FTCE English to Speakers of Other Languages K-12 (XAM FTCE)

FTCE English to Speakers of Other Languages K-12 Teacher Certification Exam By: Sharon Wynne, M.S. Southern Connecticut State University

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FTCE: English to Speakers of Other Languages K-12 ISBN: 978-1-60787-776-9

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Great Study and Testing Tips! What to study in order to prepare for the subject assessments is the focus of this study guide but equally important is how you study. You can increase your chances of truly mastering the information by taking some simple, but effective steps.

Study Tips: 1. Some foods aid the learning process. Foods such as milk, nuts, seeds, rice, and oats help your study efforts by releasing natural memory enhancers called CCKs (cholecystokinin) composed of tryptophan, choline, and phenylalanine. All of these chemicals enhance the neurotransmitters associated with memory. Before studying, try a light, protein-rich meal of eggs, turkey, and fish. All of these foods release the memory enhancing chemicals. The better the connections, the more you comprehend. Likewise, before you take a test, stick to a light snack of energy boosting and relaxing foods. A glass of milk, a piece of fruit, or some peanuts all release various memory-boosting chemicals and help you to relax and focus on the subject at hand. 2. Learn to take great notes. A by-product of our modern culture is that we have grown accustomed to getting our information in short doses (i.e. TV news sound bites or USA Today style newspaper articles.) Consequently, we’ve subconsciously trained ourselves to assimilate information better in neat little packages. If your notes are scrawled all over the paper, it fragments the flow of the information. Strive for clarity. Newspapers use a standard format to achieve clarity. Your notes can be much clearer through use of proper formatting. A very effective format is called the “Cornell Method.” Take a sheet of loose-leaf lined notebook paper and draw a line all the way down the paper about 1-2" from the left-hand edge. Draw another line across the width of the paper about 1-2" up from the bottom. Repeat this process on the reverse side of the page. Look at the highly effective result. You have ample room for notes, a left hand margin for special emphasis items or inserting supplementary data from the textbook, a large area at the bottom for a brief summary, and a little rectangular space for just about anything you want.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 3. Get the concept then the details. Too often we focus on the details and don’t gather an understanding of the concept. However, if you simply memorize only dates, places, or names, you may well miss the whole point of the subject. A key way to understand things is to put them in your own words. If you are working from a textbook, automatically summarize each paragraph in your mind. If you are outlining text, don’t simply copy the author’s words. Rephrase them in your own words. You remember your own thoughts and words much better than someone else’s, and subconsciously tend to associate the important details to the core concepts. 4. Ask Why? Pull apart written material paragraph by paragraph and don’t forget the captions under the illustrations. Example: If the heading is “Stream Erosion,” flip it around to read “Why do streams erode?” Then answer the questions. If you train your mind to think in a series of questions and answers, not only will you learn more, but it also helps to lessen the test anxiety because you are used to answering questions. 5. Read for reinforcement and future needs. Even if you only have 10 minutes, put your notes or a book in your hand. Your mind is similar to a computer; you have to input data in order to have it processed. By reading, you are creating the neural connections for future retrieval. The more times you read something, the more you reinforce the learning of ideas. Even if you don’t fully understand something on the first pass, your mind stores much of the material for later recall. 6. Relax to learn, and go into exile. Our bodies respond to an inner clock called biorhythms. Burning the midnight oil works well for some people, but not everyone. If possible, set aside a particular place to study that is free of distractions. Shut off the television, cell phone, and pager and exile your friends and family during your study period. If you really are bothered by silence, try background music. Light classical music at a low volume has been shown to aid in concentration over other types. Music that evokes pleasant emotions without lyrics is highly suggested. Try just about anything by Mozart. It relaxes you.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 7. Use arrows, not highlighters. At best, it’s difficult to read a page full of yellow, pink, blue, and green streaks. Try staring at a neon sign for a while and you’ll soon see that the horde of colors obscure the message. A quick note, a brief dash of color, an underline, and an arrow pointing to a particular passage is much clearer than a horde of highlighted words. 8. Budget your study time. Although you shouldn’t ignore any of the material, allocate your available study time in the same ratio that topics may appear on the test.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Testing Tips: 1. Get smart, play dumb. Don’t read anything into the question. Don’t make an assumption that the test writer is looking for something else than what is asked. Stick to the question as written and don’t read extra things into it. 2. Read the question and all the choices twice before answering the question. You may miss something by not carefully reading, and then re-reading both the question and the answers. If you really don’t have a clue as to the right answer, leave it blank on the first time through. Go on to the other questions, as they may provide a clue as to how to answer the skipped questions. If later on, you still can’t answer the skipped ones . . . Guess. The only penalty for guessing is that you might get it wrong. Only one thing is certain; if you don’t put anything down, you will get it wrong! 3. Turn the question into a statement. Look at the way the questions are worded. The syntax of the question usually provides a clue. Does it seem more familiar as a statement rather than as a question? Does it sound strange? By turning a question into a statement, you may be able to spot if an answer sounds right, and it may also trigger memories of material you have read. 4. Look for hidden clues. It’s actually very difficult to compose multiplefoil (choice) questions without giving away part of the answer in the options presented. In most multiple-choice questions you can often readily eliminate one or two of the potential answers. This leaves you with only two real possibilities and automatically your odds increase to fifty-fifty for very little work. 5. Trust your instincts. For every fact that you have read, you subconsciously retain something of that knowledge. On questions that you aren’t really certain about, go with your basic instincts. Your first impression of how to answer a question is usually correct. 6. Mark your answers directly on the test booklet. Don’t bother trying to fill in the optical scan sheet on the first pass through the test. Just be very careful not to miss-mark your answers when you eventually transcribe them to the scan sheet.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 7. Watch the clock! You have a set amount of time to answer the questions. Don’t get bogged down trying to answer a single question at the expense of 10 questions you can more readily answer.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Table of Contents COMPETENCY 1.0 KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE PRINCIPLES ...................... 1 Skill 1.1

Identify basic concepts of phonology as they apply to language development and performance.......................................................... 1

Skill 1.2

Identify the use and application of phonographemic differences ....... 3

Skill 1.3

Apply morphemic analysis to a given word........................................ 4

Skill 1.4

Apply principles of English morphology as they relate to language acquisition.......................................................................... 5

Skill 1.5

Apply principles of English semantics as they relate to language acquisition ......................................................................................... 6

Skill 1.6

Apply principles of English pragmatics as they relate to language acquisition.......................................................................... 7

Skill 1.7

Apply principles of English syntax as they relate to language acquisition ......................................................................................... 8

Skill 1.8

Apply principles of English discourse as they relate to language acquisition ......................................................................................... 10

Skill 1.9

Analyze the grammatical structure of an English sentence ............... 12

Skill 1.10

Identify concepts and influences associated with social and regional varieties of American English............................................... 15

Skill 1.11

Compare the sociolinguistic language functions of social and regional varieties of American English............................................... 16

Skill 1.12

Identify sociolinguistic principles that have influenced the development of the English language................................................ 18

Skill 1.13

Identify historical processes that have influenced the development of the English language................................................ 20

COMPETENCY 2.0 Knowledge of first and second language acquisition theories and classroom application.................................... 22 Skill 2.1

Identify the principles of first language acquisition theories............... 22

Skill 2.2

Identify the principles of second language acquisition theories ......... 23

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 2.3

Identify first and second language acquisition processes.................. 24

Skill 2.4

Identify language characteristics of basic interpersonal communication skills and cognitive academic language proficiency ......................................................................................... 25

Skill 2.5

Identify the impact of second language acquisition research on classroom instruction......................................................................... 27

Skill 2.6

Identify characteristics of interlanguage ............................................ 30

Skill 2.7

Identify factors influencing, and characteristics of, bilingualism......... 31

Skill 2.8

Identify the influence of cognitive factors on second language acquisition ......................................................................................... 31

Skill 2.9

Identify the influence of affective factors on second language acquisition ......................................................................................... 32

Skill 2.10

Identify the influence of social factors on second language acquisition ......................................................................................... 33

Skill 2.11

Analyze the effects of second language acquisition on acculturation ...................................................................................... 35

Skill 2.12

Identify sources of second language learner errors (e.g.. language transfer, generalization, other communication strategies)........................................................................................... 36

COMPETENCY 3.0 Knowledge of sociolinguistic, cultural, ethnic, and sociopolitical issues ............................................................ 39 Skill 3.1

Identify factors of sociolinguistic diversity that affect English language learners’ (ELLs’) learning outcomes. ................................39

Skill 3.2

Identify government policies that affect ELLs’ participation and achievement in U.S. schools. ...........................................................40

Skill 3.3

Identify political trends that have affected the education of ELLs. .......................................................................................................... 41

Skill 3.4

Identify social trends that have affected the education of ELLs. .......................................................................................................... 42

Skill 3.5

Analyze elements of culture and its impact on instruction and student learning. ............................................................................... 43

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 3.6

Identify characteristics of different stages of cultural adjustment. ..... 45

Skill 3.7

Identify levels of cultural adaptation (e.g., assimilation, acculturation, accommodation). ........................................................ 46

Skill 3.8

Identify ways student participation, learning, and adjustment can be affected by cultural differences (e.g., religious, economic, social, family). ................................................................................... 47

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Identify methods of increasing multicultural sensitivity. ....................49

COMPETENCY 4.0 Knowledge of curriculum, curriculum materials, and resources .............................................................................. 51 Skill 4.1

Identify appropriate curricular adaptations according to level of language proficiency. ........................................................................ 51

Skill 4.2

Determine appropriate instruction of content curricula for varying levels of language proficiency. .......................................................... 52

Skill 4.3

Identify methods of scaffolding text and context for ELLs. ................ 53

Skill 4.4

Identify supplemental resources that address cultural, ethnic, and linguistic differences. .................................................................54

Skill 4.5

Identify major professional organizations, publications, and resources that support ELLs’ learning. .............................................56

Skill 4.6

Identify supplemental resources that increase comprehension of text and context for ELLs. ................................................................. 58

COMPETENCY 5.0 Knowledge of instructional delivery models ..................... 60 Skill 5.1

Identify the major models of bilingual education. .............................. 60

Skill 5.2

Identify the major models of ESOL programs. .................................. 61

Skill 5.3

Identify the criteria considered in selecting and developing a program model. ................................................................................63

Skill 5.4

Identify major research findings (e.g., L1 maintenance, L2 acquisition, weak and strong forms) of bilingual and ESOL programs. .........................................................................................64

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 6.0 Knowledge of instructional methods and strategies ........ 66 Skill 6.1

Identify instructional strategies that promote second language acquisition. .......................................................................................66

Skill 6.2

Identify metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective strategies that promote second language acquisition. ......................................66

Skill 6.3

Identify features of the natural approach and activities for various proficiency levels. ................................................................. 68

Skill 6.4

Identify appropriate total physical response (TPR) activities for various proficiency levels. ................................................................. 69

Skill 6.5

Identify features of communicative approaches and activities for teaching ESOL for various proficiency levels. ................................... 70

Skill 6.6

Identify appropriate language experience approach activities for various proficiency levels. ................................................................. 71

Skill 6.7

Identify appropriate ESOL strategies and modifications for content-based instruction for various proficiency levels. ................... 72

Skill 6.8

Identify major researchers and their contributions to the field of second language teaching and learning. ..........................................74

Skill 6.9

Match instructional approaches with language learning theories. .......................................................................................................... 76

Skill 6.10

Identify appropriate methods and strategies to teach language arts to ELLs. .....................................................................................78

Skill 6.11

Identify appropriate methods and strategies to teach basic language skills. ................................................................................. 79

Skill 6.12

Identify appropriate instructional interventions to address fossilization. ...................................................................................... 81

Skill 6.13

Identify methods and strategies of differentiating instruction for ELLs in general education classes ................................................... 82

Skill 6.14

Identify methods of incorporating students’ first languages and cultures into the existing curriculum. ................................................. 83

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 7.0 Knowledge of instructional technology .............................

85

Skill 7.1

Identify appropriate instructional technology (e.g., CDs, DVDs, video, audio cassettes) and its use in ESOL lessons. ......................85

Skill 7.2

Identify the classroom implications of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and computer-mediated communication (CMC) in instructing ELLs. .......................................

86

Skill 7.3

Identify the instructional implications of using synchronous and asynchronous software to promote ELLs’ language acquisition. ......86

Skill 7.4

Identify major research findings since 1995 on the use of CALL and CMC with ELLs. .........................................................................

87

Identify criteria for evaluating commercially available ESOL software. ...........................................................................................

88

Skill 7.5

Skill 7.6

Identify criteria for evaluating Internet resources for ESOL. .............89

COMPETENCY 8.0 Knowledge of literacy development and classroom application ............................................................................

91

Skill 8.1

Identify characteristics of reading stages for ELLs.

..........................91

Skill 8.2

Identify characteristics of writing stages for ELLs. ............................

93

Skill 8.3

Identify characteristics of emergent literacy. .....................................

94

Skill 8.4

Identify strategies to promote emergent literacy. ..............................

95

Skill 8.5

Identify methods of incorporating the student’s first language into second language literacy development. .....................................

96

Skill 8.6

Identify characteristics of critical literacy. ..........................................

98

Skill 8.7

Identify strategies to promote critical literacy. ...................................

99

Skill 8.8

Identify appropriate methods of instructing ELLs in the areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. ................................................................................

