning is A 21st century comPetency The rapid pace of change and the need for continuous cycles of learning puts the ability to learn at the center of today’s competencies. The most valuable skills someone can acquire are the skills to learn rapidly and efficiently and to go into almost any situation and figure out what has to be learned. (Morrison, 2001) Technology has, in a sense, caused a cognitive earthquake. With the introduction of each new technology, the techno-plates shift, requiring us to learn new skills and develop new competencies. There is an ongoing relationship between our increasing innovation with technology and the need and development of these competencies. One begets the other. As each technology is mastered, new possibilities are revealed. Tools

are enhanced or modified, each requiring further refinement of our skills. These cycles bring everincreasing levels of complexity with them. For most of us, e-mail was our first experience with Internet-based communication. After obtaining a level of comfort with it, some branched out to e-mail distribution lists (listservs) or bulletin boards, followed by synchronous discussions or chats and conferencing systems. For the adventurous, there were the text-based collaborative games referred to as multi-user dungeons (MUDs) and MUD object oriented (MOOs). Now in our communications portfolio are also instant messaging (IM), blogs, Webcasts, social software, and “folksonomies” (social meta-tagging services), as well as combinations of all of them. Although technology is impacting all areas of skill and competency, Harvard’s Christopher Dede (2000), in a chapter titled “A New Century Demands New Ways of Learning” has identified three specific abilities that are of growing importance: •

•

•

Collaborate with diverse teams of people— face-to-face or at a distance—to accomplish a task Create, share, and master knowledge by assessing and filtering quasi-accurate information Thrive on chaos, that is, be able to make rapid decisions based on incomplete information in order to resolve novel dilemmas

The following paragraphs describe what has happened to make these three abilities so important, as well as explore their implications for learning and provide examples of how young people who have grown up with digital technologies have already developed these abilities. Later in this chapter, we take these same three categories of abilities and show how playing online games can lead to their development.

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21st Century Skills: Knowledgesharing and collaboration The advent of computer and network technology has been both a blessing and a burden in terms of the information that it makes available. The amount of information in the world is increasing so rapidly that the storage of new information increases at a rate of over 30% per year.3 The results of this growth have raised the level at which we need to think critically about information: its authenticity, its value, and its embedded assumptions, whether on the Web, or through various media, or through face-to-face and online communication. Both explicit knowledge “know-what” and tacit knowledge “know-how” can be distributed widely among people as shared understandings or network-based resources (Brown & Campione, 1994; Gee, 2003). No one person can have enough expertise to master or assess broad categories of information or have access to enough knowledge to go it alone. Siemens (2005) states: In a knowledge economy, the flow of information is the equivalent of the oil pipe in the industrial economy. Creating, preserving, and utilizing information flow should be a key organizational activity. The new reality is that it takes the collaborative efforts of people with different skills and different expertise to create innovative solutions (Schrage, 1990). Learning, although seemingly an individual accomplishment, is a social process, today more than ever influenced and accomplished through a network of peers, colleagues, friends, and family. (Riel & Polin, 2004; Seely-Brown, 2002b) As our need for collaboration grows, so too have the tools that connect us in social networks and support the creation of online communities (Haste, 2001; Schrage, 1990). Online communications facilitate groups of people coming together over the network to discuss any issue imaginable, to ask questions, and share provocative insights to

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which others can respond (Educom Staff, 1997; Lessig, 2001). These online social environments can evolve into “online learning communities” when they foster participants to actively engage in sharing ideas with others, furthering their own learning while at the same time advancing the collective knowledge of the group (Bielaczyc & Collins, 1999; Bruner, 1973; Cole, 1988; Lave, 1988; Mehan, 1983; Norman, 1980; Riel & Polin, 2004; Rogoff, 1994; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1994; Wertsch, 1997). These learning communities support social constructivist learning in which: Knowledge is generated through social intercourse, and through this interaction we gradually accumulate advances in our levels of knowing, theories derived from Dewey and Vygotsky. (Anderson & Kanuka, 1998) People come together with varying levels of skills, providing an opportunity for novices to learn effective techniques and approaches from skilled practitioners who impart “tricks of the trade” (Bielaczyc & Collins, 1999; Brown & Campione, 1994; Collins & Bielaczyc, 1997; Collins, Hawkins, & Carver, 1997; Lave & Wenger, 1991; Riel & Polin, 2004). Over time, roles change as novices increase their skills and they, in turn, share their knowledge with new members, serving as a vehicle for passing on expertise and competence as well as norms and cultural expectations of the community (Haste, 2001; Riel & Polin, 2004). Scardamalia and Bereiter, educational researchers who have worked extensively with students to build knowledge communities using a tool they developed called CSILE, have found that knowledge communities in schools foster “the progressive problem-solving that generates the vast informal knowledge that has been found to characterize expert competence” (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1994). Bielaczyc and Collins (1999) articulate a vision for the redesign of schooling around learning communities:

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

Classroom situations where students learn to synthesize multiple perspectives, to solve problems in a variety of ways, and to use each other’s diverse knowledge and skills as resources to collaboratively solve problems and advance their understanding. (p. 272) Yet with all that we know about the benefits of using learning communities to foster the social construction of knowledge, their use is the exception. The routines and structure of schools are not conducive to supporting learning in this way. In schools today, students learn in chunks of 45 to 90 minute periods, subjects are taught in isolation of each other, learning happens only inside the school walls, and students lack the option to participate or not, making it difficult to characterize students as active participants in learning communities (Riel & Polin, 2004). In fact, when learners do collaborate and share knowledge with one another, more often than not we call it “cheating.” But in fact, the modern world requires that knowledge not be limited to one individual’s thinking, but rather shared and accessed in a variety of ways. It is our collective intelligence and the communication bridges from one individual to another that represent the possibility of an exponential leap forward in terms of knowledge capability on a large scale.

21st century skill: thriving on chaos The third ability listed by Dede involves the ability to thrive on chaos and make rapid decisions. This echoes the competency defined by Haste as the “ability to learn from unforeseen situations and circumstances” (Canto-Sperber & Dupuy, 2001, p. 46). A person has to have creativity to thrive on chaos, to make sense of disparate ideas and make decisions based on incomplete information. Our creativity is of growing importance in the quest to harvest the potential from these new and ever changing innovations. Daniel Pink (2005) argues

in his Wired article “Revenge of the Right Brain” that today’s world calls for people who not only have the ability to think logically and sequentially as traditionally taught in school, but also to use their creative “right brain” facilities: In a world upended by outsourcing, deluged with data, and choked with choices, the abilities that matter most are now closer in spirit to the specialties of the right [brain] hemisphere—artistry, empathy, seeing the big picture, and pursuing the transcendent. (p. 1) In Got Game: How the Gamer Generation is Reshaping Business Forever, authors John C. Beck and Mitchell Wade (2004) describe this capability as a unique characteristic native to many gamers: the tendency to “go meta” or view problems or situations from a variety of angles, allowing for a range of creative solutions that might not be obvious to those limited to particular points-of-view. In a time when nothing stays the same for long, business needs people who can creatively organize what at times is overwhelming amounts of information, who can use their creative insight to find patterns, analyze, and synthesize disparate facts, who can take what exists and discover new directions, and apply ideas and tools in new ways. So-called right-brainers are those people we turn to for solving hard problems, who invent one solution and when that does not work invent another, or search through collections of data looking for a spark of insight, hypothesize and then create a way to test and verify their hypothesis. This kind of thinking and creativity is now evident in the way the younger, digital generation lives and thinks. Seely-Brown (2002a) compares the learning process of adults who “do not want to try things unless we already know them to young people who like to get in and muck around, and see what works. Today’s kids get on the Web to link, lurk, and watch how other people are doing things, then try it themselves” (p. 19). Seely-Brown

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points out that this is learning in situ: learning situated in action. The gamer generation lives in a world “where anything is possible. Gamers have amassed thousands of hours of rapidly analyzing new situations, interacting with characters they don’t really know, and solving problems quickly and independently” (Beck & Wade, 2004, p. 12). The learning process that gamers use sounds strikingly similar to three of Bloom’s higher levels of learning: • •

•

Application: Uses a concept in a new situation; Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood; Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements (Clark, 2000).

Speaking at the Front End of Innovation Conference in 2004, Seely-Brown aptly compared the creative process for adults who have grown up without technology to today’s digital generation: We [adults] think of consciously designing things, but ... today’s kids are so busy multi-tasking that they “smell” their way through the Web rather than navigate, and for them the Internet is like breathing, they don’t think of it as technology. In today’s networld, you pull stuff off the Web and co-create new stuff and put it out there with your name on it and gain identity thereby. (Seely-Brown as quoted in Tucker’s Blog, 2004) This “smelling” one’s way through the digital world is an internalized capability that reflects an extreme level of comfort with the dynamic nature of knowledge. It is also a fundamental and intuitive part of the larger activity of sensemaking, the “process by which individuals (or organizations) create an understanding so that they can act in a principled and informed manner” (Palo Alto Research Center [PARC], n.d.), or as immortal-

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ized by Douglas Rushkoff (1994) in the book Cyberia: Life in the Trenches of Hyperspace, that ability to “ride the crest of the informational wave” (p. 60). Recent research has highlighted the competencies and work habits of today’s digital generation documenting how they align with the competencies necessary for the 21st century. Gamers are more social, readily learn through chats and online learning communities around videogame playing, and use technology tools transparently as productivity aids. The skills gained from interacting in the complex, multi-leveled worlds of simulations and games transfer to using decision-support systems that analyze complex problems such as global warming, terrorist threats, and long-term investments in infrastructure (Beck & Wade, 2004). The vice president of Charles Schwab’s call center commented on his employees: The people who play games are into technology, can handle more information, can synthesize more complex data, solve operational design problems, lead change and bring organizations through change. (Antonucci, 2005)

the opportunity: online games as a Practice Arena for 21st century skills Of the myriad communications platforms available today, none of them demonstrate the complexity of 21st century social interaction strategies quite like massively multiplayer online games. As “the first interactive mass medium to unite entertainment and communication in one phenomenon” (Filiciak, 2003, p. 88), MMOGs present a tremendous opportunity to explore a nascent area of media convergence, while possibly understanding how the naturally occurring phenomenon of self-motivated, social learning and collaborative problem-solving reflects the growing need and understanding of 21st century skills.

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

Figure 1. Players lined up for a player-organized costume contest in Atlas Plaza in the game City of Heroes; these games are complex worlds that exhibit many of the characteristics of physical worlds, including a range of emergent social behaviors and in some cases, robust economic activity

In many respects, massively multiplayer online games are a graphical extension of the text-based MUDs, MOOs, and so forth that peaked in popularity in the 1980s and 1990s. The MUDs led to a variety of new paradigms in social interaction that are now flourishing and evolving in massively multiplayer environments. Many MMOGs rely on traditional role-playing and gameplay within familiar fantasy and science fiction universes and involve classic pursuits like building up characters, defeating enemies, and fulfilling quests, all classic elements of traditional pen-and-paper and digital role playing games (RPGs). MMOGs, sometimes referred to as MMORPGs (massively multiplayer online role playing games) are graphically similar to many contemporary single-player games in the role-playing game (RPG) genre where the player’s character is represented by a player-selected, and often player-designed, avatar that has point-based characteristics and a range of skills and abilities. These games are unique, however, in that they also require an Internet connection and an account on one of many game servers to be played. At any one time, hundreds of thousands of people might

be playing. Because of technological constraints, however, players are typically limited to one server, where still a few thousand players might be in the accessible game universe at any one time. The most popular of these games to date, World of Warcraft, has approximately 6.5 five million subscribed players (IGN Entertainment, Inc., 2006). Other popular games, Lineage and its successor Lineage 2 have over four million players world-wide. Other popular MMOG titles include Everquest and Everquest 2, Guild Wars, the Matrix Online, Star Wars: Galaxies, City of Heroes, and City of Villains. The process required to achieve game goals and reach the pinnacle of achievement, typically a high-level character, can result from a range of approaches and quite often involves hundreds of hours of collaborative play in a multi-user environment. For while they can be played individually to greater or lesser degrees depending on the game, the game play mechanics are generally such that true mastery of the game can often only be achieved by working cooperatively with other players. In fact, some of the games are designed

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specifically to require interdependence between players: The game [Everquest] is designed in a way that makes grouping essential for achieving success, a concept that has been central in role-playing games since the days they were played with rulebooks, pen and paper… It is only through working with other players that individual gamers achieve maximum results. (Jakobsson & Taylor, 2003, p. 88)

entertaining but that themselves do not involve such learning are just “meaningless play.” Of course videogames fall into this category. (Gee, 2003, p. 21)

The development of “soft” skills such as collaboration, cognitive, and social intelligence are not the desired end, but are a form of collateral learning (Johnson, 2005b), the means that allow players to be successful in these environments. Players that do not achieve mastery in navigating the social terrain of the game are often unable to find grouping partners or maintain relationships, and therefore unable to tackle some of the more difficult missions in the game. The social complexity of massively multiplayer online gaming environments is often unmentioned in discussions about the possibility of videogames for learning. In the past, the majority of attention on videogames, when positive at all, has focused on the possibility of using games to achieve certain predetermined objectives related to established curricula. Yet the opportunity with game environments like MMOGs is far greater than motivating apathetic learners or transferring information in a somewhat more engaging fashion. The play activity that learners engage in is, in fact, the learning opportunity, though our established institutions may struggle with the “fuzziness” and organic nature of this learning:

Yet this is precisely the point. People are learning tremendous skills and developing important real-world capabilities in these games, but somehow this is all occurring outside our educational system. Game environments are “learning cultures consisting of shared and contested meanings whose perpetual evolution lies at the very heart of [the] learning processes. Learning cultures move beyond the popular conception of learning as an activity that is bounded by teaching, educational institutions and learning prescriptions to one which recognizes that learning invariably transcends such boundaries” (James & Bloomer, 2001, p. 9). In fact, “the level of skills [players] achieve in the pursuit of active and committed citizenship in virtual communities may exceed expectations of teachers in schools.” For example, “the literacy skills children attain through playing Gathering of the Elves, as evidenced by their written role-playing language, reflects a high lexical density and complexity, detailed descriptive nominal groups, and a high degree of symbolism and figurative expressions” (Thomas, 2005, p. 31). This sense of citizenship is not limited to online environments, either. Researcher Dmitri Williams (2005) found that his participants were more likely to engage in off-line civic activity after experiencing the agency of activities in virtual worlds. John Seely-Brown (2004) has commented on the sophistication of the learning environment afforded by massively multiplayer games:

Important knowledge (now usually gained in school) is content in the sense of information rooted in, or, at least, related to, intellectual domains or academic disciplines like physics, history, art, or literature. Work that does not involve such learning is “meaningless.” Activities that are

Understanding the social practices and constructivist ecologies being created around open source and massively multiplayer games will provide a glimpse into new kinds of innovation ecologies and some of the ways that meaning is created for these kids—ages 10 to 40. Perhaps

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Figure 2. A Christmas gathering in City of Heroes. Players regularly congregate to acknowledge offline occasions, as well as strictly online events like weddings; funerals and memorials marking real-life passings are commonplace, as well

our generation focused on information, but these kids focus on meaning—how does information take on meaning? Perhaps the dissonance between our expectations of school and the realities of digital life boils down to the puritanical notion that learning must involve hard work and certainly no fun. Yet play may be the thing that prepares us best for navigating our increasingly complex lives, social spaces, work environments, and personal relationships. Play theorist Brian Sutton-Smith (2004) has suggested that play represents a “consoling phenomenon” that prepares the player for dealing with life, offering a mechanism for psychologically and cognitively navigating the challenges and difficulties of life. In the past, many of these needs were met through physical play. But in a world where opportunities for physical play are dwindling, it is likely that virtual worlds are emerging as a way to fulfil some fundamental human needs. Henry Jenkins (1998) explains this phenomenon even more fully, arguing that videogames repre-

sent an “intensity of experience” and “complete freedom of movement” that has disappeared as children (and adults) have less physical spaces to play in. As Sutton-Smith (2004) describes it, play is a way of achieving both competence and confidence in the world. Play is a refuge, but it is also more than that; it is a fundamental necessity for many aspects of human development. Or, in the words of Howard Rheingold (1992), “play is a way of organizing our models of the world and models of ourselves, of testing hypotheses about ourselves and the world, and of discerning new relationships or patterns in the jumble of our perceptions” (p. 374). We are now seeing a shift toward play in virtual environments. But how does one learn to play? And what does “learning to play” really mean? It has been observed that videogames are often designed as “learning machines” (Gee, 2004) that rely on intuitive, convention-based game design to scaffold a player’s learning of the mechanics of gameplay and the game environment as player “curiosity takes the form of explorative coping”

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(Grodal, 2003, p. 149). But in the dynamic, sophisticated, and collaboration-based MMOG environments also emerges a rich culture of learning support. Not only is interdependence designed into the games, but the flexible parameters specified by game designers involve creating an interactive world where environments are in constant flux: rules change, documentation is scarce, and the mastery of the game relies on a host of skills well beyond the game’s manual. Indeed, these games and the strategies for playing them are exercises in co-creation where players, as co-producers, can influence the rules, affect the outcome, and create a rich universe of social interactions and culture that ultimately become the core of gameplay, rather than the periphery. The learning support mechanisms are underpinned by flexible and ever-changing social networks of senior and junior players who engage in a symbiotic relationship, exchanging game tips and artifacts, scaffolding the learning of less experienced players and allowing more senior players to make their knowledge explicit. Further, there is an ongoing process of behavior modelling that allows players to continue to evolve their social approaches within the game and understand the shifting nuances of an emerging culture. This aspect also allows for legitimate peripheral participation where players learn from proximity to learning in the game, often in a very explicit manner as they observe conversations between players. And even beyond the necessary interactions wired into games through designing interdependence, there are a variety of sociocultural mechanisms at work for helping people through the game, “as people’s intentions to learn are engaged and the meaning of learning is configured through the process of becoming a full participant in sociocultural practice” (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 29). One way to look at it is that players self-organize into communities of practice united around the activity of gameplay, yet this self-organization results in the development of a range of capabilities toward which the players are not directly

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striving, yet are fundamental to mastery within the environment: Players acquire knowledge in context and in pursuit of immediate goals. Learning is done in the service of game goals… players are immersed in an environment and the learning is done incidentally through problem solving… Players have to figure out everything they need to know to feed themselves, stay safe, rise in experience, acquire the items they covet, and navigate the world around them. But, in this game, they do it by picking up some knowledge that actually has some use in the real world. The game’s design is not meant to trick people into learning. It’s meant to give players the tools they need to succeed in the virtual world, but tools that might be useful in the real world, as well. (Kelly, 2004, p. 185) These self-organizing and collaborative communities are what Robert Putnam (1995) in his article “Bowling Alone,” describes as networks of “social engagement, fostering sturdy norms of generalized reciprocity and encouraging the emergence of social trust. Such networks facilitate coordination and communication, amplify reputations, and thus allow dilemmas of collective action to be resolved” (Putnam, 1995). Putnam’s work is a lamentation on the absence of civic engagement in contemporary society, yet MMOGs are increasingly a powerful form of such engagement. Contrary to popular concern about media and games decreasing social and civic interactions, MMOGs have been found to foster bridging ties (broad but weak social networks), while having little of the perceived negative impact on stronger ties like family (Steinkeuhler & Williams, 2005). Indeed, many nuclear families and romantic couples are playing together, and extended families and social networks are finding it a practical and fun way to keep in touch (Yee, 2005b). A digital futures project (2005) study reveals that more than 40% of respondents say that use of the Internet has increased or greatly

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

increased contact with family and friends. But aside from developing a deeper sense of community, players develop competency in the three areas that Dede outlined as critical to longterm success in modern work environments:

Collaborate with Diverse Teams of People When groups form in MMOG environments, they are initially quite often chaotic and disorganized. But over a period of time, a spontaneous order emerges as players learn to sync their behaviors to the behaviors of other players. This is akin to the activity undertaken by musicians in a band finding their collective rhythm, or fireflies lighting up synchronously after a short period of each adjusting to their neighbors’ patterns (Strogatz, 2004). Just as “learning is done incidentally through problem-solving” (Kelly, 2004, p. 185) in these environments, increased social capability is a by-product of practice.

As people playing MMOGs span age groups, gender, and cultures, diversity is also a fundamental aspect of play. While certainly not always the case, it is extraordinary how well such a diverse group of people manage to play together, and how well they can self-manage conflicts when they do arise. Many types of intolerant behavior are self-disciplined within the context of play groups, or players who do not “play nice” are simply marginalized, sometimes an equally effective “punishment.”

Create, Share, and Master Knowledge In order for players to be successful in these environments, they must share knowledge, access available resources, and navigate their social milieu successfully in order to get the answers they need when they need them. Players often become expert nodes, available to be questioned about in-game particulars or strategies. Often these players opt to set up permanent resources in the form of Web sites, lists, FAQs (frequently-

Figure 3. A 16-year-old Japanese school-girl controls the avatar SlumbrousCat from her computer in Tokyo; she is unable to speak English, but having become fluent with the norms of play is still able to contribute to cooperative activities in the American version of City of Heroes

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asked-questions), and other reference materials. They are not compensated for these activities other than in the form of increased social capital and the fulfilment of their desire to contribute to the game environment in some way. In fact, it is not uncommon for these contributors to see their contributions ripple through the player population as some previously unknown bit of knowledge makes it way into the larger player consciousness and into gameplay practice. As Gee says, “the effectiveness of the circulation of information among peers suggests that engagement in practice, rather than being its object, may well be a condition for the effectiveness of learning” (Lave & Wenger, 1991, p. 93). Of key importance is the idea that individuals learn within this environment, but so too do their contributions and learning impact the learning of the groups and in-game communities to which they belong. The players take it upon themselves to devise and share strategies that help them master the game. Sometimes these strategies include the discovery of game “loopholes,” exploited by players contrary to the intent of the game designers. As such, there is no documentation about these opportunities, yet players pass the knowledge from one player to another, until a “tipping point” is reached and a majority of players begin engaging in the activity. Information literacy is the flip side of the knowledge-sharing coin and perhaps the most difficult 21st century skill to master. If many people are sharing information, how does one distinguish what is valid and useful from what is erroneous or irrelevant? Gamers learn to understand the importance of context in online environments. Who authored the information? Who are they affiliated with? What agenda might they have? Do they really know what they are talking about? These are all key questions in any critical assessment of the possible validity of an information source. These skills will become increasingly important in a world that accommodates massive

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amounts of information, much of which is resident and accessible through the network. Gordon Bell and Jim Gray are quoted in the Social Life of Information with the prediction: By 2047… all information about physical objects, including humans, buildings, process and organizations, will all be online. This is both desirable and inevitable. (Seely-Brown & Duguid, 2002, p. 1)

Thrive on Chaos To an outsider, MMOGs are profoundly chaotic environments, but as with chaos in biological systems, a structure and logic can be found if one looks closely enough. For instance, it is common practice within MMOG environments that players have to self-organize into playgroups. This process involves self-marketing and negotiation, as well as knowledge of the subtleties of etiquette within these environments. Groupings may occur on a casual or longer-term basis. The more permanent groupings involve organization into often massive guilds or clans, often subject to all the intricacies of politics in any human social settings. In a self-organized environment it is often imperative that someone manage the chaos by stepping, even temporarily, into a somewhat more directive role. This is especially common when things do not appear to be going well within the context of a battle, or when a conflict requires mediation. The particularly extraordinary thing about this phenomenon is that the leaders often come from unexpected corners. Even young players can step into this role, and as long as they are making a productive contribution and behaving maturely, their self-selection is rarely challenged. This aspect of meritocracy allows many players to explore facets of themselves that may have gone unexplored in their real lives, sometimes leading to quite significant changes in their careers or perspectives.

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

Figure 4. A screenshot from the City of Heroes community site on Allakhazam; players continuously share gameplay tips with one another on hundreds of sites like this one

This ability to thrive on chaos is also apparent in the rapid decision making capabilities that players exhibit. MMOG environments are dynamic and complex, often requiring players to share strategies and discuss moves, both well in advance and in the heat of battle. Players are continually analyzing and interpreting variables, making rapid decisions based on just-in-time information. Gee (2003, p. 70) characterizes players as being pushed to “operate at the outer edge of their regime of competence causing them to rethink their routinized mastery and move, within the game and within themselves to a new level.” It is the U.S. military, interestingly, that has taken the most interest in the idea of massively multiplayer online games as a practice arena for important military skills. In a recent report, Massive Multiplayer Online Gaming: A Research Framework for Military Training and Education, developed by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in collaboration with researchers from Indiana University and Florida State University, the seriousness of interest in the phenomena surrounding these games becomes explicit:

With this focus on emerging technologies, the military is clearly interested in exploring the use of online collaborative games to train staff on the modern day intricacies of combat and noncombat operations. At the same time, the increasing focus on remote-controlled agents has raised expectations and excitement for realistic simulations and games—especially MMORPGs. The military is developing games that could host thousands of networked players. In these games, players potentially could participate for months or years in different roles and later reflect on the consequences of their decisions and actions. Debriefings or reflective processing of these games could help the user understand the purpose of the game and generalize it to different situations. The immediate goal, of course, is to enhance decisionmaking, problem solving, and reflection skills in the context of a military operation. (Bonk & Dennen, 2005, p. 11) This is not to say that there are not areas of concern when it comes to videogames generally and online games in particular. There has been a

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Figure 5. A screenshot from the MMOG, City of Heroes, shows hundreds of players cooperating to take down a large nemesis

tremendous amount of media coverage in recent years that concerns itself with possible media “effects” of videogame play. And while these effects have never been strongly proven, having relied on loose correlation studies with a notable lack of reliable long-term data, it seems intuitive that having kids interact with violent imagery cannot possibly be good for them. But even apparently violent squad tactics games like Counter-strike can offer many benefits in terms of skill development because they are fundamentally cooperative games where one team must work together to defeat another, just like in most sports activities. For those parents and educators concerned about violence, it is useful to consider studies that suggest that for most players, the ability to use videogames as an outlet for aggression can have a positive outcome on feelings after a gameplay session. Many young male players, while experiencing elevated heartbeats during play, appear and report being much calmer after play, thus substantiating the idea of catharsis put forth by some researchers (Ivory, 2001).

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Regardless of what the effects data look like, parental involvement in videogame play is an incredible opportunity to engage kids and ask them tough questions about their violent play, for instance, mediate or maintain a watchful eye when appropriate over their relationships with online friends (especially in the case of younger children), or provide jumping off points to areas of interest that might have been cultivated by the play. But the other area of grave concern is socalled online game “addiction,” a phenomenon that researcher Nick Yee (2005a) prefers to term “problematic usage.” This is a tricky area, as a small percentage of players do exhibit undesirable behaviors when they neglect real-life needs as a result of their enthusiastic gameplay. But this is certainly the exception rather than the rule, and really only proves the point that given the opportunity, certain individuals will take any behavior to an extreme. Again, adult involvement is critical here. Parents and educators can help kids avoid the issue of problematic usage by helping them

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

to moderate the amount of time they spend playing, an important consideration given the highly rewarding nature of online game environments, especially for the socially withdrawn. And for both kids and adults, it is critical that we help people learn to transfer the skills that they develop in virtual worlds to off-line environments, as well. Otherwise it can be too easy for some players to withdraw into those worlds, lacking the perspective that an online game need not be the only vehicle for meaningful social relationships.

