Gunung Sewu in Prehistoric Times

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GUNUNG SEWU IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

GUNUNG SEWU IN PREHISTORIC TIMES AUTHORS

Truman Simanjuntak - Centre f or Archaeological Research Bagyo Prasetyo - Centre for Archaeological Research Harry W idianto - Yogyakarta Archaeological Research Sub-centre Fadhlan S.Intan - Centre f or Archaeological Research Retn o Hand ini - Centre for Archaeological Research Anjar Sri Sayekti - Alumna of Gadjah Mada University Etik Ma hareni - Alumna of University of Indonesia

EDITOR

TRUMAN SIMANJUNTAK READER

JOHN N . MIKSIC NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY PRESS

tr

CONTENTS List of Plat es List of Figures List of Tables Pref ace by editor Prefa ce by John Miksic

IX

xv iii XXll XXlll

xx v

PART ONE: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF GUNUNG SEWU

Copyright © 2002 GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY PRESS P.O. Box 14, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281 , Indonesia E-mail: [email protected] First printing March 2002 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form. by print•. photo-print. microfilm, or any other means without written permission from the publisher.

1119.10.03.02

Printed and published in Indonesia by: GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY PRESS

Member of IKAPI (Indones ian Publishers Association) 0263046-B5E IS BN 979-420-501-X

1. Gunung Sewu: A Long History of Occupation (Introduction) Truman Simanjuntak 1., . 2. Natural Conditions and Contemporary Communities of G unung Sewu _ ., Retno Handini Cultural Traditions in the Gunung Sewu Area Retno Handini 3. Brief notes on Paleoclimate and Paleogeography of the Archipelago

3

13

20

25

Truman Simanjuntak and Fadhlan S. lntan Preliminary Studies on the Palynology of Gunung Sewu Anjar Sri Sayekti 4. Geological Condition of Gunung Sewu

Fadhlall S. Intan History of the Formation of Gunung Sewu and the Karst Caves Fadlan S. Intan and Truman Simanjuntak

32 41

49

VII

vi

PART FOUR: PRENEOLITHIC EXPLOITATION IN THE HOLOCENE

PART TWO: EXPLOITATION IN REMOTE TIMES 5. Evidence of Early Colonization Bagyo Prasetyo The Baksoka River Terraces Fadhlan Silntan 6. Patterns of Settlement and Subsistence Bagyo Prasetyo 7. The Pacitanian Truman Simanjuntak 8. The Pacitanian Culture: Who Owns It ? Ha rry Widianto

55 62 68 73 80

PART THREE: TOWARD THE END OF THE PLEISTOCENE 9. Cave Settlement, Ne w Trend in the Late Pleistocene 89 Truman Simanjuntak 10. Caves Settlement in the Gunun g Sewu Area 97 Bagyo Prasetyo, Truman Simanj untak and Fadhlan S. lntan • CavesSettlement in Southeast Asia 102 Truman Simanjuntak

11. Keplek Cave: Settlement in the Late Pleistocene-Holocene Truman Simanjuntak 12. Braholo Cave, an Idea l Settlement Site in Western Gunung Sewu Truman Simanjuntak The Formation of Keplekand BraholoCaves Fadhlan S. lntan 13. Late Pleistocene Vertebrates in Gunung Sewu Etik Mahareni

109

119 128 133

14. Subsistence of the Cave Dwellers Truman Simanjuntak and Bagyo Prasetyo Macaca sp. and Cave Settlement Bagyo Prasetyo The Hearth in Cave Settlement Truman Simanjuntak 15. Exploitation of Rock Resources Fadhlan S. lntan 16. They Developed the Lithic Industry Truman Simanjuntak . Hake-Blade Tools in Islands Southeast Asia Truman Simanjuntak 17. The Bone Industry Bagyo Prasetyo ;"., Double Points from Braholo Cave Bagyo Prasetyo

..

147 154 155 159 165 176 18 1 189

p:~

The Distribution of Bone Tool Tradition Bagyo Prasetyo

191

PART FIVE: NEOLITHIC AND PALEOMETALLIC EXPLOITATION 18. Neolithic Workshop Sites , The Peak of Lithic Technology Truman Simanjuntak Neolithic Features in Indonesia Truman Simanjuntak 19. The Neolithic of Gunung Sewu: from Caves to Open Sites Truman Simanjuntak and Bagyo Prasetyo Gunung Sewu Pottery within the Southeast Asian Context Bagyo Prasetyo 20. From the Neolithic to the Paleometallic Bag yo Prasetyo 21. Development of Metallurgy in Indonesia Bagyo Prasetyo

197 203 206 211 215 221

viii ix Metal Objects from Paleometallic Sites Ba~"prasetyo

.

223

LIST OF PLATES

PART SIX: GUNUNG SEWU: MAN AND SETTLEMENT CHRONOLOGY

22. Prehistoric Inhabitants of Gunung Sewu Har ry Widianto The Flexed Burial System Bagyo Prasetyo

23. Settlement Chronology of Gunung Sewu Truman Simanjuntak 24. Gunung Sewu: Exploitation Since the Remote Past (Conclusion) Truman Simanjuntak Bibliography Appendix 1· List of Cave Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area Appendix 2 List of Open Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area

227 248 250 257 263 276 • 280

Plate 1: Specific view of Gunung Sewu with the hemispheric or conic karst hills. This hilly area limits the agricultural area to the valleys and narrow plains and in some cases the hill slopes . Plate 2: Another characteristic of the Gunung Sewu landscape are the dolines between the hill range . Some of these dolines never dried up and other contain water only in the rainy season. Scarcity of water forced the people to utilize the dolines for washing and bathing, etc. Plate 3: The arid condition of the soil only facilitated dry cultivation and only during the rain y-season around October- March. The longer the rainy seas0!l it will be an advantage for the farmers . In this picture a ' woman is pulling out Cassava or Manihot utilisima on her field . Plate 4: A traditional javanese house in the Gunung Sewu region. It is very simple with a tiled roof and walls of plaited woven bamboo "gedeg", The most specific characteristic is that it has a spacious room in front to receive guests. The rooms are in the back and farthest back is the kitchen. Plate 5: A sight of market day in the district town, Punung. The traditional market is very busy during harvest time and forms the place where crop products are sold and daily necessities are bought. Mobility of the people on market day enlivened the rural sphere. Plate 6: A rural scenery in the afternoon when the farmers are on the way back home after a day working in the field . They carry crop-produce and grass to feed the livestock. Plate 7: The resan Kali Jero in the village Sumugih, Rongkop, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta Special Area Province. The area of the resan is grown with big ipek and gentungan trees that form a circle with a diameter of about 10 m. Part of the local

Xl

x peopl~believe

that their ancestors spirit live in this resan and is tnerefore regarded as sacred. No one dares to disturb or harm this resan for fear of the effect it may cause. Plate 8: The sanctuary (petilasan) of Kyai Mojo in the village Semugih, Rongkop district, Gunung Kidul regency. This place is often used by the people beyond Semugih village to meditate, while the local people in the surrounding area that are to hold a feast, used this place to perform rituals of rejecting rain. Plate 9: The landscape of Gunung Sewu changes follows the seasons. During the dry season, the landscape is open, whereas during the rainy season it becomes green with dense vegetation. This picture presents a landscape during the rainy season. Plate 10: Pollen from Keplek Cave. From up left to below right: Cyatheaceae, Polypodiaceae, Euporbhiaceae, Liliaceae, Podocarpaceae, Malvaceae. Plate 11: Pollen from Braholo Cave. Up down: Cyperaceae, Nygtaginaceae, Astreaceae. Plate 12: A beach view and the karst hill range in Watukarung. Erosion by' seawater caused that some of the hills to be located separated from the continent. Plate 13: The situation of the karst hills in the western part of Gunung Sewu, Seen from afar the hemispheric or conic shape of the hills with no vegetation. There are certain parts of Gunung Sewu that are more arid, without any vegetation. Plate 14: A thin section of carbonate calcified clay showing the composition of excessive clay minerals besides calcite and carbon slivers and vertebrate bones. It also containes volcanic material, comprising andesite, magnetite, biotite, pyroxen, plagioclase, and quartz (Widiasmoro, 1999). Plate 15: A thin section of lithic tuff crystal showing the composition of crystal lithic and volcanic glass. The crystal consists of plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, biotite, magnetite, and exessive pyroxen. Lithic composition consists of andesite

and pumice. Besides it also contains calcite and vertebrate bones (Widiasmoro, 1999). Plate 16: White limestone in brittle and crackled condition. This rock is very soluble and easy to crumble. This picture is taken from a location on the southwest of the Braholo Cave entrance. Plate'17: The situation of Baksoka River in the rainy season is very much different from that in the dry season. This picture shows 'a situation in the rainy season with clear water. Usually, .after a heavy rain, the river is over flooded. In this river Koenigswald found Paleolithic artifacts in 1935. Plate 18: Kedunggamping River in Worawari village, district Kebun. . agung, Pacitan regency. It is a Paleolithic site very rich in andesite artefacts. Typologically , the artifacts it contains belong to the pacitanian. Plate 19: The chopper is the most commonly found among the massive tools. The main characteristics: a monofacial edge. From its morphology, it distinguishes the tortoise type, flatiron type, and horse hoof type. This picture presents a . chopper of the tortoise type from Baksoko river. ' Plate 20: Dolines with plains and hills surrounding it and the areas of river courses, provide various environmental nature resources to support human life. The discovery of artifacts around the river and plains indicate that human activities occurred around these areas. Photo on the left: a lake in the Rongkop area. On the right: the Paleolithic site in Sooka river, village Kebunagung, east of Pacitan. Plate 21: A specific rural scenery in Gunung Sewu in the plains and narrow valleys between the hills. This view reflects prehistoric occupation of similar landscapes. The picture is taken from around Cabak Cave, Baran . Plate 22: Andesite flake tool from Sooka river, village Kebunagung, east of Pacitan. Retouches are found on the lateral side. Compared to other lithic artifacts from this site, this tool is less rounded with corners still sharp.

xii Plate 23: A view of karst hills that will vanish due to mining activities for th~oduction of chalk. This kind of activities presents hazards to the preservation of cave sites that formed centres of human activities in the past. Destruction of the karst hills means decrease of historic data. This picture is taken from the road side of Baran, Wonosari. Plate 24: A core tool from Braholo Cave. Made of limestone, cut from a boulder by flaking at the end (distal) to create the cutting edge. Part of the surface is left untrimmed. Apparently the utilization of the tool was more important than the creation of standard forms. The scarcity of silicified rocks around Braholo Cave compelled the use of the available material. The soft rock is less suitable for the manufacture of flake tools, but it suited for the bigger tools. Plate 25: Kalak Cave, one of the most beautiful caves in the Punung area with its stalactites and stalagmites in the front. This cave stretches into the hill and contains plenty of prehistoric remains like animal bones; potsherds and lithic artifacts. Plate 26: Song Gupuh (Gupuh Cave), one of the intensively studied caves in the Punung area. The uniqueness of the cave is the presence of a thick Neolithic layer that exceeds other caves. In this cave are also found quadrangular planks and atelier flakes: Plate 27: Excavation activities in Keplek Cave, Punung. On the right: the beginning of excavating a square. On the left: activities of measuring finds in a square that is fairly deep, recording, and cleaning . Plate 28: Keplek Cave, from the Southwest. The part that can be excavated is limited to the front section. The main part stretches to the back is covered by huge blocks, as debris of the cave roof. The find in this cave are very dense. Plate 29: The hill site of Braholo cave viewed from the west. The cave - is located below a steep slope, about 15 m above the village road. In the front is the plain that contains the village settlement.

xiii Plate 30: Tool like chopper from the Late Pleistocene layer of Braholo Cave. Crude in performance with monofacial flaking from distal towards proximal part. Secondary flakings are still observable along the distal side. . ' Plate 31: Canarium seed from Braholo Cave. Seeds like kenan (Conarium sp), ketapang (Terminalia catappa) and kemiri (Al/eurites mol/ucan) were found in the middle portion of layer 3 upwards. The exploitation of seeds is assumed to occur since 6.000 years ago. Plate 32: A concentration of animal bones in B6, Keplek Cave. Similar findings often occur in occupation layers in caves. . Usually they consist of various kinds of animals and . assumed to be the food remains of the cave dwellers. Plate 33: Some faunal remains from the Late Pleistocene layer in Keplek Cave. On the leftt.part of a lower mandible of Cervidae. Centre: -antler of Cervidae; upper right; fragment of Testudinidae carapax; lo\'/er right: tooth/teeth of Suidae. Plate 34: Some wood fibers were found in the hearth layer in Braholo Cave. Some are coarse as seen in picture. Finer fibres were found in burial of square J9, around the chest part. It was assumed as dress (cloth) of the dead. The coarse fibres from dress remains is still doubted. Plate 35: Fresh water molluscs. Besides marine molluscs, land and fresh water molluscs were also found in excavations, but they are confined to the upper layer or from more recent occupation . Plate 36: Macaca sp. skull from Braholo Cave. The monkey remains are most commonly found in Braholo and Keplek Caves. The most dense distribution was found in the early Holocene layers till about 4,000 years ago or in Prene?lithic .Iayers. Based on its density, it is assumed that the main subsistence of the cave dwellers was hunting monkeys for food. The bones were often utilized for various kinds of tools, specially small sized tools like needles. Plate 37: The hearth layer in square J9, Braholo Cave (west wall).

xiv

xv

This layer reached a thickness of three meters unruptured. Radio~ric dating revealed that firing activities occurred at about 9,000 years ago and continued till 4,000 years ago. Viewed from the intensity of firing remains it can be assumed that firing formed a very significant activity in cave live at that period. This layer is also often found in other occupation caves, but not so intensi ve as that in Braholo Cave. Usually it is located in a corner near the cave wall. This general pattern in the cave indicates that room division was already practised. Plate 38: Chert Preneolithic arrow head from Braholo Cave. Chert is hard but brittle , so that trimming it make them favourable for the material of arrowheads. The mastering of various flaking techniques may result in beautiful arrowheads. Plate 39: Mortar from Braholo Cave. The outstanding characteristic is that one plane become concave and weathered by use. On the centre of the concave plane , remains of red material (hematite) is still left, indicating that mortars used also to produce hematite powder. • Plate 40: Chopper of fossil wood found on the surface in Keplek Cave. This kind of tool is not found in the Holocene cultural layer. It' was assumed that the tool was brought in to the cave. This picture shows the manner of monofacially flaking, starting from the edge to the proximal part of the tool. Plate 41 : Pebble hammer from Keplek Cave. The material clearly show allochtonous rock taken from the river. A percutor is a tool for flaking in the tool manufacturing. On the specific part of a tool, particularly the ends, shows cars of fractures effected by the blows with the flaked material. Plate 42: Double pointed needles form specific products in Braholo Cave. Morpho-technologically they present several types, - and the most commonly found are the mono lateral double pointed needles. As seen on the pictures these needles remind us of Muduk Point from South Sulawesi, but of a different type.

Plate 43: Tool of antler from Braholo Cave. Antler is hard and its shape with the many branches is very easy to be used as tool. By cutting one of the branches on the main part, there is no need for further working to get the ideal shape. Usually only one end is worked on to be the active part of a tool. By monofacially rubbings, a wide cutting edge is obtained, like spatulas sometimes the natural pointed end is also used as tool. Use marks will be left as weathered surface, even or shiny . Antler tools from Braholo Cave are more outstanding than in Keplek Cave. , Plate 44: Several scrapers of mollusc shell from Braholo Cave. The serrated side as the result of retouching and use is . observable. Next to scraper, molluscs shell were also used to produce points . Plate 45: Some molluscs shell ornaments. The shapes are varieted, there are even some that retain its natural shape, without any modification of the original shape. The characteristics of shell ornaments lies in the perforating hole, or holes in the center part: and assumed to serve to insert thread with which the ornament is to hang. Plate 46: The Neolithic site of Ngrijangsengon. The very dense distribution of chert flakes expanded not only in the dry field areas, but also on the village roads and around the houses of the local people. The density of these flakes indicate very intensive atelier activities in said site. , Plate 47: Some arrowheads from the site of Melikan, The triangular shape, thin by trirruning on both planes, retouched sides and concave base form the specific character of Neolithic arrowheads of Gunung Sewu. They were unlike the Preneolithic arrowheads, that are coarse, thick and with convex base. Plate 48: The very dense distribution of chert flakes on the site of Ngrijangan. Similar distribution of flakes are often found in other Neolithic sites. One can imagine the existence of centers of activities, that prevailed continuously in a relatively long period.

xvii xvi Plate 49 : Plank in the further stage of working from Ngrijangsengon. Usually th~oduct from the ateliers are unfinished adzes. By rubbing the surface and cutting edge , a fine smooth adze is obtained , ready for use. Plate 50 : Finished adze s and used ones from Nrijan gan site. Finished adzes are very rarely found, but their presence indicate that the atelier also produced finished adzes . The picture show s the smooth surface and damaged cutting edge by usage. Plate 51: Klepu site in the rainy season with flouri shin g crops of Cassava. The site covers a part of cultivation field that is slightly flat. The' Paleometallic cultural remains found comprise metal objects, beads and pottery. Plate 52 : Reconstructed saucer from Klepu site. This bowl is found in association with pots , other bowl, beads and metal objects within a concentration of finds. The location of the finding is assumed to be a burial , with those objects as funeral gifts. Unfortunately, no human remains were found because of the possibility that it was totally destroyed due to the high water . content on the site. The bowl was made using the rotating wheel technique, the surface is smoothened with red slip. Plate 53: A machete from Klepu Site, found in association with pottery and beads . It is corroded but the original shape is still preserved. The artifact bearing layer dates from around 600 years BP. Plate 54: A concentration of pottery found in situ in Klepu site in a layer datin g from 600 years ago. Found in assoc iation with beads and machete. Plate 55: Some strands of beads from Klepu site. The beads were made of glass, round shaped, a penetrating hole that connect both end s. The colour varie s from green , light blue, dark blue , to yellow ish. Th ey are usually small , with a diameter of"(),4 cm. Beads like these are commonly found in Paleometallic sites in Indonesia, like Gilimanuk, Plawangan, etc. Plate 56: A burial with a flexed position of the dead (Individual IV) in Keplek Cave. Both legs are folded with the heels towards the

hip , and arms folded towards che st and chin. It represents an adult woman . Plate 57: A burial with straight position facing upwards . Both arms folded on the chest and represent individual V from Kepl~k Cave. The physical characteristics point to the Mongoloid

I

I

\

\ I

race. Plate 58: A primary burial in flexed position from Bra~o.lo Cave (Individual I). Legs and arms are in flexed Posl~l?n. The skull is invisible because of its fragmentary condItIOn: On the chest and abdomen are stones heaped to protect It. It represents an adult female individual. . Plate 59: One of the secondary burials (indi vidual IT) found III square . 18 Braholo Cave. In secondary burials it is common to select the particular parts of the body that are cons idered of importance to be buried. -, . Plate 60: Lower human jaw from Braholo Cave as a part of ~econdary burial. . ':. .

xviii

LIST OF

xix

FIGU~ .Figure 7:

Figure 1:

Location of Gunung Sewu and the Southern Mountains of Java .

Figure 2:

Distribution of Prehistoric Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area The Sunda shelf in the ice age and route for migration (Sernah et .al, 1990). Glaciation that . occurred repeatedly during the Pleistocene ' has changed the shape of the Archipelago, conform to the rise and drop of sea level. During the ice age, sea level dropped effecting in the emergence of land bridge that connected the Asian continent with the islands Sumatra, Java , and Kalimantan (Borneo), forming the Sunda shelf. It was during this period that migration of man and fauna from continental area to the islands was assumed to occur.

Figure 3:

Figure 4:

Figure 8:

Geomorphological map of Gunung Sewu

Figure 6:

Cross section of the Baksoka valley. Above (after de Terra): 1. Limestone; 2. terra rosa; 3. volcanic ash; 4. old volcan ic material; TI ,2: river terraces. Below: (after Movius): 1. limestone , 2. terra rosa; 3. volcanic

1976). A large disc scraper, made of silicified limestone, was found in situ in 1970, from the cemented gravel layer on the bank of Sunglon river, near Tabuhan Cave (Bartstra, 1976). Made of sili~ified li~e~tone, marks of flaking and intensive retouchmg are VISible a~o~nd ~he tool. The size of this picture underwent diminution

from its original. '. ' Plan and section of ~eplek Cave, Eastern Gunung Figure 9: .. , Sewu Figure 10: Disc scrapers from Keplek Cave. 1: 8316-B6; 2: 8198B6 Figure 11: Bone tools from Keplek Cave: waisted tool (8075-A5), perforator from a tooth (8590-A5) Figure 12: Schematic stratigraphy of Keplek Cave, Punung (Gunung Sewu) Figure 13: Plan and section of Braholo Cave. . Western Gunung

The post glaciaton situation of the Archipelago (Semah et al, 1990) . The termination of the ice age has caused the change of the islands'palaeogeography: landbridges that previously emerged, connecting the Asian continent with the islands submerged, due to the rise of sea level. Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan that formerly formed the Sunda shelf were separated and became islands. This occurrence has brought consequences in the migration flow that formerly took the land bridge has to take the sea route .

Figure 5:

. ; Tl "23'. river terraces (Bartstra, ash, 4 . 0 Id vo Icaruc 1976). Hand-axe as one of the specific Paleolithic tools, is characterized by bifacial flaking, on most of t~e surface or the entire surface, to create a symmetnc shape. This picture (no scale) shows a hand-axe from Baksoka River made of silicified limestone (Bartstra,

Figure 14:

Sewu Stratigraphy of Braholo Cave , Western Gunung Sewu

Schematic of the formation process of Braholo Cave Figure 16: Lithic artifacts from Braholo Cave: percutor (182-08), side scraper (287-0 5) Figure 17: Lithic artifacts from Braholo Cave: blade (207-08), end scraper (490-08), utilized flake (578-05)

Figure 15:

Figure 18:

\

\ \

Big spatulas from Braholo Cave

XXI

xx Figure 19: Bone tools from Braholo Cave: spatula (122-05), point (1~6)

Figure ~O: Figure 21: Figure 22: Figure 23:

Distribution of Macaca sp. at Keplek Cave Distribution of Macaca sp. at Braholo cave Nucleus from Keplek Cave. 1683-F8. Knives with the cortical dorsal from Keplek Cave. 1: 1722-F8; 2: 794- F8; 3: 1563-F8; 4: 1227-F8. Figure 24: Concave scrapers from Keplek Cave. 1: 1903-D3; 2: 36-03; 3: ~-03 ; 4: 359-03; 5: 3659-D3; 6: 656-03; 7: 101-03; 8: 324-03. Figure 25: Denticulated tools from Keplek Cave. 1: 605-B6; 2: 19-B6; 3: 497: B6; 4: 132-B6. Figure 26: Side scraper from Keplek Cave. 1: 1834-B6; 2: 1444B6; 3: 730- B6 Figure 27: Keplek Cave: distribution of bone tools Figure 28: Braholo Cave: distribution of bone tools Figure 29: Big spatula from Braholo Cave Figure 30: Bone artifacts from Braholo Cave: spatula (176-L8), (45-17), needle (34-17), utilized teeth (26-K8) Figure 31: Neolithic sites in Gunung Sewu (after Tanudirjo, 1991) Figure 32: The unfinished adze from Ngrijangsengon site Figure 33: The unfinished adze from Padangan site Figure 34: Distribution of caves settlement in eastern part of Java Figure 35: The unretouched flakes from Keplek Cave. 1: 572303; 2:5787-03; 3:5727-03 Figure 36: Points from Keplek Cave. 1:7424-B6; 2:8232-B6; 3:6771-B6. Figure}7: Borers from Keplek Cave. 1: 6888-B6 (wood fossil); 2: 4974-B6; 3: 8223-B6; 4:5575-B6. Figure 38: Borers from Keplek Cave. 1: 871-D3; 2: 912-D3; 3:460 3; 4:903-03.

Figure 39: Figure 40: Figure 41: Figure 42: Figure 43: Figure 44: Figure 45: Figure 46: Figure 47: Figure 48:

Used flakes from Keplek Cave. 1: 587-F8;2: 667-F8; 3: 1512-F8; 4: 2005-F8; 5: 395-F8. The utilized flakes from Keplek Cave. 1: 7287-B6; 2: 4515-B6; 3:5566-B6 End scraper from Keplek Cave. 1: 36-F8; 2: 1733-F8; 3: 1666-F8; 4: 295-F8; 5: 158-F8; 6: 1327-F8. Chopping tool of limestone from Braholo Cave. 313M8 Core tool from Braholo Cave : arrow pointing at flaking direction. 366-D5. Chopper of limestone from Braholo Cave. 530-05. Various types of scraper from Keplek Cave. 1: 28808; 2: 72-08; 3: 366-08. Spatula from BraholoCave. 1: 434-D5; 2: 45-05. Other type of spatula from Braholo Cave. 38'-N8. Bone tools from Braholo Cave: spatula (above), point (left below), needle (right below)

Note: Figures no. 22-26, 38, 39, 41 drawn by Hubert Forestier, others by Oayat Hidayat.

xxii

LIST OF TABL~

Table 1:

Pollen from Braholo Cave, Western Gunung Sewu (13 samples taken from layer 1-6) Table 2: Pollen from Keplek Cave, Eastern Gunung Sewu (13 samples taken from layer 1-5) Table 3: Cave settlement sites of the Late Pleistocene in Southeast Asia Table 4: Cave settlement sites of the Holocene Times in Indonesia Table 5: C14 dates available from Keplek Cave, Eastern Gunung Sewu Table 6: C14 dates available from Braholo Cave, Western Gunung Sewu Table 7: Distribution of animal remains from the Late Pleistocene Layers of Braholo.Cave Table 8: Paleometallic Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area Table 9: Human Remains from Keplek and Braholo Caves, Gunung Sewu Table 10: Settlement Chronology of the Gunung Sewu Area.

PREFACE This book presents a synthesis of prehistoric life in the Gunung Sewu area, based on recent archaeological researches. Various aspects that relate to the inhabitants, the environment exploitation, the cultural character and chronology, become the main topics of discussion . The Gunung Sewu region has been inhabited continuously since the very remote past. Paleolithic sites distributed along the river courses that cross this area provide evidence of the oldest occupation that may have begun during the Middle Pleistocene. Since then, the exploitation of this area continued in a very long time span up to the historical period. The composition of this book involved a long sequence of activities starting with library research, followed by data collecting in the field, data processing, and data-synthesis . The primary sources for this volume are data obtained in recent fieldworks, supplemented by comparison with the results of earlier researches . It would have been impossible to achieve this new synthesis without the active involvement of the many young researchers who contributed their talents and energy to the arduous field and laboratory work required. This book consists of six main parts. Each part consists of several articles and some of these are supplemented with short articles that focus on specific matters. Part One (Chapters 1-4) presents a general history of occupation, environment and actual communities of Gunung Kidul as background to an understanding of life in the past. Part Two (Chapters 5-8) elaborates on the exploitation of Gunung Sewu in the earliest period (the Paleolithic) . Part Three (Chapters 913) discusses substantial changes in the pattern of life which took place in conjunction with a shift in locations favoured for habitation, from open sites to natural caves or shelters. Part Four (Chapters 1417) elaborates on the exploitation of this area during the Preneolithic period, covering cultural aspects related to cave settlement, hunting subsistence, exploitation of stone for tool-making, and the exploitation of bone and antler for a bone tool industry. Part Five (Chapters 18-21)

xxiv discusses Neo lithic cave habitation followed by a return to open sites, and the Paleometaw.is; as the final stage of prehistory. Part Six (Chapters 22-24) discusses the chronology of human settlement in the Gunun g Sewu area. The book concl udes with a synthesis of life in the Gunung Sewu area in prehistoric times. Research on Gunung Sewu executed in the last five years, which forms the basis of this book, has been funded by The Toyota Found ation, with support from the National Research Centre of Archaeology. Without the financial support of the previously mention ed foundation, tlie research described in this book could not have been conducted. In conjun ction with this fact, we, the compilers of this report, convey our sincere gratitude to The Toyota Foundation for the funds made available for research and publication of this work. We convey our thanks and appreciation to Ms. Yumiko HimernotoHiraishi, the Program Officer of the Internati onal Division of the Toyota Foundation, and her successor Ms. Etsuko Kawasaki, who regularly gave directives for the smooth running and success of the research project. Thank s are also conve yed to Dr. Tomoko Egami from the Aoyamagakuin University, Tokyo, who acted as the working' partner in the field and has rendered much help for the smooth running of the undertaking. Prof. Hasan Ambary, the former Head of the National Research Centre, has given much help for the smoothness of the field work, for which we address our gratitude. We are also grateful to Dr. Franc ois Sernah from the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris for his comments and suggestions regarding the substance of this book. Many thanks are due to Ms. Hendari Sofion for her assistance in translating this work into English. We convey our thanks to Dr. John Miksic from the National University of Singapore for his assistance in proofreadin g and giving introduction to this book. We are very grateful to our old friends and "parents", Madame and Monsieur Marchand, for the continued support along this work and giving encouragement and aid for the preparation of the manuscript. Finally , we thank all the researches team for their contribution in the production of this book. Editor

PREFACE John N. Miksic National University of Singapore At the beginning of the twentieth century, Java lay at the centre of the study of early human prehistory . Eugene Dubois' discoveries of a fossil skull and femur at Trinil , east Java, in 1891 and 1892, had confirmed the hypothesis of Alfred Russel Wallace that the earliest forms of human beings should be found in the tropical zones of the world. Dubois called the species of animal represented by the bones from Trinil "Pithecanthropus", giving rise to the popular term "Ape Man " (the literal translation of Dubois' Latin term)..In th~ early decades of the twentieth century, the pace of discovery In China and Africa began to quicken . By the 19508, African research had come to occupy the place which once had been reserved for Java. Most research activity and funding for the study of the an~estors of H~mo sapiens have been allocated to Africa. J~vanese p~ehlstory, :speclally the Paleolithic era, has gradually sunk into relative obscunty. Few headlines and little funding have been expended in the search for further data to illuminate what was once viewed as the goldmine of information on early hominids, where the cutting edge of human palaeontology was situated. . . The name "Pithecanthropus" has been replaced by the SCientific name Homo erectus. Fossils of this species are also found in Africa, South Asia, and China, but Java has still yielded more specimens than any other part of Asia. Homo erectus existed f~r a very long ti~e, ov~r a million years. This species was not frozen m one form dunng this long existence, however; it evolved through several stag.es. In Java, palaeontologists now recognize an archaic stage, a claSSIC stage, and an evolved form. The archaic fossils are between 700,000 and 1,700,000 years old. Classic Homo erectus date from 800,000 to

xxvi 400,000 years ago. The evolved type is believed to have lived around 150,000 years old, The classic Homo erectus fossils have long, flat skulls. One, from Sangiran, has a prognathic face (i.e. one in which the lower part of the face juts forward, a "primitive" characteristic) and a ridge over the eyebrows, called a supra-orbital torus. Behind this ridge is a transverse sulcus (depression). The top of the skull has a ridge as well, called a toms anguiaris. The more evolved specimens, found at three sites (Ngandong, Sambungmacan, and Ngawi), are still long, but are higher and wider in proportion to their length. Their brains were also larger, almost 50% bigger' than the previous stages, and not much smaller than modem humans. In fact their brain capacity overlapped with modem human brain capacities. The greatest expansion occurred in the area of the brain, associated with the motor cortical zone. Growth in this part of the brain could have equipped Homo erectus with better coordination of the hands and fingers, enabling them to produce finer tools, for instance. Unfortunately, we do not have any good mandibles (jawbones) for the evolved Homo erectus. We do have leg bones, which show that they walked like humans today, rather than like apes; and that they were about the same size as the average human of today, i.e. adults averaged about 170 em in height. In fact, the evolved Homo erectus are so similar to modem humans that some scholars debate whether these fossils represent Homo erectus or whether they should actually be termed archaic Homo sapiens. This question in tum is directly relevant to the wider controversy which revolves around the process of human evolution in general: did it take place in a restricted area of east Africa, or was the ancient human gene pool much wider, so that the process of evolution in Africa was in some way connected with contemporary developments far away in Java (Sernah et al, 1996). The long-standing neglect of Javanese data began to be rectified in the 19QDs. For the first time, human bones of early Pleistocene age were found in direct association with stone tools (Sernah and H.T. Simanjuntak, 1996), refuting the notion that Javanese Homo erectus were in some way retarded and so did not make stone tools at all. The

xxvii problem which hindered research on this topic was that m.ost of the fossils found in Java were deposited along the banks of nvers. The rivers were both a blessing and a curse to archaeologists: the flowing water made it possible to discover ancient rock strata, since they cut down through the later deposits to reveal the ancient deposits, but the streams had transported the bones an unknown distance from the spot where they were originally buried, while the stone t~o.ls, being heavier, were left behind. The sites where Homo erectus originally left their bones for many decades were frustratingly elusive. .During the 1930s the archaeologists Ralph von Koenigswald explored the mountains in southern Java where the source of the Solo River rises. He discovered stone tools in the valley of the Baksoko, a tributary 'of the Solo River. He named these tools Pacitanian, after the _ nearby town on the south coast of Java. The tools lie on several alluvial terraces cut by the river, soI1}~ of which are up to 30 meters above the level of the river now. ' Because of their location above .the riverbed, and because of theh- types, von Koenigswald and other archaeologists initially assumed that Pacitanian tools dated from the Paleolithic era, and were made by Homo erectus. The tools include many choppe~s a~d chopping tools, analogous to those found with Homo erectus m Africa. Unlike Africa, however, the tools known as hand-axes are infrequent. Hallam Movius (1948) compared these with other artifacts from Burma from an industry called the Anyathian. It was thought that the crude form of the tools and their locations on terraces formed early in the Pleistocene indicated that they were of Paleolithic age. This was based partly on the assumption that the tools were deposited on the terraces when the rivers were much shallower, before the process of erosion had proceeded to cut the riverbeds to their present depth. This assumption cannot be proved. Further doub t was cast on the early dating of the Pacitanian by the discovery that these tools are found mingled with other artifacts of the much later Neolithic era. Several scholars suggest that the Pacitanian is no older than the Upper Pleistocene, about 40,000 years ago (Bellwood, 1997; Bartstra and Basoeki, 1989). It has so far proved impossible to find any means of

xxviii

XXIX

obtaining absolute dating for the Pacitanian assemblage. Also in th~30s, archaeologists began to find cores, flakes, and retouched tools in alluvial layers capping the Middle Pleistocene Kabuh layers of the Sangiran dome. The "Sangiran flake industry" was also proposed as the toolkit of Javanese Homo erectus. Once again, archaeologists were long frustrated by the lack of any suitable means of dating the stones, and the age of the Sangiran flakes was therefore in doubt. The site of Ngandong has yielded about a dozen skulls of evolved Homo erectus, but only a few stones which might possibly have been worked by humans. Another site of evolved Homo erectus however yielded the first definite proof that Javanese Homo erectus made stone tools: Sambungmacan. A skull of evolved Homo erectus was found there in 1973. Further excavation yielded only two stone tools: a chopper and a retouched flake, but these were enough, given their stratigraphic position, to prove that they were Homo erectus products. Research at Kedung Cumpleng, Miri, in 1988 yielded more artifacts which can be dated by correlation with the geological layer in which they were found to about 900,000 years ago. These are' at present the oldest man-made objects known from Java. At the Ngebung site in the Sangiran dome, excavations in the Kabuh bed, deposited about half a million years ago (during the Middle Pleistocene) revealed an ancient riverbank buried under more recent alluvium . Here the first actual evidence of semi-intensive Homo erectus activity has been found. Numerous artifacts, including pebbles, broken bones, rough polyhedric tools, bolas (stone balls), and choppers, chopping tools, and cleavers, were discovered in a small area, perhaps corresponding to a camping site (Simanjuntak and Semah, 1996). This achievement provides another piece of evidence to confirm the conclusion that Javanese Homo erectus were no less capable of tool-making than their cousins elsewhere. Thus evidence of the antiquity of Javanese technology is slowly but surely coming to light. The Gunung Sewu, "Thousand Mountains;' region of south central Java, is today perhaps the poorest area on the entire island. Its

limestone soil is not fertile , and during the dry season fresh water is hard to find as the rivers sometimes disappear underground to flow through deep channels before emerging, sometimes in the ocean itself, just off the beach. The waters along this coast are treacherous, open to the full force of the Indian Ocean, and only at Pacitan is there a deep enough bay to provide shelter for a community of small fishing craft, mainly a local form of dugout canoe, which remain huddled within their protected environment. During the prehistoric era, however, it is possible to envision that this area might have been more enticing for human habitation. The caves which developed in the limestone outcrops would have provided shelter, particularly during the colder eras of the Pleistocene, and the rugged topography would have created many 'micro-environments, in which a wide variety of wild food sources could have been acquired. As long as the human population was not too dense, and did nqt employ destructive means of subsistence such as wholesale forest clearance, small cpmmunities could have enjoyed a comfortable lif~~tyle here in prehistory .. The archaeological research detailed in this volume sheds valuable light on the process by which humans gradually made the transition from the middle and late Pleistocene into the Holocene. Song Keplek or Keplek Cave and Braholo Cave yielded important information on cave habitation during the late Pleistocene, beginning around 33,000 years ago. It should be noted that the excavations in these caves reached depths of up to 7 meters, but did not attain the base of the deposits. Future research is obviously an urgent priority, to investigate the older occupational strata which may lie beneath. The open sites of Padangan, Ngrijangan, and Ngrijang Sengon provide important data on the later activity in this type of environment, especially the long-lived production of stone tools into a relatively recent era. Other sites such as Klepu, occupied as recently as 600 years ago, yield yet more data on the continuity of adaptation to this region. Some of the most important data in this study derive from the oldest layers of Song Terus (Terus Cave), which are interpreted to indicate that the Pacitanian tools are in fact over 180,000 years old, and therefore are true Paleolithic artifacts. This claim will no doubt

xxx stimulate yet m~ debate on this topic, and, one hopes, more fieldwork. The support of the Toyota Foundation in making possible this research has contributed significantly to the revival of archaeology in this region. which is now resuming its rightful place as one of the most important zones of Pleistocene activity in the world. This study obviously will be superceded as more work is conducted. The account of the human skeletal material, for example. is based on racial models which are on their very last legs and will probably soon be replaced as studies of genetic material' become more common. But the publication of this volume indicates that the capabilities of Indonesian archaeologists are rapidly reaching the point at which they can begin to participate as equals in joint projects with foreign counterparts. This situation bodes very favourably for the rapid increase of knowledge of the Javanese past, despite the uncertain political situation, which obtains at the time when this is written.

PART ONE

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF GUNUNGSEWU

/

1. GUNUNG SEWU: A LONG HISTORY OF OCCUPATION (INTRODUCTION) Gunung Sewu forms an important area for prehistoric research in the Archipelago, due to its richness in sites and various kinds of culture exemplified there. The hilly karst area, part of the Southern Mountain Range of Java, stretches from Pacitan Bay in the east to the Oyo River in the west, a distance of about 90 kID, with a width varying between 20-25 km from the coastline of the Indian Ocean (Figure 1). A total of 135 prehistoric sites have been identified in this area, each containing dense remains.vThis number is certain to increase in the future as new sites are found. The majority of the sites are located in the eastern part of this region, in the vicinity of the Districts of Punung, Donorojo, and Pringkuku (province of East Java). The center and western part have fewer sites (Figure 2). The sites in this area display a complete range of cultures, beginning with the Paleolithic, the Mesolithic (in this monograph referred to as Preneolithic), the Neolithic, and the PaleometalIic. This indicates that Gunung Sewu as a geographical entity has had a long history of settlement from the oldest up to the latest cultural development in prehistory, continuing up to the present. The presence of these sites at the same time proved that this area has been continuously exploited over a long time span. The abundance of sites and continuity of settlement during this long time-span offers great potential for the understanding of prehistory, not only on a local, but ' also on a regional scale, and have long made it a prime field for archaeological study.

4

The exploitation of Gunung Sewu displayed specific characteristics at each stage of cultural development, both in the pattern of the exploitation of land and in the range of tools produced. In the oldest cultural stage (the Paleolithic), life and the exploitation of land seems to have been centered on open sites, around and along river-courses. Paleolithic man seems to have exploited more of the natural resources offered and available around rivers, such as water, rocks, fauna and flora. It has been assumed that they were nomadic, hunting animals for their main subsistence. To support these activities, they made tools like choppers, chopping tools, hand-axes, and scrapers of large size made of various silicified rocks available, such as silicified limestone, silicified tuff, fossilised wood, etc. When the Paleolithic began to develop in this area has long been an unanswered question. The Paleolithic sites discovered in this area have provided no materials capable of being radiometrically dated for the period of early occupation. The reasons for this situation are that the sites have been disturbed by the river sedimentation, and that no faunal remains, including human fossil remains, have been found from the sites. Scholars are still in dispute about the relative date of the Gunung Sewu Paleolithic sites: some proposed a date in the Middle Pleistocene, while others favoured the Upper Pleistocene or even an age around 50,000 years ago (Heekeren, 1972; Bartstra, 1985). Entering the following stage (the Preneolithic) a significant change is observable: from nomadism to the exploitation of natural niches like caves and rock shelters. The caves and shelters became the centres of activities such as settlement, industrial activities connected with the manufacture of stone and bone tools, burial places for the dead, and for fireplaces. Hence, the caves or rock shelters became multifunctional spaces. The caves and rock shelters had been intensively exploited since the early Holocene, and probably long before, at least approaching the late Pleistocene. The change from wandering in the open to cave life brought about changes in the use of tools. The massive tools most important in ' the earlier stage were no longer in use and through progress in flaking

i

5 technology, became flake tools with a wide diversity of types. The ex ploitation of rock for tools was followed by the exploitation of animal bones for the same purpose. Various kinds of bone tools were produced, augmented by tools made of mollusc shell a~d deer antler. That period also produced adornments of mollusc shell and bone, the practise of various burial systems, and in l~ter periods the c,~llecti~~ of seeds, like "kerniri" or candlenut (Aleurztes mollucany; kenan or Canarium (Canarium sp. and "ketapang" tTerminalia catoppa). The settlement of caves may have taken place from at least 40,000 years until 2,000 years ago.

Plate 1: Specific view of Gunung Sewu with the hemispheric or conic karst hills. This hilly area limits the agricultural area to the valleys and narrow plains and in some cases the hill slopes.

The Preneolithic was followed by the Neolithic, which was characterized by the appearance and development of pottery and quadrangular adzes. In the beginning, life was still oriented toward caves and rock shelters, but seemingly not for long, because the inhabitants moved to open sites, on plains and hill slopes. The Neolithic culture of this area can be regarded as the peak of lithic technological ability, producing quadrangular adzes and arrowheads. Hundreds of Neolithic ateliers of substantial size give evidence of the existence of vast industrial areas, forming groups in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu. The Neolithic is presumed to have continued to develop until 1,000 years ago.

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9

From the Neolithic, life continued to develop into the Paleometallic stage, when open sites were still the centres of activity. The tradition of flaking the rock in tool making seems to have continued, although no longer so intensively. The important new development in this cultural stage is the introduction of metal tools and weapons, particularly those of iron, and beads. Pottery developed in the Neolithic continued with various advances in technology and morphology.

River. To express their joy, they organized a party with the local population by staging wayang (shadow puppet) performances lasting seven nights (Bartstra, 1976). Around 3,000 lithic artifacts were collected. A year later von Koenigswald published his findings in the Bulletin of the Raffles Museum, he termed this technology the "Pacitanian" after Pacitan, the nearest town. After von Koenigswald' s discovery, the Baksoka River became the target of a long series of studies, the most notable of which were written by de Terra (1943), Movius, .who introduced the Pacitanian typology (1944), van Heekeren (1972), Bartstra (1976) and Soejono (1982).

History of Research Plate 2: Another characteristic of the Gunung Sewu landscape are the dolines between the hill range. Some of these dolines never dried up and other contain water only in the rainy season. Scarcity of water forced the people to utilize the dolines for washing and bathing. etc.

Gunung Sewu as a geological unit with unique hemispherically profiled karst hills has attracted more scholars than its prehistoric sites. Since the beginning of the 19th century, this area has been visited by naturalists attracted by its karst hills. Junghuhn, who travelled to Gunung Sewu in 1836, gave the first geological description of them. He noted that this area was characterized by a very great number of isolated hemispheric shaped hills, some of them conical. Between these hills are small valleys. After Junghuhn, a number of other scholars made contributions to the study of karst formations, including van Dijk , Verbeek, and Fennema. In the beginning of the zo" century, researchers increased, in chronological order: Niermeyer, Danes, van Valkenberg, White, Esher, van Heek, Lehman, and Pannekoek. Research from the 1930s was carried out by Teilhard de Chardin, de Terra, Movius, van Bemmelen, and much later by Marks, Sartono, Verstappen, and Bartstra (Bartstra, 1976). Archaeological research in Gunung Sewu only started in 1935 when von Koenigswald and MWF Tweedie (curator of the Raffles Museum in Singapore) discovered the Baksoka River site in the Punung area. The site was accidentally found when von Koenigswald visited the Gunung Sewu area in search of the source of raw material for tools used in the "Sangiran flake industry" which he presumed to lie in this area. Von Koenigswald was very much impressed by the abundance of lithic tools along the riverbed and terraces of Baksoka

7

Those scholars focused their principal interest on the Baksoka River. The existence of tens of caves and rock shelters found scattered over other parts in this area seemed destined-to remain lost in oblivion due to the popularity of the Baksoka River Pacitanian. The caves were studied during an excavation by von Koenigswald in 1936 in a shelter on the east side of Gunung Cantelan (Song Agung ?). This shelter yielded flint flakes , an andesite hammer stone, convex based arrowheads, scrapers, teeth , mollusc shell ornament, and isolated human teeth (Erdbrink, 1954) , which according to van Heekeren

.,

I 10

belongs to the Sampung bone industry. An excavation at Song Terus carried out by ~Soejono and Basuki in 1954 yielded Neolithic and Mesolithic tools (Heekeren, 1972). The caves regained attention in 1992 when Truman Simanjuntak and Francois Semah conducted reconnaissance surveys in this area . More than ten caves and shelters were identified as sites containing archaeologically significant remains. In the same year, an initial excavation was undertaken in Keplek Cave and Dono Cave . Very dense finds of lithic and bone industries and faunal remains indicated the necessity to conduct further intensive research in this cave. Almost simultaneously, Prof. R.P. Soejono and Dr. Harry Allen from the University of Auckland, New Zealand, studied Song Agung in the Punung area with the same result as Keplek Cave. Since 1994 the National Research Centre of Archaeology (NRCA) in collaboration with the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle (MNHN) have undertaken intensive excavations at Song Terus , the cave excavated in 1954 by Soejono.