Skill 8.9

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Identify appropriate methods for developing literacy for ELLs with limited literacy in their first language. ........................................102

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 9.0 Knowledge of assessment .................................................. 103 Skill 9.1

Identify factors that affect the assessment of ELLs. .........................103

Skill 9.2

Identify appropriate alternative assessments that measure ELLs’ performance. ....................................................................................104

Skill 9.3

Identify examples of cultural and linguistic bias in tests..................... 106

Skill 9.4

Identify appropriate adaptations of tests, test items, and test tasks according to the student’s level of English proficiency. ...........108

Skill 9.5

Identify statewide assessment policies and accommodations in ESOL. ............................................................................................... 108

Skill 9.6

Interpret ELL assessment data (e.g., proficiency, achievement). .......................................................................................................... 109

COMPETENCY 10.0 Knowledge of ELL exceptionality issues ......................... 111 Skill 10.1

Identify the similarities and differences between second language development and learning disabilities. ..............................111

Skill 10.2

Identify the similarities and differences between second language development and language disorders. .............................. 112

Skill 10.3

Identify strategies for early identification of possible exceptionalities prior to any formal referral process. ........................113

Skill 10.4

Identify the policies and procedures in referral processes for ELLs with possible exceptionalities. .................................................114

Skill 10.5

Identify appropriate assessment procedures for ELLs with exceptionalities. ................................................................................ 115

Skill 10.6

Identify appropriate instructional strategies for ELLs with exceptionalities. ................................................................................ 116

COMPETENCY 11.0 Knowledge of federal and state policies and mandates ........................................................................... 118 Skill 11.1

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Identify regulations of the most recent reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act as they apply to ELLs. ................................................................................................118

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 11.2 Skill 11.3

Skill 11.4

Identify major U.S. Supreme Court decisions that have affected the education of ELLs. ...................................................................... 119 Identify major court decisions, legislation, and legal agreements that have affected the education of ELLs. ........................................119 Apply the major components of the LULAC, et al. v. State Board of Education, et al. Consent Decree to specific situations. ...............120

Sample Test .......................................................................................................... 123 Rigor Table .......................................................................................................... 147 Answer Key .......................................................................................................... 148 Rationales

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 1.0 KNOWLEDGE OF LANGUAGE PRINCIPLE Skill 1.1 Identify the basic concepts of phonology as they apply to language development and performance The definition of phonology can be summarized as “the way in which speech sounds form patterns” (Díaz-Rico & Weed, 1995). Phonology is a subset of the linguistics field, which studies the organization and systems of sound within a particular language. Phonology is based on the theory that every native speaker unconsciously retains the sound structure of that language and is more concerned with the sounds than with the physical process of creating those sounds. When babies babble or make what we call “baby talk,” they are actually experimenting with all of the sounds represented in all languages. As they learn a specific language, they become more proficient in the sounds of that language and forget how to make sounds that they don’t need or use. Phonemes, pitch, and stress are all components of phonology. Because each affects the meaning of communications, they are variables that ELLs must recognize and learn. Phonology analyzes the sound structure of the given language by: Determining which phonetic sounds have the most significance Explaining how these sounds influence a native speaker of the language For example, the Russian alphabet has a consonant, which, when pronounced, sounds like the word “rouge” in French. English speakers typically have difficulty pronouncing this sound pattern, because inherently they know this is not a typical English sound--even though it occasionally is encountered (Díaz-Rico & Weed, 1995). Mastering a sound that does not occur in the learner’s first language requires ongoing repetition, both of hearing the sound and attempting to say it. The older the learner, the more difficult this becomes, especially if the learner has only spoken one language before reaching puberty. Correct pronunciation may literally require years of practice because initially the learner may not hear the sound correctly. Expecting an ELL to master a foreign pronunciation quickly leads to frustration for the teacher and the learner. With enough focused repetition, however, the learner may eventually hear the difference and then be able to imitate it. Inadequate listening and speaking practice will result in a persistent heavy accent.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Phonemes are the smallest unit of sound that affects meaning, i.e. distinguish two words. In English, there are approximately 44 speech sounds yet only 26 letters, so the sounds, when combined, become words. For this reason, English is not considered a phonetic language where there is a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. For example, consider the two words, “pin” and “bin.” The only difference is the first consonant of the words, the “p” in “pin” and “b” in “bin.” This makes the sounds “p” and “b” phonemes in English, because the difference in sound creates a difference in meaning. Focusing on phonemes to provide pronunciation practice allows students to have fun while they learn to recognize and say sounds. Pairs or groups of words that have a set pattern make learning easier. For example, students can practice saying or thinking of words that rhyme but begin with a different phoneme, such as tan, man, fan, and ran. Other groups of words might start with the same phoneme followed by various vowel sounds, such as ten, ton, tan, and tin. This kind of alliteration can be expanded into tongue twisters that students find challenging and fun. Vowels and consonants should be introduced in a deliberate order to allow combinations that form real words, though “made-up” words that have no real meaning in English should also be encouraged when introducing new sounds.

Pitch in communication determines the context or meaning of words or series of words. A string of words can communicate more than one meaning; for example, when posed as a question or statement. For example, the phrase “I can’t go” acts as a statement, if the pitch or intonation falls. However, the same phrase becomes the question “I can’t go?” if the pitch or intonation rises for the word “go.” Stress can occur at a “word” or “sentence” level. At the “word” level, different stresses on the syllable can actually modify the word’s meaning. Consider the word “conflict.” To pronounce it as a noun, one would stress the first syllable, as in “CONflict.” However, to use it as a verb, the second syllable would be stressed, as in “conFLICT.” Different dialects sometimes pronounce the same word differently, even though both pronunciations have the same meaning. For example, in some parts of the United States the word “insurance” is pronounced by stressing the second syllable, while in other parts of the country the first syllable is stressed.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE At the “sentence” level, stress can also be used to vary the meaning. For example, consider the following questions and how the meaning changes, according to the stressed words: He did that? (Emphasis is on the person) He did that? (Emphasis is on the action) He did that? (Emphasis is on object of the action) This type of meaning differentiation is difficult for most ELL students to grasp and requires innovative teaching, such as acting out the three different meanings. However, since pitch and stress can change the meaning of a sentence completely, students must learn to recognize these differences. Not recognizing sarcasm or anger can cause students considerable problems in their academic and everyday endeavors. Unlike languages such as Spanish or French, English has multiple pronunciations of vowels and consonants, which contributes to making it a difficult language to learn. While phonetic rules are critical to learning to read and write, in spite of there being numerous exceptions, they do little to assist listening and speaking skills. Skill 1.2 Identify the use and application of phonographemic differences Phonographemics refers to the study of letters and letter combinations. Unlike most languages, in English one symbol can represent many phonemes. While some phonetic rules apply, English has numerous exceptions, which makes it a difficult language to learn. In teaching English to speakers of other languages, the wide variation of phonemes represented by a single symbol must be taught and drilled. If it is difficult for native speakers to learn the English spelling system, it is a great leap for the foreign language learner. Graphemes should be introduced long after spoken English. Students must first begin to be able to speak and hear the language before they can be taught to spell it. The phonology of English is an important component of an ESOL program. Phonographemic differences between words of English are a common source of confusion and thus need to be taught explicitly with plenty of learning activities to enable learners to acquire them sufficiently. Some areas of focus for the ESOL classroom include: Homonyms: A general term that describes word forms that have two or more meanings. Homographs: Two or more words that have the same spelling or pronunciation but different meanings, e.g., stalk (part of a plant)/stalk (follow).

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Homophones: Two or more words that have the same pronunciation but different meanings and spelling, e.g., wood/would, cite/sight. Heteronyms: Two or more words that have the same spelling, but have a different pronunciation and meaning, e.g., Polish/polish. Some useful activities for instruction would be to identify misspelled words, to recognize multiple meanings of words and sentences, to spell words correctly within a given context, and to match words with their meanings. Skill 1.3

Apply morphemic analysis to a given word

Morphemic analysis requires breaking a word down into its component parts to determine its meaning. It shows the relationship between the root or base word and the prefix and/or suffix to determine the word’s meaning. A morpheme is the smallest unit of language system which has meaning. These units are more commonly known as: the root word, the prefix and the suffix, and they cannot be broken down into any smaller units. The root word or base word is the key to understanding a word, because this is where the actual meaning is determined. A prefix acts as a syllable, which appears in front of the root or base word and can alter the meaning of the root or base word. A suffix is a letter or letters, which are added to the end of the word and can alter the original tense or meaning of the root or base word. The following is an example of how morphemic analysis can be applied to a word: Choose a root or base word, such as “kind.” Create as many new words as possible, by changing the prefix and suffix. New words, would include unkind, kindness, and kindly. Learning common roots, prefixes, and suffixes greatly helps ELLs to decode unfamiliar words. This can make a big difference in how well a student understands written language. Students who can decode unfamiliar words become less frustrated when reading in English and, as a result, are likely to read more. They have greater comprehension and their language skills improve more quickly. Having the tools to decode unfamiliar words enables ELLs to perform better on standardized tests because they are more likely to understand the questions and answer choices.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Guessing at the meaning of words should be encouraged. Too often students become dependent on translation dictionaries, which cause the students not to develop morphemic analysis skills. Practice should include identifying roots, prefixes, and suffixes, as well as using morphemic knowledge to form new words. Skill 1.4 Apply principles of morphology as they relate to language acquisition Morphology refers to the process of how the words of a language are formed to create meaningful messages. ESOL teachers need to be aware of the principles of morphology in English to provide meaningful activities that will help in the process of language acquisition. ESOL learners need to understand the structure of words in English, and how words may be created and altered. Some underlying principles of the morphology of English are: 1. Morphemes may be free and able to stand by themselves (e.g., chair, bag) or they may be bound or derivational, needing to be used with other morphemes to create meaning (e.g., read-able, en-able). 2. Knowledge of the meanings of derivational morphemes such as prefixes and suffixes enables students to decode word meanings and create words in the language through word analysis, e.g., un-happy means not happy. 3. Some morphemes in English provide grammatical rather than semantic information for words and sentences (e.g., of, the, and). 4. Words can be combined in English to create new compound words (e.g., key + chain = keychain). ESOL teachers also need to be aware that principles of morphology from the native language may be transferred to either promote or interfere with the second language learning process. When students overgeneralize a learned rule or simply make a mistake, corrections should be made in a way that does not embarrass the student. Teachers must also consider a student’s stage of progress and the context of the error. Correcting every single error is unnecessary when students are experimenting with language and bravely trying to use a language they are struggling to learn. A useful technique is to repeat segments of spoken language, as if to confirm understanding, and correct any errors. This saves face for the student and allows the teacher to demonstrate the correct word use or pronunciation. If the student fails to notice the correction and makes the same error again, the teacher can repeat the same type of correction. Teachers can also demonstrate variations of words in this manner, such as using a different verb tense to paraphrase what was said.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Constantly interrupting speech to make corrections or correcting every error in a writing sample can discourage participation and cause students to shut down to learning. Keeping track of errors that students repeat allows the teacher to re-teach specific skills or address specific needs, either with a group of students who all need to master that skill, or individually for a student who has not yet mastered a skill after others in the class have. Skill 1.5 Apply principles of English semantics as they relate to language acquisition Semantics encompasses the meaning of individual words, as well as combinations of words. Native speakers have used their language to function in their daily lives at all levels. Through experience they know the effects of intonation, connotation, and synonyms. This is not true of foreign speakers. In an ESOL class, we are trying to teach what the native speaker already knows as quickly as possible. The objectives of beginning ESOL lesson plans should deliberately build a foundation that will enable students to meet more advanced objectives. Teaching within a specific context helps students to understand the meaning of words and sentences. When students can remember the context in which they learn words and recall how the words were used, they retain that knowledge and can compare it when different applications of the same words are introduced. Using words in a variety of contexts helps students reach a deeper understanding of the word. They can then guess at new meanings that are introduced in different contexts. For example, the word “conduct” can be taught in the context of conducting a meeting or an investigation. Later the word “conductor” can be used in various contexts that demonstrate some similarity but have distinctly different uses of the word, such as a conductor of electricity; the conductor of a train; the conductor of an orchestra; and so forth. Second language learners must learn to translate words and sentences that they already understand in their primary language into the language they wish to acquire. This can be a daunting task because of the many ways meaning is created in English. Voice inflection, variations of meaning, variations of usage, and emphasis are some of the factors that affect meaning. The lexicon of language includes the stored meaning, contextual meaning from word association, knowledge of pronunciation and grammar, and morphemes.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Idioms, particularly those that cannot be translated literally, present a particular challenge to ELLs. Here, again, creating contexts facilitates learning. Grouping idioms according to types of language use helps. Some idioms rely on synonyms, some hyperbole, others metaphor. Having students translate idioms from their native language into English strengthens their ability to appreciate the meaning of idioms. Also, having students create their own original idioms increases understanding. How idioms are taught greatly affects how well they are remembered and the level of frustration the ELL experiences. Visual representations of idioms make meaning easier to understand and provide a memory cue to prompt recall. Using commercially produced illustrations or having students draw their own representation of the meaning makes learning idioms easier and more fun. Students can also write stories or perform skits that illustrate the meaning of idioms. Skill 1.6 Apply principles of English pragmatics as they relate to language acquisition Pragmatics is the study of how the context impacts the interpretation of language. Situations dictate language choice, body language, the degree of intimacy, and how meaning is interpreted. For example, when customers walk into bar and sit down on a stool, they expect a bartender will ask them several questions: “What would you like to drink?” and “Would you like to start a tab?” This sequence of events and cues is typical pattern of interaction in a bar. Pragmatic knowledge provides the customer with a set of expectations for the flow of events. Pragmatic knowledge sets customer expectations. Typically people in a bar expect a certain level of social exchange that allows congeniality without intrusiveness. They expect to receive a certain level of service, and to use a particular level of manners. These types of exchanges are fairly universal in bars, but would be completely inappropriate in a more formal setting, for example, when conversing with the president of a corporation. In the ESL classroom, pragmatics can be illustrated and practiced by repeating the same situation in different contexts. For example, students can write or act out how they would explain to three different people why they failed a test: their best friend, their teacher, and their parent. With a little imagination, different scenarios can be chosen that pique student interest and make learning fun. For example, explain an embarrassing event in different contexts, such as in front of a boy/girl you want to impress, a close friend, and an authority figure. For students with very low language skills, pantomime can encourage participation, teach the concept, and set up an opportunity for using language to describe what has happened.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Comparing the customs of various cultures provides another opportunity for illustrating how context affects meaning, especially when students in a class represent a variety of cultures, For example, in other parts of the world, especially parts of Europe and the Middle East, people commonly greet each other by kissing on both cheeks, even if meeting for the first time. However, in the United States, and many other countries, this greeting is not practiced, and is actually somewhat culturally unacceptable. For some people this practice would even be offensive or might be ridiculed. Describing and comparing cultural practices provides language practice and demonstrates meaning in context. Explaining the nuances of English requires ongoing reinforcement. As examples surface, they should be explained and alternative ways to express the same message explored to clarify or expand on the meaning. Pragmatic features in communication can be very indirect. For example, when parents say to their children, “Have you finished your homework?” they are implying a command that if homework has not been completed, the children should stop their current activity and finish their homework. The pragmatic features are found in what was actually said, as well as what was not said. Students can generate their own questions that have farther reaching implications. Skill 1.7 Apply principles of English syntax as they relate to language acquisition Syntax involves the order in which words are arranged to create meaning. Different languages use different patterns for sentence structure. Syntax also refers to the rules for creating correct sentence patterns. English, like many other languages, is a subject-verb-object language, which means that in most sentences the subject precedes the verb, and the object follows the verb. ELLs whose native language follows a subject-verb-object pattern will find it easier to master English syntax. The process of second language acquisition includes forming generalizations about the new language and internalizing the rules that are observed. During the silent period, before learners are willing to attempt verbal communication, they are engaged in the process of building a set of syntactic rules for creating grammatically correct sentences in the second language. We don’t yet fully understand the nature of this process, but we do know that learners must go through this process of observing, drawing conclusions about language constructs, and testing the validity of their conclusions. This is why learners benefit more from intense language immersion than from corrections.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Language acquisition is a gradual, hierarchical, and cumulative process. This means that learners must go through and master each stage in sequence, much as Piaget theorized for learning in general. In terms of syntax, this means learners must acquire specific grammatical structures, first recognizing the difference between subject and predicate; putting subject before predicate; and learning more complex variations, such as questions, negatives, and relative clauses. While learners much pass through each stage and accumulate the language skills learned in each progressive stage, learners use different approaches to mastering these skills. Some learners use more cognitive processing procedures, which means their learning takes place more through thought processes, while other learners tend to use psycholinguistic procedures, which employs processing learning more through speech. Regardless of how learners process information, they must all proceed through the same stages, from least to most complicate. Experts disagree on the exact definition of the phases, but a set of six general stages would include: Stage of Development 1. Single words

Examples I; throw; ball

2. SVO structure

I throw the ball.