Preparing ourselves for the Future Is it conceivable that massively multiplayer online games might be officially leveraged into practice arenas for 21st century skills? As the platform evolves, it seems likely that production and maintenance costs will be lowered and we might see “the splintering of MMORPG environments into hundreds of different forms, each aimed at a very particular audience” as they move “out of the pure entertainment space” and into educational and business uses.” We may even see that “many kinds of employee training will be done in virtuo using corporate and public MMORPGs as training grounds” (Kelly, 2004, p. 185). But will this possibility result in the social and cultural shift needed, or merely result in shoving the square peg of traditional curricula into the round hole of open-ended, self-organized, egalitarian environments? Will our institutions be willing and able to relinquish control to make self-organization and respect for individual autonomy a reality? For what the world really needs is a shift in the way we view people and their contributions. In our workplaces, we need to engage in a process of “seeing people as resources, not job descriptions,” recognizing that “valuable talents, knowledge and experience” “often remain concealed and untapped” as people stick to their “job descriptions and chains of command” (Kline & Saunders, 1997, pp. 132-152). But what we also need is a shift away from thinking of learning as stuffing

information into individual heads with the hope that it somehow manages to be actionable. In fact, a major shift is to understand that people are part of a network of resources, distributed across the vastness of physical and virtual space: The power of distribution—of storing knowledge in other people, texts, tools and technologies—is really the way in which all of these things are networked together. The really important knowledge is in the network—that is, in other people, their texts, their tools, and technologies, and crucially, the ways in which they are interconnected—not in any one “node” (person, text, tool or technology), but in the network as a whole. Does the network store lots of powerful knowledge? Does it ensure that this knowledge moves quickly and well to the parts of the system that need it now? Does it adapt to changed conditions by learning new things quickly and well? These are the most crucial knowledge questions we can ask in the modern world. They are hardly reflected at all in how we organize schooling and assessment in schooling. (Gee, 2003, p. 185) There is a big lesson from MMOG environments. People are enormously capable when given the space and motivation, even through simple gameplay, to flex their cognitive and social muscle in an environment where anything is possible and experimentation is safe, permissible, and desirable. Among the many equalizing phenomena of virtual worlds, players describe a complex meritocracy in which they are “judged by their characters’ actions,” enjoy “spontaneous kindness” leading to “genuine friendships,” and most importantly, feel like “they are making progress on an emotional level. They’re not just getting ahead in the virtual world, but actually maturing, growing, learning from their experiments with behavior, and reformulating their views of themselves and their fellow human beings as a result of their experiences in the virtual world” (Kelly, 2004, pp. 62-85). These experiences rep-

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resent opportunities for growth, expression and personal transformation that may not be available elsewhere. Yet this type of growth is exactly what a world focused on soft skills and emotional intelligence requires. In many respects, MMOGs represent the ideal state for any organization, one in which “each individual makes a unique contribution by marching to a different drummer but with an underlying common sense of purpose and direction” (Kline & Saunders, 1997, p. 139). Is this to say that classrooms should be replaced with MMOGs? Not at all. It is only to say that we should be paying close attention to the complex social structures and learning mechanisms that are inherent in such environments, rather than dismissing them as a “waste-of-time” or mere child’s play. Paying close attention means funnelling resources into official studies of emergent phenomena and spontaneous learning in a range of digital environments. With this data in hand, we may find ourselves better equipped to envision a future where learning is a natural, yet guided process that fits the curves and nuances of our complex lives.

conclusion Imagining things being otherwise may be a first step toward acting on the belief that they can be changed. (Greene, 1995, p. 19) Modern communication technologies, and the knowledge economy, have brought unprecedented change requiring both new skills and competencies. For over a decade, young people have been increasing their socio-cultural literacy through their participation in online digital worlds. The lessons we are learning are inherent in the social structures and dynamics of online learning. Whether in communities of practice or through games and simulations, online environments can be an effective means for obtaining essential 21st

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century competencies. Instead of trying to close the gap between the U.S. and other nations based on test scores, we could be taking a leadership position and developing creative solutions to replace our outdated schools with the knowledge and technology-based models so needed to meet 21st century demands. In many respects education and learning are about breaking down barriers of what is known to bring understanding of what is possible. It is time to break down the boundaries of today’s schooling and build the models made possible through the advances of technology and online learning environments. In a way, these models for the future are what the younger generation follows as they embrace modern communications technologies and play in virtual environments. As Dede argues, necessary skills in the 21st century revolve around forging connections, handling information and thriving in chaotic environments. Learning is about achieving those competencies, not memorizing and repeating facts out of context. It is about confidence and competence in the face of uncertainty, novelty, chaos and fuzziness. A new world order is being wrought by younger generations who understand the skills that are relevant to their current worlds, and to the world they will help create in the future. It’s time for us all to catch up.

reFerences 21st Century Literacy Summit. (2002). 21st century literacy in a converent media world (White Paper). Berlin, Germany: Bertelsmann Foundation and the AOL TIme Warner Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.21stcenturyliteracy.org/white/ WhitePaperEnglish.pdf Anderson, T., & Kanuka, H. (1998). Online social interchange, discord, and knowledge construction. Revue de l’enseignement à distance [Journal of Distance Education], 13.1. Retrieved July 4, 2006, from http://cade.icaap.org/vol13.1/kanuka.html

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Antonucci, M. (2005, June 11). Game skills pay off in real life. Research finds benefits of video games in unexpected areas. Mercury News. Grand Forks, ND: Herald. Retrieved July 4, 2006, from http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/fnews/1400817/posts Bebell, D. (2005). Technology promoting student excellence: An investigation of the first year of 1:1 computing in New Hampshire middle schools. Technology and Assessment Study Collaborative, Boston College. Retrieved July, 2006, from http:// www.bc.edu/research/intasc/studies/nhLaptop/ description.shtml Bartle, R. (2003). Designing virtual worlds. Indianapolis, IN: New Riders Games. Beck, J., & Wade, M. (2004). Got game: How the gamer generation is reshaping business forever. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Bielaczyc, K., & Collins, A. (1999). Learning communities in classrooms: A reconceptualization of educational practice. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (pp. 269-292). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bonk, C. J., & Dennen, V. P. (2005). Massive multiplayer online gaming: A research framework for military training and education. Retrieved from http://www.aldnet.org/downloads/files/186.cfm Brown, A. L., & Campione, J. C. (1994). Guided discovery in a community of learners. In M. In K. McGilly (Ed.), Classroom lessons: Integrating cognitive theory and classroom practice (pp. 229-270). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books. Bruner, J. S. (1973). Beyond the information given. New York: Norton. Burkhardt, G., Monsour, M., Valdez, G., Gunn, C., Dawson, M., Lemke, C., et al. (2003). enGauge 21st century skills (Report). North Central

Regional Educational Laboratory and the Metiri Group. Retrieved July, 2006, from http://www. ncrel.org/engauge/skills/skills.htm Canto-Sperber, M., & Dupuy, J. (2001). Competencies for the good life and the good society. In D. D. Rychen & L. H. Salganik (Eds.), Defining and selecting key competencies: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (pp. 67-91). Kirkland, WA: Hogrefe and Huber Publishers. Chomicz, N., Moulton, C., Simons, E., & Stekloff, M. (1997). The SCANS. Retrieved July, 2006, from http://literacytech.worlded.org/docs/maththing/ny1p9.htm Clark, D. (2000). Learning domains or Bloom’s taxonomy. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink. com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html Cole, M. (1998). Cross-cultural research in the sociohistorical tradition. Human Development, (31), 137-157. Collins, A., & Bielaczyc, K. (1997). Dreams of technology-supported learning communities. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Computer-Assisted Instruction, Taipei, Taiwan. Collins, A., Hawkins, J., & Carver, S. (1997). Cognitive apprenticeship and the changing workplace. Paper presented at the Fifth International Conference on Postcompulsory Education and Training, Queensland, Australia (pp. 13-25). Commission, S. C. W. (2000). A nation of opportunity: Building America’s 21st century workforce. Washington DC: Digital Commons, Cornell University. Retrieved July, 2006, http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/key_workplace/21/ Daus, C. S., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2003). Will the real emotional intelligence please stand up? On deconstructing the emotional intelligence “debate.” Retrieved from http://eqi.org/real_ei.htm

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Dede, C. (2000, December 1). A new century demands new ways of learning. In D. T. E. Gordon (Ed.), The digital classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Letter. Retrieved July, 2006, from the Harvard Graduate School of Education [Online], http://gseweb.harvard.edu/news/features/dc_dede12012000.html Dede, C. (2004, September). Enabling distributed learning communities via emerging technologies: Part One. T.H.E. Journal. Retrieved July, 2006, from http://thejournal.com/articles/16909 Dede, C. (2005). Planning for neomillennial learning styles: Implications for investments in technology and faculty. Educause, 28(1), 1. Digital Futures Project. (2005). Fifth study of the Internet by the Digital Future Project. Center for the Digital Future, CA. Retrieved from http://digitalcenter.org Educom Staff. (1997). Brainstorming with Lewis Perelman. Educom Review, 32(2). Retrieved July 17, 2006, from http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/ review/reviewArticles/32218.html Filiciak, M. (2003). Hyperidentities: Postmodern identity patterns in massively multiplayer online role-playing games. In M. J. P. Wolf & B. Perron (Eds.), The video game theory reader (pp. 87-102). New York: Routledge. Friedman, T. (2005a). The world is flat. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. Friedman, T. (2005b). “What me worry?” New York Times, Editorial Desk, Late Edition, Section A, p. 25. Retrieved from http://select.nytimes. com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10E10FA3A550C7 A8EDDAD0894DD Gee, J. P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York: Palgrave-McMillan. Gee, J. P. (2004). Learning by design: Good video games as learning machines. Paper presented at

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the Proceedings of the Game Developers’ Conference, San Francisco. Gee, J. P. (2005). What would a state of the art instructional video game look like? INNOVATE, 1(6). Retrieved July 7, 2006, from http://www.innovateonline.info/index.php?view=articleandid=80 Gee, J. P., & Shafer, D. W. (2005). Before every child is left behind: How epistemic games can solve the coming crisis in education. University of Wisconsin-Madison, Academic Advanced Distributed Learning Co-Laboratory. Goleman, D. (2000). Working with emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam. Greene, M. (1995). Releasing the imagination. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Grodal, T. (2003). Stories for eye, ear, muscles: Video games, media and embodied experience. In M. J. P. Wolf & B. Perron (Eds.), The video game theory reader (pp. 129-155). New York: Routledge. Guardian Unlimited. (2005). School ‘doesn’t prepare pupils for work.’ Press Association. Retrieved December 19, 2005, from http://education. guardian.co.uk/schools/story/0,5500,1670853,00. html?gus Haste, H. (2001). Ambiguity, autonomy, and agency: Psychological challenges to new competence. In D. D. Rychen & L. H. Salganik (Eds.), Defining and selecting key competencies: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (pp. 93-120). Kirkland, WA: Hogrefe and Huber Publishers. IGN Entertainment, Inc. (2006). Official news. World Warcraft Vault. Retrieved July 18, 2006, from http://wowvault.ign.com/View. php?view=Columns.Detail&id=158 Ivory, J. D. (2001). Video games and the elusive search for their effects on children: An assessment of twenty years of research. Paper presented to

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

the Mass Communication and Society Division at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication’s Annual Convention, Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.unc. edu/~jivory/video.html Jakobsson, M., & Taylor, T. L. (2003). The Sopranos meet Everquest: Social networking in massively multiplayer online games. Retrieved from http://hypertext.rmit.edu.au/dac/papers/Jakobsson.pdf James, D., & Bloomer, M. (2001, September 1315). Cultures and learning in further education. Paper presented at British Educational Research Associations Annual Conference, University of Leeds, September 2001. Retrieved from http:// www.education.ex.ac.uk/tlc/docs/publications/ EX_BR_JMB_DJA_PUB_13.09.01.doc Jenkins, H. (1998). Complete freedom of movement: Video games as gendered play spaces. Retrieved from http://web.mit.edu/21fms/www/ faculty/henry3/pub/complete.html Johnson, S. (2005a). Dome improvement. Wired. Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.05/flynn.html Johnson, S. (2005b). Everything bad is good for you. New York: Touchstone. Kanuka, H., & Anderson, T. (1998). Online social interchange, discord, and knowledge construction. Revue de l’enseignement à distance [Journal of Distance Education], 3.1. Retrieved from http:// cade.icaap.org/vol13.1/kanuka.html Kerka, S. (1992). Higher order thinking skills in vocational education (Report No. 127, p. 4). Columbus, OH: Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. EDO-CE-92-127). Kelly, R. V. (2004). Massively multiplayer online role-playing games: The people, the addiction and the playing experience. Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company.

Kline, P., & Saunders, B. (1997). Ten steps to a learning organization. Arlington, VA: Great Ocean. Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice. New York: Cambridge University Press. Lave, J. E., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Lessig, L. (2001). The future of ideas: The fate of the commons in a connected world. New York: Random House. McLuhan, M. (1967). The medium is the massage: An inventory of effects. New York: Bantam Books. Mehan, H. (1983). Social constructivism in psychology and sociology. Sociologie et Societes, XIV(2), 77-96. Morrison, J. (2004). The future of learning technologies: An interview with Chris Dede. INNOVATE, 1(1). Morrison, T. (2001). The work of nations: Interview with Robert Reich. Aurora Online. Retrieved July 4, 2006, from http://aurora.icaap. org/archive/reich.html Murray, C. (2005). North Carolina governor announces 21st century center. eSchool News. Retrieved from http://www.eschoolnews.com/ news/showStoryts.cfm?ArticleID=5627 National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (2003). Digest of educational statistics for 2003. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/list_figures.asp NCSA. (2005). National Center for Student Aspirations: Student speak survey, University of Maine at Orono. Retrieved from http://www. studentaspirations.org/data.htm Norman, D. (1980). Twelve issues for cognitive science. Cognitive Science, (4), 1-32.

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Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005). The definition and selection of key competencies: Executive summary. Retrieved from http://www.pisa.oecd. org/dataoecd/47/61/35070367.pdf Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). (n.d.). Sensemaking. Retrieved from http://www2.parc. com/istl/groups/hdi/hdisensemaking.shtml Partnership for 21st Century. (1994). National models of 21st century education. Retrieved from http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/index. php?option=com_contentandtask=viewandid=3 1andItemid=33 President’s Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology PCAST. (1997). Report to the President on the use of technology to strengthen K-12 education in the United States. Retrieved from http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OSTP/ NSTC/PCAST/k-12ed.html Perelman, L. J. (1991). School’s out. New York: Avon Books, Hearst Publishing. Pink, D. (2005). Revenge of the right brain. Wired, 13.02. Retrieved July 4, 2006, from http://www. wired.com/wired/archive/13.02/brain.html Prensky, M. (2002). What kids are learning from playing video games that’s positive. Retrieved from http://www.marcprensky.com/writing/default.asp Putnam, R. (1995). Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital, an interview with Robert Putnam. Journal of Democracy, 6(1), 65-78. Retrieved July 11, 2006, from http://xroads.virginia. edu/~HYPER/DETOC/assoc/bowling.html Reich, R. (1992). The work of nations: Preparing ourselves for 21st century capitalism. New York: Vintage Books. Rheingold, H. (1992). Virtual reality. London: Mandarin.

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Riel, M., & Polin, L. (2004). Online learning communities. Common ground and critical differences in designing technical environments. In S. A. Barab, R. Kling, & J. H. Gray (Eds.), Designing for virtual communities in the service of learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Rogoff, B. (1994). Developing understanding of the idea of communities of learners. Mind, Culture, and Activity, (4), 209-229. Rushkoff, D. (1994). Cyberia: Life in the trenches of hyperspace. Retrieved from http://www.rushkoff.com/cyberia/ SCANS. (2000). Learning a living: A blueprint for high performance. A SCANS Report for America 2000. Washington, DC: US Department of Labor. Retrieved from http://wdr.doleta. gov/SCANS/lal/lal.pdf Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1994). Computer support for knowledge-building communities. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(3), 265283. Retrieved July 4, 2006, from http://carbon. cudenver.edu/~bwilson/building.html Schrage, M. (1990). Shared minds: The new technologies of collaboration. New York: Random House. Seely-Brown, J. (2002a). Growing up digital: How the Web changes work, education, and the ways people learn. United States Distance Learning Association, 16(2). Retrieved from http://www. usdla.org/html/journal/FEB02_Issue/article01. html Seely-Brown, J. (2002b). Learning in the digital age. Forum for the Future of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ffp0203s.pdf Seely-Brown, J. (2004). Digital culture and learning in the digital age (abstract). Retrieved July 7, 2006, from http://cosl.usu.edu/conference/2005/program/

Appendix E, Selected Readings: Online Games for 21st Century Skills

Seely-Brown, J., & Duguid, P. (2002). The social life of information. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Siemens, G. (2005). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, 2(1). Retrieved from http://www.itdl. org/Journal/Jan_05/article01.htm Steinkuehler, C. A. (2004). Learning in massively multiplayer online games. In Y. B. Kafai, W. A. Sandoval, N. Enyedy, A. S. Nixon, & F. Herrera (Eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference of the Learning Sciences (pp. 521528). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Retrieved from http://website.education.wisc.edu/steinkuehler/ papers/steinkuehlerICLS2004.pdf Steinkeuhler, C., & Williams, D. (2005). Where everybody knows your (screen) name: Online games as “Third Places.” Paper presented at the Digital Games Research Association (DIGRA) Changing Views: Worlds in Play International Conference. Retrieved from http://www.gamesconference. org/digra2005/download/DiGRA_2005_Program.pdf Sterling, B. (2003, December 2). Audio interview. Massive Change Radio. Retrieved from http:// www.massivechange.com/interviews.html Strogatz, S. (2004). Sync: The emerging science of spontaneous order. New York: Hyperion. Sutton-Smith, B. (2004). Video conference with Brian Sutton-Smith and Eric Zimmerman. Presented at the Digital Games Research Association (DIGRA), Level Up International Conference, Utrecht, The Netherlands.

Thomas, A. (2005). Children online: Learning in a virtual community of practice. E-Learning, 2(1), 27-38. Retrieved from http://www.wwwords. co.uk/elea/content/pdfs/2/issue2_1.asp#4 Tucker, R. (2004). John Seeley Brown at the Front End of Innovation Conference, 2005, Blog. Retrieved from http://www.innovationtools.com/weblog/innovationblog-detail.asp?ArticleID=450 U.S. Department of Labor, The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS). (1991). What work requires of schools. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Wertsch, J. (1997). Mind as action. London: Oxford University Press. Williams, D. (2005). A brief social history of game play. Paper presented at the Digital Games Research Association (DIGRA) Changing Views: Worlds in Play International Conference. Retrieved from http://www.gamesconference.org/digra2005/papers/d3ca6639d9bbfb3d36beea8b34f4.doc Yee, N. (2005a). Problematic usage. The Daedalus Project. Retrieved from http://www.nickyee. com/daedalus/archives/00336.php Yee, N. (2005b). Who do you play with? The Daedalus Project. Retrieved from http://www. nickyee.com/daedalus/archives/00468.php Zucker, A., & McGhee, R. (2005). A study of one-to-one computer use in mathematics and science instruction at the secondary level in Henrico County Public Schools, SRI International. Retrieved from http://ubiqcomputing. org/lit_review.html

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endnotes 1

2

Pew/Internet Reports. (2004, April). Technology and Media Use. Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/PPF/r/121/report_display.asp SCANS. (2000). Learning a living: A blueprint for high performance. In A SCANS Re-

3

port for America 2000 (p. 34). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from http://wdr.doleta.gov/SCANS/lal/lal. pdf How much information? (2003). Executive summary. Retrieved July 18, 2006, from http://www2.sims.berkeley.edu/research/ projects/how-much-info-2003/execsum. htm

This work was previously published in Games and Simulations in Online Learning: Research and Development Frameworks, edited by D. Gibson, pp. 59-88, copyright 2007 by Information Science Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).

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Appendix F

Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom Nancy Sardone Seton Hall University, USA Roberta Devlin-Scherer Seton Hall University, USA Joseph Martinelli Seton Hall University, USA

AbstrAct The last 20 years have brought an increase of computers into educational and home environments, generating an explosion of available educational software products. As a result, students bring a wealth of technology experiences to the college classroom. The use of games as an instructional strategy in the higher education setting is fairly new. This chapter examines the effects of game-based instruction on learning outcomes of college students studying basic computer concepts. With the growing trend toward the use of games to support learning, research is needed to examine learning outcomes. Perhaps faculty will be willing to move to more empirically tested game-based learning strategies, even though initial curriculum development time may be increased.

introduction On occasion, talking with some colleagues about instructional techniques to interest and motivate students in a college classroom sometimes results in patronizing looks of amusement. Why would

we invest that extra preparation time? Instructors believe that using alternate strategies that incorporate forms of instructional technology into their curriculum may involve more effort than it is worth (Iding et al., 2002). As teachers tend to teach according to their own personal learning

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

strategies (Cohen, 2001; Pierson, 2001), habituation may be a factor. This study was designed to find out if using active learning methods in the form of games, which often entail additional planning time, result in greater student engagement and increased learning outcomes in an introductory computer class. Motivating students to learn and complete class assignments is becoming a topic of discussion among college faculty. Low levels of motivation can be partially explained by a lack of time to prepare for class as students are increasingly faced with financial responsibilities while they attend school. Reductions in financial aid, tuition increases, and consumerism have caused more students to work part-time, reducing time devoted to study (Bacdayan, 2004). The National Center for Education Statistics 1999 report states that 80% of all college students are employed (Oblinger, 2003). Financial pressures effect the institution as well, creating larger class sizes which allow students to passively drop-out. In addition, there are reported declines in the basic academic skills of incoming students (Lanier, Tanner, Zhu, & Heady as cited in Bacdayan, 2004), making it difficult for some students to understand course material at the given level. Lack of understanding course material, however, does not often result in lower course grades, as one would expect. Over the past two decades, widespread grade inflation has been documented and some students expect to get by with less effort (Landrum, as cited in Bacdayan, 2004). Successfully motivating college students to learn may be related to instructional techniques used. Barriers to instructors changing teaching techniques to more active formats include curriculum need to cover extensive material, preparation time, and diverse perceptions of the methods with which students’ prefer to learn (Bonwell, 1999; Iding et al., 2002). Evidence suggests that lecture is still the primary form of content delivery (FSSE, 2003). Lack of student

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motivation does not necessarily cause faculty to change their instructional strategies. Proponents for the provision of hands-on activities in a variety of grade levels and from different subject fields have recommended that teachers find ways to involve students to participate in and be responsible for their own learning (Begley, Springen, Hager, Barrett, & Joseph, 1990; Bonwell, 1999; Brountas, 1996; Erwin, 2005; McGraw, 1998; Oblinger, 2003; Silberman, 2006). Oblinger (2003) describes one of the learning attributes of incoming college students as more closely resembling Nintendo than logic, symbolizing a trial and error approach. Losing a game is the fastest way to mastery, as losing allows individuals another chance at winning. Games minimize passivity and arouse natural curiosity. This instructional strategy may be a better fit for today’s college students who do not know a world without technology and indicate a preference for hands-on activities using technology tools (Oblinger, 2003). One result of the rapid technology development is the multitude of educational Web browser-based games and the ability to manipulate application software through Visual Basic for Applications (Doe, 2005; Foster, 2001; Junion-Metz, 2002). Games have wide appeal. The Pew Internet & American Life Project reports that slightly more females than males play computer and online games (approximately 60% compared to 40%) while about the same number of males and females indicate an affinity for video game playing (Jones, 2003). Current Web sites offer instructors ways to design browser-based games that provide opportunities for practice through exercises, quizzes, and pre-assessments that encourage students to continue to try until mastery is reached. In addition, due to the growing number of college students with learning differences, games for learning cannot be discounted as a viable instructional technique. Video games for attention-deficit disorder are being prescribed as one therapy option to foster

Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

stronger focusing skills (Snider, 2005). This has implications for higher education institutions that accept federal funding. The Web site, Quia, has numerous templates that instructors can use to develop browser-based games to foster student learning (Junion-Metz, 2002). These activities include flashcards, word scrambles, cloze exercises, pyramid, matching, hangman, and concentration, which provide structured practice exercises on factual information. Responses to these activities can be set up as multiple choice, true/false, completion, and short answer formats. The authors decided to evaluate the effectiveness of game-based instruction in the college classroom by creating instructional materials with both the Quia Web site and presentation graphics software as a way to promote student involvement and then measure its impact on student learning.

Participants Participants (n= 47) are undergraduates enrolled in four sections of an initial university-wide, required course in computer basics. Participants range in age from 18-25 and represent all majors on campus. Racial composition includes 87% white; 5% African American; 5% Asian and 3% Hispanic. A total of 67 students were enrolled in the four sections of this course. Males comprise 24% of this sample. Only students with complete data sets are included in this study. Also, 20 students declined to participate.

group equivalence Group equivalence was examined based on two factors: prior technology experiences and SAT scores. The first independent samples t-test statistic was performed on the treatment and comparison group data to compare prior technology experiences. Using an alpha level of .05, the result of this test, t(45) =1.471, p = .148 (two-tailed), indicates that there is no statistically significant difference in prior technology experiences in the two groups as shown in Table 1. The second independent samples t-test statistic was performed on the treatment and comparison group data to evaluate SAT scores. The result of this test, t(44) = .200, p = .843 (two-tailed)

method design This quasi-experimental research design employs mixed methods for data analysis. The independent variable is instructional method at two levels: game-based and lecture/presentation. The dependent variable is final exam score.

Table 1. Prior technology experiences of treatment and comparison group Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

F Prior Technology Equal variances Experience assumed Equal variances not assumed

.111

Sig. .740

t-test for Equality of Means

t -1.471 -1.238

Sig. (2 tailed)

df 45 20.594

Mean Std. Error Difference Difference

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower

Upper

.148

-.300

.204

-.711

.111

.230

-.300

.242

-.805

.205

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Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

Table 2. Comparison of SAT scores of treatment and comparison group Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

F SAT Score Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

Sig. .670

.418

t-test for Equality of Means

t

Std. Error Difference

.200

44

.843

8.083

40.486

-73.510

89.677

.215

37.434

.831

8.083

37.676

-68.226

84.393

concludes that there is no statistically significant difference in SAT scores in the two groups (Table 2). One SAT score is missing due to nonmatriculation.

course content This course covers the following concepts: computer organization and hardware (processing components, primary and secondary storage, peripherals, architectures, data representation, and units of measurement); system software (operating software, utilities, and user interfaces); application software (word processing, spreadsheets, hypertext, multimedia, databases, and presentation software/graphics); communications and networks (Web, personal communications, network access, network architectures, and data communications); social impact and history (history, social/ethical/legal issues, safety and security, and careers); and information systems and technology (value of information, rationale for selection of processing systems).

instruments Three instruments were used in this study. The first was the class observation schedule (COS) instrument (Appendix A). Used in a variety of studies on effective instruction, resilient and

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Mean Sig. (2 -tailed) Difference

df

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper

nonresilient students, and effects of technology, the COS provides data on individual student interactions, activities, context, and behavior. Its clear definitions and format enables an observer to achieve accurate descriptions of student processes in classrooms (Waxman & Padron, 2005). Scans of whole classroom on-task behavior were systematically conducted between each set of observations of individual students. The second instrument was a departmental final exam. This instrument was based on a standardized test created by Thomson Prometric, a division Educational Testing Service (ETS). This instrument consisted of 50 multiple-choice questions that addressed all areas of computer technology concepts, noted above. The third instrument was an online survey created by the researchers (Appendix B). This survey consisted of six questions asking participants to check methods their instructor used during the course and to identify methods of instruction that helped them learn computer concepts. They also reported their game playing frequency (video, online, or computer games, excluding instructional games played during class time) and gender. Two open-ended questions asked students why they liked particular methods and if there is anything that they would like to see added to the course in the future.

Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

Procedures Throughout the fall 2005 semester, instructional browser-based games as lessons were developed with the Web site, Quia, and presentation graphics software. Game-based lessons were taught in the treatment group. The comparison group was taught the same content and concepts via a lecture/presentation method. At the end of the fall 2005 semester, students from both groups took the same departmental final exam. To collect data on classroom activity, scans for student involvement in tasks were systematically carried out during an hour-long observation. Following each scan, the observer recorded a sampling of individual student behavior in 30second intervals using the COS instrument. Six students were observed for five minutes in each of four classes. Overall class attendance records for the semester were compared. Both instructors recorded a planning log that included the types of activities, preparation time, and sources used. These logs were then compared. Student responses and comments on a course evaluation were reviewed to see which methods and activities students believed produced the most learning for them as well as preferred methods.

limitations The treatment group was taught by a female instructor during the day, while the comparison group was taught by a male instructor during the evening. In addition, the comparison group (n=17) was roughly one-half the size of the treatment group (n=30). The comparison group was 73% male, whereas the treatment group was only 27% percent male.

results Classroom observations were conducted in both

the comparison and treatment groups. Students in the treatment group participated in more diverse activities than the comparison group. The comparison group tended to be watching or listening and taking notes on teacher presentations while the treatment group was more actively involved in instructional discussions with other students. More transitions between activities and need for teacher management may have resulted in the treatment group being slightly more off-task during the whole class observation scans. Larger sizes of the treatment classes may have been a factor as well. However, little off-task behavior was observed during the individual student observations in either group. The treatment group was observed more often to be on task with enthusiasm. Faculty planning logs revealed that planning for the initial game-based instruction lesson took on average two-thirds longer than the traditional lecture/presentation lesson. The initial setup time needed to create the Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) scripting associated with presentation graphics software (PowerPoint) is the major time factor in developing a game-based lesson. Once the game-based lesson using VBA was constructed, additional games took considerably less development time as the initial scripting was used repeatedly throughout the semester. In planning one lesson for the treatment group, two games were created. The first browser game was developed using the Quia.com Web site and took approximately two hours to complete. This two hour period also included research time for developing appropriate questions to cover intended content. This was roughly the same amount of lesson development time as the lecture/presentation process. The other game was created in the presentation graphics software, Microsoft PowerPoint using VBA. This took far longer to set up, approximately ten hours. Yet, the VBA was reused for other game lessons taught in the treatment group during the remaining portion of the semester, which significantly decreased preparation time to roughly the same

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Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

as the Quia game, two hours. Again, creating a browser-based game with the Quia Web site took the same amount of planning and development time as the lecture/presentation lessons. Some faculty may prefer using commercial off-the-shelf computer game templates to minimize preparation time (Roethemeyer & Hafer, 2005; Razen, 2005; Shaw, 2002). The university where this study was conducted mandates class attendance however; penalty for missed classes is up to the individual instructor to determine and enforce. Nonetheless, students do miss class on occasion. Attendance records showed that .79 classes were missed per participant, on average, in the treatment group and .52 classes were missed per student, on average, in the comparison group. Due to the differences in class size between the two groups, it is hard to make any inferences about absenteeism. Data analysis of the final exam scores in the two groups was performed by an Independent Samples t-test. Prior to conducting the independent t-test, an analysis of the underlying assumptions was performed. Because the sample size was larger than 30 (N = 47 > 30), the t-test was robust to violations of normality assumptions. However, normality was further determined by dividing

the skewness statistic by the standard error for both samples. Using data from Table 3, the treatment group’s skewness ratio was .11 (.048/.427), within the normality range of -2 and +2 (Weinberg & Abramowitz, 2001). The comparison group’s skewness ratio was .509 (.280/.550), also within the normality range. In addition, to determine if the equality of parent populations was normal, a Levene’s test was conducted because the two samples (treatment and comparison) were not equal in size, Ntreatment = 30 and Ncomparison = 17. Results of the Levene’s test indicated p = .433 and alpha = .05. The population variances were not different and the assumption of homogeneity of variance was met for these data, as indicated in Table 3. The results of the independent t-test indicated that the final exam scores of participants in the comparison group (M = 83.29, SD = 6.71) was statistically significantly higher, on average, than the final exam scores of the treatment group (M = 76.47, SD = 7.79), t(45) = -3.03, p < .004 (twotailed). From the perspective of the Confidence Interval (CI), since the value zero (0) was not contained within the 95% confidence interval (11.36, -2.29), the null was rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis that a difference did exist,

Table 3. Descriptives of dependent variable, final exam score, by group a

Descriptive Statistics N

Range

Minimum

Statistic

Statistic

Statistic

Final Exam Score

30

Valid N (listwise)

30

28

62

Maximu m Statistic 90

Std. Deviation Statistic

Variance

Std. Error 1.421

7.785

60.602

Std. Deviation Statistic

Variance

Std. Error 1.626

6.706

Mean Statistic 76.47

Statistic

Skewness Statistic

Std. Error

.048

.427

a. Research Study Group = Treatment Group Descriptive Statistics a N

Range

Minimum

Maximum

Statistic

Statistic

Statistic

Statistic

Final Exam Score

17

Valid N (listwise)

17

24

a. Research Study Group = Comparison Group

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72

96

Mean Statistic 83.29

Statistic 44.971

Skewness Statistic .280

Std. Error .550

Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

Table 4. Treatment and comparison group performance on final exam Group Statistics Research Study Group Treatment Group

How often do you play video, online, or computer games (excluding games played in this course)?