Current Research Since 1995, prehistoric research in 'the Gunurig Sewu region has opened a new phase due to a grant from The Toyota Foundation. The five-year-Iong project focused its attention on the prehistory of the area, especially from the Late 'P leistocene to the Holocene. Multidisciplinary research engaged archaeologists, geologists, biologists, palaeontologists, palynologists, and anthropologists. The first phase of the research activities consisted of intensive exploration throughout the study area . A total of 135 prehistoric sites was recorded, distributed throughout the Gunung Sewu region, with the densest caves in the eastern part . All these sites can be categorized according to their Paleolithic to Paleometallic 'characteristics. The number of cave sites found reached the outstanding totalof 70. For research on the Preneolithic, two cave sites were selected for systematic excavation: Keplek Cave, representing the eastern part

II of Gunung Sewu, and Braholo Cave representing the western part. Excavation in those caves reached cultural layers as deep as about seven meters from the surface, with a very rich and varied content of archaeological remains. The findings in these two caves consolidated our understanding of the chronology of settlement of Gunung Sewu from the Late Pleistocene until the Holocene, in particular for the period beginning 33,000 years ago. This long time-span provides an excellent baseline from which to observe various aspects of cave occupation, such as patterns of settlement, subsistence, technology, the exploitation of the environment, the cave dwellers proper, and their religious concepts. Neolithic research was carried out at three open sites: Padangan, Ngrijangan, and Ngrijang Sengon, all located in the Punung area arid surroundings. Like the research on cave sites, those carried out at open sites have contributed greatly to the understanding of the Neolithic of this area. Hundreds of thousands of ~hert flakes, the waste product of adze and arrowhead manufacture, were found densely distributed in cultural layers. Along with other remains (potsherds , firing remains etc) evidence shows that atelier activities throughout a certain area continued for a relatively long time-span. Radiocarbon dating has produced a date for the Neolithic in this area of 2,000 years ago, a quite significant retardation, compared to the generally accepted assumption that theoretically gives a date for this development of , 4,500 years ago (Heine Geldern, 1945). Research on Paleometallic sites took place at Melikan and Klepu, also located in the Punung area, The most specific characteristic of the Paleometallic culture of this area is the appearance of metal objects representing weapons and iron tools, beads and bronze ornaments, a more advanced tradition of pottery making, besides a tradition of stone tool manufacture that continued although very much in decline. Paleometallic culture prevailed in this area until 600 years ago, as proven by C-14 dating from the Klepu site. Results of the aforementioned undertakings supplemented with results from earlier research have much contributed to the understanding of the prehistory of this area, particularly of the period

:1 12

toward the Late Pleistocene and early Holocene. Some main problems concerning Hol~e settlement have been solved, such as questions regarding the exploitation of environmental resources (the geographical condition, rocks, fauna and vegetation). Another point concerns the process of cultural development, from settlement in caves to open sites, covering the period of the Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene, the culture elements which were outstanding during this time, and last but not least, prehistoric people proper. Also of importance is the concept of the exploitation of caves and open sites for settlement, and the relationship of the Gunung Sewu culture with regional culture. (Truman Simanjuntak).

2. NATURAL CONDITIONS AND CONTEMPORARY COMMUNITIES OF GUNUNGSEWU Based on administrative divisions, Gunung Sewu is divided among three provincial areas: the Yogyakarta Special area Province (Gunung Kidul Regency) in the west, the Province of Central Java (Wonogiri Regency) in the centre, and the Province of East Java (Pacitan Regency) in the east. The hilly geographical conditions, dominated by limestone, made this ~'area infertile. Before recent attempts at reforestation, the hill area was generally barren.t-so that .rain caused fairly strong erosion, grinding the layers of soil with no resistance from any trees. This condition causes rivers to flood in the rainy season and to dry up in the dry season. Only a few flow the year round, viz. the Giritontro River which forms the upper course of the Solo River and the Oyo River one of the upper courses of the Opak River. Agriculture only covers a third of the entire area, occupying the narrow valleys, the plains, and hill slopes, mostly in the form of very simple rice fields depending on rain for water. As a result of the dry conditions in the dry season and the sensitivity of the soil to erosion, most of the land is not fit for cultivation of rice. This limited land is usually planted with dry field crops like cassava (Manihot utilisima), sweet potato (lpamoea batatasi, maize (Zea mays), coconut (Cocos nucifera), peanut (Arachis hypogaea) , soy-bean (Glycine max), gnemon (Guetom gnemon), etc. The tropical climate of Gunung Sewu consists of two seasons, the rainy or wet season, between October and March, with an average rainfall of 181.75 mm1month, and the dry season-.The highest rain fall i

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(363 mm) is in January and the lowe st (24 mm) in August (Djaeni et al, 1983). The Gunung Sewu region lies close to the Indian Ocean , which is marked by two types of climate, Aw, and Am. The Aw type climate is characterized by a long drought as long as the winter in the Southern Hemisphere. The most extensive area close to the interior is characterized by Am type climate, which forms a climate between the tropical and-sub-tropical.

cultivated for its productive nature in the Gunung Kidul regency. The population of Gunung Sewu is sparse compared to surrounding areas. The communities in general have a close affinity with the Yogyakarta-Solo culture, including the population in the eastern part that administratively belongs to East Java. The language spoken is Javanese " ngoko" (coarse) to communicate with friends or those with whom the speaker is familiar, or Javanese "kromo" (refined) towards older people, respected ones or those with whom the speaker is not well acquainted. The Indonesian language is used for communication in formal meetings.

Plate 3: The arid condition of the soil onl y facilitated dry cultivation and onl y during the rainy season around October- March. The longer the rainy season it will be an advantage for the farmers. In this picture a woman is pulling out Ca ssava or Manihot utilisima on her field .

The Gunung Sewu region has a seasonal tropical forest vegetation, with excessive rainfall during the wet monsoon, but very dry in the dry season. This condition causes vegetation to be very dense during the rainy season and very dry in the dry season. The dense bushes that cover the hills in the wet monsoon' gradually disappearas the dry season sets in. Reforestation in the Gunung Sewu area has been conducted over the last decade. These efforts have been fairl y successful changing the once ban-en and arid land to a greener area. Various trees like the accacia and "sono keling" now cover part of the hill area . Accacia has been the main plant chosen for reforestation of the Pacitan area. The cashew nut tree has been cultivated en masse in Wonogiri , whereas sono keling has been

Plate 4: A traditional javanese house in the Gunung Sewu region. It is very simple with a tiled roof and walls of plaited woven bamboo "gedeg", The most specific characteristic is that it has a spacious room in front to rccei ve guests. The rooms are in the back and farthest back is the kitchen.

Gunung Sewu communities usually live in rural areas located in the valleys, seldom in the hill area. This preference is based on safety factors and facilities for daily needs (availability of water, easier access, etc). This choice of location is not beneficial, because it takes up part of the limited expanse of valley land , the most fertile land that should be exploited for agriculture. The limited supply of land motivates people to exploit the courtyards of their homes up to the steep slopes, although with no maximal result. The houses, which are almost all permanent structures of typical Javanese house

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construction, have generally fairly expansive courtyards (Plate 4). The walls are usually plastered brick, but some are made of plaited bamboo. The roofs are made of tiles, corrugated zinc , or asbestos. Electricity is available throughout most of the area. The Gunung Sewu region has a very low capacity of ground water with a well debit of -less than 0.05 litre/sec to a medium one of 1-10 litre/sec. A high water capacity of 10-25 litre/sec is found in the western and northwestern part of Wonogiri regency. Most of the communities subsist by limited agriculture in rain-dependent fields , dry fields, gardens, and courtyards. Rice is planted during the rain y season in the relativel y lower fields, or valleys. The gardens and dry fields were planted with crops like maize, cassava, sweet potato, and soybean, mostly for local use . In the courtyards people plant trees like coconut (Cocosnucifera), clove (Syzygium aromaticumi , coffee (Rubiaceae), cacao (Teobroma cacao), sono keling, mahogany, jati (Tectona grandis), gnemon (Guetom gnemoni, lamtoro (Leucocephala) , tobacco tNocotiana tabacumi, vegetables and fruit like bananas, papaya, mango, star fruit and guava. The barren condition of the area caused that only certain crops grow well, like cassava. This condition has been well adapted by the people so that for food they consume "tiwul" made of "gaplek" (dried cassava) as the daily main food. Only on certain occasions they consume ric e. The dry condition of the landscape and less fertile environment very much influenced the people's daily life, especially those in the rural area. They have the habit of storing food material , usually in the form of dried cassava, which can last for months. Thi s tradition has helped in the provision of food during the dry season or during famine. Besides, they also have the tradition of storing water, which they put in a water reservoir built of brick. Usually a full water reservoir can meet the need for water for months, since it is only used for cooking. For other purposes, they used water in the reservoir ' s pool. The tradition of storing water and food is a way of the people' s adaptation to environmental conditions. Next to agriculture, the people also practise animal husbandry , usually small scale, to add up the family 's income. The animals the y

breed are among others, chicken (Gallus sp), cow tBubalus sp), water buffalo (Bubalus bubalus), goat (Capra sp) and duck (Lamelhiastres). The animal pens are usually placed separated at the side or back of the house. The people's mode of Jiving beyond the agriculture and animal husbandry sector, are as fishermen , civil servants, traders, labourer in factories etc . The arid condition of the soil, motivated the people to leave their homes, particularly the young ones, to go to cities. Their perseverance made that some are successful and from time to time returned home to help the village economy. Plate 5: A sight of market day in the district town. Punung. The traditional market is very busy during harvest time and forms the place where crop products are sold and daily necessities are bought. Mobility of the people on market day enlivened the rural sphere.

One matter that has motivated the area's progress was the availability of a good infra structure. Although the greater part of the region are hilly areas, communication between one district's town to another is well running by the wide and smooth roads, especially in the western part. The roads that connect a village with another are mostly asphalted, others are paved, and the availability of public means of transportation increased the people's economy by easy access to transport and market the crop-products. The Gunung Sewu community knows the one-day market in a Javanese five days calendric cycle. viz: Pon, Wage, Kliwon, Legi and Pahing, Each district's town has a certain day for this market-day,

n

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19

which differs from one to another, for example in P unung, Pacitan regency, the market day is on Pahing; whereas in Don orojo, falls on Wage . T his cyclic system creates the shifting of traders from one town to another, following the market-days cycle. For instance, on Pon -day one trades in town A, on Wag e he moved to B and so on . Besides their five day-weekly market day , they also have the general traditional market, and a market day especially for animals. Beyond these market-days, economic activities run as usual in district's-towns, but not as busy as on specific market days. The religion tha t the people embrace is fairly varied, with the majority being Mos lems. A small part embraces the Roman Catholic fai th, the Protestant and B uddhism. Some people also still believe in - the supra-natural forces and there are places, which they regard as sacred and used it as a place for medi tation (see the cultural trad itions). The people also regard water in caves as having remedial powers. For girls and women, to was h their faces with water from Putri Cave will make the m more beautiful and closer to their mate. With regard to the religious system, the Gunung Sewu community still practises the rites for ce remonial meals on important occasions like births, circumcision, marriages and deaths.

Plate 6: A rural scenery in the afternoon when the farmers are on the way back hom e after a day working in the field. They carry crop-produce and gra ss to feed the livestock.

Another rite oft en practised is the "clea ning of the village" (b ersih d esa) , in which folk arts are performed like jathilan, meant to clean the village from all kinds of e vil spirit that may arise and harm the village. Another one is the rite of nyadran or ruwahan, which is re garded as an important tradition, by visiting and cleaning the ancestor's gra ves to obtain safet y and blessing for the living re latives as well as for the dead (Ariani et al, 1998). The local arts that flouri shed well are am ong others kerawitan (the traditional mus ic ensemble), ketoprak (kind of folk drama) , jathilan (horse riding); ledhek (folk dancing) and children 's games and play, suc h es jamuran, cublak-cublak suweng, gobag sodor, etc). The presence of the karst hills with their natural caves, beautiful beaches on the shores of the Indian Ocean became an attraction of its own for tourism. Some caves have been exploited for tourist purposes like Gong Cave in the village of Borno, Punung district, Tabuhan Cave in the village of Wareng, Putri Cave in Kendal village, all in the district of Punung. Some beaches as tourist objects are Sadeng beach in Pacitan. :Watukarung beach in the Pringkuku area, Rongkop and Baron beaches in Gunung Kidul area . This tourism sector has to be more developed, because it will add up to the area's income, it also provides the ability to increase the people's income, by sell ing food and souvenirs. Another natural potential that has been well exploited is the mining industry. The potential of diverse mining products is very much varied, starting with products of the A to C type. For the A and B type, which form strategic and vital material, are found distributed in this area, comprising coal, uranium, nickel, lead, mangane, zinccopper and gold. As for the C type , which is used as material for industry, ceramics, construction, and material of precious stones, co nsists of dolomite (material for fertili zer, ceramics) ochre (for paints, ink and rubber) , bentonite (ceramics and palmoil purifier), feldspar, piropilite, caoline (ceramics and porcelain). Material for construction, like igneous rock, sandstone and marble have been found in various villages . On of the activities that have made use of said potentials is the precious stones' handicraft or better known as batu

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akik (agate craft), which markets the 'p roducts to the big cities. (Retno Handinii

drinks, of which part is offered to the village guardian in the teson. whereas the other part will be for consumption of the entire village population. In the evening there usually will be ~ woyang performance using leather puppets. The play will present the story from the Bhorotovuddho, Dewi Sri or others that relate to fertility of the crops. Some say, this performance was held because the village guardian like art performances.

CULTURAL TRADITIONS IN THE GUNUNG SEWU AREA

The majority of the Gunung Sewu community, particularly those living in the rural area, still venerate certain places, which they call reson (Plate 7). Usually, a resan is a spot in which a big tree grows, that they venerate. They believe that the resan is the abode of their ancestors, often called Sing mbohu rekso. or don yang deso (village guardian). Each Village has its own reson. and when cny harm comes to it, the one who caused it or the cu lprit will surely meet disaster. Once a year, at the time of "the cleaning of the village" ritual. the reson is cleaned. Food and offerings for the spirits of the ancestors who are believed to live there, are brought. while praying that their ancestors bless the village and keep them away from any kind of mishap. Besides the reson. some caves are also venerated. among others Semedi Cave (meditation cave) in the village . of Sooka, Kalak Cave in the village Sendang, and Putri Cave in the village of Gunung Semut . Up to the present one can still find offerings in those caves. The cleaning of the Village ritual. called merti, which means worship to the ancestors by presenting food. drinks and offerings, is intended for the village guardian (Malalatoa, 1995). This ritual is an expression of gratitUde, practised once a year in the month Dulkoidoh of the Javanese calendar. They have to cleanse themselves bodily and spiritually, because the village has given them plenty in life during the year. The cleanness is expressed by cleaning the village, graves, the field, etc, and besides for their spiritua l cleanness, they held a slometon (a ceremonia l meal), to clean the Village of evil spirits, that may cause calamity. On the occasion of the slometon ritual. each head of the family comes to the ceremony bringing food and

Plate 7: The resan Kali Jero in the village Sumugih, Rongkop, Gunung Kidul, Yogyakarta Special Area Province. The area of the resan is grown with big ipek and gentungan trees that form a circle with a diameter or about 10 m. Part of the local people believe that their ancestors spirit live in this resan and is therefore regarded as sacred. No one dares to disturb or harm this resan for fear of the effect it may cause.

The ceremony of ruwohon or nyodron was also common among the Gunung Sewu communities. This ritual was hel~ in the month Ruwoh (Javanese calendar), by visiting and cleaning the graves of parents or ancestors while praying and present offerings. Other rituals that are related to the life cycle are: 1. Child birth ritual. As soon as the child .is born the father chanted the call for pray in its right ear, and prayers in the left

22 ear. The baby 's placenta that was c ut, wa s c lea ned, and p ut in an earthenware pot, along w ith needles, c oins, prayers in writing, thread etc, then buried in the c o urtyard . Up to 35 days (selapanan), this placenta burial ha s to be provided with an oil-lamp, whi ch has to stay burning: 2. the ceremony o f tedhak siten (trea din g the earth soil), that is done when the child is about eight months old , and for the first time treads the earth. In this ritual, the child is led to put his feet on a juadah (kind of sticky rice coke) w ith the intent that the child will always remember his origin (w he re he came from). Then he was led ta ascend stairs made of sugar c a ne, which is meant, that the child can realize his ideals smoothly and finally the child is put into a big cage, in which are found various kinds of objects. The object he will take, symbolize the future: 3. the circumcision ceremony, held for boys to be circumcised: 4. the wedding ceremony; 5. the tingkeb (mitoni) ceremony, held when a w oman is in the seventh month of pregnancy for the first time . In this ceremony, the would-be mother is bathed in flowered water taken from seven wells, then she has to changes her sar~ng (wrap ar sheath) seven times; 6. the funeral ceremony, usually held on the first, third, seventh, fortieth day of death . Then follows pendhak pisan (after one year), pendhak pindho (after two years), and finally on the thousandth day (nyewu), all according to the Javanese calendar system. After the nyewu c eremony, the g rave c a n be built permanentl y. Although the majority of the Gunung Sewu communities embrace the Islam, many of them are follo w ers of a sec t, the kejawen. It is an indigenous religion, w hic h believes in god almighty the prophet Mohammad and the A1-Q ura n, but also believes in the power of sa c red figures, d eities (God s), magical. power, ancestors ' spirits. etc. This syncretism in the religious system is the reason that they- perform th e var ious ritua ls o f

23 slametans (c e remonia l meals) that actually is not found in the concepts of Islam. Besides, they also perform many kinds of ascetic a c ts, among others tirakat topo txoto. with the aim of success In certain undertakings, for example in getting a job, or a position. A hermitage, that is quite well known and much frequented by ascetics in this area is the Sanctuary of Njemu, located close to Rongkop beach, whereas a cave that is much used to meditate is Semedi Cave.

Pl ate 8: The sanctuary (petila san) of Kyai Mojo in the village Semugih , Rongkop district, Gunung Kidul regenc y. Th is place is often used by the people beyond Semugih village to medit ate. while the local people in the surrounding area that are to hold a feast. used this place to perform rituals of rejecting rain.

In th e villag e Semugih, Rongkop, Gunung Kidul there are two hermitages, th ey are: the petilasan (sanctuary) of Kyai Modjo, and the petilasan Maling Genthiri. The sanctuary of Kyai Modjo is a very simple house, measuring 4 x 3 metres, with tiled

24 root whereas the floor is still mode of cloy. People who wished to meditate in this ~ctuary, has.to have permit from the keeper. The duration of meditation ls.usuollv 3-7 days, without food and drinks. The sanctuary of Maling Genthiri. conform to its name, ' maling mean! thief, is much frequented by thieves who expect not to get caught in the act of stealing. From the afore mentioned elaboration. it can be concluded that there are still elements of ancient traditions that are maintained inthis area. which found its origin In the ancestor worship. and impleme.~ted in their (jaily activities. (Retno Hand/nO

3. BRIEF NOTES ON PALEOCLIMATE AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY OF THE ARCHIPELAGO The Pleistocene , which was agreed upon among the geologists to last from around 1,8 million years to around 11,800 BP, was characterized by the glaciation, resulting in the change of the global climate, which has occurred repeatedly in certain periods. During the glacial period, the temperature dropped and its effect was that sea water, at the poles or mountains froze, effecting in the decrease of water content in oceans and drop of sea level, creating vast areas of land (Figure 3). On the other hand, during the interglacial period, the climate became warmer, the ice blocks thawed, causing the rise of sea level. Part of the land submerged, and 'some others were separated by water to form islands (Figure 4). The period of glaciationinterglaciation occurred several times, and studies towards the moraine sediments in Europe revealed the four occurrences of this process during the Pleistocene, known as the Gunz, Mindel, Riss, and Wiirm glaciation. Each period alternated by an interglacial period. However, studies on oxygen isotopes from the sea, and supported by palynological studies, show that during the Pleistocene many climatic changes have occurred (Oilier, 1985). The change of sea level is strongly related to the astronomical parameter change on the globe position to the sun. It has occurred periodically, resulting in the change of the total and distribution of energy received by the globe from the sun (Semah, et al, 1990). Other factors of sea level change are tectonic movement and climatic change . Some scholars thought that the sea level change in the Pleistocene in Indonesia was caused by tectonic uplifts (Bemmelen, 1949; Duyfjes, 1938), whereas others have a tendency to state that glaciation and tectonics effected in these changes (Tjia, 1970).

,

,. /

27

26 Stratigraphical and paleontological observations by Duyfjes in Perning show that there~e been three times of changes in sea level in East Java during the Pleistocene. (Zaim, 1996). ' Based on the isotopic study, the lowest sea level took place successively around 150,000 BP; 80,000 BP; 60,000 BP; 40,000 BP; and 18,000 BP (Chappel, 1982). The sea level is different for each glaciation. For example, around 22,000- 18,000 BP the sea level descended between 100-120 meter below the actual sea level. The extent of the largest ice coverage and the coldest climate lasted in this period causing a large transformation on flora and fauna (LeroiGourhan, 1988). For the Archipelago, it seemed that cave settlement became more intensive since this period, because the cold climate compelled man to choose caves or Shelters for settlement and refuge. At around 10,000 BP, the sea level was about 10- 15 metres below the actual sea level. It raised gradually until reaching the actual sea level around 5,000 BP (Dunn & Dunn, 1977). The glacial-interglacial occurrences have changed 'the palaeogeographic shape of the Archipelago and each period has created a different shape, depending on the fluctuation of the sea level. In general the drop of sea level, occurring during the glaciation period has created expanse land in the western part. It covers Sumatra, Java and Borneo (Kalimantan), which is called the Sunda shelf, connected to continental Southeast Asia. In the eastern part, Australia, Irian (and PNG) and the Aru islands united in the land area called the, Sahul shelf. Between these two shelves is the Wallacea area, consisting of islands, bordered by deep seas. The rise of sea level at the end of the Pleistocene has changed the Archipelago's palaeogeography. Glaciation and tectonic processes that lasted during that period have effected in uplifts or drops of sea level thus creating the present form of the Archipelago (Sartono, 1991). Part of the Sunda shelf that was once land, submerged and became. islands, among others, Sumatra, Borneo (Kalimantan) 'and ' Java, whereas in the eastern region the Sahul shelf became Australia, Irian and the Aru islands. This basic'change has at least its impact in various aspects of life, among others (Simanjuntak, 1997; 1998): \ ,

,

•

The change of land expanse and shoreline due to the rise of sealevel, creating islands and so influencing the environmental condition, vegetation and fauna. • Submergence of the coastal area and lower plains, can cause the submergence of settlement areas and the environmental resources. This phenomena facilitated the emergence of human and faunal mobility to migrate to new environment~. . • These migrations in turn motivated the process of adaptation to the new environment, which facilitated the change in subsistence pattern and supporting technology. • The creation of islands effected in the submergence of "land bridges" and disconnecting these islands. This condition created limitation in communications between the islands, unless by sea, by means of transportation modes on one hand, while it motivated the development of local innovations. In the frame of said climatic arid'paleogeographic changes some important phenomena in human life i!'(~outheast Asia are o~ser~able. Since about 40,000 years ago one observes a new evolution III the biological development of man, that is the emergence of Homo sapiens. Based on results of research in various sites, it was assum~d that the Homo sapiens has inhabited this region and even Australia and West Melanesia contemporaneously since that time (Bowdler, 1990; Jones, 1979). Another phenomena since the Late Pleistocene was that there were new trends in settlement activities, which was oriented to caves and rock shelters. Various caves and rock shelters have been inhabited towards the Late Pleistocene and continued up to the Holocene (Simanjuntak, 1997). Life in caves and rock shelters in the Gunung Sewu area seemed to be an inseparable part of the , p_h~nomena mentioned above.

28

29

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,," ""1l

/ ..':t~ ~~ ,

, !

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Figure 3: The Sunda shelf in the ice age and route for migration (Semah et al, 1990). Glaciation that occurred repeatedly during the Pleistocene has changed the shape of the archipelago, conform to the rise and drop of sea level. During the ice age, sea level dropped effecting in the emergence of land bridges that connected the Asian continent with the islands Sumatra, Java, and Kalimantan (Borneo), forming the Sunda shelf. It was during this period that migration of man and fauna from continental area to the islands was assumed to occur.

Figure 4: The post glaciation situation of the Archipelago (Sernah et ai, 1990). The termination of the ice age has caused the change of the islands' palaeo geography: landbridges that previously emerged, connecting the Asian continent with the islands, submerged, due to the rise of sea level. Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan that formerly formed the Sunda shelf were separated and became islands. This occurrence has brought consequences in the migration flow that formerly took the land bridge has to take the sea route.

30

Climatic Changes- Vegetation Changes Climatic changes had its effect on vegetation, and that in tum may also affect human life. The studies on climatic changes and regional vegetation, particularly relating to Late Pleistocene-Holocene has been done by a number of scholars by way of palynological studies. Some among them were studies made in East Java (Beuning, 1996), West Java (Stuijts, 1993), Sumatra (Maloney, 1981; 1984) , and Papua New Guinea (Hope, 1983). The indication of the early changes of vegetation related to the climatic fluctuation was obtained in Papua New Guinea. The pollen diagram from peat and bottom of the lake at an altitude of 2,500- 4,400 metres indicated that before 10,000 BP, the temperature was much colder (Walker & Finley, 1979). Some othe r studies in Sumatra also indicated a different climatic condition in the past. Morley (1982) discovered evidence of a colder phase in about 10,000 BP in the Padang Lake, at an altitude of 950 metres in West Sumatra. Pollen records from Pea Sim-sim in North Sumatra also indicated a colder condition between 31,000 and 12,000 BP. Above mentioned data showed that from Papua New Guinea to Sumatra, there is a chain of events in which the lowest depression of the vegetation zones occurring since the Late Pleistocene. Between 14,000 and 8,600 BP the climatic condition changed towards the present condition . With regard to Java, results of research by Ingelise Stuijts (1993) in West Java, is worth mentioning as a general picture in the vegetation of Java. Studies on the lake Bayongbong, indicated that the climate during the period of 17,000 and 10,000 BP was much different than it is at present. The decrease of Dacrycarpus inbricatus occurred between 12,000-10,000 BP, indicating a change in climate: a rise in temp erature. Between 10,400 and 8,000 BP the vegetation of West Java can be called static, although Castanopis as the dominant tree , the forest was classified as a mixture. Since 8,000 BP the forests have been dominated by Quercus. Around 5,000 BP a general change occurred: on various sites where the vegetation changes seemed not to be related to the climate. An actual example was found on mountain

31 sites with a large scale of forest destruction. This could be related to forest clearing by people.

-<

Plate 9: The land scape of Gunung Sewu changes follows the seasons. During the dry season, the landscape is open , whereas during the rainy season it becomes green with dense vegetation . This picture presents a landscape during the rainy season.

Palynological studies carried out in Braholo and Keplek Caves are still presenting a little of the picture of the paleoclimate and vegetation in the Gunung Sewu area. Samples from the Holocene layers in both caves did not yield enough pollen for the reconstruction ?f pa~eoenvironmentand climate of that period. The scarcity of pollen identified can be due to the bad sediment condition to preserve the pollen or the closed condition of the cave restricted the sedimentation of pollen. Another possibility was the scarcity of trees growing near the cave . Provisional results of studies carried out indicated that the environment of Braholo Cave tends to be open and drier landscape. Based on the data obtained, the main vegetation consists of fern and cc:conut besides "nypa" and Acroschticum, plants that usually grow 10 coastal areas. Studies in K.eplek Cave presented a similar picture to that of Braholo Cave. The presence of Algae (Concentricycates circulus) indicated a humid sediment environment (effected by water dripping from the roof?). The presence of ~n~erbrush like Graminae, Cyperacae, and especially compositae IOdlc~te an open landscape at that time. Th e scarcity of pollen (restncted to the four samples from the Retitricolporate) was likely

32 due to the scarcity of trees growing in the surrounding of the cave. One interesting fact was see n in layer 5 in Keplek Ca ve is the presence of carbonate lamin ation. This layer dated from the Pleistocene bordering with layer 4 of the Holoc ene. The presence of this carbonate lamination indicated a humid climate bet ween the PleistoceneHoloc ene bord er (Se rnah, 1999). (Truman Simanjuntak, Fadhlan S. Intan i PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THE PALYNOLOGY OF GUNUNG SEWU

Palynological studies in archaeological research are aimed at providing a picture on the presence of pollen fossil and plant spores, used to reveal traces of the history of vegetation, of the vegetational commun ities and the environment. Furthermore, analysis can reveal the .occurrence of climatic changes during . the sedimentation process . Nevertheless, the palynological study presents d ifficulties. Pollen are very easily destroyed by abrasion, oxidation or microbic agents, so those obtained in the samples are limited. The palynological studies in c a ves have more d ifficulties, concerning the imp erfec t condition for cave sedimentation to preserve, a nd condition as c losed · spa ce that restricts the deposition of pollen in the sediments. This research puts its emphasis on the kinds of fossil pollen found to obtain a picture on the environment condition in the surround ings of Braho lo and Kep lek Caves that can be used to prese nt the general veg eta tion in the Gunung Sewu region. Palynological stud ies on both caves have been done by Netty Polhaupessy (1997) for Braholo Cave and Woro Sri Sukapti (1998) for Keple k Cave. The results of those studies are expected to support and supplement previous research, that have not provided adequate information on the palaeoclimate and vegetation because of the very scarce pollen that have been identified. This study can also be of benefit for the knowledge as to the cultivation of plants and exploitation of floral resources of early man .

b

33 Samples from both caves were taken from the lower layers dating from the Late Pleistocene to the upper layers of the Holocene. In Braholo Cave 13 samples were taken from square 08 and in Keplek Cave, also 13 samples were taken from square 86. Data by radiometric dating obtained from 08 in Braholo Cave, the Neolithic is presented in layer 1, the Preneolithic is in layers 2 and 4, whereas the Pleistocene layers are presented by layers 5 to 7. Data for dating in Square 86 in Keplek Cave inc lud e sa mples from layer. 4 upwards for the Holocene, and layer 5 downwards for the Pleistocene (Simanjuntak, 2001):

Plate 10: Pollen from Keplek Cave . From up left to below right: Cyatheaceae, Polypodiaceae, Euporbhiaceae, Liliaceae, Podocarpacea e, Malvaceae.

34

Plate 11: Pollen from Braholo Cave . Up down: Cyperaceae , Nygtaginaceae, Astreaceae.

35 The preparation process for the samples requires the standard method for palynology which is done in the following steps: (1) weighing of sediment (5-10 gr) and drying (30°-100 °C). (2) removal of soluble salt or carbonate elements (HCI 37%). (3) removal of silicate elements (HF 50%), (4) removal of fluo -sillcate elements (HCI 37%) and heating. (5) removal of organic material (KOH 10%) and heating, (6) separating heavy and light minerals (ZnCI2Bj. 2,2). (7) acetolysis method (CH3CO)20 and CH3COOH). (8) removal of humate acid (KOH 10%). (9) application of residue on micro-slides. and applying glycerine gel to reshape th e plate pollen as the effect of centrifuge process, and '( 10) microscopic observation. After having taken all the steps mentioned afore. the samples have to be neutralized with aquadest (H20 a) to clean it from chemical material that were reacted . The equipment used for this stage included: an oven, a centrifuge, a heater. chemical beaker, test tubes. and micro-slides. The micro-slides can then be observed using a microscope with a magnification of 1000 x and finally the stage of determination. In the stage of determination much reference on the various shapes of pollen so as to make identification easy, is needed. Identification only reaches the level of family because the spectra-microscope only facilitates identification of pollen characteristics. like size (measurement), shape, number and aperture structure (Kapp. 1969). Observations on the material resulted in identifying some types of pollen. which according to Kapp's classification are: • Type 1: The perlporate type of pollen (having holes at the rim) present fossil pollen of the family Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae, Polygonaceae, Ranunculaceae, C yperaceae, Nygtaginaceae, and Chenopodiaceae. • Type 2: The monoporate ty pe of poll en (with one ho le). rep resent fossil pollen of Graminae. • Type 3: The triporate type of pollen (with thre e holes). represent fossil poll en of Euphorbiac e ae.

36 37 • Type 4: The monoc olpate type of pollen (having one fissure). represent~oss il pollen of Iridaceoe. Polypodioceoe. .a nd Polmoe. • Type 5: The monacolpate type of pollen (with one fissure) but the shape is spherical with long a nd cu rved fissure. representing fossil pollen of Liliaceae. • Type 6: The monocolpate type of pollen (with one fissure). of elliptical shape. pointed at 'the end with a long and distinct fissure along the axis. representing pollen of Amaryl/idaceoe. SChizaeaceae, Bromeliaceae. and Crcbidoeoe. • Type 7: The trlcolpote type of pollen (with three fissures). representing pollen of Asteraceae, Oph ioglosoceae. Marcileaceae. Gentlanaceae, Solanaceae. Lycopodiaceae, Loranthaceae. Polygonaceae. and Cyantheaceae. • Type 8: The alate type of pollen (with no hole or fissure) presenting fossil pollen of Equisetaceae, The lists of pollen types indicate that almost similar vegetation existed in Braholo cave and Keplek Cave. The presence of Cyperaceae. Graminae. and Asteraceae that form components of bush vegetation indicating sedimentation environment of a relatively open area . The three kinds of plants grow in open areas like savannah on lakeside or ponds. and in forests with sparse trees, This is also supported by the presence of fern pollen. The presence of Palmae and Nypa pollen indicates that the area was not too far from the shore,

I

Family

1

2

3

6 Ataoe Oph ioalosaceae Marsileaceae Polyoodiaceae Eauisetaceae SChizaeceoe Lvcopodioceoe

4 4

1

3 1

Somoles 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 La y e r s 4 3 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 4 15 2 2

5

5

1

1

3 1

4

5

5

3

2

2

1

1 1

to rontnoceoe Asteraceae Pioeraceae Nvctraomoceoe Solanaceae Convolvulaceae Amaryllidaceae Gentianaceae Malvac eae Graminae Nvoa Pooocarooceae Chenooodiaceae

5 9

2

4

1

3 1

1 2 4

4

11 1

2 4

.

1 7

1

1

1 2

5

1 2

3

1 11 3

1 1

,3 1

1 Table I: Pollen from Braholo Cave. Western Gunung Sewu (13 samples taken from layer 1-6)

39

38 ~

Family

Samoles 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

10 11

9

12 13

L ave rs

5 Ataoe

4

1 -I

3

1

2

1

3

3

Oohioalasaeeae

1

Eauisetaeea e

2

Cvottteaceoe

3

Manalete

1

2

1

Tri/ate Pctvaonoceoe

1

1 1

2

.Cvoerae eae

6

1

1

Graminae

3

2

1

Brameliaeeae

1

5

1 2 2 1 12 7

5

1

1

2

3

1

3

2

20

4

16 2

1

4

/ridaceae

3

Uliaeeae

1

Po/mae

9

Pototnooetoroceoe

29

3

1

Amarvllid aeeae

4

.

3 3

3

Asteraeea e

7

Ma/vaeeae

2

Mvrtaeeae Ranuneulaeeae

1

1

1

1

Orcriiaoceoe

1

Padacaroaeeae

3

Rubiaeeae

1 1

3

3

10

1

Maraeeae Unidentifi ed

6

1 1

1

1

Finding that is fairly interesting concern fossil pollen from .m boreal plants. only found In the Holocene layers. But those from Keplek Cave present more kinds than those from Braholo Cave. Keplek Cave among others presents: Moraceae. Rubiaceae, Palmae, Myrfaceae, Podocarpaceae. and Cyathea. Finds from Braholo Cave only yielded fossil pollen of Palmae (Nypa) and Podocarpaceae. This Is possibly due to the Ina deq uate condition of Braholo Cave for the preservation of pollen. Keplek Cave. on the other hand has conditions that were better than Braholo Cave. The presence of fossil pollen that grow in humid oreos, like Algae (Concentriscycates circulus). PolypOdlceae, Equisetaceae. Cyatheaceae and spores of fern bath monolate and trilate as well. might also Indicate an aquatic environment of the surroun<:iings that were permanent and seasona l as well. (AnjarwfIti SriSayektl).

5

1

5

3

7

1

Table-Z: Pollen from Keple k Cave, Eastern Gunung Sewu (13 samples taken from - layer 1-5)

4

¥ _ o.

-----

40

4. GEOLOGICAL CONDITION OF GUNUNGSEWU

'7

:)i

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_.. ..

:"'1

lJ

::l

..,~ [J')

OIl

t:: ::l

t::

!

::l

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Co

:I ~

0

"~ "Ell _o .Q 0

0

..,

0

"~ ~.§'~

li:

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e--i1-geo c: :3 0 e " e

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The Gunung Sewu area belongs to the group of southern zones of plateau zones, of which the greater part form limestone hills with an undulating topography, slanting towards the south (the Indian Ocean). The process of uplift and formation of this limestone hills resulted in subterranean rivers and conic hills. This area reached an expanse of ± 1,400 square kilometers, consisting of thousands of limestone domes with sinoid and conic tops. On the southern side, seawater abrasion created steep cliffs, which cut the hill dome (Plate 12). On the northern side, these hills are located in the Wonosari and Baturetno depressions and along the rim of the northern side is a stretch of cliffs, as a formation of the effect of uplifts. On the north side of these cliffs is a low plain of which the surface was formed by a thin young fluviovolcanic deposit, resulting from volcanic activities. The presence of faults, forming a stretch of cliffs, caused the existence of rivers that have their origin in the mountains in the center and southern regions of Java .

Plate 12: A beach view and the karst hill range in Watukarung" Erosion by seawater caused that some of the hilis to be located separated from the continent.

42

43

The process of uplift of the southern zone and the formation of the stretch of cliffs was assumed to be coincidental with the folding zone on the north side during the end of the Middle Pleistocene or the Late Pleistocene. Result of the process of uplift was the formation of limestone hills and sub-terranean rivers. The karst phenomena were alternated by the multitude of deep valleys, oriented towards the Indian Ocean.

of land. The sectors containing the formative rock agents have in general the same geological and geographical condition, but in micro scale, some parts have differences in landscape, structure etc. The difference of physical environment can effect in divers ity of human activities that occupy this area . Plate 13: The situation of the karst hills in the western part of Gunung Sewu. Seen from afar the hemispheric or conic shape of the hills with no vegetation. There are certain parts of Gunung Sewu that are more arid, without any vegetation.

Geomorphology The sight of a landscape in the present area was an effect of two opposing forces: one from within the earth (endogene), which tends to construct and one from the outside (exogene), with a destructive tendency. The formation of Gunung Sewu was not to be separated from those two forces that created the "Gunung Sewu Plateau". The average altitude of the hills is 100 meters and in some places even reaching 450 meters above sea level. This average altitude was caused by the system of erosion, tropical climate condition, rainfall and high temperature. The area that forms part of the Southern Mountains of Java was constructed of coral limestone dating from the Miocene and underwent uplifts in the Middle Pleistocene (Sernah et al, 1990). · Erosion processes and karstification formed thousands of karst hills, shaped like domes or cones. This shape was affected by the composition of limestone being its formative agent. It was assumed that there are around 40,000 hills in the Gunung Sewu region, and the densest part lies in the east with an average of 30 hills per square kilometre (Bartstra, 1976). Between the "karst hills are valleys and narrow plains, and in several places, depressions which are inundated and forming lakes or lagoons. The Gunung Sewu hills form a Neogene limestone plateau that has undergone uplifts and sedimentation after the Neogene up to the .Early Tertiary. The Early Tertiary formed the period of high-speed uplifts so that the base of the .basin was uplifted above sea level and the ancient shoreline shifted towards the north, so creating new areas

The morpho logy of Gunung Sewu that stretched from the east to the west with a structure of low plains, terraces, and hills, are results of"uplifts with the characteristics of karst spires, karst cones, lakes (lokva), and dolines. In general, Gunung Sewu is divided into four morphological units (Todd, 1980): •

•

The Plains morphological unit: It has an elevation of 0-2% with the characteristic form of a wide and flat plain . This unit reached an expanse of ± 20 % of the Gunung Sewu region formed by alluvial deposit and sediment rocks, and exploited as settlement and fertile agricultural areas . . The weak undulating morphological unit: It has an elevation of 28%, characterized by sloping hills and fine relief. The expanse .of this unit reaches ± 15% of the whole region, formed by alluvial deposit and sediment rocks, and exploited as settlement and agricultural land.

45

44 •

•

Strong undulating morphological unit: It has an elevation of 816% with steep slopes and coarse relief. The expanse reaches only ± 5% of the Gunung Sewu region and was formed by sediment rock and igneous rocks. A part of it was exploited for garden, and another part forms not too den se forest or covered by underbru sh. The karst morphological unit: It is characterized by the hemispheric hills scattered or in groups formed as cones, dolin es, karst pipes and sub-terranean rivers. The expanse of this unit reaches 65 % in the Gunung Sewu region and was exploited for agriculture depending on rainwater in the valleys.

Based on these morphological units , the stadium of the Gunun g Sewu area belongs of the mature stadium approaching the old one (Thornbury, 1964). While observing the karst morphology, it belon gs to the Tropical karst morphology, caused by the high intensity of rain and evaporation (Tjia, 1987), and classified into the phase III with the characteristics of steep slopes and groupings (Zuidam, 1979). The rivers that flow traversing the Gunung Sewu are Baksoka, Giritontro, Oyo, and smaller ones. Those rivers belong to the mature and old river stadium that has undergone rejuvenation. Interesting of the pattern of these river courses in the Gunung Sewu region is the dendritic pattern, typical for a homogenous area and rectangul ar pattern with perpendicular branches, typical for structured symptoms area. Based on the quantity of water, some belong to the periodical rivers, which have a large volume of water in the wet monsoon, and a small one in the dry season. Others belong to the episodic rivers, which only flow in the rainy season. Furthermore based on the geological structure and relief, the rivers can be grouped into consequent rivers with the course following the elevation of rock layering and subsequent rivers, which have courses parallel with the hard and steep cliffs.

Plate 14: A thin section of carbonate calcified clay showing the composition of exce ssive clay mineral s besides calcite and carbon slivers and vertebrate bone s. It also containes volcanic material. compri sing andesite. magnetite. biotite. pyroxen , plagioclase. and quartz (Widiasrnoro. 1999).

Stratigraphy The stratigraphical composiuon of Gunung Sewu was constructed by a number of rock units , of which the nomenclature was based on the lithological characteristics and stratigraphical process. They are: • Igneous rock, consisting of andesite, basalt, and dacite, generally light gray in colour, whitish gray and grayish black. In general of massive structure with vesciculation and regular pores (scorius). The component minerals are usually quarts and that of f eldspar. This igneous rock unit dated from the Oligocene-Miocene, with a terrestrial sedimentation environment that gradually changed to

46

•

marine (sea) and influenced by turbid stream. This igneous rock unit belongs to the group of intrusive rocks (Samodra et al , 1992) and Besole formation (Sartono, 1964). These kinds of rocks have been found in the Punung district, particularly in the village Mendolo Kidul, Mendolo Lor, Gondosari, Gunung Panggung, Gubung Gede, Song Putri , etc. Sediment rock, consisting of limestone, tuff units and silicate rocks. Belonging to the limestone unit is fossilized limestone, coral limestone and stratified limestone. These rocks are generally yellowish white and whitish yellow, of non-clastic structure with biohermic structure, stratified and non-stratified and belong to the group of organic sediments. The mineral components of the rock are calcium carbonate, fossils of discocyclina, camerina, coral reef and lepidoclyna. They date from the Middle MiocenePliocene with neritic sedimentation environment, which became shallow towards the south. This limestone unit belongs to the Wonosari Formation (Samodra et al, 1992), or Wonosari- Punung Formation (Surono et al, 1992) . The distribution is extensive, covering the areas of the districts of Punung, Donorojo, Pringkuku, Rongkop , Baron, Eromoko, Tepus, Giriwoyo and Karangmojo. Unit of Tuffaceous rock , consisting of tuff, sandy tuff, stratified tuff, volcanic breccia, and conglomerate. The color is usually brownish-yellow, grayish white, yellowish white, and gray . Of clastic texture to pyroclastic with stratified and nonstratified structure, and belongs to the group of epiclastic-pyroclastic sediment with quartz, Feldspar and volcanic glass as the main component minerals. This tuff unit dates from the Middle Miocene with fluviatile-neritic sedimentation environment, influenced by volcanic activities. This unit of rocks belongs to the Jaten Formation, Oyo Formation, and Wuni formation (Samodra et al, 1992) and can be found in the areas. of the district of Punung, Pringkuku, Giriwoyo, Nglipar, Semin and Playen. Siliceous rocks, consisting of chert and jasper that are usuall y coloured reddish and yellowish, with non-clastic texture, massi ve

47 structure. The material composition is dominated by silicate with a little hematite. This type of rocks dated from the Middle Miocene with neritic sedimentation environment, which was related to the corrals. The distribution is more limited to the · Punung, Giriwoyo, Nglipar and Wonosari districts .

Plate 15: A thin section of lithic tuff crystal showing the composition of crystal lithic and volcanic glas s. The crystal con sists of plagioclase, quart z. hornblende, biotite , magnetite, and exessive pyroxen. Lithic composition consists of ande site and pumice. Besides it also contains calcite and vertebrate bones (Widiasmoro , 1999).

•

Met amorphic rocks are of the kind of metalimestone, of grayish white and yellowish white colour, crystaloblastic texture with cataclastic structure. The mineral composition is calcium .carbonate. Observing the process of metamorphism of limestone · (as the original rock) , which did not display outstanding physical _. and chemical changes, these rocks date from the Middle MiocenePleistocene. It belongs to the Watupatok Formation (Samodra et al , 1992), where the intrusive rocks penetrated the Arjosari

48

•

Formation (limestone). It is found limited in the areas of Punung and Giriwoyo.• Alluvial unit, consisting of clay, silt, sand and gravel, beach deposits containing mollusc remains, coral reefs and marine clay intrusion, containing molluscs. This unit is the result of weathering of the rock components of Gunung Sewu dating from the Holocene. Found on the low plains along the rivers and shore area. In many cases this alluvial deposits contain iron-oxyde as was found in several sites in the districts of Punung, Donorojo and Pringkuku.

Geological Structure .The endogene forces active in the Gunung Sewu region consist of tectonic movements, effecting in faults, folds and joints. The structure of faults formed was usually the normal kind (normal faults) and strike slip fault, whereas the fold structure formed were anticline and syncline folds (Billing, 1972). The rocks that have disconformities on the normal faults are the tuffaceous rock unit, whereas on the strike slip fault are the limestone rock unit, tuffaceous rock unit and igneous rock unit. On the folds the rock unit that were affected were the tuffaceous rocks. Based on these tectonic movements, the Gunung Sewu region can be distinguished into two areas. East Gunung Sewu forms the region with the most active tectonic movements, evidenced by the presence of faults, folds and other geological structures and supported by the volcanic activities. West Gunung Sewu is more stable, in the sense that it has not undergone too much changes of topographical shape due to endogenous forces, only because of active erosion processes. (Fadhlan S. lntan)

,.

i.

49 HISTORY OF THE FORMATION OF GUNUNG SEWU AND THE KARST CAVES

The genesis of Gunung Sewu has long been a topic of study. It was Junghuhf). in 1836, the first who tried to elucidate the ~gi ona l processes. Attracted by the numerous conical hills, labyrinthine small valleys, caves with stalactites, perpendicuiar ~oastal cliffs, and the subterranean rivers of the region. he suggested that the conical hills were formed of coral polyps when the region was still under the sea. He proposed that the Southern Mountains were uplifted during the formation of Gunung Merapi,.a volcano to the north. Although Junghuhn's Infeq:iretatiof) suffers from weaknesses in some points, it cannot be denied that he laid the basic framework for understanding the stratigraphy of the area. Since Junghuhn, many different theories have been proposed co~derning the genf?sis of ~unung Sewu. These haVe been summarized{and synthesized by Bartstra (1976) and Tanudlrjo (1991). Fromthls'summary, it lsqulte obvious ,that scholars believe that volcanic activity and epirogenic movements have played a major role in the formation of the area. The history of the formation of rock components of Gunung Sewu can be elaborated as follows. The Gunung Sewu region was originally a plain with deposits of various sediments of marine environment. During the Oligocene a deep depression was formed in which various sediments were deposited and so forming the bedrock of this area. The subterranean volcanic activities and magmatic activities, which penetrated the bedrock, resulted in various kinas of igneous rocks (ondesite, basalt. dacite). These activities lasted during the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene. After the forming of the se ig neous rocks, and still in the same depression, deposited were carbonate sediments, which formed the limestone unit in the Midd le Miocene. However. in Early Miocene, a new depression wa s formed where the sediments accumulated so forming the

50

TUf~aceous unit in the Middle Miocene. Tectonic movements dUring the Middle Miocene caused the units of rock formed to be uplifted to the surface and slowly the silica group of rocks wos formed (che~, jasper, etc). Uplifts during the Middle Miocene caused the limestone rocks as the material component for Gun.ung Sewu emerge above sea level, and became land Then eroslo~ dur~ng t.he Holocene formed the alluvial unit tha~ was deposited In dlsconformity above the limestone of G Sewu. unung

Plate 16: White limestone in brittle and

kl d

..