3. Wh- fronting Do fronting Adverb fronting Negative + verb

Where you are? Do you like me? Today I go to school. She is not nice.

4. Y/N inversion Copula (linking v) inversion Particle shift

Do you know him? Yes, I know him. Is he at school? Take your hat off.

nd

5. Do 2 nd Aux 2 Neg do 2

Why did she leave? Where has he gone? nd

6. Cancel inversion

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She does not live here. I asked what she was doing.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Each progressive step requires the learner to use knowledge from the previous step, as well as new knowledge of the language. As ELLs progress to more advanced stages of syntax, they may react differently depending on their ability to acquire the new knowledge that is required for mastery. A learner who successfully integrates the new knowledge is a “standardizer”; he/she makes generalizations, eliminates erroneous conclusions, and increasingly uses syntactical rules correctly. However, for some learners, the next step may be more difficult than the learner can manage. These learners become “simplifiers”; they revert to syntactical rules learned at easier stages and fail to integrate the new knowledge. When patterns of errors reflect lower level stages, the teacher must re-teach the new syntactical stage. If simplifiers are allowed to repeatedly use incorrect syntax, they risk having their language become fossilized, which makes learning correct syntax that much more difficult. Skill 1.8 Apply principles of English discourse as they relate to language acquisition The term discourse refers to linguistic units composed of several sentences and is derived from the concept of “discursive formation” or communication that involves specialized knowledge of various kinds. Conversations, arguments, or speeches are types of discourses. Discourse shapes the way language is transmitted, and also how we organize our thoughts. The structure of discourse varies among languages and traditions. For example, Japanese writing does not present the main idea at the beginning of an essay; rather, writing builds up to the main idea, which is presented or implied at the end of the essay. This is completely different than English writing, which typically presents the main idea or thesis at the beginning of an essay and repeats it at the end. In addition to language and structure, topic or focus affects discourse. The discourse in various disciplines approach topics differently, such as feminist studies, cultural studies, and literary theory. Discourse plays a role in all spoken and written language, and affects our thinking. Discourse between speakers of English requires knowledge of certain protocols in addition to other aspects of language. Speakers should have the necessary skills to maintain the momentum of a conversation, as well as to correct misunderstandings. Typical spoken discourse follows predictable patterns. For example, one person might say, “I saw a good movie last night.” The other person would ask, “What was it about?” The first person then answers in a paragraph with a topic sentence: “It was about a bunch of guys who devised a plan to rob a casino.” and then proceeds to fill in the details.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Vocal discourse varies significantly depending on context. People speak in different registers depending on who they are talking to and what the occasion calls for. A candidate who is running for president and speaking to a group will use more formal speech than when having a casual conversation. The message conveyed may also vary, depending on whether the group is one of supporters or people who hold different political views. In either case, the candidate must make choices about how to organize what he/she says to ensure comprehension and to hold the audience’s interest. ELLs might initially practice set conversations to learn the patterns of English discourse. Practicing in pairs using a question and answer format gives both participants an opportunity to learn the structures of discourse as well as information about the other person or the other person’s culture. Such practice also gives students practice with other language skills and can increase vocabulary. The teacher may provide a set of questions and learners can alternate asking and answering. Short skits that repeat a limited number of words also provide helpful practice. In addition, allowing students time to converse informally, possibly using suggested topics additionally reinforces speech patterns. Polite discourse includes what is called “empty language” or perfunctory speech that has little meaning but is important in social exchanges. Frequently English speakers start a conversation by asking, “How are you?” even though they have no real interest in the other person’s health. An appropriate response would be, “Fine.” even if the person may not feel well. The exchange is simply a polite means of starting a conversation. Likewise, at the end of a discourse empty language is frequently employed: “It was good to see you.” “Good to see you, too.” This type of discourse is considered part of BICS, or Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills, which learners must acquire to function in social situations. It is generally less demanding than CALP, or Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency, and allows learners to participate in informal discourses.

Written discourse ranges from the most basic grouping of sentences to the most complicated essays and stories. Regardless of the level, English writing demands certain structure patterns. A typical paragraph begins with a topic sentence, which states directly or indirectly the focus of the paragraph; adds supporting ideas and details; and ends with a concluding sentence that relates to the focus and either states the final thought on that topic or provides a transition to the next paragraph when there are more than one. As with spoken discourse, organization, tone, and word choice are critical to transferring thoughts successfully and maintaining interest.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE As skills increase, paragraphs are combined into stories or essays. Each type of writing has specific components and structures. Story writing requires setting, plot, and character. Initially, following a chronological order is probably easiest for ELLs, but as learners become more skillful, other types of order should be practiced, such as adding descriptions in spatial order, Teachers frequently rely on the proverbial three- or five-paragraph essay to teach essay writing because it provides a rigid structure for organizing and expanding ideas within a single focus. It mirrors the paragraph structure organizationally in that the first, introductory paragraph provides the main idea or focus of the essay; each body paragraph adds and develops a supporting idea and details; and the concluding paragraph provides a summary or other type of conclusion that relates to the main idea or focus stated in the first paragraph. Obviously no one considers such mechanical essays to be the ultimate goal of essay writing. However, especially for ELLs, having a rigid structure teaches the basic organizational concept of English essays. By offering strictly defined limits, the teacher reduces the number of variables to learn about essay writing. Starting with a blank page can be overwhelming to ELLs. Working within this structure enables learners to focus on developing each paragraph, a challenging enough task when one considers the language skills required! As learners become better able to control their writing and sustain a focus, variations can be introduced and topics expanded. Language proficiency requires both BICS and CALP. While they have clear distinctions, they also have underlying similarities that contribute to overall language learning. In addition, students should also recognize CUP, or Common Underlying Proficiency. These are skills, ideas, and concepts that learners can transfer from their first language to their English learning. Both similarities and differences between languages can help learners comprehend and learn aspects of English. Skill 1.9

Analyze the grammatical structure of an English sentence

A sentence is a group of words that has a subject and predicate, and expresses a complete idea. A subject tells us what or whom the sentence is about and the predicate makes a statement about what the subject is or does. Subjects and predicates can be modified and combined in different ways to make simple, compound or complex sentences. (In all the following examples, subjects are underlined and predicates italicized.)

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Example: The snow falls quietly. Subject: The subject, or the topic of a sentence, consists of a noun or a pronoun and all the words that modify it. “The snow” is the subject in the above example. The simple subject is the main part of the subject. “Snow” is the simple subject. Predicate: The predicate makes a statement or a comment about the subject and it consists of a verb and all the words that modify it; “falls quietly” is the predicate in the above example. The simple predicate is the main part of the predicate and is always the verb; “falls” is the simple predicate. Compound subject: When the subject consists of two or more pronouns, e.g. Books and magazines filled the room. Compound predicate: A predicate that contains more than one verb pertaining to the subject, e.g., The boys walked and talked. Sentences in English are of three types: Simple Sentence: A simple sentence, or independent clause, is a complete thought consisting of a subject and a predicate: The bus was late. Compound Sentence: A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses joined together by a coordinator (and, or, nor, but, for, yet, so): Tom walked to the bus station and he took the bus.

Complex Sentence: A complex sentence is a sentence consisting of a dependent clause (a group words with a subject and predicate that are not a complete thought) and an independent clause joined together using a subordinator (although, after, when, because, since, while): After I write the report, I will submit it to my teacher. Sentences serve different purposes. They can make a statement (declarative); ask a question (interrogative); give a command (imperative); or express a sense of urgency (exclamatory). Understanding the different purposes for sentences can help ELLs understand the relationship between what they write and the ideas they want to express. ELLs often over-generalize that sentence fragments are short and complete sentences are long. When they truly understand what constitutes a sentence, they will realize that length has nothing to do with whether a sentence is complete or not. For example: “He ran.” is a complete sentence. “After the very funny story began” is a fragment

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE To make these distinctions, learners must know the parts of speech and understand the difference between independent clauses, dependent clauses, and phrases. Phrase: a group of words that does not have a subject and a predicate and cannot stand alone. The most common types of phrases are prepositional (in the room); participial (walking down the street); and infinitive (to run). Parts of speech: the eight classifications for words. Each part of speech has a specific role in sentences. This can be quite difficult for ELLs because the same word can have a different role in different sentences, and a different meaning entirely. Identifying the subject and predicate of the sentence helps to distinguish what role a particular word plays in a sentence. Since English is an S-V-O language, the placement of a word in a sentence relative to the subject or verb indicates what part of speech it is. That TV show was boring. I will show you my new dress. The band plays show tunes at half-time. In these examples, the word show is first a noun, then a verb, and finally an adjective. The parts of speech include: Noun: a person, place, thing or idea. Common nouns are non-specific, while proper nouns name a particular person, place, thing, or idea, and are capitalized. Verb: an action or state of being. Pronoun: a word that takes the place of a noun. Personal pronouns can be first, second, or third person (I, you, he, she it); singular or plural (I/we, you/you, he, she, it/they); and subjective or objective (I/me, you/you, he/him, she/her, it/it, we/us, they/them). Possessive pronouns show ownership (my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, your, yours, their, and theirs). Indefinite pronouns refer to persons, places, things or ideas in general, such as any, each, both, most, something. Adjective: a word that modifies a noun or pronoun. They answer the questions, What kind? How many? and Which?

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Adverb: a word that modifies a verb, and adjective, or another adverb. They answer the questions, How? When? Where? How often? and To what extent? Prepositions: occur in a phrase with a noun or pronoun and show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another word in a sentence. They describe, or show location, direction, or time. Prepositional phrases can have as few as two words, but can include any number or adjectives. Interjection: a word that shows surprise or strong feeling. It can stand alone (Help!) or be used within a sentence (Oh no, I forgot my wallet!) Constructing sentences involves combining words in grammatically correct ways to communicate the desired thought. Avoiding fragments and run-ons requires continual sentence analysis. The test of a complete sentence is: Does it contain a subject and predicate and express a complete idea? Practice identifying independent clauses, dependent clauses, and phrases will help ELLs to write complete sentences. Skill 1.10 Identify concepts and influences associated with social and regional varieties of American English A dialect is a complete system of verbal communication (oral or signed, but not necessarily written) with its own vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. Language variations are often associated with specific regions or social groups. Variations of American English may involve pronunciation, sentence structure, vocabulary and expressions. Dialects are influenced by the social context of language usage. Some factors associated with dialectical differences include ethnic background, gender, age, socioeconomic status, and education. Often people make sweeping generalizations about dialects, categorizing them broadly, such as “a southern drawl” or “a western twang.” The term dialect should not be equated with accent alone. Dialects are complex language systems that have a unique set of rules and vocabulary. In the United States there are hundreds of unique dialects. To the trained ear, the speech of Louisiana dialects is significantly different and distinguishable from Texas dialects, for example, even though we might categorize all of these speakers as having a southern drawl. Other dialects show more profound contrast. Comparing upper-class Boston Brahman speech, which sounds formal and closely related to British English, and Black English, which has a completely different tone and vocabulary, the two sound almost like completely different languages.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Black English provides a good example of a language system that has welldeveloped, consistent rules. For example, in Black English the third person singular form of verbs drops the “s” that standard English uses, so the standard English, “She wants that toy.” becomes “She want that toy.” Black English also drops helping verbs and adds words that previously did not exist in English: “You jivin’ me.”