Mean

N

Comparison Group

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

30

2.4000

1.00344

.18320

17

3.0588

.96635

.23437

Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

F

How often do you play Equal variances video, online, or computerassumed games (excluding games Equal variances played in this course)? not assumed

t-test for Equality of Means

Sig. .014

t

.905

Mean Std. Error Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference

df

-2.191

45

-2.215

34.433

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper

.034

-.65882

.30066

-1.26439

-.05326

.033

-.65882

.29748

-1.26309

-.05455

Table 5. Frequency of game playing of treatment and comparison groups Group Statistics

Final Exam Score

Research Study Group Treatment Group

30

Mean 76.47

Std. Deviation 7.785

Std. Error Mean 1.421

17

83.29

6.706

1.626

N

Comparison Group

Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

Final Exam Score Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed

F .627

Sig. .433

t-test for Equality of Means

t -3.031 -3.161

on average, for the final exam scores of students taught with a lecture/presentation method and students taught with a game-based instruction method in the 47 students samples for this study (Table 4). The survey revealed that the treatment group’s most preferred method of instruction was instructional games (M = .87, SD = .346), closely followed

Mean Sig. (2-tailed) Difference

df 45 37.653

Std. Error Difference

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper

.004

-6.827

2.252

-11.364

-2.291

.003

-6.827

2.160

-11.201

-2.454

by a preference for group presentations (M = .80, SD = .407). Lecture was one of the least preferred methods of instruction (M = .37, SD = .490) for this group. In the comparison group, lecture was the most preferred method (M = .94, SD = .236), closely followed by a preference for discussion (M = .89, SD = .323). The comparison group indicated less of a preference for both group pre-

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Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

sentations (M = .67, SD =.485) and instructional games (M = .67, SD =. 485) than the treatment group. This data may suggest that if students like the teacher they will like her/his method of teaching. This survey also showed statistically significant differences in the frequency of game playing, including video, online, or computer games between the two groups. Participants in the comparison group (M = 3.06, SD = .97) reported greater frequencies of playing video, online, or computer games than the treatment group (M = 2.4, SD = 1.00). The results of an independent samples t-test statistic revealed that a statistically significant difference in game playing frequency was reported by the comparison group, t(45) = -2.19, p = .034 (two-tailed), in Table 5.

discussion Over 90% of treatment group participants responded to open-ended questions on the survey and their responses were highly positive. They used descriptive words of fun, interesting, and interactive when answering the question of why they liked instructional games as a method of instruction. Respondents also indicated that hands-on learning is more interesting to them as a learning tool. They commented that games helped them as visual learners, allowed for practice and review of material, and led to a better grasp of material. One participant noted that they had to think a little bit more to participate and so they believed they learned more. The treatment group suggested these additions to the course content: more hands-on learning activities such as creating their own Web site, increased time for project creation, more in-class discussions, more quizzes, more instruction, and better task explanations. A few education majors requested that the projects be more relevant toward their major area of study. Seventy-two percent of the comparison group

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participants responded to the open-ended survey question that asked what they thought could be added to the course in the future. They noted that the lecture discussion method reinforced reading, strengthened interest and was informative. Requests for added course content from the comparison group included a desire for more instruction with the software programs of Publisher, PowerPoint, and Excel and less instruction with Word. One participant requested a desire for more in depth knowledge using Excel; specifically graphing commands showing line equations and intercepts. Statistically significant differences as reported in the results section in game playing frequency of participants in the comparison group may be indicative of their ability to learn course material through a multitude of instructional methods. Perhaps games as a method were more enjoyable for the treatment group participants because it was a novel approach to instruction while game playing was a more common practice for the participants in the comparison group as indicated by their reported frequency of game play. This study explored the value of using instructional games in an educational setting to promote student engagement through a posttest only design. In this case, the lecture/presentation group outperformed the games-based instruction group on the dependent variable, final exam score. Scores on the exam in one class section of the comparison group were unexpectedly high and researchers reviewed exam performance of students in previous semesters. The treatment group in this study performed as well as these students, suggesting that typically students in game-based classes will do as well as students in lecture-presentation classes. Subsequent studies should employ a pretest/posttest research design to assess initial knowledge as well as outcomes of instruction and ensure the groups are equivalent on less obvious variables that could affect outcomes. For example, perhaps students in the comparison group liked to read more, and therefore were

Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

more inclined to complete the assigned textbook reading than treatment group participants. In addition, incentives to increase participation in studies should be considered, particularly in cash form (Birnholtz et al., 2004).

conclusion And Future trends The culture of current students who were raised in a world with technology needs greater attention by faculty interested in reaching students via their preferred learning styles and cultural tools. Although it is not the researchers’ belief that games are a panacea, it is apparent from the student survey responses that those in the game-based learning environment valued games as a strategy to help them learn course material. Survey responses indicated that students in the treatment group enjoyed the games-based instructional approach. With increased attention given to this instructional method, more ingenious games could be developed. Perhaps blending the games teaching strategy with lecture-presentation could increase the effects on student learning.

reFerences Bacdayan, P. (2004, September/October). Comparison of management faculty perspectives on quizzing and its alternatives. Journal of Education for Business, 80(1), 5-9. Begley, S., Springen, K., Hager, M., Barrett, T., & Joseph, N. (1990, April 9). Rx for learning. Newsweek, 115(15), 55-64. Birnholtz, J., Horn, D., Finholt, T. & Bae, S. (2004). The effects of cash, electronic, and paper gift certificates as respondent incentives for a web-based survey of technologically sophisticated respondents. Social Science Computer Review, 22(3), 355-362.

Bonwell, C.C. (1999). Active learning: Creating excitement in the classroom. Retrieved September 26, 2005 from www.active-learning-site.com Brountas, M. (1996, Nov/Dec). When first graders go to the polls. Teaching PreK-8, 27(3), 30-33. Cohen, V. L. (2001). Learning styles and technology in a ninth-grade high school population. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33(4), 355-367. Doe, C. G. (2005, May/June). A look at…Webbased assessment. Multimedia & Internet@ Schools, 12(3), 10-14. Erwin, J. (2005, January). Put back the fun in classrooms. Education Digest, 70(5), 14-19. Foster, K. (2001, February). Quia. Technology and Learning, 21(7), 20-22. Faculty Survey of Student Engagement (FSSE, 2003). Indiana University. National Survey for Student Engagement. Iding, M., Crosby, M., & Speitel, T. (2002). Teachers and technology: Beliefs and practices. International Journal of Instructional Media, 29(2), 153-170. Jones, S. (2003, July). Let the games begin: Gaming technology and entertainment among college students. Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved October 20, 2005 from http:// www.pewinternet.org/report_display.asp?r=93 Junion-Metz, G. & Minkel, W. (2002, October). Not just fun and games. School Library Journal, 48(10), p. 30. McGraw, C. (1998, February). Teaching teenagers? ‘Think, do, learn!’ Education Digest, 63(6), 44-48. Oblinger, D. (2003, July-August). Understanding the new students. Educause Review, 38(4), 37-47.

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Pierson, M. (2001). Technology integration practice as a function of pedagogical expertise. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 33(4), 413-431. Razen, P. (2005). Game it with word. Bloomington, IL: FTC Publishing. Roethemeyer, G., & Hafer, L. (2005). Game it with excel. Bloomington, IL: FTC Publishing. Shaw, G. (2002). Powerpak for powerpoint. Bloomington, IL: FTC Publishing. Silberman, M. (2006). Teaching actively. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Snider, M. (2005, October 4).Video games actually can be good for you. Home News Tribune, pp. D1. Waxman, H.C., & Padron, Y.N. (2005). The uses of the classroom observation schedule to improve classroom instruction (pp. 72-96). In H.C. Waxman, R. Tharp, & R. Solests Hilberg. Observational research in U.S. classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press. Weinberg, S., & Abramowitz, S. (2001). Data analysis for the behavioral sciences using SPSS. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Key terms Active Learning: An instructional strategy where learners are actively engaged in the learning process. Browser Games: Browser games are electronic games that are played online via the Internet. They are distinct from video and computer games in that they do not require any client-side software (i.e. purchased CD or DVDs) to be installed. Browser games rely solely on technologies

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such as a Web browser and sometimes a common plug-in such as Java or Flash. Computer Games: A computer game or “PC” game is a form of interactive multimedia used for entertainment played on a personal computer. Computer games are usually distributed via standard storage devices such as CDs and DVDs and are usually read-only. Computer games most often require a license agreement. Game-based Instruction: One method of instruction under the active learning strategy where students engage in playing games specifically created for the content under study. Online Games: Online games refer to games that are played over some form of computer network, most often the Internet. Online games can range from simple text-based games to games incorporating complex graphics and virtual worlds populated by many players simultaneously. Video Games: A video game is a computer game designed mainly for entertainment purposes. A video game console is the electronic machine designed to play the games and a video display such as a computer monitor or television is the primary feedback device. The main input device is a controller. A controller can be a keyboard, mouse, game pad, joystick, paddle, or any other device designed for gaming that can receive input. Special purpose devices, such as steering wheels for driving games, light guns for shooting games, and drums for musical games may also be used. Visual Basic for Applications (VBA): An implementation of Microsoft’s Visual Basic event driven programming language that runs code from within a host application rather than as a standalone application, built into all Microsoft Office applications.

Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

APPendix A I. Total Class Student Engagement: Scan off-task _____

Time_______Total number of students____Total number

II. Strategy: Whole Group WorkAlone

Small Group Comp

Seat Work

Tell

Read aloud

Demo

Proc

Listen

Org

Asking ?

Discuss

Observe

III. Classroom Observation Schedule: Instructor_______Subject: ___Ethnicity: W B H A O Gender M F A. INTERACTIONS (check one) Total 1. No interaction/independence 2. With instructor—Instructional 3. With instructor—Managerial 4. With instructor—Social, Personal 5. With other students—Instructional 6. With other students—Social, Personal 7. Other___________________________

1

2

3

4

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

B. SELECTION OF ACTIVITY (check one) 1. Instructor assigned activity 1. 2. Student selected activity 2.

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

____ ____

C. ACTIVITY TYPES (check as appropriate) 1. Written work 1. 2. Interacting—Instructional (e.g., discussing) 2. 3. Interacting—Social (e.g., talking) 3. 4. Watching or listening 4. 5. Reading 5. 6. Getting/returning materials 6. 7. Painting, drawing, creating graphics 7. 8. Word Processing 8. 9. Using special computer program 9. 10. Viewing videos/slides/pictures 10. 11. Playing games 11. 12. Presenting 12. 13. Tutoring peers 13. 14. Taking notes 14. 15. Not attending to task 15. 16. No activity/transition 16.

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 8.

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

5

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17. Other__________________________

17.

___

___ ___ ___

___

____

D. SETTING (check one) 1. Whole class 2. Small group 3. Pairs 4. Individual

1. 2. 3. 4.

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

____ ____ ____ ____

E. MANNER (check one) 1. On task 2. On task with enthusiasm 3. Distracted 4. Disruptive 5. Waiting for instructor 6. Other _____________

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___

COMMENTS:

APPendix b 1. ○ Male ○ Female 2. Check all methods/materials that your instructor used in the Computer Fundamentals class this semester. □ Case study analysis □ Discussion □ Group presentations □ Instructional games □ Lab exercises □ Lecture □ Problem-solving □ Role-play □ Small groups □ Worksheets □ Videotapes □ DVDs 3. Check all the methods that helped you learn computer concepts in this class. □ Case study analysis □ Discussion □ Group presentations □ Instructional games □ Lab exercises □ Lecture

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Appendix F, Selected Readings: Game-Based Instruction in a College Classroom

□ Problem-solving □ Role-play □ Small groups □ Worksheets □ Videotapes □ DVDs

4. Why do you like these particular methods?

5. Is there anything that you would like to see added to the course (content, method, etc.)?

6. How often do you play video, online, or computer games (excluding games played in this course)? □All the Time

□Frequently

□Sometimes

□Rarely

□Never

This work was previously published in Handbook of Research on Instructional Systems and Technology, edited by T. T. Kidd and H. Song, pp. 463-475, copyright 2008 by Information Science Reference, formerly known as Idea Group Reference (an imprint of IGI Global).

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Appendix G

Creative Remixing and Digital Learning:

Developing an Online Media Literacy Learning Tool for Girls Renee Hobbs Temple University, USA Jonelle Rowe Department of Health and Human Services, USA

AbstrAct This chapter explores how media literacy education may continue to be responsive and relevant to the continually changing nature of popular culture through the development of innovative online multimedia educational programs. Because pre-adolescent and adolescent girls are actively involved in the consumption of popular music, competitive performance television programs like American Idol as well as online social networks, it is important to examine the constructed nature of these new types of messages and experiences. My Pop Studio (www.mypopstudio.com), a creative play experience for girls ages 9 to 14, was developed by the authors to address the need for media literacy skills among this group. We present a model for assessing the impact of the program on learning that incorporates the dimensions of pleasure, a sense of mastery, participation in an online community, media literacy skills, and other outcomes. Online games that use creative remixing techniques may promote metacognition, reflection, and critical analysis skills. Girls need opportunities to strengthen critical thinking skills about mass media and popular culture and the use of online learning environments may support the development of adolescents’ media literacy skills.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Appendix G, Selected Readings: Creative Remixing and Digital Learning

introduction An important challenge facing educators today is the need to keep education relevant to the continually changing media environment of the 21st Century. Media literacy education, while still at the margins of mainstream educational practice, has made some significant inroads in a number of nations, as educators develop approaches to strengthen students’ critical thinking and communication skills through activities involving critical inquiry, media production, discussion about media and society, and close analysis of media texts (Dickson, 1994; Felini, 2004; Hart, 1998; Hobbs, 2004). Of course, in some schools, teachers hesitate to explore topics related to popular culture, a phenomenon which may diminish one of the major strengths of media literacy: its perceived relevance in bridging the gap between the classroom and the culture. This problem is challenging to address, because teachers who have fears about the perceived value of popular culture may not want to continually adapt their curricula to match the changing media environment. With the intense schedule of teaching as many as 150 students per day, most teachers do not have the luxury of modifying their curriculum extensively. In some schools, teachers use video and print artifacts that are nearly 10 years old (Hobbs, 2007). There is a need for curriculum resources that can help educators incorporate media literacy into the curriculum with materials that represent the rapidly-changing world of technology, media, and popular culture. Recently, there have been some explorations as to how to help educators introduce media literacy through the use of online media. This chapter explains one example of this new work: the development, implementation, and assessment of My Pop Studio (www.mypopstudio.com), an online creative play experience developed by the author under a contract from the U.S. Federal Government, Office on Women’s Health. This chapter examines how online games can introduce key ideas of media literacy by taking advantage of the

unique characteristics of the online environment’s capacity to blend play and learning in a creative play environment where users can experiment with the processes of creating media, remixing existing content, and analyzing messages. This chapter examines how creative play, combined with metacognitive modeling, may promote learning of key media literacy concepts through activities that include media analysis and media production.

tArgeting Adolescent girls Adolescence is a challenging time of life. Between age 10 and age 15, many girls in both developed and developing nations lose confidence and diminish their health outcomes as they move through puberty. At age 10, girls are confident, spunky, outspoken, and see themselves as healthy, capable, and strong. By age 15, 30% of American teen girls are smokers (Gidwani, Sobol, DeJong, Perrin, & Gortmaker, 2002). Many have chosen to avoid more rigorous courses in math and science, even when they have the capability to perform well in these classes. In the United States, teen pregnancy rates, while declining since the 1990s, are still high, especially among young women living in poverty. Tween and teen girls experience psychological depression. More than 4 million teen girls shoplift. Nutrition and body image create problems for the health of teen girls (Jones, Bennett, Olmsted, Lawson, & Rodin, 2004; Kilbourne, 1999; Lazarus et al., 2000). For girls, life during adolescence can be especially stressful in the intense peer culture of adolescence. Expectations from peers and family, the pressure for material possessions, and social relationships take center stage. An online survey commissioned by Girls Incorporated and Harris Interactive between March 14, 2006, and March 30, 2006, examined opinions of more than 2,000 U.S. youth to focus on the ways gender stereotypes and expectations shape the lives of

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girls and boys (Girls Inc., 2006). The survey data reveal that there are persistent gender expectations being compounded by a growing emphasis on perfection, resulting in mounting pressure on girls to be supergirls. Three-quarters of girls (74%) in the study agree that girls are under a lot of pressure to please everyone. More than half of girls in grades 6 to 8 say they are under a great deal of stress. The online world of social networking, IM/chat, and cell phones, can be overwhelming, exhausting, and hard on the ego (Mazzarella, 2005). Many adolescents live in homes with parents who have slender knowledge about the complexities of online communication; as a result, many girls navigate the ever-changing waters of online media and mass media and popular culture with little meaningful guidance from teachers or parents. Health communication theory suggests that media messages impact health-related behaviors by fostering knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes that are conducive to behaviors, either desirable or undesirable (Finnegan & Viswamath, 2002). The media-behavior link is well established in the areas of adolescent sexual behavior, aggression, body image, eating disorders, alcohol use, and tobacco use (Brown & Walsh-Childers, 1994). Many researchers attribute these ill effects to the ability of the mass media to act as a powerful agent of social influence—modeling, normalizing, and glamorizing unhealthy behaviors for impressionable young people (Bryant & Zillmann, 1986). Media literacy education can be a means to counter these influences by increasing awareness of media influence, helping young people recognize that media messages are often explicitly designed to make people, products, attitudes, and behaviors (frequently unhealthy ones) appear attractive. A sense of competence is also important for adolescents. Girls can acquire a sense of competence in mastering different challenges of online media. The public health literature informs us that media literacy education can increase a sense of competence among adolescents, which

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is considered to be a protective factor (Bergsma, 2004). During a time when feelings of confidence diminish, high-interest technology activities that appeal to girls’ interest in critiquing media and popular culture may help them to continue to see themselves as capable, competent, and part of a creative and critical community, able to make good choices about their lifestyle and health (Hamilton & Hamilton, 2004).

An online creAtive PlAy exPerience For mediA literAcy In 2006, we created My Pop Studio in collaboration with Sherri Hope Culver of Temple University and Dave Shaller of Eduweb, a multimedia production firm in St. Paul, Minnesota. Fifteen different online play activities of My Pop Studio are designed to strengthen media literacy skills, promote positive youth development, and increase awareness of the role of media in health. Highly interactive creative play activities guide users through the process of deconstructing, analyzing, and creating media. Video segments, flash animation, media deconstruction games and quizzes, and moderated blogs make the Web site lively, fun, and educational. Users select from four behindthe-scenes opportunities to learn more about mass media: In the Magazine Studio, users compose a magazine layout featuring themselves as celebrities, exploring the differences between celebrities and heroes. They write an advice column to discover the formulas used in magazines. Girls can also explore the power of digital retouching and reflect on the role of body image in today’s culture. In the TV Studio, users edit a TV show where they can experiment with juxtaposition of images to create multiple storylines. They reflect upon their TV viewing choices and screen use, comment on teen celebrities, and compare their daily screen time with others. In the Music Studio,

Appendix G, Selected Readings: Creative Remixing and Digital Learning

users create a pop star and compose her image and song to learn about how values messages are communicated through image and language. Girls can explore the power of music in selling a product and search for truth in media gossip. In the Digital Studio, users test their multitasking abilities. They share the challenges of digital life online. They consider the “what if’s” of social networking sites and reflect on the power of media and technology in their social relationships. Iterative prototypes and playtesting are critical to the design of educational multimedia. Playtesting can “help resolve conflicts among pedagogy, content, and gameplay by moving disagreements from theoretical stances to demonstrated success or failure of design concepts” (Winn & Heeter, 2006, p. 1). In developing My Pop Studio, we used formative evaluation with 60 girls ages 9 to 14 from six different geographic regions of the United States to ensure that the learning environment was responsive to the lived experience of this age group. At key periods during the year-long development process, girls participated in a series of meetings where they could offer ideas, suggestions, and feedback about the development of the site. Girls reviewed prototypes and contributed ideas to all aspects of the content and design process; as a result, they developed an intense sense of ownership about the Web site.

bAlAncing PlAy And leArning through creAtive remixing Popular music takes center stage in My Pop Studio because the scholarly literature suggests that adolescent girls are making active use of music and celebrities in their own identity formation (Cashmore, 2006; Marshall, 2005). Among media literacy educators who specialize in skills related to critical analysis of news and advertising, this topic is just beginning to be explored. For example,

British researchers have conducted case studies of girls’ use of online media to explore topics of fashion, beauty, and identity, finding that girls’ interactions with online fashion media can be a site of learning for girls to explore critical perspectives through fantasy play (Willett, 2005). Because girls this age are beginning to read fashion magazines, we wanted to address issues of body image and digital image manipulation. Girls are also actively participating in watching competitive performance television programs like American Idol and So You Think You Can Dance, so we wanted to build upon this interest in introducing media literacy concepts. My Pop Studio uses an approach to creative composition that takes advantage of remixing as a creative aesthetic. Remixing is now an important part of contemporary media production that involves the appropriation of existing cultural products for the development of new creative works (Lessig, 2004). In remixing, media texts get re-interpreted by other creative people through techniques of collage, editing, and juxtaposition (Jenkins, 2006). Remixing can be a vehicle for people to comment upon the role of media and technology in society. From the point of view of media literacy educators, remixing can strengthen media literacy skills because it can deepen people’s awareness of an author’s purpose and context. Through strategic juxtaposition and shifts in context, messages change their meanings. Remixing can also illustrate the function of context in the meaning-making process. For example, in several activities on My Pop Studio, users can select small samples of existing media texts and juxtapose them to create new meanings to experiment with the relationship between meaning and context. In the TV Studio, users can select pre-existing segments of video and edit them together to create original sequences. In the Music Studio, users can select small segments of audio and experiment with how popular music reshapes the symbolic function of various products targeted at girls and young women. With the rise of user-generated

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Appendix G, Selected Readings: Creative Remixing and Digital Learning

content online, remixing needs to be seen as a pedagogy that enables users to fully participate in contemporary culture (Jenkins, 2006). As with much educational multimedia, the balance of play and learning is a complex and delicate one that calls upon and exploits certain expectations about personal and social identity (Hayes, 2005). Because My Pop Studio is designed to be used by girls, with or without a teacher or other gatekeeper, the experience must be inherently entertaining, or users won’t play with it. In the online play environment, play and learning are related, so the format of My Pop Studio exploits the “behind-the-scenes” perspective to offer information about issues in media industries—minus the didacticism or preachiness that can be found on a number of media literacy Web sites that adopt a protectionist stance towards the dangers of mass media. Unlike traditional curricula, My Pop Studio is self-implemented. Users may choose which activities to engage in, to what extent, and how many times to play. These decisions result in

program implementation or “dosage” levels that are likely to vary greatly among users. In evaluating the potential of My Pop Studio to strengthen media literacy skills, we observed users playing with the program in order to develop a model that conceptualizes key elements to guide our current and ongoing research in the assessment of program effectiveness. As shown on Figure 1, there are two cross-cutting media literacy skills activated while playing: critical analysis skills and media composition skills. These two skills are linked to knowledge outcomes, including: (1) awareness of the constructed nature of media texts, and (2) awareness of how values messages are presented in media texts. Constructedness refers to the many choices that are involved in media production and the ways in which message design characteristics can contribute to meaning. Values messages refer to the ways in which messages are designed to convey ideas about desirable lifestyles and behaviors by evoking specific emotional responses. We are now pilot-

Figure 1. A model of program impact for My Pop Studio

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Appendix G, Selected Readings: Creative Remixing and Digital Learning

ing a measure of “media savvy” that addresses these two knowledge outcomes through a simple scale suitable for use with children and teens. We anticipate that users who find the site intrinsically pleasurable will play with the site enough times to develop a sense of mastery and competence, increasing knowledge. Figure 1 also shows secondary learning outcomes that include transfer of skills from the game environment to the home, awareness of media’s role in health promotion, and positive youth developmental outcomes. Youth development researchers, taking advantage of interdisciplinary studies of adolescent health research and educational practice, have identified additional features of various kinds of youth learning environments that contribute to success. These include age appropriate monitoring, opportunities to belong to a group, positive social norms with clear identification of values, and opportunities for skill building (Hamilton & Hamilton, 2004). These perspectives inform the work of the online learning environment we have created and future research will examine how users perceive and respond to these elements in the context of program usage.

metAcognition And immersion in online leArning A sense of competence and mastery are believed to be intricately related to the pleasurable aspects of game environments. Compared to traditional, teacher-centered classrooms, online learning can simulate the processes of meaningful inquiry, presenting the user with increasing levels of challenge. According to James Gee (2003), users begin by mastering the mechanics of game play (what Gee calls the internal design grammars) then learn how to negotiate the context of play, coming gradually to recognize the design choices of its developers, a process referred to as the external design grammars. Video games allow users to

simulate, learn, and manage design grammars, learning how to learn in unfamiliar environments. Users develop strategies for managing complexity and ambiguity. In doing so, they gradually acquire increasing levels of awareness about the constructed nature of the game environment. Our observations of girls using My Pop Studio supports this theory, as girls seem to enjoy the challenge associated with mastering the mechanics of play and gradually gain a sense of the values and critical perspectives embedded in the game. Media literacy depends on the ability to actively control and reflect upon the process of thinking used in various encounters with media messages. Monitoring comprehension, reflection on the learning process, and evaluating the progress towards the completion of a task are examples of metacognition (Solomon, 1998). However, it is not always easy to create a learning environment where children and young people apply metacognitive skills. When presented with a media message about alcohol or tobacco, for example, researchers have found that children ages 10 to 14 are able to critically analyze it, but activation of this ability does not occur spontaneously (Brucks, Armstrong, & Goldberg, 1988). Young people often can demonstrate media literacy skills but often these skills are not evident without explicit prompting. As a result, some types of metacognitive prompting are incorporated into My Pop Studio. For example, when users select music to accompany various types of advertising, a girl guide explains the impact of that choice on the interpretation of a message by a specific target audience. There has been some debate among the development team regarding the extent to which explicit metacognitive prompting should be incorporated into the program, with a solid argument that users should be allowed to come to these realizations on their own in their own time. The developers are considering adding a scaffolding element in the form of a character that “pops up” periodically to simply encourage users

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to critically reflect on their decisions. Additional elements that increase the variety and depth of the metacognitive prompting are also in development. External prompting may be necessary because of the powerful immersive pull exerted by the “play” component of the online learning environment, which may discourage distancing and critical analysis (Squire, 2005). Of particular importance is the transfer or application of media literacy skills to the real-world media environment outside of the online game. Such transfer of learning is among the challenging of issues in the design and measurement of educational multimedia (Perkins & Salomon, 1988). Participating in an online community provides a means to cultivate transfer of learning. To examine this, we have begun to analyze the comments made by users on the eight different message boards of My Pop Studio. Future research will determine the extent to which users are making connections between the game and their real-life experiences. It will be important to assess the ability to transfer knowledge and skills from an online game environment to other settings, including home, family, and other media consumption experiences.

conclusion Classroom teachers find themselves on a steep learning curve in understanding the students of the 21st Century, whose level of online engagement is unlike that of previous generations. Rather than adopt the stance of the ostrich and ignore how children’s culture has been changed by technology, or simply accede to the problem of young people’s vulnerability to the world of mass media and popular culture, educators are beginning to adapt their own instructional practices to meet the needs of the multitasking, networked young people in their classrooms. It takes a confident teacher to incorporate play into a learning environment. It

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can be unnerving for some educators to experience the loss of control that comes from genuine student engagement. And some critics fear that appealing to the media proficiencies of children and young people can “yield the short-term advantages of increased student engagement….[while] catering to those students who seek to complete work with a minimum of effort” (Barnes, Marateo, & Ferris, 2007, p. 1). Certainly there is much we don’t know about the appropriate uses of online creative play experiences as tools for learning in classroom settings. But these fears shouldn’t blind us to the very real educational potential inherent in welldesigned online learning environments. For years, educators have been accommodating children’s learning styles by moving from the traditional lecture to discussion-based classes that allow for more individual expression. They have begun to incorporate mass media and popular culture into the curriculum in order to tap into student expertise and engagement. The use of online games as a means to promote critical thinking and metacognition is just another step forward in developing new approaches that enable girls and young women to thrive in a complex and rapidly changing cultural environment.

reFerences Barnes, K., Marateo, R., & Ferris, S. (2007). Teaching and learning with the net generation. Innovate, 3(4). Retrieved October 9, 2007, from http://www.innovateonline.info/index. php?view=article&id=382 Bergsma, L.J. (2004). Empowerment education: The link between media literacy and health promotion. American Behavioral Scientist, 48, 152-164. Brown, J., & Walsh-Childers, K. (1994). Effects of media on personal and public health. In J. Bryant & D. Zillman (Eds.), Media effects: Advances

Appendix G, Selected Readings: Creative Remixing and Digital Learning

in theory and research. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.

Hart, A. (1998). Teaching the media:International perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Brucks, M., Armstrong, G., & Goldberg, M. (1988). Children’s use of cognitive defenses against television advertising: A cognitive response approach. Journal of Consumer Research, 14, 471-482.

Hayes, E. (2005). Women and video gaming: Gendered identities at play. Paper presented at the Games, Learning and Society conference, Madison, WI. Retrieved October 9, 2007, from http://www.academiccolab.org/resources/documents/gender_and_morrowind.pdf

Bryant, J., & Zillmann, D. (1986). Perspectives on media effects. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates. Cashmore, E. (2006). Celebrity/culture: Taylor & Francis Inc. Dickson, P. (1994). A survey of media education in schools and colleges. British Film Institute & National Foundation for Educational Research in England and Wales. Felini, D. (2004). Pedagogia dei media: Questioni, percorsi e sviluppi. Brescia: La Scuola. Finnegan, J., & Viswamath, K. (2002). Communication theory and health behavior change: The media studies framework. In K. Glantz, B. Rimer & F. Lewis (Eds.), Health behavior and health education: Theory, research and practice (pp. 361-388). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Gee, J.P. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy (1st ed.). New York, Houndmills, England: Palgrave Macmillan. Gidwani, P.P., Sobol, A., DeJong, W., Perrin, J.M., & Gortmaker, S.L. (2002). Television viewing and initiation of smoking among youth. Pediatrics, 110(3), 505-508. Girls Inc. (2006, October). The supergirl dilemma. New York: Girls Inc. Hamilton, S.F., & Hamilton, M.A. (2004). The youth development handbook: Coming of age in American communities. Thousand Oaks, CA, London: Sage Publications.

Hobbs, R. (2004). A review of school-based initiatives in media literacy. American Behavioral Scientist, 48(1), 48-59. Hobbs, R. (2007). Reading the media: Media literacy in high school English. New York: Teachers College Press. Jenkins, H. (2006). Convergence culture. New York: New York University Press. Jones, J.M., Bennett, S., Olmsted, M.P., Lawson, M.L., & Rodin, G. (2004). Disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in teenaged girls: A school-based study. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 165(5), 547-552. Kilbourne, J. (1999). Deadly persuasion: Why women and girls must fight the addictive power of advertising. New York, NY: Free Press. Lazarus, M., Wunderlich, R., Gilligan, C., SteinerAdair, C., Dines, G., Steinem, G., et al. (2000). The strength to resist: Beyond killing us softly. United States: Cambridge Documentary Films. Lessig, L. (2004). Free culture: How big media uses technology and the law to lock down culture and control creativity. New York: Penguin Press. Marshall, P.D. (2005). The celebrity culture reader. Taylor & Francis Inc. Mazzarella, S.R. (2005). Girl wide Web: Girls, the Internet, and the negotiation of identity. New York: Peter Lang.

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Perkins, D., & Salomon, G. (1988). Teaching for transfer. Educational Leadership, 46(1), 22-32. Solomon, P.G. (1998). The curriculum bridge: From standards to actual classroom practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Squire, K.D. (2005). Toward a media literacy for games. Journal of Media Literacy, 52(1-2), 9-15.

Willett, R. (2005). What you wear tells a lot about you: Girls dress up online. Centre for the Study of ChildrenYouth and Media, Institute of Education University of London. Winn, B., & Heeter, C. (2006). Resolving conflicts in educational game design through playtesting. Innovate, 3(2). Retrieved October 9, 2007, from http://www.innovateonline.info/index. php?view=article&id=392

This work was previously published in Digital Literacy: Tools and Methodologies for Information Societyt, edited by P. Rivoltella, pp. 230-240, copyright 2008 by IGI Publishing, formerly known as Idea Group Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).