~~t~:;:'le. This picture is takc~r:r~mea I~~~~~~o~~~~ss~~~~:~s:eoit~~I~~~~~d~~~ .

The process of uplift of Gunung Sewu did not OCcur ~lmult?neOusly. Gradually, uplift towards the south became more Intensive and was of younger date. The northern and central part underwent uplift during the Early Tertiary, whereas the southern part to th t . e presen shoreline, underwent uplift in Late

51 Tertiary. Ancient volcanic rock deposits up to the present, of which the rema ins can be found ot about ± 5 km east of Pacitan, also accompanied the uplift of the entire deposited la yers from the sea bottom. These weathered ancient volcanic rocks might be the one called alfisol soil that is very fertile when it touches water. On the process of the karst hill formation some scholars have .d ifferent opinions . According to Danes, the typ ical landscape was formed by mechanic and chemical erosion, after the limestone plateau had been elevated above sea level. Meanwhile van Valkenburg and White put .more stress on chemical weathering as the constructive factors. Then Lehman claimed that the present karst hills were the effect of various factors, which can be traced back to a combination of epirogenesis (tilting and warping of the limestone massif) and the tropical climate such as the action of rainwater. De Terra who stated that the primary cause of the karstification has been the Pleistocene climate with its alternating pluvials and lnterpluvlols refuted this view. He also assumed that the karstification started already at a fairly early date and was already completely developed in the Middle Pleistocene as can be seen from the fossil vertebrate of Trinil fauna in.the fissures of the Gunung Sewu. Sartono who suspects that the origin of the karst topography is connected with an increase in the intensity of erosion and denudation, which affects the area, put another view forward . In general the formation of the karst hillscan be explained as follows. As the effect of elevation from the bottom of the sea, . a geological structure was formed, a fault, fold and magma intrusion. The geological structures formed on the limestone deposits seemed to support the formation of karst phenomena, which developed to a very exten.ded network. Coincidentally with the karst phenomena, erosion too occurred forming the various hill morphology, with a network of cavities in the limestone, known as caves.

52 The caves in the Gunung Sewu region were formed from limestone, whic~ysically is hard, but chemically very weak and brittle. The brittle limestone deposit was due to chemical influences through water activities containing a solution of carbon dioxide from the air and other sources. The process of chemical weathering effected in the process of karstification. so that the surface of the limestone was perforated. whereas in the inside forming a network of tunnels. This perforated surface in turn increased its function as rain water catch, whereas the network of tunnels will increase its function as water accumulator. Abovementioned process lasted eternally and formed a natural structure that cannot be restored when it is damaged and not be reshaped when it is lost. (Fadhlan S. Intan & Truman Simanjuntak)

PART TWO EXPLOITATION IN REMOTE TIMES

5. EVIDENCE OF EARLY COLONIZATION

-."

The earliest existence of man in the Gunung Sewu area is indicated by remains with Paleolithic characteristics found along rivers. The Baksoka River has yielded an abundance of lithic artifacts that prove intensive exploitation of the environment in the past (Plate 17). Von Koenigswald and Tweedie found very dense scatters oflithic . artifacts in 1935. The implements are generally made of pink (reddish) dark brown blackish silicified tuff, opaque white silicified limestone, and some fossil wood. The artifacts were collected from the riverbed, mixed with pebbles. There are also massive tools still attached to conglomerate boulders on the slopes of the riverbank about '3-4 metres from the bottom of the river. Von -Koenigswald concluded -that the tools of Pacitan had characteristic attributes of Chellean hand-axes, flake tools and some blades . Because of this discovery the name Baksoka became well known in the international world, attracting scholars to explore this area, for the sake of geology as well as archaeology. The collecting of artifacts has continued until now, leading to fears that the site may soon be exhausted. At present, Pacitanian artifacts are widely scattered in many institutions and private collections in the country and abroad (Simanjuntak, 1995b). In Indonesia, notable collections are found in the Centre for Archaeology in Jakarta, the National Museum in Jakarta, the Central Java Conservation Centre for Archaeological Remains in Prambanan, the East Java Conservation Centre for Archaeology in Trowulan, and the Yogyakarta Centre for Archaeology. Abroad, these artifacts can be found in the Paebody Museum in Cambridge, USA, the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt, Germany, the Anthropos Institut in Saint Agustin, Germany, the Instituut voor Zuid-Aziatisch~ Archaeologie in Amsterdam, Nether-

56 land s, the Rijksmuseum voor Volk enkunde in Leiden. the Netherland s, and the Biologi sch-Archaeologi sch Instituut in Groningen , Netherlands. Further research on the Pacitan c ulture has been conducted since von Koeni gswald . Notable contributions emphasizing environment and geology were made by Marks and Sartono (Marks, 1953) , Flath e and Pfeiffer (1965), Verst appen (1960; 1964; 1969), and Balas z (1968) . Hellmut de Terra , Teilhard de Chardin and Movius in 1953 conducted research here in the framework of the study of the d~velopm~nt of early Paleolithic culture in Southeast Asia. Together with Koenigswald , the three scholars explored the Baksoka River area to gain a p.icture of the general situation and geological problems :elated to this general study. They noted the presence of three terraces In the Bak soka Ri ver, and like von Koenigswald previously, Teilhard de Chardin classified the Paleolithic artifact co llection as Chellean . Based on artifactual data observed, Movius then introduced the typo logy of Pacitanian lihic artifacts which is stilI used wide ly at present. The main types comprise: choppers, chopping tools , handaxes, a~d proto hand-axes , beside flake tool s of large size displaying Clactonian characteristics (Movius, 1948), and in some cases r~presenting the pseudo-Levallois technique (Soejono, 1984) . The richness of the Pacitanian tools in quality as well as in quantity, thought to be the first Paleolithic too ls to be found in Indonesia, made the Baksoka Ri ver an eponymous site for the Paleolithic of Indonesia. . Research on the Paleolithic in the Baksoka River valley continued after the Second World War. Together with Christie, in 1952, van Heekeren made efforts to collect a number of mass ive tools in the lower terrace of the Baksoka River, but because of floods, he could not c~mplete their research. In 1953 along with Marks, Soejono and Basoeki , he returned to the site and proved that not only the upper stream of Baksoka River but also its tributaries yielded artifacts. One of them , the Ngambar Ri ver, yielded core tool s on the river gravel , at a depth of about 0.5 - 1 metres on the lower part of the riverbank. The artifact~ gen.erall y have been rounded due to river transportation. Oth er find s Includ ed a chopper of the flat-iron type, near the Gede

57 River course, not far from Tabuhan Cave. Th e bottom of the river also yielded a number of Paleolithic tool s. Similarly. the Sirikan River , an extension of the Gede and Sun glon Rivers , also yielded a numb er of Paleolithic tools on the lower part of the river bank . Choppers represent the highest percentage of the massive tool s found , in addition to flake tools . Heekeren elaborated Movius ' s classifi cat ion of choppers into flat -iron, side chopper, end chopper, and horse-h oof chopper types . The flat -iron and horse hoo f type are characteristic of the Pacitan culture. Plat e 17: The situatio n of Baksoka River in the rainy se ason is very much different from that in the dry season. Thi s picture shows a situa tion in the rai ny season with clear water. Usua lly . afte r a he avy rain. the river is over flood ed . In this river Koeni gswald found Paleolith ic artifacts in 1935.

In later research development s, besides the Baksoka River site, Pacitan tools were found elsewhere, in the western part of Gunung Sewu (the Gunung Kidul regency). Artifacts found in this area, especially along the Oyo River, consist of choppers , chopping tools, .hand-adzes, scrapers, and flakes . Also found are core stones, and trimmed stones. The material for these tools is dominated by basalt, but there are also andesite , silicified and esite, silicified limestone, silicified clay ston e, silicified tuff, and quart z (W idia nto, 1983; Hidayat, 1996) .

7

58

59

In the ce ntral part of Gun ung Sewu, Pac itan ian too ls were found in the valley of the Giriwoyo Rive r (Wo nogiri Regency), which form s an upper course of the Solo Rive r. In this area , the Paleo lithic tools found compr ise cleavers, chop pers, chopping tools, hand -adzes, scrapers , flake s, and cores. The materials utilized usuall y are chert , basalt , sili cified limestone, silicified tuff, chalcedony, quartz and and esite. Distribution is densest in the eas tern part of Gunung Sew u, including the sites of Narnpol, Ked ung Menjangan, Janglot and M undu in the waters hed of the Baksoka Rive r. Ot her sites are found along the Pasang, Pogog, and Banjar Rivers, which form one chain with the co urses of the Gede, Sirikan and Sung lon Rivers. Plate 18: Kedunggamping River in Worawari village, district Kebo nagung, Pac itan regency. It is a Paleolithic site very rich in andesite artefacts. Typol ogicall y, the artifacts it contains belong to the pacit anian.

The most recently discovered Paleolithi c sites show ing Pacitanian characteristics was foun d in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu, eas t of Pac itan. One of them is Ke bonagung Rive r, not far from Pacitan with finds of choppers, and large flake tools of andes ite, in moderate quantity. Another site is alo ng the Sooka Rive r, in the dis tric t of Arjosari. In this small river that cros ses the village Me lati, an Indones ian-French tea m found some flake too ls. T he most imp ressive site is the Ked ung Gamping River, more to the east of Pac itan, where a very dense distribution of artifacts was found in the riverbed (P late 18). Various kinds of tools were found , including

choppers , chopping tool s, and large flakes. In ge neral they are made of andesite. Tracing the artifacts along this rive r is most important for future studies aimed at discovering the extent of their dist ribution. Indonesia pro vides numerous sites whe re anc ient tool s have undergone "reworking" by immers ion in river courses. ~his phenomenon constrains the understanding of contextual ~emall1 s , because the sedimentation proc ess has scattere d rem ains that previously were found within one context. So me impo rtant Paleolithic sites that have been discovered in- the Archipelago are: the Oga n, Mungrup and Muzoi Rivers in Sumatra; the Cipilang, Cia nten, Cilaca, Cibaganjing, Parigi, and Kuning Rivers in Java; the Ria m Kanan river in Kalimantan; Sembiran in Bali ; Plambik in Lombok; Kering River in Sumba; Sawu; the Wallanae Valley in So uth Sulawesi; Batu Tr ing in Sumbawa; Mengeruda and Metamenge in Flores ; Ata mbua and Manikin in West Timor. The fact that these sites are all located close to rivers supports the hypothesis that early exploitati on of the en vironment in the Arc hipelago tend to be oriented to river courses. Among the assemblage of Paleolithic arti facts, the chop per was the most common kind of tool used as is apparent by its presence in every site (Plate 19). By a simple technological process, a peb.ble can be shaped into a chopper by a single flaking or more on one of Its e n ~s towards one of the plan es. The universal natu re of the chopper IS possibly due to technical fact ors where the manufactu.re is tec hn.i c.a~ ly easier by trimming on only one plan e. Another factor IS the pOSSIbIlIty that monofacial trimming (flaking) tended to be suitable for a num ber of different purp oses. Differences discerni ble between these sites include the kind of raw material used . Besides choppers and other massive tools , large flakes also played a quit e significa nt role in the collecti on of Paleolithic tool s. In general, in terms of shape, the flakes have the same techno-morphological characteristics: a flat and wide striking platform of fairl y large size and a positive bulb.

60

Plate 19: The chopper is the most commonly found among the massive tools. The main characteristics: a monofacial edge. From its morphology. it distinguishes the tortoise type. flat-iron type. and horse hoof type. This picture presents a chopper of the tortoise type from Baksoko river.

Time Span of Early Pacitanian The above data provide a clear view of the distribution of early exploitation by creators of the Pacitanian technology in the Gunung Sewu area. When did early exploitation occur? Experts on the Pacitanian have not reached an agreement as to its age. In his early study, von Koenigswald stated that the Pacitanian displayed characteristics of the European Lower Paleolithic. Based on typology and geology, the Pacitanian presented the complete range of Chellean characteristics with hand -axes, flake tools and some crude blades (Heekeren, 1972). Movius however stated that the Pacitanian displayed a distinct difference from lower Paleolithic hand -axes from the Indian Peninsula, Near East, Europe and Africa. He argued that the Pacitanian forms part of the East Asian Chopper-Chopping Tools

61 Complex like Soanian in Punjab. Anyanthian in Burma, Fingnoian in Thailand, Tampanian in Malaysia and Choukoutienian in China (Heekeren, 1972). This culture dated from the Middle to the Upper Pleistocene. It was also hypothesized that this culture complex was created by Pithecanthropus or his descendants. Heekeren (1972) gave a date for the Pacitanian in the Middle Pleistocene-Upper Pleistocene. He added that the technology found in the upper to the lower terraces of the Baksoka River originated from a culture that developed very slowly, in terms of flaking techniques and the resulting shapes . This view was rejected by Bartstra (1985), who stated that, based on his studies of the Baksoka River terraces, the Pacitanian dates to no more than 50,000 year B.P. and forms a local manifestation of the Hoabinhian . Recent research tends to refute Bartstra's opinion . Excavations by the Indonesian- French team in Song Terus (Terus Cave) have succeeded in obtaining a chronology for habitation covering a period from 180,000 to 4,500 years ago (Sernah & FiSemah. 1999). The implements found in lower layers differ from the Pacitanian as they tend to be massive and crude. Based on the chronology of Terus Cave, the Pacitanian should be of older date than 180,000, or in other words early co lonization of Gunung Sewu by hominids occurred before that date. The debate on the Pacitanian chronology has been heretofore rendered insoluble by the lack of absolute dates from the sites around the rivers. Other factors that made difficult absolute as well as relative datinzb are the fact that the artifacts were not found in association with hominid or faunal fossils, and that the sites have been transformed. Moreover, on those terraces, the Paleolithic artifacts were found mixed with Neolithic artifacts of much later date. Nonetheless, the Pacitanian artifacts form .very significant evidence, presenting data of a typological richness exceeding that of other sites in Indonesia. (Bagyo Prasctyo )

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THE BAKsOKA RIVER TERRACES

The Boksoko River, located in the Pacitan region,East Java, has a great volume of water in the rainy season, but aries up in severol plac es during the diy season. This river flows from east to west tilen turns southwa rds. From its source in the Batok Mountain, this river measures about 23km long and 50 metres wide. It bears four names: ln -the upper and middle part it is c a lled th e Baksoka River. and downstream successively it oeqrs; '. the names Kladen , Maron, and Sambi River. Since the early 19th century, the Baksoka River has attracted the attention of scholars due to the dense Paleolithic, remains , found in the riverbed and on its terraces. Due to the richness.of artifacts, a number of researchers were drawn to study geologi cai aspects, particularly the river terraces. One otthem "" .: : "Leh man (1939), mentioned the existence of terraces, which he referred a s border-terra c es (rand-terrasen) (Sartono, 1964). Thes terra c es were not present in Punung, but in the depression ,.. ..t- . .. between the limestone hillsin Gunung Sewu. Teilhard deChardin (1937; 1938) stated that .there cir e three terraces With an elevation of 25'metres above the river course forth~ firstter race, lQ metres for the second and two metres for the third. Headi:lecI that the three terraces yielded flake tools. De Terra (1943) stated that there were only two terraces, the first one being at 15-20 metres above the river course, and the second a t 10 metres above the river c ourse . This second terra ce corresponds with 1t)e artifact-bearing .conglomerate boulder mentioned by Koenigswald . Bartstra (1976) disagreed with this opinion, because the c o ng lomerate boulder is located three or four metres above the river course, whereas de Terra's terrace was at 10 metres ab ove the river course . .~

.

-;- ~

0'

Movius (1948), besides agreeing with de ' Chardin on the number of terraces. also agreed with de Terra regarding the sec ond terrace correspond ing .to the conglomerate boulder of

'"

Koenigswald that conta ins artifacts. Ac cording to Mo vius. there of 15 metres for the first terrace, nine metres for th e sec ond and 1,5 metres for the third terrace, all a bove the river course 's level. Van Heekeren (1 955), in defining the terrac es, divided the Baksoka River into two parts: the right bank and left ba nk. On the right bank are four terrac es with respective elevati ons of 4. 11, 17, a nd 20 metres above the river course, wherea s on the left bank are seven te rrcces with elevations of 3. IO, 16, 25, 39. 46, a nd 54 metres a bove the river course . The artifact-bearing terra c es are located at an elevation of 4-20 metres on the right bank, and at 3-25 metres on the left bank. Bartstra (1 976) found exposures . conslsting of gravel fragments at an elevation of 14 metr es :'overlaid by several'metres of red mud . In that grave l layer were foun b .h and-axes and flakes that came from a higher terrace. , .: _. ', . . f:;' :f ~ Bartstra'sideas have been much infiuenced by J. van Heek (1932). H:Lehman (1936, 1955), -A'!J.. Panneko'ek (1 948,1 949), P. Teilhard de Chardin (1937, 1938), bnd Bemmelen (1949).

aTe three terrac es with respective elevation

'- --- -"'- ""

The Gunl.mg Sewu Tea m of the . Prehistory Department, ' Nationa l Research Centre of Archaeology between 1996 and .1999 conducted intensive researches in the Gunun g Sewu :(egion, one of wh ich was ' focussed on the geology of the Baksoka River. The morphology of the Baksoka River belong s to the unit of a weakly undUlating pla in and karst. The surface drainage pattern belongs to the old-mature stadium. featuring a ~ drainage system which is partly dendritic, partly rectangular. In the c lassification according to the quantity of water, the central block belongs to the periodic river type, whereas the upper and lower streams belong to the episodic type. In the classification ' . according to geological structure and relief. the Baksoka River belongs to .the consequent and subsequent type of river (Lobeck, 1939; Ihornburv, 1964). On the other hand, the straightness of"Baksoka River is influenced by the fau lt syste m (Sa mud ra et 01, 1992) The rock components of the Baksoka River in ge ne ra l consist of alluvium from the Holocene, distributed along the river in the

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64 form of fluviatile sediments (clay, silt. sand, gravel (small») and marine sedim~(limestone coral. and marine clay containing molluscs). Limestone is predominantly spread on the downstream blockend partly on the central block, dating from the Middle Miocene-Pliocene or correspond ing to the WonosariPunung Formation (Surono et aI, 1992). Tuff is found on the upstream block, dating from the Middle Pliocene or corresponding to the Jaten, Ovo, Wuni Formations. Contact of limestone with tuff is visible in the central block. Andesite igneous rock is found north of the Baksoka River and tuff of the Oligocene or corresponding to intrusive rocks (Samudra et aI, 1992). Other kinds of rock, like chert. Jasper, meta limestone, ond meta andesite are frequently found In this central block. The Baksoka River has experienced structural disturbances of faults comprising slip faults and normal faults, Slip ·faults went through the central block whereas the normalfault isfound north of the slip fault. In the downstream block with limestone as .the rock component. is found an indication of a normal fault that is, steep slopes separated by the Baksoka River. The right and:left e slopes form a norst, whereas the Saksoka River represents a graben. The rocks are broken by the slip fault at the meeting point of limestone and tuff, whereas the normal fault passes through limestone and andesite. In observinq the river terraces, data achieved from earlier research were used as references; which are then compared to the results, achieved by the Gunung Sewu Team. After observinq the terraces, the Team discovered that actually there are only five terraces, which are: o

Terrace 1 (Tl / Ul): located at an elevation of 125 m above the river course, or 381 rn, above sea level with a thickness of ±-15 rn the rock components consisting of sandstone with conglomerate Intrusio ns (lenses). In the sandstone laye r were found a few flake tools .

o

o

o

o

Terrace 2 (T2 / U2): located at an elevation of 100 m above the river course or 356 m above sea level, with a thickness of 15-20 rn with rock components of sandstone with conglomerate lenses. In the sandstone layer were found flake tools. Terrace 3 (T3 / U3): located at an elevation of 25 m above the river course with a thickness of ± 15 rn with rock components of tuffaceous sandstone with conglomerate lenses; in this layer were found flake tools. Terrace 4 (T4 / U4): located at an elevation of 10 m above river course or 266 m above sea level. with a thickness of ± 10 m, and rock components of clayey sandstone with conglomerate lenses. This layer contains flake tools. Terrace 5 (T5 / US): located at an elevation of 0-10 m above the rlver course with a thickness of ± 5 rn, and rock components of riverine deposits (conglomerate gravel. sand, silt and c lay). This deposit yielded Paleolithic tools. ~":::'. "

~

Some researchers presented thei r respective terrace numbers with elevations In one cross section (column) like Movius, de Terra, van Heekeren (1955), Bartstra (1976), Sartono (1978), and the Gunung Sewu Team (lntan, 1996; 1998; 1999). Comparison of terraces that have approximately the same elevation presents the following picture: o

o

o

o o

T5/U5: considered to correspond to sortono's T5-T6, sortstrc:s B3-84and Heekeren's H7. T4/U4: considered to correspond to scrtono's T4, Bartstra's B2 and Heekeren's H5-H6. T3/U3: considered to correspond to Sartstra's B1. and Heekeren's H3-H4. T2/U2: considered to correspond to Sartono's T2. n /U 1: considered to correspond to sortono's Tl .

Grouping of terraces according to their elevations gave the following results: group 1: terraces with an elevation of 0-40 metres above river course level; group 2: terraces with an

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elevation of 100-120 metres above river course level; and group 3: terraces ~ an elevation of 125-140 metres above river course level.

I

I

I I I I I I I I

Based on this grouping. it is assumed that three episodes of uplift have occurred. so that the sequence of geological processes that effected the formation of the terraces is as follows. Uplift I resulted in the formation of Tl/U1. followed by a period of isostatlon I. uplift II resulted in T2/U2. followed by isostatlon II. uplift III resulted in T3-T5. But it was assumed that between T3 and T4 was an isostatlon. which was followed by continuous uplifts until T5 was formed . At the elevation of T5. which reached only some metres above river course level. it was concluded that the Baksoka River still experienced uplifts some time ago. Isostation is refiected by the difference in elevation between the respective terraces. and at the same time reflected the periods of time without sedimentatioh. which u. means no terrace formation. (Fadhlan S. Intan)

~

o ~---FI

:

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6. PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENT AND SUBSISTENCE Human life cannot be separated from its natural environment. Therefore environmental conditions will affect patterns of life and culture. In other words, different natural environments and resources will produce different patterns of human activities. Therefore the nature of the environment can reflect the kind of activities present. The Paleolithic artifacts along the rivers of south Central Java have undergone transformation by a fairly long depositional process. The effect is that the remains have lost their context. This condition will make it difficult to identify the original environment in which they were deposited. Although the exact location of Paleolithic sites cannot be ascertained yet, it can be assumed that they were not far from the river courses. The distance that they were transported, from the original location of deposition to the site at which they were found is proportionate to the extent of rounding of the cutting edge. The more rounded , the greater distance the artifact was moved. One can assume that the pattern of habitation of the creators of the Paleolithic tools was concentrated around river courses. Evidence of habitation on riverbanks is presented by a great number of Pacitanian artifacts in the Baksoka River and its tributaries and those beyond the Baksoka River. The locations concentrated near river courses indicate a pattern of habitation on riverbanks and in open sites. One can assume that the human creators of the artifacts led a nomadic life traversing the river course, exploiting the available resources by food collecting and hunting. Cave-life was apparently not part of their adaptation, as evidenced by the fact that up to the present, no Pacitanian tools have been found in caves.

Plate 20: Dolines with plain s and hills surrounding it and the areas of river courses. pro vide various environmental nature resources to support human life. The discovery of artifacts around the river and plains indicat e that human activities occurred around the;e areas, Above : phot o of a lake in the Rongkop area. Below: Photo of the Paleolithic site in Sooka river, village Kebunagung, east of Pacitan.

In view of the location of the open sites, there is a possibility that the .Paleolithic Pacitan inhabitants fixed temporary stations around the riverbank, while foraging in the surrounding area; when one area could no longer supply their needs they moved to another place along the riverbank. The riverine environment was selected because it could meet their daily needs for food, raw material for tool making, and water. Water is a vital necessity for any creature, whether human, animal, or plant, so that places close to water sources tend to be selected. The present environment is generally open with arid hills without big trees, except those planted by reforestation . But , when we look at the dense presence of fossil wood representing various big and

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small trees in the Baksoka River, near Tabuhan in the east of Pacitan , one perceives a very different situation. The abundant fossil wood shows that in the past this area was covered by a dense forest. With this fact in mind , van Bemmelen (1949) assumed that dense fore sts formerly covered the Gunung Sewu reg ion. This is supported by Badoux (1959), who analyzed van Bernmelen's findings of mammal fossils , like Tapirus, and Rhinoceros, and fossils of big trees, found along the Baksoka River. He stated that these fossi l remains generally represent fauna and flora of a forest and swamp environment, at the same time indicating a humid condition in the Pleistocene. Van Bemmelen further correlated the name Wonosari, in the western part of Gunung Sewu, with the existence of a dense forest. Apparently this can be affirmed, because when Junghuhn travelled in the Rongkop area (Sou theast of Wonosari), he reported that this area was a forest , still the habi tat of tigers (Bartstra, 1976) . If data on the existence of forest can be confirmed, then such an environment restricted man's activities in exp loiting its content. Humans tend move close to river co urses and forest periphery.

Plate 21 : A speci fie rural scen ery in Gunung Sewu in the plains and narrow valleys between the hills . This view reflects prehistoric occupation of similar landscapes. The picture is taken from around Cave Cabak, Baran.

Environment and the Exploitation of Natural Resources Various natural resources that were available such as rocks for tools, the river as a source of water, and animals living in the surrounding area , constituted the main sources of subsistence for the creators of the Pacitan culture. The understanding of human subsistence as based on occupation of riverbanks is dependent on the assemblage of artifacts, faunal and floral remains . Faunal and floral remains are not found in Baksoka River, but lithic artefacts are abundant. The presence of those artifacts is proof that man lived along the river course and used the core tools for animal hunting. The Gunung Sewu environment provided various kinds of rock , and the presence of a particular kind of rock in the environment very muc h influenced the pattern of its exploitation . The process of acquiring raw materia l would not have been difficult if the environment provided it in the form of bou lders or exposed bedrock. If the material formed part of bedrock, it would have to be acquired by mining. Such a condition applies to the original location of the materials from which the Pac itanian artifacts were made . They were rarely made of silicified rocks like tuff, limestone, and fossil wood. Fossil wood was fairly easy to get , as were the other two kinds of rock , which they obtained from the slopes of the banks . The majority originate from old volcanic rocks that have undergone metamorphosis. Due to cutting by the flow of rivers, boulders of these parent rocks were accessible for too l making. What did they make these stone tools for? They used stone tools to fulfil their life necessities, in particular those relating to the exploitation of food resources. They collected plants around the river for food, besides using the wood for hunting tools. The concentration of those artifacts along the river course are proof that man lived attached to the river course and used the core tools for animal hunting. Sedimented faunal remains can theoretically provide information on hunting activities , and the kinds of game utilized. Von Koenigswald 's findings near Tabuhan comprised bears, tapir, Simia , Stegodon , Elephas natnadicus, Echinosorex, SYlIlphalangus and

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Hylobates (Badoux , 1959; ' Heekeren, 1972), Hooijer's analysis of faunal finds colieeted during Bartstra's survey around Punung also supports the existence of forests in the Gunung Sewu region, The kinds of animals represented include Presbytis c.q, Trachpithecus sp., Pongo pygmaeus (Hoppius), Acanthion brachyurus (L), Helarctos malayanus (Raffles), Neofelis nebulose (Griffith) , Elephas sp., Tapirus indicus Desmarest, Rhinoceros sondaicus desmarest, Sus sp., and Bibos c.q., Bubalus sp. All of these kinds of fauna can be identified in the Middle Pleistocene in association with the Trinil and Jetis fauna. Five species among them (Pongo pygmaeus, Helarctos malayanus, Neofelis nebulosa, Elephas and Tapirus indicus) are extinct on Java, although some can be still found in Sumatra and Kalimantan. (Bagyo Prasetyo)

7. THE PACITANIAN The main factor that has made the Baksoka River an eponymous site of the Indonesian Paleolithic (called Pacitanian) is its status as the first Paleolithic site found in Indonesia, and the very high density of artifacts found there. This motivated von Koenigswald who discovered it together with M,W.F Tweedie on 4 October 1935, to publish his finding in the Bulletin of the Raffles Museum in Singapore in 1936. Since then the term "Pacitanian", from Pacitan, the nearest town, became widely known as one of the most important Paleolithic complexes in Southeast Asia. Its rich content of material makes this site a basic reference for Paleolithic culture in Indonesia. The Baksoka River has yielded a very dense content of artifacts as was shown by von Koenigswald's initial discovery, during which he collected 3,000 pieces from this site. Artifacts have been collected by numerous subsequent researchers, causing the scattering of these artifacts in various institutions and private collections in diverse countries. This condition has exhausted the resources of the site. It is now difficult to find artifacts on the surface, except after heavy rains, which cause the river to abrade the riverbed and terraces and so expose more artifacts. This fluvial activity also plays an important role in transporting the artifacts from the original points where they were deposited, effecting rounding in various degrees, depending upon the distance of transportation and the size of the artifacts, The richness of artifacts is shown by the variety of tool types. In general these comprise core tools and flakes. This reflects the inten sive activities conducted at the site synchronically and diachronically as well. Synchronically, from the distributions of the artifacts it can be assumed that human activities along the river courses of the Baksoka and other nearby rivers were intensive. As to the length of time during which this activity continued, no chronological data has yet been obtained.

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Based on observation of the extent of rounding, when rounding is low, it seems-that the artifacts were not transported far from the original deposit to the location where they were found. Transportation over a greater distance certainly would disproportionately affect artifacts of smaller size, which are easily carried by river currents. One can say that the artifacts around the Baksoka River reflect activities along and around the river itself. The Baksoka River and its surrounding areas can be regarded as habitation and workshop sites. Humans established temporary camps along the river while exploiting the natural resources ·of their surroundings with the local lithic material as the main tools. The development of the lithic industry in the Baksoka River area was very much influenced by the abundance of silicified rocks available in the area. The most commonly used material was silicified limestone, followed by silicified tuff and fossil wood. These materials were favoured because of their hardness and ease of flaking. Because of their availability, other kinds of rocks like andesite were far less exploited. Andesite rocks are more abundant in this area, but their ' quality is not as good as silicified rocks. Among further observations regarding the Baksoka River artifact collection, one of the most impressive is that in general the tools were made by the use of multiple flaking. Those made with only one or two flakings are very rare. It is also commonly found that the. surfaces of the tools were totally flaked, reflecting a long shaping. operation to obtain the desired tool. On the other hand, for some too~s flaking was limited to the distal end, whereas the butt end was left in its natural form. In this case, the distal ends have multiple flaking not limited to one or two flakes being detached. Such multiplied flaking is rarely found in other Paleolithic ' sites, especially when the material used was not silicified rock, but andesite, basalt etc. In the case of the latter, only rudimentary limited flaking was commonly employed to produce tools. . . From the point of the number of flakes and the long and m complicated process of shaping, it can ~ said that the Pacitan artifact collection shows a more progressive character than ss

blages from other sites. The long process of manufacture indicated by the complexity of flaking and technique employed reflects the more advanced technological ability of the manufacturers. Possibly this point of view forms the basis for the statement that the Pacitanian tools display an advanced flaking technique --!Mulvaney, 1970; Bartstra, 1983). In general core tools can be distinguished from flake tools in the Pacitanian assemblage. Movius in his article "Pacitanian Culture" (1944) first described the core tools as being characterized by rudimentary flaking with only a few showing uniform retouches. He added that often the greater part still maintains the cortex, especially at the butt end. The worked edges are often serrated and crude. These tools havea specific brown patina, from light ochre to dark, close to black. Some tools are dark grey and others are white limestone. The procurement techniques for the raw material are very interesting: big blocks of silicified rocks were found iii the Baksoka valley, and it 'seems that prehistoric man battered these blocks to obtain material of the ideal size. The flakes that resulted froin this method show abulb and striking platform. Sometimes big flakes were used as cores to produce smaller flake and blade tools. Natural pebbles were also used for tools. . Movius (1948) classified the Pacitan tools as choppers, chopping tools, hand-axes, hand-adzes and proto hand-axes, beside flake-tools. Special notice can be directed towards flakes that are generally of large size. Movius and Bartstra (1983) gave a complete description of the Baksoka River flakes. It was said that the flakes are of very varied size, from the gigantoliths to blades. They were detached by employing the Clacton technique characterized by a large striking platform and wide angle of flaking . Looking at their generally pronounced bulbs, it is possible that ·flaking employed the direct technique with a hard hammer stone. One rock was smashed against another, resulting in flakes with pronounced bulbs. Furthermore, ovius noted the presence of a number of tools with facetted striking atforrns, generally consisting of two groups. The first group .mprise flakes with pseudo levallois appearances that were not

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products of prepared core s, but tend to be secondarily flaked at the end of the bulb, pri~o detachment from the core, The second group comprises flakes that have been separated from the prepared striking platform before detachment. This kind of technique often resulted in more than three main facets , but showing no specific Levallois traits (Movius, 1944). Choppers are characterized by a cutting edge shaped by mo nofacial flaking from the distal toward the proximal end to create a circ ular, ellipsoid or straight cutting edge . Chopping tools are characterized by bifacial flaking, also from the distal toward the proximal end. Most often flaking was done alternately towards eac h plane, creating a sinoidal cutting edge . Hand-adzes are rectangular in shape with the cutting edge perpendicular to the tool axis. Flaki ng was res tric ted to the upper dorsal plane of the distal end, res ulting in a sing le cutting edge . Proto hand -axes are in many cases made of big flakes worked only on the upper dorsal plane to create a point ed handadze. Usually the cortex still covers the butt end. Thi s kind of tool is regarded as transitional bet ween hand-adze and hand- axe. Th e hand -adze as a typical tool of the Early Anyathian in Birma can be regarded as a speci fic type of chopper, or massive end scraper. Th is too l is on ly worked upon on the upper surface; the edge is sharper than that of a chopper. Since these tools were made out of massive and thick flakes, obtained by the smashing technique, the lower part became flat. This kind of tool, comprising less than 8 % of the total Pacitanian assemblage, is characterized by a pointed shape and plano-convex cross -section. Flaking limited to the upper part, mostly made on flakes , means that they must be classifed as proto hand-axes. Some are very crude, resembling unfinished hand-axes. It is very rare that the upper part is totally flaked , and often the end still retains the cortex . The tools mentioned above are present in varied quantities, and this is -..ery observable when examining the surface along the Baksoka River. The research team purposely did not collect artifacts during surveys, to prevent the depletion of the site's remaining surface assemblage. In Movius' classification of 2,416 pieces of Pacitan tools

(Hee keren, 1992), choppers occupied 17,82 % of the total amount, next to the flake tools the most common artifact type. The proto hand axe (8,06%) and the hand-axe (6,32 %) are the next most common tool types. Movius postulated his first theory of the East Asian Paleolithic after conducting research in Burma for four months. His formulation of the categories of chopper, chopping-tool, hand-adze, proto handaxe and hand -axe was based on his experience with the Anyathian assemblage (Heekeren, 1972; Movius, 1944). Movius' typology has certain weaknesses, particularly in conjunction with the difficu lty in distinguishing objectively between one kind of artifact from another. Movius himself admitted that his types canno t be easily distingu ished. A number of transitional forms are present among the existing types so that different experts will classify the same collection differently (Bartstra, 1976). Nevertheless this typology has been applied to Asian sites , suc h as the Soa n in Punj ab, the. Ta mpa nian in Malaysia, the Cabalwa nia n in the Philippines, the Choukotienian in China' and the Fi ngnoi an in T hailand. The spec ific characteristic of thi s co mplex is the pronoun ced presence of chop pers and chopping-tools. T he industry is distributed over the nort hern part of Indi a and Southeas t Asia . According to Movi us, this complex is characterized by the absence of "the true hand-axe" , one of the most speci fic too ls in the Paleolithic in Africa and Europe. The difference between cu ltural complexes mentioned above gave birth to a theory known as "The Movius line" . Movius' theory now need s to be reviewed. It is very difficult to distinguish between "true" and "false" hand -axes. Recent findings lead to the co ncept of the universal nature of the Paleolithic culture. Handaxes, polyhedric tool s, choppers, stone balls etc. , specific kinds of Early Paleolithic tools in Europe and Africa, are also found in Indonesia, for example in Sangiran and along the Baksoka River. Similarly, choppers and chopping tool s most common in Asia are also present in Europe and Africa , Thi s similarity of tool types is associated with the same hominid culture bearers, Homo erectus. (Truman Simanjuntak)

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Figure 8: A large disc scraper was found in situ in 1970, from the cemented gravel layer on the bank of Sunglon river, near Tabuhan Cave (Bartstra, 1976). Made of silicified limestone, marks of flaking and intensive retouching are visible around the tool. The size of this picture underwent diminution from its original .

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8. THE PACITANIAN CULTURE: WHOOWNSIT? A basic problem associated with the Pacitanian implements that have not been solved satisfactorily since their first identification concerns the question of the culture bearers. In fact part of the tools were found in the Baksoka riverbed with no association at all with fossil hominids, while some were also collected from the conglomerate boulders on the riverbanks, some 3-4 metres above the present river course. Up to now, no artifacts have been found which can be correlated with geological horizons with known dates, causing problems of their own for stratigraphical and geomorphological studies. The Pacitanian culture-bearing layers in the Baksoka River valley are difficult to identify, presenting another series of problems, including its relative chronology .

The Problem of Stratigraphic Position

The state of finds from the Baksoka riverbed - with no distinct stratigraphical context- forms the main problem of the Pacitanian tools. According to von Koenigswald, the finder of this culture assemblage, the conglomerate boulders can be interpreted as a deposit resulting from frequent folding caused by tectonic activities in the Middle Pleistocene period with deposited Paleolithic tools in it. Thus the minimum age would be Middle Pleistocene (Koenigswald, 1936). This relative date was supported by various finds of faunal remains from the depression and fissures of the karst hills in this area, among them Tabuhan, which contained Stegodon sp., Elephas namadicus, tapir, Malayan bear, deer, Echino sorex and teeth of Simia,

Symphalangus, and Hylobates as well. According to von Koenigswald those form part of the Trinil fauna. The majority of Pacitanian tools proper were made of silicified tuff, silicified limestone, and a few of fossil wood. They are in an advanced state of patination and rounding. Teilhard de Chardin (1937) identified three terrace sediments. The lowest is located about 1.5-2 metres above the present river course. Higher up, at an elevation of about 10 metres is T2 (second terrace) consisting of gravel and mud overlying the coarse gravel. The last mentioned layer- to which von Koenigswald referred as conglomerate boulders- yielded several Pacitanian tools that have undergone rounding , and a premolar of Bas sp. The most upper terrace, Tl , at about 15-18 metres above the Baksoka River was composed of weathered conglomerate boulders, supported by red mud (overlying terra rosa). This terrace did not yield artifacts. Therefore, Chardin identified it as the only artifact-bearing sediment which is synchronic with Koenigswald's "conglomerate boulder". In the frame of Chardin's observation, the age of ,the Pacitanian tools could be determined analogously by relative or absolute dating of the second terrace which von Koenigswald suggested was related to the Middle Pleistocene. Hallam L. Movius Jr's ideas on the dating of Pacitanian artifacts, based on the artifacts' raw material, must be considered. According to Movius (1944) the majority of the artifacts comprise early volcanic rocks, which would only have been available after the Baksoka River course exposed the karst formation. De Terra (1943) stated that this exposure occurred at the period when Trinil fauna inhabited Gunung Sewu. Movius assumed that the lower Miocene volcanic rocks were exposed prior to the Late Middle Pleistocene, theoretically assumed to be the maximum age of the Pacitanian artifacts . Moreover, the comparison of the Pacitanian tools collected from the Baksoka River bed with those from the hill ridges of the valley, only indicate the difference in rounding, rather than the degree of patination. A situation like this indicates a difference in the sedimentary environment; the presence of artifacts from hill ridges is due to a system of layer folding, whereas erosional processes exposed

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those from riverbeds. According to van Bemm elen (1949), eros ion processes in thi s area began during the period of the Late Trinil fauna , which corresponds to the upper Pleistocen e for the formati on of the terraces at Baksoka. De Chardin found tools in the second terrace, so according to Movius, the datin g is Late Middle Pleistocene-Earl y Upper Pleistocene.

tools, obse rvations of each terrace have not been significant because all terraces were reported to contain artifacts (chert flakes) and do not displa y any specific relation ship with the Pacitanian cu.lture, for instance with regard to the massi ve tools. Therefore, the existence of artifacts in the respective terraces up to the first at an altitude of 134 metre s is of still doubtful significance in conjunction with the Pacitanian tools , because there might be a possibility that these "chert flakes " were actually chip s resulting from the manufacture of Neolithic adzes. In this case , the existence of these flakes , specially related to the high terraces, is not useful for the understanding of the Pacitanian culture, compared to the massive tools (Choppers and Chopping- Tools as well as hand-axes).

Plat e 22: Andesi te flake tool fro m Sooka river. village Kebunagung, eas t of Pacitan . Retou che s are found on the lateral side. Compared to other lithic artifacts from thi s site , this tool is less rounded with com ers still sharp. I

.

--G.J . Bartstra (1982) also found Pacitanian culture elements in terrace cracks and some small rivers. The oldest river terrace in the western part of Pacitan, where most of the Paleolith ic tools were found , dated from the last phase of the Pleistocene, whereas the younger terraces were formed in the Holocene, and did not orig inate from older deposits. Moreove r Bartstra also recorded findings of artifacts of Paleolithic type on the surfac e, far from the river. Sometimes he categorized this collection as Neol ithic , geom orphologically related to the Holocene. For Bartstra, it is still a questi on whether the distribution of the Pacitanian culture sites only represented differences in climate or habitation activities of Sub-Holocene communities of hunters and food collectors, Sartono et al (1978) also tried to identify the many river terraces around the Baksoka River. They showed the existence of six terraces (TI-T6) at a range of elevation of 0-134 metres above the Baksoka Riv er course. In conj uction with the presence of Pacit anian

Relative Chronology and the Creators of the Pacitanian Culture From the various works of researchers on the Pacitanian culture it is apparent that even relative chronology is still difficult to determine accurately and convincingly. There is no general accord on this culture-bearing layer, except for the series ef discoveries in riverbeds at Baksoka River proper and other small rivers in the surrounding area. Various relati ve dates have been proposed: from the Middle Pleistocene (von Koenigswald ), Late Middle Pleistocene to Early Upper Pleistocene (Movius) or Late Pleistocene-Early Holocene (Bartstra). In a situation that is entirely independent of a~y stratigraphical context, determination of the relative chronology Will be difficult. In addition, the Paleolithic date in Indonesia, are so far placed solidly in the context of the "Chopper-~~op~ i ng Tool Complex", which corresponds to the Lower Paleolithic 10 Europe, notwithstanding their location and age. No tools of the Middle or Upper Paleolithic have yet been f~und in Java, implying that lithic technology stagnated from the Lower Pleistocene to Holocene, that is for over one million years. For the Oyo River Paleolithic characterized by chopper-chop.ping tool technology frequentl y found in river bed and terrace' deposits closest

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to the present river course, only a minimal age of 11,000 years can be determined (Widiarns, 1983), not its maximal chronology. This date is based on the lowest .artifact-bearing river terrace assumed to have been formed by the decline in global sea level during the last glaciation at the boundary of the Pleistocene-Hol ocen e epoch. Without understanding the stagnation in Pleistocene techn ological evolution in Indonesia, the problem of age determination of the Paleolith ic artifacts will be difficult to solve. Implements of earl y date will show similarities in technology with those of later date. In effect, the stratigraphic position of artifacts becomes very important, for the chronology itself, and for the possible creators of the culture as well. The interpretation of the relative date s presented by von Koenigswald, Movius, and Bartstra as well, is decisive for the determination of the creators of the Pacitani an culture. Hum an physical evolution on Java , from the beginning to the end of the Plei stocene, can be described as follow s (Widianto, 1998): • Late Pleistocene-Early Upper Pleistocene: progressive Homo e rectus • Early Pleistocene-Mid Middle Pleistocene : typical Hom o erectus • • Late Lower Pleistocene-Earl y Middle Pleistocene : archaic Homo erectus Thus von Koenigswald' s theory of artifactual chronology point s to the typical Homo erectus (Sangiran and Trinil) as the creator of the Pacitanian, whereas Mo viuss viewpoint indicat es the progressive Homo erectus (Ngandong, Sambung Macan, and Ngawi). On the other hand , Bartstra has appointed Wajak man as the creator of this culture. In this situation of uncertainty with regard to the creator of the Pacitanian culture, it is apparent that a more distinct techn ological and typological evaluation is needed, by correlating Pleistocene and Holocene cultures that comm only occurred in Indonesi a. Without disregarding the viewpoints on technological stagnation durin g the Pleistocene, it seems that technological and typological universalism in lithic artifacts- particularly in the East Asian and Southeast Asian circles-needs to be considered . In this case, a distinct context of the "chopper-chopping tools compl ex" and man, its creator came from

. continental China, as indicated by choppers-chopping tools of the same kind as the Pacitanian tools. In the habitation cave of Zhou-koudian, these tools were definitely regarded as products of Homo erectus pekin ensis, whose equal in Indonesia was the typical Homo erectus from Middle Pleistocene Sangiran-Trinil. Meanwhile, recent research in San giran by W idianto et al, (2000) discovered an artifact assemblage of chopper-chopping tools . This complex was found in a laharic breccia deposit in the lower layer of the Notopuro series in Sangiran, which is interpreted as having a minimal age of 180,000 years. With reference to the human evolutionary stage during the Pleistocene in Indonesia, these tools must be regarded as cultural products of the progressive Homo erectus. Then how about Bartstra' s view on Wajak man as the creator of the Pacitanian? For a better insight on this view, apparently, cultural evolution in Indonesia has to be reviewed. Wajak man is a variety of Homo sapiens, the absolute chronology of whom is not known (determined) yet , though Jacob's (1967) uranium test placed the fossil in the Holocene, so its maximal age- i"s· 11,000 years. If this ' age is accepted, Wajak man lived , at the earliest, contemporaneously with the appearance of the Australomelanesid race that commonly inhabited the preh istoric caves in various places in the southeastern part of Indonesia. Actually, the physical aspect of the Wajak skull forms a combination of Australomelanesid (skull) and Mongoloid (face) characters, so it can be considered as a hybrid. In this case, in accord with the validity of universalism of prehistoric culture in Indonesia, Wajak man who lived in caves near Campurdarat (Tulungagung) should have developed the flake-blade-bone tool culture, common to man living at this age , rather than the "ChopperChopping Tool Compl ex" like the Pacitanian culture. There are many objections to positing Wajak man as the creator of the Pacitanian culture. Th erefore, it is apparent that Bartstra' s interpretation has to be rejected, and instead, Homo erectus, whatever its evolutionary stage, must be inferred to be the creator of the Pacitanian culture. (Harry Widiant o)

PART THREE -s

TOWARD THE END OF THE PLEISTOCENE

9. CAVE SETTLEMENT, NEW TREND IN THE ' LATE PLEISTOCENE TheLate Pleistocene- say about 40,000 until 12,000 years agoformed a very important period in human and cultural evolution. This period was characterized by the first appearance of Homo sapiens, who quickly inhabited a quite extensive area, covering Southeast Asia, Austra lia, and even the western tip of Melanesia. In a palaeoclimatic frame of reference, this period was marked by the last glaciation (Wllrm), after which the climate gradually ameliorated until the present conditions were attained. The climate in the Gunung Sewu area in this period is assumed to have been drier, giving rise to aeolian sedimentation processes in caves containing pollen. Evidence for this is the discovery in caves of various types of pollen such as Poaceae, Arecaceae, Cazuaria, Moraceae/ Verticaceae etc, which represent ' types of vegetation thriving in dry conditions (Semah et al, in press). During this period a new cultural phenomenon characterized the Gunung Sewu area. The previous centres of activities around river courses were abandoned, and new ones appeared in caves and rock shelters. This change had a great impact on cultural development. Caves with good conditions for habitation and with resources available in their environs formed the main target of habitation. Life in temporary camps which had previously tended to be nomadic changed to more settled life in caves. This condition facilitated opportunities for innovations. When these caves were first inhabited is an important question. C-14 dates from Keplek Cave revealed that this cave has been inhabited at least since 24,000 until 1,000 years ago. Dates obtained from Braholo Cave showed an older settlement period, from 33,0003,000 years ago. Since habitation layers in deeper horizons have not

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90 yet been excavated, cave settlement had started before those dates . This chronology of settlement does not differ much from other caves in the Southeast Asian region such as Niah Cave in Sarawak, Tabon Cave in the Philippines, the Lang Rongrien Shelter in Thailand, Tham Kuong Shelter in Vietnam, etc. In short it can be said that this span of time is characterized by the caves and rockshelters settlement in Southeast Asia, including in the Gunung Sewu area. New dates on cave settl ement found in the Punung area by the Indonesian-French team have yielded significant additional insights. Research in Tabuhan Cave revealed a settlement layer dating, at least , from 45,000 years ago with faunal remains and lithic artifacts. This is the oldest cave settlement yet found in Southeast Asia. A similar settlement layer was found in Terns Cave (intermediate layer), close to Tabuhan Cave, with dates between 39,000 and 18,000 years ago . More interesting is that beneath it is an anthropic layer dating from 180,000 years ago (Hameau, 1999) . It is important to note that this layer does not represent cave settlement, but settlement in an open site, which has undergone " reworking" . The artifacts found in this layer have experienced transportation processes through river redeposition. Most of the artifacts have undergone rounding, although others are still fresh . Some typical characteristics of the Late Pleistocene (40 ,00012,000 years ago) are: 1. Exploitation of caves and rock shelters for habitation and other acti vities . 2. Exploitation of various kinds of rocks for tools. 3. Subsistence by hunting. 4. Hominid culture bearers belonging to the species of Homo sapiens.