Any dialect that has established consistent patterns of sounds and grammar is a legitimate language system. It has no more or less validity than any other language. However, in academia, what is considered contemporary standard English is taught. Certainly within standard English one experiences variations of pronunciation and grammar rules, but overall there is a reasonably consistent set of rules that can and should be taught to ELLs. In the ESL classroom it is worthwhile to have ELLs reflect on and discuss dialectical differences in their first language. Recognizing the types of differences that exist among dialects makes learners more aware of how language works. It also may reduce the mystery of why they have much more difficulty understanding some people than others. Language in general is fluid and ever-changing. Change occurs gradually over time, according to how people speak. New words are added, some words drop out of use, and even grammar evolves. For example, over the past 50 years, the past participle of “to get” has gradually changed from “gotten” to “got”: I have got tired of waiting. Evolutionary language changes tend to simplify or reduce the language. Social and regional influences on language also have a significant impact. Dialects emerge to adapt the language to the purpose and identity of the speaker. Teachers having an insight on this sociolinguistic aspect of the language will have a deeper understanding of how the language works and will be better equipped to teach Standard English to ELLs. Skill 1.11 Compare the sociolinguistic language functions of social and regional varieties of American English American English usage is influenced by the social and regional situation of its users. Linguists have found that speakers adapt their pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and sentence structure depending on the social situation. For example, the decision to use –ing or –in at the end of a present participle depends on the formality of the situation. Speakers talking with their friends will often drop the “g” and use of –in to signal that the situation is more informal and relaxed. These variations are also related to factors such as age, gender, education, socioeconomic status, and personality.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE We call this type of shift a change in register, how language is used in a particular setting or for a particular purpose. People change their speech register depending on such sociolinguistic variables as: Formality of situation Attitude towards topic Attitude towards listeners Relation of speaker to others Changing speech registers may be completely subconscious for native speakers. For example, if a university professor takes his car in for servicing, the manner and speech he uses to communicate with the mechanic differs significantly from the manner and speech he uses to deliver a lecture. If he were to use a formal tone and academic vocabulary, the mechanic might think the professor was trying to put him down, or he might not understand what the professor was saying. Likewise, when the mechanic explains the mechanical diagnosis, he most likely chooses a simplified vocabulary rather than using completely technical language, or jargon, that the professor wouldn’t understand. Using the jargon of any field the listener doesn’t know will likely make the listener feel stupid or inferior, and perhaps that the speaker is inconsiderate, Language registers are also used to deliberately establish a social identity. Hispanics deliberately refer to themselves as La Raza (the race) to imply dignity and pride for what they are and where they come from. Using a Spanish term when speaking English is called code switching. As a result, this term is becoming (or has become) a part of the American vocabulary. Symbolically it represents both the Hispanics’ distinction and their integration into American culture. The growth in popularity of rap demonstrates how and why sociolinguistic th changes occur over time. The term “rap” dates back to 16 century Britain and has connections to Celtic music. In the 1960s, Black Americans adopted the term to describe the rhythmic style of speaking they used to distinguish themselves from White Americans. Their need for distinction arose from the frustration over years of discrimination. Since White Americans had difficulty understanding rap, this speech register gave Black Americans a unique identity and perhaps a sense of superiority that they hadn’t felt before socially. By the 1970s spoken rap evolved into hip hop and Latinos also became proficient in this new art form. The music, in turn, lent itself to additional language variations such as slam poetry. By the 1990s, hip hop had evolved into a more militant, anti-social genre in which violence; promiscuity, drug use, and misogyny dominated the music, which represented a particular social cross-section of the population. Now the genre has spread to a variety of applications.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE ESOL teachers should be aware of these sociolinguistic functions of language and compare different social functions of language with their students. Knowing and being able to use appropriate registers allows learners to function more effectively in social situations. Learners must acquire the social, as well as the linguistic aspects of American English. Sociolinguistic functions of a language are best acquired by using the language in authentic situations. Skill 1.12 Identify sociolinguistic principles that have influenced the development of the English language Sociolinguistics is the study of how social conditions influence the use of language. Social factors such as ethnicity, religion, gender, status, age, and education all play a role in how individuals use language. Different dialects or “how language is spoken” differs depending on these and other factors. Sociolinguistics seeks to understand the relationship between language and the social elements. Beyond anyone’s control, language is constantly changing. In the words of H. L. Mencken, “A living language is like a man suffering incessantly from small haemorrhages, and what it needs above all else is constant transactions of new blood from other tongues. The day the gates go up, that day it begins to die.” France is a prime example of a country that has tried to keep its language “pure.” In spite of tremendous efforts, French has evolved. It has acquired new terms for th st 20 and 21 century technology and experiences. It has been modified by immigrants who have moved to France. Living languages are simply not static. The United States has experienced unique, disparate social influences, which accounts for the substantial differences between American and other varieties of English, even British English from which it originated. Ralph Waldo Emerson said, “The English language is the sea which receives tributaries from every region under heaven.” Most obvious of these tributaries has been the continuous flow of immigrants who have brought their customs and language to the U.S. Each culture that joins the country contributes new words, and new immigrants continue to change the language today. Along the U.S./Mexico border, some states have tried to pass English-Only legislation because they fear that Spanish will become the dominant language spoken, but they cannot control how people speak.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Wars have also added words to our language. During World War II, people began to use words such as flak, blitz, R and R, black market, pin-up, mushroom cloud, and fallout. During the Korean War, chopper and brainwashing came into use. During the Viet Nam era, napalm, friendly fire, search-anddestroy mission, and the domino theory entered the language. The Iraq War has added the green zone, al-Qaeda, and weapons of mass destruction. Wars also give new meanings to old words, such as embedded, which in the context of Iraq means journalists who join army units. Contemporary culture changes language significantly. Advertisers have such great success that brand names come to represent entire categories of products, such as Kleenex for tissue; Xerox for photo copy; Hoover for vacuum cleaner; and Coke for cola. People pick up and use phrases from popular TV shows: Yabadabadoo; like, cool, man; go go gadget; meathead; and d’oh! Other cultural trends, such as the drug culture, sports, and fads add new words to the language. Political rhetoric also influences language. We hear sports metaphors (a success referred to as a home run); war metaphors (victories or defeats); and business metaphors (ending up in the red or the black). Politicians like to “send a message” to enemies, political rivals, or the American people. Candidates like to be “the candidate of change” or “the education candidate,” and, of course, no candidate is for increasing taxes, even though they always somehow increase. Technology and science may have changed language more than any other factor in the past century. An estimated 500,000 technical and scientific terms have been added to English. Many of these words affect our daily lives. Fifty years ago, people didn’t routinely use computers, cell phones, the Internet, or satellite dishes. They hadn’t had an MRI and hadn’t wondered if G.M.O.s are safe to eat. Text messaging, particularly among young people, has created a kind of shorthand variation of English: CUL8R means “see you later”; BRB means “be right back”; and TTYL means “talk to you later.” ESL teachers might be surprised at how adroit their students are with technological language. Students who make English-speaking friends and want to adapt to American culture will quickly learn this new language. In areas where more than one language is spoken, words from languages other than English enter conversations to facilitate communication. The mixing of Spanish and English is sometimes called “Spanglish.” A person who intersperses one language with another is code-switching, or mixing some words, phrases, or idioms from one language with another, perhaps when a word is unknown in the other language.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The merging of languages into English has contributed to the inconsistencies and exceptions to rules that make the language so difficult to learn. It has also increased the number of words one must learn to communicate in English. We can only be certain that English will continue to change and language will continue to be vital in new forms. Skill 1.13 Identify historical processes that have influenced the development of the English language An awareness of the history of the English Language gives teachers a deeper understanding of the language and sheds light on the fact that languages are constantly changing to serve the needs of their users. Historically, English evolved from a combination of languages. English is a Germanic language from the family of Indo-European languages. Other IndoEuropean languages include Latin, Baltic and Slavic. The history of English can be divided into three general periods during which the language experienced significant change. th

Old English: In the 5 century, three Germanic tribes crossed the North Sea and invaded the British Isles: the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. The Celtic language that had been used by the inhabitants of Britain was replaced by the Germanic language of the Angles. Old English gradually developed from the dialects of the Saxons, consisting of Anglo-Saxon words as well as words from Scandinavian and Latin. Old English is different from modern English in its spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar rules. th

Middle English: In the 11 century, the Normans invaded Britain, and French became the language of the nobility in England. French words were added to English (chamber, desire) and French rules of plural formation were adopted. In th the 14 century, King Henry IV became the king of England. He was the first king whose native language was English since the start of the Norman invasion. Middle English began to develop, and its rules were simpler than those of Old English.

Modern English: Middle English gradually evolved into modern English as the phonological system of the language underwent great change, particularly the pronunciation of vowels. Spelling became standardized with the advent of the printing press. As nations had more contact, words from other languages became a part of the language, and the language has continued to evolve. The th th Modern English that Shakespeare used in the 16 and early 17 century differs so significantly from today’s English that many people have difficulty understanding it.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE th

In the 19 century, when the sun never set on the English empire, English spread to countries all over the world. In addition to spreading the language to England’s many political contacts, the language became modified in each location. New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, Australia, and India all participated in this language exchange. In Asia, Africa, and the Americas, thirty four countries have English as their official language. American English: Modern English came to America with the Pilgrims. Soon after arriving, they found their language inadequate to describe their new country. They had new topography (bluff, clearing, prairie); new plants and food (live oak, sweet potato, eggplant, squash); and new experiences (backwoodsman, squatter, bobsled, and sleigh). They also found new names for familiar items (corn became maize) and named American cities after cities in England (Bath, Salisbury, Exeter, Cambridge, and Yarmouth). th

However, the Spanish had arrived in the 15 century and have contributed more words to American English than any other language. Barbecue, chocolate, tomato, plaza, stampede, and tornado, among many others, come from Spanish. The French influenced language through explorers and missionaries in the north and Mid-West, and also in New Orleans, where they developed a distinctive cuisine, architecture, music, and theater. A unique dialect, Cajun, developed and brought words such as bayou, gopher, and picayune to the language. Early Dutch settlers in New Amsterdam contributed words such as waffle, coleslaw, cookie, and landscape. The names of some of New York’s boroughs were derived from Dutch names: Breukelyn, Haarlem, and Bronck’s). Germans were the first non-colonizing immigrants, and since their arrival in the late th 17 century, people from all over the world have come to the United States, adding their culture and language to the already rich blend. Reasons for coming to the United States have varied, but the introduction of new words to American English has been, and will continue to be, an ongoing process of change.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 2.0 Knowledge of first and second language acquisition theories and classroom application Skill 2.1

Identify the principles of first language acquisition theories

Between two and three years of age most children will be able to use language to influence the people closest to them. Research shows that, in general, boys acquire language more slowly than girls, which means we need to consider very carefully how we involve boys in activities designed to promote early language and literacy. Various theories have tried to explain the language acquisition process, including: Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device Chomsky’s theory, described as Nativist, asserts that humans are born with a special biological brain mechanism, called a Language Acquisition Device (LAD). His theory supposes that the ability to learn language is innate, that nature is more important than nurture, and that experience using language is only necessary in order to activate the LAD. Chomsky based his assumptions on work in linguistics. His work shows that children’s language development is much more complex than Behaviorist Theory, which believes that children learn language merely by being rewarded for imitating. However, it underestimates the influence that thought (cognition) and language have on each other’s development. Piaget: Cognitive Constructivism Piaget’s central interest was children’s cognitive development. He theorized that language is simply one way that children represent their familiar worlds, a reflection of thought, and that language does not contribute to the development of thinking. He believed cognitive development precedes language development. Vygotsky: Social Constructivism and Language Unlike Chomsky and Piaget, Vygotsky’s central focus is the relationship between the development of thought and language. He was interested in the ways different languages impact a person’s thinking. He suggests that what Piaget saw as young children’s egocentric speech was actually private speech, the child’s way of using words to think about something, which progressed from social speech to thinking in words. Vygotsky views language first as social communication, which gradually promotes both language itself and cognition.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Recent theorizing: Intentionality Some contemporary researchers and theorists criticize earlier theories and suggest children, their behaviors, and their attempts to understand and communicate are misunderstood when the causes of language development are thought to be “outside” the child or else mechanistically “in the child's brain.” They recognize that children are active learners who co-construct their worlds. Their language development is part of their holistic development, emerging from cognitive, emotional, and social interactions. They believe language development depends on the child’s social and cultural environment, the people in it, and their interactions. How children represent these factors in their minds is fundamental to language development. They believe a child’s agenda and the interactions generated by the child promote language learning. The adult’s role, actions, and speech are still considered important, but adults need to be able to “mind read” and adjust their side of the co-construction to relate to an individual child’s understanding and interpretation. Theories about language development help us see that enjoying “protoconversations” with babies (treating them as people who can understand, share and have intentions in sensitive inter-changes), and truly listening to young children, is the best way to promote their language development. Skill 2.2

Identify the principles of second language acquisition theories

Brain research has shown that the single most important factor affecting language acquisition is the onset of puberty. Before puberty, a person uses one area of the brain for language learning; after puberty, a different area of the brain is used. A person who learns a second language before reaching puberty will always process language learning as if pre-pubescent. A person who begins to learn a second language after the onset of puberty will likely find language learning more difficult and depend more on repetition. Some researchers have focused on analyzing aspects of the language to be acquired. Factors they consider include: Error analysis: recognizing patterns of errors Interlanguage: analyzing what aspects of the target language are universal Developmental Patterns: the order in which features of a language are acquired and the sequence in which a specific feature is acquired. Stephen Krashen developed a theory of second language acquisition, which helps explain the processes used by adults, when learning a second language:

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis: There is a difference between “learning” a language and “acquiring” it. Children “acquire” a first language using the same process they used to learn their first language. However, adults who know only one language have to “learn” a language through coursework, studying, and memorizing. One can acquire a second language, but often it requires more deliberate interaction within that language. The Monitor Hypothesis: When the learned language “monitors” the acquired language. In other words, this is when a person’s “grammar check” kicks in and keeps awkward, incorrect language out of a person’s L2 communication. The Natural Order Hypothesis: The learning of grammatical structures is predictable and follows a “natural order.” The Input Hypothesis: A language learner will learn best when the instruction or conversation is just above the learner’s ability. That way, the learner has the foundation to understand most of the language but will have to figure out, often in context, the unknown elements. Some people call this “comprehensible input.” The Affective Filter Hypothesis: People will learn a second language when they are relaxed, have high levels of motivation, and have a decent level of self-confidence. Teaching students who are learning English as a second language poses some unique challenges, particularly in a standards-based environment. Teachers should teach with the student’s developmental level in mind. Instruction should not be “dummied-down” for ESOL students. Different approaches should be used to ensure that these students get multiple opportunities to learn and practice English and still learn content. Skill 2.3

Identify first and second language acquisition processes

L1 and L2 learning follows many, if not all, of the same steps. Silent Period: The stage when a learner knows perhaps 500 receptive words but feels uncomfortable producing speech. The absence of speech does not indicate a lack of learning and teachers should not try to force the learner to speak. Comprehension can be checked by having the learner point or mime. Also known as the Receptive or Preproduction stage.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Private Speech: When the learner knows about 1,000 receptive words and speaks in one- or two-word phrases. The learner can use simple responses, such as yes/no, either/or. Also known as the Early Production stage. Lexical Chunks: The learner knows about 3,000 receptive words and can communicate using short phrases and sentences. Long sentences typically have grammatical errors. Also known as the Speech Emergence stage. Formulaic Speech: The learner knows about 6,000 receptive words and begins to make complex statements, state opinions, ask for clarification, share thoughts, and speak at greater length. Also known as the Intermediate Language Proficiency stage. Experimental or Simplified Speech: When the learner develops a level of fluency and can make semantic and grammar generalizations. Also known as the Advanced Language Proficiency stage. Researchers disagree on whether the development of Formulaic Speech and Experimental or Simplified Speech is the same for L1 and L2 learners. Regardless, understanding that students must go through predictable, sequential series of stages helps teachers to recognize the student’s progress and respond effectively. Providing comprehensible input will help students advance their language learning at any stage. Skill 2.4 Identify language characteristics of basic interpersonal communication skills and cognitive academic language proficiency. Interpersonal communication involves verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication includes both speaking and writing; non-verbal communication includes gestures and deliberate facial expressions. Interpersonal communication is inescapable; even non-communicating sends a message to others. It is a complicated process because of the unknowns between communicators and because language is imprecise by nature. Communication is also contextual, so that the same thing said in one context means something entirely different in another. Teaching communication skills requires modeling by the teacher and practicing by the students.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Specific skills include: Summarizing: A summary presents a condensed version of the original language without losing the basic meaning. Summarizing reflects understanding and the ability to break down a text or verbal exchange into its most important parts. Practicing this can be a useful tool for comprehension checks and a good preparation for taking standardized tests. Presenting a summary as a preview of a conversation or text before the ELL listens to or reads it facilitates understanding and reduces frustration. Paraphrasing: A paraphrase re-states what is written or spoken. Paraphrases tend to be longer than the original text or verbal exchange because they add details as they attempt to explain. To paraphrase requires both comprehension and the ability to reinterpret language in much the same way that translation reproduces meaning from one language to another. For ELLs, paraphrasing increases comprehension and offers excellent vocabulary practice. Teachers or students can paraphrase parts of what is spoken or read to ensure students have understood.. Paraphrasing also provides a good means to indicate listening and to affirm the speaker. Listening: Hearing what is spoken requires a more complicated process than simply hearing sounds. A variety of internal and external factors can affect understanding. ELLs must practice listening skills to avoid shutting down or misunderstanding what is said. Caution must be used to encourage active listening and avoid causing barriers. Once words are spoken, they cannot be retrieved. Questioning: Questions stimulate thinking and learning. They can be used to stimulate interest in an academic topic and to set goals for learning. Initially questions that require a one- or two-word answer should be used until learners have the skills to respond to open-ended questions. Questions can also be used to check for comprehension and to make subtle corrections. Asking good questions is a skill that requires ongoing practice. How a question is asked can either threaten or encourage the listener. Teachers should take care to model good questioning so that it encourages dialog and does not seem like an interrogation.