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Appendix H

Learning While Playing: Design Implications for Edutainment Games Kalle Jegers Umeå University, Sweden Charlotte Wiberg Umeå University, Sweden

AbstrAct This chapter reports on the initial results of a study conducted in the project FunTain. The main purpose was to identify general guidelines/implications for edutainment games, in order to guide designers of such games as they often lack in design guidelines. Usability evaluations were conducted on an edutainment game in order to find usability problems. These findings were analyzed and used as input in focus group meetings, held with joint teams of game designers and HCI experts. The outcome of the focus groups was a proposal of a list of ten general design guidelines. Findings indicate that users had problems in understanding the underlying model for the game as well as identifying the knowledge related content. Experts, further, gave comments about feedback problems and different types of consistencies. Some of the implications from the findings are guidelines for earning and loosing points, scoring and performance feedback and game object characteristics.

introduction Currently, both research and practice show a great interest in studying and developing ways to use computers in various forms to support and enhance

interaction between humans. Although the issue of human-to-human interaction by use of computers is of great relevance and importance, we still must not forget about the interaction between humans and computers. New factors and aspects, not previously grasped by the Human Computer

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

Interaction (HCI) discipline, are becoming recognized as important in the interaction between users and technology. Aspects such as emotions, experiences and entertainment are more and more frequently considered when designing and developing new computer applications in many different areas. Entertaining experiences is one of these new aspects that today are becoming in focus not only in traditional areas of entertainment, but are currently used in previously non-entertaining contexts as a mean to improve products and user/consumer experiences. Examples of this could be found both in the physical world (i.e., restaurants and theme parks) but also in computer contexts such as on the World Wide Web and in different kinds of software (Pine II & Gilmore, 1999; Wolf, 1999). The application of entertainment in previously non-entertaining environments and contexts opens up new research questions, as entertainment is applied and used with purposes beyond creating plain amusement and fun for the user. One of the areas where entertainment is applied with purposes beyond just creating an amusing experience is the area of edutainment, where entertainment is used in combination with education in order to create a motivating and successful environment for learning. Adams et al. (1996) describe edutainment as a blend of education and entertainment, pursued in multimedia software. The description, or definition, indicates that the two major dimensions of importance in edutainment is some kind of pedagogy (education) and some kind of “fun” or entertaining experience (entertainment). Edutainment is therefore one example where research on new appliances of entertainment in previously non-entertainment contexts may be conducted. Considering the definition of the edutainment concept (as a blend of entertainment and education), we might conclude that design of edutainment includes the design of both entertainment and educational aspects in a design artifact. This may cause some difficulties. The pedagogical aspects

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that are of importance for the educational part of the artifact may in some cases be in opposition to the aspects of importance for the entertainment part of the artifact. There seems to be a need for some kind of trade-off to be made in order to achieve a good result in the design of both the entertainment and the education in the artifact. A parallel could be made to Nielsen’s (1999) discussion about content and package of the content in a web page design context. According to Nielsen (1999) the users of a web page are focused on the content of the page and consider the user interface, or package, as a barrier through which they reach for the content they want. Despite a cool, sizzling or ”killer” interface or environment, the usability of a web page would be negatively affected if the content of the web page fails to deliver something to the user (Nielsen, 1999). Therefore, Nielsen (1999) concludes that content is king. There is a need for design guidelines and implications when designing edutainment under these circumstances. This paper reports from an initial study conducted for the purpose of providing guidelines/implications for design of edutainment games (an instance of edutainment), performed within the FunTain project, a joint project between HCI academics and game design practitioners. The purpose of this chapter is to report the findings from initial usability evaluations on an edutainment game in order to provide design implications for design of edutainment games.

Qualities of an edutainment Artifact In related work, suggestions of aspects that are of major importance for educational software and multimedia can be found. These suggestions should be of importance also in design of edutainment artifacts such as edutainment games. Adams et al. (1996) suggest that multimedia products for educational purposes should be designed with the following aspects in mind: effective learning, effective teaching, effective communication of the content and effective use

Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

of technology to achieve the previous aspects. In order to achieve effective learning, the artifact, or product, should be simple (explain topics in terms for the user’s already known knowledge), clear (define topics in their entirely) and unambiguous (distinguishing specific topics from others). Effective teaching, they argue, will be achieved by highlighting perspectives needed to master the topic and by providing appropriate feedback mechanisms to the learners. They suggests that effective communication could be achieved by presenting material so as to increase the learner’s understanding of the topic in a monotonically fashion. Technology should then be used to ensure the previously mentioned aspects, and not to obscure them. In design of multimedia for education, the usual human factors must be addressed, and the technology should bring together the benefits that the different media provide. Lin et al. (2001) highlight the possibility to pass control of learning sequences from the program designer to the learner in web-based teaching. Good education software should be active, not passive, in that the learner should be doing something actively and not watching something passively. Adams et al. (1996) seem to agree with this recommendation, and they

conclude by suggesting that active engagement by interaction with multimedia can increase the attention span for learners with positive effects, such as customization of pace and learning style to suit the individual learner’s specific needs. The suggested aspects and factors above all tend to focus on the education dimension of edutainment. When designing edutainment games this dimension is of great importance. However, if the game itself is not considered entertaining, it is likely that users will quit playing the game, with no educational experience as a result. Further, the above suggestions give high-level implications with no specific guidance for designing edutainment games specifically. In HCI there is a long tradition of development of design guidelines and overall these are very much on a micro level and specific on the technology itself.

the edutAinment gAme PrototyPe The game is called “Laser Challenge” and was designed in order to educate the player/user about appliances of laser technique. No specific knowl-

Picture 1. Pre-game instructions screen (the overall goals and objectives of the game is described, as well as the basic game controls)

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Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

Picture 2. User controlled character to the left, a spinning question mark that leads to a question that must be answered by the user, a CD that must be collected in order to complete the game and a number (250) that represent “free” points to score

Picture 3. Character has touched a spinning question mark, and a question box is shown (The question is multiple choices, and deals with the topic of laser. Correct answer gives the user a high amount of points.)

Picture 4. Character, numbers representing points to score, CDs to collect in order to achieve the game objectives and the antagonist of this game level (the Skateboarder)

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Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

edge about the laser technique was required for playing the game, but the user was supposed to be inspired by the game to learn more about lasers. The game followed a linear, platform metaphor, and consisted of four episodes with increasing difficulty in the interactive parts. The main theme was intended to be non-violent and the basis was that the user should collect CDs to give a party. The player controlled and steered a character on the screen in order to collect CDs and avoid “enemy” objects in the game environment, presented in the shape of skateboard kids who were trying to steal the CDs from the player’s character. Further, the user got points when answering questions about lasers that were presented in the game. Below, some screen shots from the game are shown.

evAluAtion method When evaluating educational software, learning and usability need to be considered as interacting in order to avoid superficial evaluation (Jones et al., 1999). Given the interaction between learning and usability, usability evaluation methods should be well suited for evaluation of edutainment artifacts in the case presented here, since the methods would capture both design implications (Karat, 1997) and potentially also the interaction between usability and learning. Therefore, an approach based on evaluation methods from the usability discipline was used for the purposes of identifying empirical design implications for edutainment games. This approach would then potentially address the learning aspects and, most importantly for the focus of this case, obtain implications for design. Previous findings in the related area of interactive entertainment evaluation (Wiberg, 2001a) reveals that evaluation of entertainment websites based on methods from the usability discipline, and user testing in particular, tend to provide findings that are focused on basic usability problems concerning navigation, design of menu buttons,

etc. This implies that more subtle factors such as immersion, absorption and engagement, all potentially important to both entertainment and education, are difficult to grasp with the user testing method (Wiberg, 2001b). Several studies reveal that usability inspection methods, such as Design Walkthrough (e.g., Karat, 1997), Cognitive Walkthrough (e.g., Lewis et al., 1994) and Heuristic evaluation (e.g., Nielsen, 1993, 1994) in many cases identifies problems overlooked by user testing, but also that user testing may identify problems overlooked in an inspection (Nielsen, 1994). In this study, we therefore used a combination of evaluation methods including both user testing and inspection methods. A combination of user testing and inspection would provide a broad picture of the important aspects and issues at hand, and seems to be a fruitful approach when generating a foundation for deriving design implications. In order to refine the results provided by the user testing and inspection method and to generate a set of empirical design implications, the focus group method was used. In practical terms, a focus group is a collection of people gathered together at one time to discuss a topic of interest for the researcher. The explicit use of the group interaction provides the researcher with data and insights that would be less accessible without the interaction (Sullivan, 1994). By collaborating the results from the user testing and inspection method in a focus group session, the intention was to create a set of design implications of importance for edutainment games, which is the major purpose of this chapter.

Participants A total number of five (5) subjects were invited to participate in the user testing, of which four (4) actually participated. The subjects performed the test one at a time, and each test took about 30 minutes in all. The user tests consisted of three parts:

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Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

Table 1.

• •

•

Subject

A ge

Gender

1 2

25-30 25-30

Female Female

3 5

1 5

3 4

50-60 20-25

Male Male

3 4

1 4

C omputer liter acy (1=Novice, 5=E xper t)

10 minutes of free surf with Think Aloud 10 minutes of Walkthrough, performed by the test subject in collaboration with the test leader (collaborative evaluation) 10 minutes of post-interaction interview

In the first part of the session, the subjects played the game without any specific task to solve or instructions to be carried out. They were asked to verbalize their thoughts throughout the interaction, and they finished the session when they wished to do so. In the second part, the subjects performed a Walkthrough of the whole game prototype in collaboration with the test leader. Different aspects of the game were discussed, and the subjects were asked to give their opinions about specific features and parts of the design. They were also able to express any thoughts and comments they wanted to share. The post-interaction interview gave the subjects an opportunity to give comments and thoughts on general aspects of the game, the interaction and the performed test procedure. Here, the subjects could develop or refine their opinions and ideas from the previous parts of the test, and the test leader could follow up on issues that needed to be clarified.

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C omputer gaming liter acy (1=Novice, 5=E xper t)

Comment

R esearcher HCI R esearcher HCI E ngineer HCI analyst and lecturer

expert Walkthrough In the design walkthrough, or here called expert walkthrough, the experts investigated and collaborated with the game prototype and made comments on possible problems or design improvements. The comments were written down and discussed in the last part of the evaluation, the focus group. The instructions were very brief, and the experts had a large degree of freedom in the evaluation procedure. In a large extent they relied on their personal experience and opinions in their evaluations.

Focus group When the User tests and Expert Walkthrough parts were finished, the HCI researchers and test leaders from the empirical evaluations, as well as the game designers, performed a joint focus group meeting. In the focus group, the findings from the previous parts of the study were reported and discussed. The first step in this process was to analyze and categorize the different findings from both the empirical and the expert evaluations into problem areas or groups. From the grouped findings, the participants constructed a more general picture of the reported issues in the prototype. This picture was then used to gener-

Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

ate a number of implications for the next step in the overall design process; design implications. The general picture was thoroughly discussed, with focus on how the problem picture could be reconstructed into guidelines or implications that designers would benefit from. Each group of problems in the picture were discussed in terms of: which part(s) of the game prototype design that was related to the problems, what kind of more general usability issue the problems could be interpreted as demonstrating different aspects of, and eventually how the essence of the usability problem expressed by the problem group could be formulated into a guideline or an implication for design. Since the study was performed as a collaborative part of the process of designing the edutainment game, implications were kept at a level that was considered to be meaningful for the overall design process in terms of guidance for designers when conducting re-design. That is, implications that would be possible to use as meaningful input to the designers in the next step of the design process.

•

•

•

empirical usability evaluations •

•

usAbility Problems identiFied In order to highlight the research process, some of the usability problems identified are stated below. These are kept short, with the purpose to pinpoint the overall picture of what occurred. Most of the usability problems in the examples occurred both in the expert walkthroughs as well as in the empirical usability evaluations, however not in all the empirical sessions.

•

•

expert Walkthroughs •

It was unclear which actions the player should perform in order to gain points in the game. Strange question marks and other moving objects were confusing, and searching after

hidden objects that gave points was fruitless. It is not obvious what “enemies and dangers” the player should be aware of in the game. What other characters and objects are really dangerous in the game? What actions and objects should be avoided? The skateboard kid seemed somewhat dangerous, however it was not clear at all how and in what ways he could harm the player’s character. Overall, feedback problems occurred in the game. When feedback was expected (when different actions suggests feedback to be expected) it did on many occasions not occur.

•

A lack of interest (from the test players) in reading initial instructions results in frustration later in game when events, objectives and actions become difficult to interpret and understand. Loss of only some game points as a result of an action was confused and mixed up with a total loss of all points earned, which led to unnecessary (and unmotivated by the game) disappointments among the test players. The music in the game is not connected to the actions taking place in the game, which confuses players, as it does not highlight levels of danger (which would be consistent with other games). The level of difficulty in playing the game is by many test players experienced to be to low. The game is too easy and does not have an increasing level of difficulty, which was expected by many test players. Test players reveal frustration over a lack of consistency with other arcade games similar to this game, like for instance the possibility to jump on (and “kill”) “bad guys” in order to gain points.

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Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

•

•

The lack of possibility to move information pop-up windows, revealed when questions concerning lasers are asked, frustrates the test players. The pop-up windows prevent the players from reading additional information placed in windows hidden by the pop-ups. Test players are frustrated over the fact that some objects, for instance a plastic road cone, do not work/behave as in real life. In real life a road cone could be pushed over, but in the game the player has to go around the cone since the cone behaves more like a fixed object (similar to, for instance, a fire post or a fence).

•

Negative audio and visual feedback should be provided to notify the user when points are lost due to some erroneous action performed by the user.

scoring and Performance Feedback The points should be summarized in a visible and easily interpreted counter, placed at a location in the environment according to conventions in the game genre. The meaning of the sum of points should be unambiguous and clearly indicate what kind of points that are represented, if there are multiple types of points that the user may score in the game.

design imPlicAtions

differences in valuable objects

The above stated usability problems are examples of some of the issues identified in the expert walkthroughs and empirical evaluations of the game. In the focus group session, a thorough discussion of all previous sessions was conducted (see “Focus Group” above for description) and the general list of guidelines/implications below was created. Further, design implications for this specific game was also put forward. These were also implemented in the design process. However, the specific implications are not further discussed here. The general list of guidelines/implications is listed below.

There should be intuitive, easily understood representations of objects and actions that result in scoring points when performed. If there is various levels of points to be scored, the objects used to represent the different levels should be easy to interpret and clearly indicate the value of the specific point represented.

earning and losing Points

In order to achieve good gameplay and competition, a failure to achieve a certain task that successfully performed will result in a large amount of points scored should lead to the disappearance of the opportunity to score that particular set of points.

The overall scoring system should be clear, unambiguous and provide distinct feedback to the user concerning changes in the points scored or lost. •

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Positive audio and visual feedback should be provided to notify the user when points are scored.

•

Objects that represent major amounts of points should look more valuable than objects representing minor amounts of points.

task Performance and Feedback

•

If the user answers a question worth a large amount of points incorrectly, the opportu-

Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

nity to score that particular set of points by answering the same question again correctly should be suspended (the user should only have one opportunity to score each particular set of points).

Promoting exploration

•

The environment should demonstrate to the user where it is possible and not possible for the user’s agent or character to move around.

real World inheritance

There should be “hidden points” in the game environment to reward the user when exploration of the environment is performed and to provide variation and discrimination in the overall performance of users considering points scored.

When designing objects in the game environment, it is important to be aware of the conventions considering the specific object generated by other similar types of games, but also conventions and affordances provided by real world connections.

•

•

A high score should require a performance above the normal from the user, in order to motivate the users to engage in the game and achieve good gameplay.

game objects’ characteristics The difference between objects that affect the gaming procedure and objects that constitute the background surroundings of the environment should be clear and unambiguous. •

•

•

•

Objects that are “active” and may be manipulated or used by the user should distinguish themselves from the background and from other active objects. “Dangerous” objects that imply something negative for the user in the game should be represented in a way that clearly indicates their negative effect on the user’s performance. Positive objects that imply scoring points or help for the user in the game should indicate their positive attributes by their representation. Obstacles in the environment should clearly and unambiguous indicate that they are interferences that need to be worked around and not objects that may be manipulated by the user.

If an object has a real world counterpart, the designer must be aware of the properties of that real world counterpart and consider them when deciding the properties and function of the game object. Game objects with real world counterparts will, in the user’s interpretation of them, likely inherit the properties and affordances from the real world, with effects on the user’s assumptions of the game object’s properties.

understandable menus Menu buttons and choices should be clear, descriptive and context sensitive •

•

“Back” buttons should link to the section or part previously visited by the user, and never to a sector that is new to the user. Action buttons (that lead to some kind of action) should clearly describe the action they initiate; submitting an answer for instance should be done by a “submit answer” button rather than by a “done” button.

supporting tools and their layout Pop up menus and additional tools for problem solving (i.e., information databases or dictionaries) should never occur on top of the main element (i.e.,

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Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

a particular question) which they are supposed to support, but should occur beside that particular element. Additional tools offered to support the user in solving a particular task should not hide the description of the task to solve.

game instructions Instructions dealing with basic movements and actions in the game environment should be visually presented and explained in a short and compact fashion. •

•

Instructions on how to control the character and the meaning of different objects in the environment must be kept short and intuitive in order to ensure that the user utilizes them. The main objectives of the game in terms of the overall goal that the user should strive to accomplish and how that goal may be reached in terms of actions should be presented and explained in a short and informative way.

conclusion In this paper we have presented an initial study with the main purpose to find design guidelines for edutainment games. After the evaluation process, where expert walkthroughs as well as empirical usability evaluations were conducted, focus group sessions with HCI experts and game designers were performed. This resulted in a list of guidelines. These guidelines included: (1) Earning and loosing points, (2) Scoring and performance feedback, (3) Differences in valuable objects, (4) Task performance and feedback, (5) Promoting exploration, (6) Game objects’ characteristics, (7) Real world inheritance, (8)Understandable menus, (9) Supporting tools and their layout and, finally, (10) Game instructions. Issues for future research includes further testing of other types of edutainment games in

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order to further verify the generality of the above developed design guidelines for edutainment games.

reFerences Adams, E. S., Carswell, L., Ellis, A., Hall, P., Kumar, A., Meyer, J., & Motil, J. (1996). Interactive multimedia pedagogies: Report from the working group on Interactive Multimedia Pedagogy. In Proceedings of the First Conference on Integrating Technology into Computer Science Education. Jones, A., Scanlon, E., Tosunoglu, C., Morris, E., Ross, S., Butcher, P., & Greensberg, J. (1999). Contexts for evaluating educational software. Interacting with Computers, 11, 499-516. Karat, J. (1997). User-centered software evaluation methodologies. In M. Helander, T. K. Landauer, & P. Prabhu (eds), Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction (2n d ed.). Elsevier. Lin, B., & Hsieh, C. (2001). Web-based teaching and learner control: A research review. Computers and Education, 37. Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability engineering. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Nielsen, J. (1994). Usability inspection methods. Conference companion, CHI’94, Boston, Massachusetts, USA. Nielsen, J. (1999, January). User interface directions for the Web. Communications of the ACM, 42 (1). Pine II, & Gilmore. (1999). The experience economy: Work is theatre & every business a stage. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Sullivan, P. (1991). Multiple methods and the usability of interface prototypes: The complementary of laboratory observation and focus groups. In Proceedings of the 1991 ACM Ninth Annual

Appendix H, Selected Readings: Learning While Playing

International Conference on Systems Documentation. Chicago, Illinois, USA. Templeton, J. (1994). The focus group: A strategic guide to organizing, conducting and analyzing the focus group interview. New York: McGrawHill.

Wiberg, C. (2001b). Join the joyride: An identification of three important factors for evaluation of on-line entertainment. In Proceedings of WebNet 2001, Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.

Wiberg, C. (2001a). From ease of use to fun of use: Usability evaluation guidelines for testing entertainment web sites. In Proceedings of Conference on Affective Human Factors Design, CAHD. Singapore.

This work was previously published in The Interaction Society: Practice, Theories and Supportive Technologies, edited by M. Wiberg, pp. 122-138, copyright 2005 by Information Science Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).

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Appendix I

Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”: Designing Augmented Reality Games to Teach the Critical Thinking of History Karen Schrier MIT, USA

AbstrAct Students need to learn the critical thinking of history, yet they rarely have opportunities to authentically simulate historic inquiry. Research has suggested the pedagogical potential for using augmented reality (AR) games—location-based games that use wireless handheld devices such as PDAs to provide virtual game information in a physical environment. The novel AR game, Reliving the Revolution (RtR), was created as a model for studying how AR games can engage students in interpretive, collaborative, and problem-solving activities. In this chapter, the game is introduced, and main results of the initial iterative tests are discussed, including what went wrong and how the game was redesigned to better support deeper engagement and historical thinking and learning.

introduction There may be at least two versions to every story, but how do you determine the truth when both sides have valid, but differing, perspectives? Active participants in a democracy must be able to question sources, seek out and manage differing viewpoints, and develop their own interpretations of the information they receive. Social problems do not have one clear solution; rather they require the complex consideration of multiple possibilities, prior knowledge sets, and rubrics (Brush & Saye, 2005). Likewise, historians weigh evidence and

decide to emphasize the particular perspectives that they feel are the best representations of the past. K-12 social studies students typically receive a litany of facts, events, names, along with one master narrative; they are rarely encouraged to empathize with alternate views or question the so-called authoritative versions of history. Teaching as though there is only one right way to view history is problematic because students are not practicing the skills necessary for historic inquiry (Hoge, 2003), and also because they are not learning how to unravel the complexity of social problems, nor evaluate the world as an

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Appendix I, Selected Readings: Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”

engaged citizen. In this chapter, I present a new augmented reality game, Reliving the Revolution (RtR), as a model for teaching historic inquiry and critical thinking, and for considering how to design engaging educational games. RtR is not envisioned as a standalone educational solution, but as an activity supported by a teacher or mentor, and integrated into a broader history curriculum that incorporates experiential learning, teamwork, and critical thinking skills.

Overview of RtR What better way to prepare students for skills essential to democratic engagement than by immersing them in a time when these democratic values were being questioned? RtR takes place in Lexington, Massachusetts—the site of the Battle of Lexington, which precipitated the American Revolution—and enables participants to simulate the activities of a historian. The game functions as a virtual analogue to the Battle and a practice field for historical methodology; it encourages the collection and analysis of evidence, the testing of hypotheses, and formulation of conclusions,

in the site where this evidence was first generated. Thus, the participants learn about a specific historic place and time, as well as the context for what occurred there, and construct their own views of the past, while considering alternative views of history (see Figure 3 for a detailed list of pedagogical goals). The participants’ primary goal in RtR is to reconstruct the events of April 19, 1775 and decide who they think fired the first shot that initiated the Battle of Lexington. To do this, participants walk around present-day Lexington Common and encounter the physical buildings and sites involved in the Battle of Lexington. They also use a personal digital assistant (PDA) to “interact” with virtual historic figures and gather virtual testimonials, evidence, and items, all triggered by Global Positioning Software (GPS) depending on their specific location. For example, when a player approaches the Buckman Tavern (Figure 1), a historical personality such as Paul Revere appears on the PDA and provides his story of the events at Lexington. These virtual historic figures, also called non-playing characters (NPCs), provide a testimonial (and often a document) based

Figure 1. Image of Buckman Tavern in Lexington, Massachusetts

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Appendix I, Selected Readings: Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”

Figure 2. Schematic of RtR; The participants first collect evidence during Time 1 and Time 2, and then compare evidence with other roles during the debate

Figure 3. Summary of pedagogical goals for RtR, based on history education standards and John Hoge’s description of historic inquiry (Hoge 2003). The letters next to the goals are referenced throughout the chapter.

(a) Acquire a Meaningful Understanding of Key Historical Themes and People (1) Understand better the people and leaders involved in the Battle of Lexington and the American Revolution [a1] (2) Become more aware of the social, economic, geographic, and political context surrounding the Battle of Lexington and the American Revolution [a2] (3) Learn more about a local historic site and how it functioned in the past. [a3] (b) Build Knowledge of the Methods and Limitations of History (1) Question sources and authorial intent of evidence; identify biases in evidence [b1] (2) Create hypotheses, and draw inferences and conclusions based on historical evidence [b2] (3) Consider the limits of historical methods and representations of the past [b3] (c) Confront Multiple Perspectives and Mainstream Interpretations of the Past (1) Understand and critique master narratives of the Revolutionary War, the Battle of Lexington and history in general [c1] (2) View, seek out, consider and manage multiple views of the Battle of Lexington and other historic moments [c2] (3) Reflect on ones’ own perspective on the past and recreations of events [c3]

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Figure 5. Screenshot of a virtual historic figure (NPC); participants can click on “interview” to receive a testimonial from Paul Revere

on what they think happened before and during the Battle (see Figure 5). The participants play the game in pairs and as one of four historic roles: Prince Estabrook (African-American slave/Minuteman soldier); John Robbins (free/Minuteman soldier); Ann Hulton (Loyalist/townsperson); Philip Howe (Regular [British] soldier). These participants collect differing evidence based on their historic role in the game; for example, an NPC like Captain John Parker, the leader of the Minutemen, provides very different evidence to a fellow Minuteman soldier than to the female townsperson or the British soldier roles. The game also has two time periods: Time 1 in the game simulates the moment before the Battle has begun, and Time 2 simulates the moment immediately after the Battle ends (see Figure 2 for a schematic of the game). The NPCs provide different information in Time 1 and Time 2, and there is a short game break between the two time periods. Then, after the participants gather information in Time 1 and 2, they collaboratively compare their evidence, share hypotheses, and debate who they think fired the first shot.

Augmented reality (Ar) games for education? The development of RtR stems in part from two recent educational initiatives. First, there have been reforms in history standards to include “doing history” activities—such as evidence investigation and validation, exposure to multiple historical views, and narrative creation—and educators are beginning to search for new ways to teach critical thinking as it relates to the study of history (International Society for Technology in Education, 1998; National Center for History, 1994). Simultaneously, video games are gaining increased acceptance as educational tools and supplements to classroom curricula, and wireless handheld devices such as PDAs are becoming more ubiquitous in the classroom because of their low cost, flexibility, accessibility, wireless capability, portability, and ease of use (Dede, 2004; Dieterle, 2005; Klopfer, Squire, & Jenkins, 2003). Although PDAs are the primary devices discussed in this chapter, cell phones should also be studied as potential platforms for educational games, especially because of their already high penetration in the student population. Thus, I wanted to explore the possibility for using augmented reality games for history education

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Augmented reality (AR) games are gaming environments that integrate virtual, locationspecific media within the physical world. To play an AR game, participants might use GPS-enabled PDAs or other wireless handheld devices to access virtual information that has been previously mapped to specific locations. For example, a game designer could pre-program information to appear at specific GPS coordinates, or embed information in a specific location that only can be retrieved by reading an RFID (radio frequency ID) tag. In an AR game, participants can use their PDA to interact with real-world objects or receive data about a particular spot in the physical environs. A building or historic site can suddenly become a game board, and statues or doors can provide virtual clues or act as portals in the context of the game. Thus, AR games may potentially allow students to “do history” situated in a real-world context, rather than passively learn historical “facts” in a classroom. This reflects Brown, Collins, and Duguid’s “situated learning” paradigm, in that the “concept” of history remains married to the activity and culture (1989). AR games may also further encourage collaborative learning because the portability of the devices encourages physical and social interaction, and, for example, the sharing of ideas and collaborative decision-making. Moreover, AR games may motivate those with the increasingly prevalent neo-millennial learning style—learners who favor more experiential, reflective, mentored and collaborative learning, nonlinear expressions of ideas, and individualized learning experiences (Dede, 2005). AR games, however, do not necessarily support learning, collaboration, imagination, or interest. How do we design educational AR games that are deeply engaging and motivating, while also incorporating history pedagogy? How do we use AR games to teach students to consider both the holistic and microscopic, to negotiate multiple viewpoints, evaluate diverse opinions, and, more broadly, to be more democratically engaged?

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In the next sections, I provide an overview of the design process of RtR and then explore in more detail nine elements of the game, and how these elements support the game’s pedagogical objectives and provide deeper immersion in the game world as well as the historic moment of the Battle of Lexington.

designing rtr One of the major challenges in designing RtR, and in educational games in general, is incorporating learning goals into the game play: “Play which is not removed from a learning experience, but inherent to it” (Squire, Jenkins, & The Games-To-Teach Team, 2003, p. 19). How do we embed learning within the game in a way that does not water down the educational content or disengage the player from the fun of playing a game (Thomas, 2003)? Even more challenging, perhaps, is how you do all of this with a limited budget ($0), limited resources (just myself), and limited time (less than a year). The simple answer is that I created the game by taking on multiple roles: designer, writer, researcher, tester, and educator. I am not a historian, nor do I have specialized knowledge of the Battle of Lexington, so I immersed myself in the town of Lexington and its lore. The game content—including the testimonials, documents, and game item descriptions were a mix of artistry and historic precision. I needed to balance pedagogical, practical, design, historical, and dramatic concerns to create an engaging experience that was based on accurate portrayals of the viewpoints on the Battle. I also studied current AR games and considered how to translate them to a historical setting. MIT’s Teacher Education laboratory has developed and tested four AR games, each of which invites participants to solve scientific problems from within an authentic practice field. One, “Environmental Detectives,” is an outdoor AR game where par-

Appendix I, Selected Readings: Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”

ticipants work in teams to analyze a virtual oil spill that occurred on the actual MIT campus. The participants navigate a physical location and use a PDA to “interact” with pre-scripted virtual experts and gather information on the toxicity of various predetermined locations around campus (Klopfer, Squire, & Jenkins, 2002). In “Oubreak@ MIT,” an indoor AR game, participants work in teams to investigate a simulated disease outbreak on the MIT campus. To investigate the disease, participants use handhelds to interview virtual people in specific rooms around MIT’s campus, obtain and analyze virtual samples, and medicate and quarantine players who might be “infected” with a disease. Similarly, in “River City AR,” a handheld game based on Dede’s MUVE (a multiuser virtual environment where participants can interact with digital artifacts in a 3-D, networked environment), participants investigate a potential biological epidemic in an outdoor portion of MIT’s campus. A team of participants with

distinct roles must work together and interact with virtual characters to examine a simulated spread of disease. MIT’s Teacher Education Laboratory created a prototype of their AR game editor system, which enables designers like me to modify “River City AR” and create a GPS-enabled, location-based, role-playing AR game with little programming. RtR served as a test case for their in-progress editor system, and future versions have since been used to design other educational AR games.

iterative design In creating RtR, I used an iterative design process, which Eric Zimmerman (2003, p. 176) explains as “a design methodology based on a cyclic process of prototyping, testing, analyzing, and refining a work in progress.” With an iterative process, Zimmerman continues, the product or game develops through a meaningful dialogue between

Figure 4. Summary of game elements for the pilot study and redesign study PILOT

REDESIGN

Locative technology

GPS

GPS

Game infrastructure

XML/.NET (RiverCityAR Engine)

XML/.NET (RiverCityAR Engine)

Instructions?

In-person instructions by educator

In-person instructions by educator

# of time periods

Two

Two

Linearity?