Plate 23: A view of karst hills that will vanish due to mining activities for the production of chalk. This kind of activities present s hazards to the preservation of cave sites that once formed centres of human activities in the past. Destruction of the karst hills mean s decrease of historic data. This picture is taken from the road side of Baran, Wonosari .

As stated above, the exploitation of cave and rock shelters, a trend that is clearly apparent for this period, was not restricted to ~he Gunung Sewu area, but spread throughout the entire Southeast Asian region (Simanjuntak, 1997). The main human use for c~ves at that time was for dwelling places. Various settlement remains such as tools , hearths, and faunal remains were found scattered vertically ~nd horizontally in the cave. The vertical distribution of the ar~ha~ologlcal remains indicates continuing (rather than intermittent) habitation. . Lithic artifacts comprising used tools, waste flakes, and flaking tools indicate that the caves also served as workshop for lithic tool maki~g. An interesting find in Braholo Cave (ex~avation. square M8) , a concentration of thin andesite flakes , was associated with a hammer stone for flaking . As in Braholo Cave, the discovery of several core tools and hammer stones in Tabuhan Cave indicate workshop activities (Sernah et at, in press). One question, which still remai.ns, concems the role of caves as burial places, as occurred dun.ng subsequent Holocene-period settlement. So far , "". hu~an rernams have been found in Late Pleistocene layers, a pnonty rssue for the next field works.

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The outstanding technological development of this period concerns the workssops for lithic tool making. Here, the process of man's adaptation to environmental resources is apparent. The availability of various kinds . of rocks in the surrounding area stimulated the technological development of the lithic industry. In the eastern part of Gunung Sewu, tools were mostly made of chert (locally called rijang), with only a small proportion made of other kinds of rock, like andesite and jasper. Chert is abundant in this area. On the other hand, in the western part of Gunung Sewu where chert and other silicified rocks are scarce and far from Braholo Cave, the materials used to make stone implements are very heterogeneous. Beside chert, other rocks like limestone, andesite, and jasper were also exploited. The limited availability of silicified rocks encouraged humans .to exploit other rocks such as limestone, which are available around the cave, although they are not as good for tool making because they are softer. Lithic technology was not intensively developed during this period, judging from the rarity of remains. Lithic artifacts in Terus and Tabuhan Caves can be said to be sparse: they comprise waste flakes; flake tools and - very rarely - choppers. The same distribution is found in Keplek and Braholo Caves where the quantity of artifacts gradually decreased in deeper levels. The fact that lithic artifacts tend to be denser in the upper layers indicates that the lithic industry was developed rapidly near the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. In general the lithic artifacts comprise three groups, flake tools, waste flakes, and atypical tools. This lithic assemblage can be considered as transitional between the Pacitanian Paleolithic and the Holocene Preneolithic. The presence of flake tools similar to those from Holocene layers emphasizes the continuity between the Late Pleistocene and Holocene culture. In terms of quantity the group of flake tools is less numerous than the other groups. The presence of small flake tools can be regarded as an early development that reached its peak in the Holocene Preneolithic. A characteristic of these tools is the intensive retouching that can alter shape or create cutting edges. Tools commonly found include bores, points, scrapers, concave-

scrapers, denticulates, and knives, together with used flakes. The waste flakes are often the most variable among the various categories of artifacts. They comprise unretouched flakes and unused products, usually irregularly shaped with varied sizes, sometimes have no striking platform and bulb. The lithic artifacts are made of various materials. Chert is always the most plentiful, followed by limestone, andesite, jasper, chalcedony, and others. In Braholo Cave the materials used for this category of finds is very heterogeneous. The manufacture of tools from low quality material like limestone and andesite resulted in a large amount of waste products that can no longer be used. Silicified rocks on the other hand, yield sharp-sided flakes and lie higher on the scale of hardness, so they can be utilized without retouching. Such tools are frequently found in Keplek Cave. The third group comprises atypical tools, which tend to be coarse and larger in size, with shapes that do not refer to a specific pattern, and with restricted flaking. There is no indication of any desire to create a specific kind of tool; the end of the process of stone. working was determined by the attainment of a piece of stone 'able to carry out a specific function. With the detachment of one or two flakes on a specific side, other parts retained their natural shape, thus creating a tool ready for use. A tool can be a thick flake or core stone. Compared to Braholo Cave, this kind of tool is rare in Keplek and Tabuhan Caves, Meanwhile in Braholo Cave many tools of this group are made of limestone. Its softness and rapid deterioration when in use makes recognition of stones as tools difficult, except in some cases, which still retain marks of flaking with a negative bulb. Usually they functioned as tools or core stones. The soft material did not facilitate the preservation of working retouches or usage. This type of find is still found in the lower stratum. Of interest is the presence of andesitic pebbles in this cave, clearly allochtonous . These rocks sometimes served as hammer stones, as is apparent by the strike scars on certain parts of the surface effected by the impact of blows during flaking. On the other hand, these stones also served as material to produce flakes, as indicated by flaking marks on the surface. In some cases these pebbles do not show

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marks of usage or working. They probably served as stock or supply for the tool manufacture or hammer stones. These pebbles are usually present in rivers, but there are no rivers close to Braholo Cave. The nearest are situated 10 km to the northeast, the rivers Dungrahu, Alang, and Ngendang, with their upper streams in the Pracimantoro area, flowing into the Gajah Mungkur reservoir. However, the upper streams form a karst area where andesitic pebbles are not available. The same condition occurs in the Mungi River in the Semanu area, around 10 km away. It is possible that this kind of rock comes from the Eromoko area, about 15 km north east of Braholo Cave (Fadhlan, personal communication). This river, which flows through volcanic rocks, contains andesitic pebbles. Another possibility is the Oyo River, some 20 km to the nOith of the cave. This river, also a Paleolithic site, contains various kinds of rock, from igneous to sedimentary.

Core tools of limestone, andesite and chert are plentiful. Those of chert are usually small, whereas the others are large. This is quite und erstandable, considering the difficulties in obtaining chert, so that economization of rock was practised. Other kinds of rock are available in greater quantity. The core stones can be prismatic in shape, indicating efforts to produce regularly shaped flakes , like blades. Other forms are the polyhedric, from which flakes were detached from various directions, according to the available flaking planes. Besides lithic tools, the cave dwellers have started to make implements from animal bones, although not as intensively as in the Holocene. Specialized tools like points, spatula, needles, etc , which are present in the Holocene layers, are still absent. Often a piece of bone was split, after which one of the pieces was worked to create a point. Marks of the split were not ground but left as they were, coarse. An interesting find in excavation square G8, at the depth of 2.52 m, takes the form of a double pointed needle. Its stratigraphic position in the lower part of layer 4 could be at the Pleistocene-Holocene boundary. This layer also yielded mollusc shell scrapers and bone tools. An ornament of gastropod shell was found in a fairly deep stratum in excavation square 18 (Z: 5.15-5.20 m). It is assumed to be quite old and forms the most ancient ornament found so far. It is still complete with a shiny surface, and naturally decorated. A little to the centre of the base is a longish penetrating hole made by gouging. The rim of the hole still shows marks of gouging. This find is very important as evidence that in the Pleistocene mollusc shell ornaments were manufactured. What about the subsistence of the cave dwellers ? The evidence obtained comprises many kinds of fauna in settlement layers closely related to cave life. Apparently, the main source of subsistence was hunting of game in the surroundings of the cave. The presence of mollusc shell (although still sparse) indicates efforts to collect and exploit marine biota. These faunal remains also present a picture of the environment at that time. Compared to the Holocene fauna, those from the Late Pleistocene included more big fauna such as Bovidae,

Plate 24: A core tool from Braholo Cave. Made of limestone, cut from a boulder by flaking at the end (distal) to create the cutting edge. Part of the surface is left untrimmed. Apparently the utilization of the tool was more important than the creation of standard forms . The scarcity of silicified rocks around Braholo Cave compelled the use of the available material. The soft rock is less suitable for the manufacture of flake tools, but it suited for the bigger tools .

96 Cervidae, Elephantidae, and Rhinoceritidae. It is assumed that at the time, the natural environment tended to be open with savannahs, which provided food resources for herbivores. Who were the cave dwellers in this region in the Late Pleistocene, is a most interesting question. So far, concrete evidence in the form of human physical remains dating from the Late Pleistocene have not been found, but supporting data provided indications that point toward Homo sapiens . The vertical distribution of cultural remains displays continuity from the Late Pleistocene to the Holocene. The most distinct example is the distribution of flake tools in all settlement layers, sparsely in the lower strata, and gradually increasing in proportion into the upper strata. This cultural continuity reflects continuity in habitation with the same people who inhabited the area during the early Holocene, known to be Homo sapiens of the Australomelanesid race. Where were the cave dwellers buried: in the caves or somewhere else? Although no burials have been found in the Gunung Sewu region, there is a great possibility that the cave dwellers buried their dead in the cave proper. This assumption is based on findings in other caves in Southeast Asia such as Niah Cave in Sarawak and Tabon Cave in Palawan, where burials were not only found in the Holocene layers, but also in the Late Pleistocene layers (Fox, 1970; Harrison, 1957). Human remains must exist somewhere in the Gunung Sewu region; they merely remain to be found. The apparently sparser population during the late Pleistocene than during the Holocene is one of the reasons why they have not been found yet in the Late Pleistocene layers. (Truman Simanjuntaki

10. CAVES SETTLEMENT IN THE GUNUNG SEWUAREA The Gunung Sewu region as a geological unit dominated by karst hil ls has many natural caves and shelters. Archaeological surveys carried out in this region succeeded in recording 70 caves and shelters on the hill slopes. Mo st of them (34 caves) are located in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu covering the areas of Punung, Pringkuku and Donorejo (Figure 2). In the central part, which falls within the province of Central Java, 12 caves are recorded. In the western part, within the Gunung Kidul regency, the caves are mostly found in the district o f Rongkop, where 24 cav es are recorded. The distribution of caves and rock shelters is determined by the presence of karst hills. In any are a with dense karst hills , the possibility of denser caves and shelters is greater. Most of the large caves are located on the slopes of hills (foothill caves); only a few are located on steep cliffs (cliffcaves).

Plate 25 : Ka lak Cave. one of the most beautifu l caves in the Punung area wit h its stalacti tes and stalag mites in the front. Th is cave stretches into the hill and contai ns plenty of pre his toric remains like animal bones, pot sherds and lithic artifacts.

98 It is interesting to observe the actual conditions of the caves

more in detail. B;:..analyzing data of each cave we come to know the general characteristics of the caves and the main factors that attract people to inhabit them. Of course one should keep in mind that contemporary conditions are not always the same as when the caves were inhabited. Moreover, the data presented here were collected during the rainy season, and will certainly differ from those, which would be obtained during the dry season. For this purpose , five variables were measured : distance of the cave from the source of water, the extent of air circulation in the cave, the ease or difficulty of access to the cave, illumination in the cave, and the size of the cave. Each variable was divided into several attribute states so that a total of 14 potential attribute states were distinguished. Concerning the distance from the cave to the source of water, the attribute states distinguished are: "near" with a distance of < 2,000 m, "medium" with a distance between 2,000-4,000 m, and "far" with a distance of> 4,000 m. A total of 65 caves (92.85%) are located "near" the source of water; 3 caves (4.3%) are classified as "medium", and 2 others (2.85%) were classified as "far". The high percentage of caves near the source of water is understandable, given their locations in hilly or mountainous areas, which facilitated the formation of rivers or lakes. The presence of water too, apparently was one important basic factor considered by those choosing caves for habitation. Water forms the main requirement for life, directly or indirectly. Air circulation also distinguishes three attribute states: "good", "sufficient" and "insufficient". Those classified as good represented 42 caves (60%), those classified as sufficient, 16 caves (22.86 %), and the rest with insufficient air circulation amount to 12 caves (17.14%). The good or bad air circulation in caves is much influenced by the size of the cave or the number of entrances, the direction the entrance is facing, the shape of the room in the cave, etc. The more entrances there.are. the better will the air circulation be. A long and narrow space in a cave forming an alley tends to have bad circulation compared to one with a rounded and spacious room. Similarly caves located in narrow valleys tend to have worse circulation compared to

99 those located on hill slopes, unobstructed by other hills. From the above percentages one can observe that the majority of the caves have good air circulation, suggesting that this was a significant condition considered by those choosing caves for habitation. The ease or difficulty of access was measured based on the altitude and location of the cave. The higher the location, the higher the difficulty of access. Similarly, caves located on steep slopes will be more difficult to reach, compared to those on gentler slopes. Caves are classified into three categories : "easy", when it was not necessary to climb to gain access, or when the cave is located on a slope of < 30°; "slightly difficult", when the cave is located on an elevation of 30°-60°, and "difficult", when the caves are located on steep slopes or cliffs, with an elevation of over 60°. The majority of the caves (54 or 77.14%) are classified as "easy". Others, numbering 15 (21.43%) are classified as "slightly difficult", and one (1.43%) as "difficult". These data show that most of the caves in this area are classified as easily accessible, another important variable of the selection of habitation locations. - --, . The factor relating to daylight in the caves has an impact on the condition of cave-space . Along with the good air circulation, sunlight in the caves resulted in dry conditions and reduced the humidity in the space. For this variable, two categories were distinguished: direct and indirect. Caves classified as having "direct" lighting are those facing the sun's daily rotation, east or west. Meanwhile, those classified as "indirect" face north or south. The margin between the two classes of lighting (illumination) is the intersection of the four cardinal points. Caves with direct lighting number 34 (48.60%) and those with indirect lighting 36 (51.40%). As to the expanse of the caves, three categories can be distinguished: narrow, with an expanse of less than 100 square meters; rather large ", between 100-300 square meters and "large", those of over 300 square meters. A total of 28 caves (40%) are classified as narrow, "rather large" 16 caves (22.86%) and the "large" caves, 26 (37.14%). Quantitative data show a balance of number between the three sub-variables (types).

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What about habitation indicators found on the surface of the cave floors, or by scraping the upper layer of the floor ? Among the 70 caves surveyed, 55 contained such indicators of the past, whereas 15 did not. Belonging to the latter group are the caves that were subterranean rivers, like Terus Cave in Wareng, Terus Cave in Pogog, and Terus Cave in Ngelosari. In general those indica tors ca n be classified as Preneolithic, characterized by findings of lithic artifacts (flakes and blades), fragment s of bone and mo llusc she ll, and of the Neolithic as indicated by potsherds, and planks. These findings indicated the cultural stage that had developed during its ha bitatio n. Data show that most of the caves (50) co ntained Preneo lithic settlement indicators and five that of the Neolithic. Th us caves in the Gunung Sewu region have a tendency to be inhabited in the pre Neolithic, which continued in the Neolithic . This inference is supported by discoveries in the excavated caves, such as Keplek, Braholo, Terus, Agung, Gupuh , Gunung Gede and Dono, which present settlement data from the Preneol ithic to the Neolithic. Plate 26: Song Gupuh (Gupuh Cave). one of the intensively studied caves in the Punung area. The uniqueness of the cave is the presence of a . thick Neolithic layer that exceeds other caves. In this cave are also found quadrangular planks and atelier flakes.

With regard to the caves that do not co ntain those indicators, it cannot be assumed that those caves were not inhabited in the past. The absence of indicators could be caused by thick recent deposits. Another possibility is that the cave floor has been highly eroded. O ne other possibility is that the cave might have been inhabited in the past,

but the team of surveyors did not find any re mains when observing the cave. A spacious cave ca n also make finding settlement indicators difficul t. Based on these weak points, the data presented, particularly those relating to the absence of remains, are tentative in nature. Confidence that caves have or have not been inhabited can only be obtained by excavations, which would enable us to perceive the cond ition of the finds in the deeper layers of the cave. Based on these percentages. caves can be divided into three groups: 1. Caves ideal for habitation, characterized by proximity to a source of water, easy accessibi lity. good air circulation, and direct sunlight. These co nd itions were found in over 50 % of the caves (>50%). 2. Caves characterized by ind irect lighting, sufficient air ci rculation, rather diffic ult to reach. These conditions were shown in 20 -50 % of the total number of caves. 3. Caves with bad air circulation, distant from the source of water, or far, an d difficult to reach. These conditions were found in fewer than 20 % of the caves. [Note of the reader: the combination of attributes is important, not merely the total proportion . Each cave will have a different combination of attributes. One cannot consider them in isolation from one to another. One cave may be near water, but have poor air circulation; another may be far from water but have good air circulation . These figures do not help to differentiate between factors, wh ich were important, ' and those, which were less relevant in de termining the selection of caves for habitation. The combination of att ribu tes has to be measured, and their correlation calculated . We ca nnot tell from these percentages w hich factors were more important, whic h less important]. Data on surface finds and the resu lts of scraping are in accord with the afo rementio ned ana lysis, which found that habi tation ind icators were absent from the less ideal caves (group 3). On the other han d in ideal caves, these indicators were almost always found .

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103

One matter to be stress ed is that this conclusion is still provisional in nature, because ~being based on surface find s data and scraping of the upper layer. Further verificati ons should be done by excavated data. So far, excavations carried out in four ca ves support the hypothesis above. Th e four caves (Gupuh, Kepl ek, Tern s and Braholo), presented 'dense settlement data, combined with ideal co nditions for habit ati on .' In the case of Gupuh Cave, its ideal condition wa s due to its proximity to water, fairly large flo or, dr y and indirect lighting, low elevation with ea sy access, and go od air circulation. Keplek Ca ve is characterized by a very cl ose source of water, a sufficiently broad cave floor , with direct sunlight, and low eleva tion, very ea sy acce ss and sufficient air circulation. Braholo represented another set of variables comprising very close proximity to the source of water, a rather spacious floor with ind irect lighting, sloping e levation, easy access and good air circulation. Terns Cave is characterized by the very close source of water, a large cave floor with indirect lighting, low elevation, easy access and good air circulation. (Bagyo Prasetyo, Truman Simanjuntak, Fadhlan S. lntan ) •

(Sp riggs. 1989) . The other caves are Lang Rongrien shelte r in Thailand. 38.000 BP (Anderson, 1990). Tham Khuong shelte r in Vietnam. 33.150 ± 2,300 BP, Nguom shelter in Vietnam. around 23,000 ± 2.000 BP. Leang Bi..Jrung 2 in South Sulawesi from 31,260 ± 3,600 BP (Glov er, 1981). Gala Ca ve on the island Gebe, Maluku from 31.000 BP (Bellwood. 1998) a nd Taban Cave in Palawan. the Philippines, 30,500 ± 1.100 BP (Fox, 1970). Around the boundary of the Pleistocene-Holocene are the Tanjung Pinang shelter In Moluku , 13.930 ± 140 SP. and Ual Bobo 2 m East Timor. 13.400- 520 BP (table In the early Holocene cave settlemen t became more intensive and reached new places in the Archipelago (ta ble 4), not only on the big islands. but on smaller islands as well. Even in certain areas where environmental resources such as limestone hills facilitated the formation of caves and shelters. a ma ximum exploitation by a community that,developed a specific cqtture can be found . This tYpe of community has'be en found the Gunung Sewu oreo (Simanjuntal<, 1995b), Tubon, BoJonego~o, Besukl (Heekeren. 1972: Soelone, 1984), the Bangko anti Kerinc i areas (Bronson and Teguh Asrnor, 1976). South Sulawesi .(Heekeren, 1972) Flores (Verhoeven, 1968), East Timor (Glover, 1972) and Meratus Mountains (Widlanto et 01, 1997). The most outstanding characteristic of c ave exploitation during that period was Intensive use. In addition to spaces for habitation. they were also used for Industrial acti vities producin g fla ke and blade tools, and as burial places. In eastern Indonesia, including Kalimantan, caves and rock shelters were also used to d isplay art, particu larly painting . The Keplek Cave a nd Braholo Cave dwellers are already fa miliar With the concept of spatial use as shown by the grouping of various activities (indu stry. hearth, buria l and living qu ' .irl ·the c aves (see c ha pter 11 and 12). Jt has been',dl . C, r'bw a c lear boundary line between each activity, bu e presen c e of a c entre of concentrated finds reflecting certain activities is a sufficient basis for grouping them .

CAV ES SETTLEMENT IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Some Interesting phen omena have been rec ord ed from Late Pleistocene (around 40.000 years ago) Southeast Asia up to the early Holocene. relat ed to geog raphical orientation of ha bitation. c entersof a ctivity. preference for c aves a nd shelters. a nd the a ppea rance of the first Homo sapie ns in certa in regio ns (Simanjuntak. 1997). A number of c aves an d shelters in Southeast Asia were intensively inhabited in the Late Ple istocene. o rnonq them is Niah Cave in sc rowok. about 40.000 BP (Harrison. 1957). (The Niah Cave skull spec imen dated 40.000 BP now in suspension. Harrison mixed up lab numbers of C-14 samples in his 1959 paper; the dates did not eve n c ome from Nlah. and we re from 12 rn, not 12 inches. 8 m ('subsurface''). 5 m ( 'surface'')

3;.

.

In

104

J

The habitation groups menti oned above have cultural roots with loc'clbnd regional aspects as well as overall similarities. In a wider geographical context. c ave settlement in continental Southeast Asia is assoc iated with the Hoabinhla n te chnoc om plex. ch aracterized by massive toolswith the working restricted to one plane . On the other ha nd. island Southeast Asians made characteristic flake and blade tools. Within the context of the Arch ipelago proper. regional c haracteristics c a n be seen. and in general c a n be distinguished into four groups: viz. the Hoabinhian. the flake-blade tools. the bone industry. and the cave paintings. All four c ultural groups exploited caves and shelters for habitation and other activities (Simanjuntak. 1995a). Geographically. the Hoabinhian groups. which occupied continental Southeast Asia. were familiar with the dichotomy of coastal a nd interior settlement. Hoabinhlan distribution in Indonesia was more restricted to the eastern part of North Sumatra-Aceh. in. a coastal area where the populations exploited the open natural landscape. whereas in the interior they exploite d caves. The tool group with the most expanded distribution. and whic h is always to be fo und in the context of other tool groups. is the flake-blade tool group ; The outstanding characteristic they display is the substratum of Paleolithic flake and blade technology tha t continued into the Early Holocene. The cave-painting group was distributed more restricted ly in the eastern part of Indonesia and Kalimantan. The ' Sa mpung ia n" group associated with the Keplek period. c harac terized by a unique bone Ind ustry. was more .restricted to the eastern part of Java . starting from Gunung Sewu eastwards. The presence of flake tools together with bone tools ind icated a strong Paleolithic substratum of this group. but on the other hand. intensive development of the bone industry was a well-developed indig enous element. One can see here the combination of the Paleo lithic tradi tion with local innovations as a unique characteristic that set It apart from other culture groups.

105 Some specific cultural characteristics. which set them apart from the other groups. are: Exploitation of rock resources. particularly chert for the manufacture of flake-blade tools. Subsistence by hunting terrestrial Qand) animals and the exp loitation of aquatic biota. Exploitation of faunal resources for the manufacture of tools from bone. ontler. and mollusc shell. Caves and shelters habitation in Southeast Asia continued into the Neolithic with the appearance of pottery and rectangular adzes or axes. However. observations in the Gunung Sewu area suggest that this c ulture did not preva il long in caves. before 'returning to open habitats on plains an d hili slopes. With the shift of the centre of activities and settlemen t. apparently the hist9ry of c ave settlement came to an end. except for incidenta l hunting trip s that continue d into the historic period and left rec ent objects mixed with Neolithic rema ins in the upper strata . (Truman Simanjuntak) ' v

Table 3: Cave settlement sites of the Late Pleistocene in Southeast Asia (Simanj untak, 1997). L a te Pleltocene . (Pal a eolith ic)

~;

Holocene

..

Neo-l'alco meta llic

Cnve/sbr ltt ,·

Da ting loJdest a n d vou n aest)

1

Shelter I.A10g Rongrien, Thailand (Anderson, 1990)

37,000 ± 1,780 BP 7,580 ± 70 Ill'

Chop per, biface , flake tool, bone and antler tools, hearth

Flake tools, chopper, grinding ston e. perc utor, ochre mollusc, deer antler tool

Stretche d and flexed burial hearth , Hoabinhian, bone, pottery, flake tool, deer antler. orna ments.

2

Shelter Tba rn Kho ung, Vietna m (Ande rson, 1990, '

33, 150 ± 2,300 BP 2,8130 ± 2,000 Ill'

Hoabinhian tools, chopping tool, "picks"

-

-

3

Shelter Nguom, Vietnam (Ha Van Tan, 1985)

2,3000 ± 2,000 BP

Flake tools (scraper, points and atvnica l flake tools)

-

-

4

Tabon Cave , Filipina IFox, 1970, 1973)

30,500 ± 1,100 BP 9,250 ± 250 BP

Flake tools (various types of scraper), human burial

Flake tools faunal remains

Kalanay pottery 1,000 -500 BP

5

Niah Cave , Sara wak l HalTIson , 1957 , 1959 )

± 40 ,000 BP

Flake too ls, core, tool, human burial, bon e tool

-

Pottery and metal tools

6

Leang Burun g 2, Sulawesi, Indonesia (Glover, 198 1)

3 1,260 ± 2,600 BP

Leva llois flake tools (points , scraper), bone, molln sc, sco rched seed .

Blad e (Maros points, microlith s, scrapers) snid remain s, molluscs

domestication of rice

7

Bobo Ca ve 2, East Timor (Bronson & Glover, 1984 )

13,400 ± 520 BP 3,740± 90 HI'

Hearth

-

First appeara nce of the pig (5,250 ± 60 DP), decora ted notterv 3,740 ± 90 BP

8

Gal a Ca ve, Gebe, Maluku (Dellwood , 1998)

3 1,030 ± 4oo Ill' 3,230 ± 180 BP

Flake tools, core tool. bone tool, ochre' "canarian" an vils, marsnoial remains

Continued tradition to 2,000 BP Molln sc shell adze

Incised deco rated pottery, "canarian anvils"

9

Shelte r Tanjung Pina ng, Morotai (Dellwood , 1998)

13,930 ± 140 BP

Pebb le tool. fla ke tool, bone points, faunal

Co ntinued tradition to 2,000 BP

Seconda ry burial. incised, decorated pottery, shell ornaments, iron tools 2,000 -1,000 BP

No -> • -e:

.

'

(Pre-nenlithlc)

remains, ochre, canarium an vils, couscous, zia nt rat

I

Microlith s, pottery,

. Table 4: Cave settlement sites of the Holocene Times in Indon esia 'N o; ~

I.

'~

~"S; •. Culture <~;t,;: '"'ii' ,~,~ Sa;eJSIJ~Jte~~ ;~ I 1':,~:,; ::6iit ~~5~W£~ ,,~0t.-- ~",,, ,,,,c!:Y f' i" ~,., '. i', ., ",",'",

Ulu Tianko Cav e, Jambi

Preneo lithic

2.

Keplek Cave , East Java

Preneolithi c

3.

Tern s Ca ve, East Java

Preneolithic

'" W Al.L

""",:i

~f«

""~~",.

~ating (Oldest ) ; ., : .', and youngest) '; "

Refe~~nc~,

'X i

'" '"' ", i.

10,250 ±140 BP

Bronson & T. Asma r, 1976

Fla kes , bon e tools, je welry, fan nal remain s (land and sea), human remain s

4,510 ± 90 BP 15,880 ± 540 BP

Simanj untak, 1995b

Ha kes, bone tools land-s ea faunal rema ins,

8,340 ± 340 BP

Sirnanjuntak et ai,

Ob sidian flakes, hum an teeth , fanna l '

remains. scorched seed

human remains

1994

4.

Song Perahn , East Java

Preneo lithic

Flakes , bone tools

6,971 BP

Laha gu et ai, 1991

5.

Peturon Cave. Tuban

Preneo lithic

Flakes. faunal remains, bone tools

7,670 ± 120 BP

Simaniuntak (\ 998)

Preneolithi c

Flake s, faunal remain s, buri al, bo ne tool, mollusc shell ornaments

7,690 ± 70 BP 8,760 ± 190 BP

Marliac & Simaniuntak, 1996

Preneolith ic

Flake s, faun al remains, bone tools

6,620 ± 110 BP 12,060 ± 180 BP

Simanjuntak, 1998

6.

Gentong Cave, Tulun zazunz

7.

Braholo Ca ve,

Wonosari 8.

Babi Ca ve, Tabalon g, South Kalim an tan

Preneolithic

Flake s, faunal rem ains, bon e tool

6,620 ± 110 BP

Wid ianto, et ai, 1997

9.

Liang Kawun g, West Kalimantan

Preneolithi cNeolithic

Paintin gs, flakes, pottery

3,030± 180BP

Chazine, 1995

10.

Liang Mangkaliat, East

PreneolithicNeolithi c

Paintin gs, flakes, pottery

5,240 ± 270 BP

Chazine, 1995

Kalimantan II.

Ulu Leang I , South Sulawesi

PreneolithicNeolithic

Fla kes, microliths, blade, pottery, domestication of rice

·10,740 ± 50 BI' 7, 170±650 BP

Bronson & Glover, 1984

12.

Liang Toge, NTT

Neo lithic

Flakes, burials

3,550 ± 125 BP

Bronson & Glo ver, 1984

13.

Liang Bua, NTT

Preneo lithicNeolithic Palaeometallic

Flakes, burial, adze, metal objec ts

9,830 ± 490 HI' 3,820 ± 120 li P 450 ± 25 Ill'

GrN- 14306 GrN- 14304 GrN- 1430 1

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Song Keplek or Keplek Cave is one of the most important sites among the 70 caves in the Gunung Sewu area. Located in Pagersari village. Punung, it was discovered during preliminary exploration in 1992 in joint exploration by the Indonesian National Research Centre of Archaeology and the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. Trial excavations were made in the same year and continued in the following years. More intensive and regular researches were carried out since 1996, thanks to a' grant from the Toyota Foundation, to the project of "Gunung Sewu, ExploitationIn the Holocene" . Song Keplek is a local name ("song" means rock shelter or cave with two entrances face to face, usually at the front and back; whereas Keplek is a kind of card game associated with gambling). According to stories, card players and gamblers, because of its secluded location at the edge of a village among karst hills, have often used this cave" Its location at the foot of a hill made it easy to reach. In front of the cave is along narrow slope flanked by two hills, which descends to the Pasang River of about 200 meters away on the southeast. Keplek lies at an 'altitude of 333 metres above sea level with the entrance on the southeast (Figure 9). Most of the cave space (from the back) is filled with huge boulders of limestone, being debris from roof falls. Toward the northwest (the rear of the cave) the pile of boulders increases, reaching toward a hole in the roof of the cave.

" ~ riw " " E

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110

Plate 27: Excava tio n activit ies in Keplek Cave. Punung. On the rig ht: the beginning of excavating a square. On the left: activities of measu ring finds in a square that is fairly deep. recording. - and cleaning.

The presence of these boulders restricts the archaeological deposits that can be excavated . The remaining space measured 20 x 7 metre in the front. The wide (about 20 m) and high entrance of the cave and the flat cave floor made it ideal for habitation. It tends to be dry, has good air circulation, and good lighting. Remains of life in the past found here are very rich in artifacts and ecofacts. Based on radiometric datings, this cave has been inhabited since the Late Pleistocene, at least since 25,000 BP, but the most intensive settlement occurred in the Holocene, between 12,000 and 2.000 BP. So far, 12 squares have been excavated: six squares measuring 2 x 2 metre, and six other squares of varied measurements. These squares cover all parts of the cave floor except the eastern part . Th e excavation of these squares was aimed at obtaining vertical and horizontal data. Vertical data explain the chronology of settlement, cultural and environmental evolution. patterns of exploitation of environmental resources, and the process of sedimentation that filled the cave. Horizontal data provide an understanding of the pattern of spatial use and the cultural richness of cave life. The deepest squares excavated (B6 , A5) reached around six metres' depth. In other squares only upper strata could be excavated due to the presence of limestone blocks in the deeper layers.

I

._ _---~ ..

1: '

,

a

...

I

~

•

l

III

LEGENDS .

..... Wallcave ~

Umestone

::.' Dis1urtled by soil coRedors I!l'&I Pits excavated

Figure 9: Plan and section of Keplek Cav e, Eas tern Gunung Sewu

11 2

113

•. 2

Figure II : Bone tools from Keplek Cave: waisted tool (8075-A5), perforator from teeth (8590-A5)

/

114 Table 5: C-14 dates available from Song. Keplek Cave . Eastern Gununz S't;wu ,

-

Laboratory

Dar e '

Box/Z·

Material

Context

dated P3G 1998

790 ± lOOBP B5/ 3-7em

Charcoal

P3G 1998

1,940 ± 120 BP B5/5 -16 em

P3G 1998

3,260 ± 110 BP B5/1 8-30 em

.. .

Beta 69689

4,510 ± 90 BP FB/IO·18 em

.,

P3G 1996 Batan 1996

5,900 ± 180 BP LU2I 80-92 em

,.

6.466 ± 142 BP FB/ 85 em

,.

P3G 1999

7.020 ± 180 BP H9I 106- lIS em

P3G 1996

7,580 ± 210 BP B6/ 113-1 14 em

P3G 1996

8.230:!: 220 BP B6.' 160-164 em

P3G 1998

8,870 ± 2 10 BP B6I 188 em

P3G 1998

15,880 ± 540 BP B6I 260-270 em

P3G 1999

21.380 ± 360 BP B6I489 em

P3G 2000 24,420 ± 1,000 BP B6I 590 -600 em

. .. ..

. Bone

Potsherds, adze, and flakes

.. ..

Flakes. bone tools Human burial Flakes, faunal remains Human burial Flakes, faunal remains

.

Struct ure of pebbles Flakes, fauna

Charcoal

Concentration of bone

Bone

Flakes. faunal remains

.

Th e anthropic layer in Keplek Cave is very thick. Its maximum depth has not yet been ascertained. Layers 5 and below date from the Pleistoce ne. while layers from layer 4 upward date from the Holocene (F igure 12). Cultural devel opment can be divided into Preneolithic (Mesolithic) in layer 4 to layer 2, and Neolithic in layer 1. Layer 1 can be said to be thin with a depth of only 20 cm. This layer is divided into layer la consisting of sandy clay, containing Neolithic artifacts and rece nt objects. La yer 1b is characterized by brown clay mixed with . limes tone gravel, containing Neolithic objects, particularly pot sherds. mixed with faunal rema ins and Preneolithic objects. Layers 2 and 3 are dark bro wn cla y, rather compact and very den se in find s. bei ng distingui shed on the basis of co lo ur, while the finds were usually the same. Layer. 4 consists of silt with fewer find s. Limestone boulders start to appea r in this layer: La yer 5 (dated Late Pleistocene)

115 con sists of clay, chara cterized by carbonate laminat ion . which still continues to an unkn own boundary, Finds become sparse and tend to • be coarse with a tendency toward being massive althou gh the assemblage still contains flakes as ' in the upper layers. Interesting to not e is that in this lower layer finds of big fauna are fairly dense, compared to the layers above. Layers 4 to 2, referred to as the "Keplek period" , with typical and cultural richness, have been identified and dated well. In other ca ves, this layer dates from the early Holocene up to around 4,000 BP, a period during which the Gunung Sewu area in particular, and East Java and the Archipelago in general, were intensively inhabited. Th e "Keplek period" is identical with the cultural stage referred to as the "Sarnpung Bone Indu stry" , a term proposed by van Heekeren ( 1972) based on the first disc overies in Law a Cave, Sampung, near Ponorogo. Unfortunately, the Sampungian was not supported by chronological data, whereas identification of its cultural layer has to be reexamined. Based on this reasoning, the term "Keplek period" is a more suitable term by which to refer to the culture that developed in the eastern part of Java from the earl y Holocene to the Neolithic. Unique characteristics of the Keplek period includ e very den se and varied remains, particularly of fauna, lithic, and bone industries.. Other characteristics are the practice of flexed burials , intensive hearth activities in the cave, an extended catchment area reaching coastal areas to exploit the marine biota, hun ting of game, especially Macaca sp ., and the exploitation of seed s like candl enut (kemiri) and canarium, particularly in the more recent period (layers 2 and 3). Above the Keplek layer is the Neolithic stratum, characterized by the appearance of pottery and rectangular adzes of stone. Thi s layer is fairly thin , and in the uppermost layer is mixed with recent objects. C14 dates of the lower layer (lb) yielded an age of 1,940 ± 120 HP. . whereas the uppermost layer (la) dated from 790 ± 100 HP. These chronological date s have to be furth er examined, but it is certain that the Neolithic in Kepl ek Cave continued to 2,000 BP. before they moved to open plains.

• 117

11 6 Plate 28: Kep lek Cave. from the Southwest. The part that can be exc ava ted is limited to the front sec tio n. The main part stretches to the back is covered by huge block s. as debri s of the cave roof. Th e find s in this cave are very dense.

conc ent ration in layer s 2 and 3. Th e deeper the layer the scarcer was such find s. 790 ± 100 BP (B5: 23-27 em) 1 940 ± 120 BO (B5: 25-36 em) 3:260 ± 110 BP (B5: 38-50 em )

0-

4,510 ± 90 BP (Human skulls-F8: 44-48 em) 5 900 ± 180 BP (Human burial- LU2 : 100 em) 6'466 ± 140 BP (F8 : 115 em) 7:020 ± 180 BP (Human burial- H9: 106 -115 em)

100 -

7,580 ± 210 BP (B6: 144 em)

Excavation finds were very dense. In general they can be cla ssified into faunal remains, consisting of bone s, teeth, antler and skull s; a lith ic industry comprising stone tools that they produced, too ls for tool making, waste flakes; a bone industry, antler and mollusc shell; remains of hearths , and human remains in the form of burials or isolated finds. In the upper layer were found potsherds, planks (unfin ished adzes) and remains of seeds. Faunal remain s are the most num erous finds , consisting of bones, teeth, skulls and antler. Rokhus Due Awe identified various kinds of animal s, which for the grea ter part consist of mammals and molluscs. The latter is very varied and based on their habitat can be distinguished between land , fresh water, and marine mollu scs. Th e great er part of these fauna are now extinct in this area, such as Macaca Sp., Cervidae, Tragulidae, Ursidae, Tapiridae, Elephautidae, etc. It see med that various species gra dua lly disappeared in the later periods. For the complete list of the fauna in Keplek Cave, see chapter 14. Remains of the lithic industry, usually made of chert , locally called "rijang", is the next most numerous type of finds recorded. The lithics consist of various types of flake tools , waste flakes , and tools for flaking and grinding (hammer stone and grinding stones). Included in the asse mblage of this industry are mortars and anvils. The various kinds of find s demonstrate that tools of the indu stry were made in the cave. Indu strial remain s were found in each layer , with densest

8,230 ± 220 BP (B6: 192 em) 8,870 ± 210 BP (B6: 218 em)

200 -

15,880 ± 540 BP (F8 : 240-300 em ) JOO -

.. =-

"~-m ~~~-

(5)_~~loJ

l>0-..r-..J".r-I_

500-

----

tS'§!I.P _ .:-

2 1,380 ± 360 BP (B6: 489 em)

-

riS

-~---

600-

tSS:;3 Limestone [£;] Clay

24,420 ± 1,000 BP (B6: 590-600 em }

of20'i'3

Mud Sand

& ~

"Rijang" (chert)

~

Carbonatelamination

_

Bone

. ..

Weatheredlimestone

Figure 12: Schematic stra tigraphy of Kep lek Cave, Gunung Sew u

118 Re mains of th e bone ind ustry were not as abundant as those of the lithic industry, bu t their presence has a cultu ral signification for their special charac teris tics , which are not found in other regions. In ge neral the tools dis played signs of use like damaged cutting edge and glossy surface of the distal part , as the result of rubbing during use. On se veral occasions , bo ne s were found with marks of flaking , but not reaching the sha pe of a tool. Spatulas, points and needles form the most common tools in Ke plek Cave. Distal parts in many cases hav e been burnt or heated by fire. Ornamental elements were not found in the lower layers; apparently such behaviour was not known yet in the o lder period (ea rly Ho locene). Jewellery or ornament is characterized by perforated holes, purposel y made, and in several cases they were worked to create various shapes. Remains of the lithic and bone indu stry we re found together in each layer, indicating that both were produced at the same time. Compared to the Holocene layers, the archaeological remains in the Late Pleistoce ne layers decreased and limited to faunal remains and lithic art ifacts . Their d istribution gradually decreased downwards (See chapter 9). (Tr uman Simanj untak)

12. BRAHOLO CAVE, AN IDEAL SETTLEMENT SITE IN WESTERN GUNUNG SEWU A mong some ten ca ves in the western pan of Gunung Sewu, Braholo Cave became the first choice for intensi ve researc h, based on the arc haeo logical remains which are dens el y scattered on the surface and the cave conditions which are suitable for hab itation. The nam e "B raholo", meaning statue, is based on the local bel ief that this ca e, beca use 0 its isolated location, should co ntai n stat ues. Braholo Cave is loca ted o n t i e south slop e of the arst hills, which lie parallel to the vi lage r~ad o f Se mugih (Pla te 29). To reach the cave one has to cli mb a 15-me ter- high slope from the vi llage road to t e mouth of the cave. Its loc atio n on the slope gave the cave an ISO ated and secluded charac ter at the edge of the viI age .

..

Plate 29: The hill site of Braholo cave viewed from the \ 'est. The cave is located bel ow a steep slope. about 15 m above the village road. In the front is the plai n ' that contains the village sculernent.

II

120

121

• •

Section a-Bl

Figure 13: Plan and Section of Braholo Cave, Western Gunung Sewu

~I

122

123

Braholo Cave is ideal for habitation. The chamber is very spacious with a hig"h-£eiling forming a dome. A wide entrance (39 m) with a height reaching 15 m, gives the chamber good lighting and fairly good air circulation. To reach the inner room one has to go through the entrance and slowly descend towards the rear of the chamber, which slopes downward toward the northeast. The spacious' floor area (around 600 m2) exceeds that of Keplek Cave . Elongated along a northeast-southwest axis, the eastern and southern parts of the floor area are covered with boulders, debris from roof falls, and stalactites. Ideal deposits for excavation were restricted to the west and nort h areas of the cave . In this section, 16 excava tion squares were dug, of which nine measure 2 x 2 metre and seven others each meas uring 2 x I metre (Fig ure 13). In general, the finds are dense and rich, consisting of an abundance of fauna , lithic, and bone industry remains. Above layer 3 upward to the surface were found seeds of ca ndlenut and canarium, the greater part burned and scorched. Pottery was restricted to the uppermost layer, and in several cases was found in assoc iation with quadrangular adzes of limestone, fossilized bone, and mollusc shell. The maximum depth of the excava ted squares varied between 3-7 meters. In some squares excavation was halted by big boulders. In general the deepes t excavated layers were older than the boundary of the Holocene-Pleistocene; some reached depths formed during the Late Pleistocene. Based on available C-14 dates, human settlement in Braholo Cave covered a long period, between 33,100 ± 1.260 BP and 3,050 ± 100 BP (Table 6).

whereas layers from 5 downward represent Late Pleistocene cultural layers. The Neolithic layer is thin, maximally 30 em: the upper layer ( la) was disturbed humus mixed with recent objects and Neolithic finds; the lower layer (lb) consists of sandy clay containing Neolithic remains of potsherds and quadrangular adzes of fossilized bone, mollusc shell and limestone rocks. This layer yielded also many seeds and animal bones. Table 6 : C-14 dates available from Braholo Cave, Western Gunung Scwu Laborat ory

BoxlZ

C-/4 Date

[surface}

Material dated

Charcoal

P3G 1998

3,050 ± 100 BP

LS/64-80 em

P3G 1998

4,120± 100 BP

LS/90-117 em

P3G 1997

6,620 ± 110 BP

F4/ 130-140 em

P3G 1997

8,500 ± 230 BP

F4/192 em

P3G 1998

8,760 ± 170 DP

LS/228 em

P3G 1997

9,780 ± 230 BP

J91290-300

P3G 2001

9,150 ± 390 BP

FS/240 em

P3G 1997

11,940 ± 160 BP

G6/280 em

P3G 1997

12,060 ± 180

P3G 1998

12,200 ± 160 BP

P3G 1998

nr ,

em -'

F4/390-410 em 06/290 em

. .. . . ..

.,

.. Bone

Context

Potsherds, adze,

faunal remains. flakes Bone and lithic tools,

faunal remains Human burial lIuman burial, hearth Human burial Bone and lithic tools, faunal remains

.