Initiating: In a conversation, initiating means declaring one’s conversational intent and inviting consent from one’s prospective conversation partner. It is a means for engaging others in interpersonal communication. Skillful initiating results in active engagement; without it, potential conversations become awkward silence.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Turn-taking: Conversations progress by managing the flow of information back and forth between partners. By taking turns, or alternating roles of speaker and listener, ELLs develop necessary conversational skills. Without these skills, conversations come to an abrupt halt. ELLs can begin by practicing set conversations and progress to initiating and taking turns talking about topics that interest them. Formal and informal conversations must be practiced to prepare learners for the various situations they will encounter. Skill 2.5 Identify the impact of second language acquisition research on classroom instruction. Language teaching has changed significantly over the years. As research reveals more about how people learn and new theories are introduced, teachers revise how they teach second languages. A number of approaches have gained popularity, each with its strengths and weaknesses. No single approach is best for all learners, or perhaps for any learner. Current approaches combine aspects of these methods that work best for students to achieve learning goals. Following is a brief summary of some of the main teaching methods that have evolved as language research and theories advanced. Grammar-Translation Method: This is a traditional approach to language learning that originally was used for teaching the classical languages, Latin and Greek. Emphasis is placed on helping students read and appreciate the literature of a new language, with the expectation that students will speak and write their native language better, as well as grow intellectually. Students learn to translate one language into another, with little emphasis on speaking and listening. The teacher is the authority and students do what the teacher says in order to learn what the teacher knows. Direct Method: This method also has been used for many years and focuses on using the second language to communicate. The teacher directs class activities, but students interact and are more like partners in the teaching/learning process. Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar; all four language skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) are used, though speaking predominates. The target language is used from the onset; students induce grammar rules from usage. Activities include students’ reading aloud, participating in question and answer exercises, taking dictation, completing fill-in-the-blank exercises, and writing paragraphs.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Audio-Lingual Method: Developed in the U.S. during World War II and using new ideas from descriptive linguistics and behavioral psychology, the audio-lingual method uses only the target language. The teacher presents dialogs; students repeat each line and practice changing one or more words in sentences. The teacher uses cues and pictures; conducts question and answer drills; introduces new vocabulary through dialogs; provides positive reinforcement. The teacher presents grammar through examples and analyzes the target language and student’s native language to anticipate and address difficulties, and also teaches the culture of the target language. The Silent Way: By the early 1960s, cognitive psychologists and transformational-generative linguists challenged the notion of language learning through repetition. They promoted the idea that people learn language by forming rules and applying them, relying on their own thinking processes, or cognition, to learn. This led to “cognitive code” approaches to learning, in which students take a much more active role in learning the target language, which becomes more of a hypothesis/error/conclusion process where learning becomes more important than teaching. All four skills are worked on from the onset, and meaning is thought to be at least as important as form. Teachers begin with something that the student already knows and provides opportunities for students to expand knowledge by developing their own criteria for correctness. The elements of the language are introduced logically, allowing students to expand via self-expression on what students already know. In this way linguistic different structures are learned and students practice them by writing sentences, thus reinforcing speaking, reading, and writing skills. Community Language Learning: This method evolved from Charles Curran’s Counseling-Learning approach. It emphasizes 1) a commitment between teacher and learners to trust one another and the learning process, and 2) approaching learning as a dynamic and creative process. Teachers assist students in communications by supplying chunks of language in the first language to ensure comprehension. Students generate language that is recorded and transcribed, and time is allowed for students to reflect on the experience and listen to their own voice. This has been called a “whole-person approach.”

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Total Physical Response Method: Developed by James Asher, and also called “the comprehension approach,” this method relies on students beginning learning by listening. Similarly, the Natural Approach that Krashen and Terrell introduced in the 1980s uses the target language communicatively from the beginning of instruction, and emphasizes communicative activities throughout the language learning course. Basically, the teacher gives a command in the target language and performs it with the students. The students say nothing. Errors are corrected by repeating the command and acting it out. The pace is fairly fast; students later do role reversal; and commands are linked in a series. Writing is demonstrated but not emphasized. This method generates feelings of success and minimizes anxiety. It makes learning more fun and dynamic, and works with adult learners as well as children. Communicative Approach: Recognizing that interpersonal communication is a complicated process, the Communicative Approach promotes learning “whole” communication, which is to say learning to use the language rather than learning the rules of language usage. It includes making analytical decisions about intent and context, and choosing a strategy for how best to communicate. This includes choosing an order, vocabulary, style, and tone. Students use authentic materials, scrambled sentences, language games, and pictures; they make predictions, do roleplay, and receive feedback from students and the teacher. Isolated errors are viewed as part of developing communication skills and are not corrected. The overriding principle is to teach students to communication as authentically as possible in the target language. Research indicates that successful second language acquisition programs include the following elements: A sufficient amount of “comprehensible input” that is pertinent and interesting to the learners An atmosphere that does not intimidate the learner, but encourages him/her to speak, when he/she has reached a certain comfort zone An absence of strict applications of grammatical rules and structures Conversations and interactions with native speakers (if the native speaker is able to provide “comprehensible input.”) “According to the theory, acquirers profit not from what they say, but from what the native speaker says.” (Krashen, 1985.)

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 2.6

Identify characteristics of interlanguage.

Interlanguage is a strategy used by a second language learner to compensate for his/her lack of proficiency, while learning a second language. It cannot be classified as L1, nor can it be classified as L2, rather it could almost be considered a L3, complete with its own grammar and lexicon. Interlanguage is developed by the learner, in relation to the learner’s experiences (both positive and negative) with the second language. Larry Selinker introduced the theory of “interlanguage” in 1972 and asserted that L2 learners create certain learning strategies, to “compensate” in this in-between period, while the learner acquires the language. The following are some of the learning strategies of which the learner makes use: Overgeneralization Simplification L1 Interference or language transfer These practices create an interlanguage, which assists the learner in moving from one stage to the next during second language acquisition. For example, L1 interference or language transfer occurs when a learner’s primary language influences his/her progress in the L2. Interference most commonly affects pronunciation, grammar structures, vocabulary and semantics. Overgeneralization occurs when the learner attempts to apply a rule “acrossthe-board,” without regard to irregular exceptions. For example, a learner is over - generalizing when he/she attempts to apply an “ed” to create a past tense for an irregular verb, such as “buyed” or “swimmed.” Simplification refers to the L2 learner using resources that require limited vocabulary to aid comprehension and allow the learner to listen, read, and speak in the target language at a very elementary level. Selinker theorizes that a psychological structure is “awakened” when a learner begins the process of second language acquisition. He attached great significance to the notion that the learner and the native speaker would not create similar sounds if they attempted to communicate the same thought, idea, or meaning. “Fossilization” is a term applied by Selinker to the process in which an L1 leaner reaches a plateau and accepts that less-than fluent level, which prevents the learner from achieving L2 fluency. Fossilization occurs when nonL1 forms become fixed in the interlanguage of the L2 learner. L2 learners are highly susceptible to this phenomenon during the early stages.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 2.7

Identify factors influencing and characteristics of bilingualism.

A number of factors influence bilingualism. A learner’s reason for learning a second language can provide significant motivation or can inhibit language learning. The level of immersion greatly affects progress. Many language teachers dislike the block schedule because learners only use the second language every other day. Social attitudes also affect learning. Some communities greatly value second language learning, while others consider it insignificant or a cultural threat. The family and home environment greatly affects bilingualism. In homes where only the first language is spoken, the learner has no opportunity for additional practice with family members. When family members speak both languages, they can choose from a number of strategies for encouraging bilingualism, including having one parent speak exclusively to the learner in the L1 and the other in the L2; have both parents divide their speaking time between the two languages; determine what is the most useful division of speaking time between the L1 and L2; or allow second language learning to take place entirely outside of the home. When possible, most experts recommend using both languages with the child as early as possible, i.e., from birth. Bilingualism is a process that occurs over time. It requires commitment, encouragement, and language routines. Exposing a child to more than one language from birth may delay speech initially, but will allow the child to become equally fluent in both languages. All four manifestations of language use (speaking, hearing, writing, reading) should be encouraged and practiced.

Bilingual learners frequently speak at least one language with an accent, the pronunciation characteristics of a particular group. Accents may be reduced or disappear entirely over time, but sometimes require specific accent reduction study. Fluency, or the speed with which a learner can correctly speak the language, normally increases with time and practice. Individual learning progression varies profoundly between learners. Teachers must always be prepared to provide comprehensible input based on the individual level of each student. In addition, teachers must also be alert to interference that occurs between the two languages. Skill 2.8 Identify the influence of cognitive factors on second language acquisition. Cognitive processes are used by the learner to organize and direct second language acquisition. Examples of these processes are: problem-solving, method of approaching the learning of new information; choices regarding what to ignore and what to pay attention to (Díaz-Rico & Weed, 1995). Developing these skills leads to language acquisition, but they also bridge languages and serve to enhance cognitive skills in the first language.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Research shows that learning and using more than one language enhances problem solving and analytical skills allows better formation of concepts increases visual-social abilities furthers logical reasoning supports cognitive flexibility Cognitive skills are any mental skills that are used in the process of acquiring knowledge, including reasoning, perception, and intuition. Using these skills in second language learning applies L2 vocabulary and sentence patterns to thought processes that have already formed in the L1. Memorizing the words and rules of a second language is insufficient to integrate the second language in the learner’s thought patterns. L2 learners use cognitive processes to form rules, which allow them to understand and create novel utterances. The creation of novel utterances, whether grammatically correct or not, offers proof that the L2 learner is not simply mimicking chunks of prescribed language, but rather is using cognitive processes to acquire the second language. People use their own thinking processes, or cognition, to discover the rules of the language they are acquiring. Skill 2.9 Identify the influence of affective factors on second language acquisition The term affective domain refers to the range of feelings and emotions in human behavior that affects how a second language is acquired. Self-esteem, motivation, anxiety, and attitude all contribute to the second language acquisition process. Internal and external factors influence the affective domain. ESOL teachers must be aware of each student’s personality and must stay especially attuned to the affective factors in their students. Self-Esteem: Learning a second language puts learners in a vulnerable frame of mind. While some learners are less inhibited about taking risks, all learners can easily be shut down if their comfort level is surpassed. Using teaching techniques that lower stress and emphasize group participation rather than focusing on individuals getting the right answer reduces anxiety and encourages learners to attempt to use the new language. Motivation: Researchers Gardner and Lambert (1972) have identified two types of motivation in relation to learning a second language: Instrumental Motivation: acquiring a second language for a specific reason, such as a job Integrative Motivation: acquiring a second language to fulfill a wish to communicate within a different culture

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Neither type stands completely alone. Instructors recognize that motivation can be viewed as either a “trait” or a “state.” As a trait, motivation is more permanent and culturally acquired, whereas as a state, motivation is considered temporary because it fluctuates, depending on rewards and penalties. Anxiety: Anxiety is inherent in second-language learning. Students are required to take risks, such as speaking in front of their peers. Without a native’s grasp of the language, second language learners are unable to express their individuality, which is even more threatening and uncomfortable. However, not all anxiety is debilitative. Bailey’s (1983) research on “facilitative anxiety” (anxiety that compels an individual to stay on task) is a positive factor for some learners, closely related to competitiveness. Attitude: Attitude typically evolves from internalized feelings about oneself and one’s ability to learn a language. On the other hand, one’s attitude about language and the speakers of that language is largely external and influenced by the surrounding environment of classmates and family. If non-native speakers of English experience discrimination because of their accent or cultural status, their attitude toward the value of second-language learning may diminish. Schools can significantly improve the attitude towards SLAs by encouraging activities between native speakers and ELLs. This can be mutually beneficial to both groups if students learning the SLA’s first language work on projects together. When native speakers get a chance to appreciate the SLA’s language skill in their first language, attitudes change and ELLs have an opportunity to shine. In some cultures, children who learn a second language at the expense of their primary language might be viewed as “turncoats” by family and friends. This can cause negative feelings about school in general and can adversely affect second language acquisition. Skill 2.10 Identify the influence of social factors on second language acquisition Social factors such as gender, social status, age, occupation, and educational level have an impact on second language acquisition. How learners perceive themselves and what opportunities are available to them influence their attitudes toward education, as well as what they are able to achieve academically.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Gender influences second language acquisition, particularly of English. Typically, families who immigrate to the United States bring with them their experience of gender roles. Depending on the country, strict cultural norms can diminish the role of the woman, while placing higher regard on the man. Countries such as China value males more than females. If a Chinese family immigrated to the United States, existing sexist attitudes towards the female would still prevail, regardless of the new culture’s attitudes toward gender equality. As a result, the family may focus on and only be very supportive of the education of their sons, placing little emphasis on their daughters’ education. Many cultures, including many Hispanic countries, value the traditional role of women as mother and homemaker. Many Hispanic families feel that education goes against what they want for their daughters and will not allow them to continue with higher education. Social class or status can also heavily influence second language acquisition, as some countries hold strong beliefs as to whether an individual can rise above their intended station in life. India is a prime example of a highly stratified society. Indians believe in a caste system that prohibits individuals from moving beyond their original social class, unlike in the United States, where the constitution guarantees “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness” to each of its citizens. While many people in the U. S. believe education is the key to higher paying jobs and economic security, this sentiment is not embraced by some of the young male population born in St. Croix. They believe that the educational system “subjugates” rather than “educates.” These men share a commonly held belief that the social position of their family, rather than academic achievement, ensures economic prosperity and power (Gibson, 1991a.) Age can impact second language acquisition, as well, when a culture determines what a person does, as well as when they can do it. For example, as noted by Sindell (1988), middle-class European Americans tend to expect that children will play and behave appropriate to their age, rather than take on more adult responsibilities. In contrast, young Cree Indian children are expected to carry out many adult responsibilities. Furthermore, many Cree Indian parents disapprove of academic activities because they distract the children from involvement in the Cree Indian society.