Nonlinear

Nonlinear with more direction (built-in check points)

Goal

Who fired the first shot at the Battle of Lexington?

Who fired the first shot and two minigoals for each role

# of roles played

One out of four

One out of four

Pairs?

Play one role as a pair

Play one role as a pair

Collaborative?

During evidence collection, in pairs; during debate as a group

More inter- and intra-pair collaboration throughout

Length of game

~80 min + debate

~80 min + debate

Game play

Search for location-based NPCs and game items triggered by GPS; interview NPCs and gather documents and items

Search for location-based NPCs and game items triggered by GPS; interview NPCs and gather documents and items

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the designers and the audience or participants. This means constantly testing and reassessing the game using actual participants, observing their play and asking targeted questions, redesigning the game, and then testing it out again. I began prototyping elements of the game play a full year before finally testing the full-scale game. For the full-scale tests, I ran two phases of trials. The Pilot study included two trials with a mix of graduate students and educators. Following these results, I did an extensive redesign of the game and then conducted another trial of the game (the Redesign trial), which involved eight individuals, ranging in age from 13 to 17, all attending local and regional high schools. The Pilot and Redesign trials included pre- and post-game surveys on game play, attitudes toward history, and knowledge of the Revolutionary War; videotaped and in-person observations of participants’ level of engagement in the game; and a content analysis of the debate, game discussions, and notes. Please see Figure 4 for a comparison of the main game elements in the Pilot and Redesign trials.

results And Findings In this section, I present the major results from the Pilot and Redesign trials of the game. In doing so, I describe some of the initial problems with “Reliving the Revolution,” and how I redesigned the game to better support engagement and learning, as well as the results of these changes. In what follows, brackets referencing Figure 3 are used to match the game’s findings to the original desired learning outcomes. For example, [b2] references the goal: “Create hypotheses, and draw inferences and conclusions based on historical evidence.” Hopefully others will find these helpful as suggestions for how to think about creating engaging educational AR games.

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overall results The results of my initial and iterative tests suggest that an AR game such as RtR, if designed appropriately, can engage learners in a historic moment and place, and in the practice of history. RtR motivated discovery and enthusiasm; reflection, collaboration, and teamwork; problem solving, interpretation, and analysis; and the consideration of alternative views of history. The participants enjoyed being in the actual site of the Battle of Lexington—the PDAs afforded them the opportunity to integrate virtual information with a real-world context. The game felt novel and authentic, and the participants felt as though they were imbued with a special responsibility to solve an important “history mystery.” They took this “serious game” very seriously—they embraced its challenges and critically immersed themselves in the game as such. Accordingly, the participants acted in their historic roles, roles as game players, and roles as learners. By trying on these new identities, striving for a common goal, and collaborating with others, the participants were more open to consider new perspectives, re-evaluate their beliefs and values, and create bridges among them (Gee, 2003). Finally, RtR encouraged the participants to reflect on their interpretations of the event, but also to think more deeply about their preconceived notions about the Battle of Lexington and history in general. The participants began to take their more multifaceted conceptualization of the American Revolution and relate limitations in historical understanding to other situations and even global social issues.

goals and motivations Overall, the participants were enthusiastic about the primary goal (who fired the first shot?), and it seemed to motivate their actions throughout the

Appendix I, Selected Readings: Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”

game, structure their navigation of the evidence, and draw them further into the game world. One participant noted that this goal helped orient the way she read and used the evidence, and how she managed a vast amount of game content [a1, a2], saying that “When you have a goal to figure out, you look more.” Her involvement in the game world was more targeted because she had this specific goal in mind. It was sometimes difficult, however, for participants to balance the extensive game information with the requirements of the game play, including the game’s goal: I loved the detail, but I was overwhelmed by it. I wanted to take more time to let it sink in… To me it was a push and pull between getting immersed in the detail, and needing to remember to look around me. … But on the other hand, that is also what makes it rich, because the richness of detail delivers the message that you want—that this is a complex thing, there are lots of points of view, and there was a ton of stuff going on [during the Battle of Lexington]. This comment also points to the difficulty as a game designer in finding a delicate balance between discovery and familiarity. RtR needs to provide enough novelty and a diversity of viewpoints to engage the participants and fit with my educational objectives, but it also needs to imbue participants with a sense of accomplishment. It needs to always be offering new tidbits of data, while also enabling participants to quickly grasp the bigger historic picture of this shared game world, no matter which order the participants actually navigate the game. Thus, to further direct the participants’ navigation of the game and provide more checkpoints in which to measure game progress, I redesigned the game to include smaller objectives—in the form of role-specific secret missions or mini-objectives—which helped the participants break down and compartmentalize the larger historic problem.

Explained one participant, the “secret missions kinda orient you to figure out a certain thing.” Echoing this, one participant thought that the question of “who fired the first shot” was too broad, and felt that even more secret missions would make the game “more definite.” Moreover, to complete the secret missions, participants needed to rely on a piece of information only gathered by a different historic role, so participants were more motivated to collaborate with other groups. These mini-objectives, such as naming the spies in the town, or finding out what was in Paul Revere’s trunk, also helped the participants piece together the events at Lexington and address the broader question of who fired the first shot. Tackling the primary goal was initially very unwieldy; but after investigating the mini-questions, the participants became more comfortable with their evidence, and were better able to back up their claims, and provide counter arguments to other participants’ information [b1, b2].

game Play constraints In any game, it is important for the participant to know how it ends, how success is measured, and what qualifies as “being done.” In “RtR,” the evidence collection period ends when the time runs out, and then the entire game finishes during the debate when the participants agree upon a commonly understood story of the Battle of Lexington and who they think fired the first shot. Thus, it was essential to communicate the time constraints to the participants and ensure that they understood these limitations [b3]. A few participants felt that verbal communication of the time limit was not enough; they also needed visual reminders of the time constraint to motivate them, particularly because they were not competing against each other, but against the clock. Future iterations of this game should have a countdown clock incorporated into the interface of the game or a different visual or audio reminder of time running out.

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No participant can possibly gather all the available historic evidence in the time allotted. This constraint helped the participants better appreciate the limits of interpreting the past without all the possible evidence, a key learning objective of the game [b3]. Likewise, during the debate period, many participants acknowledged holes in their data or the need for specific material that would help them feel more confident in their conclusions. For example, one Redesign study participant said the following during the game debate: How do we know for sure? I feel like we don’t have enough evidence. Even with all of us finding different stuff, finding different things, pieces of evidence, how do we know who fired the first shot? Of course if you are loyal to British … you are going to say, ‘Oh the Minutemen fired the first shot’ and if you are loyal to America and you are fighting the British, you are going to say, ‘the British fired the first shot.’ So how do you know? As the participants began to reflect on their ability to construct valid narratives of the past, they also grappled with current political issues, and how these issues would be later reflected in the history books [c1, c2]. Said one participant: In America, we have American textbooks and they are written by Americans, so of course you always get that portrayal of the British as being the bad guys and I’m sure the British kids when they learn about this, it’s completely different. ... The same with Iraq, people are going to, in years to come when we read about that in textbooks, it is going to be different. Such a critique on history construction stemmed in part from the lack of constraints in this game: participants were liberated from focusing on the single point of view that is often present in textbooks. I carefully devised the game’s content to incorporate multiple, alternative views of the past instead of one restrictive master narrative;

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and I encouraged the participants to create their own interpretations of the past. This freed the participants to try on others’ perspectives of past and current moments, and consider how their own cultural and socioeconomic status affects their point of view [c3].

collaboration and social interaction Almost all of the participants enjoyed playing the game with a partner because they could share ideas and tasks, engage in mini-debates, remember information better, practice decision-making skills, and reflect more deeply on the evidence they gathered. For example, one participant noted that she liked playing with a participant because she “could exchange ideas, notes, plan what to do next,” while another participant noted that, “It was fun to play with others, one, to have someone to help with the handheld/taking notes, and two, just to have someone to bounce ideas/theories off.” Because the game play and collaboration necessitated dialogue and the sharing of evidence, the participants needed to reflect on the evidence and their interpretations, formulate and offer hypotheses, and collectively decide on next steps—all activities related to developing critical thinking, collaborative, and problem solving skills [b1, b2]. During both the evidence collection and debate periods of RtR, the four roles can share information. The relatively compact area of the Lexington Common, coupled with the mobility of the handheld, allowed for physical interactions and the verbal exchanges of evidence among the various roles. Participants in different roles could ask each other for advice, share discoveries, and make connections based on serendipitous exchanges. The mini-objectives in the secret missions also further enhanced inter-role collaboration. Not only did the participants become more deeply invested in the game because of the interdependence of roles and sharing of responsibilities, but also they were engaged in the game

Appendix I, Selected Readings: Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”

play; enthusiastic about its content; and retained, learned, and even taught each other its historical information.

role-Playing In each trial, a pair of participants played one of four historic roles during the game. Based on their role, they received distinct information from the NPCs and accessed unique descriptions of game items. This meant that they received slightly biased accounts of the Battle of Lexington, depending on their historic role. In general, the inclusion of the roles further engaged the participant in a historic moment, and also the game play, because they instilled them with the responsibility of seeing Lexington through the eyes of another. My challenge was designing the game to ensure that the participants were appropriately immersed in their roles, despite the technical limitations of the game system. First, I was restricted by the River City AR game system because although the participants could receive information from NPCs, they could not actively interact with NPCs in their roles. In other words, the participants could not play their role except with each other. This made it difficult to emphasize each participant’s unique role in the game, as they could not fully test out their new identities. Therefore, I needed to design the game content ahead of time and use language, tone, and style to reinforce to the participants the characteristics of their historic role. The initial results were mixed. Some of the Pilot study participants commented that during the game they forgot they were playing a historic role, and felt as though they were instead applying a perspective as a filter on the information they were receiving. Other participants, however, felt that the roles were very dynamic, and felt that having a role helped them better understand alternative perspectives on the Battle. For example, one participant stated that it helped him realize “that you cannot just take one point of view when trying

to understand and re-creating historical events.” Another said it was “interesting to learn the different characters’ reactions to the players’ roles;” similarly, another participant felt that having a role was “engaging, I felt like I got a lot of information from other characters.” Some participants expressed a personal allegiance to the perspective of their historic role, and tended to credit evidence that supported their views. Moreover, during the debate period, when offering evidence to support an argument, each participant considered their role as integral in their analysis and estimation of each piece of evidence [b1, b2]. The participants felt more invested because they had experienced the moment of April 19, 1775 from a distinct point of view, and had gathered evidence accordingly [a1]. They were also more motivated to fulfill the requirements of the game because they had developed loyalty to other game participants and to their role; they relied on each other to interpret evidence or find the next hot spot. Furthermore, sharing a role with a partner provided a point of commonality, compelling them to work more closely together and initiate dialogue for the evidence they gathered. And because pairs needed to compare and corroborate evidence with other pairs, they had to collaborate and collectively seek out other perspectives [c2]. In the redesign of the game, I further incorporated the benefits and limits of each historic role into the game play. For example, the Prince Estabrook role was not able to talk to as many historic figures; however, he was privy to certain testimonials, which emphasized his status as well as his role as a game character. I also created role-specific tasks (the mini-objectives, described previously), in addition to the main objective of figuring out who fired the first shot, to make the roles even more interdependent. Finally, I provided to each participant a physical nametag with the name of the role and type of role to again emphasize that they were playing a role and that this affected their game play.

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integration of Physical and virtual Worlds The integration of text and images with the physical world of Lexington seemed to help the participants absorb, categorize, remember, and recall the information, and supported multimodal learning styles. The overlap between the physical and virtual seemed to motivate and direct the navigation of the historical content, while encouraging deeper inspection of the physical environment [a1, a3]. When the virtual information supported what was being seen in the environment, it seemed more valid. For example, when participants read John Parker’s testimonial and saw that it was echoed on a small monument on the Lexington Common, they regarded it as more reliable [b1, b2]. The interplay among the real, the virtual, and one’s own imagination also created locationbased mini-stories, which further engaged the participants in the overall “story” of Lexington. Said one participant:

greater retention of information and enjoyment of the game. For example, one participant in the Redesign trial explains why he felt that this game helped him learn about the Revolutionary War better than a traditional history classroom: I re-learned U.S. History One, which is what I took sophomore year of high school, and it was a total waste of my time. And I just re-learned it in three hours,…this recapped it and I re-learned it and now I know more about history… the pictures, and the items [helped make it clearer]. The richness and variety of the game content, coupled with the ability to explore a physical site, contributed to the participants’ interpretive dialogue throughout the game, and especially during the debate period, where they provided detailed arguments and in-depth syntheses of information [b1, b2]. The location-anchored historic data quickly became tangible building blocks with which to construct and share a narrative of Lexington with others. By combining a present-day physical environment with a virtual historic moment, RtR enabled a deeper exploration of the historic site of Lexington, Massachusetts, while effectively conveying the Battle of Lexington from diverse and reflective perspectives. The interplay between the physical and virtual deepened the participants’ engagement with both worlds, while also creating unique connections.

My favorite part of the game was when I found out that John Harrington had been shot in the game. It was neat because you met someone on the street who told you that [he was dead] and then you ran into his wife who was like ‘Oh my god.’ And then you passed his house and you looked at the house and it has the actual plaque saying that this is where John Harrington died in his wife’s arms and it corresponded to the story. And then you saw John Harrington, who was dead and didn’t have anything to say, and it felt like the process of discovering.

Reflection and debate

Thus, participants could access and interact with these spontaneous mini-stories, which were amalgams of physical and virtual narrative threads. This further strengthened the connection between the real and virtual worlds, and also helped the participants to construct rich narratives about their game experience, leading to

In RtR, after gathering evidence for an hour, the participants all come together to collectively debate what they think happened in Lexington in 1775. This debate period is an important extension of the learning because a major pedagogical goal of the game is that participants are not just gathering material, but using it: sifting through

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it, analyzing it, applying it, talking about it, and showing where they retrieved it. Also important was providing time so that the participants could reflect on their process to solidify new knowledge and further integrate historic methodology and concepts. The debate period was also a motivating factor for the participants in the game, because it further compelled them to learn their roles, thoroughly and intelligently gather evidence, and interact with the game world. It was an important impetus for the participants, because they knew they would have to share their findings and lessons learned with the group later, and that the other participants would rely on them for knowledge. In each of the trials, the participants created unique hypotheses and interpretations of the material; constructed counter arguments; and worked fluidly among multimodal texts. Participants were constantly referencing and questioning evidence—sharing it verbally and physically showing it to each other on their handhelds. They would read aloud pieces of testimonials and offer hypotheses or counter-arguments based on these stories or documents [b2, c2]. When providing evidence, they considered the source of the evidence, as well as their own historic role and his/her relationships with the NPCs [b2, c3]. Each participant seemed fully invested in trying to determine who fired the first shot at Lexington’s battle based on their evidence, and each trial of the game had a distinct final conclusion based on the consensus of the group [c1]. Although the participants were able to grapple with a large amount of information, they sometimes needed targeted questions and suggestions to guide their debate, encourage reflection, or properly contextualize their evidence. The participants needed scaffolding to support their visit to this “practice field” and the incorporation of new epistemic frames, tools, and concepts. This further expresses the need for an instructor or mentor to direct learning in the game and that multimedia platforms are not replacements for teachers.

The debate and collaborative decision-making during the game seemed beneficial to strengthening the participants’ understanding of history, their application of critical thinking skills, and reflection on historical inquiry, but it also made “RtR” sometimes feel less like a “game.” One participant in the Pilot study noted that while she loved the collaborative aspect, she felt like, since there was no competition per se, “we’re all going to just come together and see what we got anyway.” Thus, it did not feel as pressing to gather everything, or to digest all the evidence, since there would be time for sharing later. In the Redesign study, I further emphasized that the participants, and their concomitant roles, were dependent on each other to gather more information or solve the mini-objectives, and this seemed to increase the participants’ motivation to collect and interpret evidence. Overall, the debate period enabled the participants to retrace their steps; review and apply the game’s historic content; and practice teamwork, hypothesis formation, and analytical skills. Moreover, it gave the participants an opportunity to reflect on their own processes of evidence appraisal and history construction, and relate their game experiences to others.

nonlinearity and control The nonlinear structure of the game, which allows the participants to interact with historic figures and access their stories in any order, evokes temporal simultaneity—which I hoped would underscore the idea of multiple truths and possibilities. In other words, the self-guided navigation of the game and open availability of the stories further suggests that one view is not necessarily more correct than another. In the trials, the participants considered alternative perspectives of the Battle of Lexington, for example, said one participant, “I learned about all the different sides. Normally you would just think of the American soldiers and the British soldiers, slaves, the wives, … the

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Appendix I, Selected Readings: Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”

Minutemen, there are people frustrated here for personal reasons, patriotic reasons … You get a sense of the different roles of that time period.” Furthermore, the game’s nonlinearity also more closely mimics the work of a historian. No historian has a set linear path in which to gather evidence; s/he must navigate a vast archive of historical information and create his/her own version of the past. Some participants, however, desired a more linear game. They felt that because the game was open-ended, it did not feel as goal-oriented. They were unsure of their status in the game as they navigated it because there was little feedback on whether they were gathering enough evidence or finding enough historic figures. Some felt that there were too many choices at once and they wanted more of a progression of events. In the Redesign, I established new mini-objectives as role-specific secret missions (as described previously). These objectives functioned as checkpoints that helped direct the participants’ navigation of the content. Interestingly, the Redesign trial participants especially did not seem overwhelmed or frustrated, but thrived in the nonlinear environment because they liked to “figure something out for [themselves].” These participants enjoyed having agency or control over how they navigated the game world, perhaps because these younger participants appreciated the opportunity to transgress boundaries during learning, since traditional education is usually highly structured (Gee, 2003). For example, one participant liked that in this game, the results were not pre-established and she needed to create the “game ending” herself. Through a self-directed construction of her learning, she was able to delve more deeply into the historic moment, as well as the game itself. She said, “in [this game] you had to put it together, you had to research and then figure something out for yourself. It wasn’t like a set [answer] like ‘you have to click on this conclusion now.’ You have to come up with whatever.” Having the responsibility to perform motivated

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her to complete the game and engage in its world (Oblinger, 2004), but then to also question what she received, and devise her own, novel interpretation of the past [b2, c1, c2]. A nonlinear world with well-placed boundaries and sufficient direction seemed to support the pedagogical objectives of encouraging alternative views of history, and also engaged participants by enabling them to have enough control over their game experience to encourage them to use their critical thinking skills as well as their imagination.

mobility and discovery Most participants felt that the ability to wander around the site of Lexington and discover information at particular sites was one of their favorite aspects of the game. One participant noted that walking around made the game “more engaging and more interactive,” and another said that the best part of the game was “getting to know a physical site. To me that is the excitement of the game.” [a3] Being outside in a group playing a game and exploring a site together also facilitated more social interactions, which the participants felt added to their enjoyment of the experience. The physical nature of the handheld game may also have increased the game’s collaborative potential—being close together and crossing each other’s paths encouraged the participants to interact socially. This game was especially appealing to kinesthetic learning styles. Many participants found particular pleasure in moving around the Lexington site and discovering information embedded in the environment, especially as opposed to sitting in the classroom and being taught the same information, as exemplified by the following exchange: Participant 1: Yeah, if we sat in a classroom and did this and I would walk away and be like “Yeah, okay.”

Appendix I, Selected Readings: Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”

Participant 2: But when you are actually moving around to do it … I think it’s definitely more interesting to do it this way than to sit in the classroom. In addition, the novelty of watching the PDA suddenly present an NPC or game item “mimicked the process of discovery,” as one participant commented. Another participant noted that, “the thing we had the most fun with on our team was ‘oh we’re getting closer, oh we found one,’ the wandering and finding” of the hot spots, which contributed to greater engagement in the game, and thus, increased curiosity about its content.

Authenticity Integral to simulating and teaching history is the creation of an authentic learning environment for practicing historical methodology. In RtR, the participants were in the place where the Battle of Lexington occurred; they were viewing the real historic buildings and structures mentioned in many testimonials; and they were reading detailed personal accounts of the Battle from actual historic figures—all of which provided a distinct and immersive experience of the historic moment. This feeling of authenticity underscored all of the game’s activities, and strengthened the connection between game play and historical methodology. Said one participant, “[The game] put you in the real place where everything happened. It gave you the real, actual people who were there, like the names and their opinions.” [a1, a2] In RtR, participants are evaluating “real” evidence in a “real” place, and attacking a “real” question based on a “real” battle, which encouraged them to practice and apply critical thinking skills. Almost every participant enjoyed being at the site of Lexington because they felt that it “made history more real” and gave them a better sense of the “history of the site.” [a3] The ability to apply historical inquiry skills in an actual historical site also added to the authen-

ticity of the game’s tasks, their desire to complete them and learn from them, and their willingness to apply this learning to other similar tasks in the future. The participants consistently treated the historical evidence they gathered as valid, and made informed hypotheses, partially because they viewed the historical problem of trying to understand who fired the first shot as authentic. Moreover, the genuineness of their experience further engaged them in the historic moment of the Battle of Lexington, and also in historical methodology and construction. They felt responsible for deciding who fired the first shot, so they were more passionate about playing the game. They felt like historians; therefore, they took the game’s tasks more seriously and performed the related critical thinking skills more rigorously.

design summAry The following is a list of recommendations for educational AR games (and games in general), as derived from my process of simultaneously designing RtR to meet my pedagogical objectives and engage the participant. •

•

Goals: Participants need feedback and “checkpoints” throughout the game, so include both large overarching goals as well as smaller mini-objectives. The large ones guide the game play to the ending and help set boundaries, while the smaller ones can heighten their sense of engagement, responsibility, and accomplishment, and help make the primary one more manageable. Constraints: Provide necessary constraints (and reminders of constraints) to motivate game play, particularly in non-competitive games. Also, consider well-timed or wellplaced open-endedness in the game play to encourage participants to experiment with new ideas or identities.

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•

•

•

•

•

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Collaboration: Enable social interaction by placing participants in groups, teams, or roles and creating tasks that require discussion, debate, or the sharing of resources. Also, provide distinct game content or game play to various teams or pairs, encouraging them to exchange information or allocate responsibilities. Roles: Include roles to further engage the participants in the game’s content, and also increase their investment in the game. Provide distinct information, responsibilities, and goals to each role to create more interdependence among participants and heighten motivation. Integration of Physical and Virtual Worlds: Consider how the real world and virtual information can interact to spark unique connections, enhance learning, and further engage the participants in both the game site and its educational content. Think about how the interplay between the real, the virtual, and one’s imagination can create powerful stories and help participants more fully integrate new knowledge. Reflection and Application: Provide time in the game not only to absorb information, but to apply it in ways that enhance the game’s pedagogical goals. Allow time for reflection; while there should be periods of novelty and discovery, there should also be periods that simply strengthen connections to the new material. Control and Navigation: Find ways to enable the participant to personalize his/her experience and feel a sense of agency over one’s game destiny, while also creating supportive boundaries and checkpoints so that participants are not too overwhelmed. Respect the participant as an equal—encourage them to make their own decisions, test rules, and guide their own game play. Enable unexpected permutations and juxta-

•

•

positions, as you will never be able to design for every possible scenario. Mobility: Particularly in AR and location-based games, find ways to motivate a deeper discovery of a physical site, while also encouraging a “directed wandering.” Consider how mobility and physical interactions can support greater collaboration, and more serendipitous social exchanges. Authenticity: Think about how to create a game environment that appropriately mimics or simulates the processes you want to teach. Provide real data, evidence, sources, names, places, and people when you can, and think of the game as a “practice field” where students can actually perform skills or tasks.

next stePs As I continue to refine RtR, larger questions of choice emerge—how we balance practical, artistic, pedagogical, and historical considerations to create such a game—and what that means for how we represent a historic moment. Taking it to the next level: how do we encourage the metacognition of these educational games, and enable kids to assess a game’s implications for conveying history and historical thinking? My response would be to encourage students to create their own mobile games, and to reflect on their own game design decisions. Using these general principles as guides, they could choose a local and/or personally meaningful site; work together to research historic figures and write testimonials; outline and experiment with the game’s play; and then analyze how these choices affect and reflect our understanding of history. By becoming creators of the medium, they will be even better able to evaluate critically their own and others’ assumptions about history. These learners can then take their newly prismatic eye and apply it to other

Appendix I, Selected Readings: Reliving History with “Reliving the Revolution”

disciplines—to identify biases in newspapers, consider authorial intent in an essay, privilege information on one Web page versus another, and incorporate other perspectives in a debate. Activities such as RtR are essential for further study because they can potentially engage learners not only as participants in a game, but also as more active participants in society. As Jefferson suggested during America’s infancy, history is integral to citizenship (Carpenter, 2004)—and this has become more important as America becomes more economically, socially, and culturally varied. By understanding the past, people can better evaluate the future; by listening to multiple perspectives, people are more empowered to appreciate a situation, and better equipped to defend their freedoms (Carpenter, 2004).

AcKnoWledgment The author would like to thank Eric Klopfer and Judy Perry and the rest of the MIT Teacher Education laboratory, as well as Henry Jenkins, Chris Dede, Edward Dieterle, Brian Jacobson, Edward Barrett, and Steven and Janet Schrier, for their advice and mentorship.

reFerences Brush, T., & Saye, J. (2005). The effects of multimedia-supported problem-based historical inquiry on student engagement, empathy, and assumptions about history. Paper presented at the 2005 AERA, Montreal, Canada. Carpenter, J. J. (2004). Jefferson’s views on education: Implications for today’s social studies. The Social Studies, 95(4), 140-146. Dede, C. (2004). Enabling distributed-learning communities via emerging technologies. In Proceedings of the 2004 Conference of the Society for Information Technology in Teacher Education

(SITE) (pp. 3-12). Charlottesville, VA: American Association for Computers in Education. Dede, C. (2005). Planning for “neomillennial” learning styles: Implications for investments in technology and faculty. In J. Oblinger & D. Oblinger (Eds.), Educating the net generation (pp. 226-247). Boulder, CO: EDUCAUSE Publishers. Dieterle, E. (2005). Handheld devices for ubiquitous learning and analyzing. Paper presented at the 2005 NECC, Philadelphia, PA. Gee, J. (2003). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan. Hoge, J. (2003). Teaching history for citizenship in the elementary school, ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Digest. International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), (1998). National educational technology standards (NETS). Retrieved from cnets.iste. org/currstands/cstands-ss_ii.html Klopfer, E., Squire, K., & Jenkins, H. (2002). Environmental detectives: PDAs as a window into a virtual simulated world. Paper presented at the IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (WMTE’02) (p. 95). Klopfer, E., Squire, K., & Jenkins, H. (2003). Augmented reality simulations on handheld computers. Paper presented at the 2003 AERA, Chicago, IL. Liss, A. (2002). Review: Whose America? Culture wars in the public schools. Social Education, 68(3), 238. National Center for History in the Schools, UCLA. (1994). Standard 4: Historical research capabilities. Retrieved from http://nchs.ucla. edu/standards/thinking5-12-4.html

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Squire, K., Jenkins, H., & the Games-To-Teach Team. (2003, September-October). Designing educational games: Design principles from the games-to-teach project. Educational Technology, 43(5), 17-23.

Thomas, S., Schott, G., & Kambouri, M. (2003). Designing for learning or designing for fun? Setting usability guidelines for mobile educational games. In Proceedings of MLEARN 2003, Learning with Mobile Devices, London. Zimmerman, E. (2003). Play as research. In B. Laurel (Ed.), Design research: Methods and perspectives (pp. 176-184). Cambridge, MA: M

This work was previously published in Games and Simulations in Online Learning: Research and Development Frameworks, edited by D. Gibson, pp. 250-270, copyright 2007 by Information Science Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).

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Appendix J

Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games Katia Sycara Carnegie Mellon University, USA Paul Scerri Carnegie Mellon University, USA Anton Chechetka Carnegie Mellon University, USA

AbstrAct In this chapter, we explore the use of evolutionary game theory (EGT) (Nowak & May, 1993; Taylor & Jonker, 1978; Weibull, 1995) to model the dynamics of adaptive opponent strategies for a large population of players. In particular, we explore effects of information propagation through social networks in evolutionary games. The key underlying phenomenon that the information diffusion aims to capture is that reasoning about the experiences of acquaintances can dramatically impact the dynamics of a society. We present experimental results from agent-based simulations that show the impact of diffusion through social networks on the player strategies of an evolutionary game and the sensitivity of the dynamics to features of the social network.

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Appendix J, Selected Readings: Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games

introduction We use EGT (Cabrales, 2000; Hofbauer & Sigmund, 2003; Weibull, 1995) to model the dynamics of adaptive opponent strategies for a large population of players. Previous EGT work has produced interesting, and sometimes counter-intuitive results about how populations of self-interested agents will evolve over time (d’Artigues & Vignolo, 2003; Frey & Luechinger, 2002). In our model, at each stage of the game, boundedly rational players observe the strategies and payoffs of a subset of others and use this information to choose their strategies for the next stage of the interaction. Building on EGT, we introduce a model of interaction where, unlike the standard EGT setting, the basic stage game changes over time depending on the global state of the population (state here means the strategies chosen by the players). More precisely, each player has three strategies available (cooperate C, defect D, and do-nothing N), and the payoffs of the basic stage game are re-sampled when the proportion of the players playing D crosses a certain threshold from above. This feature requires long-term reasoning by the players that is not needed in the standard EGT setting. A possible example of a similar real-world situation is a power struggle between different groups. When cooperation drops sufficiently and there are many defections—the situation turns to chaos. When order is restored, that is, when cooperation resumes, the power structure and thus, the payoffs, will likely be different than before the chaos. The payoffs are kept constant while most of the players Cooperate (support the status quo) or do-Nothing, but when enough players are unhappy and choose to Defect, the power balance breaks and a radically different one may emerge afterwards. The available strategies were chosen to abstractly capture and model violent uprisings in a society. Players playing C cooperate with the current regime and receive reward when interacting with others playing C. If a player has a good

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position in a regime, it has a large incentive to continue playing C. D is a strategy played to change the payoffs over a long term, but at an unavoidable immediate cost. Intuitively, it resembles resorting to insurgency or other violent tactics to overthrow a regime. When many players play D, playing C can lead to very low payoffs. For example, one can imagine a person trying to run a small business during a violent uprising. If these costs are too high, but the player has no incentive to change the regime, playing N can limit payoffs—both negative and positive, until the situation stabilizes. Intuitively, this might correspond to going into hiding or temporarily leaving the conflicted area. Similar to Nowak and May (1993) and Killingback and Doebeli (1996), we investigate the spatial aspect of the interaction. Previous work has shown that spatial interaction can change which strategies are most effective, for example, in Brauchli, Killingback, and Doebeli (1999) an interaction lattice changed which strategies were most effective in an iterative prisoner’s dilemma game. In our model, the players are connected into a social network, through which the rewards are propagated (Travers & Milgram, 1969; D. J. Watts, Dodds, & Newman, 2002). Thus the players can benefit (or suffer) indirectly depending on how well off their friends in the network are. We show empirically that the connectivity pattern of the network, as well as the amount of information available to the players, have significant influence on the outcome of the interaction. In particular, the presence of a dense scale-free network or small-world network led to far higher proportions of players playing C than other social network types.

gAme detAils We consider a finite population X of players. At each stage all the players are randomly matched in triples to play the basic stage game. Each player

Appendix J, Selected Readings: Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games

Box 1. 0 opponents play D xi’s strategy

1 or 2 opponents play D

C

cci – #i (N)

cd

D

dc

dd

N

thus participates in every stage. Each player has three strategies available: cooperate (C), defect (D), and do-nothing (N) (one can interpret these choices as participating in democratic process, resorting to insurgency, and minimizing interactions with the outer world correspondingly). The payoff pi(k) of the stage k game to player xi is (#i(N) means the number of agents playing N) (see Box 1) where cci – 2 > n > dc > dd > cd. Here is a simple rule for distinguishing between these four variables: the first letter corresponds to x i’s strategy, the second letter is c if both of the x i’s opponents play C and d otherwise. For example, cd is the payoff of playing C given that at least one of the opponents plays D. Note that

n

the payoff matrices for different players can only differ in the value of cci. All the other payoffs are constant across the population. Denote SD(k) the proportion of the population that defected during stage k: SD(k ) =

number of players that played D during stage k , |X|

Before the start of the first stage, ci are sampled uniformly from an interval [CCmin, CCmax]. If during stage k* the series SD(k) crosses a fixed threshold (see the end of this section for the interpretation of the threshold) T ∈ (0,1) from above, that is,

Figure 1. An example trace of an individual run of the system. x-axis is the stage number (“’time step”), y-axis is the proportion SD of the population playing D. The level of threshold T is also plotted for a reference.