Charcoal .,

15.520 ± 250 BP

G6/392 em

P3G 1998

19,570 ± 350 BP

G6/532 em

P3G 1999

21,210 ± 730 BP

081336-339 em

P3G 1998

21,940 ± 390 BP

G6/590em

.

P3G 1999

25,890 ± 630 BP

081445 em

Charcoal

P3G 2000

28,810 ± 1380 BP

08/540 em

Bone

P3G 2000

33,100 ± 1260 BP

081720-730 em

.. Bone

.

Faunal remains, lithic and bone artifacts

. . . .

Stratigraphy and Chronology of Occupation Strat igraphy in the excavated squares revealed a thick anthropic layer down to the maxim um depth attained (about 700 ern), the base of which was not reached (Figure 14). Seven layers have been identified: the upper most (layer 1) is Neoli thic, layers 2-4 are Preneolithic,

Layer 2 can be regarded as a transitional layer, because Neoli thic objects are sometimes still found in its upper part. The layer consists of reddish brown sandy clay containing dense finds, including fauna l remains and traces of hearths . Layer 3, the thickest, contains

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more hearths. In squares 08 an d J9 this laye r reached a thickness of 250 em, and covered a time span of 4,000 years. Based on C- 14 dating on charcoal , the lower layer dated back to 9,780 ± 180 BP, the middl~ part to 8,500 ± 230 BP and the upper layer to 6,620 ± 110 BP. This layer contained dense finds , including human burials in the middle layer and beneath the layer. In square 08 this layer is very thick alternated by five intrusions of volcanic ash. This ind icates the occ u:rence of fiv.e eruptions, wh ich deposited ash in the cave. Layer 4 consists of blackish sa ndy clay. C-14 dating yie lde d an age of 12,060 ± 180 BP for this stratum. From thi s layer on down , limestone boulders appeared and finds decreased . Th e lower boundary of this laye r apparently formed the boundary between the Pleistocene and Holocene. .

to those of the Holocene. The others are atyp ica l tools that tend to be bigger and coarser.

Plate 30: Tool like chopper from the Late Pleistocene layer of Braholo Cave. Crude in performanc e with monofacial flaking ~ from distal towards proximal pan . Seconda ry llakings are still observ;ble along the distal side.

Laye~ 5-7 are the lowest layers o f this excavation. As in Keplek Cave, remains decrease, the main finds be ing remains of macro fauna. Lithic artifacts are rare but sti ll present. Some are flake tools, similar

Holocene Settlement Remains Settlement remains are very dense , consisti ng of artifact s made of stone and bone (inc ludi ng mo llusc shell) . They can be classified as too ls, ornaments. fabricators, and was te products. suggesting that Braholo Cave functioned as a workshop. The development of lithic and bone industries is a promi ne nt cu lture of Braholo Cave settle ment as well as the Gunung Sewu area in genera l. It is worth mentioning that lithic and bone artifacts were found together in all layers, even though they are scarcer in the lower laye rs. This proves that those two kinds of industries developed simultaneously. The lith ic industry is varied in material bu t rather poor in typology. The most common type of stone used for too l making was limestone; other rock types used were chert, andesite, j asper, chalcedony and fossi lized wood. The utilisation of limestone as a toolmaking material is unique to this site; no limestone tools are found in the eastern part of Gu nung Sewu. Limestone was rarely used because of its softness. The reason for its use may lie in the fact that high qua lity rocks are not sufficiently avai lable near Braholo Cave; they are on ly available about 20 km to the east. L ithic tools consist of scrapers, points, perforators, and knives. There are also uti lized flakes without retouches , hammer stones, nuclei, grinding stones, mortars, anvi l stones, and chunks or waste products. Bone tools can be classified as points, spatulas and needles. Points and spatulas have strong similarities (seen from the morphotechnological aspect) with those found in Keplek Cave and other caves in East Java. The most prominent bone tool type is a needl e with double points, ge neral ly in small dimension (around 1.5 - 2 em long). They are made of sp lit bone, round or oval in cross section, with surfaces rubbed intensively and sometimes perfectly polished. This kind of tool is unique to this site. Shell too ls consist of scrapers and

• 126

127

po ints . T he orna ments are roundis h in form with one perforation in the ce ntre, but an ova l for m has two per forati on s. T hey are mad e of different kinds of she lls, including Operculum, Na utilidae, Tellinidae, and Amp liidromus. T he most interestin g find is a hum an burial in sq uare 19, in the lower part of layer 3 (± 3 10 cm below the surface) , right under the hearth layer. Th e corp e was buried face up, ali gned in an eas t-wes t di rection with its head on the wes t. Both legs we re fold ed with heel s near the pel vis. Th e corp se's left hand was fold ed on its abd om en whil e right hand ex tende d straight towards the kne e. On the ske leton, from ches t to abdomen , were several stone blocks, which see m to hav e been put there deliberately to co ver the corpse. There were no burial gi fts although there were bone fragments and flak e tools around the burial. Carbon dating from samples around the burial result ed in a date of 9,780 ± 230 BP . The bones are very fragil e and its skull is brok en into se veral pieces .

production of limestone tools. The are a slightly to the northeast see ms to have been used for the ma nufact ure of bone tools, espec ially double poin ts, whereas the cave floor to the wes t was assoc iated with the man ufacture of single po ints . T he eas tern and innermost floor area of the cave (the lowest surface) seem to have been used for the man ufacture of sto ne tools from si licifie d rocks the material, which was imported from outside the Braholo area. In this area of the cave floo r, almos t no artifacts of limestone were found , only those mad e fro m silicified rock s. Th e cen ter part formed a fairl y large hearth area, on the nort h stretching alm ost to the cave wall. T he floor in th is area was also util ized for burials, both primary and seco nda ry. Square 19 contained a layer representative of hearth acti vities, with a thickness reaching ± 200 ern. Th is feature indic ated burning ac tivities in the form of reddi sh burnt soil at the bottom and ashes at the upp er part . At the wes tern wall of the exc ava tion box are 23 levels of firin g unit s, indi catin g peri odi c activities carried out o ver a long per iod of tim e, similar to fe atures found in Kepl ek Cave and other caves. This layer shows that cave settle ment has always bee n related to fire and spatia l di vision s.

Plate 3 1: :Conarium seed from Braholo Cave. See ds like kenari tCanarium sp), ketapang tTerminalia ca ropp a) and kemiri iAlleurites mollucan) were foun d in the middle portion of layer 3 upward s. The exploi tation of see ds is assumed to occu r since 6.000 years ago.

Spatial exploitation in Brah olo Cav e resembles that of Kepl ek Cave, but is more complex and varied. Braholo, with a larger living flo or than Keplek Ca ve, see ms to ha ve been inhabited by a larger community, which carried out a wid er rang e of activiti es. Th e ca ve mouth (in the southwest) where den se limestone artifact find s OCCUlTed (incl uding core tools) see ms to ha ve been used for the

Fauna and Flora Fa unal rem ains we re found in abundance in all exc ava ted layers. Mos t of them are ma mma l bon es, belon gin g to Primates, Artyodactyla, Carn ivo re, Rodentia , Pro boscidea, Perciodactyla etc. A lso represent ed are Aves. Pisces, Reptilia and Mollusc. Compared to Kep lek Cave , moll uscs are less abundant in Bra ho lo Cave. Special atte ntion mu st be paid to the Macaca sp. which as in Kepl ek cave is very abundant. T hey are found in the lower layers but tend to be most den se in the middle and upp er layer s. F loral rem ain s include nut s like candlenut or " ke rniri" (Alle urites mollucan ), and almond -like nut s or " kenari" (Canarium sp.) and " ketapang" t Ten ninalia catoppay. Th ey were rather scarce in the upper part of the layer 3, which sugges ts that nut exploitatio n wa s

128

more developed in later periods. The existence of palm charcoal in fresh and well-pr erved co ndition indicates that there were ferns (Pteridophyta) around the site. This is supported by result of palynological analysis, which identified the main vegetation as ferns and coconuts. There are also Nypa and Acrostichum, which normally grow in coastal regions. (Truman Simanjuntaki

THE FORMATION OF KEPLEK AND BRAHOLO CAVES

The formation of Keplek Cave and oth er caves in Gunung Sewu in general can be explained as follows. Uplift of the limestone chain of Gunung Sewu above sea level c a used the incomplete ly cemented sedimenta ry layers to separate on the brea ch planes or th e w eak zones of the rock . Chemic a l processes inc reased the width and depth of c avities and ma d e them lrrequtor in shape. Environm ental c ha nge s. both ca used by up lifting movements as well as seasonal and c limatic c ha nges. caused solution deep under the ground . This soiution activity • proceeded continuously so that shapes of the valleys in the zon e of weak roc ks changed. Due to 'the lowering of the grou nd surface through erosion. streams of ground wa ter sta rted to flow. c ausing further erosion and dissolution of limestone. so that c avities or caves formed in the limestone . Due to tectonic up lift of the edge of the plane. these c aves too were elevated a bove gro und water level or a bove the ba sic level of erosion. so that the cavities or c av es are remnants of the solution which took place when surface water entered the weak zones between the rocks. Afte r the sinoidal hills underwent karstification. holes in the hills of Keplek Cave functioned as voclus and ponore. At first this tunn~ in the Keplek hills was a subterranean river. and after tectonic uplift and fau lting, the cavity or cave in Ke plek hill became a hole on the slope of the karst hiil. As a result of up lift.

129 the 'subterranean rivers dropped into tunnels beneath the other hillsand appeared again on the surface further northwest. When Keplek hill appeared on the surface. and the subterranean river flowing In the cavity of the hill vanished beneath the ground. Keplek hill underwent tectonic movements in the farm of faults. A fault appeared in Keplek hill. part of the Buyutan fau lt running from northeast to southwest. during the Pliocene. The movements caused by these faults caused cracks or d iaclase on Keplek hill to move too. These cracks resulted to form watercourses that dissolved the limestone of Keplek hill. The d issolution of this limestone. besides forming cave ornaments. olso caused limestone blocks forming part of the roof of the cave to collapse. Thus the cave in Keplek hill was formed simulta neously with Gunung Sewu. a nd the geological processes responsible for its formation may still continue today.

.

The process of the formation of Braholo Cave wa s rather different from that of Keplek Cav'e. The hill on whic h Brahol o Cave is loc ated forms part of the western Gunung Sewu oreo, which has not experienced struc tura l disturbances. so that the development of the cavity In the hill was more Influenced by vegetation. The existence of a fairly dense vegetation apparently helped In solution weathering and caused the development of karst. This vegetation provided organic matter in the form of humus and along with the respiration of plan t roots raised the carban dioxide (C02) concentration in the soil. Diffusion of C02 into the water by way of the soil has contributed to the high intensity of solution. The fa irly dense vegetation that covered part of the top of Braholo hill caused roots enter the cracks. forming water ducts that dissolve limestone. forming stalactites and stalagmites. as we ll as other ornaments of the cave. Water very much Influenc ed Braholo hill. as can be seen in the collapse of the front part of the roof. blocking almost half of the cave mouth. As

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131

a result of the tumbling down of the roof this cave can be classified-as a roclMl:l.E?lter, but the floor of the cave is lower than the first ter rac e, or the second floor, which is on the same level as the plain in front of the cave . it c a n therefore be concluded that the c ave in Braholo hili was also formed c ontempora neously with the formation of Gunung sewu and as at Keplek Cave, may be continuing to develop at present.

coral limestone and clastic limestone with slightly fissured pointed fragments. 'Solution by surface 'water resulted in stalactites of small to medium size . At this stage the sedimentation .of cave deposits became po ssible (Figure 15 D1 ). The sec ond possibility was that at this stage the caves were formed on white clastic limestone with loose granular and fissured texture, and limestone with rounded algae fragments. Dissolution by surface water and the c ollapse of the ';Jnstable roof occurred during this period (FIgure 15 D2).

Widiasmoro (1999) presented a rather differentopinion on the formation of Braholo Cave. He stated that the formation of the cave wa s related to a subterranean river system, which may represent two models, that is, a cave that was formed in the freatic zone (when it occurred it was loc ated above the ground water level). Chronologically the process of formation is as follows: starting with the formation of coral limestone during the Middle Miocene-Upper Pliocene in a neritic environment (Figure 15 A). folding then occurred, followed by uplift weathering and erosion, then the formation of the slnoidal hills during 'the lower , Pleistocene. Solution that occurred at this stage in the freatic zone formed the system of caves and subterranean rivers (Figure

.-,

j

1

(Fadhlan S. Intan)

15 B). In the Lower-Middle Plelstoc~ne, the first uplift occurred In the continental environment followed by the development .of caves downwards by the solution process in the freatic zone, reaching an equilibrium at the ground water level. This in turn resulted in the creation of new systems of caves and subterranean rivers. At this stage, it facilitated the sedimentation of cave deposits. The formation of sinoidal coral limestone hills was controlled by the crack system, which involved inter alia the process of subsidence. The process occurred repeatedly, in line with the occurrence of the following period of uplift (Figure 15 C) . During the Middle-Upper Pleistocene, in the voaos zone' were formed eaves of young stadia on the lithology of algae

During the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene the forming of caves in the vadas zone was in its inltiol mature stage as shown .by the development of cave cavities and stalactites. Dissolution by surface water and collapse of the unstable roof played a role in the formation of caves:'ihls process continues together with the deposition of cave sediments, reSUlting in the form of Broholo Cave In.Its present state (Figure 15 E, 1", G).

,

. J

,

.'

• •,

132

Lowu Pleistocene (land)

Erosion surface I

I

1

~.freatic ~ .0""

Vados

Middle- UpperPleistocene

ZOne

J~II~iI Middle - Upper Pleistocene Vados ZOne

Vados ZOne

. .. .... .

Mulca air tanah

(wate<1and level)

Figure 15: Schematic of the formation process of Braholo Cave

13. LATE PLEISTOCENE VERTEBRATES IN GUNUNGSEWU The ·glacials and interglacials during the Pleistocene, which caused palaeogeographic changes ; also affected the dispersal of land fauna. Indicators of global climatic change during that period can be found in the structural condition of soil strata formed during the Pleistocene, pollen analyses, and the movements of flora and fauna (Semah, 1986). The migration of flora toward the equatorial areas was accompanied by large-scale migration of land fauna, even hominids. Factors that influenced the migration of land fauna, besides the migration of flora, their food resources, included the emergence of land bridges during glaciation in the Pleistocene. During this period, two shelves emerged in Asia, the Sunda Shelf and the Sahul Shelf, each inhabited by different endemic fauna . Besides palaeogeographic changes, a typical phenomenon during the Pleistocene was a peak in the development of Mammalia (Storer , 1959). Geographic isolation caused by the rise in sea level resulted in high morphological and physiological variation between animal species. In Asia, a rise in sea level at the end of the Pleistocene that reached the height of 75-100 metres caused the submergence of the Sunda Shelf and the Sahul Shelf arid the isolation of many small and some large islands (Slamet-Velsink, 1995). The islands of Java , Sumatra, Kalimantan (Borneo) and Bali, which had formed part of the Asian Continent during the Pleistocene, had different fauna from Irian and the surrounding islands, which formerly were united with Australia. The boundary between the two sets of fauna was the Wallace line, drawn from the Strait of Lombok to the Makassar Strait, passing the Sangir Islands and reaching as far as Mindanao. The Wallace line

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was based on the zoogeography, which Mayr considered to form the border of the S~ Shelf, rather than the line that separated the IndoMalaya area from Australia. Archaeological and palaeontological researches carried out in the last decade show that the Wallace line formed no barrier to the migration of fauna from the Asian continent to Australia anl vice versa . Remai~s of Asian fauna have been found in Pleistocene contexts in Timor, Flores and Sulawesi (Morwood et al, 1999; Hooijer, 1957; 1971; 1972). Based on similarities between fossil animals in Asia and Indonesia, it was concluded that during the Pleistocene two groups of fauna migrated to the Archipelago: the 'Sino-Malaya group of fauna from South China, and the Siva Malaya group from India. The migration was assumed to take two routes, viz. the northern route from South China to Sulawesi by way of the Philippine islands, whereas the western route went through Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and the Lesser Sunda islands. Faunal migrations to Indonesia were evidenced by findings of faunal remains in a number of archaeological sites . In Java the majority of the faunal remains from the Pleistocene were found in distinct stratigraphic layers. This condition made it possible for Von Koenigswald to reconstruct a faunal bio-stratigraphy for Java, which we know as (from the oldest to the youngest one) Kaliglagah, Jetis, Trinil , and Ngandong fauna (Heekeren, 1972). This sequence is different from the faunal remains found outside Java, usually on river terraces (Hooijer, 1971; 1972; Morwood et al, 1999; Sartono, 1979). Examination of these remains reveals that they form a mixture of the Sino Malaya and the Siva Malaya groups. In conjunction With the Pleistocene fauna from Gunung Sewu, the first to study the faunal remains collected by Koenigswald from two fissures around Punung was Badoux (1959). Identification of the mzterial presented various kinds of fauna that once inhabited this area. They ~omprise Insectivora (Echinosorex), Rodentia of the species Acanthion, Ungulata, consisting of Rhinoceros; ,'Tapirus, Duboisia santeng, Muntiacus, and Sus. Proboscidea represented Elephas. Carnivora consisted of Panthera and Ursus. Primates were

represented by Macaca , Pango, Hylobates and Homo. Unfortunately both fissures are difficult to relocate, so it has not been possible to make comparative observations at the same sites.

Plate 32 : , Concentration of animal bones in B6, Keplek Cave. S'imilar findings often occur in occupation layers in caves . Usually they consist of various kinds of animals and assumed to be the food remains of the cave dwellers.

The Late Pleistocene fauna; the topic of this chapter, mainly concerns those found in the excavations at Braholoand Keplek Caves. Observation of the faunal assemblages from these caves can yield better understanding of faunal exploitation and environment during the occupation period of those sites . This is still a preliminary study. Further study is planned ' Faunal remains from the Late Pleistocene layers of four squares excavated at Braholo Cave total 7,135, while those from four squares excavated at Keplek Cave are limited to 307 pieces. Anatomic and taxonomic identification 'was conducted by Rokhus Due Awe. Taxonomical identification for the ' Braholo Cave faunal remains revealed that they originate from various classes and taxonomically belong to Mammalia, Reptilia, and Aves. The Mammals represent some families with different frequencies, comprising Bovidae (40.98%) and Cervidae (34.46%). The rest represent Macaca (8.55%), Suidae (8.5%), Muridae (3.29 %), Chiropteridae (1.51 %), Carnivora (0.51%), Sciuridae (0.49%), Elephantidae (0.16%), Carnivora (0.14 %), Viveridae (0.14%), Rhinoceritidae (0.13%), Varanidae

137

136 (0.13%), Tragulidae (0.06 %), Rodentia (0.04%), Megachiropteridae (0.03 %), UrsidaeiQ,03%), Tapiridae and (0.03%). Reptilia consist of Boaidae (0.34%), Testudinidae (0. 14%), Phyton (0.14%), and Ophidia (0.02%). Aves consist of Gallidae (20%) and others (0.02%). The comparative frequencies of the kinds of fauna indicated that big ' fauna, particularly Bovidae and Ce"';idae are far more common than the small fauna. This is quite different from the Holocene layers in which big fauna are replaced by small fauna. Table 7: Distribution of animal remains in the Late Pleistocene settlement layers of Braholo Cave.

Animal remains Bovidae Cervidae Boaidae Carnivora Chirooteridae E1eohantidae Cercoo hitecidae Rhin oceritidae Rod entia Sciuridae Suidae Testudinidae Varanus Viveridae Muridae Gallid ae Oohidia Phvton

Late Pleistocene layers 5 6 7

• •

•

• •

• •

• • •

• • • • •

.

• • • • •

•

• •

• •

• •

• presenr-,

The stratigraphy of the squares excavated at this cave represents seven layers, distinguished by colour, structure of sediment,

compactness, and material compositron (Figure 14). Based on radiocarbon datings, the Late Pleistocene layers start from layer 5 downwards into layer 7, while the Holocene layers are from layer 1 to layer 4. The findings distributed in the three layers of the Late Pleistocene show that the upper layer (layer 5) has the greatest content of faunal specimens , gradually decreasing in lower layers. Such condition is seemingly related to the intensity of settlement activities, which tended to be more intensive towards the later period (The faunal remains from the Holocene layers will be discussed in the next chapter). The smallest faunal content in the lowest layer is also closely related to the fact that the excavation of that layer is limited to only two squares. The other reason is that vertebrate resources were indeed scarce.in the older period. It is interesting to note that the specimens of Bovidae, Cervidae, and Suidae are the most well represented as they are found in all layers. They constitute the greatest percentage of the faunal assemblage in the Late Pleistocene period. They are followed by Rhinoceritidae, and Testudinidae which are present in layer 5-6. The others are only found in layer 5 (see Table 7). Vertebra te fauna from the Late Pleistocene layers in Keplek Cave were found in squares A5, B6, D7 and F8, numbering 307 pieces. All finds were retrieved from layers 5 and 6. Layer 6 only yielded four specimens of which three represent Cervidae, and one the family Bovidae. Based on Rokhus Due Awe's identifications, the composition of specimens show that Bovidae is domina nt, amounting to 52.11%, followed by Cervidae (20.52%), Suidae (16.62%), Macaca (3.90%), Murida e (2.60%), Testudinidae (1.96%), Elephantidae (0.97% ), Hystricidae (0.66%), Rodentia (0.33%) and Varanidae (0.33%). The quantity of specimens and kinds of animals found in Keplek Cave is smaller than that in Braholo cave. This could be due to the fact that the squares in Braholo cave were excavated to deeper layers, and that the faunal content might indeed be denser. As in Braholo Cave, Bovidae and Cervidae contribute the highest percentage of the Late Pleistocene faunal collection. This indicates

139

138 that the same environmental conditions existed in the western and eastern part of Gunung Sewu at that time. Vertebrate remains within the settlement context can provide information on the diet in general, but also on the habits and economic activities of prehistoric man (Cornwall, 1960). The composition of species in the faunal collection provided indications of the kinds of animals consumed. The presence of dense faunal remains in Braholo and Keplek Caves is related to the occupational activities of prehistoric man. This assumption is supported by the stratigraphical context, since the vertebrates are found in association with the remains of other activities in the form of artifacts or ecofacts. Meat can be obtained by detaching it from bones, but can also be eaten with the bones, provided that the bones are relatively soft. The multitude of fragmentary bones in both caves is closely related to the activities of detaching the meat by disarticulation. The presence of bone splinters is most likely due to the splitting of bones to extract the marrow. This was usually done to bones of land mammals as is indicated by the great frequency of specimens from Bovidae, Cervidae, and Suidae. The species composition, viewed from the frequency of fragments of faunal remains in Braholo and Keplek Caves, provides an indication of the kind s of animals that were meant for consumption. Generally, they can be classified into the small and big animals. The small animals present at Keplek and Braholo caves are Muridae, Rodentia, Sciurida e, Macaca sp, Aves, Boaida e, Testudinidae, Yaranidae, Gallidae , Ophidia, and Phyton . The big fauna includes herbivores, animals with high mobility, and land fauna. In both sites, the big fauna comprises families of Bovida e, Carnivores, Cervidae, Elephantidae, Rhinoc eritidae, Suidae. Worth to mention is that molluscs, specially the marine molluscs, are still scarce in the Late Pleistocene layers and are limited in the upper layers. Neither fresh water nor land molluscs are present. The exploitation of molluscs, particularly marine molluscs, apparently only began at the end of the Pleistocene. It developed together with the fresh water and land molluscs, in the Holocene occupation.

Plate 33 : Some faunal remain s from the Late Pleistocene layer in Keplek Cave. Lower: part of a lower mandible of Cervidae . Upper right: antler of ·Cen 'idae; upper left: fragment of Testudinidae . carapax; middle: teeth of Suidae.

'the finding of faunal remains (lana and marine biota) in occupation layers also indicates the kind of subsistence practi~ed ~y the cave dwellers. The multitude of vertebrate faunal remams m habitation caves points to subsistence by hunting of Ian? fauna, besides collecting molluscs as one of the ways of ~xplOltmg ~he marine biota. The assumption that hunting and collectmg of manne biota formed part of their subsistence strategy is supported by the knowledge of the type of habitat for the respective animals fou~d. The many kinds of land fauna found in both sit~s show that the habitats of most of the animals lie outside the cave. It is apparent that man played an important role as a taphonomic agent. The differenc~ in frequency of anatomical parts of certain kinds of animals found m both caves indicates that the occupants selected specific parts of the body for consumption. The most favorable parts were those with long bones,

2

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like the tibia, fibula , femur, radius, ulna and humerus. This is not surprising as these parts provide ample meat and marrow, and also hold potential for tool making because of their length. Other phenomena that can be observed in the faunal assemblage in those caves are the rarity of complete skeletons in the excavations. On the other hand certain parts of the skeleton such as long bones are frequently present. Taphonomy makes this condition comprehensible, because they were brought by the cave dwellers. It is possible that the game was butchered on the spot of the kill, and then cut into pieces, making their transportation to the cave easier. The discovery of only certain parts of the skeleton is also related to the fact that those parts are better preserved than others are. Examination of the habitats of these animals gives a picture of climatic conditions in that period. The habitats of the majority of the animals lie in the surrounding forest and lakesides. Therefore it is most likely that during the settlement of Braholo and Keplek Caves, they were surrounded by a forest environment with a humid climate. The finding of Tapiridae in the Late Pleistocene layers of Tabuhan Cave, a species with a habitat in swampy areas and forest, apparently gives more support to that assumption. That at present, there is no such forest in the Gunung Sewu area could be the effect of human agency - clearing the forest to gain space for settlement areas . This possibly occurred much later, when settlement of the Gunung Sewu region became more intensive, as can be seen by the frequency of terra rosa found in the dolines in this area, which Lehmann and Bartstra correlated with deforestation activities (Bartstra, 1976). Most of the vertebrates are now extinct in the Gunung Sewu area. Their extinction could have been caused by human behaviour, either large-scale hunting or destruction of habitat for human settlement. Environmental fluctuation during the Late Pleistocene, particularly the last maximum glaciation during the Late Pleistocene and tse climatic amelioration in the Holocene, can be another factor related to their extinction. This climatic change caused the expansion of forest. Animals unable to adapt to the change in environment cannot survive and face extinction. (Erik Mahareni)

141

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Figure 16: Lithic artifacts from Braholo Cave: percutor (182-08), side scraper (287D5)

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143

2cm

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Figure 17: Lithic artifacts from Braholo Cave: blade (207-0 8), end scraper (490-0 8), utilized flake (578-D5)' Figure 18: Big spatulas from Braholo Cave

144

PART FOUR

PRENEOllTHIC EXPLOITATION IN THE HOLOCENE

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Figure 19: Bone tools from Braholo Cave: spatula (122-05), point (113-06)

14. SUBSISTENCE OF THE CAVE DWELLERS

.1 i

I

As mentioned afore, caves and rock shelters in Gunung Sewu have been occupied since the Late Pleistocene. From this period, cave settlement developed until it reached a culmination in the first half of the Holocene. The rich finds in the caves of this area indicate an intensification of human activities. From the distribution of finds in stratigraphical context, it seems that the development gradually evolved toward the pattern found in times that are more recent. The densest remains were found in the upper layers. It seems that the population of the cave dwellers also increased throughout that period. Such phenomena. was general throughout Southeast Asia during this period. If cave settlement was still 'rare in the Late Pleistocene, in the Holocene it increased and became widespread in both continental and island Southeast Asia (Simanjuntak, 1997). The intensified development of cave settlement seems to be related to climatic change, which caused environmental change (Simanjuntak, 1998). The end of the glacial period and the start of the Holocene created a climatic amelioration, characterized by more stable temperatures approaching present conditions. Such conditions were very favorable for the development of diverse kinds of vegetation and fauna, the alimentary resources for prehistoric man. Our understanding of the subsistence of the cave dwellers of Gunung Sewu is based on the assemblage of artifacts, faunal and floral remains. Their presence within a single context is closely related to the activities of these cave dwellers in their endeavours to meet their daily requirements. In general the artifacts from Braholo and Keplek Caves can be categorized into lithic and bone artifacts. Among the lithic artifacts, the flakes are the most outstanding member of the assemblage of finds in these two sites. The flake tools consist of

148 points, arrowheads, and various types of scrapers, borers, knives and used flakes. Thes .}dnds of tools tend to be used for boring, perforating, cutting, slicing, etc. Compared to the flake tools, core tools are generally rare and they were made of limestone. An exception was found in the square D5, Braholo Cave where the core tools of limestone were numerous, specially in the upper layers. Other implements were made of bone, antler, and mollusc shell, from large artifacts like spatulas and points, to small ones like needles. Tools of mollusc shell consist of scrapers, borers, and polishing tools, in addition to ornamental elements . It has been very difficult to arrive at concrete conclusions regarding the precise utilization of these tools, for this would require further intensive study, but in general they can be categorized as implements for daily use like cutting, slicing, boring, gouging, skinning, etc. The presence of small points, called needles, in Braholo Cave is most interesting. They were found in fairly substantial quantities, especially in the southwestern part of the cave, where they were associated with dense faunal remains , including molluscs. The needles can be distinguished into two groups, according to whether they are pointed at one or both ends; both measure around 1.5-3 em long. Double points were produced from either whole or fragmentary bones. The use of intact bones result in needles with a longitudinal cavity in the middle, whereas the use of fragments produces massive needles. The process of needle making was conducted by abrading the bone using slanting longitudinal strokes toward one end, which in several cases resulted in symmetrical points. The most common phenomenon was abrading restricted to one lateral side on both ends of the bone, thus creating a double unilateral point. In other cases, both sides were abraded from both ends, thus creating a symmetrical double point. This type is reminiscent of the Muduk point from South Sulawesi and Tulungagung, but with much smaller dimensions (Heekeren, 1972; Marliac ~ Simanjuntak, 1997). The function of the points cannot be ascertained yet. At least three functions have been assumed:

149 I. to gouge or to pry mollusc flesh from its shell for consumption ; 2. as a tool for catching fish; . 3. as a tool for sewing or perforating. The first assumption is most plausible because it is supported by the associated presence of shells of land molluscs, fresh water molluscs and marine molluscs in fairly large quantities. It is assumed that these shells were discarded after the flesh inside had been pried out. The second assumption is less acceptable because in the surroundings of Braholo Cave there were no large rivers to provide a source of fish, only a seasonal lake which dried up in the dry monsoon. Fish remains were less common than molluscs in the assemblage of Braholo Cave. The third assumption was also feasible considering that fibres from the bark of trees have been found in the caves. It is possible that the cave dwellers were familiar with making clothes from tree-bark with the use of needles. The discovery of fibres in both burial and non-burial contexts supports this assumption. It is possible that the cave dwellers already were familiar with the making of clothes or cloth from wood fibres (Plate 34). Certainty on this matter may be provided by the results of efforts to identify the fibres found. A functional study of use wear on the needles is expected to clarify the function of this tool in the future. What other remains may provide data with which to reconstruct the subsistence of the cave dwellers? Theoretically, the kinds of fauna found in the caves can give some indication of the hunting specializations practised, as well as cultural and environmental changes. The relative numbers of specimens of various species can be used as the basis for constructing a picture of the population of the local fauna as well as the humans who consumed them. Faunal remains are the most numerous among the finds both in Braholo Cave as well as in Keplek Cave. They consist of bones, teeth, and shell, mixed with artifacts and ecofacts. They were identified by Rokhus Due Awe from the National Research Centre of Archaeology.

.. 150

151 List of fauna in Kepl ek and Braholo Caves: Prim ates

Plate 34: Some wood fibers were found in the hearth layer in Braholo Cave . Some are coarse as seen in picture . Finer fibres (lower ) were found in buri al of square 19, around the chest part. It was assumed as dress (cloth) of the dead. The coarse fibres from dress remains is still doubted .

: Bovidae, Cervidae, Suida e, Tragul ida e

Ca rnivora

: Canidae, Ursidae, Viverida e, Must elidae, Felidae *

Rodenti a

: Hystricida e, Muridae, Sciuridae

Prob oscida e Periss oda ctyla

: Elephantidae

Aves

: Gal/idae*

: Rhin occritidae, Tapirida e*

Pisces

: Ca rcha ridae*

Marsupia lia ( ?)

: Phalan geridae ( ?)

Pelecyp oda s

: Fresh water habit at: Rectidens* Marine habitat: Arcidae *, Ca rdiidae* , Cymatiidae*, Dona cidae , Mytil idae, Pinnidae *, Tellinidae, Vene ridae, Anomiidae ", Ostraeidae*, Pectinidae, Tridacnidae Land habitat : Achatina sp, Amphidromus, Chloritis*, Cyclopho ridae, Cyclotus, Dyakia-clypeu s", Helicin idae, Lagochi lus ", Landouria, Leptopoma *, Trochomorpha", Philalanka *, Pluridae", Elaproconcha Fresh water habitat: Ampulariidae", Lymnaeidae *, Thiarida e, Pelidae *, Cerithiidae * Marine habitat : Buccinidae ", Cyp rae idae, Haliotidae, Mu ricidae", Neritidae *, Patel/idae, Polin idae *, Potamididae", Trochida e,Turbinidae ", Yolutidae ", Elobiidae.

Gastropods

Plate 35 : Fresh water mollu scs. Besides marine molluscs, land and fresh water mollu scs were also found in excavation s, but they are confined to the upper layer or from more recent occupation.

: Hom o sap iens, Ma caca sp

A rtyodactyla

Polyphacophora

: Chitonidae

Ch ephalopoda

: Naurilidae

Reptilia

: Chelonidae, Testudinidae, Varanidae, Boaidae

Amphibia

: Raila

lnsecti vora

: So ricidae

* Absent in Braholo Cave

I.

The kinds of fauna in Keplek Cave are much richer than that of Braholo Cave, although certain kinds are only found in Braholo Cave. However, viewed on the quantity, faunal remains from Braholo Cave are denser. The environment of Kep lek Cave may have supported more types of fauna than that of Braholo Cave. With regard to vertical distribution of faunal remains, both caves displayed a simi lar trend:

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large fauna were more common in the lower layers, whereas the smaller fauna are ore common in the upper layers. In general, the density and variety of faunal remains decreased gradually in th~ upper strata. Environmental factors and exploitation by hunters might be responsible for the decrease of fauna in the cave surroundings. Fauna found only in Braholo Cave (absent in Keplek Cave) are: Artyodacryla

: Hippopotam idae. Chiropteridae. Cap ridae, Insectivore.

Pisces

: Pisces, Carcharidae (shark). Squatinidae (Sling-ray fish)

Gastropod

: Unionida e

These faunal assemblages can be compared with the faunal remains collected by Von Koenigswald in the pre-war period from two fissures in the Punung area. The first fissure, called Punung I, originated from around Mendolo Kidul; the second fissure, Punung II, originated from Cave Tabuhan. Badoux (1959) examined.these fau~as for his doctoral dissertation. The greater part of this collection consisted of teeth from mammals, usually found in the assembla~es ?f Braholo and Keplek Caves. They usually comprise fau.na that hve ,~n forest and swampy environments, indicating a penod of humid environmental conditions in the Late Pleistocene. The fissures we.re estimated to date from the upper Pleistocene, whereas the fossils deposited in them dated from the Middle-Upper Plei.stocene. The presence of the same fauna in J:<>th. fissure~ as well as Ill . both. caves shows that there was a continuity III the kinds of fauna III thl~ area from the Middle or Upper Pleistocene to the Early Holocene . This also indicates continuity in environmental conditions during that span of time. The presence of marine mollusc is very interesting. It is possible that the catchment area exploited by the ~ave d",:el.l:rs reached the coastal area (15-20 km distant). The alternative possibility is that the molluscs were collected by other groups living on the coast, so their-presence in the interior would prove the existence of exchange relations between separate groups from the coast and interior. The second possibility seems more plausible; the fairly great distance to

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153 the coast would make it too difficult for hinterland dwellers to reach the coast and return with the catch. Moreover, in the coastal area there were also habitation caves, so there may have been a relationship between the cave dwellers in the two areas. Interesting to note is that based on surface observations, the mollusc remains in the coastal area were more varied and common than those in the interior. The profusion of animal varieties in the assemblages of Keplek . and Braholo Caves, besides confirming hunting as the main source of subsistence, shows the richness of the faunal resources in this area. Compared to the present, during the cave settlement period the range of fauna was much wider. Many kinds of fauna that existed at that time are no longer fqund. This can be explained by the decrease of habitat area for fauna by the occupation of land for agricultural purposes, in addition to the decreased tree cover caused by drought. The faunal distribution in the lower stratum (dated to the preHolocene) is characterized by the fairly common presence of big fauna, notably Cervidae and Bovidae. Elephantidae and Rhinoceritidae were also present but less remarkable. Such big faunas decreased gradually towards the upper layers. The smaller faunas, such as Suidae, Yiveridae, Mustelidae and Histricidae were also present but tend to be sparse. In the lower layers, part of the bones underwent fossilisation, but the bones from the Holocene layers look fresher. The distribution of fauna mentioned above indicates that a distinct change took place, from large to small fauna. The end of the ice age with the inception of a more stable climate more or less like that of the present, had a great influence on the environment, vegetation and fauna. This in turn influenced the kinds of game available to provide subsistence for the cave dwellers. Both Braholo and Keplek Caves contained great amounts of burnt bone. Those bones were found within hearth context, together with other remains such as lithic artifacts, which were also burnt. In view of the thickness of the hearth layer in the two caves, and the amount of scorched bones, it seems that the hearth was one of the most important centres of activity in cave life. The hearths might have been closely integrated with the exploitation of game (see: the Hearth)

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Plate 36: Macaca sp. skull from Brahol o Cave. The monkey rem ains are most commonly found in Braholo and Keplek Caves. The most den se distribution was found in the early Holocen e layers till about 4,000 years ago or in Preneolithic layers. Based on its density, it is assumed that the main subsistence of the cave dwell ers was hunting monkeys for food . The bone s were often utili zed for various kind s of tool s, specially small sized tool s like needle s.

Besides hunting, it seems that seeds were also exploited , but at a later period. Seeds were found in shallower layers, in the upper part of layer 3 in Braholo Cave and in layer 2 in Keplek Cave. The two commonly found types of seed are candlenut or "kemiri" (Aleurites molluccan) and canarium (Canarium sp.) . Both were often found burnt or partly scorched. The discoveries of these seeds, limited in kind and quantity, indicates that they were not intens ively exploited . Their distribution, restricted to the upper layer, occurred only in the more recent period , becoming more intensive in the Neolithic. (Truman Sim anjuntak, Bagyo Prasetyo) MACACA SP. AND CAVE SETTLEMENT

Macaca sp. is the most common primate found in Keplek and Braholo Caves. They played a significant role in human life In the caves. In the six excavated squares in Keplek Ca ve (H9, D3, A5, FB. D7 and B6), Macaca bones totaled 9,534 pieces. The four squares in Braholo Cave (G6, K8, 08 and F4) yielded 12,479 pieces. They indicate that the species Macaca w as more frequently exploited b y the dwellers of Braholo Cave than b y those ofKeplek Cave.

155 The intensity of exploitation of the species Macaca in each layer of both sites is found in the accompanying diagrams (Figure 20, 21). Intensity of the exploitation of the Macacd presented a regular distribution, starting with a small number in the lower layer, gradually increasing in the middle layers until reaching a peak in layer 3, then decreasing again in the uppermost layers. This distribution shows that hunting of Macaca was very intensive between about 8,000 and 4,000 BP. Square G6 in Braholo Cave presented the densest location of Macaca remains, 52.44% (6,544 pieces). F4 yielded 32.97% (4,114 pieces), K8 yielded 14.27% (1,781 pieces), while the smallest amount was found in 08, 0.32% (40 pieces). The greater . part of Macaca remains was found in layer 3, although square 08 produced the greatest quantity in the first layer. In Kepl~k Cave the largest quantity of Macaca finds was found in square F8, amounting to 36.51 % (3,480 pieces), followed by square D7, 29% (2,765 pieces), B6 with 19.74% (1,882 pieces), A5 with 6.49% (619 pieces), H9 with 4.99% (476 pieces), and square D3, 3.27% (312 pieces). Layer 3 provided most of the remains, with the exception of square B6, where the largest quantity was found in layer 4, and in H9 Oayer 2). This change in density might have been caused by a shift in the location of the occupation area in the cave. (Bagyo Prasetvoy. THE HEARTH IN CAVE SETTLEMENT

Fire became part of the human cultural repertoire 350,000 years ago, according to data found In Vertosz611os in Hungary, Zhoukoudien in China, and Terra Amato in France (De Lumley, 1984). In the Paleolithic, fire was made by percussion and rubbing. A hard rock was struck against another hard rock - for example chert against chert - resulting in sparks, which were brought into proximity with dry leaves, moss, saw-dust, or other dry material. Another technique was by rubbing two objects repeatedly- for example one piece of hard wood against

¥ 156

157 a nother, which resulte d in he at. The techniq ue of rubbing ca n be impleme nted b y rotating, sawing or repeated fa st rubbing (Perles, 1977).

4031

For Ind onesia , the date when fire was first c reated is yet unknown. Paleo lithic sites studied so far ha ve not yielded ev idence of fire. It is nevertheless probable that fire was in use before the Holoc ene. Braho lo and Keple k Caves contained remains o f) inte nsive use of fire. Braholo Cave contains firing remains with a th ic kness of three metres covering a time-span of 5,000 years (9,000-4,000 BP). This layer consisted of hearth units formed in several periods. One unit consists of burnt clay at the bottom and ashes on the upper part, This firing area is fairly large in the northern section near the wall and was very intensive. Other remains of firing activities were also found in other parts but were more sporadic in nature. The breadth and thickness of the charcoal layer indicate that fire p layed a very important role in daily cave life, The function of the hearth was possibly for keeping the body warm, fending off wild animals, and processing of food. The possibility that it was part of bu ria l rituals is very small, because although burials w ere found in this layer, they d id not display marks of being burnt. Buria l in the hearth was conducted after the fire was no longer active, by d igging into that la yer a nd burying the corpses in the prepared spa ce.

Figure 20: Disribu tion of Macaca sp. in Keplek Cave

...

7000

000

Tote' 3000 711 10

•

•

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4

•

•

Figure 21: Dustribution of Macaca sp. in Braholo Cave

Burnt artifacts and an imal bones found in the charcoal laye r can be interpreted in more tha n one way: e ither they were burnt accidentally, or the burnt bones were part of food processing. Fire was also used to harden bone tools . This technique was very commonly found and was not restricted to Gunung Sewu only, but throughout the Archipelago, and even in Europe (Simanjuntak, 1991 ), (Truman Simanjuntak)

158

Plate 37: The hearth layer in square J9, Braholo Cave (west wall) . This layer reached a thickness of three meters unruptured. Radiometric dating revealed that firing activities occurred at about 9,000 years ago and continued till 4,000 years ago. Viewed from the intensity of firing remains it can be assumed that firing formed a very significant activity in cave live at that period. This layer is also often found in other occupation caves , but not so intensive as that in Braholo Cave . Usually it is located in a comer near the cave wall. This general pattern in the cave indicates that room division was already practised.

15. EXPLOITATION OF ROCK RESOURCES The richness of natural resources in the Gunung Sewu area had attracted man to occupy this region since earliest times. This chapter discusses the exploitation of rocks for the manufacture of various tools, as one outstanding aspect of cave life. Gunung Sewu's surroundings provided various kinds of rocks, including igneous, sedimentary, and metatypical types. Rocks attractive to tool-makers were compact, of easy breakability, without fractures, a high degree of hardness and homogeneity of minerals. However, when these rocks are not available, humans had to exploit whatever rocks the surroundings provided, even when the rocks did not meet the requirements for tool making. The preferred kinds of rocks were chert, jasper, metalimestone, andesite, and fossil wood, whereas limestone was utilized when no other types were available. The physical characteristics of the rocks used for artifacts can be elaborated as follows: • Chert: a kind of sedimentary rock which when fresh is greyish white or yellow, and when weathered is blackish pale grey. Of non-clastic texture with non-stratified structure, its mineral composition is silicate or opal Si02NH20. It was formed by chemical solution and sedimentation or crystallisation of chemical elements. These rocks have a high degree of hardness (7 on the Mohs scale). Its brittleness, which made trimming easy, made it the most common type of rock used for prehistoric implements. • Jasper: a kind of sedimentary rock that when fresh is wine-red coloured and in weathered condition, blackish red. Of non-clastic texture with non-stratified structure, its mineral composition is hematite; this kind of rock belongs to the chemical sediment rocks that were formed by solution and sedimentation or crystallisation of chemical elements. It has a hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale.

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161

• Meta-limestone: a kind of metatypical rock greyish white when fresh, and . weathered condition dull white. Of crystalloblastic texture with cataclastic structure, it has a hardness of 5-6 on the Mohs scale with a mineral composition of CaC03 (Calcium carbonate). • Andesite: a kind of igneous rock which when fresh is light grey, and in weathered condition greyish black. Its texture is hypocrystalline, whereas its granular texture is afanitic-porfiro afanitic ; its fabric texture is subhedral and anhedral, whereas the related fabric texture is hypidio morphic-allomorphic. Of compact (massive) structure, its main mineral components are quartz, plagioclase, hornblende, biotite, and pyroxen, with smaller amounts of apatite, zircon , sphene and iron ore. Based on the place (location) of its formation, andesite belongs to the category of volcanic rock, whereas its chemical characteristics and mineral composition would classify it as intermediate igneous rock. It has a hardness of 5-6 on the Mohs scale. • Fossil wood: a kind of sedimentary rock which when fresh is brownish white, and in weathered condition whitish brown . Of non-elastic texture , its mineral composition is silica. Genetically it belongs to sedimentary rock composed of organic remains. It has a hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale. • Limestone: a kind of sedimentary rock which when fresh is yellowish white, and greyish white when weathered. Of non-elastic texture with non-stratified structure, its mineral composition is CaC03 or calcite. Based on its genesis it belongs to the category of chemical sedimentary rock formed by solution, sedimentation, and crystallisation of chemical elements. This rock is said to be soft with a hardness of 3-4 on the Mohs scale. Among the kinds of rock above, chert was the most exploited, the other kinds being very rarely used. This kind of rock is the most dominant in this area, both in the form of boulders as well as part of the parent mass (bedrock) particularly in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu, comprising the areas of Punung , Donorojo, and Pringkuku. ' In

the central part of Gunung Sewu, chert is found in the Giritontro area, in the village of Glagahan and along the Gunung Wiu River. In the western zone, chert is very scarce, limestone instead being dominant, the source of which is found in the Oyo River, in the Nglipar area. Other silicified rocks are more restricted to the eastern and central part of Gunung Sewu . Gunung Sewu is regionally rather uniform, both geologically as well as archaeologically. However, in several aspects, like geological structure, raw material availability, and kind of industry some distinct differences are apparent. The eastern part covers the area from Pacitan bay to the Giriwoyo area; the remainder is part of the western section up to the Oyo River. In the western Gunung Sewu area, raw material for lithic tools (siliceous rocks) lies in the eastern part, some 20 km from Braholo Cave. A close relationship is visible between the composition of the rocks used, on one hand, and its availability on the other. The availability of raw material in the habitation environment very much determined the tools produced. Two ·examples support this' inference. The lithic industry in .Keplek Cave, located in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu produced tools that for the greater part used chert, abundant locally. Meanwhile in Braholo Cave, the difficulty in obtaining chert and other siliceous rocks caused the tool-makers to tum to limestone, the material that is fairly common in the lithic assemblage. In this case, the hardness and quality of the rock no longer served as determining factors in the selection of raw material. Limestone , which is soft in nature and hard to shape, was utilized for tool making. The presence of artifacts made of silicate rocks and other kinds in this cave is due to importation from sources beyond the local area. The process of obtaining material was not too difficult when the environment provided it in chunks that no longer required mining. Chert, andesite, pebbles and other rocks were often obtained in sizable chunks. Raw material obtained from both surface finds and quarrying activities was found in Keplek Cave and Braholo Cave. Remains of cutting to detach the tool-making material from bedrock outcrops can be seen in certain examples.