Occupation, especially in the United States, often determines one’s economic status, level of prestige, and amount of power and influence. However, in other countries, regardless of how much one earns, the type of power and prestige available may largely depend on family connections or position within the dominant religious establishment. Learner perceptions of occupations, i.e., whether a certain position is of interest or even feasible, affects second language acquisition. If education is not viewed as a realistic pathway to a career and economic security, then academic success and L2 proficiency becomes less of a priority.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE A family’s educational level has a profound impact on second language acquisition, and may determine what kind of academic achievement and investment an L2 learner is going make. A learner who comes from a family in which no one advanced beyond elementary school likely has little knowledge about what types of careers are available or how one studies and advances. One cannot aspire to something one has not been exposed to. Each higher level of academic achievement dramatically increases the number and variety of occupational choices, as well as the lifetime earnings a person can expect, particularly in the United States. For ELLs who expect to return to their native country or to follow that culture’s traditions, there may be little incentive to take language learning seriously. Skill 2.11 Analyze the effects of second language acquisition on acculturation Acculturation is the process of becoming accustomed to the customs, language, practices, and environment of a new culture. The factors that influence this process include, but are not limited to, the learner’s desire and ability to become a part of the dominant culture. In a study of students’ school performance, Ogbu (1978) creates divisions among groups of immigrants. Minority groups categorized as “caste-like minorities” include groups who were integrated into a society not of their choosing and were systematically taken advantage of, typically through slavery. Such minorities typically work in minimum-wage and undesirable jobs, unable to move beyond their current situation regardless of their language skills. Because of this social and economic enslavement, academic achievement is seldom important or a goal, and assimilation into the culture is limited to a low status position. On the other hand, groups (recent immigrants from Central and South America, Eastern Europe, and Asia) described as “immigrant minorities,” who have not suffered the same social stigma, recognize education as a tool for advancement and place a much higher value on education. ELLs in this group have a strong incentive for learning English and adapting to the culture around them. The relationship between acquiring a second language and adopting the new culture is a strong one. Schumann (1978a) has developed a model of acculturation, which asserts, “the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target language group will control the degree to which he acquires the second language” (p. 34). Or, put another way, “the level to which a learner can assimilate into the culture, will dictate the level of second language proficiency.” According to his model, the following social elements impact the acculturation process: The primary (L1) and English language groups (L2) view each other with mutual respect, have optimistic attitudes, and are compatible

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The L1and L2 groups both wish for the primary group to assimilate into the culture The L1 and L2 groups agree/accept to share social services and conveniences The L1 group wants to remain in the area beyond a temporary status These factors assist in the process of acquiring English for the L1 group, which facilitates acceptance. Likewise, the absence of these factors can contribute to the L1 group not learning English and remaining outside the dominant culture. In a classroom setting, if there is no mutual respect, positive attitude, or sense of compatibility between the L1 and L2 group, successful second language acquisition for the L1 group is severely hindered. In turn, without a common language, the chances of acceptance and assimilation become significantly reduced. Classroom and school activities that promote interactions among ELLs and native speakers encourage language growth and an exchange of cultures. With an increased ability to communicate, commonalities are discovered and friendships form. Sports, music, art, photography, and other school activities that allow ELLs to participate while they learn more language provide excellent opportunities for increasing acculturation. Schools that find innovative ways to attract families to participate in the school have greater success in gaining parental support for academic goals. Providing translators at school meetings is one way to include non-English speaking family members and make them feel welcome and a part of the school’s culture. When ELL families participate in the school, cultural barriers diminish and student academic performance improves. Skill 2.12 Identify sources of second language learner errors (e.g., language transfer, generalization, other communication strategies) S.P. Corder is most noted for his work in “error analysis,” a field that until 1970 was not fully recognized (Ellis, 1994.) Corder drew a line, separating errors of skill (or competency) from errors in presentation (or performance.) During the 1970s, when researchers were searching for reasons behind errors of skill/competencies, studies were conducted like J. Richards’s “A noncontrastive approach to error analysis,” English Language Teaching 25: 205219, 1971. In this study, Richards cites the following reasons for learner errors: L1 transfers: L1 transfer or L1 interference occurs when a learner’s primary language L1 influences his or her progress in L2. Pronunciation, grammar structures, vocabulary, and semantics are commonly affected.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Overgeneralization: Overgeneralization occurs when the learner attempts to apply a grammatical rule to instances where it does not apply. For example, a learner is overgeneralizing when he or she applies a grammatical rule to all verbs and does not account for exceptions, e.g., the learner adds “ed” to the verb “go” to form the past tense, rather than using “went.” Simplification: The practice of modifying language to facilitate comprehension. Researchers disagree on the value of this practice. Krashen believes that simplification aids L2 acquisition. Others believe that lessening authentic texts diminishes L2 learners’ ability to comprehend more difficult texts. Research shows that correcting semantic errors (“No, that’s not a house, it’s a skyscraper”) contributes to language learning. However, correcting every grammatical error creates a negative atmosphere that makes students afraid to express themselves for fear of making a mistake and being corrected. Students also lose fluency if they try to analyze rules and grammar before speaking. The problem of identifying learners’ misconceptions hinges on making a correct analysis and diagnosis of the learners’ input. Teachers often misinterpret the intended meaning of a learner’s speech. Teachers have believed that if they are familiar with students and their first language, they are more likely to guess a learner’s intended meaning. This approach assumes that errors in English differ according to the learner’s first language, and that understanding common types of errors typical of a particular first language can help a teacher to approach student errors more effectively and provided focused practice. For example, Spanish speakers often pronounce the consonant “s” as “es” because many Spanish words begin this way. For example, because the word for “study” in Spanish is “estudiar,” many Spanish speaking ELLs pronounce words such as “student,” as “estudent.” A teacher can cluster these words and create ways to practice this type of word. However, an alternative approach takes a cognitive approach and uses general knowledge which can be applicable to a variety of languages. This approach uses a unifying linguistic theory which encompasses all human languages in a universal framework. It describes languages as a set of interlocking principles and introduces parameters to account for the variations amongst languages. In this approach, the diagnoses are made following some patterns of acquisition that this theory defines, mirroring the language acquisition process.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Research has shown the traditional practice of correcting written work by providing a corrected version of writing to be ineffective. Students cannot integrate large numbers of corrections into their cognitive processes, and visually, a page with as much teacher as student writing demoralizes a student who has made a concerted effort to express ideas. A better approach is to note one example each of up to three types of error and explain to the individual, or class if many learners make the same type of error, proper usage.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 3.0 Knowledge of sociolinguistic, cultural, ethnic, and sociopolitical issues Skill 3.1 Identify factors of sociolinguistic diversity that affect English language learners’ (ELLs’) learning outcomes Language changes according to how people use it. We teach “standard English,” which itself has significant variation in terms of grammar rules, pronunciation, vocabulary, and semantics, but it at least provides a relatively stable base. In the 1980s experts voiced concern that the number of dialects within the United States was diminishing because of the increased prevalence of mass media, computer use, and other kinds of communication that bring a more universal awareness to people all over the country. However, this homogenization has not happened. Language remains fluid and new variations continue to modify standard English. Sociolinguistic diversity, which is language variations based on regional and social differences, affects teachers’ language attitudes and practices. Teachers must respect the validity of any group’s or individual’s language patterns, while at the same time teaching standard English. Vernacular versions of English have well established patterns and rules to support them. Making learners aware of language variations leads to increased interest in language learning and better ability to switch among one or more register or dialect and standard English. ELLs tend to adapt linguistic structures to their familiar culture, modifying specific concepts and practices. Teachers must identify these variations, call attention to them, and teach the standard English equivalent. The goal is not to eliminate linguistic diversity, but rather to enable learners to control their language use so that they can willfully use standard English in addition to their cultural variation. Various functional adaptations of English have great significance to the cultural groups that use them. Attempting to eliminate variations is not only futile, but raises hostility and reluctance to learn English. Stable, socially shared structures emerge from the summed effects of many individual communication practices. Firmly engrained language patterns serve a purpose within the community that uses them. Unique variations can arise in as limited a spectrum as within a school. New non-standard English words can represent a particular group’s identity, or function as a means to solidify social relationships. As long as students recognize that a variation should not be used as if it were standard English, there should be no problem with its use. An example of this type of adaptation is the army. Especially during a war, soldiers invent new terms that describe the unfamiliar surroundings and actions they experience. Some of these new terms will eventually make it into the mainstream vocabulary, but most will gradually disappear as their use becomes no longer relevant.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE As long as language variations do not interfere with students’ use of standard English, sociolinguistic diversity can, approached effectively, actually enhance language learning. Skill 3.2 Identify government policies that affect ELLs’ participation and achievement in U.S. schools Several legal precedents have established that schools must provide equal educational opportunities for ELLs. This has led directly to improved language instruction and accommodations for language deficiencies. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 established that schools, as recipients of federal funds, cannot discriminate against ELLs: “No person in the United States shall, on the grounds of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” In 1970, this mandate was detailed more specifically for ELLs in the May 25 Memorandum: “Where inability to speak and understand the English language excludes national origin-minority group children from effective participation in the educational program offered by a school district, the district must take affirmative steps to rectify the language deficiency in order to open its instructional program to these students.” The memorandum specifically addressed the practice of placing ELLs, based on their English language skills, in classes with mentally retarded students; excluding them from college preparatory classes; and notifying parents of ELLs of school activities, even if translation is required. In 1974 the Supreme Court offered a unanimous ruling in Lau v. Nichols which established the Lau Plan, which provided specific requirements that schools must meet: Meet legal criteria for programming Form/convene a Language Assessment Committee Outline staff responsibilities and credentials for instruction Identify assessment/evaluative tools for on-going assessment Set program criteria (entrance/exit standards) Set parameters for ELL student transition and monitoring Determine program effectiveness Schools could no longer merely provide students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and curriculum. In this ruling the Supreme Court recognized that students who do not understand English are effectively excluded from any meaningful education.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE In a later decision, Castaneda v. Pickard (filed in 1978 but not settled until 1981), a federal court established three specific criteria schools must use to determine the effectiveness of bilingual education programs: A program for English language learners must be based on pedagogically sound educational theory that is recognized by experts in the field The program must be implemented effectively with resources provided for personnel, instructional materials, and space. The program must produce results that indicate the language barrier is being overcome The 1983 A Nation at Risk report, produced by the National Commission on Excellence in Education, concluded that the U.S. educational system was failing to meet the national need for a competitive workforce. This prompted a flurry of education reforms and initiated the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), which keeps an ongoing record of school performance. While general participation is voluntary, all schools that receive Title I money must participate. This includes low socio-economic and minority students, which includes a large percentage of ELLs. Most recently, the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) act established requirements that school districts must meet to continue to receive federal funds. The law has a number of requirements, but the one that has affected ELLs the most is the system of evaluating school performance based on disaggregated data. Schools can no longer rely on high-performing students to average out the low performance of language-challenged students. While the law is far from perfect, it prohibits schools from burying the low performance of any subpopulation in a school-wide average. Skill 3.3 Identify political trends that have affected the education of ELLs Political trends have had a variety of effects on ELLs. While the federal government has advocated equal opportunities and provided a number of protections for ELLs, some states have actively worked against ELLs. Political pressure to limit immigration has threatened second language learners. California, for example, has attempted to bar illegal immigrants from attending school. Also, a number of states have proposed English Only laws that disallow use of other languages in public places. Budgetary priorities have decimated funding for education. As a result, legislation such as NCLB has been inadequately funded. Requiring rigorous standards of accountability and testing without providing adequate funds results in noncompliance. How or if NCLB will be renewed depends on political priorities.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE How or whether to restructure schools also continues to be debated. Some think school vouchers would provide citizens more choice about which school their children attend; however, many people think vouchers would only benefit wealthy families and would take funding away from schools that need it the most, which often includes schools with high ELL populations. For-profit companies have also entered the education field with mixed success. None of these solutions have succeeded in eliminating the Achievement Gap that exists in overall achievement between low income and minority students and other demographic groups. Fewer low-achieving students graduate; fewer enter college; and of those who attend college, more go to community colleges than four-year colleges and universities.

School funding continues to present political problems. Early childhood education has been severely cut back, which will exacerbate school problems as an increased number of inadequately prepared students enter schools. Many districts are experiencing teacher shortages and dissatisfaction with the level of teacher pay. Increased attention has been drawn to how schools are funded because of the dramatic difference in the amount of money spent annually to educate students in inner city schools, with a high percentage of ELLs, compared to those in suburban districts. Technological developments have dramatically changed labor force demands. The business community increasingly pressures school districts to prepare students who can join the workforce prepared to do the jobs required. In a world where the trend towards globalization increases every year, one would expect graduates who have bilingual skills to be in high demand; however, too many move into low pay/low skill jobs that make little use of their language skills. Skill 3.4

Identify social trends that have affected the education of ELLs

According to the Pew Research Center, immigrants arriving in the U.S. from 2005 to 2050 will account for 82% of the U.S. population growth. This means that a large number of Americans will either not speak fluent English or it will be their second language. Currently only 23% of first generation immigrants speak fluent English, compared with 88% of second generation immigrants, and 94% of third generation immigrants. An increasing number of first generation immigrants will put increased demands on second language programs. Racial relations have become strained, especially between the two largest minority groups, African Americans and Latinos. Anti-immigration attitudes often arise from the belief that immigrants reduce job opportunities. Within individual schools the two groups have distinct cultures that typically remain completely separate. When schools offer activities, such as sports, multicultural celebrations, and other activities that transcend cultural differences, they reduce the emphasis on difference and allow students to recognize their commonalities.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The increase of gang activity has already begun to affect the education of ELLs. Gangs lure ELLs away from school because they offer acceptance and opportunities (often illegal) to earn more money than students could otherwise earn. Communities that embrace multiculturalism are able to reduce the isolation of individual ethnic groups and promote healthy inter-cultural relations. All over the country the influence of other cultures has increased. For example, food from a large range of cultures is now typically available. In a small geographic area one might encounter Mexican, Middle Eastern, African, French, German, and Spanish restaurants. Increased globalization has brought products and customs from all over the world to the United States and created greater cultural awareness. When people more readily accept cultural differences, their willingness to socialize with and help ELLs increases. Unfortunately, the events of 9/11 caused a major setback, particularly for Middle Easterners and Muslims. Many people jumped to unjustified conclusions and condemned others based on untrue generalizations or stereotypes. Gradually these unfortunate attitudes have been replaced by more realistic perceptions. However, restrictions on foreign students have continued to limit the number of students from other countries who can or are willing to study in the United States.