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SD(k * − 1) > T and SD(k * ) < T , then all cci are re-sampled. Otherwise they stay the same as for previous stage. For example, in an individual run plotted in Figure 1, the values of cci would be re-sampled only at point B. One can interpret the previous interaction as a power struggle: If the proportion of players supporting status quo (i.e., cooperating or doing nothing) is high enough, the payoffs for each individual players do not change. When enough players defect, the system “falls into chaos” and after it emerges back from this state, a new power balance is formed and the payoffs change correspondingly. Threshold T in this interpretation is the minimum number of defectors that brings the system into chaos.

networks, such as grids, may be transformed to small-world ones by changing only a small fractions of edges. We followed the algorithm from D. Watts and Strogatz to generate the networks with probability 0.1 of rewiring any edge of the regular structure. In scale-free networks (Barabási & Albert, 1999) the number of neighbors of a vertex is distributed according to a scale-free power law, therefore few highly connected vertices dominate the connectivity. Many real-world networks possess the small-world and/or scale-free properties (Barabási & Albert, 1999; D. Watts & Strogatz, 1998). The impact of both small-world and scale-free networks are explored next.

impact of Social Networks

PlAyer reAsoning

A social network for finite population X is an undirected graph <X,E>. Two players i and j are neighbors in the network if and only if (xi, xj) ∈ E. We investigate the effect of reward sharing in social networks. After each stage k every player xi obtains in addition to its own payoff pi a shared payoff psi:

information Available to Players

psi (k ) = a

∑ p (k ),

j x j ∈neighbors ( xi )

where a∈[0,1] is a parameter of the system. Notice that this does not incur payoff redistribution: The shared payoff is not subtracted from payoffs of the players that cause it. One can interpret this phenomenon as players being more happy when their friends are happy.

Social Network Type The small-world property of the network means that the average distance between two nodes in the network is small. It has been shown (D. Watts & Strogatz, 1998) that regular non-small-world

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Before describing the player reasoning algorithm one has to define what information is available to the player, that is, define an observation model. We assume that the players are aware of the overall behavior of the game, but may not be aware of the true values of parameters, such as the proportion SD(k) of the population that played D at stage k. The players only observe the actions of their opponents for the given stage, as opposed to observing the whole population. Therefore, the observations available to i after stage k are its payoff pi(k), shared payoff psi(k), and proportion SC iobs (k ), SDiobs (k ), SN iobs (k ) ∈ {0,0.5,1} of its direct opponents playing C, D and N during the kth stage. Note that the information about the global properties of social network connectivity, such as density or whether the network is small worlds or scale free, is not available to players. Therefore, this global information is not used in the reasoning algorithm.

Appendix J, Selected Readings: Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games

the reasoning Algorithm It is easy to see that for any triple of players, a single-stage game has 2 Nash equilibria in pure strategies: everybody cooperating and everybody defecting. The cooperative equilibrium Pareto-dominates the “all-defect” equilibrium. Therefore, if the “all-cooperate” payoffs cci were always held constant across the stages, one would expect a population of rational players to always play C. However, the payoffs are re-sampled once the proportion of players playing C drops below T and then grows above T again. This provides an incentive for the players that happened to receive relatively low values of cci, to play D for some period of time in order to try and cause the re-sampling of payoffs. On the other hand, if a significant share of the players play D, some of the players may decide to play N, which guarantees a fixed payoff and provides an opportunity to “wait until the violence ends.” A natural way for a player to choose a strategy for the next stage is to compare the (approximate) cumulative future expected payoffs resulting from different strategies. Denote EPi(X) the approximate cumulative future expected payoff for player i and strategy X. Let SXi(k) be i’s estimate of the share of population playing X on time step k. Then the action selection for step k+1 is as follows. If SDi(k) > T, player i chooses action arg max X=C,N EPi(X). Otherwise it chooses arg max X=C,D,N EPi(X). The reason for treating situation SDi(k) > T specially is that once the share of defectors reaches the threshold, reducing the share of players below T is in common interest of all the players, and the approximate computations of expected utilities do not always capture this feature. The previous paragraph assumed EPi(X) to be known. We now turn to their approximate computation. First consider EPi(D). The only incentive for a player i to play D is to try to bring the system into chaos in hopes that, when the system emerges

from chaos, the re-sampled all-cooperate payoff cci for that player will be higher than it is now. Denote TTCi the i’s estimate of the number of stages that it will need to play D before the share of those playing D is higher than T, TCi —estimate of the number of stages that the system will spend above the threshold and finally, TSi the length of the following “stability period.” Then EPi ( D) ≈ (TTC i + TC i ) E [pi ( D)]+ TS i E[ccinew ] CC min + CC max = TTRi E[ pi ( D)] + TS i , 2

(1) where TTRi ≡ TTCi + TCi is “time to re-sampling” and E [pi ( D)]= P (# i ( D) = 0)dc + P (# i ( D) > 0)dd .

Expected payoff for action C over the time period is approximated as EP(C ) ≈ TSi ( pi (C ) + psi ) + TTCi E [ pi (c) ] +TCi (P (#i ( D) > 0)cd + P (#i ( D) = 0)( pi (C ) + psi ) )

(2) where P(#i(D) > 0) = 1 – (1 – T)2 and E [ pi (C ) ] =

P (#i (C ) = 2)cci + P (#i (C ) = 1, #i ( N ) = 1)(cci − 1)

+ P (#i ( N ) = 2)(cci − 2) + P(#i ( D) > 0)cd

(note that the probabilities here sum to one). Finally, expected payoff for N over the same time interval is

EP ( H ) = (TTC i + TC i + TS i )n. One can see that a player only expects to get the shared payoff in case of all-cooperative outcomes. In our model, time of stability TSi and time in chaos TCi are system constants that do not differ across the population.

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The belief SXi(k) about the proportion of players playing X at stage k is maintained by each player individually. After each stage each player learns about the strategies of its opponents for that stage. SXi is then updated according to

SX i (k + 1) = γSX iobs (k + 1) + (1 − γ ) SX i (k ) (3) where γ∈(0,1] is learning rate. Each player also maintains δSXi(k), an estimate of δSX(k)≡SX(k)-SX(k-1), using an expression analogous to Equation 3 to update it. In the expressions (1-2) P(#i(X)) are approximated straightforwardly using SXi, for example

P (# i (C ) = 2) ≈ SC i2 (k ) Having SXi and dSXi, each player can estimate TTCi using a linear approximation. For SDi < T, we have (TTC is a system-wide constant)

δSDi ≤ 0  TTC , T − SD TTC i =  i , δSDi > 0  δSDi For SDi3T, TTCi = 0.

exPerimentAl results In our experiments the population size was fixed to 1,000 players. The numerical values of payoff constants were dc = –1, dd = –3, cd = –5, CCmin = 3, CCmax = 10 Estimated time of stability was fixed to TSi = TS = 50 stages, “chaos threshold” T=0.3. Initial player-specific values were SCi(0) = 1, δSCi =

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–0.02. For each set of specific parameter values the results were averaged over 500 runs. Unless otherwise noted, the players were connected via a scale-free network with average density of 8. We were primarily interested in how different parameters of the model affect the evolution of proportion of players playing C over time. On all graphs x-axis denotes the stage of the interaction, y-axis denotes SC, SD, and SN. In a previous work (Sycara, Scerri, & Chechetka, 2006), we presented results for the case where action N was not available to the players. In each of the following figures we contrast the results when N is and is not available to the players. Note that because the plotted results are averages over 100 runs, averages provide more meaningful information about the influence of the parameters values on the system, than do individual runs which can vary distinctly from run to run. Most parameter values allow the SC to fall below T on some occasions, but what varies is how often this occurs, how rapidly changes happen, and how quickly cooperation resumes. These effects are more clearly seen on graphs of averages than many individual runs superimposed on a single graph. Notice that the fact that the value of SD on the plots rarely rises above T does not mean that payoffs are almost never re-sampled—individual runs have much more variance and re-sampling happens quite often. It simply means that on average SD is below T. Figure 2 shows the baseline configuration, with 2(a) showing the case where N is available and 2(b) showing the case where it is not. In both cases, early in the game many players choose D to either try to change the payoffs or protect against losses. When N is available to the players, many choose this action in response to others playing D. Eventually this discourages the use of D and an equilibrium settles in. While the initial dynamics in both cases are similar, notice that over time the proportion of C is far higher in the case where N is available than when it is not. This may indicate that if players are able to avoid spasms

Appendix J, Selected Readings: Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games

Figure 2. Baseline configuration (scale-free network with density 8) with available action N (a) and with N not available (b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 3. Impact of network density on the players’ strategies. In the top row, the share of players playing cooperate, in the bottom—defect. On the left, the action N is available to the players, on the right—not available.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

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of violence without getting hurt, the outcome for all will be better. Figure 3 shows the impact of setting the network density to 2, 4, 8, and 16. In general, the higher the average network degree, the more players played C and the more quickly players stopped playing D. For the less dense networks, players often chose D early on, but in the most dense network, the lure of shared rewards was too high for players to have incentive to try to move the system towards chaos. In the less dense networks, the availability of the N action allowed the system to move toward all playing C, but as in the baseline case, without the N action, some level of SD persisted. When the average network density was 4, the system moved back towards SC=1 faster than when the network density was 2. This result may indicate that dense social networks are critical to stable societies. Figure 4 shows what happens when there is no sharing across the social network. The sharp early peak in SD is similar to the sparse network shown above. This is one of the few cases where the availability of the N action leads to a lower SC over the course of the game. However, the option to play N is extensively used and SD is reduced to 0. Over an extended period of time, SC does rise to 1, but N dominates for a long time.

If the type of the network is set to small-world instead of scale-free (with the average of four neighbors), SC stays very close to 1 regardless of the availability of N to the players (there is no plot for this case, because the results are so trivial). This remarkable relative stability is likely due to the very even sharing of reward across all members of the team, reducing the possibility of a cascade towards chaos. This result may suggest that human societies that have a more scale-free nature will be more likely to descend into chaos. Figure 5 shows the result as the learning rate is set to 0.05, 0.1, 0.4, and 0.8. Smaller learning rate means that the players are reluctant to change their estimates of the parameters; the closer the learning rate to 1, the more importance is attributed to the most recent observations. Several interesting effects occur due to the learning rate. Firstly, an intermediate learning rate induces an oscillation in behavior with increasing and decreasing SD. Higher or lower learning rates induce different behavior. A high learning rate quickly settles the population down to playing C, because the players are better able to estimate future rewards which are maximized by a stable society. A low learning rate eventually allows a stable society but not before a large SD has oc-

Figure 4. Results with reward sharing disabled with available action N (a) and with N not available (b)

(a)

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(b)

Appendix J, Selected Readings: Insights into the Impact of Social Networks on Evolutionary Games

Figure 5. Impact of learning rate on the players’ strategies. In the top row, the share of players playing cooperate, in the bottom—defect. On the left, the action N is available to the players, on the right—not available.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

curred. Interestingly, none of these effects were observed when the N action was not available to the players. With learning eventual behavior (except for the intermediate learning rate) SC was higher when N was available.

payoffs might be higher if the whole society can be forced into chaos, they will accept significant short-term costs and risk, to bring that situation about. The key conclusion from this game is that a society of rational agents who will all gain if they all play cooperative strategies can easily be induced to play strategies that are guaranteed to lead to a negative payoff. Our experiments show that the existence and nature of a social network makes a dramatic difference to the evolution and conclusion of the game. Very dense networks or small-world networks had far higher proportions of players playing cooperative strategies than when there

conclusions And Future WorK This chapter presented an evolutionary game with players connected into a social network, sharing payoffs with their neighbors in that network. If individual players reason that increased long-term

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is a sparse scale-free network. This result has implications for all EGT where interaction occurs between players, but only simple social networks are used. It is possible that such results will change if different interaction networks are used.

reFerences Barabási, A.-L., & Albert, R. (1999). Emergence of scaling in random networks. Science, 286. Brauchli, K., Killingback, T., & Doebeli, M. (1999). Evolution of cooperation in spatially structured populations. Journal of Theoretical Biology. Cabrales, A. (2000). Stochastic replicator dynamics. International Economic Review, 41(2). d’Artigues, A., & Vignolo, T. (2003). Why global integration may lead to terrorism: An evolutionary theory of mimetic rivalry. Economics Bulletin, 6(11). Frey, B. S., & Luechinger, S. (2002). Terrorism: Deterrence may backfire. European Journal of Political Economy, 20(2). Hofbauer, J., & Sigmund, K. (2003). Evolutionary game dynamics. Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 40(4).

Killingback, T., & Doebeli, M. (1996). Spatial evolutionary game theory: Hawks and doves revisited. In Proceedings of The Royal Society (Biological Sciences). Nowak, M., & May, R. (1993). The spatial dilemmas of evolution. International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos, 3. Sycara, K., Scerri, P., & Chechetka, A. (2006). Evolutionary games and social networks in adversary reasoning. In Proceedings of the international conference on complex systems. Boston. Taylor, P., & Jonker, L. (1978). Evolutionary stable strategies and game dynamics. Mathematical Biosciences, 40. Travers, J., & Milgram, S. (1969). An experimental study of the small world problem. Sociometry, 32, 425-443. Watts, D., & Strogatz, S. (1998). Collective dynamics of small-world networks. Nature, 393. Watts, D. J., Dodds, P. S., & Newman, M. E. J. (2002). Identity and search in social networks. Science, 296(5571), 1302-1305. Weibull, J. (1995). Evolutionary game theory. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

This work was previously published in Applications of Complex Adaptive Systems, edited by Y. Shan and A.Yang, pp. 306-323, copyright 2008 by IGI Publishing, formerly known as Idea Group Publishing (an imprint of IGI Global).

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Clark Aldrich, a leader in shaping the future of education, is as an award-winning designer of educational simulations including SimuLearn’s Virtual Leader global product line (the most popular leadership simulations in the world and winner of the “best online training product of the year”); the author of two award-winning books, Simulations and the Future of Learning (Wiley, 2004) and Learning By Doing (Wiley, 2005); creator of the blog/wiki/glossary Clark Aldrich’s Style Guide for Serious Games and Simulations (2007); and founder of and former director of research for Gartner’s e-learning coverage. Mr. Aldrich advises many of the world’s most influential organizations (private and government), and his work has been featured in hundreds of sources, including The New York Times, Wall Street Journal, CNN, NPR, CNET, Business 2.0, BusinessWeek, U.S. News, and World Reports, and, among other distinctions, he has been called an “industry guru” by Fortune Magazine. He graduated from Brown University with a degree in cognitive science, and earlier in his career worked on special projects for Xerox’ executive team. Craig A. Anderson, PhD, is a distinguished professor of psychology at Iowa State University. His recently published book titled Violent Video Game Effects on Children and Youth, with co-authors Doug Gentile and Katherine Buckley, includes the first longitudinal study of violent video game effects (Oxford University Press, 2007). Dr. Anderson’s current research focuses on effects of pro-social and anti-social video games on helping and hurting. Mahboubeh Asgari is a PhD candidate in curriculum theory and implementation, and a researcher in the Faculty of Education at Simon Fraser University. She has a number of interests relating to teaching and learning, gaming and simulation for learning, identity and its relationship to learning, and the role of computer and video games in identity exploration and building a sense of self. Youngkyun Baek, PhD, has been teaching at Korea National University of Education since 1991. KNUE is a unique university in Korea, focusing on educating teachers and administrators for elementary, middle school, and high school programs. KNUE provides graduate studies for current teachers and administrators, and supports research in all fields of education. Currently, Dr. Baek’s research interests are on educational games, simulations, and mobile devices in education. His teaching simulations have been published on the web. He has recently published two books entitled Understanding & Applying Game Based Learning in Classroom and Understanding Edutainment in Korea. Sasha Barab, PhD, is an associate professor in learning sciences, instructional systems technology, and cognitive science at Indiana University. He also holds the Barbara Jacobs Chair of Education and

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About the Contributors

Technology, and is the Director of the Center for Research on Learning and Technology. His research has resulted in numerous grants, dozens of academic articles, and multiple chapters in edited books, which investigate knowing and learning in its material, social, and cultural context. The intent of this research is to develop rigorous claims about how people learn that have significant practical, pedagogical, and theoretical implications. His current work involves the research and development of rich learning environments, frequently with the aid of technology, that are designed to assist children in developing their sense of purpose as individuals, as members of their communities, and as knowledgeable citizens of the world. Central to this work has been a focus on the understanding the value of conceptual play, referring to a state of engagement that involves projection into the role of a character who, engaged in a partly fictional problem context, must apply conceptual understandings to make sense of and, ultimately, transform the context. As one example, the Quest Atlantis project is a learning and teaching project that leverages strategies used in the commercial gaming environment to develop a 3D multi-user environment to immerse children, ages 9-12, in educational tasks (see http://QuestAtlantis.Org). Dennis Beck is a doctoral candidate in educational technology at the University of Florida. He also has over 17 years of experience as an educational technologist in the non-profit industry, focusing on implementing and utilizing basic technologies to maximize training and learning. He enjoys teaching technology and learning classes and is interested in researching social constructs in virtual world environments and the development of narrative identity in virtual world environments. Katrin Becker, PhD, taught computer science (CS) at the University of Calgary for 23 years and is currently completing her dissertation in educational technology, specializing in the instructional design of video games. Her innovations in teaching CS have been internationally recognized, and her current work breaks new ground in the theoretical landscape of digital game-based learning by using a synergy of reverse engineering and ethological methodologies to uncovering instructional design principles in existing successful games. Dr. Becker is uniquely positioned to bring expertise and literacy in both CS and educational research to bear on the question of how and what people learn in digital game-based environments. She’s been using digital games to teach since 1998, designed and taught one of the first digital game-based learning courses for an Education faculty, and has published widely in both CS education and digital game design and use for learning. These days she also spends some of her time helping teachers and others gain games literacy so they can see the educational potential of video games for themselves. James Belanich, PhD, is a research psychologist for the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences, researching advanced training methodology. He is currently working on projects trying to improve the effectiveness of game-based training. He has authored/co-authored numerous articles, reports, conference papers, and book chapters on game-based training, distributed learning, instructional technology, and adaptive technology. He received his Ph.D. in psychology–learning processes from the City University of New York. Ahmed BinSubaih is a PhD candidate at the University of Sheffield. He received an MEng in software engineering from the University of Sheffield in 2000. His research interests include game architecture and serious games. He has published widely on this topic, and has acted as a member of the reviewing committee for a number of international conferences.



About the Contributors

Erik W. Black is a doctoral fellow and candidate in the School of Teaching and Learning at the University of Florida. His research blends contemporary psychological and educational theory in the analysis of data derived from virtual and technology-rich environments. Clint Bowers, PhD, is a professor of digital media at the University of Central Florida. He is also chief scientist of the university’s Augmented Cognition for Training in Virtual Environments Laboratory (ACTIVE). Dr. Bowers’ research interests include team training, team performance, and the use of technology in complex workplaces. Andreas Breiter, professor, graduated in 1995 in Sociology and Computer Science from University Frankfurt. Between 1995 and 1997, he worked as a research associate at the Fraunhofer Institute in Karlsruhe, from 1997 to 2000 at the Telecommunications Research Group at the University of Bremen. He completed his doctoral thesis in 2000 in computer science on ICT management in schools from the University of Bremen. After postdoctoral studies at the University of Bremen, Columbia University, and the Center for Children and Technology in New York, in 2004 he was elected assistant professor for information management and educational technologies and was founding member of the Institute for Information Management in 2003. Vasa Buraphadeja is a PhD student in the department of educational technology, College of Education at the University of Florida. His research agenda focuses on assessing quality in asynchronous online education, game in education, and psychology. His URL is: http://plaza.ufl.edu/vasa. Jan Cannon-Bowers, PhD, recently left her position as the U.S. Navy’s Senior Scientist for Training Systems to join the Institute for Simulation and Training and Digital Media Department at the University of Central Florida as an associate professor and research scientist. Her research interests are in technology-enabled learning and synthetic learning environments. To date, she has been awarded several grants to support this work, including two awards by the National Science Foundation. Dr. Cannon-Bowers has been an active researcher, with over 100 publications in scholarly publications. She is on the Board of Directors of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare and advisor to the national Serious Games Initiative. Diane Carr is a research fellow based in the Centre for the Study of Children Youth and Media at the Institute of Education, University of London. The research featured in this article was supported by the Eduserv Foundation. She is a media and computer games theorist who has published analysis of various computer games and game genres, and she is co-author of Computer Games: Text, Narrative and Play (Carr, Buckingham, Burn, & Schott, Polity Press 2006). More information about her work can be found at http://playhouse.wordpress.com/ Cathy Cavanaugh, PhD, is an associate professor of educational technology in the University of Florida. Her research includes studies of classroom technology and professional development in Florida schools, effective practices in virtual schools, online science materials, and online course design. She has published books, chapters, and articles in distance education, primarily virtual schools research.



About the Contributors

Erik Malcolm Champion (B.Arch., M.Arch. (NZ), M.Phil(hons) (NZ), PhD (Melb)) is senior lecturer in digital media at COFA, UNSW. His recent research has been in the design and evaluation of virtual heritage and serious games. His doctoral thesis was on evaluating cultural learning in virtual environments, sponsored by an Australian Research Council Grant in collaboration with Lonely Planet Publications. Yam San Chee, PhD, is an associate professor in the Learning Sciences & Technologies Academic Group and the Learning Sciences Lab at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University. Prof. Chee’s research focuses on new literacies and new media in education, with a special emphasis on serious games and game-based learning. Recent games developed include Space Station Leonis, Escape from Centauri 7, and Ideal Force. He is currently the executive editor of Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, the journal of the Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education. Sauman Chu, PhD, is an associate professor at the Department of Design, Housing, and Apparel at the University of Minnesota. Her research focuses on educational gaming in higher education. Her articles have appeared in Visible Language, Journal of Visual Literacy, Multicultural Education, Journal of Applied Communications, and Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences. Dr. Chu has been practicing graphic design for almost 15 years. Her creative production has received regional and national awards. She teaches courses in graphic design and multimedia and advises undergraduate and graduate (both MFA and PhD levels) students. Jillianne Code is a writer, researcher, and lecturer in the areas of self-regulated learning, agency, and online social dynamics. Her research includes the expression of agency in social networks, strategic membership and dynamics of massively multi-player online role-playing games, and the role of selfregulation in video game environments. She is currently completing a PhD in educational psychology at Simon Fraser University. Richard T. Cole, PhD, is professor and chair of the Department of Advertising, Public Relations, and Retailing at Michigan State University, East Lansing. He returned to the MSU faculty in 2005 after nearly two decades in health care—as an officer of Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan and, subsequently, chief administrative officer of the Detroit Medical Center—a nine-hospital, urban, academic hospital system. Earlier in his career, Dr. Cole had served as press secretary and chief of staff to Michigan’s governor James Blanchard. His research and writing interests include children’s advertising and various aspects of public relations history and strategy. Joan M. Davis is a doctoral student in the Learning Sciences program at the University of Washington. She received a BS in computer science from the University of South Carolina and an MA in educational technology from the University of Michigan. She has worked on several educational technology research and development projects. Her most recent project is a Web-based homework environment that takes the form of an interactive game show. Kara Dawson, PhD, is an associate professor of educational technology in the School of Teaching and Learning in the College of Education at the University of Florida. She co-coordinates the face-to-face



About the Contributors

and online programs in educational technology. Her URL is: http://www.coe.ufl.edu/faculty/dawson/ index.html Penny de Byl, PhD, is the lead researcher and manager of the Advanced Learning and Immersive Virtual Environments (ALIVE) research and development laboratory at the University of Southern Queensland (http://www.alivex3d.org). Dr. de Byl and her ALIVE team are researching and developing tools to empower educators to build online multi-user serious games. In 2007 Dr. de Byl won a Smart State-Smart Woman award for her work with ALIVE. Dr. de Byl has written two books and many journal and conference articles based in the areas of game programming and artificial intelligence. She current also holds the position of senior lecturer in games programming and computer graphics at the University of Southern Queensland. Sara de Freitas, PhD, is the Director of Research at the Serious Games Institute at the University of Coventry where she leads an applied research team working closely with industry. The Institute is the first of its kind in the UK, and it is envisaged that it will play a leading role in future developments of game-based learning. Formerly, she worked as lab manager, project manager on development programmes, and senior research fellow at the London Knowledge Lab. The Lab is a collaborative venture between Birkbeck College and the Institute of Education, University of London focusing upon technology assisted learning. She continues to hold a visiting senior research fellowship at the Lab. Rusel DeMaria played his first video game in 1967 and began working professionally as a writer/reviewer in 1981 and soon became a regular contributor to magazines like A+, PC Week, Byte Magazine, Macazine and MacWorld. In 1989 he became the executive editor of Computer Play, and in 1990 he became the senior editor of PC Games and GamePro. Also in 1990, DeMaria founded Prima Publishing’s game strategy guide division and subsequently guided it for six years as creative director. He has also been a games editor and columnist for a variety of magazines in the U.S., France and Japan. DeMaria has written more than 60 game-related books, including the acclaimed history book, High Score, and most recently, Reset: Changing the Way We Look at Video Games, and has also been a consultant for companies like Sega, Mindscape, LucasArts, Maxis, Oddworld, Interplay, and Acclaim Entertainment. He is currently working as assistant director for David Perry’s Game Consultants, Inc. as a writer, designer, consultant and team manager. In addition to his extensive experience with games, DeMaria is trained in a number of communications disciplines, including mediation and NLP, and is a serious student of Chinese internal martial arts. Joseph C. DiPietro is a doctoral fellow in the School of Teaching and Learning at the University of Florida. His research interests include self-representation in online environments and their application to educational gaming and teacher professional development. Meredith DiPietro is a doctoral candidate in educational technology at the University of Florida. Her research incorporates theories of psychology and pedagogy to investigate the integration of digital technologies into online and off-line educational environments. She has extensive experience working with virtual schools and is currently researching the pedagogy of virtual school teachers.



About the Contributors

Mary Jo Dondlinger is an instructional designer at Richland College and a doctoral student in educational computing at the University of North Texas. Her main interests are in the areas of post-secondary education and innovative uses of technology in program development. Brock R. Dubbels has worked since 1999 as a professional in education and instructional design, reading comprehension, exploring new technologies for assessment, delivering content, creating engagement with learners, and investigating ways people approach learning. Dubbels is a former Fulbright Scholar, has worked for Xerox PARC, as a raft guide for the Yellowstone Raft Company, and currently teaches for Minneapolis Public Schools and the University of Minnesota. Shree Durga is a second-year doctoral student, advised by Kurt Squire, in the department of C&I, specializing in educational technology at UW-Madison. Her research interests include video games and learning, game social gaming practices, such as modding and content creation. Currently, she works with Kurt on an ongoing longitudinal study on design and implementation of game-based learning program that uses history simulation games, such as Civilization III to teach world history. Shree focuses on expert game modding practices gained by participants, in this program, as they develop systemic understandings about history and build sophisticated historical models or simulations. Shree’s background is in computer science, and before coming to Madison, she has had substantial experience in software development, consulting and content development for online learning clubs. Erin Edgerton, MA, is the content lead for Interactive Media at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) National Center for Health Marketing (NCHM). As part of NCHM’s Division of EHealth Marketing, she develops health communication and marketing strategies to deliver CDC’s science via emerging communication channels, builds cross-agency collaborations for unique presentation of health content, and works with regional and national partners to develop new opportunities for reaching diverse populations. Before coming to government, she had five years of experience as a marketing and PR specialist in the medical community. She earned her Masters of Arts degree in health communication from the Emerson College/Tufts School of Medicine joint program and a Bachelors of Arts degree in public relations from the University of Maryland’s School of Communication. Michael A. Evans, PhD, is an assistant professor in the instructional design and technology program at Virginia Tech. Research interests include human learning theory, and emerging instructional media and technologies. He is currently working on a mobile learning project in Malawi, Africa, using gamebased and Web 2.0 technologies. Before arriving in Blacksburg, Dr. Evans was a research scientist in the Pervasive Technology Labs at Indiana University, where he worked on a three-year tele-maintenance project for the U.S. Navy Smartships Program. Dr. Evans received his doctoral degree from the department of instructional systems technology at Indiana University, Bloomington. Kim Feldmesser has lived and taught in UK Colleges of Further Education and private language schools as a teacher of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) for 16 years. Following his Masters in Media Assisted Language Learning and Teaching Kim worked briefly producing corporate e-learning. He runs a computer repair business for fun. His obsession with videogames continually annoys his wife, so he bought her a Nintendo DS—now she’s hooked on brain-training! He is currently seeking a research position in the no-mans-land that lies between video games manufacture and education.