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Lithic industrial activities in Gunung Sewu form an adaptation of the population to the karst hill environment. The oldest tradition. the Pacitanian Paleolithic, found in Baksoka and other river localities continued in early Holocene in the caves and reached its peak in the Neolithic in open sites producing quadrangular adzes and an-ow heads (see Chapter on the Neolithic). (Fadlzlan S. Intany

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Plate 38: Chert Preneolithic arrowhead from Braholo Cave . Chert is hard but brittle. so that trimming it make them favourable for the material of arrowheads. The mastering of various flaking techniques may result in beautiful arrowheads.

Figure 22: Nucleus from Keplek Cave: 1683-F8

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16. THEY DEVELOPED THE LITHIC INDUSTRY

Figure 23: Knifes with the cortical dorsal from Keplek Cave. 1: 1722-F8 ; 2: 794-F8 ; 3: 1563-F8; 4: 1227-F8 .

Lithic industry activities, an inseparable part of cave settlement in Gunung Sewu, reached their peak in the Holocene. Industrial products provided the second most numerous category of remains found, after faunal remains. Lithic tools were manufactured in the caves since the early Holocene, and some researches indicate that such activities began long before that time, although the exact date when it began is unknown . Evidences of tool making in caves can be observed by: 1. The dense distribution of industrial by-products in the form of chert flakes , comprising tools, unworked flakes, and chunks . 2. Tools used for trimming, or hammer stones. 3. Core tools in various stages of working. 4. Unfinished tools . The four elements of an atelier present a picture of the process of industrial activity that covers the complete process: starting with initial flaking to detach the flakes, till the creation of the desired tools. The industrial remains were not distributed evenly throughout the caves; certain parts of the caves contained very dense artifact remains , while other sections yielded sparser remains. In Keplek Cave, industrial activity was centred around the cave's mouth. Waste products in the form of trimming chips or flakes, finished tools, and fabricators were concentrated here. A similar situation was encountered in Braholo Cave where the section of the room near the cave mouth was used as an atelier, particularly for the manufacture of tools of limestone. The eastern part or the innermost area of the room was also used as a workshop for the manufacture of tools of silicified rocks. Thus Braholo Cave contained

D 166

167

two ate liers: one near the ca ve mouth, using local material (limestone), the other for silicified rock s imported from outside the area. Based on the vertica l distribution. limestone working seemed to be of yo unger date as it was found from layer 3 upward s, whereas the use of silicified rock s was of old er date, shown by its presence in the lowest layer excavated. Stra tigraphical data ind icate that industrial acti vities ex isted co ntem poraneo usly with occ upational acti vitie s. Ind ustrial remain s we re present at the basal layer reached by excavation. No differences in the pattern of acti vities over the course of time were detected. Both with rega rd to the use of material as well as the products and the tec hno logy employed, the oldest layer displays similarities with the yo ungest. T he vertical di stribution shows that industrial activities co ntinued without a hiatus during cave occupation . The highest de ns ity of finds was found in layers 3 and 2, known as the Keplek laye r. Another obser vation is that the tools produced during this pe riod were homogeneous. No specific too l was predominant at a certain period ; all kinds of tools tend to be present in each layer.

2. Flake tools , part of Pren eolithic culture, are the most common industry of Gunung Sewu. The typology of the flake tool component is quite varied. con sisting of scrapers, points, borers, and flake s used without furth er working. Scrapers displayed the most typological complexity, with side scra pers, end scrapers , high -backed scrapers, concave scrapers, and back scrapers. These were mostl y made of chert. Flakes with use-marks also const itute a high percentage of the assemblage, consisting of vario us kinds of rocks. It is very difficult to observe use-mark s on limestone and basalt flake s because of the coarseness of these materials. Chunks occupied the highest percentage in the assembl age , a logical co nsequence of the use of kind s of roc ks that were difficult to flake (limestone and basalt). 3. Besides flake and blade tools, other form s that are characteristic of the Pre neo lithic assemblage are mortars, anvils, pestles, and grinding stones. On some mortars one can observe remains of red hematite, possibly material for dye s (plat e 39).

So me interesting cha racteristics of industrial products are: 1. Ty pologically, the lithic assemblage of Braholo, particularly in Sq uare D5, displayed Paleolithic, Preneolithic and Neolithic traits. Th e core tools of limestone displayed such Pale olithic forms as chopping tools and choppers. Pren eolithic trait s were represen ted by flakes and blades , whereas Neolithic traits were represented by quadrangul ar adzes of limestone, mollusc shell, and bone fossil. Th e heterogeneity of the artifacts can be explained by the consideration that limestone is more suitable for core tools rather than flakes considering its softness . Therefore the prese nce of artifacts that typologically are Paleolithic is of technical, not cultural significance. Th is assumption is supported by stratigraphic data indicating that core tools are found in the uppe r layers mixed with Preneolithic and Neolithic flake tools . On the other hand too ls with Neolithic characteristics are only found in the uppermost layer, which dates from the Neolithic.

Plate 39: Mort ar from Braholo Cave . The outstanding charac teristic is that on e plane became concave and weathered by usc. On the centre of the concave plan e. remain s of red material (hem atite) is still left. indicating that mortars were used also to produce hematit e powder.

Products of the lithic industry in Keplek Cave are more varied than those of Braholo Cave. Flake too ls consist of more than 20 types, including side scrapers (13 types), end scrapers, high back ed scrapers,

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back-scrapers, notches (concave scrapers), borers, points, arrowhea ds, engravers, knives, and pyramids (Simanju ntak et al, 1995). A high percentage of flake too ls were also used without reto uch . In ge nera l they are flakes with straight and sharp sides, whic h do not need reto uching. The most co mmon material is chert, locally known as "rijang", Other materials, altho ugh very rare, include silicified tuff, claystone, and breccia. The flakes displayed varied morpho-metrical aspects, which can be classified as squares, triangles, rounded sides, and irregular shapes. This morphological variety was influenced by the phases in the process of manu facture and the des ired end res ult. Flakes with a cortex on the dorsal plane tend to be an initial prod uct of flaking a core stone. Such flakes were used either after or without reto uching . Big flakes with a length of over 4 ern are very rare. The most common dimensions ranged between 2-3 ern long and 1-2.5 ern wide. Small flakes may represent non-intentional chips formed at the time of trimming or flaking for the shapi ng of other too ls.

marks of detachment of other flakes and working retouches to perfect the shape and cutting edge. On the dorsal plain are two or three longitudinal trimmings that create a triangular or trapezoid crosssection. T he striking platform often widens but is sometimes narrow or facetted . In several cases, the bulb is very prominent, while some tend to widen. Retouching techniques used to create various kinds of tools show numerous variations, in such traits as position of the retouches (continuous or random) , tilt (sloping or steep), measurement (marginal, width, lengt h) and location (distal, proximal or lateral). A technological characteristic observable from the flakes and blades is that the process of short trimming produced flakes. Cores were not chipped totally, but the cortex was preserved, the cores being trimmed through a process of simple "debitage". The technological process utilized tends to produce thick long flakes (like blades) with the cortex still attached on the lateral or distal side, with a cutting edge that can either be used directly or shaped by retouching. Typologically, those tools resemble the Mousterien industry in Europe, as shown by the great amount of side scrapers, concave scraper, back scrapers, knifes, borer, etc. (Fore stier, 1997).

Plate 40: Chopper of fossil wood found on the surface in Keplek Cave . This kind of tool was not found in the Holocene cultural layer. It was assumed that the tool was brought into the cave . This picture shows the manner of monofacial ly flaking , starting from the edge to the prox imal part of the tool.

Tec hnological charac teristics include prepared striking platforms and bulbs on the ventral plane due to pressure at trimming. Other characteristics observable are longitudinal trimming on the . dorsal part, the resu lt of initial chipping to obtain the desired shape, or

Lithic Implements The lithic too ls found in the assemblage give evidence that lithic industrial activities were developed intensively in the Paleolithic period of Gu nung Sewu . Among the finds, scrapers were most common, characterized by the presence of continuous retouches covering part or all of the edges. The retouches tend to be restricted to the edge, although some are found along the dorsal sides, either parallel to the longest dimension or perpendicular to it. Macroscopically, one often sees gloss around the reto uch, probably marks of use. Retouch creates side scrapers (with lateral retouch) and end scrapers (wit h reto uch on the distal end). Variations in the size and number of retouches create concave scrapers (forming a concave profile) and de nticulate scrapers (plenty of hollows regularly spaced

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170 along one of the sides). Morphologically, scrapers can be divided into different types-sqch as pointed, high-backed, disc, and side scrapers.

4-

& o

I

2

h

~.

Figure 24: Concave scrapers from Keplek Cave. I : 1903-03; 2: 36-03; 3: 8-03; 4: 359-03; 5: 3659-03; 6: 656-03; 7: 101-03; 8: 324-03.

Figure 25: Denticulated tools from Keplek Cave. I: 605-B6; 2: 19-B6; 3: 497-B6; 4: 132-B6.

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2

Figure 26: Side scraper from Keplek Cave. I: 1834-86; 2: 1444-86; 3: 730-86.

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Borers are quite common, characterized by points, usually at the distal end. Often the basic pointed shape results from the flaking of a core. This is then perfected by side retouching or shaping curves on both sides of the point. The shape and position of the point create different types of borers: sometimes a point is found on one· of the . comers , diagonal to the axis; others are positioned in the central part of the distal side by retouching from both sides creating a symmetrical point; more intensive retouching on one side than the other creates a curved point. Points have much in common with borers, both being pointed, but differ in morphology. The shape of a point tends to be triangular with regular narrowing starting on the proximal and becoming increasirigly pronounced toward the distal extremity, shaped by retouching on both sides. Sometimes the basic triangular shape was formed by detachment of the flake, so that further working only required perfecting of the shape and point. • Morphologically arrowheads can be classified as part of the larger group of points, but are often distinguished by their more complex technological character created by intensive retouching in various parts of the tool. In general, arrowheads are much finer than points, in thickness (they are thinner), smoothness of the surface, and regularity of shape. The arrowheads of Gunung Sewu are characterized by a convex base (compared to the concave base of the Neolithic arrowhead). In unfinished condition, these arrowheads are still thick and coarse, although triangular in outline with signs of a convex base. In its final shape, it was thinned by retouching both flat planes and the pointed distal end. The proximal part or base is convex , resembling a winged shape. The arrowheads from Gunung Sewu have the same characteristics as those of the "Sarnpungian". Their distribution is restricted to East Java, particularly in caves in the areas of Ponorogo, Tuban, Bojonegoro, Besuki, and Jember. These arrowheads differ from those with characteristic serrated lateral sides found in South Sulawesi. The group of tools termed knives is quite large. These are usually worked upon a long blade with one or both lateral sides

174 continuously retouched. Most often the cortex is still attached to the dorsal plane, indicating, primary flaking. They also often have sharp and straight edges caused by the manner of flaking the core stone, so that they could be immediately used without the need for retouch. The single largest category of tools consists of flakes, which were used directly, without the need for retouching. The presence of a striking platform and bulbs indicates that they were intentionally detached from the core- stone. Use marks are indicated by fine slivers at the sides or sometimes by edge gloss. A discussion of the kinds of tools produced in Gunung Sewu would not be complete without mentioning core tools. One category of core tool consists of those from which flakes have not yet been detached. Some have cutting or flaking marks produced when they were mined by detaching them from the parent mass, whereas those without flaking come in the form of chunks. The cores from which flakes have been detached are often discoidal in shape, evidence of flake removal in a regular sequence around the core. Another shape, polyhedric, supplies evidence that flakes were detached diagonally from various directions leaving facets around the core. In this case, marks of the previous flaking were used to guide the next flaking. Other cores are prismatic in shape, indicating the application of a bipolar technique in which both ends were used as striking platforms to produce flakes detached parallel to the axis. The hammer stone is one of the most important tools in an atelier (Plate 41). Its presence in association with industrial products indicates that direct percussion techniques were applied. Hammer stones always come in the form of pebble-sized gravel, round or oval in shape. Their presence indicates that people actively searched for them in the riverbeds near the caves. Use marks can be seen as scars on certain parts (the ends) of the surface. Frequent use of hammer stones as pounding stones is indicated by a corroded flat plane. Sometimes remains of red hematite are found, proof that they were used to pulverize this red stone for colouring material.

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Plate 41 : Pebble hammer from Keplek Cave. The material clearl y show allochtonou s rock taken from the river. A percutor is a tool for flaking in the tool manufacturing. On the speci fie part of a tool. particularly the ends , shows cars of fractures effected by the blows with the flaked material.

Other items in the lithic assemblage are massive tools usually termed Paleolithic in character, made of limestone found in the forepart of Braholo Cave. Typologically they can . be separated into choppers and chopping tools, as well as core stones used to produce flakes . Ten pieces were discovered: two in layer 1 and eight in layer 3 of Square D5. These tools were found in association with flake tools and chunks, mainly also made of limestone, and a very dense deposit of animal bones. It can therefore be hypothesized that these massive tools were closely related to hunting activities. Found in association with these massive tools were quadrangular adzes from Braholo Cave. Though only three specimens were found , made of limestone, Tridacna shell, and fossil bone, their presence indicate a relationship with the Neolithic . Adzes were restricted in layer 1, where they were found in association with massive limestone tools , faunal remains, and potsherds. This strengthens the conclusion that life in Braholo Cave continued into the Neolithic. Only one unfinished quadrangular adzes was found in the Neolithic layer, in Keplek Cave. In addition to the groups of artifacts described above, others were also found which can be referred to simply as chunks. This group consists of chips produced unintentionally at the time of flaking. No marks of intentional detachment such as striking platforms or bulbs

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are discernible. The type of material used is quite varied , as is the range of rocksused for tools , but limestone constituted the largest category. This is understandable, considering that limestone is soft and very breakable, so that when flaked it tends to produce chunks. These chunks were restricted to Braholo Cave, and were not found in KepJek Cave, where tools of that material were likewise absent. (Truman Simanjuntak)

Pac itanian assemblage in the Boksoko River (Soejono, 1984). The next stage of development is known as the tevouois tecbnlque, which involved preparation of the core before flaking (fixier et

FLAKE-BLADE TOOLS IN ISLANDS SOUTHEAST ASIA

The terminology for the flake-blade industry was first introd uc ed by van Heekeren (1972), in 'The Stone Age of Indonesia". Fla kes and blades both refer to flakes intentionally detached from the core stone. for different purposes. Flakes of rectangu lar shape with parallel lateral sides a nd a length two or .more tim es th eir widths were c lassified as blades. The flake-blade industry ter minology was actually no.t approp riate within the contex t o f the Arch ipelago. The fact is tho t in the lithic indu strial asse mblage in each site, blades constituted a very low p rop ortion compared to flakes. Mo reover blades tend to be accidental products rather than having been prepared In advance. Therefore the ''flake mdustrv" would be a more suitable term. Flake tools were known in the Paleolithic. This tool developed in lint! with progress in flaking technology. In the Paleolithic flakes tended to be large and crude. produced by very simple working. The striking platform tended to be flat and wide. with protrudlnq bulbs. the result of direc t flaking by hard hammer stones . The slow mastering of this flaking technique d id not at first produce a wide va riety of flake tools. In Europe fla king t~chniques began to experience further development in the Middle Pleistocene, producing the clactonian, characterized by big flakes. with a wide striking angle and protrudlnq bulbs . Flakes showing such characteristic s have been reported to exist in the

01, 1980) .

Later, the European middle Paleolithic witnessed another importa nt advance. the Mousterian culture. with further developments in fla king and retouching techniques. Flake tools, with diverse typological var iations dominated the industry at this cultural stage . The final development of flake tool s occurred in the upper Paleolithic when most tools consisted of a kind of blade of rectangular shape. . In Southeast Asia in general, and in Indonesia in particular. the sequence of development of flake too ls cannot be followed as easily as in Europe . Intensive innovation is only observable toward the Late Pleistocene in continental So utheast Asia, where the stone tool asSemblag e is' dominated by massive obje cts, whe reas Islan d Southeast Asians developed flake-blade tools (Glover. 1973) . Find ing s in several c aves in Islan d Southeast Asia show that flake tools began to develop in cave life 40,000 years ago. Continuity of flake culture can then be discerned until the middle o f the Holocene. before the Neolithic emerged. In Tabon Cave, In the Philippines, through five cultural sequences over a time span between 40.000-9.000 SP few changes can be observed . Niah Cave. Sarawak presents a similar situ atio n (Glover i973: Fox. 1970). In several localities such as Golo Cave, Maluku. flake-blades continued to develop until about 2.000 years ago (Bellwood. 1998). In Niah Cave, flake tools constituted the largest proportion of the lithic assemblage. The tools found in Niah are generally made of quartz with crude features. and rarely display evidence of retouch (Harrisson. 1957). Yet another similar example is found in Leang Surung 2. South Sulawesi. The industry here generally produced tools called levo llols points. simple points. sc rapers. used flakes. shiny fla kes. core stones, fabricators and waste fla kes. Other items

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found there inc lude an imal bones. mo llusc shell. some burnt seeds. and other parts of plants (Sin ha & Glover. 1984).

their presence in these sites as evidence of local innovation supported by the nature of the locally available raw materials. Based on this reasoning. the conception of the Mesolithic in the Archipelago Is more appropriately referred to as a transitional culture that was part of the still strong Paleolithic SUbstratum. mixed with Neolithic elements end local innovations (Simanjuntak, 1992). (Truman Simanjuntak)

Within the c ontext o f habitation in the Archipelago. the technolog ical development of flakes constituted a most important technological innovation. along with the exploitation of caves and shelters. Industrial ac!ivities developed in caves, in association with habitation and other activities. The flake cu lture was one of several cultural facies that developed In the Archipelago beginning In the early Holocene; others were the The Hoabinhian. the bone lndustrv, and cave paintings. typology of the local flake tools Is high ly varied, the mast common products being scrapers. points. arrowheads. knives, and borers. Geographiool Isolation in various parts of the Archipelago stimulated the appearance of local innovations, exploiting the available resources. Some examples of local innovations are arrowheads with convex and concave base in eastern Java. stemmed points in Timor (Glove r. 1973). serrated arrowheads In South Sulawesi (known as Maros points (Heekeren, 1972; soejono, 1984). elongated blades with layered retouches in Manikin, West Timor (Slmanjuntak, 1997). In conjunction with flakes, the tools classified as microliths are worth to mention. Microliths are flake tools of small size and geometrical shape. often regarded as lelt-fossils of the Mesolithic c ulture, the next stage of inno va tion after the Paleolithic . The standard assumption based on data from European sites is that the Mesolithic was a cultural stage transitional between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. Within the context of the Archipelago, this assumption is not well supported, because microliths. made of obsidian as well as other silicified rocks, have only been found in a few sites. The dates of microliths development are contemporaneous with the flake-blade ind uSTry. such as the caves in Tianko Panjang (Jambi), South Sulawesi. Flores, and open sites on the Bandung plateau and in Paso (North Sulawesi) . Archaeologists have tended to Interprete

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17. THE BONE INDUSTRY Beside the lithic Indus try, a bone industry was very well developed in the Gun ung Sewu area. Discoveries in Braholo and Keplek Caves, as well as in other caves, have proven that the manufacture of bone tools was a very important technological innovation in cave habitatio n, co-inc idental with lithic tool -making. In the early Holocene this area became the center of production of two groups of implements, stone and bone , including antler and mollusc she ll. Figure 27: Keplek Cave : Distribution of bone too ls

II

Figure 28: Braholo Cave : Distribution of bone tools

Plate 42 : Doub le pointed needles form specific pro ducts in Braho lo Cave . Morphotechno logically they present several types , and the most commonly found are the monola teral do uble pointed needles. As seen on the pictures these need les remind us of Muduk Poi nt from So uth Su lawes i, but of a different type.

The bone ind ustry disp lays fundamental similarities between the eastern and western part of Gun ung Sewu, in tec hno logy and products . Differences are manifested in the secondary features of the products, and their quantity and quality (Figure 27, 28). The bone industry in Bra holo Cave includes a unique kind of tool, double pointed needles (see: Double points), whereas in Keplek Cave this tool

182 was unknown. On the other hand the inhabitants of Keplek Cave used a polishing tool made of mollusc shell , not present in Braholo Cave. More bone tools were made in Braholo Cave than in Keplek Cave. Bone tools constituted 85 % of all tools found in Braholo Cave, whereas the comparable figure in Keplek Cave is only 15%. Examination of bone tools in Braholo Cave shows that needles were the most common finds followed by points, spatulas, and other tools. In Keplek Cave points are more common, followed by spatulas. Bone tools in Gunung Sewu, represented by Keplek and Braholo Caves, are classified as spatulas, points, needles, and tools made of antler. Spatulas are common tools. The spatulas are characterized by a flat and wide cutting edge , produced from a relatively big piece of bone. A bone was split longitudinally, and one fragment thus produced was worked by rubbing the breach till it became smooth. In some cases where the rubbing was not intensive, the medullar cavity still remains in the shape of a longitudinal groove. Rubbing the inner or outer side of the bone at the end formed a plane, which tapers toward the distal end, thus forming a wide cutting edge. The width of the cutting edge is usually equal to the width of the shaft or handle of the tool. Clear signs of heating are found on the cutting edge of certain tools. Apparently this was intentionally done with the aim of hardening the bone after the tool was made. Another important point is that the distal ends often display a smooth and shiny surface. The shine was principally obtained by intensive use through friction with earth or other objects during use. Variation in the dimensions of the spatulas was greatly influenced by the size of the bones selected. The bones used comprise long bones, hip bones, and elephant tusks. Animals from which the bones were taken, include Cervidae , Bovidae, Elephantidae, and Suidae. By observing the width of the cutting edge, spatulas can be distinguished into large spatulas (width> 1.5 em) and small spatulas (width <1.5 ern). Working on the cutting edge distinguishes monofacial spatulas (worked on one plane) and bifacial spatulas, characterized by working on both planes.

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Plate 43 : Tool of antler from Braholo Cave. Antler is hard and its shape wit h the many bran ches is very easy to be used as tool. By cutting one o f the branches on the main part , there is no need for furth er working to get the ideal shape. Usually onl y one end is worked on to be the active part of a tool. By monofacially rubbings. a wide cutting edge is obtained. like spatulas sometimes the natural pointed end is also used as tool. Use mark s will be left as weathered surface. even or shiny. Antler tools from Braholo Cave are more out standing than in Keplek Cave.

Points were obtained by chipping or grinding bones , and are characterized by pointed distal ends. Points could be made from either a fragmentary or a whole piece of bone. In the first case a bone was split, then either left rough or worked by grinding the breach till it became smooth. To obtain the point, the distal end was ground and chipped towards the end from both sides . The pointed part may be symmetrically shaped if working on both -sides was equally intensive, or asymmetric when one side was worked more intensive than the other. Use marks in the form of corroded or shiny surfaces are often seen on the cutting edge. As was the case with spatulas, heating or burning also often was applied, apparently with the objective of hardening the pointed part. Based on the shape of the pointed part, points can be divided into two categories: monolateral single points (rubbed on one side towards the distal end) , and bilateral single points (rubbed on the entire lateral side towards the distal end). The needles display some similarities with points. The difference lies in their size: needles have a length of < 3 em (the

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184 co mmo n size was ± 1.5 em) and diam eter of <0 .3 em (the common dia~eter is 0.15 em). This sma ll size made them very fragile and eas ily broken. Ne edles we re usually made of whol e lonzb bones (tibia ' fibula ) of Aves and Macaca sp. etc . One of the ends was sharpened to a point by grinding on one side, creating a point-slop e. The medullar ca vity of the bon e was visible as a groove on the rubbing plane. The needles from Braholo Cave have unique characteristics, with several typological variation s not present in Keplek Ca ve or other ca ves . Th ese unique traits are ev ide nce of local innovation. Besides the three kinds of tool s mentioned above, other bones ~usual.ly long bones of rather larg e size) are found bearing marks of intentional breakage. The edge of the medullar cavities bear marks f~om blows with a hard object (possibly a stone hammer sto ne) . No signs of further working to create tools are visible; this raises the possibility that they were broken to extract the marrow. Such bones wer e found in both Braholo and Keplek Caves. . In Europe, bone-tool technology underwent major development, partIcularly in the Magdalenian culture, toward the Holocene. Various kinds of implements were produced, not only of bone, but also of antler, teeth , and fish -grates. In continental Southeast Asia, a bonetool tradition has been reported from the Tonkin area, where bone tools are found in association with rather crude hand-axes (Sumatraliths). The Hoabinh area also yielded bone artifactual finds in cave sites, less numerou s than the Sumatraliths. Sh ell midden s in Da But (southern Vietnam) also yielded bone tools. ~n addition to East Java, bon e-tools are frequentl y reported found In other areas, but not as commonly as in East Java. These finds ofte~ formed a minor element of the total assemblage, for example in Babi Cave (South Kalimantan ), Selonding Cave (Bali), and some caves in South Sulawesi and East Nusa Tenggara (Prasetyo, 1999). The most frequently found tool s are spatulas and points. In caves in S?uth Su lawesi double-points, known as Muduk points, have been discovered, These points differ from the double points in Braholo Cave and are assumed to be affiliated with Australia.

Plate 44: Several scrapers of mollusc shell from Braholo Cave . The serra ted side as the result of retouching and use is observable. Next to scraper, mollu sc shell were also used to produce point s,

Shell-Tools and Ornaments The exploitation of mollusc shell, both in Kepl ek Cave as well as in Braholo Cave can be classified as intensive in view of the multitude of sh ell, which were fabricated into too ls and orn aments. Tool types consi st of scraper s, perforator s, perforating scra pers, polishers , spatulas, quadrangular adze s, and ornaments. Scr apers are characterized by the presence of continuous ret ouches that co ver one side or part of it. Usuall y the retouches are located on the convex side of the shell. M orphologi call y four types of scrape rs can be di stinguished: 1. Crescent shaped scraper: curved shaped (co nc ho ida l fra cture) with one side pointed (cres cent shaped). Sc rapers of thi s shape constitute the mo st common variety. '2. Triangular scraper: Triangular in shape (complex fracture) with retouches on the convex part. 3. Oval scraper: ova l shaped by conchoidal fracture with retouches 4.

on the convex part. Rectangular scraper: rectangular shaped by conchoidal fracture with retouches on the convex part.

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The perforator type has a spec ial morph ological characteristic: a poi nt. Perforators hay e usuall y a basically pointed shape, conforming to its fracture pattern. Thi s basic form was then perfected by sharpening as well as grinding to obtain a shiny appearance and di stinct point on both end s of the cutting edge. Based on shape, two kind s of perforators can be distinguished: crescent-shaped perforators (produced by conchoidal fracture, with one end pointed), and triangular perforators (triangular in shape, produced by complex fracture with pointed ends) . Besides these two kinds of tools, another tool type represents a combination of scraper and perforator, and is therefore called perforat ing scraper. This kind of tool is characterized by a combin ation of characteristics of scraper and perforator: besides the presence of continuing retou ches covering part or the entire side of the tool , particularly the con vex plane, there are also shiny points on the cutting edge and use marks. Morphologicallly two types of this tool can be distinguished, viz. • Crescent perforating-scrapers, characterized by a curved shape (conchoidal fracture) with one of the sides pointed (shaped like a crescent). The convex part and one of the sides are pointed, so that the tool could be used as both scraper and perforator. • Triangular perforating-scrapers, characterized by a triangular shape (complex fracture). One of the sides and the angle of the cutting edge were used .

3. Oval polishers, charact erized by a triangular shape as a res ult of a complex fracture, the co nvex side functionin g as a polisher.

Another tool type con stitute s the poli shin g tool , or poli sher, ch aracterized by the presenc e of gloss and corrosion on the side s of the shell, effected by rubbing. The repeated use for rubbing or polishing an object created glos s on the con vex sides. Based on shape, this kind of tool comprises: I. Crescent polishers (poli shing tool) characterized by a crescent shape (co nchoida l fracture) with one of the sides pointed, shaped like a crescent. The other side was used for polishing or rubbing cert ain obje cts. 2. Tri angular polishers ch aract erized by a triangular shape resulting from a complex frac ture. Th e smoo th side functioned as a polisher.

Another tool of mollusc shell is a small spatula that morphologically resembl es a perforator, in the sense that both have a point as the functional part . The difference lies in the sha~e of the point: spatulas present a widening point located on the di stal en~, whereas the perforators have tapering points. This kind of spatula m tum can be divided into two types. Type one is the crescent spatula. On one of the even sides (distal side) there are use mark s in the form of gloss. Type two is a rectangular spat ula, the rectangular shape of which results from conchoidal fracture, the distal end smoo th on which signs of use in the form of gloss can be seen. .Another , rare , tool type of mollusc shell is the rectangular adze . Th ese tools are elongated with a rectangular cross-section, the defining characteristics of rectangular adzes. The entire surface is finely poli shed, and at the distal end is the monofacial cutt!ng edge. Ornaments of mollusc shell in Gunung Sewu were mainly made from shells of the Pelecypods . The artifacts can be divided into subtypes: 1. Ornaments of unworked shell , perforated at the shaft (body) usually near the apex. These usually were used as necklace pendants. . . Ornaments of very simple worked shell, by gn ndmg the ape x section. After obtaining the desired thinness, the y were perforated. Such ornaments functioned as pendant s for necklaces. 3. Ornaments of various shaped mollusc shells that were perforated then strung like beads. The mollusc ornaments came in several shapes: rectangular, pentagonal, triangular, circular, oval and irregular. They may have more than one hole. These artifacts may have functioned as a string of bead s.

2.

Shell artifacts are found all over Indonesi a. They can be classified into two physiographical areas: coastal and interi or. The coastal area s are represented by areas in Sumatra (Saentis, in North Sumatra), Java (Anyer in West Ja va), the easte rn part of Indonesia

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(Gilimanuk, Bali; Melolo, and Lewoleba in the East Nusa Tenggara). Sites yie lding shell artifacts in the hinterlands are usually categorized as cave sites, found in Java, South Su lawesi, East Nusa Tenggara, and East Timor.

in the Kelantan region (Malaysia) of 1,250 BC- l,OOO AD were also found shell artifacts like beads and spoons in association with stone bracelets, rectangular adzes , bark -cloth beaters and pottery (Be llwoo d, 1997). Prehistoric sites in Sai Yok, Thailand also yie lded shell scrapers, along with bone tools and blades (Heekeren & Knuth, 1967), and beads in association with rectangular adzes, axes and bronze bracelets and pottery (Bellwood, 1975). In Sarnrong Sen (Cambodia) she ll artifacts in the form of brace lets and rings have been foun d in association with rectangular adzes, pottery, fishhooks, and points. In the Philippines (Duyong Cave) were found adzes of Tridacna shell, necklace, of con us shell, and ear ornaments, found in association with stone adzes (Be llwoo d, 1975). In the Pacific region, the distribution of shell artifacts is quite extensive, covering 65 islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. In the Melanesian area , shell tools were found in the sites in Waton in New Britain, New Ireland, Sikumango in Bellona, Anuta and To ngatapu, where shell adzes predominate (Bellwood, 1975). In the Micronesian islands, shell too ls were found in Saipan in Mariana, Yap, Pa lau, and Non Madol in Caroline and Nukuoro Ato!' In the Polynesian islands the distribution of shell too ls includes the Marquesas, the Society Islands, and Hawaii. (Bagyo Prasetyo)

Plate 45: So me mollu sc shell ornaments. The shapes are varieted, there arc eve n some that retain its natural shape. without any modification of the original shape. The characteristics of shell ornamen ts lies in the perfo rating hole, or holes in the cen ter part. and assumed to serve to insert thread with which the ornament is to hang .

· I

Scrapers are the most common shell artifacts. Other common types include beads, usually made of marine mollusc shell or operculum. Sites that have yielded these finds are: Anyer in West Java, Sodong and Sampung Caves in East Java, Gilimanuk in Ba li, Liang Toge, Rundung, Camplong in East Nusa Tenggara, Lie Siri, Bui Ceri Uato, and Uai Bobo 1 and Uai Bobo 2 in East Timor. Other kinds of finds like adzes and fish hooks have been found in the sites of Bui Ceri Uato. Poi nts have been discovered in Bo la Batu, Leang PattaE and Panganreang Tudea in South Sulawesi, Cave Pra hu in East Java, and Rundung and Camp long in East Nusa Tenggara. Shell bracele ts have been fou nd in Lewoleba and Me lolo in East Nusa Tenggara, Gilimanuk in Bali, and Uai Bobo 1 and 2 in East Timor (Prasetyo, 1989). Besides Indonesia, shell artifacts are also found on seve ral sites in Southeast Asia and the Pac ific. In Niah Cave (Sarawak) of 3,000 BC-IOO AD were found scrapers and several ornaments of shell, including rings and bracelets. (Harrison, 1957). Similarly in Cha Cave

DOUBLE POINTS FROM BRAHOLO CAVE The presen c e o f points in Brah oto Cave is most interesting, c o nsidering th at this fo rm is very rarely foun d in Indon esian site s conta ining arti fa c ts b elongin g to the bone tool tradition. They ar e remini sc ent of p oints foun d in th e caves of South Sulawesi c a lled Mu d uk points, b ased on similar find s in th e Devon Down s shelte r in Mu rra y va lley, South Australia (Mulva ney, 1975). The y are symmetrical double points of bone used as fishing lures. Morph o-m etri c ally how ever they differ fro m the points of Braholo Cave: Muduk points are usua lly b igger and ma de of who le bones, whereas those from Braho lo are smaller and some were made o f split bone with quite varied points.

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190 Based on metrical variables. the points from Braholo Cave" were c lassifieCf'into two groups: those more than 0.3 cm long (p oints). and those less than 0.3 cm long (needles). Based on the technique of grinding the pointed part. the points can also be divided into two types . The first are monolateral double points which have a trapezoidal shape. formed by grinding one of the la tera l sides of the proximal as well as distal end. to obtain the angle of the point. The second are bilateral double points (he xagonal in sha p e. formed by grinding the entire lateral side at the pro ximal and d istal end to obtain the angle of the point). The needles are characterized by grinding on one of the latera l sides at the distal end to create the angle of the point. A total of 152 double points were found. distributed In all layers. The needle is the most common kind of tool. representing 95.07% of all double points. whereas monolateral double points only represent 2.62% and the bilateral doubie points 1.31 %. In terms of stratigraphic distribution. needles.were most common in layer 3 (84 pieces). followed by layer 2 (45 pieces). layer 4 (12 , <, pieces). layer 5 (6 pieces). layer 1 (4 pieces) and In the soil fill 1 piece. Closer examinati on of vertical distribution shows t~at type 2 dominates the double points. The upper layer of soil yielded one piece. then layer 1 with 3 pieces. layer 2 with 43 pieces. layer 3 with 81 pieces. layer 4 with 12 pieces and layera5 with 6 pieces. The unilateral double point presented only 4 pieces. found in layer 2 (1 piece) and layer 3 (3 pieces). Bilateral double points were only found in layer 1 (1 piece) and in layer 2 (2 pcs) When the typology of the tools is correlated with raw material. the double points used bone from ' the fibula. , metatarsal. ulna. long bones. and radius from d ifferent animals. Needles are dominated by material that originates from Macaca sp, followed by bones of Viveridoe in the second" " place. then by long bones of Mococo so; and fibu las of Chiropferidoe and of Carnivores. (80gyo Prosetyo)

191

THE DISTRIBUTION OF BONE TOOLS TRADITION

Bone tools were seemly known since the early occupation. Since prehistoric man practised hunting. it is probable that certain animal bones had been fabricated into tools. The problem for archaeologists lies In the fact that bones are easily decayed. so It is difficult to find their remains. So far the oldest bone tools in Indonesia were found at Ngandong. which Van Heekeren (1972) called 'the Ngandong ind ustry" . It was reported that the :b one tools from this site comprise spatulas. symmetrically serrated spearheads. and tools of deer-antier with pointed tips. Stingray fish bones were also found and assumed to have been used as spear heads (Soejono. 1984). This suggestion Is dubious. considering that the tools were technologically very much more advanced tnon the dating of the Nganqong site would seem to allow. Some scholars suspect that theto<;>ls did not originate from the location where the Ngandong hominid wos found. but from sites outside .Nga ndong that did not yield hominid remains (Semah et 0/. 1990):

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~ The bone tool tradition was distributed in continental as well as In island Southeast Asia. even reaching Australia. In continental Southeast, Asia. the bone tool tradition was found in the areas of Tonkin. Hoa Binh and Do But (Vietnam). in association with crude pebble-tools, Based on these discoveries. van Stein Callenfels was of the opinion that the tradition of bone tools originated from South Vietnam. and later spread to other areas in Southeast Asia (Heekeren. 1972).

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Figure 29: Big Spatula from Braholo Cave

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Figure 30: Bone artifacts from Braholo Cave: spatula (l76-L8), (45-17), needle (3417), utilized teeth (26-K8)

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PART FIVE

NEOLITHIC AND PALEOMETALLIC EXPLOITATION

.."",. 18. NEOLITHIC WORKSHOP SITES, THE PEAK OF LITHIC TECHNOLOGY Site density and artifact remains give Gunung Sewu the privilege of having the most profuse and important Neolithic remains in the Archipelago. Tens or possibly even hundreds of sites were distributed over the plains in the karst hills including vast workshop sites with dense remains, particularly in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu, covering the areas of Punung, Donorojo and Pringkuku. The most outstanding aspect of these sites was intensive workshop activity, which produced rectangular adzes and arrowheads. Van Stein Callenfels, who explored this area in ·1927, first reported Neolithic sites in .Gunung Sewu. He recorded over hundred Neolithic workshop sites and excavated some, identified as workshops by chert flakes in layers up to two meters thick (Stein Callenfels, 1932). Not all sites reported by van Stein Callenfels can be identified at present. Sites located in open plain s tend to be destroyed by natural factors such as erosion, and human activities (land exploitation, quarrying of material for constructional activities, etc .), or they may have not been identified at the time of survey. Explorations carried out recently succeeded in identifying 47 Neolithic sites, all open sites with finds comprising chert flakes produced by the manufacture of adzes, products such as rectangular adzes in various stages of manufacture, arrowheads, and other tools ( hammer stones, grinding stones, potsherds, pendants, etc) . -

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Figure 31: Neolithic site s in Gunung Sewu (after Tanudirjo, 1991)

Plate 46: 'The Neolithi c site of Ngrijangsengon. The very dens e distribution of chert Oakes expanded not only in the dry . field area s, but also on the village roads and around the houses of the local people. The density of these flakes ind icate very intensive atelier activities in said site ,

The aforementioned Neolithic sites are of various sizes. Sites classified as large, covering a number of hectares, include Padangan, Ngrijang, Ngrijangan, and Ngrijang Sengon. Others are restricted to smaller areas on the slopes of hills , such as Nangka, Tukluk Panggang, Ploso, and Druju. Site sizes are closely related to landscape: large sites are usually located on plains, whereas small ones are always found on slopes. Site locations are closely related to the availability of chert, the main material for tool making. These rocks are available as individual lumps or bedrock outcrops. In this case, activities of Neolithic workshop reflected the results of man's adaptation .to the availability of redundant source of chert. In the western part of Gunung Sewu, where few workshop sites are found, sources of chert are absent. Very little attention has been paid to the existence of hundreds of Neolithic sites in Gunung Sewu since van Stein Callenfels. The National Research Centre of Archaeology in collaboration with the Bioiogisch 7Archaeoiogisch lnstituut carried out an excavation in 1972 in Sembung, a site that yielded surface finds of arrowheads, adzes, potsherds and chert flakes. Rather amazingly, the excavation yielded finds that were different from those of the surface, since they were Paleometallic in nature, presenting potsherds, earthenware, jars,

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hammer stones, grinding stones, iron daggers, and bead s. Th e chert flakes, a Neolithic element, were found only in the upp er layer , and are ass umed to be an intrusion fro m the surface (Ta nud irj o, 1991). T his rais es the question of whether Ne olithic activities were restricted to the upper layer, later replaced by mo re intensi ve Paleometallic activities. The answer to thi s question still awa its further rese arch. In 1988, the Yogyakarta A rcheologica l Research Centre excavated the Ngrijangan site. Thi s excavation yielded ver y dense find s of chert, besid es adzes in various stages of manufacture, arrowhead s, and hammer stones to a depth of 80 cm (W idianto, 1998). An intensive survey by Daud Aris Tanudirjo, who collected data in 1990 for his ma ster's thesis at the site of Bomo Teleng, resulted in an und erstanding beh avioral aspect of the supporting community, particularly in relation to spatial exploitation and the technological process of the manufacture of rectangular adzes (Tanudirj o, 1991) .

retrieved fro m the surface to the dee pest stra tum indicated that the site had been used for the man ufacture of recta ng ular adzes. Other , less numerous , rema ins co nsist of adzes in various stages of manufacture , and pe bb le hammer sto nes for flakin g. Ar tifacts of non-wor kshop nature include mort ars, pendan ts. remains of fire, and potsherds, which were restricted to the upper layer. Padang an, one of the larger sites, covering 1,000 square met ers , is located at an altitude of 250 m above sea level, on a plain wit h a slope between 0 0 _8 0 • T he rock co mponents in th is site are lime stone in the for m of o utcrops, gray ish white, of non-clastic texture, with non strati fie d struc ture. T he presence of these rocks was exploited optimally for workshop activities. Other kinds of rocks available arou nd the site are metal imestone and j asper , also util ized for the same purposes. Ex cavations in four squares showed that the fi nds were concentra ted in the upper stratum, gra dually dec reasing in density in lower layers unt il finally disappearing in layer 3. Th is site produced bot h rectangular adzes and arrowheads. Remains of charcoal with in the wo rkshop co ntext indicated that this site also funct ioned as a habitatio n site. A C- 14 dating on charcoal fo und in layer 2 at a depth of 94 em , yield ed a da te of 1, 100 ± 120 BP.

Plate 47 : Som e arrowheads from the site of Melik an. The triangu lar shape. thin by trimming on both planes. retou ched sides and concave base for m the specifie character of Neolithi c arrowhe ads of Gunung Sewu . They were unli ke the Preneolithic arrow heads . that are coarse. thick and with convex base .

The Dep artment of Prehistory of the National Research Centre of Archaeology carried out the most recent research, in the con text of a project on "Gunung Sewu : exploitation in Holocen e". The project included excavation s at several sites, including Padangan , Ngrijangan, and Ng rijang Sengon. Th ese thre e site s displayed several similarities as well as indi vidual ch aracteri stics. Tens of thou sands chert flakes

Plate 48 : The very dense distri buti on of chert flakes on the site of Ngrijangan . Similar distribution of flake s are 'often found in other Neo lithic sites. One can imagine the exist enc e of ce nters of activitie s. that prevailed continuously in a relati vely long period .

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Ngrijangan site, 4 Ian southeast of Padangan, the second target of excavation, a large site, covering 25,000 square meters in a plain with a slope of 3°_10°. The rock components consist of outcrops of limestone, of yellow ish-grey, and grey ish white in weathered condition, of non -clastic texture with non-stratified structure. Chert and metalimestone were also used in the workshop's activities. Excavations of Ngrijangan site yielded the following finds and stratigraphy. To a depth of 180 - 210 cm one observes three layers: an upper layer (layer I) of dark brown clay , layer 2 of reddish brown clay, and layer 3 of yellowish clay. All three layers contained very dense remains of workshop acti vities consisting of chert flakes , adzes in various stages of manufacture, hammer-stones, remains of fire, mortars, pendants, and arrowheads. Potsherds are restricted to the upper and middle layers. These work shop activities lasted at least until around 2,100 ± 220 BP, as shown by a C-14 date on charcoal found at 120 ern depth, in layer 2. The third site to be excavated was Ngrijang Sengon, some 3 km east of Ngrijangan. Located on a plain with a slope of 3°_ 7°, the site covered 20 ,000 square meters. Three kinds of rock constituted the main materials for the workshop here : limestone, chert, and jasper. The finds show similarities with those in the other site s, but potsherds are very rare here compared to other sites . An interesting find consists of a pile of chunks of raw material in square LU 1. This find may indicate a stage in the proce ss of adze manufacture. Another specific charact eristic of this site was the absence of arro wheads, but prepared planks for adzes were very dense compared to other sites. Workshop activities seemed to specialize in adze production. Finds continued to a depth of 180 ern, the maximum depth that was reached in layer 3. Apparentl y the work shop layer was by far thicker than in o ther sites. The scarcity of charcoal made dating of the site difficult. Future research may resolve question s of chronology and the -activities relating to work shop s that occurred here. (Truman Simanjuntak)

NEOLITHIC FEATURES IN INDONESIA

The term "Neolithic" was first introduced by Lubbock in 1865 in his work on "The Age System" to expla in the ~enod In which new methods in the manufacture of stone tools InvoM ng polishing emerged, after the Paleolithic and Mesolithic. This term has since become widely known . European scholars such as von Heine Geldern (1945), van Stein Callenfels (1932) and van Heeke ren (1972) applied this chronological system into indonesian prehistory. The Neolith ic stage was characterized by the appearance of implements like adzes, polished axes and pottery. . In fact the term "Neolithic" now ha s a mUCh. wider meaning: it implies basic changes in ways of life or sUbsl~tence (Slmanjuntak, 1992). Reliance on hunting of game, catching ~Sh and other aquatic resources, and collection of wild .Pla~ts, which typified p revio us periods shifted . toward domestication. In a wider sense, Neolithic refers to : 1. A technological aspect characterized by the emergence of new innovations, Including implements and ornamen~ of stone (adzes. axes. bracelets, etc) employing the technique of polishing. pottery making, and weaving. 2. An economy aspect characterized by the emerge nce of domesticated animals and p lants. 3, A social aspect characterized by sedentary life. creating agrarian communities. occupational specialization. development of religious concepts, etc. (Guilaine. 1976). Interest in the Neolithic in indonesia started with the couecnon of stone axes in the period 1800-1850. Even earlier. at the beginning of the 18th century. G .E. Rumphius wrote abo~t Neolithic stone tools that he referred to as "teeth of thunder . The first excavation of a Neolith ic sit e was carried out in 1933., by P.V. van Stein Callenfels (1951) at Kalumpang, South suiowesr. In 1939 Willems excavated Melolo, Sumba. and in 1941. van

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204 Heekeren du g at Kend eng Lembu, East Java (Heekeren. 1972). Neolithic sites are more numerous in the western port of Indonesia . In general. workshops rather than habitation sites are more common. Burial sites were almost never found. an amazing fact. considering that such sites have been found in Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia (Heekeren. 1972). At such sites as Kendeng Lernbu in East Java, Nangabaiang in West Kalimatan and Kalumpang in South SulawesI. rema ins of workshop octlvities, such as adzes in various stages of working , and waste flakes, were found in association with habitation rema ins such as potsherds, faunal remains. rema ins of burning , etc. Other sites at which workshop rema ins predominate include Bungamas in So~th Sumatra , Pasir Kudo in the Bogor area, Karangnunggal in Tosikrnolovo, Karangbolong in Kedu, Purbalingga in Central Jawa, and Gunung Sewu, Archaeological remains, associated with settlements, In these sites are very limited. The most common artifacts found in workshop sites are rectangular adzes and pick adzes. often unfinished; abundant waste flakes; and hammer stones. The variety of artifacts within ~ne context proves the existence of workshop activities. Some other sites like Karangnunggalin Tasik Malaya and the group of workshops in Purbalingga yielded stone bracelets and adzes. The Neolithic site in PUrbalingga is said to be the largest after Gunung Sewu, Research conducted here succeeded in identifying 19 g roups of workshops, covering the districts (Kecamat(;m).of Bobotsari and Karanganyar. Green chert. found in a bundance along the Tuntunggunung River, near the workshop- was utilized for tool making. Besides a dzes in various stages of manufacture, stone b racelets are also common. Both were found ,in each workshop indic a ting that the production of adzes and bracelets occurred simultaneously. For stone bracelets, in addition to g reen chert, chalcedony and opal were also used. Dates obtained by C- 14 of charcoal from the site of Tipar Ponjen ranged from "780 ± 40 BP to 1.180 ± 70 BP

(Simanjuntak et 0 1, 1986; 1990). The old est date from a depth of 150-160 ern, ob taine d by C-1 4 d ating on ch arcoal. wa s 3,570 ± 120 BP. The dating of the start of the Neolithic is a qu estion that ha s never been an swered with certa inty. Dates from Nan gaba lang gave 2.871 BP (Lahagu et ai, '1991), Minanga Sipakko In South Sulawesi, at a depth of 155-160 ern gave 2,570 ± ·110 BP, rather c ontemporaneous with dates for the Neolithic of Gunung Sewu. which range between 2,100 ± 220 BP and 1.100 ± 120 BP. The dates of these three sit es imp ly that the NeolithiC in Indonesia in open sit es developed rap idly between 2,500 "a nd 1,000 BP, a period, which merges with Paleometallic culture and the historic period . The oldest dating of each site ind icates rather retarded Neolithic development compared to the old hypothesis (Heekeren, 1972), which assumed the ~ Neolithic developed sinc e 4.000 BC. Results obtained so far tend to give younger dates than were pre viously eslimated. (Truman Simanjunta~)

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19. THE NEOLITHIC OF GUNUNG SEWU: FROM CAVES TO OPEN SITES The Neolithic of Gunung Sewu displayed unique characteristics with regard to its geographical orientation, technological aspect, and chronology. Geographical orientation refers to the selection of certain landscapes for centers of habitation. Evidence indicates the existence of two geographical patterns of distribution in the development of Neolithic technology. In the beginning, the Neolithic was still centered in caves and shelters, representing a continuation of the Preneolithic culture. Subsequently Neolithic sites shifted to open sites on plains and hill slopes. The shift from cave to open sites apparently was related to technological development. The plains and hill slopes where chert is easy to get for adze manufacturing, were selected as locations for settlements and workshops, rather than caves. Advancements in technology too may have made it possible to exploit trees to build simple houses around the workshop. Little attention has been paid to Neolithic life in caves, because the remains found usually represent Preneolithic life. Stratigraphic data and the distribution of finds showed that this culture formed a continuation of the earlier stage, the Preneolithic. Finds in the cultural layer was not restricted to Neolithic elements like potsherds and adze planks; they also include flake-blades, bone tools, and faunal remains. Considering that Preneolithic remains were more common than Neolithic artifacts, it is possible that cave life was still in the process of neolithisation. Distinct progress was limited to the presence of pottery and adze-planks, whereas the subsistence pattern perpetuated that of the Preneolithic. The Neolithic in the Gunung Sewu area occurred in caves . C-14 datings from Braholo and Keplek Caves are still very limited , but

provisionally present a picture of the development of this cultural stage. The late Preneolithic in Keplek Cave was dated 3,260 ± 110 SP, whereas in Braholo Cave the earliest date for Neolithic artifacts is 4,120 ± 100 SP. These data indicated that the Neolithic in Gunung Sewu started about 4,000 SP. The duration of Neolithic utilization of caves needs further examination, but it has been assumed that it lasted until around 2,000 SP. In Keplek Cave the Neolithic ended in 790 ± 100 SP, a very young date in need of further confirmation. In Braholo Cave the Neolithic ended in 3,050 ± 100 SP. After that, centers of activities and settlements.shifted to open sites. Cave life ended, except for occasional visits that continued until the historic period, as shown by recent artifacts mixed with Neolithic remains in the uppermost layer. .