Anti-immigration sentiments have also caused problems for ELLs. While public schools cannot discriminate based on citizenship, many students live in fear that they or members of their family will be deported. Congress has repeatedly tried to address this problem, but so far has not resolved it. Skill 3.5 Analyze elements of culture and its impact on instruction and student learning While there is a continuous effort to establish a “Standard English” to be taught for English Language Learners (ELLs), English learning and acquisition depends on the cultural and linguistic background of the ELL, as well as preconceived perceptions of English Language cultural influences. These factors can act as a filter, causing confusion and inhibiting learning. Since language by definition is an attempt to share knowledge, the cultural, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of learners influences both their own history as well as how they approach and learn a new language. Teachers must assess the ELL to determine how cultural, ethnic, and linguistic experience can impact the student’s learning. This evaluation should take into account many factors, including: The cultural background and educational sophistication of the ELL The exposure of the ELL to various English language variants and cultural beliefs.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE No single approach, program or set of practices fits all students’ needs, backgrounds, and experiences. The ideal program for a Native American teenager attending an isolated tribal school may fail to reach a Hispanic youth enrolled in an inner-city or suburban district. Culture encompasses the sum of human activity and symbolic structures that have significance and importance for a particular group of people. Culture is manifested in language, customs, history, arts, beliefs, institutions and other representative characteristics, and is a means of understanding the lives and actions of people. Customs play an important part in language learning because they directly affect interpersonal exchanges. What is polite in one culture might be offensive in another. For example, in the U. S. making direct eye contact is considered polite, and not to make eye contact connotes deviousness, inattention, or rude behavior; however, the custom in many Asian cultures is exactly the opposite. Teachers who are unaware of this cultural difference can easily offend an Asian ELL and unwittingly cause a barrier to learning. However, teachers who are familiar with this custom can make efforts not to offend the learner, and can teach the difference between the two customs so that the ELL can learn how to interact without allowing contrary customs to interfere. Beliefs and institutions have a strong emotional influence on ELLs and should always be respected. While customs should be adaptable similar to switching registers when speaking, no effort should be made to change the beliefs or institutional values of an ELL. Presenting new ideas is a part of growth, learning, and understanding. Even though the beliefs and values of different cultures often have irreconcilable differences, they should be addressed. In these instances teachers must respect alternative attitudes and adopt an “agree to disagree” attitude. Presenting new, contrasting points of view should not be avoided because new ideas can strengthen original thinking as well as change it. All presentations should be neutral, however, and no effort should be made to alter a learners thinking. While addressing individual cultural differences, teachers should also teach tolerance of all cultures. This is especially important in a culturally diverse classroom, but will serve all students well in their future interactions. Studying the history and various art forms of a cultures reveals much about a culture and offers opportunities to tap into the interests and talents of ELLs. Comparing the history and art of different cultures encourages critical thinking and often reveals commonalities as well as differences, and leads to greater understanding among people.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Culture constitutes a rich component of language learning. It offers a means of drawing learners into the learning process and greatly expands their understanding of a new culture, as well as their own. Second language acquisition, according to the findings of Saville-Troike (1986) places the learner in the position of having to learn a “second culture.” The outcome of learning a second culture can have negative or positive results, not only depending on how teaching is approached, but also outside factors. How people in the new culture respond to ELLs makes them feel welcome or rejected. The attitudes and behavior of the learner’s family are particularly important. If the family is supportive and embraces the second culture, then the effect is typically positive. However, if acculturation is perceived as rejecting the primary culture, then the child risks feeling alienated from both cultures. Skill 3.6 Identify characteristics of different stages of cultural adjustment Culture concerns the shared beliefs, values and rule-governed patterns of behavior, including language, that define a group and are required for group membership (Goodenough, 1981; Saville-Troike, 1978). Cultural adjustment occurs when people from different cultures are subjected to changes in their beliefs, habits, and customs. These changes may come because the person has had to flee their country or leave it permanently. In an effort to seek better educational, financial or cultural opportunities many others choose to leave their native land and become part of a foreign culture. There are four generally recognized stages of acculturation: The Honeymoon Stage: Everything looks bright and positive. The individual or family have arrived in their new land and are ready to begin a new era in their life. Everyone is eager to please, ready to interact, and happy to be in their new home. The Hostility Stage: Frustration begins to occur as reality strikes. The new language, the new survival tasks (dealing with subways or buses), new foods, and new ways of doing things (at work or at school) are unfamiliar and viewed as problems with the new society. Depression, anger, anxiety, and homesickness are felt during this phase. The Humor Stage: Accomplishments bring on a triumphant feeling that the new society might not be so bad. As the individuals or families experience success and adjust to life’s new demands, they are able to laugh at themselves and their previous frustrations.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Home Stage: Patriotism to the native country is retained while accepting the new country as the new home. A transition from the old to the new norms has occurred and the new location is seen as “home.” The length of time of each stage depends on the individual and may be shortened by positive experiences within the individual’s circle of contacts. Skill 3.7 Identify levels of cultural adaptation (e.g., assimilation, acculturation, accommodation) At its most basic level, cultural adaptation is generally considered to be assimilation, acculturation, and accommodation though social anthropologists have many more definitions with which to describe the very complex phenomena of cultures coming together. Assimilation is the process of integration of immigrants or minorities into the predominate culture. This implies immigrants or minorities lose their native culture through loss of language, customs, ethnicity, and self-identity. The melting pot theory was an attempt to explain the assimilation process in the United States when it was assumed that the United States was an ideal homogeneous society where cultural differences, except physical ones such as skin color, were ignored. This utopian vision of the United States has led to other metaphors such as “vegetable soup” or “flower garden” to explain the trend to a more pluralistic society in recent years. Social scientists use four benchmarks to evaluate the degree of social assimilation: socioeconomic status, geographic distribution, second language attainment, and intermarriage. The degree to which the immigrants or minorities achieve socioeconomic status through education, jobs, and income mark the degree of assimilation. As the it becomes assimilated by increased socioeconomic attainment, longer residency in the U.S., and higher generational status, the immigrant culture seems to spread out and move away from the intense geographic concentration. Language assimilation is considered to be a three generation process. The first generation tries to learn the “new” language but the native tongue remains dominate, the second generation is bilingual, and the third generation loses their “native” language speaking only the language of the new country. High rates of intermarriage are presumed to be strong indicators of social integration because intermarriage reduces the capacity of families to pass on one consistent culture, and therefore, becomes an agent of assimilation.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Acculturation occurs when two distinct cultures come in contact altering the original cultural patterns of either or both groups, but the cultural groups remain distinct. Definitions and evidence of acculturation state that this is a two-way process, but research and theory continue to explore the adjustments and changes that the aboriginal peoples, immigrants, and other minorities experience when in contact with the dominant culture. Thus, acculturation is believed to be the process by which a process of cultural learning is imposed upon the weaker cultures simply because they are weaker. Acculturation then becomes a process of learning a second culture and the minorities’ culture becomes displaced. Transculturation is acculturation by an individual while acculturation is by a large group. Accommodation theory emerged in the 1970s as an explanation of motivations underlying and the consequences of, adapting our language and communication patterns to others. Since its emergence, it has been used in a wide variety of disciplines and has been expanded many times. It can be used to facilitate or impede learning a second language as well as refer to immigrants’ acceptance into host communities. Teachers can facilitate language learning by accommodating their language—vocabulary, structure, and pronunciation—to make the language more comprehensible for those who are striving for proficiency. Immigrant groups or ethnic groups accommodate their cultural heritage to the host or dominate culture in an effort to show their flexibility and willingness to assimilate. Skill 3.8 Identify ways student participation, learning, and adjustment can be affected by cultural differences (e.g., religious, economic, social, family) There are many different ways that students are affected by the cultural differences in their native culture and home when compared with the culture being acquired through schooling and daily life in a foreign culture. The following points, adapted from Peregoy and Boyle (2008), illustrate some of the many different ways that culture affects us daily and thus affect students in their participation, learning, and adjustment to a different society and its schools.

Family Structures: What constitutes a family? What are the rights and responsibilities of each family member? What is the hierarchy of authority? Life Cycles: What are the criteria for defining stages, periods or transitions in life? What rites of passage are there? What behaviors are considered appropriate for children of different ages? How might these conflict with behaviors taught or encouraged in school?

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Roles and Interpersonal Relationships: How do the roles of girls and women differ from those of boys and men? How do people greet each other? Do girls work and interact with boys? Is deference shown and to whom and by whom? Discipline: What is discipline? Which behaviors are considered socially acceptable for boys versus girls at different ages? Who or what is considered responsible if a child misbehaves? The child? Parents? Older siblings? The environment? Is blame even ascribed? Who has authority over whom? How is behavior traditionally controlled? To what extent and in what domains? Time and space: How important is punctuality? How important is speed in completing a task? How much space are people accustomed to? What significance is associated with different cultural locations or directions, including north, south, east, and west? Religion: What restrictions are there on topics discussed in school? Are dietary restrictions to be observed, including fasting? What restrictions are associated with death and the dead? Food: What is eaten? In what order and how often is food eaten? Which foods are restricted? Which foods are typical? What social obligations are there with regard to food giving, reciprocity, and honoring people? What restrictions or proscriptions are associated with handling, offering, or discarding food? Health and hygiene: How are illnesses treated and by whom? What is to be considered the cause? If a student were involved in an accident at school, would any of the common first aid practices be unacceptable? History, traditions, and holidays: Which events and people are sources of pride for this group? To what extent does the group in the United States identify with the history and traditions of the country of origin? What holidays and celebrations are considered appropriate for observing in school? Which ones are appropriate for private observance?

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 3.9

Identify methods of increasing multicultural sensitivity

Teachers are both participants and observers in their classrooms. As such, they are in a unique position to observe what makes their students uncomfortable. By writing these observations in a teaching journal, the teacher can begin to note what activities and topics make the students in her classroom uncomfortable. Does this discomfort come from multicultural insensitivity?

Another method of demonstrating sensitivity is to use appropriate “teacher talk” in the classroom. “Wait time” for student responses differs in different cultures. Too, students who are struggling to formulate their answers may need more time than the teacher normally gives for responding. Also, if the questions are rhetorical, students may be reluctant to answer them as they see no point to such a question. Cooperative group work is based on the premise that many cultures are more comfortable working in collaborative groups. However, while this is true, many students may feel that the teacher is the only academic authority in the classroom and as such, should answer questions, not their peers. Different students feel more comfortable with different instructional formats than others. This may be due to both cultural and individual preferences. By balancing group work with teacher-directed instruction, both points of view should be accommodated. Literacy and reading instruction are areas where multicultural sensitivity can be increased in the classroom regardless of the level of the students. Many immigrant children arrive in the classroom with few, if any, literacy skills. They may not have had the opportunity to go to school. Others, may be fully literature and with substantial prior education. In both cases, reading materials that are culturally sensitive are necessary for the students, both native English speakers and ELLs, to have the opportunity to discuss the ways in which different cultures are alike and differ. Oral discussions of the books will provide opportunities for comprehensible input and negotiation of meaning. Research has shown that the key to any reading program is extensive reading (Day & Bamford, 1998; Krashen, 1993). Advantages include building vocabulary and background knowledge, interest in reading and improved comprehension. For the multicultural classroom, it is important to provide culturally sensitive materials. Avoid materials which distort or omit certain historical event; portray stereotyping; contain loaded words; use speech that is culturally accurate; portrays gender roles, elders and family accurately; distort or offend a student’s self-image. All materials should be of high literary quality. Show & Tell is another strategy for raising multicultural sensitivity. Students of all ages can bring in objects from their home culture and tell the class about its uses, where it is from, how it is made, and so on.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Misunderstandings can be worked into the classroom by asking students to share an incident that involved cultural misunderstanding. Questions can be asked about the nature of the misunderstanding—what was involved: words, body language, social customs, or stereotypes.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 4.0 Knowledge of curriculum, curriculum materials, and resources Skill 4.1 Identify appropriate curricular adaptations according to level of language proficiency For beginning students, Total Physical Response by Asher (1982) allows LEPs to participate without forcing speech in the beginning of their introduction to the English language. TPR consists of the instructor issuing commands which are carried out by the students. The popular children’s game Simon Says can be used after the vocabulary items have been introduced in the classroom for a slightly different way to achieve the same goals. Krashen and Terrell (1983) developed the Natural Approach. Students are introduced to new vocabulary by different experiences. Through listening experiences, TPR, vividly colored pictures to illustrate concepts, in addition to active involvement with the pictures, learners are able to make choices, answer yes-no questions, and play games. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) launched by Chamot and O’Malley (1994) helps intermediate and advanced students understand and retain content area material as they are enhancing their English language skills. CALLA helps ELLs by giving instruction in the appropriate language arts (specialized vocabulary, syntax, phonology) while dealing with the different content areas. Learning strategies that emphasize critical and creative thinking skills such as problem solving, inferencing, etc., need to be taught during these lessons since they are critical to success in the mainstream classroom. The Whole Language Approach of Goodman, Goodman, and Hood (1989) stresses the importance of developing all four language skills through an integrated approach. The Language Experience Approach is one of many different instructional strategies used to achieve this goal. Children dictate their own story based on a shared experience and then practice “reading” it until a firm grasp of the story is achieved. ELLs must have background knowledge before they are able to succeed in content classrooms. Frequently, they are unable to relate to the experience because they are unfamiliar with the topic at hand, but if appropriate experiences are presented, ELLs are better able to deal with the situation. In order to activate the background schema Carrell and Eisterhold (1983) stress the importance of teachers activating prior knowledge in order for the ELLs to succeed in content classrooms. Backroom knowledge is activated through eliciting shared information from students before introducing new or similar topics.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Storytelling is another way of increasing language experiences for ELLs even during very early stages of language acquisition. Wajnryb (1986) claimed that storytelling has many benefits because: It is genuine communication. It is an oral tradition meant to be heard. It is real. It is sensual. It appeals to the affective domain. It is appreciated by the individual while at the same time creates a sense of community. It reduces anxiety by forging listening experience. It is pedagogically positive. By introducing these ESOL techniques, the curriculum is adjusted without isolating the ELLs from mainstream work. Skill 4.2 Determine appropriate instruction of content curricula for varying levels of language proficiency Cummins (1981) observed that the academic language of the content areas prevents many ELLs from achieving success in school so instruction in the native or heritage language may be an appropriate option for beginning English language learners. Krashen and Biber (1988) believed that comprehensible input is a critical element in effect instruction in English. However, by combining content instruction with English as the medium of instruction, ELLs can learn impressive amounts of English as well as their content materials. Both methods are valid and are supported by the Consent Decree (1990). The Consent Decree (1990) requires that instruction always be understandable for ELLs though it does not require that any specific instructional model or approach be used. The two major approaches in achieving this are use of ESOL strategies to deliver instruction or the use of English and the heritage (native) language to deliver instruction.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE When using ESOL strategies, school personnel must be sure that: All subject matter is in conformity with the use of ESOL strategies for teaching ELLs basic subject matter and that such techniques are used at all times so that the ELLs understands what is being taught Each class is taught by qualified instructors and appropriate materials are available All students are progressing towards the district’s pupil progression plan All ESOL programs must be taught in accordance with the high standards of non-ELLs in the same basic subject areas. It should be consistent with the state’s required curriculum and student performance standards. If available, it must provide home language tests and instructional materials. When using English and the Heritage (Native) language to deliver content: instructors should remember: ELLs who speak a different language from English have varying abilities and talents just as English speaking children do. Content area instruction must be delivered using sound instructional methods that promote both formal and informal registers in the Heritage language as well as in English. By permitting the ELLs to develop their Heritage language in positive ways, they become positive members of society who will benefit from the ability to function in two languages all their lives. ELLs are capable of speaking, reading, and writing English at the same level as their English speaking peers. Better employment opportunities are available for bilinguals than monolinguals, so ELLs should actively develop language literacy in both languages. Skill 4.3