About the Contributors

Patrick Felicia is a PhD candidate in University College Cork. He also lectures game design, multimedia application, and software engineering at Waterford Institute of Technology. His research interests include e-learning, instructional design, game design, and virtual reality. He is currently investigating how educational games can be tailored to users’ personality and learning style at both emotional and cognitive levels. Brian Ferry, PhD, is a professor in education at the University of Wollongong where he is currently Deputy Dean. His research interests focus on pre-service teacher education and the use simulations and games as authentic learning environments. He teaches science and ICT education and currently supervises nine PhD students. Outside of university he is interested in travel and golf. Paul Fishwick, PhD, is a professor of computer and information science and engineering at the University of Florida. He received a PhD in computer and information science from the University of Pennsylvania in 1986, and has six years of industrial/government production and research experience working at Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Co. (doing CAD/CAM parts definition research) and at NASA Langley Research Center (studying engineering data base models for structural engineering). His research interests are based in modeling, simulation, and computer arts. H e is a fellow of the Society for Computer Simulation (SCS), and a senior member of the IEEE. He founded the comp. simulation Internet news group (Simulation Digest) in 1987. He has chaired workshops and conferences in the area of computer simulation, including serving as General Chair of the 2000 Winter Simulation Conference in Orlando, Florida. He has served on simulated-based journal editorial boards and has published numerous books and papers. Aroutis Foster is a doctoral candidate in the Educational Psychology and Educational Technology program at Michigan State University. He has an undergraduate degree in art (computer digital) and broadcast communications (TV/radio production). However, before college, he was a radio disc jockey and technical operator at a radio station for a year. He is a Mellon Mays Fellow, a status that was achieved since his undergraduate years. He is also the recipient of a Spencer Research Training Grant and Robert Craig Fellowship for Psychological Studies in Education. He has been recognized by his graduate student peers at Michigan State University for outstanding contribution to scholarship. Recently, he received an outstanding paper award at the 2007 Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education conference (SITE), and he has presented at numerous conferences such as the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association (AERA). Adam Friedman, PhD, is an assistant professor and director of Social Studies Education at Wake Forest University. He teaches undergraduate and graduate social studies methods, as well as a course in descriptive research in social studies. His research interests include the effect of technology use on student learning in secondary social studies and the Internet’s impact on citizenship education. He has published his research in various social studies and technology journals and book chapters, and is currently the co-chair of the technology committee of the National Council for the Social Studies. Johannes Fromme, PhD, was born in 1956. He qualified as teacher of English and sport in 1980. He received his PhD (doctorate) in educational science at the University of Bielefeld/Germany in 1985.



About the Contributors

From 1987 to 1990, Fromme was staff member of an independent research organisation. He returned to the University of Bielefeld in 1990 as a scientific assistant for educational science, where he received his postdoctoral lecture qualification (Habilitation) in 1995 and worked as a lecturer in the following years. Since 2002, Johannes Fromme is a professor for media research in educational science at the University of Magdeburg. Diane L. Gaither is an assistant specialist in the Staff Development Office of Southwest Research Institute and resides near San Antonio, Texas. She completed her undergraduate degree in computer science as a distinguished graduate from St. Mary’s University in May of 2007. She is continuing with her master’s degree, setting the example for her four children of the importance of education. She intends to create games that have educational value. She is developing an education space gaming for her graduate work and plans eventually to get a PhD. Martha Garcia-Murillo, PhD, is an associate professor at Syracuse University’s School of Information Studies. She has an MS in economics and a PhD in political economy and public policy from the University of Southern California. She has also worked as a consultant for several international organizations including the International Telecommunications Union in Geneva, Switzerland, and the Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean. She was a visiting scholar at the Internet and Telecommunications Convergence Center at MIT. Elhanan Gazit, PhD, serves as the DiGRA ISRAEL Chapter, promoting the use of digital games and virtual worlds for instruction, learning, and assessment. He is a researcher at the Instructional Systems Technologies Department, H.I.T-Holon Institute of Technology. His research interests include: games-based learning, virtual worlds, and interactive learning technologies. He holds a PhD degree in the learning sciences and a Magna Cum Laude MA degree in science education from Tel-Aviv University. His PhD thesis focused on analyzing interactions in virtual reality environments. Dr. Gazit did his postdoctorate at the LIRT Lab, the Institute for Interdisciplinary Applications of Computer Science, CRI. Douglas A. Gentile, PhD, is an assistant professor of psychology at Iowa State University and is the director of research for the National Institute on Media and the Family. His research focuses on the positive and negative effects of media on children. He is the editor of the book Media Violence and Children (2003, Praeger Press), and co-author of the book Violent Video Game Effects on Children and Adolescents: Theory, Research, and Public Policy (2007, Oxford University Press). David Gibson, PhD, is a research assistant professor in the College of Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, University of Vermont and Executive Director of The Global Challenge (www.globalchallengeaward.org), a team and project-based learning and scholarship program for high school students funded by the National Science Foundation that engages small teams in studying science, technology, engineering, and mathematics in order to solve global problems. His research and publications include work on complex systems analysis and modeling of education, Semantic Web applications and the future of learning, and the use of technology to personalize education for the success of all students. His book Games and Simulations in Online Learning published by IGI, outlines the potential for games and simulation-based learning. He is creator of simSchool (www.simschool.org), a classroom flight simulator for training teachers, currently funded by the US Department of Education FIPSE program.



About the Contributors

He is currently involved in translating simSchool and articles into Korean, Chinese and Japanese. He is founder of CURVESHIFT, an educational technology company (www.curveshift.com) that assists in the acquisition, implementation and continuing design of games and simulations, e-portfolio systems, data-driven decision-making tools, and emerging technologies. Mark Griffiths, PhD, is a chartered psychologist and professor at the Nottingham Trent University, and director of the International Gaming Research Unit. He has published over 170 refereed research papers, two books, over 35 book chapters and over 500 other articles. In 2004, he was awarded the Joseph Lister Prize for Social Sciences by the British Association for the Advancement of Science for being one of the UK’s “outstanding scientific communicators”. Michael M. Grant, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Instructional Design and Technology program at the University of Memphis. He has been working with elementary and secondary educators for over 10 years. His research considers how to best help faculties implement technology integration and how students represent their learning with computer technologies in different ways. Dr. Grant earned his PhD from The University of Georgia in instructional technology and was recently selected for the American Educational Research Association Special Interest Group for Instructional Technology’s 2005 Young Researcher Award. Chad M. Harms, PhD, is an assistant professor at Iowa State University with a dual appointment in the Greenlee School of Journalism and Communication and the Human Computer Interaction graduate program. He received his PhD from Michigan State University in communication in 2004. His dissertation work on social presence earned him the honor of being selected to the First Young Investigator’s Forum in Virtual Reality. Dr. Harms sits on the Advisory Council and Education Committee of the Iowa Internet Crimes Against Children Task Force. Back in 1994, he was the NCBA National Collegiate Boxing Champion at heavyweight. Richard Hartshorne, PhD, is currently an assistant professor of instructional systems technology at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. There, his teaching focuses on the integration of technology into the educational landscape, as well as instructional design and development. His research interests primarily involve the production and effective integration of instructional technology into the teaching and learning environment. The major areas of his research interest are rooted in online teaching and learning, technology and teacher education, and the integration of emerging technology into the k-post-secondary curriculum. Carrie Heeter, PhD, is professor of serious game design in the department of Telecommunication, Information Studies and Media at Michigan State University. She directs development of innovative technology-enhanced learning experiences including interactive video, CD-ROMs, virtual reality, Web sites, and games. She is co-editor of Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat: New Perspectives in Gender, Gaming, and Computing and creator of Investigaming.com, an online gateway to research about gender and gaming. Current design research includes play style and learning, fine tuning player motivation, and creating “mindset” games to empower players to discover and modify beliefs which interfere with health, healing, and well-being.



About the Contributors

Daniel B. Horn, PhD, is a research psychologist with the U. S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences. His research focuses on the use of computer technology to support collaboration and training. His current work focuses on understanding the factors associated with effective training games, and applications of social network analysis to individual and organizational performance. He received his PhD in psychology (cognition and perception) from the University of Michigan. Wenhao David Huang, PhD, is tenure-track faculty member in the Department of Human Resource Education in the College of Education at University of Illinois. His background overarches engineering, learning technology design, and business administration. He is interested in refining the e-game design process for the development of complex learning environments across disciplines. Adam Ingram-Goble began his work in gaming research with an MS in computer science where he focused in A.I. and machine learner models of human game play. He is currently a doctoral student in learning sciences at Indiana University, where he has worked on the Quest Atlantis project since 2005. His current research interests include game designs that facilitate critical dispositions, creativity, and programming as social commentary. Christopher L. James is an assistant principal in the Russellville City Schools System in Alabama. Dr. James assists in developing, implementing, and evaluating instructional programs at the school level. He also uses technology resources to facilitate professional development activities for teachers to aid in the effective implementation of technology in the classroom. Tristan Johnson, PhD, is the associate director of research for the Learning Systems Institute and is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems at Florida State University. Dr. Johnson’s primary research program studies gaming and simulation, team cognition, team-based learning, group learning processes measurements, and shared mental models measures. Robert Jones teaches at New York University where he is finishing his PhD. His dissertation explores the video game sub-culture of Machinima, the use of video game technologies by gamers to create animated films. As an instance of fan-produced media, Machinima offers an insight into the new ways that gamers perform culture. Additionally his work explores how the video game medium is currently being utilized as a means of political activism. He also teaches a course on Video Game Culture at The New School. His Web site (www.stranger109.org) explores issues in the gaming world and reviews machinima films. He is a musician, digital filmmaker, life-long gamer, and T-shirt junkie. Benjamin Jörissen, born in 1968 in Krefeld/Germany, studied philosophy, educational science and German literature in Dusseldorf, Cologne, and Berlin. From 2000 to 2004, he worked at the Freie Universität Berlin, Dep. for Anthropology and Education, and took part in an interdisciplinary research project entitled “cultures of the performative”, conducting studies in new media rituals. He received his doctorate in 2005 with a thesis entitled “Medium—Image—Reality. The Reality of the Social and the New Media”. Jörissen is currently a research assistant at the University of Magdeburg. Main fields of work are: identity issues, Internet studies, game studies, and film studies.

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About the Contributors

Slava Kalyuga, PhD, senior lecturer at the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, has been involved in research in the field of cognition and instruction and cognitive load theory since 1994. His contribution to the field includes extensive studies of expertise reversal and redundancy effects in multimedia learning, and other instructional consequences of learner cognitive overload. Dr. Kalyuga published results of his studies in many international journals and contributed to a number of books, including Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, Digital Multimedia Perception and Design, and Instructing and Testing Advanced Learners: A Cognitive Load Approach. David Kaufman, EdD, is professor of education, and director of the Learning & Instructional Development Centre at Simon Fraser University. He is the director of Simulation and Advanced Gaming Environments (SAGE) for the Learning project. It is a $3 million, bilingual, Pan-Canadian initiative funded primarily by Canada’s Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC). Dr. Kaufman’s research interests include: educational technology, teaching and learning in higher education, gaming and simulation for learning, problem-based learning, medical education, and continuing professional development. Fengfeng Ke, PhD, is currently an assistant professor of instructional technology in the Organizational Learning and Instructional Technology program, University of New Mexico. Her research has covered a range of topics on designing and developing learning environments using advanced technologies, including computer game-based learning, online learning community, computer-supported intergenerational collaboration, and educational simulation and animation design. Lisa Kervin, PhD, is a lecturer in educational psychology and curriculum at the University of Wollongong. She has worked as a teacher, teaching from kindergarten to grade six, and has been employed in consultancy roles. She has researched her own teaching and has collaborative research partnerships with teachers and students in primary classrooms. Her current research interests are related to the literacy development of children, the use of technology to support student learning and teacher professional development. Eylem Kilic is a PhD candidate in the Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies at Middle East Technical University in Turkey. She works as a research assistant at the same department. Her research areas are cognitive development, cognitive load, educational software, digital game-based learning, e-learning, and human memory. Castulus Kolo completed a doctoral degree in physics at CERN (Geneva) as well as in cultural anthropology at the University of Munich (Germany). From 1997 until 2001 he worked as an executive in the field of innovation management for the Fraunhofer Society, a leading German research organisation. After that he was responsible for the new media business of a large German publishing house until he founded his own consulting company. In parallel he assumed several positions as a lecturer and since 2007 he has been a professor for media management at the Macromedia University of Applied Sciences in Stuttgart (Germany). Chun Lai, PhD, is an assistant professor at Confucius Institute, College of Education, Michigan State University. Her research interest is to explore the use of technology to facilitate second language learn-



About the Contributors

ing and teaching and to understand the nature of second language acquisition. Her specific research areas are the affordances and constraints of computer-mediated communication and the instructional design in online foreign language learning. She has published several articles on technology-enhanced language learning. Kimberly A. Lawless, PhD, is an associate professor of educational psychology and language, literacy, and culture at the University of Illinois at Chicago. Dr. Lawless studies how individuals acquire and comprehend information from non-linear digital environments, focusing on how aspects of the reader, the media, and the task influence navigational strategy and learning outcomes. David J. Leonard, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Comparative Ethnic Studies at Washington State University. His work focuses on sports, video games, and popular culture as a whole, and has appeared in both popular and academic mediums. He recently published, with C. Richard King, Visual Economies of/in Motion: Sport and Film (Peter Lang Publishing Group, 2006) an edited volume on sports films, and a monograph, Screens Fade to Black: Contemporary African American Cinema, with Praeger Publishers (2006). He is currently working on a monograph looking at race and the culture wars of the NBA (SUNY Press), and another (with C. Richard King) analyzing the production and consumption of media culture within white nationalist communities (University of Mississippi Press). Melissa L. Lewis is a PhD candidate in the Media and Information Studies program at Michigan State University. She holds a Bachelor of Arts degree in mass communication and a Master of Arts degree in communication and multimedia. Her current research focuses on the relationships between individuals and avatars, primarily in the area of video games, as well as how these relationships can impact social, educational, and emotional outcomes. Kenneth Y.T. Lim is a teaching fellow in the Learning Sciences Lab at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University. His research interests address the pedagogical applications of multi-user virtual environments and serious games. Dr. Lim developed the curriculum materials for Space Station Leonis. He has also developed several learning installations in Second Life. Ming Liu has been a doctoral student in the Department of Telecommunication, Information Studies and Media at Michigan State University since 2004. She received her MA degree in communication from University at Albany, State University of New York in 2004, and obtained her BA in Chinese language and literature from Nanjing University, China in 2001. Her primary research interests lie in health-related electronic games, online gaming addiction, online social support, and communication technologies. Yuxin Ma, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Center for Innovative Learning and Assessment Technologies (CILAT) at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. She has eight years of experience in developing computer-based instructional programs or materials. Her current research focuses on developing and researching the use of computer games and robotics in innovative learning environments. Ian MacInnes, PhD, is an associate professor at Syracuse University’s School of Information Studies. He previously worked at the University of Minnesota’s Carlson School of Management and has been a



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visiting scholar at Harvard University and the International Telecommunications Union. He received a doctorate from the University of Southern California in Political Economy and Public Policy, offered by the Economics department. He has written about virtual worlds for over five years and has organized conference tracks in areas such as hedonic information systems and digital commerce. Leanna Madill is a doctoral student in the department of Language and Literacy in the Faculty of Education at the University of Victoria. Her research interests include gender and literacy practices, particularly video game learning, assessment, and teacher education. Her doctoral research focuses on providing workshops titled, Debunking video game myths and tapping into the potential of video game play for parents and educators, in which participants will be encouraged to learn and then engage in critical dialogue with adolescents about ideologies encountered in video games and play. Steve Maddock, PhD, is a lecturer in computer science at the University of Sheffield. His research interests include computer facial modeling and animation, human figure animation, procedural modelling, and surface deformation techniques. He received a PhD in computer science from the University of Sheffield in 1999. He is a member of Eurographics and ACM SIGGRAPH. Brian Magerko, PhD, is an assistant professor in the School of Literature, Communication and Culture at the Georgia Institute of Technology. He is a member of the Experimental Game Lab and the Graphics, Visualization and Usability Center at Georgia Tech. He received a PhD in computer science and engineering from the University of Michigan in 2006. Dr. Magerko’s research includes interactive drama, user modeling, and the design and development of digital game-based learning experiences. Barbara Martinson, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Design, Housing, and Apparel at the University of Minnesota. She is currently the Buckman Professor of Design Education and Director of Graduate Studies. Martinson is both a researcher and designer. Research areas include design history concentrating on 19th century illustration, design education, multicultural design, and design process. Recently her research has been published in Visible Language, Journal of Visual Literacy, and FATE in Review. Both her graphic design and fiber work has been exhibited and published nationally, and has received national awards. Michael Matzko received his PhD from the University of Georgia in 2004. He then spent three years as a program analyst at the Naval Personnel Development Command in Norfolk, VA, where his primary role was to develop and oversee instructional guidance and policy during the U.S. Navy’s Revolution in Training. He is currently serving as the supervisor of instructional systems with the U.S. Navy Center for Personal and Professional Development in Virginia Beach, VA. Michael McCreery is a learning and technology doctoral student within the Educational Psychology department at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Currently, he is exploring how human behavior is influenced through interaction with virtual spaces. His background includes over a dozen years of technology experience including fours years as a programmer for the Intel Corporation. Punya Mishra, PhD, is an associate professor of educational technology at Michigan State University. His research has focused on the theoretical, cognitive, and social aspects related to the design and use of



About the Contributors

digital learning environments. He co-developed (with Dr. M. J. Koehler) the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) framework for technology integration. He has received over $4 million in grants, has published over 30 articles, and has edited two books. Dr. Mishra is an award-winning instructor teaching courses at masters and doctoral levels in the areas of educational technology, design, and creativity. You can find out more about him at http://punyamishra.com/. Teddy Moline is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Elementary Education at the University of Alberta. Her research interests are learning resources, effective integration of technology and learning, and digital gaming. She is currently examining how adolescents experience cognitive self-efficacy during digital gaming. Yi Mou received her MA degree in communication from Michigan State University in 2007. She received her MA degree in chemistry from Boston University in 2005 and obtained her BS in chemistry from University of Science and Technology of China in 2003. Her primary research interests include media effects on adolescents, content analysis of video games, and cross-cultural difference of perception on media content. Pollyana Notargiacomo Mustaro, PhD, obtained her PhD in education (São Paulo University, 2003), being specialized on Internet hackers’ knowledge building process. Nowadays, she is a professor at Mackenzie Presbyterian University (São Paulo, Brazil). Her research areas include learning objects theory, learning styles, instructional design, distance learning, social network analysis, hypertext theory, game culture studies, and knowledge representation. Martin Oliver, PhD, is a reader in ICT in education at the Institute of Education, part of the University of London. He is an editor of ALT-J: The Journal of Research in Learning Technology and of Learning, Media and Technology. James Oliverio is a creative artist, educator and producer, and a frequent keynote speaker and consultant to digital media, industry and education programs. He has served as professor of music and digital media and as director of the Digital Worlds Institute at the University of Florida since January 2001. Special recognition includes the Inaugural “Peoria Prize for Creativity” (2005) for producing the globally distributed collaboration entitled “Hands Across the Ocean” and the “Most Courageous and Creative” Award in the High Bandwidth Challenge at the 2001 global SuperComputing Conference. Oliverio holds five Emmy Awards, along with numerous national grants and commissions. Karen Orvis, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at Old Dominion University. She is also a senior research fellow in the Consortium Research Fellows Program at the U.S. Army Research Institute. Her research areas of interest include: training and development, with a particular focus on technology-delivered training and self-development; individual difference predictors of human performance; and personnel staffing and workplace diversity. Her research in the area of video game-based training focuses on identifying game attributes and learner characteristics that influence the effectiveness of instructional videogames. She received her PhD in psychology (industrial/organizational) from George Mason University.



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Anthony Papargyris is a PhD candidate in the Department of Management Science and Technology at the Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece. He holds a first degree in business computing (Teesside, UK), and an MSc degree in information systems (AUEB). Since 2001, he is a member of ISTLab/OIS (http://istlab.dmst.aueb.gr). His current research is focusing on collective action and meaning construction, virtual communities, and learning. His general research interests are in online interactive learning games, philosophy of science and information systems, and knowledge management. David Parisi is a PhD candidate in the Department of Media, Culture, and Communication at New York University. His dissertation research focuses on the history of perception, and traces the development of touch as an informatic and semiotic mode of perception from 19th century psychophysics to modern haptic human-computer interfaces. Further information is available on his research blog at www.tactilefutures.org. Yuna Park received a Bachelor’s degree in mathematics from Bryn Mawr College in 2005. She received a Master’s degree in digital arts and sciences from the University of Florida in 2007. As a teaching assistant of Dr. Fishwick for coursework in system simulations and aesthetic computing, she could appreciate the potency of applied computing to aesthetic arts as an advanced sophisticated instructional tool. She created 3-D tools in the virtual multi-user environment, Second Life, to reinforce fundamental concepts in algebra. Her research focus during her Master’s was an application of aesthetic computing to math education. James R. Parker, PhD, is a full professor of computer science now working in the Drama/Fine Arts faculty at the University of Calgary on interactive media, video games, and digital audio. A former specialist in computer vision, he and his teams have developed multiple video games, including most recently the Booze Cruise game on drunk driving, Tibet, a game about the occupied status of that country, and OceanQuest, a game that teaches ocean floor ecology. He’s the author of over 130 articles and three books, including, Start Your Engines: Developing Racing and Driving Games. Matthew Thomas Payne is a doctoral student in the Department of Radio-TV-Film at the University of Texas at Austin. His research focuses on the social impacts of communication technologies and new media, video games, alternative media practices, and teaching film and video production. He holds a Master’s degree in media studies from the University of Texas and a Masters of Fine Arts in film production from Boston University. He has served previously as the coordinating editor for FlowTV (www. flowtv.org), a critical forum for television and media studies. Caroline Pelletier is a research fellow at the Institute of Education, University of London. The research referred to in classrooms was carried out as part of a project called “Making Games”, which was supported by the Paccit Link programme. Pelletier is a researcher whose work focuses on the social and epistemological consequences of technology use in education institutions. Wei Peng, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Telecommunication, Information Studies and Media at Michigan State University. She received her PhD in communication from University of Southern California in 2006. Peng’s research focuses on the persuasive capabilities of digital media and technology, particularly as applied to pro-social topics such as health promotion. For her dissertation,



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Peng designed and supervised the development of a game-based computer program called RightWay Café to influence young adults’ attitude toward healthy eating. Ian Pitt, PhD, lectures in usability engineering and multimedia at UCC. He took his DPhil at the University of York, UK, then spent a year as a post-doctoral research fellow at Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany, before moving to Cork in 1997. His research interests include the use of speech and non-speech sound in human-machine interfaces. Jan L. Plass, PhD, associate professor of educational communication and technology at New York University, is interested in how cognitive science and learning sciences can inform the design of educational environments such as simulations and games. His current research projects focus on the design of computer simulations for science education (Molecules & Minds) and on the design and study of game-like environments (RAPUNSEL). Dr. Plass is the director of the Program in Educational Communication & Technology as well as the director of the Consortium for Research and Evaluation of Advanced Technologies in Education (CREATE) at New York University, see createlabs.org. Louise Prejean is an instructor at UL Lafayette. She had over 10 years’ experience teaching elementary and middle school students. While she was a classroom teacher, she developed and delivered studentcentered lessons and materials with the use of a variety of technologies including robotics and educational games. She currently teaches technology integration to pre-service teachers and conducts research in the areas of educational games and robotics. Yufeng Qian holds an EdD in educational technology from Lehigh University. She is currently an assistant professor in the School of Leadership Studies at St. Thomas University, where she teaches educational research and instructional technology courses and has developed the MS in education with a concentration in the instructional technology program. She is also a member of the doctoral faculty in the EdD program in educational leadership. She lives with her family in Miami, Florida. Wei Qiu is a doctoral student in the Program of Educational Psychology and Educational Technology at the College of Education, Michigan State University. Her research interests include game design, digital gamed-based learning community, and the integration of western and eastern educational practices. Elizabeth Taylor Quilliam, PhD, is the first Harrison/Omnicom Professor of Advertising at West Virginia University. Following a career in marketing, she taught courses in the Department of Advertising, Public Relations, and Retailing at Michigan State University while pursuing a PhD in mass media. At MSU, Quilliam was awarded a University Distinguished Fellowship, a Dissertation Completion Fellowship, and a Food, Nutrition, and Chronic Disease research award. Her research focuses on public policy issues including advertising to children, privacy, and corporate social responsibility. Carol Luckhardt Redfield, PhD, is an associate professor and graduate program director for the Computer Science Department at St. Mary’s University in San Antonio, Texas. She was in the computer industry for over 15 years before teaching at St. Mary’s. Her PhD is from the University of Michigan in computer science and engineering in artificial intelligence and game playing. She is the Internet team director for Landmark Education. She serves on committees for the National Space Society and the



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San Antonio Quakers. She loves technology, Ultimate Frisbee, science fiction, her husband, and their two children. Neil M. Redfield is a student at John Jay Science and Engineering Academy in San Antonio, Texas, maintaining an A average. He enjoys computer science and participates in UIL competitions in computers, math, and science. He is part of the John Jay Ultimate Frisbee club. He will attend the National Showcase for the Junior Academy of Sciences, presenting part of the project in this chapter. As a young child, he played with educational computer games such as Cluefinders and ZAP! He enjoys spending time with his family including his “favorite baby sister from China who he loves so much.” Debbie Denise Reese, PhD, is the senior educational researcher within the Center for Educational Technologies® (CET) at Wheeling Jesuit University. She specializes in the application of cognitive theory toward the design of educational technologies. Over the past 10 years, she developed a method for the design, development, and evaluation of metaphor-enhanced, computer-mediated learning objects through applied cognitive science metaphor theory. When NASA eEducation established its Roadmap to enhance the Nation’s learning and practice of science through video games and synthetic worlds, CET appointed Reese to lead its NASA-sponsored Classroom of the Future learning and assessment in video games research for this NASA initiative. Charles Richard is an associate professor of creative writing in the Department of English at UL Lafayette. He has written and produced a long list of educational programs for state and national Public Broadcasting, along with multimedia training materials for various federal agencies. His research concentrates on narrative theory and multimedia design. Lloyd Rieber, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Educational Psychology and Instructional Technology at the University of Georgia. He received his PhD from the Pennsylvania State University in 1987 and is a former classroom teacher. He has written extensively on micro-worlds, simulations, games, and play. He designed and programmed the WWILD Team (http://it.coe.uga.edu/wwild/), a Web site/community devoted to experiential learning using existing games and simulations as learning objects. He also directs a project called “Homemade PowerPoint Games” (http://it.coe.uga.edu/wwild/pptgames), which promotes learning through designing games with technology already available in the schools. Daniela M. Romano, PhD, is a lecturer in computer science at the University of Sheffield. Her research interests include the creation of virtual environments for education and entertainment. After her Master’s degree in computer science at the University of Bari, Italy, she has worked in the industry for six years before moving into academia. She has obtained a PhD in computer-based learning at the University of Leeds in 2001 and since she has worked in various academic posts. Currently she leads various projects on virtual reality and serious games using the VR facilities in the Kroto Research Institute. Kathy Sanford, PhD, is an associate dean teacher of education at the University of Victoria and associate professor in curriculum and instruction. Her research interests include gender and literacy, alternative literacies, popular culture, assessment, and teacher education. Current funded research projects include Gender and Literacy Learning through Video Games, and Professional Electronic Portfolios for Teacher Education. She has been working in the area of gender and literacy for the past decade, and is



About the Contributors

now exploring gendered implications of alternative literacies. She is interested in issues of assessment, especially as these relate to feminist and post-structural positions and theoretical perspectives, and in school-integrated teacher education. P. G. Schrader, PhD, is an assistant professor of educational technology at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Dr. Schrader’s recent work involves understanding learning in complex non-linear digital environments like massively multi-player online games and hypertext. In these contexts, he has examined aspects of expertise, literacy, and the dynamic exchange of information. His work has appeared in a number of journals as well as at national and international conferences. While he’s not writing, you might find Dr. Schrader further itemizing his level 70 druid in the World of Warcraft. David Williamson Shaffer, PhD, is an associate professor of learning science at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and game scientist at the Academic Advanced Distributed Learning Co-Laboratory. A former teacher, curriculum developer, teacher-trainer, and game designer, he has taught in the United States and with the U.S. Peace Corps in Nepal. His MS and PhD are from the Media Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and he taught in the Technology and Education Program at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. He is a founding member of the GAPPS research group for games, learning, and society. Dr. Shaffer has a National Science Foundation Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) Award for his work on Alternate Routes to Technology and Science and was the recipient of a Spencer Foundation National Academy of Education Postdoctoral Fellowship. Dr. Shaffer studies how new technologies change the way people think and learn. His particular area of interest is in the development of epistemic games: computer and video games in which players become professionals to develop innovative and creative ways of thinking. Luciano Silva has a PhD in computer science (computer graphics area) since May 2004, obtained from São Paulo University, Brazil. Currently, his research is focused on computer graphics, game design and development, formal methods for knowledge representation and retrieval, and unconventional 3-D interfaces. He also teaches at Mackenzie Presbyterian University and Cruzeiro do Sul University, both in São Paulo, Brazil. Ismar Frango Silveira, PhD, defended his PhD thesis in distributed objects applied to virtual realitybased learning environments in May 2003, at São Paulo University, Brazil. Currently, he is involved with researches in knowledge representation, programming languages paradigms, design patterns, adaptive learning objects, and collaborative learning. He presently teaches at Mackenzie Presbyterian University and Cruzeiro do Sul University, both in São Paulo, Brazil. Peter A. Smith is currently research faculty at the University of Central Florida’s Institute for Simulation and Training. As part of the Augmented Cognition for Training in Virtual Environments (ACTIVE) Lab, he fills the role of resident games expert through his previous experience in serious games working with the Navy’s NETC Experimentation Lab. He is also an avid blogger, with experience writing for the Serious Games Initiative blog and AOL’s Second Life Insider. Jennifer Solberg, PhD, works as a research psychologist at the U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences in Orlando, FL. She studies the personnel selection and training issues



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involved in visual target detection. Additionally, her research included the development of a gamebased training application for night vision technology. She received her PhD in cognitive/experimental psychology from the University of Georgia in 2004. Kurt Squire, PhD, is an assistant professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison in the Educational Communications and Technology division of Curriculum and Instruction. He is a former Montessori and primary school teacher and, before coming to Wisconsin, was research manager of the Games-to-Teach Project at MIT and co-director of the Education Arcade. Squire earned his doctorate in instructional systems technology from Indiana University; his dissertation research examined students’ learning through a game-based learning program he designed around Civilization III. Squire co-founded Joystick101.org with Jon Goodwin. Squire is currently director of the Games, Learning, and Society initiative. Colleen Swain, PhD, is an associate professor and the associate director of the School of Teaching & Learning at the University of Florida. Her research, teaching, and service revolve around 21st century educational issues related to social justice in educational setting, specifically those dealing with technology in teaching and learning environments. Edward L. Swing received a BA in psychology from the College of St. Scholastica in 2005 and is currently pursuing a PhD in social psychology at Iowa State University. He is working with Dr. Craig Anderson, studying positive and negative video game effects as well as other aggression related research topics. Laurie N. Taylor, PhD, researches digital media and creates digital projects as an Assistant University Librarian in the University of Florida’s George A. Smathers Libraries. Her articles have appeared in various journals and edited collections, including Game Studies: The International Journal of Computer Game Research, Media/Culture, Computers and Composition Online, Works & Days, Videogames and Art: Intersections and Interactions, and The Player’s Realm: Studies on the Culture of Video Games and Gaming, as well as writing about games and digital media in popular venues. Her current research includes studies of horror video games and methods to digitally represent and contextualize archival materials. Alexander Unger, born in 1975, studied educational science, philosophy and sports science in Darmstadt/Germany. He received his MA in educational science and philosophy in 2003 and has been fellow at a postgraduate college on technology and society (“Graduiertenkolleg Technologisierung und Gesellschaft”) from 2003 to 2006, working on a doctorate thesis entitled “Pedagogy and Virtualization: On the technological transformation of pedagogic action”. Since 2007, Unger has worked as a research assistant at the Chair for Media Research and Adult Education at the University of Magdeburg. Main fields of work are: pedagogical and philosophical aspects of virtual environments, e-learning, ditigal game studies. Richard Van Eck, PhD, is an associate professor and graduate director of the Instructional Design & Technology program at the University of North Dakota, and is a board member for the North American Simulation and Games Association. He was on the faculty at the University of Memphis for five years, where he was also a member of the Institute for Intelligent Systems and the committee chair for the Center for Multimedia Arts in the FedEx Institute of Technology. He has taught and published