The Neolithic in Open Sites The shift to open sites brought about new dynamics in Neolithic life. Areas selected for activities were plains and slightly sloping hillsides that provided a profusion of chert . Activities expanded significantly, particularly in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu. Hundreds of Neolithic sites are distributed in the Punung area and surroundings, indicating a significant increase of population. It seems that they formed groups of communities that occupied the plains and slopes between the karst hills. In the technological dimension, significant change typified the lithic indus try innovations of adzes and arrowheads. The products of the Preneolithic, such as flake-blade tools , were almost completely absent. The mastery of flaking techniques gave rise to groups of workshops. The manufacture of adzes was the main Neolithic industry in Gunung Sewu, where the major products were adze planks, although in some cases they also produce finished adzes. The manufacture of adzes involves a long process, starting with the search for and quarrying of raw material, several stages of flaking (initia l shaping, further trimming, smoothening, finishing ) and marketing. The search

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208 for and co llect ing of raw mater ial does not req uire hard work , beca use plenty of mater ial was scattered about the workshops in bould er s and blocks. T he di sco very of heaps of blocks of chert in Sq uare LUI in Ngrijang Sengon and Sq uares EE l and BB XX IX in Ngrijanga n evidence d the searc h for and collect ing of raw material prio r to the succeedi ng stages of product ion. Plate 49: Plank in the further stage of working from Ngrijangsengon. Usually the product from the ateliers are unfinished adzes. By rubbing the surface and cutting edge, a fine smooth adze is obtained. ready for use.

The tec hnological processes of adze makin g are the sa me in every Neo lithic workshop. Three stage s may be di stinguished (Si ma nj untak et al, 1986). Th e proc ess started with initial shaping, whereby a Jump of material was flaked from various sides to create a basic rec tang ular shape. At this stage the prot o-tool was still crude and thick wi th marks of flakin g along its length and width. Remn ant s of this stage usually are far bigger in size than the desired tool, and have not yet attai ned an eve n thickness . T he cortex was often still left on the surface. T he followi ng step was furth er shaping. By smaller and lighter flak ing or trimming the ston e co re was mad e smoother, approaching the desired size . Th e cortex was almost no lon ger traceable, and the cutting edge was shaped by monofacial trimmin g. At th is stage it already di splayed the desir ed shape. The last stage invo lved grinding and polishing. In gene ral the morph ology o f adzes produ ced ca n be class ified as follows:

1. S imple rectangular adzes with the width of the cutting edge not exceed inzb the width of butt end. Thi s kind of shape is the most • commo n type found with a wide di stributi on in Southeast ASIa (Duff, 197 0) 2. Lone ad zes with the width of the cutting edge far exceeding that of the butt end; these tools are called hoes or gouges. Exampl es of thi s type are quite num erou s; they are often regarded as th e prototypes of bronze axes . 3. Long narrow adzes with the width of the butt end about th e same as the cutting edge. Thi s type of too l belongs to the category of chise ls. Co re flakinc during the process of working produced chips of vario us sizes. Th: lower the qu ali ty of the material, the more chips were wasted. Not surprisingly the se chips dominated the find s, from the surface to the deepest cult ural layer. Among tho se chip s, one often finds flak es di splayin g use -retouch. Apparently, they were used mom entaril y and directl y becau se no retouch was appli ed to perfect the shape and signs of use-wea r are not intensi ve. Flakes of regular . . . sha pe and sharp sides were most commonl y utilized. A total of 47 Neo lithic works hops have been ident ified 111 G unung Sewu, con centrated in the Punung area. No such sites have been report ed in the western part of the area, where silicified rocks are abse nt. The number of sites mentioned abo ve is steadily increasin g as new site s are frequ ently rep orted by the loc al inhabitants. Van Stein Ca llenfe ls' reco rd of more than a hundred work shop sites in the area was appare ntly not overstated; it is supported by the distribution map (Figure 31 ). Th e multitude of workshops suggests that the Punung area and surro undings wer e a cent er of ad ze. production. Th e products of the indu stry definit el y exceeded local need , and ther efore it was ass umed that some produ cts were exported to areas outside Punung. The locations where ex po rts were sent ha ve yet to be found. Research be yond the Punun g area may yield a di stributional pattern for Punung adzes.

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Plate 50: Finished adzes and used ones from Nrijangan site , Finished adzes are very rare ly found . but their presence indicate that the atelier al so produced fini shed adzes , The picture shows the smooth surface and damaged cutting edge by usage,

Besides planks, other' products of the workshops are arrowheads. They were not as common as the adzes. Two ki d f arrowheads are found in Gunung Sewu with the diff rn s 0 di I ' g , , I rerent types ISP ayhrn d.lfferent geographic distributions: those in cave sites differ from t ose rn open sit Ar h . . I es. row eads from caves have Preneolithic ~artsh cha~actenzed by convex bases, and are usually crude and thick n h ,t e o~ er hand , arrowheads from open sites have Neolithic traits' c ar:,cten~d by concave bases , and arc usually thinner with fine; word I11 g · oth Preneolithic and Neolithic arrowheads are usually pro uce d from flakes Th . arrowh d ' . e process of workrng on Neolithic t I , ea s IS more advanced, due to the mastery of retouching ~c miques w~ich produced fine , triangular specimens with pointed e ges, and :vr~gs at the base corners, The striking platform was purposely eIrmrnated to create a concave curve at the base hi became characteristic of this area, The shaping of thi ' w ich , ibl IS concave curve was POSSI y closely related to the mode of use wh b ' att h d . ere y It was ac e to a StICk. The lateral sides are not serrated which set th ~~~~),from the arrowheads from caves in South Sulawesi (Soejo~~

hRe~earch shows t~at a workshop could produce planks and arrow ea s at the same time , as in Ngrijangan, Melikan, and Gununs Semut, On the other hand , some workshops specialized in adzes, such

as Padangan and Ngrijangan. Workshops that specialized in arrowheads are Blawong, Ngaglik, Ngaglik Lor, Mojo, Jati sari, Sembungan and Jelok. Besides the development of the adze-arrowhead industry, another very significant aspect of the Gunung Sewu Neolithic was the technology of pottery, It first appeared in cave life in the early Neolithic, and later widely developed in open sites, Analyses of potsherds obtained during surveys indicated that they represent fragments of vessels, bowls, pots, and pitchers. The pot fragments displayed several varieties, Bodies are globular or carinated, whereas bases are flat or rounded. The rim shows more variation: (1) simple rounded, everted lip , (2) simple blunt , outward slanting lip, (3) simple blunt, everted straight lips , (4) simple round, everted lip, curved grooved lip, (5) round with everted curved and grooved lip, and (6) complex round curved lips undulating outward and inward, Bowls had flat bases without foot , or footed rounded bases. The pots are characterized by globular bodies, carinated profiles, and simple blunt everted rims with straight lips, The kendi were characterized by rounded necks (Truman Simanjuntak, Bagyo Prasetyoy. GUNUNG SEWU POTTERY WITHIN THE SOUTHEAST ASIAN CONTEXT Pottery was introduced for the first time in the Neolithic " culture and has traditionally been regarded by archaeologists as one of the most universa l guide fossils for th is stage, Its appearance was assumed to be closely related to sedentary life with agriculture and advances in various other socio-economic aspects involving containers in which to store crop products and other food material. Evidence for Neolithic pottery in Indonesia comes from Kendeng Lembu (East Java), Klapa Dua, Serpong, Bandung La ke 0Nest Java), Kalumpang and Minanga Sippako (South Sulawesi), Baucau and Venilale (East Timor), and Paso (Minahasa).

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Figure 32: The unfinished adze from Ngrijangsengon site

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o

Figure 33: The unfinished adze from Padangan site

214 In the beginning the technology of potterY making was verv simple, 0111',1, producing hand-made products (Sutayasa, ~ 1973). Then the paddle end - anvil technique developed, c ombined with the slow wheel techrifque, and later by the fast- . wheel technique. Neolithic pottery from Gunung Sewu employed the slow-wheel technique, and in several cases the paddle and anvil technique. No pure hand-made products have been found, as in the early Neolithic sites. Similarly p~!lerY decorated by the paddle and anvil technique is also one ofthe characteristics of the oldest pottery. On the other hand, several kinds of pottery with early Neolithic characteristics may be due to the retarded advent of the Neolithic In this area. In conterroorolv continental southeast Asia,including Malaysia, Thailand, China, Taiwan, a'nd Japan, the use ofthe wheel and the paddle wrapped in cord or carved with various kinds of designs was already known (HElekeren and Knuth, 1967). Pottery associated with rectangular adz~s in Kendeng LembIJ. Indicated 0 simple level of development. consisting mostly of. fragments of rim and body of pots that in general are globular ' bodies with .folded everted rims (HeeKeren, 1972), PotterY from Klapadua . (Bogor) was made bY ' a simple technique with everted folded rims and globUlar bodies; round footed bowls ,.' with straight rims slightly inverted, and flat-based cups with everted folded rims and ' globular bodies. In South Sulawesi; at Kamasi hlll. plain end decorated potteries were found. decoration was incised with short parallel lines and circles (Stein Callenfels, 1951). From Mlnanga Sippako carne Neolithic pottery characterized by plain and decorated . pottery with motifs of circles, triangles (tumpal), and . diamonds, arranged In compositions of horizontal bands around the body (Simanjuntak, 1994). (Bagyo Prasefyo)

The

20. FROM THE NEOLITHIC TO THE PALEOMETALLIC Cultural evolution in the Gunung Sewu area did not stop with the inception of the Neolithic era. Pottery making became more advanced, characterized by the use of the paddle and anvil, combined with the use of the potter's wheel and polishing technology. Surveys of 135 prehistoric sites in this area resulted in the identification of 11 sites with Paleometallic characteristics. These sites are located in the regency (Kabupaten) of Pacitan, East Java, particularly in the areas of Punung and Donorojo. Table 8: Paleometallic sites in the Gunung Sewu Area No.

Site Potsherd

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Surface finds Iron tool

Bead

K1eou Kembann Sembunnon Gununn Tomoe Nonoko Jotisorl Mellkon Nomaol Tomonsari Gondosari Pokis

This number of sites represents a significant decline compared to the total of Neolithic sites in the same area. This phenomenon might be due to the following factors:

217

216

Plate 51: Klepu site in the rainy season with flourishin g crop s of Cassa va. The site co vers a part of cultivation field that is slightly flat. The Paleometall ic cultural remain s found compri se metal obj ects, bead s and pottery.

•

•

Paleometallic sites may be more subject to destruction than Neolithic sites, because they are located in open areas and are therefore more susceptible to natural agents (erosion, land slide s) as well as human activities (agriculture, for example). The time span covered by Paleometallic culture was shorter than that of the Neolithic. The Klepu site shows that this culture still existed 700 years ago , which indicated a very significant retardatio.n, compared to other areas. This culture did not last long , as evidenced by the thinness of the cultural layer in the excavated sites .

Two sites excavated are Melikan , in the Donorojo area, and Klepu in Punung. The Melikan site lies on a plot of uncultivated land on the outskirts of Melikan village. The surface of the ground here slop~s down towards the west , and is subj ect to a high degre e of e~osl.an. Surface survey demonstrated that chert was densely distributed here. Local inhabitants reported that this site often yielded weapons. and other objects of iron . Two squares were excavated , representmg the upper and lower sectors of the site. The result s yielded sparse artifacts consisting of chert flakes , small adze planks, and arrowh ead preforms. Potsh erds and a penda nt were found on the surface, but subsurface finds were scarce. attaining a maximum depth

of 50 em . The thinness of the cultural layer may be due to erosion and a relatively short time-span of occupation. No carbonized organic remains were found, so it was impossible to obtain any absolute dating for this site. Plate 52: Reconstructed bowl from Klepu site. This howl is found in association with pots, other bowl, beads and metal objects within a concentration of finds . The location of the finding is assumed to be a burial, with those objects as funeral gifts . Unfortunately, no human remains were found because of the possibility that it was totally destroyed due to the high water content on the site. The bowl was made using the rotating wheel technique, the surface is smoothened with red slip .

The Klepu site, located about 1 km southeast of Punung, occupies a plot of land now utilized for dry culti vation (Plate 51). It is therefore subject to a high rate of disturbance from erosion and human exploitation. Surface indicators included a dense scatter of potsherds, iron tools , and beads, particularly along the dikes of the field . Four squares were excavated, so placed as to sample several parts of''fhe site. These excavations yielded an abundance of finds comprising pottery, iron tools and weapons, and beads. Square LV III at a depth of 40-70 em yielded a concentration of sherds from restorable pots and cups , in association with iron weapons and glass beads. Charcoal

• 219

21 8 associated with these find s provid ed an age of 640 ± 110 BP. The compos ition of find s sugges ts that Klepu functi oned as both a se tt lement and a burial site. So far, no human nor animal remains have been found to support this assumpti on , but humid ity and high water content most likely caused any organic remains in the site to deca y rapidly.

Settlement Evidences Research -at Klepu yielded various kinds of pottery, iron weapons consisting of spearheads, machetes, and beads (Plate 52-55). A triangular spearhead was found on the surface attached to a long haft, which tapered at the proximal end. The triangular body is pointed at the distal end and has cutting edges on both sides. Other finds comprise a machete that widens at the tip , provided with a long haft , with a cutting edge on one of the sides. This tool was found in Layer 2, in association with pottery and beads. The machete is 16.5 em long and 4 cm wid e. Met al rings found here , 1.5 ern in diameter, have se mic ircular cross-sections with con vex outer surface and flat inner surface. Pot sherds were quite numerou s both on the surface and in . ex cavated layers. Shapes include pots and bowls. In square LV III, a conc entration of pottery co mprising thr ee pots and two cup s was associated with bead s and an iron mach ete. In squ are LV I two pots and three cups were discovered. One of the cups with a diameter of 11,5 em and height of 4 em has a strai ght lip and rounded base. Tamansari and Gondosari are other Paleometallic sites yielding metal tool s and bead s, now stored in the Punung Mu seum. Finds include sickl es, spearhead, hoe and bead s. A sickl e has a quit e long haft , which tapers toward s the pro ximal end , facilitating its attachment to a haft-possibly ofwood-with a curved body and pointed distal end , and a cutting edge on one of the sides . A spearhead is rectangular with a haft , which tapers at the proximal end, a rectangular bod y with the distal end point ed and cutting edges on both sides. A hoe is

rectangular shaped with a long haft tap ering at the pro ximal end. ~he body is rectangular and rounded at the distal end where the cuttmg edge is found.

Plate 53 : A machete from Klepu Site. found in assoc iation with pottery and bead s. It is corroded but the origin al shape is still preserved. The artifact bearing layer dates from around 600 year s BP.

Plate 54 : A concentration of pottery found in situ in Klepu site in a layer datin g from 600 years ago . Found in associati on with beads and mach ete.

The iron tools found in the Gunung Sewu area display a number of similarities with finds from other areas. The sickles and machete resemble those from Masaran (Central Java), Gurnukrnas (East Java) and Wonosari (Gunung Kidul), as do the spearhead, hoe, and ring found in other Paleometallic sites . Another characteristic feature of the

220 Paleometallic is the presence of chert flakes in almost every site. So far, no products of chert industries have been found at these sites . It seems that the tradition of stone working still continued, but was muc'h less prominent than in the previous period . The plentiful beads were new products introduced by Paleometallic culture, concentrated in the Klepu site.found under two cups glued to each other. The beads, all of glass, totaling 78, are characterized by a matrix containing air bubbles. Of the beads, 48 are blue (44 dark blue and 4 light blue), while the remaining 30 are red. The beads are generally oblate in shape, though a few are barrel shaped, particularly those of large size (7.4-10.2 mm), whereas small beads measure 2.7-4.6 mm. They were manufactured by the drawing technique as indicated by a parallel line between the holes at either end. Some of the beads are translucent, others opaque. Such beads are commonly found in Paleometallic sites throughout much of Southeast Asia . In Indonesia, they were found in Plawangan (Central Java), and Gilimanuk (Bali), Which date from around 500 AD. Paleometallic settlements occupy open sites, continuing the tradition of the Neolithic. Apparently there was no rupture between the Neolithic and the Paleometallic. Finds from Melikan, besides Neolithic tools (adzes and arrowheads), include metal tools. A similar. assemblage was found at the sites of Sembung and NampoI. C-14 dating of charcoal from Klepu site show that Paleometallic culture persisted till about 600 BP, far into the historic period. The hoes, swords, machetes and rings represent objects imported from outside the area. If trade already existed in the Neolithic, in this cultural stage it seems to have expanded. One unsolved question concerns the absence of bronze objects, which are usually found in Paleometallic sites in other areas. Compared to the Neolithic, pottery making underwent rapid progress. Jars made their first appearance. Surface treatment became more advanced with the . use of; the paddle and anvil combined with the rotating wheel, polishing, and use of a red slip. Like Neolithic pottery, temper of sand of more ' or less homogeneous grains was still utilized. (Bagyo Prasetyo)

21. DEVELOPMENT OF METALLURGY IN INDONESIA The emergence of metallurgy was correlated with an increase in the frequency of trade and cultural contacts between continental and islands Southeast Asia, as well as interinsular trade . The outrigger boat 'played an important role in evolving trade relations. Commodities from the Archipelago most sought by continental . Southeast Asia included spices, wood, and other agricultural products . The inhabitants of the islands received in exchange bronze kettledrums and beads. One can trace the trade routes by following the find spots of bronze' objects (particularly bronze axes and kettledrums of the Heger I type) from South Sumatra eastwards to the west coast of Irian. Metallurgy is assumed to have been introduced to Indonesia several centuries Be. In contrast with continental Southeast Asia the Archipelago did not become familiar with copper at an early date . Bronze artifacts in Indonesia show similarities with finds from Dongson, in shape as well as in decoration. This similarity demonstrates the existence of cultural relations between northern Vietnam and Indonesia. The utilization of metal did not instantly spread throughout Indonesia, but expanded stage by stage. In the mean time rectangular adzes and stone axes were still used. After the knowledge of metal tool making became widespread, the role of stone tools gradually shrank to that of heirlooms related to ritual activities and as burial goods (Soejono, 1984) Although expertise in 'metal art was a specific characteristic of this stage, pottery was not replaced by metal objects; rather pottery making progressed further. Pottery found in localities with metal objects may be regarded as having both practical values and value for

223

222

southern part of Europe (the Aegean and Ciclades) metal became known between 4,000-3,000 BC and in Asia (Ind ia, Pakistan, Vietnam, T hailand and China) metal was produced and used around 3,000-2,000 BC (Glover 1990; Soejono, 1984). Archaeo logical knowledge of meta l culture in this area began when Payot in 1924 excavated a cemetery in Dongson (Vietnam) (Go loubew, 1929). He foun d a num ber of bro nze artifacts such as kettledrums , vessels, spearheads, axes and bracelets that show many similarities. In line with metallu rgical progress, Sout heast Asian potte ry also disp laye d increased tec hnological developm ent. In insu lar So utheas t Asia, early eart henware potte ry has been grouped into two traditions: Sa-huynh -Ka lanay, and Bau-Ma lay. Both traditio ns employed the pad dle and anvil techniq ue; the difference lies in the paddle. The padd le of the Sa-huynh-Ka lanay was wrapped by a cord, which leaves cord mark s on the pot. The Ba u-Ma lay tradition used a paddle carved with decorati ve designs. Both traditio ns employed the potter's whee l. Bau -Ma lay potters used fewe r decorative designs and vesse l shapes compared to the Sa-huynh-Kalanay . The inception of Sa-huynhKala nay has been dated from abo ut 750 BC-200 AD , when sherds of this ware are usually found in association with polished stone and metal tools. Bau-Malay pottery is assumed to date from the end of the Paleometallic ; data on this comes from Palawan, southern Philippi nes, where such pottery has been dated from 200-300 AD. (Bagyo Prasetyo)

rituals including funeral s. The creati on of jewelry stimulated more adv anced and varied techn ologies. In the pre vious periods, jewelry or bodil y adornments were made of mollusc shell, but in the Pa leo metaIlic the techniques of gla ss working, stone- and clay-craft in the manufacture of adornments advanc ed.

The Paleometallic of Gunung Sewu in Regional Context Ma stering metal technology led not only to the production of various metal objects, but in a wider sens e facilitated the exploitation and management of environmental resources. The cultural revolution that was initiated in the Neolithic accelerated due to the mastery of metal technology. Wertime (1973) referred to this amazing expertise as the peak result of pyrotechnology in the history of humanity. With the introduction of metal technology, humanity entered a new stage of cultural development, known in Indon esia as the Paleometallic Age .

Plate 55 : Som e strands of beads from Klepu site. The bead s were made of gla ss, round shaped, a penetrating hole tha t co nnect both ends . The colour varies from zreen light blu e, dark blue, to yellow ish. They are usually , small, with a diameter of 0,4 em . Beads like these are commo nly found in Paleometallic sites in Indone sia, like Gilimanuk, Plawangan, etc.

Early evidence for metallurgy was found in the Near East in the form of copper artifacts dated around 10,500 - 8,500 years ago, whereas in the Ur area , in the Fertile Crescent, metal agricultural tools were in use at around 6,000 BC (Parr, 1963). Metal artifacts in Europe date from abou t 5,000-4,000 years ago (Ottaway, 1973). In the

I· METALOBJECTS FROM PALEOMETALLIC SITES

Iron an d bronze results from techno logical innovations that marked th e p resence of th e Paleometallic in Indonesia . The emergence of metal c hanged the c ustom of using stone imp lements. Howe ver this c ha nge occurred gradua lly: in the beg inning met al may have b een difficult to obtain. Metal tec hnology a lso put a stamp o n the c ultura l d evelopmen t in th e Gun ung Sewu area of the post-Neolithic . Iron objects formed a mo re dominant factor th a n bronze . The

224 absence of bronze objects has been explained by the hypothesis th Nrading acti vities involving bronze was either rare or never existed in this area. The d istribution of early metal artifacts in other parts of Indonesia is qu ite extensive, covering the islands. of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Nusa Tenggara Islands, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and Irian Jaya. Early Indonesian metal artifacts have been classified into five groups (Soflon, 1993), comprising kettled rums and mokos, weapons (knife, arrowhead, spear, etc), production tools (chisel, pick adze, hoe, etc), adornments, and containers. One important early metallic site in lndoneslc, Pasir Angin, yielded bronze axes, besides a bell, a bronze stick, and an iron weapon. Buni, in the coastal area of northWest Java, yielded more metal finds comprising production tools, similar to the site of Gunung Wingko, south coastal. Yogyakarta (prasetyo and Diniasti, 1988). Plawangan, In north Central Java, has yielded 42% iron and bronze artifacts, Whereas 16% are gold (Prasetyo, 1987). In Gllimanuk iron artifacts are comparatively lessnumerous (21 %) compared to bronze artifacts (50 %,) whereas gold only reached 2 % (prasetyo, 1993). (Bagyo Prasetyo)

PART SIX

GUNUNG SEWU: MAN AND SETTLEMENT CHRONOLOGY

22. PREHISTORIC INHABITANTS OF GUNUNGSEWU Gunung Sewu with its karst hills and its natural resources has attracted people since the remote past. Paleolithic sites, the oldest date for which has been obtained from Terns Cave, indicate that occupation of this region began during the Pleistocene, possibly as early as the Middle Pleistocene. We have discussed the humans who occupied this area in the earliest times, we have not found physical remains of these people. We can however assume that the Middle Pleistocene inhabitants of Gunung Sewu were Homo erectus, possibly at several different stages of evolution . Regarding the more recent Holocene era, we have a better understanding about the inhabitants of this area, based on human remains found in the caves. The broad extent of Gunung Sewu, and the evidence for dense prehistoric settlement in caves and shelters, suggest that the cave-dwelling population in this area formed a number of small communities. They certainly have established relationships with each other, as shown by the similarity of their cultural elements. Human remains of this period were found in stratigraphical context in association with artifacts, so questions relating to their chronology are easier to answer. So far, we have found human remains ..of 13 individuals: five from Keplek Cave (individual I - V), the eight from Braholo Cave (individu I - VIII). Radiocarbon datings indicate that those remains date from the period between 9,000 and 4,500 years ago. Detailed descriptions of these individuals will be given below.

229

228 Kep lek Cave Dwellers The first evidence of human remain s In Gunung Sewu was obtained in 1992 in Keplek Cave (Punung, Pacitan), when skull comp onents were found in squares D3 and B6 in the ash layer, in a context which also included stone flakes and animal bones. C-14 analysi s from this layer produced a date of 4,510 ± 90 BP (Simanjuntak, 1998), an age which in general correspo nds to the last phase of the Preneolithic. The human remains represented three individuals by the first excavation and then increased to five by subsequent excavations. The two skeletons found in the following years were fortunatel y in better condition than the first examples . Individ ual I The first individual consists of the rear of the calva (right parietal, right temporal and right occipital), left temporal , a fragment of the upper jaw from the left arcus alveolaris, and some teeth ( 12, C, P I, M I, M2 , left M3 and right M I-M3). The teeth are very large with a perfect cuspid development for PI to M3. Size and morphology of the occlusal parts show that the individual was an adult ; more precisely, the degree of sinostosa at the sutura indicated a young adult. The existence of M3 indicates that the individual was over 18 years old, whereas the degree of tooth abrasion, which reached the dentine surface (degree 2 on the Brocca sca le), indicates an age between 35 and 40 years. Based on the large size of the mastoid process and the development of the muscle insertion at the planum nuchalis , the skull component represented a male. This inference is supported by the large lower jaw (based on width and depth of the fo ssa mandibularisy. 'B oth parietal walls appea r quite vertical , with dolichocephalic proportions . The upper jaw has a wide and deep palatin with robust arcus alv eolaris. The robustness of the mandible is accentuated by the very I~ge size of the teeth.

Individual II Remains of the seco nd individual consist of a fragment of a left temporal comprising the mastoid process, meatus acusti cus extem us, fossa mandibularis, eminentia arcuata, and tegmen tympani. The physical morphological aspect shows that this individual was more robust than the first one, based on the larger size of the zygomatic process, the more progressive anterior and posterior tuberculus zygomaticus, the more intensively developed eminentia arcuata and tegmen tympani, the larger and deeper sulcus sinus petrosi superior, and the wider and deeper f ossa mandibularis. It clearl y represents a male, whose age cannot be estimated, since all parameters for age determination are absent. Individual III The third individual is represented by a calva consisting of right and left parietal , and part of the right occipital, which also ~overs the planum occipitalis and planum nuchalis. Both sutures, the sagittal and lambdoid, are preserved; both are still quite open . Based on the thinness of the skull bone with an initial degree of calcification, the degree of sinostosa of the sutures, and the development of relief on the planum nuchalis, this individual represents a child. Based on the still absent (not yet visible) fruticulum posterior in the lambda area, this child' s age is estimated at between 7 and 9 years. The shape of the calva, though still that of a child , displays elongated proportions (dolichocephaly). Individual IV A most spectacular discovery of a skeleton occurred in square LU2 in 1996, in a context also containing flakes and faunal remains . Located near the south wall, the skeleton of the fourth individual in Keplek Cave was found in a layer of dark brown sandy clay, which has been dated at 5,900 ± 180 BP (Simanjuntak 1998). The completeness of preservation of the skeletal compon ents indicate that the remain s form parts of a primary burial system, in which the body

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was flexed to the right. Th e righ t limb was placed on the upper body, th e left hand was on the left chin, the kne es uplifted. Ea ch part o f the ske leton was still in its proper anatomical po siti on. The skull part s are re latively intac t, with dol ich oc ephalic pr op orti ons. Th e sag ittal conto ur in the 11 0 17110 lateri s in its initial porti on app ears flatt ened, then slopes do wnward to form a prelambda depression, which curves inward by creatin g a knob on the occipital. Both parieta l walls appear quite vert ical, with temples that ar e not quite rounded . The upper and lower temporal lines were not visible because sediments co ver ed it. The masto id pr oce ss is s ma ll. The os occipitalis wa s relatively intact, a ltho ug h th e pars basilaris and occipital condyle were not visibl e. The s kull sutures we re in visible in the exca vat ion, e xcept for the left part of the parie tal temporal suture , which is convex. The impression of prognathism is very strong at the face , both the upper as well as the lo wer j aw . On the right, the upp er orbital ridge on the zygomatic bone is sharp, w ith the eye orbit relatively round . The mandible is robust in appeara nce, with a wide ramus and large sized pro cessus condylaris. The teet h are robust , almost complete e xcept for the right upper I I , 12 P2 and le ft lo wer 12.

bones can still be clearl y identified. located bet ween the two sid es of the ca vity. The ex pos ed verte bral bon es, part of the cer vical , thoraci c , and lumbar verte brae. are relatively complet e. Thi s chain of vertebral bones continues to the sac rum and is connected to both coxae and bo th femurs. The head of the femur is still attached to its acet abulum. In this upward fle xed position, the d istal end of the femu r united with the proximal end of the tibia. Neither patella could be found. In the an kle area, the calcane us and other phalanx can still be discern ed. The skeleta l position indicates that the soles of the feet were placed be hind the hipbone. Based on the small size of th e mastoid process, sha pe of eye orbit, and the relatively sharp supra-orbital rid ge , this ske leton repre sents a femal e. This sexual identification is reinforced by the flatness of the arcus superciliaris; undeveloped muscular relief on the planum nuchalis; the wide hipbone with the cavitas pelvis, incisura sciatica major, and broadjoramen obturatum. The erupted M3 and the degree of abrasion of the molar that has reached the dentine indicate that the individual was over 50 years old. Individual V

Plat e 56 : A burial with a flexed position o f the dead (In dividua l IV) in Kcpl ek Cave. Both legs arc folded with the heels toward s the hip . and arm s folded towards chest and ch in. It represents an adult wo man.

T he proximal part of the left humerus wa s still attached to the scap ula with the radius flexed upwards toward the chin. The vertebral

The fifth individual is complete, showing elements of a primary burial. Buried with the face upwards . the body stretc hed with both arms crossed on the chest. The skeleton's orientation is ea st-west . with the head in the east. The position of the skull and shoulder parts ind ic ated the head being uplifted inwards, so that the ch in seemed to be pointing downwards, pressing close to both cla viculas that is see n stretching in line with the skeleton 's orientation. Stratigraphically, the ske leton is located in layer 3, at a depth of 105 ern (the head) and 120 em (feet). A bon e spatula was found north of the skull in association with this skeleton. In the downward position, the upper part of the skull is no longer present. Of the os frontal only the left part is left. showing none of the suture frontalis. The position of the frontal towards the skull is relatively upri ght. Both parietals (right and left) are in very bad condition except the postero-inferior part ofthe right parietal. Of the

r 233

232

tempor al bon es, only the right squama tetnporalis is left, showi ng the comple te processus ma stoideu s in sma ller size. T he p rocessus zyg omat icus is broke n, leaving on ly th e cris ta part on the squama te inporalis. T he sk ull is b rac ltyc hepalic. T his differs very much fro m o ther fin ds of human remains in this site, which show d eli clio cephalic sk ulls. Although mor e de tai led observations is not mad e possibl e beca use of its be ing, located in the lo wer part , the occipital see ms to be fla t with no protru sion at a ll. On the norma lateral is. the squama occipitalis are is not di stinc t. Un like other ske leta l remains tha t show dist inc t characteristics of prognatism, the faci al aspect see me d to be more flat and even. T he relatively comp lete os nasal is almost para lle l with the prosthion at the maxilla . The distan ce of both mo lar bo nes is no mo re tha n 130 mm, whereas between the glabella and prosthion is 87 mm. T he sign ific ance of these two di me nsions Indicated a nan-ow and sho rt face . T his ca n be observed becau se of its preserved co nd itio n; starting from bo th processus fro nta lis , both mola r bones to the co rpus maxillae . The orbit is re lative ly rou nd sha ped wit h a re latively distinc t ma rgo supra-orb italis. The arcus supercialiaris is not remarkable, effecting in a flat brow-bone . The relative ly co mp le te os nasal w ith the sho rt nose roo t. T he co rp us maxillae is still we ll preserved wi th the p ro cessus alveo laris, re lative ly intac t. W hat -was left of the teet h are II P2 M l, M2, M3 (rig ht), II, Pi, P2, M 1, M2 an d M3 (le ft). O n th e other hand the lo wer j aw is sti ll co mplete with the co rpus, ra il/us and the sy mp hysis part co mp le te ly intac t. On the right side is seen the processus co rono ideus and p ro cessu s condylaris still complete. Not a si ng le tooth is missi ng, so that this lower j aw sti ll has its arc mandib ularis w ill preserved. Unfortuna tely, the inner part of the m and ible cann ot be observed so that th e development of its aspect of re lief of the ling ual part can not be known. However, when matched to the reli ef of muscle insertion on the o uts ide part, and the slender size of th e man dible, it seems th at the reli e f of the inn er part is also not de vel oped . Compared to ot her indiv iduals fro m Keplek Cave, the size of the teeth of this ind ivi dual seem sma lle r. The infra-crania l aspect is no t less complete than that of the

. ' nents still in its anatomical position. The cranial aspe ct , WIth Its c o m~o . on th e che st with metacarpals of " I t and left arm folded Ci oSSW1 Se . I f I1g 1 h d lete although of th e phalanx, only a part IS e t, bo th an s co mp ie ie , 0 left uln a is no longer in the same

p~rtic~lar~~it~ t~~er~~(~~ll~a~:; t~:edistal end is close to the ri~ht elb~w dlrectl o~

.

b II

P art of th e vert ebrae ceni/calzls can '

fl~~~~~ ~~:~:sa~h~he ~'e~~ebrae

SOt' ltlhbaet th ora c;ca e, ve: teb raed' lllfnba res sI ' . h hi th fight an e t cox a and part of th e ribs ar e very fragile . At t e ip , e . indicated an are still connected to th e sac ru m ~nd caput fidemoratlh/'~ ~~s~al end of the f the pel VI S Lower own open and short sh ape 0 . .. . . d was found outside fe mur shifted slightly from its ong1l1a~ Phos\tlon, a: still found most of s the kbnee t of ossa tarsi, the ones, a I d »halanx of the toes. The ca lc ane us, astragalus, me~atda.r~at dantha/at the -time the corpse was .. f both calcaneus 111 tea e position a with both heels contra po sitioned. buried both foot sa les were open I .d racial traits characterized This individual presents mongo 01 ' ., the brachycephalic skull with no protrusion at the oCClPcltadl Phaorrtt. by . . h .n by the nan-ows an s Other Mongoloid char~ctensbt1ch s :-,ere s ~\\robust and relatively sm all f .h rognathlsm ot Jaw s no t::~l :~~ s~~aiIer bones co:Upared to th e Au stralomelanesid rac e .

articfu~~~o~~ft:;h::~k~~S t~e r~gh~g~o:sisting

Plate 57 : A burial with straight position facing upwards. Both arm s folded on the che st and represent individual V from Keplek Cave . The physical characteristics point to the Mongoloid race.

234

Braholo Cave Man Human remains from Braholo Cave represent eight individuals (not included isolated finds), some in primary burial contexts as indicated by anatomically complete skeletons. The others form parts of secondary burials, since only selected parts of the body remained. Since these specimens were found in hearth layers. it is possible to determine that these burials occurred over a time span of 5,000 years, from 9,000 to 4,000 years ago. Individual I The first human remains were unearthed in a hearth context in square J9. They represent a complete human skeleton found with stone artifacts and faunal remains. C-14 dating on the stratum yielded 9,780 ± 230 BP (Sirnanjuntak, 1998) , about 3,000 years older than the burial in Keplek Cave. This skeleton illustrates a primary burial system with both legs flexed upwards . The head was located on the west, whereas the lower legs were in the east. Both arms were stretched relatively straight downwards with the palms resting on the knees . Several stones covered the chest and legs. This skeleton was still fairly intact, although some bones were damaged or lost. The skull was broken into several fragments , but part of the maxilla was conserved displaying large upper teeth. The alveolar arc also indicated a large maxilla, with a wide and deep palatin, indicating pronounced prognathism. The lower jaw has a very robust character, with the high and thick corpus mandibularis. Both characteristics on the lingual face are indicative of an archaic form common among Homo erectus and very rarely found among Homo sapiens. The alveolaris mandible is very thick, thicker compared to the basilaris. The implication is that the teeth became very big, which along with other characteristics made the lower jaw robust. This is in accord with the large long bones. The humerus and ulna as well as the right and left radius are still well conserved, whereas only the left part of the metacarpal and phalanx remains. The right part could possibly have been accidentally removed during the process of excavation. Both legs are flexed

235 . . lantin to the right. The distal portion upward With knees raised and s. I gportion of the left fibula were of the left femur and the proxllm; A stone covered the soles of the broken, and both patellas we~e I o:~d halanx of the left leg still in feet, with the tarsal, me:a~aIsa ~ ht phalanxes were separated . anatomically COITect posItion. orne ng from the hand and scattered south of the skeleton.

S

Plate 58: A primary burial in flexed position from Braholo Cave (individual I) . Legs and arms are in flexed position. The skull is invisible because of its fragmentary condition. On the chest and abdomen are stones heaped to protect it. It represents an adult female individual.

. I the left side was visible, Of the costae (nb bones), and l ft humerus Four vertebrae the vertebrae an e . concentrated b etween . rtebrae Still lower only the d II rt of the thoracic verteoi ac' . were expose , a pa. I ' vel whole condition, whereas the nght left coxa was exposed In re a~1 T: morphological character of the left e coxa was covered by the .han " its. naITOW cavitas pelvis, slender coxa coxa displays the follOWing ~ra. . ma 'or and elongated foramen with naITOW incisura . ~Cl~tzc~ har~cteristics indicate the skeleton .obtura tu m - These morph~ ogica c . rted by the size of the ale' this Inference IS suppo m a represen ts ' . dibl and robust teeth. h maxilla, man I e, II I wer are relatively complete. T e The teeth, upper as we a.s 0 f;irl well developed occlusal M3 has erupted completely . ~~t~d a I wa~ over 18 years old. Closer ua surface. This shows that the In tVfl b . n which does not reach the . . di t s a degree 0 a rasl.o , observatIOn In ica e . I All these facts present a d e 3 on Brocca sca e. cavum pulpae , egre . 50 years old when he died. picture of an individual who was over

236

237

Individual II The sec~nd individual from Braholo Cave came from square L.8, excavated In October 1998 in the hearth layer. Only a skull and hipbone were found, suggesting a secondary burial system. Found in an upside-down position, the skull and hipbone components were strongly associated with small mammal bones, particularly those of Macaca sp. Several bone artifacts, among others spatulas, were also f~und here. The position of these skeletal remains is some 50 em higher than the skeleton in square J9. Charcoal found around th . skeleton yielded a date of 8,760 ± 170 BP, around 1,000 year~ younger than that of the primary burial. Plate 59: One of the secondary burials (individual II) found in square 18, Braholo Cave. In secondary burials It IS common to select the particular parts of the body that are considered of importance to be buried.

Pronounced traits of secondary burial include the fragmentary nature of the remains, consisting only of the s~ulI (including the lower jaw), right hip bone (coxa), and the sacrum adhering to each other. The skull was broken by the post-mortem weight, . . " although the bone fragments are still In their original position, while the hipbone and sacrum are better conserved. The lower jaw, panicularly the left corpus and ramus, were detach.ed, whereas those of the right side were still attached to the upper Jaw, .and both occlusal surfaces were still attached to each other. The lower Jaw .symphysis and the lower incisors are lost. On the neck two upper cervical vertebrae remain. ' This skull has elongated (dolichocephalic) proportions with pronounced prognathism. The brows protrude visibly, partic;ularly at

the arcus superciliaris, but not too strongly. The linea temporalis now visib le belongs to the frontal pan, which later became one with the temple. The majority of the morphological characteristics of the skull we re not revealed during the excavation, including the sutures, except that the left lambdoid suture, which has not yet shown further sin ostose . The pars orbitalis on the squama frontalis is pointed sugge sting a round shaped orbit. The planum nuchalis on the occipital bone is smooth in appearance, so that the muscle insenion is undeveloped. The skull has a robust maxilla, with the arcus supercialis relatively intact. The palate is wide and deep. The left teeth are comple te, whereas on the right only teeth C, P2, Ml and M2 remain. T he degree of tooth abrasion is very advanced, reaching the cavum pulpae (degree 4 on Brocca scale), leaving only a little of the crown. T he most abraded teeth are the canine and premolar. The corpus mandibularis is lower than that of the skeleton in square J9 , with a far thic ker alveolaris mandibula than the basilaris. The planum alveolaris cl earl y visible in the skeleton from J9 is not visible on this individual, whereas the mandible of this individual is significantly lower and more slender than that of the skeleton from square J9 , the relief on the buccal as well as lingual face being quite well developed. On the who le, th e mastication organs of this individual can be characterized as robust. Represented by the coxa and sac nan still in their original anatomical position, the pelvis of this individual was wide and open. T he sense of width can also be observed from the size of coxa and sacrum separately, with a wide pelvic cavity and incisura sciata major. The morphological characteristics of the skull and the hip bone of this individual show that it represents a female. The degree of eruption and teeth abrasion indicate an adult over 50 years of age. Individual III This individual remains consist of long bones and phalanx, mixed with Macaca sp. bones in the square of G8. Close to this was

238 found fragmented human femur, seemingly from another individual. The race, sex, and-age of this individual can not be estimated. Individual IV This skeletal remains is part of a' primary burial, show a flexed position in a circular form. Its location covers the junction of squares 07, H7, 08, H8. The skull as an important component to identify race, sex, and individual's age is missing. Compared to the first individual, the size of the bones show a more gracile characteristic. ' This individual seems to be the youngest one, viewed from its location, which is shallower than the other individuals (layer 2). Individual V The individual V is represented only by a complete skull from the square of H8, in the depth of 270 em from the surface . Certainly it is belonging to a secondary burial. Four vertebrae cervicalus are still attached in the skull base. The form of the skull is dolichocephalic, with a bulge in the occipital region and a depression in lambda area. The muscular insertion is well-developed. The morphological characteristics of this individual bring us to the assumption of Australomelanesid female features, with the age between 22- 54 years old. Individual VI This is a primary burial in flexed position, facing right, with its left side up, its humerus straight downwards, and its ulna and radius lay in 'crossed position on its stomach. The right hand was bent upwards with its palm on the right cheek. It was found with its right metacarpal and phalanx relatively parallel to the skull. The individual was found in square 08, in 265 em depth from the surface . The skull consists of its cap and lower jaw. Both parietals can still be found, though incomplete. Furthermore, its frontal part, which still conserve the toms part, was found with its linea temporalis superior and part of its right orbit. Further back; some of the squama occipitalis is still preserved but covered with sediment. However, the

239 basil crani has perished, although we can still identify its mandibula, which is intact and with both sides still complete. The infra-skull is relatively complete. Its right and left as well as its front and back ribs are relatively intact. Other parts of the chest area include well-conserved clavicula and scapula, as shown by the left articulate proximal humerus that was still attached to the scapula . Both coxae are well-conserved, and the acetabulum is big. Both of the caput femoralis bones are still attached to the acetabulum. From its femurs can be identified that the left one is bigger than the right. Based on the above discussion, we learn that the skeleton in F808 was part of a primary burial in flexed position. This type of burial show. similarities to the third individual of Keplek Cave. The skull's characteristics show the conotation of dolichocephaly but its mandible is not robust enough. The unrobustness of this mandible is also shown by the underdeveloped relief of its muscle insertion of . the carpus and ramus mandibula as well as the general size of its teeth. Based on the size of its femur, this skeleton can be categorized into a "robust individual". This, and the skeleton's characteristics, we tend to put the physical characters of this individual into Australomelanesid, female, over 18 years old. The C-14 date of this skeleton is 13,290 ± 400 BP (The date needs further examination, as the stratigraphical context suggests to the Holocene date (layer 3). Individual VII This individual was found in the G7 square at 280-285 em depth, and was a concentration of vertebrae thoracicae, lombalus, sacrum, and fragment of occipital, and teeth (II, 12, C, PI, n, and the upper right M3, II, 12, and the upper left PI). Its l?wer teeth is represented by only the right PI. This individual is assumed to be a part of a primary burial, which was slimmer than individual I and more similarly built to actual (modem) human being.

240

24 1

Individual VIII This individ ual was in more or less the cen tre of G7 square at 316 Col depth , and consists of left foot as well as the long bones of the lower body. Its race, sex , and age are sti ll unknown.

Who Were They?

dwelle~heind\S~ov~y

of remains from 13 post-Pleistocene cave e unu ng Sewu area helps to answer quest ions ~once~nll1g. the bearers of prehistoric culture in this area (Table 9) aps 111 evidence regard ing the human pop ulatio n, at leas t durin the ~ast 10,000 years, has begun to be filled by data from ske letal re~ains rom Kep lek and Bra holo Caves. C-14 dates show that some of the bones can be dated to the first hal f of the Ho loce ne when It t th hi' , c u ure was a e .tec no ogl~al stage ca lled the Preneolith ic. The hard work of van Rletschoten 111 1889 and E. D ubois in 1890 in the villa e of ;ampurdarat (Tu lungagung) res ulted in the impressive discove~y of uman skeletal material known as Wajak 1 and W . k ? I fi f '1 fi d f aja - , the trs t ~OSS\ 111 s. 0 I!017~O ~apiells. The absolute chronology of these two os ~1 s, whl.ch IS stIlI indefinite, rem a ins a classic problem making ' t err status mdeterm inate. .

h

Plate 60 : Lower human j aw from Braholo Cave as a par t of a secondary burial.

When combined with the attempt to determine the status of the bearers of cave culture in G unung I Sewu, the problem becomes' mo re difficu lt yet. Wajak man was no t re lated in any way to cave culture. It is possible that Wajak ma n either had no connection at all wit h the Preneolithic c ulture that developed

in G unung Sewu, or a relation existed, although not a direct one. We wi ll retu rn to this prob lem in the disc ussion of the process of migration that occurred in the Arc hipelago after the boundary of the Post-Pleis tocene was crossed . It is almost certain that the human remai ns in Keplek and Braholo Caves repre sent the physical type of the bearers of the cave cu lture in the Gu nung Sewu region. Then who were they actually? To understand their identity, we will have to reexamine some physic al aspects of the six skeletal remains. Five of these represent adult individuals with fu lly developed morpholog ica l characters, and one young individ ual from Keplek Cave aged between 7-9 years; although its physical characters were not maximally developed, some of these characters can still be studied through the sha pe of the skullca p. Out of 13 individuals mentioned above, nine indi viduals display Australomelanesid characters. Another one (individual V fro m Keplek Cave) pres ents Mongoloid characters. Racial characteristics of three other individuals, viz. Ind ividua l III, VII, and VIII from Braholo Cave cannot be identified, due to the very sca rce co mponents of those skeletons present. Do lichocephaly, clearly shown by ind ividual IV from Keplek Cave and individual II and V from Bra holo Cave, characterizes the Austra lomelanesid race. Individual I from Kep lek Cave (although only its inferio-posterior part is conserved) displays a vertical orie ntation of the parietal wall, whereas the skull cap of the young individual from Keplek Cave also dis tinct ively presents anterio-posteriority. These characteristics (dol ichocephaly and a re lat ively ver tical pari etal wa ll) point to the A ustralomelanesi d race. For individual IV from Keplek Cave, Austra lome lanesid characteris tics are strengthened by the presence of the pre-lambda depression, which contributes to the protruding shape at the med ian occipi tal. Among the Mongoloid race, the common shape of skull is brac hicephalic, with no protrusion on the occipital. Only in the cas es of two individual s (the second skeleton from Kep lek Cave and the first from Braholo Ca ve) are we unab le to determine these aspects of skull form, due to the poor state of preservation of the mater ial.

242

243

Australomelanesid characteristics are emphasized by pronounced prognathism of the faces . This trait is clearly visible from the morphology of the cranio-facial mastication organs: the upper and lower jaw, and the morphology and size of the teeth. The fourth individual of Keplek Cave and the second from Braholo Cave clearly display prognathic characteristics: the upper and lower jaws project forward with a wide and deep palate. Similar characteristics are shown by the maxilla of the first individual of Keplek Cave , while in respect to the lower jaw, both mandibles of the Braholo Cave individuals show extremely robust development. On the first individual the planum alveolaris and mandibular torus are well developed on the lingual symphisis and crossed on the corpus mandibularis. Although the same characteristics, particularly the existence of a mandibular torus, are also clearly seen on the second individual, the degree of robustness is different. The planum alveolaris and mandibular torus are commonly 'found among Homo erectus, but not on the mandibles of Homo sapiens . Both characteristics are reduced with time and form the result of gracilation of the mastication organs in the evolution process. Therefore, the existence of both characteristics on the mandible of the Braholo Cave individual is an archaic element inherited from Homo erectus and retained among Homo sapiens . The mandible of the first Braholo Cave individual is much higher and thicker compared to that of. the second individual. ' The difference in size is mainly due to sexual dimorphism: the first individual is a male. Morphological robustness among the Australomelanesids is also underlined by the thicker alveolaris mandibularis compared to the basilaris, as shown on both mandibles from Braholo Cave. This implies that the teeth and their roots would look more robust than the teeth of the Mongoloids. All teeth found with the KepJek Cave and Braholo Cave skeletons have large dimensions, and perfectly fit the .variation in teeth measurements found among the Australomelanesids. In addition to the dolichocephalic shape of the skull, profound prognatism and robustness of mastication organs, Australomelanesid characteristics can also be seen in the robustness of bones of the body

as a whole . The body posture of the Australomelanesid race is higher and more robust than that of the Mongoloid. On the Keplek Cave and Braholo Cave skeletons this trait is observable from the thick skull bone and larger. bones of the limbs, the upper (arms), as well as the lower limbs (legs) . The fourth individual of Keplek Cave and the first of Braholo Cave displayed such criteria. The sizes of the long bones of both individuals give the impression of being more. robust than those of the Mongoloid race . Beyond the aforementioned morphological criteria, still more cranio-facial aspects can be used as parameters for the identification of races among Homo sapiens. They are: morphology of the supraorbital torus; the sagittal keeling; the measurement of the nasal root; and facial measurements. Unfortunately, those variables could not be observed for either Keplek Cave individual IV or Braholo Cave individual II due to the fact that both skeletons were not completely excavated. However, those morphological aspects, which were :observed, are quite consistent and lead to the conclusion that the human remains of Keplek and Braholo Caves belong to the Australomelanesid race. Among the Mongoloid race, skulls are usually brachycephalic with no protuberance on the occipital. Individual V of Keplek Cave shows such characteristics. Other Mongoloid characters are shown by the short and narrow face without prognathism, mandibles not robust, and teeth and bones that are relatively . smaller (more gracile) than those from other individuals.

,,'

East Java in Macroscope Other prehistoric habitation caves in East ' Java have also provided evidence of human remains, for example Lawa Cave (Ponorogo), Marjan and Sodong Caves (Jember), and Gentong Cave (Tulungagung). Lawa Cave, 2 krn south of Sampung, discovered by van Es in 1926 and excavated by van Stein Callenfels in 1928-1931 , yielded skeletal remains described by Mijsberg. The skeleton forms

244

245

part of a primary burial system; it was found lying on the back with hand under the chin-and knees drawn up toward the chin. The upper parts of some skeletons are covered by stones and sprayed with red powder material. The skulls are high and dolichocephalic, with a sagittal vault antero-posteriorly oriented at the median, and a protrusion at the occipital. The lower jaw suggested a high corpus mandibularis with large teeth . The lateral torus is found crossing the corpus and more forward , the foram en mentalis is located very low on the position of P2. Underlining Mijsberg' s identification, Jacob (1967) stated that the skeletal remains in Lawa Cave possess a combination of Australoid and Melanesoid characteristics. More to the east, near Puger, plenty of human remains were found in the caves of Marjan and Sodong, but only one individual seems to have been intentionally buried (Heekeren 1972). The skeleton lies on its back with legs flexed and covered by three blocks of limestone. The skull was said to be mesocephalic, with massive mandible and large teeth. Although not definitely mentioning the race, Heekeren tended to place it among the non-mongoloids by stating that it belonged to the "large teethed race". Its paralleli sm with the Lawa Cave man was underlined by reference to cultural similarities with the Marjan and Sodong caves and the Sampung culture. New human burial has been found recently in Song Gentong (Gentong Cave), Tulungagung, by the National Research Centre of Archaeology. A skeleton was discovered in a layer of blackish brown loose clay. Around the skeleton is hematite dust (powder) that seems to have been sprayed on the body. Near the feet are found round lumps of hematite (Marliac and Simanjuntak, 1998). C-14 analysis of this skeleton yielded a date of 8,760 ± 70 BP (Simanjuntak, 1997). The skeleton 's position is slanted to the left, in a northwest-southeast orientation, the head to the northwe st and legs flexed with heel to the hip, arms folded near the abdomen. This skeleton has not yet been analyzed-so that its sex, age, or race has not been determined. Comparing human remains from Keplek and Braholo Caves on one hand , and from Lawa, Marjan, and Sodong Caves on the other, it is possible to detect a parallelism not only in the pattern of cave life

and cultural traits, but also in the racial composition of the population: Australomelanesid . As far as it is possible to judge from the human remains found in Post-Pleistocene caves in GunungSewu (Keplek and Braholo Caves) as well as in East Java, there is a uniformit y of prehistoric cave occupation which lasted over the period from 10,000 to 4,000 years ago by the Australomelanesid race. During their lives in caves , they developed a relatively uniform culture, characterized by flake tools and bone tools. From the Northwest to the Southeast, then Eastwards The end of the last glaciation 11 ,000 years ago, the boundary of the post-Pleistocene, was the start of a critical period, of great significance for the origins of early colonization in the Archipelago. At this stage sea level began to rise, causing the separation of the island area from continental Southeast Asia. Global environmental changes occurring since the submergence of the Sunda shelf caused the movement of fauna restricted to the insular environment. Homo sapiens of a type known as Australomelanesid inhabited various locations on this subcontinent almost evenly. The migration of the Australomelanesid race from continental Southeast Asia toward the south and west is assumed to have started 10,000 years ago. In addition to various skeletal remains, this movement is also indicated by cultural evidence in Vietnam, Thailand, and the western part of Indonesia. This group, which continued to spread into the eastern areas of Nusa Tenggara, was succeeded by the Australoid race of the present. Contemporaneously, the first Mongoloid race also migrated from the north, then later headed for Sulawesi through the Philippines. Human remains from Leang Cadang (Sulawesi) fit into this migration route, which later moved to the east through the islands north of eastern Indonesia toward Micronesia and beyond. A significant separation of areas occupied by these two races can be observed. The Australomelanesid race occupied the northern and western part of Indonesia wherea s the Mongoloid race spread to

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248 of Homo sapiens in Indonesia is still shrouded in mystery. Besides the complexity of its morphological aspect, and the gaps in the absolute chronology, this dark side is worsened by the absence of cultural data and the very limited number of specimens found . (Harry Widianto) THE FLEXED BURIAL SYSTEM In Southeast Asio. prehistoric burial systems have been known since the Epipaleolithic. They consisted of: various kinds of secondary burials involving inhumation of selected parts of the body (selective secondary burial); primary burials with legs in flexed positions; and open burials (Soejono. 1969). M. Colani (1930) reported on the existence of selective secondary burial of the skullin association with artifacts of Hoabinhian characteristics in a cave site in Vietnam. Callenfels and Noone (1940) analyzed an open burial found in the Gol Ba'it site in the Malay Peninsula. Direct inhumation with legs in flexed position was apporently ra ther rare in Vietnam (Heekeren and Knuth. 1967). in the Malaysian Peninsula (Stein Callenfels and Noone. 1940; Sieveking. 1954) a nd Sarawak (Harrison. 1957). and several localities in lndoneslo. The prehistoric burial system in Indonesia apparently' appeared In· the Mesolithic and' continued to develop in later stages. There were four patterns of placing the dead: stretched. flexed. crouched or squatting. and prostrate. Burials presented four systems (Soejono. 1969): Direct inhumation. single or multiple. including primary burial either without a container or with a container. made of stone and burnt clay as well. Deferred inhumation. single or multiple. including secondary burial without a container. complete as well as selective. cnd vsecondorv burial with stone or burnt clay container. completely or selectively. Combined inhumation. single or multiple. presenting primary burial without .c ontolner: primary burial with a container: and secondary burial in containers. _ Placing of the corpse in the open or exposed deposition. sometimes followed by selective inhumation. . Shell maund sites or caves present early evidence for the existence of prehistoric burial system in Indonesia. Severa l sites

249 yielded incomplete human skeletal remains. ind icating selective secondary burial. Secondary burials are usually Indicated by burial of a skull or its fragments and sometimes part of the limbs. accompanied by a scattering of hematite. Burials of this kind have been found in shell mounds in northeastern Sumatra and in several caves in East Java and in Flores (Verhoeven. 1953; Jacob. 1967).Besides secondary burials of selective nature. primary burials can be found in the caves in East Java and Flores. Unlike some kinds of burials that d isplayed diverse positions. such as extended. prostrate. and crouching. the above-mentioned areas presented the flexed position . In general flexed burials can be divided into two types : semi flexed and flexed. Semi-flexed burial is characterized by legs flexed . with thigh and knees facing left. or legs flexed and with thigh and knees slightly drawn up : Flexed burials are characterized by legs and calves flexed close to the thighs with knees upwards to the chest. This kind of burial has been found in Lawa. Sodong and Marjan caves (Heekeren. 1972; Stein Callenfels. 1932). Song Agung. next to the Keplek and Braholo Caves (Gunung Kidul. DIY). Each .b urto l in , these sites disploys some variation in the hand or leg pose. the body's position. ond in the treatment of the dead (loble 9). Stones. particularly on the chest and abdomen. partly covered the burials in Braholo Cave and Gentong Cave. The reason for this was possibly to protect the corpse from being disturbed by wild animals. as a marker. or to prevent the spirit from leaving the body. Burial goods were not found in some burials. but in Lawa Cave a burial of a child was furnished with a necklace of bored mollusc shell. The burial in Gentong Cave. Tulungagung. was sprayed with hematite powder and close to the legs were placed round lumps of hematite. The custom of inhumation in flexed position apparently continues in several tribes in Indonesia. for instance in Sawu. Ngada (Flores). Southwest TImor. Aru. and Seram. This manner is reminisc ent of the foetal position. suggesting that their religious concept was that someone who died should be treated like an unborn baby in the womb. who will be reborn In the realm of the dead. (Bogyo Prosetyo)

251

23. SETTLEMENT CHRONOLOGY OF GUNUNGSEWU The exact date of human colonization of Gunung Sewu is yet unknown, but in view of the oldest date obtained from the lowest layers in Terus Cave, which dated back to 180,000 years ago , colonization must have begun before that, during the Middle Pleistocene. Humans inhabited and exploited river courses, and made stone tools . Toward the Late Pleistocene we can observe a significant change in the pattern of settlement leading to the exploitation of caves as dwelling places . This change was already underway 45,000 years ago as shown by data from Tabuhan Cave. Data on settlement of Braholo Cave, located in the western part of Gunung Sewu shows that it was inhabited 33,000 years ago, whereas Keplek Cave, in the eastern part of the area, was inhabited 25,000 years ago. The true chronology of settlement should be older, considering that the lower anthropic levels have not been dated. Furthermore, in some cases the lowest layer of anthropic deposits has not been reached. Provisionally it is estimated that cave settlement continued till about 2,000 years ago . Within the broader Southeast Asian context, research shows that some caves were occupied 40,000 years ago, a date that coincides with the appearance of Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens settled in this entire region, including Australia and west Melanesia, contemporaneously (Simanj untak, 1997). The latest research by the French team in Terns Cave, Punung, has extended the time span of cave settlement. Cave life could be divided into three cultural layers. The lowest layer, dated between 180,000-56,000 BP, contained a lithic industry with a tendency toward crude, large tools. The Keplek industry layer with flake tools of various types characterized the upper layer, dating from the early

Holocene around 4,500 BP. Between these two cultural layers is a . transitional layer, characterized by sparse finds. The above-mentioned chronology of cave settlement reminds us of the Pacitanian culture of the Baksoka River, the dating of which is still in dispute . This culture should be older than the lower industry of Teru s Cave, because its cultural characteristics were not found in this cave . The new data from Terus Cave opens a new perspective on the chronology for the Pacitanian, and at the same time provides an understanding of early colonization in Gunung Sewu. Current research is expected to solve problems that have persisted for decades. The time span of cave settlement in Gunung Sewu can be divided into six periods: Period ,1: the oldest one, from a period which is still unknown, up to around 180,000 BP. This period was characterized by life in the open, along the river courses, with a Paleolithic culture in which core tools and large flakes are common .•As typical tools of this phase have been found in the Baksoka River, this period is called the Baksoka period . Period II: from 180,000 years ago to around 60,000 BP. Life was apparently still lived in the plain, along river courses, as in the Baksoka period . However, the technology had changed . to an assemblage, characterized by flake tools . The greater part of the artifacts found are rounded, and thus have been transported by river to their find spots. Pacitanian tools have not been found in sites of this period. Based on the type locality, this is called the Terus period. Period III: from 60,000 to 12,000 BP, characterized by early cave . occupation. Mega fauna was dominant (Bovidae, Cervida e, Elephantidae, Rhinoceritidae, etc). The environment seems to have been dominated by vegetation different from that of the Holocene, that enabled the mega fauna to exist. The lithic industry tended to be crude; the typical flakes of the Holocene were still sparse. Remains of life of this period were found in several caves excavated in the Gunung Sewu

252 area. Based on the type locality, the eponym site for this period is Tabuhan Cave Period IV: from 1:2,000 to 4,000 'BP, characterized by Preneolithic or Mesolithic culture. Based on the abundant data from Kepl ek Cave, this period is better called as the Keplek period . It formed the peak of cave settlement and a specific regi onal culture marked by intensive exploitation of the e nvironment co~prising fauna , rock s, ca ves, and shelters. Thi s expanded to include exploitation of seeds in the second half of the period, starting around 5,000 BP. ' Period V: Better known as the Neolithic phase between 4,000 and .1 ,000 BP. Based on settlement patterns, this phase is divided mto the early pha se (up to around 2,000 BP) with settlement characteristics of cave life and late phase (around 2,0001,000 BP) ch aracterized by settlement in open sites. Important cultural traits include the development of re~tangular adzes, arrowheads and pottery. For the time being we have proposed Gupuh Cave as an eponym site for the early period, whereas for the late period the name Ngrijangan period is proposed, in honor of a site with typical Neolithic finds. Period VI: Paleometallic culture characterized by the appearance of metal tools , weapons, and beads. Settlements still continue the Neolithic pattern in open sites, and a tradition of stone tool working apparently still continued. This period lasted from 600 BP till the historic period. This is called the Klepu period. It is noteworthy that the cultural periods above are continuous' there is no rupture between them, especially from the Tabuhan period onwards. It is characterized by an even vertical distribution of find s in each layer and the presence of continuous cultural elements from one pha se to .!.he next. The Gunung Sewu settlement seems to have culminated in period IV starting in the early Holocene. The vast area of Gunung

253 Sewu with dozens of caves, distributed over the karst hill slopes, has been intensively inhabited since the early Holocene. The caves and shelters were selected as places for habitation and to fulfil other needs . A local culture developed through the intensive exploitation of particular environmental resourc es. Besides the exploitation of cave s, other characteristic cultural traits of the region include the expl oitation of faun a by hunting, including marine and fresh water biota, exploitation of rocks for the lithic industry , the development of the bone industry, primary flexed and secondary burial systems, and the exploitation of seeds, particularly in the more recent periods. The Holocene culture of Gunung Sewu presented a specific local c~aracter shaped by the available resources. The double pointed needles and lithic tools of limestone are distinctive of the culture of Braholo Cave (in the western part of Gunung Sewu). Such tools are absent in Keplek Cave (in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu). On the other hand, the typo-technological richness of the lithic industry and the polishing tools of mollusc shell are distinctive cultural elements in Keplek Cave. The flexed burial system with the corpse lying on the back was practised in Braholo Cave, whereas the people of Keplek Cave employed a flexed system with the corpse in a slanting position. The bone industry was a distinctive cultural element of eastern Java. Van Heekeren (1972) tried to associate the Sampung bone tools with tho se found in a number of sites in continental Southeast Asia, including cave sites in Tonkin where they are mixed with Hoabinhian tools, and the shell mounds of Da-But, north Vietnam. Based on these findings, van Stein Callenfels was of the opinion that the Sampung Industry originated and developed in South Vietnam and Annam. In a wider context, ca ve settlement in the Archipelago has been found in such localities as Jambi, Maras and Pangkep, Muna, Pegunungan Meratus, Flores, Timor, Maluku, and Irian . Common trait s of cave life include the exploitation of rock s for the manufacture of flake tools as the Paleolithic substratum that developed until the start of the Neolithic. This industry spread over Island Southeast Asia and set it apart from continental Southeast Asia . Research in caves like Niah Cav e (Sarawak) and Tabon Cave (Philippines) displayed a

255

254

continuity in flake blade culture from 40,000 years BP until the Holocene (Glover, 1973). This suggests that the Paleolithic. continued till the Neolithic without going through the Mesolithic stage, although this inference still needs to be confirmed by furth er research in Gunun g Sewu as well as in other sites. It is certain that before the Neolithic , new cultural clements were introduced, and then developed rapidl y in the Neolithic, marked by traits like mortar s and the exploitation of seeds. Thi s can be termed the period of neolithi sation (Simanj untak, 1993). Gunun g Sewu Preneolithic culture has its roots in the previous period (the Late Pleistocene) and developed till around 4,000 BP when such Neolithic elements as pottery and rectangular adzes were introduced. Th e Neolithic in caves confinued to develop until around , 2,000 BP. Th ereafter it seems that cave dwelling was no longer practised, replaced by open settlement s developing a more intensive lithic industry producing rectangular adzes , arrow heads and pottery. The peak of lithic technological mastery was reached during the Neolithi c, as shown by the products of adzes and arrowheads. Judging from the multitude of workshop sites spread over vast areas, it can be concluded that the industry' s activities were carried on by large groups of people. Based on dates from the sites of Padangan and Ngrijangan, workshop activities continued at least until 1,000 year ago, when the Paleometallic cultural stage began, characterized by the presence of metal tools and weapons and bead s, and the further development of pottery makin g. Paleometallic culture developed into the historic period , around 600 'years ago. (Truman Simanjuntak]

Date

Periodisa -

General characteristics

Culture

lion

±600 BP

Klepu period

Pa laeometallic

• •

•

Mainarchaeological remains: pottery, iron objects, beads, stone fla kes Open landscape settlements Co ntinued Neolithic traditi on

Late . Neoli thic

•

Main archaeological remains: pottery.

period

•

stone adzes and arrowheads Ope n landscape setrlernents The emergence of groups of wo rkshops

------- --------_._-----

--------------

----.------

2,000 - 4.000 BP

Gu puh period

Early Neolithic

.--.-.--.------- ---------------------------------• Main archaeo logical rem ains: pottery,

Kep lek period

Preneolithic

2,000 - 1.00 0 BP

Ngrijangan

•

.'

4,000 -1 2.000 BP

• • • •

• • •

Tabuhan ' period

Up per .Pala eolilhi c ?

Very dense settlement remains: stone

and bone tools. fauna, humanremains.

• •

:12,000 - 60 ,000 BP

adzes. flakes Ca ve settleme nts Adze and pottery making Pren eolith ic trad ition still con tinued

•

•

seeds

Intensive exploitation of ~n vironmental resources (animal hunting) Expl oitati on of seeds in the lat er period Practice of primary an d secondary bu rial

Very intensive firing activities in caves Australomelanesid race and possibly Mon zoloid race Main archaeological remai ns: flakes and atypic," too ls, faun a Profound big fauna (cervids, bov ids , ele phants, rhin oceros)

• Oldest cave settlements in Southeast Asia • Subsistence: animal hunting 60.000 - 180,000 BP

? - 180,000 BP

Terus period

Baksoka

period

Midd le Palaeolithi c ?

Lower to Midd le Palaeolithic ?

• • • • •

•

Main arc haeological rem ains: flake too ls ro unded and fres h. fau na (rhi noceros, tapi rs , cervi ds) Sta tions alon g river bank s

Subsistence: animal huntinz Main archaeological remains: large flakes and core too ls Stations along river banks

Subsistence: animal hunting

Table 10: Settlement Chron ology of the Gunun g Sewu Area.

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Gunung Sewu as one geographical entity, characterized by thousands of karst hill with distinctive hemispheric or conic shapes, has had a long history of settlement. Man has been attracted by this area and its profusion of environmental resources since the oldest period of prehistory (Period I - VI), and is still attracted to it even now. From the aspect of cultural evolution, during that time span, life slowly altered from the simplest ways to greater complexity culminating in the preneolithic period. In classical terminology, the stages of this development have been referred to as Paleolithic, Mesolithic (Preneolithic), Neolithic, and finally the Paleometallic. The question of when Gunung Sewu was first colonized has not been answered in a satisfactorily way. Since the oldest date from Terns Cave, where Pacitanian characteristics have not yet been discerned, of 180,000 BP, provisionally it can be said that the Pacitanian of Baksoka River is older and can be presumed to date at least of the upper part of the Middle Pleistocene. It is hoped that a more definite answer will be obtained by future intensive studies in this area. In the Late Pleistocene, around 40,000- 30,000 BP or before, a new cultural phenomenon emerged. The previous pattern of settlement, characterized by nomadism along river courses, shifted to caves and rock shelters . This change caused cultural evolution, especially in stone technology, producing flake tools and other tools that tended to be massive and coarse. Let us return to the Holocene settlements, which are the most important periods of the Gunung Sewu occupation. It is characterized

258

259

by the rapid cultural change, from Preneolithic to Neolithic and then to Paleometallic period (period IV-VI). Viewed from the time span of development, Preneolithic was a longer period than the two others, i.e. from the early Holocene to around 4,000 BP. This period was characterized by intensive exploitation of resources. Since then Gunung Sewu has been inhabited by Australomelanesids with the following cultural traits: I. The exploitation of caves for settlement, as a locus for industrial activities manufacturing stone and bone tools, and for burial. In this stage hearths and fires were common in caves. 2. Exploitation of locally available rocks for tool making. 3. Exploitation of various fauna by hunting and collecting ofaquatic biota to meet the need for food. Various kinds of animal bones, antler, teeth and mollusc shell were utilized for tool making and adornments. The bone industry and lithic industry activities evolved in tandem, with no dichotomy between the two. 4. The exploitation of seeds in the later stage, around 5,000 BP, until the Neolithic. Few vegetal remains have yet been found, except for kemiri, kenari, and ketapang. 5. The practice of flexed and stretched burials in certain parts of the cave with some variations in hand pose and treatment for the dead in each site. Findings from Braholo and Keplek Caves showed that besides flexed primary burials, the inhabitants also practised secondary burial by reburying the skull, jaw and hipbone of the dead after primary burial. Besides the main characteristics mentioned above, the distinctions between the eastern and western parts of Gunung Sewu were highly influenced by the different environmental resources available in each area. The intensive production of unique doublepointed needles and tools of limestone, and rectangular adzes of fossil mollusc shell (Tridacna), represent distinctive elements from Braholo Cave-swestern Gunung Sewu), which are absent in Keplek Cave (the eastern part). On the other hand, the optimal utilization of chert with the production of polishing tools made of mollusc shell is unique to Keplek Cave. Whereas in Keplek Cave burial customs placed the dead

in the position of slanting to the right and not covered by blocks of stone, in Braholo Cave the abdomen and chest are covered by limestone blocks. Within a regional context, those cultural characteristics have a broad distribution in limestone hills in the eastern part of Java. So far, this culture has been identified in seven limestone hill unit areas: besides in Gunung Sewu, the others are located in Ponorogo, Bojonegoro, Tuban, Tulungagung, Puger and Besuki (Situbondo). The first discovery of this culture was made in 1926 by van Es in Lawa Cave, Sampung in the Ponorogo area, which became the eponymous site for what is called "the Sampung bone industry" (Heekeren, 1972). This terminology needs to be revised, considering that besides the bone industry, the lithic industry is more prominent in this cave, as was the case with other caves in East Java. Moreover, the Sampung bone industry was unsupported by definite chronological data. Henceforth, a new term, ''The Keplek Period", has been proposed for this cultural stage, based on findings in Keplek Cave where' they are better defined with regard to cultural characteristics and dating. This period lasted from the Early Holocene until around 4,000 BP. Within the Archipelago's context the Keplek layer forms a unique cultural complex, combining the Paleolithic tradition (flake tools) and the local innovation (bone tools), besides the main elements mentioned above. Another contemporary cultural group in the Archipelago is the Hoabinhian, characterized by the continental Southeast Asian culture producing Sumatraliths, distributed along the east coast of North Sumatra. In the eastern part of Indonesia, (including Kalimantan) another group producing cave paintings developed with an extended distribution from Australia and the Pacific to continental Southeast Asia. A fourth group called the flake-blade industry is not restricted to a single.geographical context but extended widely in the Archipelago. This group represents a Paleolithic tradition (flake tools) that continued into the Holocene. The end of the Preneolithic was marked by the appearance of the Neolithic with pottery and rectangular adzes. The Neolithic developed gradually, over a transitional phase, rather than abruptly. It

260

26 1

apparently lasted for a relatively short time, from about 4,000 BP to around 1,000 BP. Started with cave settlement, which lasted until 2,000 BP, the Neolithic then moved to open settlement with the development of adzes and arrowheads. After this movement, a very significant technological leap took place in the formation of hundreds of atelier groups producing adzes and arrowheads. It is noteworthy that Neolithic life in open settlements was only found in the eastern part of Gunung Sewu. This could possibly be influenced by the abundant availability of chert, which facilitated the development of the industry's activities. In the western part of Gunung Sewu, chert is very scarce or absent. If this is the case, how did the Neolithic develop in this area? The possible answer is that the Neolithic still existed in cave life, and the limited availability of chert made development of the adze industry unfavourable (remember the rectangular adzes from Braholo Cave made of fossil bone, mollusc shell and limestone). Limitation of the rock resources caused the Neolithic to be less developed in the western part of Gunung Sewu. The Paleometallic lasted from around 1,000 BP, characterized by the introduction of metal objects (specifically iron) and beads: The end of this period cannot be specified, but it has been assumed that it coincides with the influx of Indian influences. Like the Neolithic, Paleometallic culture has not been found in the western part of Gunung Sewu. However, beyond the karst area, about 20-30 km from Braholo Cave to the northwest, in the Karangmojo area, are found megalithic sites with elements of metal culture. The absence of Paleometallic sites in the western zone suggests that this culture did not develop well, possibly caused by factors relating to the limited environmental resources. It was assumed that the population moved with a tendency to select plains toward the west, and developed a megalithic culture with Paleometallic elements. Significant retardation can be seen in the Gunung Sewu area from-the early Neolithic to the Paleometallic. In the period since the end of the 4 th century AD, when other areas in the Archipelago formed historic civilizations, the Gunung Sewu area was still untouched by Indian influences , and reached its peak of Neolithic technology with

the industry of adzes and arrowheads in open settlements. The Paleometallic, which developed in other parts of the Archipelago toward the beginning of the Christian Era, also emerged in this area around 1,000 years ago. This retardation could possibly be correlated with geographical factors: hill areas with very limited plains and valleys, creating obstacles to the influx of outside influences. (Truman Simanjuntak)

-'"

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276

277

Appendix 1: list ~f Cave Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area

Appendix 1 (continued)

No.

No.

-

Site

HamJetlViliage

Settlement remains

Site

Seillement remains

Hamlet/Village

18

GuaNgiriman

Nglriman. Piton

Mollusc. potsherd

19

Gua Badut

BanJa~o.

Mollusc

Chert flake. potsherd. bone"

20

GuaGunung Dowo

Krajan Kulon. Piton

Mollusc. po tsherd. seed, bead

Tabuhan. Wareng

Mollusc. chert flake. bone"

21

GuaSemedi

KJajen. Sooko

-

Song Gempal. Wareng

22

Song Dremo

Sooko. Sooko

Chert flake

Mollusc. bone

23

Song Kenong

Sekar Kraja n. Sekar

Bliruk. Wareng

Mollusc. po tshe rd. c hert flake

Mollusc. potsherd. chert flake. bone

24

Ce ruk Glonggong

Jonsort, Belah

Chert flake

25

Gua Duren

Duren. Sukodono

Teeth. mollusc. potsherd. chert flake . bead

26

GuaPokol

Guplt. Sukodono

Chert flake. mollusc. p otsherd. unfinished adze

1

Song Terus Wareng

Weru. Wareng

2

Gua Tabuhan

Tabuhan. Wareng

3

Gua Gunung Gede

4

Gua Inten

Chert flake. po tsherd. bone"

Piton

5

Gua Togog

6

Gua KJepu KJut

KJepu Kiul. Wareng

Chert flake. potsherd. bone. seed

7

Song Terus. Mantren

Pogog . Mantren

Mollusc. potshe rd. bone. chert flake. seed

8

Ceruk Pogog

Pogog. Mantren

Chert flake

9

Gua Kukusan

Karang Gebang. Mantren

Chert flake. potsherd. bone

27

GuaKalak

Kalak. Sendong

Mollusc. potsherd. chert flake

10

Song Keplek

Page rsarl. Punung

Molusc. potshe rd. bo ne. chert fla ke "

28

GuaKendii

Bejl. Pringkuku

Mollusc. po tshe rd. c hert flake.

11

Guo Dono

Page rsari. Punung

Mo llusc. po tsherd. chert flake. bone"

29

Guo Gedangan

Telog a Sowoh. Sugihwaras

Potsherd. mollusc

12

Song Terus Kebon

Kebon.Punung

Mollusc. bone. seed

30

Song Karet

Dersono. Dersono

Mollusc. chert flake

13

Gua Putri

Gunung Sernut, Kendal

-

31

Gua Labon Semut

Kenul. Watukarung

Mollusc

14

Song Mur

Gun ung Sernut, Kendal

32

Gua Kamidondo

Kara ngno ngko. Watu karung

Mollusc

Chert. bone. seed

15

Son~

Pule. Bomo

33

Gua Tando

Sempon. Watukarung

Potsherd. chert flake . bone"

Mollusc. bone. chert flake

16

GuaGong

Pule. Bomo

-

34

Gua Langse

Tameng. G1rikikis

Potsherd

17

Gua Dawung

Papringan. Piton

35

Gua Platar

Potshe rd. c hert fla ke

Watuireng. P1atarejo

Potsherd

Gupuh

279

278 Appendix 1 (continued)

Appendix 1 (continued) ~.

No.

Site

Hamlet/Village

No.

Setllement remains

Site

Hamlet/Village

Settlement remains

36

Gua Ngantab

Ngantab. Bovernhono

-

58

GuaNgasem

Ngrombo. Balong

seed. bead. mollusc

37

Ceruk Ngantab

Ngantab. Bovernho no

Potsherd. mollusc

59

Song Terus Ngelosart

Ngelosart. Prtngombo

Bone. mollusc. chert flake

38

Gua Nanas

Guweng. Jalirejo

Potsherd

60

Gua Gesing

Purwodadi. Tepus

seed

39

Song Ngarep I

Girt Belch, Jalirejo

seed

61

Song Agung

Pakis. Punung

Chert flake . potsherd'

40

Song Ngarep II

Giri Belah, Jalirejo

Te eth. potsherd

62

Song Cabak l

Ke~o.

Boto

41

Gua Bengkrung

Tumpok, Ketos

seed

Bone. potsherd, chert flake

42

Song Terus, Klepusari

Klepusari. Joho

Bone. chert flake

63

Song Cabakll

Ke~o.

Boto

Bone. potsherd. chert flake

43

Gua Baltan

Dayakan. Joho

Bone. mollusc. potsherd

64

Song Luw an g

Siyono. Pelir Pucung

Mollusc

44

Gua Dayakan

Dayakan. Joho

Potsherd

65

GuaGlulik

Sawah . TIleng

Mollusc

45

Song Putri

Song Putrl, Sinduka rto

-

66

Gua Wareng

Nandesan. Tileng

Mollusc

46

Ceruk Sawlt

Sow!1. Gombang

Mollusc. seed

67

GuaKere

Pokok, Karan gaw en

Mollusc

47

Ceruk Ngumbut

Karangwetan. semugih

Chert flake. potsherd

68

GuaPrtgi

Tegal Prtgl. Karangawen

Mollusc

48

Gua Braholo

semugih. Semuglh

Bone. p otsherd. chert fla ke '

69

Gua Keramaian

Pelir, Pelir

Mo llusc

70

Song Clngkrang

Pule. Pule Ngelo

Mollusc

49

Ceruk Trtlis

semampir. semugih

Bone. potsherd. chert flake

50

Gua Sonten

semampir. semuglh

Mollusc. ceram ic. seed

51

Gua Sumur Teken

SumurTeken. TIleng

Potsherd. bone

52

Ceruk Kandri I

Kandri. Pucung

Che rt flake

53

Ce ruk Kandri II

Kandrt. Pucung

Che rt flake

54

Ceruk Nosumo

Kandrt. Pucung

Chert flake

55

C:.ruk Ngungap I

Ngungap. Puc ung

Bone. moll usc. seed. c he rt flake

56

Ceruk Ngungap II

Ngungap.Pucung

Mollusc. potsherd

57

Gua B1imbing

Kasihan. Baloog

Mollusc

.

.

.

280

281

Appendix 2: List of Open Sites in the Gunung Sewu Area

Appendix 2 (continued)

<~

No .

Sile

Hamiel/Vilia ge

Setllemenl rema ins

No.

Sile

Hamiel/Vlllage

Setllemenl remains

1

pogog

Pogog. Manfren

Unfinished adze

19

Kali Pasong

Chopper

2

B1awong

Blawong. Manfren

Arrowhead. hammer stone

Cambahan. Mendolo K1dul

20

Cambahan

Cambahan. Mendolo Kidul

Chert flake

21

Na mpol

Na m p ol. Mendolo Kidul

Chopper. Unfinished adze. hammer stone . Iron slog

3

KaliPogog

Pogog. Manfren

Chopper

4

K1epu

Klepu. Punung

Bead. melal object. chert flake"

5

Jalisorl

Jenson. Punung

Arrowhead. hammer stone. potsherd. Iron slog

22

Kali Baksoko

Ng lebeng. M end olo K1dul

Flakes a nd c ore tools

6

Mojo

Mojo. Punung

Arrowhead

23

Kembang

Gunung Semut

G unung Semut. Ken dal

Unfinishe d a dze. arro wh ea d

Kembang. Mendolo Lor

Iron slog

7

24

Dukun

Dukun . Mendolo Lor

C hert flake

8

Padangan

Padangan. Kendal

Unfinished a dze. c hert flak e. potshe rd "

25

Ngaglik

Ngaglik. Mendolo Lor

Arrowhead

9

Nglrlm an

Ngl rlman. Piton

Unflnlshe d a dze

26

Krajan Mend olo Lor

Kraja n. Mendolo Lor

Unfinished adze

10

NgrlJang Sengon

Sengon. Piton

Unflnished adze. c hert fla ke. p otsherd "

27

Ngaglik Lor

Ngagllk Lor. Mend olo Lor

Arrowhead

11

Pilo n

Piton. Piton

Unfinished adze

28

Gela nda ngan

Kem bang. Gondosarl

12

Krajan Kulon

KraJan Kulon. Piton

Unflnished adze

Che rt fla ke. row mate rlal

13

Kraja n Pito n

Krajan. Piton

Unfinished adze. hammer stone

29

Gunung Tempe

Kem bang. Gandosarl

Bead. melal object. potsherd

14

Ngrljanga n

Ngrljangan. Sooko

Unflnlshed adze. chert flake. potsherd "

30

No ngko

No ngko. Gandosorl

Bead

31

Tukluk Panggang

Tukluk Pangga ng. Dukun

Unfinished adze. hammer stone

15

Ngrljang

Ngrljang. Sooko

Unfinished adze. chert flake

32

Ngrljang Sekar

Ngrljang. Sekar

16

Kedung Menjangan

Sooko

Unflnlshed adze. chopper

Unfinished a dze. hammer stone

33

Ptoso

Ploso. Belah

Potsherd

17

K~tukan

Kutu kan. Mendolo K1d ul

Chert flake

34

Branjang

Branjang. Belah

Chert flake

18

Njelok

Cambahan. Mendolo Kldul

Arrowhead

35

Ja li sorl

Jonson. Belah

Potsherd

36

Kebon Jalisarl

Jcn sort Belah

Potsherd

\

283

282 Appendix 2 (continued) ~

No.

Site

Hamlet/Village

Settlemenl remains

37

Melikan

Mellkan, Sukodono

Unfinished adze. hammer stone, iron slag'

38

Druju

Druju. Donorojo

Chert flake

39

Kepek

Kepek. Donorojo

Chert flake

40

Gedangan

Gedangan. Gedangan

Chert flake. unfinished adze

41

Gondang

Jontt, Pringkuku

Unfinished adze

42

Sembungan

Sembungan. Pelem

Arrowhead. Iron object

43

B1imbing

B1imbing. Ngodlrejan

Potsherd

44

SUmber

Sumber. Ngadirejan

Potsherd

45

Mulamulu

Ngadirejan. Ngadirejan

Unfinished adze

46

Glagahan

Glagaha n. Sejafl

Rawma lerial

47

Kali Gu nung lNIyu

Gunung lNIyu. Sejall

Chopping tool. unfinished adze. nuclei

48

Telogo Jeruk

Telogo Jeruk, Jallrejo

Rawmalerial

49

Kali Pakem

Dewesan. Pakem Kldul

Raw material

50

Palds

Punung .Punung

Metal objecl

51

KallOyol

Warasan . Kedung Keris

Flakes and care toots

52

Kall Oyo II

Jonrelo. Karang Tengah

Flakes and core tools

53

KallOyoIII

Ngasem. Getas

Flakes and core tools

54

KallOyoIV

Bunder. Bunder

Flakes and core lools

55

KallOyoV

Glaran. Glaran

Flakes and core tools

56

KalL.Oyo VI

Prembulan. Prembutan

-

~

.. -

-:.~

-

-~ 2

,

-~3

Figure 35: The unretouched flakes from Keplek Cave. 1: 5723-03; 2: 5787-03; 3: 5727-03.

Flakes and core toots

Noles: ' : excavaled finds -: unobserved or no flnd

"

284

285

.p-"

-~-

-~ -

--~2

2

o

-~3

3

Figure 36: Points from Keplek Cave. I: 7424-B6 ; 2: 8232-B6 ; 3: 677I -B6.

-~4

Figure 37: Borers from Keplek Cave. I: 6888-B6 (wood fossil); 2: 4974-B6; 3: 8223B6; 4: 5575-B6. .

286

287

I

~

Figure 38: Borers from Keplek Cave. I: 871-03 ; 2: 912-03 ; 3: 46-03; 4: 903-03.

Figure 39: Utilized flakes from Keplek Cave. I: 587-F8; 2: 667-F8; 3: 1512-F8; 4: 2005-F8; 5: 395-F8.

288

289

-~ -

.' • .D'Im~ •

-

(}~ (i--~.

;1'

2

--0

o~

- ."

Figure 40: The utilized flakes from Keplek Cave. I : 7287- B6; 2: 4515- B6; 3: 5566B6. Figure 41: End scrapers from Keplek Cave. I: 36-F8; 2: 1733-F8; 3: 1666-F8; 4: 295F8; 5: 158-F8; 6: 1327-F8.

290

291

Figure 42: "Chopping tool" of limestone from Braholo Cave . 313-MS.

Figure 43: Core tool from Braholo Cave. Arrow pointing at flaking direction . 366-D5.

292

293

v-i 0

....0 ...> V)

u'" e

0

Il

0

"0

~

Q:l

a ,g

"

c:

I

~

0

3cm

~

]" """'0

'.... "0. 0. 0

-- \

..c:

\J

2

~

e ec u:: ::J

--~3

Figure 45: Various types of scraper from Keplek Cave. I: 288-08; 2: 72-08.

I 295

294

\

-~-

-.2

-

Figure 46: Spatula from Braholo Cave. I : 434-05 ; 2: 45-05.

-~Figure 47: Other type of spatula from Braholo Cave. 38-N8.

296

EDITOR Truman Simanjuntak was born in 1951 in Pematang Siantar. He degreed in archaeology in 1973 at the Faculty of Letters, Gadjah Mada University. From 1977 to 1986, he was a researcher at the Archaeological Research Sub-Centre in Yogyakarta. From 1986 to 1991, he obtained a scholarship from the French Government to continue study in prehistory. In France, he obtained a DEA (Diploma of in-depth studies) based on a thesis entitled "Contribution a I'etude des materiels Iithiques du site de Verrieres 1, Essonne, France". He went on studying on French prehistory for his PhD, which focused on the prehistoric sites of the Grandes Causses area in the south of France. He got his doctorate in 1991, based on a dissertation entitled "Contribution a I'Etude des Civilisations Prehistoriques et Protohistoriques de la Lozere et des Regions Limitrophes". .

-~ -

3

- #t -

2

4

Figure 48: Bone tools from Braholo Cave: spatula (above), point (left below), needle (right below).

As a senior researcher, Truman has been conducting researches in most parts of the Archipelago. For the last decade, he has been the coordinator of international prehistoric joint researches in the National Research Centre of Archaeology. He wrote many articles on the prehistory of Indonesia and took part in many scientific seminars and conferences in Indonesia and abroad. Since 1993, he is the executive chairman of the Association of the Indonesian Archaeologists.

GUNUNG SEWU

IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

Gunung 5ewu, a part of the Southern Mounta ins of Java, is one of the most important areas for prehistoric life. Early Man has settled this area since very remote times and continued living there throughout a very long t ime span -hundreds of thousands rJ years- until the end of prehistory. Man exploited different natural resources available in the environment and developed tech nok>gies for fabricating tools. There was a progressive evolution from the simplest ways, in the remote past. until the more complex ways, approaching the historic period. Such cultural developments started in the Paleolithic and went on to the Preneohthic, the Neolithic. and until the

PaleometalliC. Settlement remains disperse in large numbers in the form of sites, artifacts and ecotaets. This book presents a synthesis of multidisciplinary researches on the preh istory of Gunung Sewu. Intentionally composed in an accessible way, it consists of a series of short artides discussing different topic; and completed with rK:h illustrations. The main themes to be taken up concern man, his culture, and his environment. Questions to be answered are among others: since when did men settle in this area, who were they, what were their environmental conditions, how did they exploit natural resources, which were their cultural characteristics compared to other regions, how was cultural devek>pment throughout the settlement activities? By answering these questions, this book presents a comprehensive view of the prehistory of Gunung 5ewu in a diachronic way. Those who read it from the beginn ing will soon recognize the accupation history of th is region from the earliest times to the end Prehistory. This booI<. therefore, offers new insights for a better onderstanding of the Gunung 5ewu prehistory in particular, and for Indonesian prehistory in general.

'*

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