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extensively in the field of game-based learning and has developed several serious games for adults and elementary/middle-school students. Phillip VanFossen, PhD, is the James F. Ackerman Professor of Social Studies Education and Director of the Ackerman Center for Democratic Citizenship in the College of Education at Purdue University. He is also the associate director of the Purdue University Center for Economic Education. An awardwinning teacher, he has also published numerous chapters and articles on Internet use and economic and social studies education. His research interests include how social studies teachers use the Internet in their teaching, and in 2001 he co-authored Using Internet Primary Sources to Teach Critical Thinking in Government, Economics and World Issues (Greenwood Press). Linda van Ryneveld, PhD, was awarded a doctorate degree in computer-integrated education by the University of Pretoria, South Africa in 2004. She is currently a deputy director in the Directorate for Teaching and Learning with Technology at the Tshwane University of Technology in the same country. Her current interests include educational games and simulations, e-assessment, student hand-held response devices, learning theories, instructional design, cost-effective Web-based applications for teaching and learning, faculty and professional development, and gender issues. She loves living life to the fullest and appreciates humor, passion, and a zeal for life in others. She believes that learners, who take courses that are fun and inspirational, are more motivated to spend time on task. Scott J. Warren, PhD, works as an assistant professor of learning technologies at the University of North Texas. He holds a PhD in instructional systems technology from Indiana University. His current research examines the use of emerging online technologies such as podcasting, immersive digital learning environments, digital video, and open source course management tools in complex systems. Prior to working in higher education as a research, Scott taught both social studies and English in urban and suburban settings. René Weber, PhD (Dr.rer.nat.), is an assistant professor in the Department of Communication at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He holds a Bachelor/Master’s degree in both communication and quantitative economics and a PhD in psychology. In his recent research he focuses on cognitive and emotional effects of television and new technology media, including new generation video games. He develops and applies both traditional social scientific and neuroscientific methodology (fMRI) to test media-related theories. He earned several awards and honors such as Michigan State University’s “New Faculty Award” for the study “Neurophysiology of Entertainment”. Doug Williams, PhD, is the Director of the Center for Innovative Learning and Assessment Technologies (CILAT) at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette and an associate professor of instructional technology in the College of Education. Dr. Williams has more than 20 years experience as a programmer, was a member of the team that developed Alien Rescue, an award-winning multimedia educational program, and was the principal investigator for the PASS-PORT project, a Web-based performance assessment system. Brian M. Winn is an associate professor in the Department of Telecommunication, Information Studies, and Media and Director of the Games for Entertainment and Learning Lab at Michigan State Uni-

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About the Contributors

versity. Winn’s expertise is in designing engaging serious games that balancing learning, pedagogical, and gameplay. Winn’s award-winning work has been presented, exhibited, and experienced around the world. Winn is a co-founder of the undergraduate Game Design and Development Specialization and the Serious Game Design Masters program at MSU. Mark J. P. Wolf, PhD, is an associate professor in the Communication Department at Concordia University Wisconsin. He has a PhD from the School of Cinematic Arts at the University of Southern California, and his books include Abstracting Reality: Art, Communication, and Cognition in the Digital Age (2000), The Medium of the Video Game (2001), Virtual Morality: Morals, Ethics, and New Media (2003), The Video Game Theory Reader (2003), The World of the D’ni: Myst and Riven (2006), The Video Game Explosion: A History from PONG to PlayStation and Beyond (2007), Of Words and Worlds: The Imagination and Subcreation of J. R. R. Tolkien (forthcoming), The Video Game Theory Reader 2 (forthcoming), and two novels for which he is looking for an agent. He is on the advisory board of Videotopia and several editorial boards including those of Games and Culture, The Journal of E-media Studies, and Mechademia: An Annual Forum for Anime, Manga and The Fan Arts, and is a board member of Christians in the Visual Arts (CIVA). He lives in Wisconsin with his wife Diane and his sons Michael and Christian. Vivian H. Wright, PhD, is an associate professor of instructional technology at The University of Alabama. In addition to teaching in the graduate program, Dr. Wright works with teacher educators, teacher candidates, and in-service teachers on innovative ways to infuse emerging technologies in the curriculum. She has helped initiate and develop projects such as Master Technology Teacher, Technology on Wheels, and Educational Technology Cases. Chong-wei Xu, PhD, is currently a professor of computer science in Department of Computer Science and Information Systems at Kennesaw State University. He received his Master’s in computer science from University of Wisconsin-Madison and his PhD in computer science from Michigan State University. He has been awarded two NSF grants, two state-level Yamacraw grants, and two university-level initiative grants dealing with Internet and parallel/distributed computing systems. His current research interests mainly include Internet and distributed system technologies and gaming technologies. Zahide Yildirim, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technologies at Middle East Technical University in Turkey. Her research areas are educational multimedia and hypermedia, instructional message design, technology integration into teaching and teacher education and use of information and communication technologies in constructivist learning context. Panagoitis Zaharias, PhD, holds a first degree in informatics, a Master’s degree in information systems and a PhD degree in information systems (specialization on human computer interaction) from the Department of Management Science & Technology of Athens University of Economics and Business (2004). His main research interests are focused on user-centred design, usability evaluation methods, and e-learning design. Dr. Zaharias has participated in various European-funded and other research projects and he has published more than 25 papers in scientific journals and conference proceedings.



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He has co-organised dedicated research tracks on usability and e-learning design in leading international conferences focused on human-computer interaction. Currently he is a lecturer (407/80) at the Department of Product and Systems Design Engineering of the University of the Aegean, Greece. He is also a research associate of ELTRUN/OIS Research Group of the Athens University of Economics and Business where he is undertaking research and e-learning consulting projects and a member of ACM Special Interest Group on Human-Computer Interaction (SIGCHI). Nicholas Zaparyniuk is a writer, lecturer, researcher, and consultant in the areas of educational engagement, communication, and gaming. His research includes such diverse areas as video games in education, cognitive development, problem solving in complex environments, and educational neuroscience. A hardcore game player his whole life, much of his research is focused on the psychology of games and play and the impact of these factors when games are applied in educational environments. He is currently completing a PhD in educational psychology at Simon Fraser University. Yong Zhao, PhD, is a university distinguished professor of educational psychology and educational technology at the College of Education, Michigan State University. His research interests include diffusion of innovation, teacher adoption of technology, computer-assisted language learning, globalization and education, and international and comparative education. His articles have appeared in American Educational Research Journal, Teachers College Record and Language Learning and Technology. His most recent publications include What Should Teachers Know about Technology: Perspectives and Practices (IAP, 2003) and Research in Technology and Second Language Education: Developments and Directions (IAP, 2005).





Index

Symbols 21st century skills 1402 3-D digital environment 1187 3D educational game development process 331 4C/ID-model 1143

A abstract class, AbsGamePanel 513 abstract class, AbsSprite 514 abstract conceptualization (AC) stage 459, 461 accretion 1115 action buttons 1457 active and reflective learning, and video games 496 active experimentation (AE) stage 459 activity theory 690 actual mechanics 1277 adaptation 1275 adaptive opponent strategies 1478 ADDIE model 1189 adolecent girls, new media and 1440, 1441, 1442, 1443, 1444, 1445, 1446, 1447 adolescents, and video games 345 adolescent video games, emergent themes 349 adults explore skills 1205 advergames, in relation to childhood obesity 358 advertising, how it works 363 advertising to children, historical interest in 359 agency 673, 674, 676, 679, 680, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 690, 691, 692, 696

agent-based simulations 1477 algebraic functional machines, and video games 555 Allakhazam 795 America’s Army: Rise of a Soldier, video game 621 American Revolution 1461 amygdala, definition of 879 Anarchy Online 848 animating the single object 511 anti-social groups 1324 antibiotics 1277 Anytown 1186 AR games for education, implication of 91 arousal, and video games 884 assessment, the grammar of 579 Astroversity and Debating the Evidence 90 Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) 393 attention deficit hyperactivity (ADHD) 879 attention distraction games 394 audience, COTS GBL 188 augmented reality (AR) 1460, 1463 augmented reality (AR) games 83 augmented reality (AR) games for education 1463 augmented reality games, definition of 83 augmented reality games for learning, review of 86 authenticity 1473 authentic learning 187, 1044 authentic learning environments, characteristics of 747

B “Back” buttons 1457

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Index

backyard research 639 Battle of Lexington 1461, 1464 bodily interfaces 112 bodily interfaces, aspects of 117 Breakout, video game 509, 518 Breast Cancer Detective Game 395 Broadband Regulation and Modernization (BRM) Bill 493 broadcast media 1292 Bronkie the Bronchiasaurus, video game for children with asthma 392

C Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) 332 case study, Alien Language 1386 case study, Slime Forest 1383 cell phones 1442 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 372 character 1219 character attachment (CA) 593 character attachment, in role-playing games 597 childhood obesity, and video game marketing 358 Children’s Advertising Review Unit (CARU) 365 Children’s Advertising Review Unit (CARU), 366 children’s digital games interactions, dynamics of 127 children’s games, product placement 360 Chinese Bell, mini game 1043 Chinese communist government 1323 Chinese Language Mini-Game project 1042 Cilati 1225 circumplex model 689 citizenship education, developmental approach to 811 civic participation, on a global scale 240 Civilization, strategy game 1058 Civilization III, historical strategy game 200, 203 claims of games, identifying problems 38 class, as role 852 classifier systems 686



class observation schedule (COS) 1430 ClassSim software 318 ClassSim software, key ideas in 318 coding guidelines 865 cognitive 1402 Cognitive apprenticeship 1130 cognitive growth 1047 Cognitive learning 1152 cognitive load, in learning 722 cognitive load, methods for evaluating 729 cognitive load factors, empirical studies of 727 cognitive load theory 1143 Cognitive load theory (CLT) 1148 cognitive models 672, 674, 675, 677, 678, 682, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 693, 696 cognitive skills, use of 785 cognitive variables, and violent video games 883 Cognitive Walkthrough 1453 collaboration 1468 collaborative construction of knowledge, support for 322 collaborative learning 187, 713, 1464 college classroom, game-based learning 1427 Command, Control, Communication, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C3ISR) 60 commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) 131, 278, 423, 894 Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) games 179 commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games 180 communications technologies 1401 community 688, 690, 691, 692 community-involved online gaming 766 community of practice, definition of 580 component-oriented programming (COP), via gaming 508 computational model of learning 671 computational models 691 computer games 1354, 1372, 1373 computer games, and personal identity 808 computer games, as cultural and educational spaces 759 concept 1464 concrete experience (CE) stage 459

Index

Conquest 1226 Conquest of the Coastlands 1227 content-neutral nature, of many of these claims 41 context-oriented learning, and video games 496 control 1471 COTS educational computer games 280 COTS game effectiveness 281 Counterstrike 766 Coupling Between Object (CBO) 534 critical thinking 1461 cults 1324 cultural capital 348 cultural significance 219, 220, 225, 229 current online educational games, major providers of 70 Cyber-Bullying 1330 cyber-bullying 1326 CyberSurvivor module 561, 563

D Dale’s Cone of Experience 527 Dance Dance Revolution 111, 394 data fusion methods 642 debate 1470 Debugging mode 1283 deep learning 426 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 1323 democracy, dispositions that support 238 democratic participation skills 238 descriptors, implications of 663 Desensitization 1331 Design, Development and Evaluation of Educational Software (DDEES) 333 design, play, and experience (DPE) framework 1014 design, play, and experience framework 1010 design-based research (DBR) 1044 designing RtR 1464 design the lesson, how to 191 Design Walkthrough 1453 Deus Ex, video game 423 development goals, video game 1091 development processes, video game 1093

different learning styles, ICT should accomodate 895 digital divide 1323 digital game-based 1274 digital game-based learning (DGBL 97 digital game-based learning, and convergence of mobile devices 96 digital games, eight genres of 69 digital history 220 Digital Media Consumers’ Rights (DMCR) Bill 493 digital natives and nomads, educating 99 digital toys 1290 Digital Worlds (DW) 152 discovery 1472 discovery learning 1045 disease and risk-prevention games 389 distributed learning 1045 domain-based experience, extensive 777 dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) 879 dynamic graphics 1172 dynamic knowledge creation, and social computing 101 dynamic resources, definition of 653

E e-learning software 1379 economic education, and MMORPGs 240 educational games, and play styles 826 educational games, cognitive architecture for 721 educational games, k-12 learners 67 educational gaming, as a new instructional technique 67 educational gaming applications, managing cognitive overload 724 educational system 1402 Educational Testing Service (ETS) 1430 educational video games, design consistent with non-educational 787 Edutainment 1450 Edutainment Artifact 1450 Edutainment Game Prototype 1451 edutainment games 1449 edutainment technology 894 effective cognitive load 1149



Index

effective instructional video game, creation of 1089 effects of instructional gaming, studies on the 20 ELECT BiLAT, video game 1090 electronic game 1127 electronic games, conceptualizing 115 electronic gaming, in Germany 163 Element placement mode 1283 embed content, in design 787 emerging technologies 1417 emotional intelligence 1406 emotions, and video games 893 emotions, using to improve the cognitive process 902 engagement 1147 enhancing intrinsic motivation 833 entertainment education 594 Entertainment Education Paradigm (EEP) 593 Entertainment Software Association (ESA) 758 Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) 645, 1320 entertainment style 1169 environment, COTS GBL 189 Environmental Detective 86 Environmental Detectives 1464 epistemic frame inventories (EFIs) 585 evaluating a game, COTS GBL 190 EverQuest 795 evolutionary game theory (EGT) 1477 existential ludology 621 expecting evaluations 1285 experientially-based variations, in use of cognitive skills 785 Experimental Game Lab (EGL) 1277 expert performance or advice, access to 321 expert walkthrough 1454 Expert Walkthroughs 1455 Exploitation 1331 extrinsic achievement orientation 831 extrinsic games 1380

F face-to-face games, in online educational environment 560 Fair play 1146



fantasy, in video games 1027 Federal Trade Commission (FTC) 366 feedback problems 1449 Fidelity 1331 find a game, how to 189 first-person shooter (FPS) 455 Flow theory 1029 Foley Center 865 folksonomies 1407 foreign language education, challenges 404 foreign language learning environments, optimal 403 formative evaluation 1443 fruit, juice, and vegetable (FJV) 389 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) 879

G game-based learning environments 1218 game-based, metaphor-enhanced (GaME) design 1104 game-based cognitive or motivation processes, studies on 22 game-based historical learning 219, 220, 221, 222, 227, 228, 230 game-based learning (GBL) 179 game-based learning strategies 1427 game-based pedagogy, studies on 21 game-like learning environments 1357 game-play, historical inquiry in 212 game design 1143 game designers 1449 game design perspective, for people with special needs 141 game elements 1465 game genres 73 GaME instructional design process, key component 1108 GaME method, four design principles of 1111 game object characteristic 1449 game or simulation 671, 672, 673, 674, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 685, 686, 687, 688, 690, 691, 696 gameplay 1378 game play, three categories of tasks during 780 game play constraints 1467

Index

game play layer, in video game design 1016 games 1355, 1356, 1357, 1358, 1359, 1365 games, as monolithic entity 39 games, extrinsic 1380 games, four functions enhanced 481 games, in college classrooms 479 games, intrinsic 1380 games, why study them 637 games and assessment, relationship between 577 Games for Entertainment and Learning (GEL) 1277 Games for Entertainment and Learning (GEL) Lab 1020 game theory 278 GAMEWheels 394 gaming, systemic approaches to 211 gaming and play-based virtual environments, as a new educational technology 719 gaming technology, applied to other applications 521 Gee’s learning principles 489 general design guidelines 1449 general learning model (GLM) 877, 881 General Responsibilty Assignment Software Patterns (GRASP) 533 genre baggage 224, 229 glim quest 1227 Global Positioning Software (GPS) 1461 goal-based scenario (GBS) 331, 332 graphical user interface (GUI) 112 Gregorc Learning Style Delineator 482 Grooming 1331 grounded theory approach 1 Guitar Hero™ 111

H Habbo Hotel, video game 494 HandLeR and Mobimissions 90 haptics 119 HCI expert 1449 health related electronic games, review of 389 Heart Sense, video game 391 herald 1225 hermeneutic relations 623 Heuristic evaluation 1453

hidden advertising plugs, aka product placements 360 hidden curriculum, of digital games 1026 historiographic gaming, discussion of 215 history 1460 How People Learn (HPL) framework 672 How People Learn framework 672, 673, 674, 681, 688, 690, 692 human-computer interface (HCI) 112 Human Computer Interaction (HCI) 1449

I ICOMOS Burra Charter 220 iconic skills 1358 IGNITE 381 imaging the participant 612 immersion, in video games 1028 implications of fantasy 1033 implications of immersion 1033 implications of representation and identification 1034 inclusive paradigm, for video game study 1062 individualized learning 1045 ineffective cognitive load 1149 informal and unwritten rules, for games 1059 information age 1402 information technology (IT), undergraduate courses 528 inhibiting intrinsic motivation 833 innovation, the grammar of 580 input design 1294 instructional design/development 1354, 1366 instructional design/development (IDD) 1356, 1360 instructional design/development model 1355, 1365 instructional design/development models 1359 instructional design/development models (IDDMs) 1356 instructional designers, the challenge for 1110 instructional development issues 104 instructional game design, studies on 21 instructional technology 1355 instructional video games, development of 1089 intangible heritage 227



Index

integration of physical and virtual worlds 1474 integration vs. use, COTS GBL 187 intelligent learning games (ILGs) 195 intelligent tutoring system (ITS) 1275 intelligent tutoring systems 279 interactive and reflective learning 1045 interactive history 220, 221, 227 Interactive Story Architecture for Training (ISAT) 1277 Interdisciplinary Research Seminar (IRS) 152 International Game Developer’s Association (IDGA) 640 International Simulation & Gaming Association (ISAGA) 452 International Sports Sciences Association (ISSA) 394 Internet predator 1327 Internet relay chat (IRC) 608 interpersonal circumplex. See circumplex model intrinsic 1280 intrinsic achievement orientation 831 intrinsic games 1380 intrinsic motivation, definition of 182 intrinsic motivation, what it means for COTS GBL 182 ironic play, with in-game elements 764 iterative design 1465

J JIT information 1161 Just-in-time (JIT) 1129 just-in-time (JIT) 1150

K Kid’s Programming Language (KPL) 1262 kids, what gets advertised to 364 Kingdom of Loathing (KoL) 847 Kingdom of Loathing, playing 849 knowledge, skills, and attitude (KSA) 1015

L “Laser Challenge” 1451 Lack of Cohesion Metric (LCOM) 533 language and culture learning, opportunities



414 Language Learning 1380 language learning 1373, 1382 layers, influence between 1019 learner 696 learner, characteristics of the 674 learner characteristics 672, 674, 678 learner characteristics, studies on 21 learning environment, five assumptions of 1044 learning layer, in video game design 1015 learning orientations, and learning styles 830 learning processes, and violent video games 876 learning styles, and video games 893 learning style theories 833 learning task component 1161 Learning tasks 1150 learning through achievement, with video games 499 learning through practice, with video games 498 learning vs. “self education” 758 Lego Star Wars 778 Life Challenge, HIV-AIDS prevention video game 390 Life Preservers, video game 1012 light-emitting diodes (LEDs) 113 local and wide network (LAWN) games 53 location-based 1465 long-term memory (LTM) 721 ludology 1373, 1374, 1387

M magic circle of play, video games 1057 managing cognitive overload, in educational gaming applications 724 Marcel Mauss, concept of bodily technique 111 massively-multi-player online role-playing games (MMORPGs) 1059 massively multi-player online games (MMOGs) 794 massively multi-player online roleplaying game (MMORPG) 847 massively multiplayer online game (MMOG) 71

Index

massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) 703, 1401 massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMOG/MMORPG) 75 massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPG) 53 massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) 235 massively multiplayer role-playing games (MMORPGs) 402 massive multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) 128 Math Blaster Algebra 283 mathematical formula 1308 meaningful learning 1106 mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics (MDA) framework 1013 mechanistic model 812 media literacy 1440, 1441, 1442, 1443, 1444 , 1445, 1446, 1447, 1448 Mediated Social Environments 1331 Menu buttons 1457 Mertis 1225 meta-gaming Second Life virtual environment, used for algebraic operations 546 metacognition 1440, 1445, 1446 metacognitive modeling 1441 microbe evolution 1277 microscopic 1277 Middle Rhine Eduventure 90 mindset, and self theories 832 MMOGs, and intertextuality 794 MMOPRPGs, and decision-making skills 243 MMORPGs, and social studies 238 MMORPGs, offerings for foreign language education 406 MMORPGs, used to support learning and training 57 MMORPGs for foreign language education, infrastructure of 408 MMORPGs for foreign language education, potential 407 MMORPGs for foreign language learning, designing 409 mobile and personal technologies, as primary platforms for delivery 102

mobility 1472, 1474 mod-making 213 Model-View-Controller (MVC) 532 models 682 model trace 1275 motivation dimension 1280 MUD object oriented (MOOs) 1407 multi-player games, educational impacts of 766 multi-player online games (MMOGs 1204 multi-player online games (MMOGs) 1205 multi-player online role-playing game (MMORPG) 1218 multi-user dungeon (MUD) 607 multi-user dungeons (MUDs) 1407 multi-user virtual environment (MUVE) 1184, 1186 multi-user virtual environments (MUDs) 54 multimedia learning theories 106 multimedia software 1450 Multimodal 1331 multiplayer online games, for school education 57 multiplayer online role-play games, used for military training 60 Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 898 My Pop Studio program 1440, 1441, 1442, 1 443, 1444, 1445, 1446

N Nabiscoworld.com 361 narrative model 813 Narratives 1374 narratives, four categories of 866 narrative studio 871 narrative vignettes 613 Narratology 1374 narratology 1373, 1387 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 34, 238 newbie-friendly learning curve 412 new mobile gaming 1294 Newtoon and Mission Simulators 89 Nintendo Wii™ 111 No Child Left Behind (NCLB) 1401 non-playing characters (NPCs) 1461



Index

Non-Uniform, Rational B-Splines (NURBS) 539 nonlinearity 1471 North American Simulation and Gaming Association (NASAGA) 452 NTeQ (iNtegrating Technology through inQuiry) 179 NTeQ Model 183

O Object, View, and Interaction Design (OVID) 92 object-oriented programming (OOP), via gaming 508 Object Orientation paradigm 530 OCEAN model 674 ONLINE CHILDREN’S GAMES 360 online educational environment 560 online games, promoting specific brands or products 358 online gaming, brief overview 54 online gaming, definition of 52 online multiplayer role-play games, for post-16 learning 58 Oregon Trail 1318 Oregon Trail. 1319 organismic model 812 Othello, video game 509 Othello, video puzzle game 519 Oubreak@MIT 1465 Outbreak (online game) 89

P Packy & Marlon, diabetes video game 392 paidea 1374 palette, of play styles 827 palette of play styles and learning 836 parasocial interaction (PSI) 597 pedagogy 1464 pedagogy, of digital games 1025 perceptive capacity 1047 performance feedback 1449 personal digital assistant (PDA) 1461 personality traits 897 personal myth development 862 Phong Reflection Model 540



physical models 676, 677, 678, 691 sensory system 676

physiognomy, definition of 616 physiological scheme, claims of games 36 platform metaphor 1453 play behavior, of the four player types 829 player character (PC) 897 player reasoning 1480 player types, nine used by commercial game companies 828 play style, and reward structure 837 play style and player types 827 play styles, palette of 827 plot 1219 Podcasts 1187 policy issues 103 popular culture 1257 positive impact model 1310 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and online gaming 61 practice field 1474 Predators 1325 prevalence of food, in console games 361 prevalence of food, in online games 361 principles of advertising and branding 362 problem-based learning 187 problem-based learning (PBL) 1196 problem space 680, 683, 695 processing dimension 1280 product placements, advergames 360 product placements, aka hidden advertising plugs 360 Program Executive Office for Simulation, Training, and Instrumentation (PEO STRI) 877 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 34 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 169 programming skills 1257 proliferation 1294 propositions, based on self-organizing social systems theory 710 propositions, based on social exchange theory 711 propositions, based on social learning theory

Index

706 propositions, based on social presence theory 708 propositions, based on theories of collaborative learning 704 propositions, based on theories of social suppor 712 psychological models 672, 675, 676, 678, 687 psychological scheme, claims of games 36

Q Q-homomorphisms. See quasi-homomorphisms Q-morphisms. See quasi-homomorphism qualitative meta-analysis 1 quality dynamic resources, descriptors of 656 quality teaching, what do we know about 653 quasi-homomorphisms 685 Quest Atlantis 796 Quia, Website 1429

R RAPUNSEL 720 Re-Mission, video game for young cancer patients 391 reading and comprehension, in schools today 255 real-time strategy (RTS) 1315 reasoning algorithm 1481 reflection 1470 reliving the revolution (RtR) 1460, 1461 representation and identification 1029 Rex Ronan, smoking prevention video game 390 Ridge Walking, mini game 1043 River City 796 River City AR 1465 role, bad citizen 854 role, beneficent demigod 855 role, bugfinder and tester 857 role, clan leader 854 role, good citizen 853 role, mall trader 855 role, virtuoso player 855 role-playing game, learning in 596

role-playing games 1205 Role-playing games (RPG) 1222 Role playing 1147 role playing game (RPG) 1383 roles, and their creation 852 Romance!, pregnancy prevention game 390 rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC) 879 RPG (role playing game) 1383 rules and fiction, tension between 765

S Savannah 86 scoring 1449 Second Language Acquisition (SLA) 425 second language learning, several basic premises 403 Second Life (SL) 146 Second Life, a review of 610 Second Life, as a virtual world environment 149 Second Life, video game 494, 547 Selene: A Lunar Creation GaME 1104 self-induced education 757 self-learning, through video games 500 self-management games 391 self-organizing social systems 709, 714 self-regulated learning (SRL) 739, 740 self-regulated learning, and video games 738 self-regulatory processes 738 self and identity, developing notions of 813 serious game 1466 serious games 219, 220, 227, 230 serious games, for police officers 451 serious games movement 1010 sexual conten 1318 simulated worlds 1290 simulation, as a game 316 simulation, in world history 202 simulations 1354, 1355, 1357, 1359, 1364, 1365, 1404 single-player digital games 761 situated learning 1464 situated learning and cognition 181 situated vignettes, examples of 613 SIXAXIS Wireless Controller 112 sketch tool 1137



Index

skill acquisition 780 small-group digital game interactions 133 social cognitive theory 598 social competition 1175 social constructivist classroom 1257 social exchange theory 710, 714 social interaction 1468 social learning, and video games 502 social learning theory 705, 713 social network 1478 social networking 1303, 1442, 1443 social networks (SNW), analysis 132 social networks, impact of 1480 social network type 1480 social presence 707, 713 social psychology 702 social support 712 soft skills 1406 solo vs. paired play 839 Space Station Leonis (SSL) 809 SPACE STATION LEONIS, game based learning with 810 special needs, game design for people with 141 Sprite inheritance hierarchy 514 SPY Act (Securely Protect Yourself Against Cyber Trespass Act) 493 Squire’s Quest! 389 standalone games 53 state-of-the-art learning games 1403 stealth learning, provided by serious game play 1010 story creation mode 1283 Story line 1147 storytelling, two perspectives on 1016 storytelling layer, in video game design 1016 strategic issues 103 Street Fighter, video game 1061 students, have different needs and abilities 894 subject-matter experts (SMEs) 92 Supportive information 1134 suspension of disbelief, in video games 599 Symptom Shock, concussion symptoms video game 391

0

T teams 1405 techniques of the body 114 technological innovations 1403 technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK), and games for learning 42 technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) framework 33, 42 technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK) model 1012 technology, pedagogy, and learning-trends in 101 technology layer 1019 Texas assessment of knowledge and skills (TAKS) 285 The Baby Game!, pregnancy prevention game 390 theoretical foundation 1143 theory of mediatization 164 therapeutic and fitness games 393 The Sims 862 The Sims 2, sixty-six narratives 865 The Sims 2, story exchange in 865 The Sims online community 869 thieves 1325 three-dimensional (3D) environment 547 three-layergaming framework 517 traditional instructional methods 1089 transferable schema 1143 transfer of knowledge, through video games 498 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 34 trickster 1225 true game, five elements of 69

U U.S. Army Research, Development, and Engineering Command’s Simulation and Training Technology Center (STTC) 1090 U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) 452 unity of opposites 1225 Usability Evaluations 1455 user experience layer 1018

Index

users’ personalities, and video games 893 user tracking 694

V video and computer games, as pedagogical tools 490 video game experience, relationship between cognitive skills and the learning process 776 video game interfaces, whole body participation 111 Video games 1310 video games 1445, 1446, 1448 videogames, "machinema" 1393 video games, "Sid Meier's Civilization" 1392– 1395 video games, "The Sims" 1392–1397 video games, building comprehension skills 251 videogames, educational potential of "Mods" 1393–1397 videogames, educational potential of "Mods", classroom context 1396–1397 videogames, educational potential of "Mods", instructor reactions 1395–1396 videogames, educational potential of "Mods", pupil reactions 1395 video games, measures of commercial success 641 video games, measures of critical success 640 video games, modified (mods) 1391–1393 video games,negative effects 878 video games, positive effects 877 video games, quality of content 501 video games, usage in the classroom 1390– 1398

video games and today’s learners 595 video game soundtracks 1172 violent video games 876 violent video games, and increased aggression 876 virtual communities 1290 virtual heritage 219, 220, 221, 224, 225, 22 6, 227, 228, 229, 230 virtual life 1290 Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) 548 virtual testimonials 1461 virtual world, how to select 494 virtual world environments (VWEs) 146 virtual worlds 1402 Virus (online game) 89 visual attention 1358 Visual Basic for Applications (VBA) scripting 1431 visualizing a single object 510

W Widdershoven’s narrative model 816 Wii Sport 394 wireless handheld devices 1464 working memory (WM) 722 World of Warcraft (WoW) 794 World of Warcraft, video game 1061 Worm, video game 509 WormChase, video game 509

Z zone of proximal development (ZPD) 426, 528, 834, 1259