Identify methods of scaffolding text and context for ELLs

Scaffolding or supporting children of all ages consists of demonstrating, guiding, and teaching in a step-by-step process while ELLs are trying to communicate effectively ad develop their language skills (Cazden 1983; Ninio & Bruner 1976). The amount of scaffolding depends on the support needed and the individual child. It allows the ELL to assume more and more responsibility as he or she is able. Once the ELLs feel secure in their abilities, they are ready to move on to the next stage.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Educational scaffolding consists of several linked strategies including modeling academic language, contextualizing academic language using visuals, gestures, and demonstrations to help students while they are involved in hands-on learning. Some efficient scaffolding techniques are: providing direction, clarifying purpose, keeping the student on task with proposed rubrics that clarify expectations, offering suggestions for resources, supplying a lesson or activity without problems. Tompkins (2006) identified five levels of scaffolding for learning and problem solving to show how ELLs moved from needing considerable support to the independent level where they are ready to solve problems on their own. Modeling: The instructor models orally or through written supports (a paragraph, a paper, an example) the work expected of the ELL. Projects from previous years can provide examples of the type of work expected. Shared: ELLs use their pooled knowledge of the project (and that of their teacher) to complete the assignment. Interactive: The teacher allows ELLs to question her on points that need clarification or are not understood, i.e. everyone is a learner. It is especially satisfying for the student when the teacher admits that she does not know the answer and helps the students locate it. Guided: Well posed questions, clues, reminders and examples are all ways of guiding the ELL towards the goal. Independent levels: The learner achieves independence and no longer needs educational scaffolding. Skill 4.4 Identify supplemental resources that address cultural, ethnic, and linguistic differences The State of Florida has in place several unique resources that help teachers address cultural, ethnic, and linguistic differences in their students. Among the resources available to teachers is the Florida Language Arts Curriculum Framework which was developed to enhance the Language Arts Curriculum Framework and ensure that the goals of the Florida School Improvement and Accountability Initiative are met. The Parent Leadership Council is a council set up in each school which allows parents to be involved in and participate in educational programming for their children. A majority of the parents on the council must be parents of LEP students. The council must be consulted before the LEP district plan is submitted to the state for approval.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The LEP committee is a committee of ESOL teacher(s), the home language teacher (if any), an administrator (or designee), plus a guidance counselor(s), social worker, school psychologist, or other educators as needed for the situation. The parents are also encouraged to attend the meetings of the committee. Organizations provide additional resources supplying help to educators of ELLs: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages and its regional affiliates www.tesol.org Bilingual Association of Florida Oneyda M. Paneque, Ed.D. Miami Dade College School of Education P.O. Box 651182 Miami, FL 33265 Phone: 305-237-6707 Fax: 305-237-6179 Email: [email protected] Center for Applied Linguistics www.cal.org U.S. Department of Education’s Office of English Language Acquisition Language Enhancement, and Academic Achievement for Limited English Proficient Students (OELA) www.ed.gov/offices/OELA/ Books and journals offer supplemental resources for addressing cultural, ethnic and linguistic differences. Among the noteworthy are: Beebe, Von N. and Mackey, William F. Bilingual Schooling and the Miami Experience. Coral Gables: Institute of Interamerican Studies. Graduate School of International Studies. University of Miami, 1990. Extensively documents the influx of Cuban refugees into the Miami-Dade County school system. TESOL Journal Bilingual Research Journal

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Several websites provide additional resources for teachers of ELLs: English Language Learner Knowledge Base www.helpforschools.com/ELLKBase/index.shtml Valuable for the latest information on ELLS, including conferences, program evaluations, legislation, parental outreach, and a data base. Also see: SOLOM at www.helpforschools.com/ELLKBase/forms/SOLOM.shtml WebQuests http://webquest.sdsu.edu WebQuests support teachers with a scaffold for organizing themebased research units by using the Internet as a learning tool and source of information. Wiggle Works www.ed.gov/pubs/TechStrength/scholastic.html This early literacy, bilingual series incorporates universally designed CD-ROMs for each book in the database. (from Scholastic and the Center for Applied Special Technology) N.B. The resources listed below in Skill 4.5 are concerned not only with learning, but in many cases deal with the socio-linguistic areas of culture also. Skill 4.5 Identify major professional organizations, publications, and resources that support ELLs’ learning There is a multitude of organizations dedicated to providing quality education for the English Language Learner. The following websites are among the many available to support teachers and help them keep up-to-date with the latest research in the field of English Language Learning. General Resources available on the web Besides their specific charge, these offices generally include information on ESL/bilingual educational issues, documents, and teaching resources of concern to educators across the nation. See each web site’s home page for more details on their mission and services offered. California Department of Education. http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/el/ Center for Applied Linguistics. http://www.cal.org

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research. http://www-rcf.usc.edu/~cmmr/ ERIC Clearinghouse on Language and Linguistics. http://www.cal.org/ericcll/digest/ Kristina Pfaff’s Linguistic Funland. http://www.linguistic-funland.com/ National Association for Bilingual Education. http://www.nabe.org/ National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/ Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. http://www.nwrel.org/ Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI), Washington State. http://www.k12.wa.us/ Teachers of English to Speakers of other Languages, Inc. http://www.tesol.edu/index.html University of Texas at Austin, College of Education. http://www.edb.utexas.edu/education/centers/obe/ The U.S. Department of Education. http://www.ed.gov/. Also: The Office for Civil Rights (OCR), http://www.ed.gov/offices/OCR/

The U.S. Department of Education, Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA). http://www.ed.gov/offices/OBEMLA/ The U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI). http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/ In addition to these resources for teachers and administrators, web sites are available on the Internet for students to practice their ELL skills. Two of the most popular are: About.com: ESL: This popular site has exercises in all four skills, games, and quizzes for ELLs as well as information for teachers. http://www.esl.about.com Dave’s ESL Café: One of the longest running web sites with sections for students, teachers and jobs. http://www.eslcafe.com/

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 4.6 Identify supplemental resources that increase comprehension of text and context for ELLs The text itself is a resource that may or may not increase comprehension depending on how it is written. In general, texts which have long sentences and more advanced words are more complex than texts with short, simple sentence structures and basic vocabulary words. For ELLs, it may be necessary to seek out basic readers which will help them overcome these difficulties. Sometimes texts are complicated and difficult to understand because they discuss topics not familiar to the reader. When the student’s prior knowledge or background knowledge is activated, the ELL is able to attach meaning to new information by joining the new with the old and achieve comprehension. Children who come from backgrounds where reading was not possible or did not attend a pre-school program may be at a disadvantage when entering into a main-stream kindergarten or school reading program. Texts may be difficult for beginning readers because it is not user-friendly. Texts which highlight new vocabulary, summarize key points, and contain introductions and summaries include features that will help the struggling reader. According to Vygotsky (1978), the sociocultural context from which a student comes is crucial. The community, home, school, and classroom contexts exert influence on the performance of an individual student or a group of students. Students who have been classified as low achievers in reading may resent the stigma and continue to perform poorly or react negatively to assessment. Atkinson & Hansen (1966-1967) published the first study of the use of computers in reading instruction. Students at Stanford University accessed reading lessons similar to traditional worksheets on a mainframe computer. Today’s students, with one computer for every five students, will experience some form of computer learning. Blanton & Menendez (2006 in Schumm, ed., Reading Assessment and Instruction for All Learners) mention seven categories discussing how computers are used in reading instruction: Game applications, such as Reader Rabbit, Missing Link, and Reading Blaster. General applications, such as Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, Hyperstudio, Kid Pix, and Story Book Weaver. Access applications, such as Google, Netscape, and Yahooligans. Tutoring applications, such as Watch Me Read. Thinking and problem-solving applications, such as Oregon Trail, SimCity, SimEarth, and Zoombinis Island Odyssey.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Communication applications, such as email and online discussion spaces. Integrated learning systems (ILSs), such as the Waterford Early Reading Program, Fast ForWord, and Read 180. Other resources include graphic organizers which help students visualize raw data. These can be used by the teacher for simplification of complex materials, numerous data, and complicated relationships in content areas. Students to analyze data, organize information, and clarify concepts. Examples are: pie charts, flow charts, bar diagrams, Venn diagrams, family trees, spider maps, organizational charts, and strip maps. Still other graphic organizers are webbing, concept mapping, passwords and language ladders, and brainstorming. With webbing, students learn to associate words or phrases with a topic or concept. By using concept maps, students learn the relationships between the different elements of a topic and how to organize them from the most general to the most specific. This is different from webbing where relationships between words or phrases are shown, but not ranked. Passwords and language ladders are motivating ways to teach chunks of language to ELLs. The “password” of the day is language needed for daily student life in school. After the words or phrases are explained, they are posted on the board, and must be used before leaving the room or participating in some activity. Language ladders are associated words such as different ways to say hello or good-bye. Brainstorming consists of students contributing ideas related to a concept or problem-centered topic. The teacher initially accepts all ideas without comment. Students then categorize, prioritize, and select proposed selections for further investigation.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 5.0 Knowledge of instructional delivery models Skill 5.1 Identify the major models of bilingual education

Bilingual Educational Models begin teaching in the ELLs native or heritage language as the required English skills of the student are developed. Only two of these programs strive for full bilingualism; the others only aim for proficiency in English while using the native language to achieve initial literacy or facilitate access to content as English language skills are amplified. Early-exit transitional bilingual education Late-exit transitional bilingual education Developmental or maintenance bilingual education Bilingual immersion Integrated transitional bilingual education Dual-language or two-way immersion Four major models of bilingual education are generally recognized as: submersion, transition, maintenance, and immersion. Submersion: Submersion is commonly known as the “default” mode of instruction for second language learners in classrooms. Meaning, the students are instructed completely in English. Unfortunately, this model of instruction does not address social issues experienced by an LEP student in a non-LEP classroom; nor does it provide the essential academic foundation in the primary language at the time of education in English. (Submersion programs should not be confused with “immersion” programs.) “Pull-out” ESL: This model is associated with the “submersion” model in that LEP students receive remedial English instruction in vocabulary, grammar, and oral proficiency in a separate classroom. The remedial instruction is typically not aligned with the mainstream classroom instruction, and the students may or may not make up missed lessons. These programs have value for schools with strained budgets. Structured Immersion: A “structured immersion” model or Specially Designed Academic Programs in English (SDAIE) allows LEP students to remain in their home classroom and receive English instruction. As LEP students are being educated side-by-side with non-LEP students, instructional strategies must be aligned, which promotes interaction and participation among LEP and non-LEP students.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Transition: The ultimate goal of transitional bilingual education (TBE) programs is to place students into English-only classrooms. Traditionally, schools moved students into English-only classrooms as quickly as possible. At the time, the programs provided for approximately three years of basic interpersonal communication skills (BICs), but this timeframe was not long enough for the students to build cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) either in their primary language or in English. Consequently, LEP students struggle to accomplish proficiency in English either at the BIC level or the academic level. Maintenance: A “maintenance bilingual education” or (MBE) is considered a “developmental bilingual education” because it incorporates the basics of curriculum and communication in the student’s primary language, as well as integrating elements of the student’s heritage and culture. This model of education is based on the belief that “bilingualism” should be embraced by society as “culturally-enriching” and valuable for everyone, not just the LEP students. MBE students are not rushed into English-only classrooms; rather proficiency in English as well as their primary language is emphasized. Immersion: The “immersion” model for bilingual education presents instruction in the primary and secondary languages, as well as in academics over a significant amount of time. The ultimate goal of this type of program is to achieve proficiency in both the primary and secondary languages. Skill 5.2

Identify the major models of ESOL programs

The major models of ESOL programs differ depending on the sources consulted. However, general consensus recognizes the following program models with different instructional methods used in the different programs. Immersion Education Models With these programs, instruction is initiated in the student’s non-native language, using the second language as the medium of instruction for both academic content and the second language. Two of these models strive for full bilingualism: one is for language majority students and the other is for language minorities. English Language Development (ELD) or English as a Second Language (ESL) Pull-out: various approaches to teaching English to non-native speakers. In 1997 TESOL standards defined these approaches as intending to teach the ELL to communicate in social settings, engage in academic tasks, and use English in socially and culturally appropriate ways. Three well-known approaches to ELD or ESL are:

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE o Grammar-based ESL: Teaches about the language, stressing its structure, functions and vocabulary through rules, drills, and error correction. o Communication-based ESL: Instruction in English that emphasizes using the language in meaningful contexts. There is little stress on correctness in the early stages and more emphasis on comprehensible input in the early stages to foster communication and lower anxiety when risk-taking. o Content-based ESL: Instruction in English that attempts to develop language skills and prepare ELLs to study grade-level content material in English. Emphasis on language, but with graded introduction to content areas, vocabulary and basic concepts.

Structured English immersion: The goal is English proficiency. ELLs are pulled out for structured instruction in English so that subject matter is comprehensible. Used with sizeable groups of ELLs who speak the same language and are in the same grade level or with diverse population of language minority students. There is little or no L1 language support. Teachers use sheltered instructional techniques and have strong receptive skills in the students’ native or heritage language. Submersion with primary language support: The goal is English proficiency. Bilingual teachers or aides support the minority students in each grade level who are ELLs. In small groups, the ELLs are tutored by reviewing the content areas in their primary language. The teachers use the L1 to support English content classes; ELLs achieve limited literacy in L1. Canadian French immersion (language-majority students): The goal is bilingualism in French (L2) and English (L1). The targeted population is the language-majority. Students are immersed in the L2 for the first 2 years using sheltered language instruction and then English L1 is introduced. The goal is all students of the majority language (English) becoming fluent in L2 (French). Indigenous language immersion (endangered languages, such as Navajo): Goal is bilingualism; the program is socially, linguistically and cognitively attuned to the native culture and community context. Supports endangered minority language. Develops academic skills in minority language and culture as well as in the English language and predominate culture.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 5.3 Identify the criteria considered in selecting and developing a program model While there are various program models to choose from and although there may be reasons to claim superiority of one model over others in certain situations (Collier 1992; Ramirez, Yuan, and Ramey 1991), many of programs can be effective. The choice should be made by the local authorities and community after serious consideration to the needs of the students and the resources available. Certain factors including demographics, student characteristics and resources will most likely have considerable influence on the decision of the authorities and the community when deciding on an effective program model. District or school demographics: Some school districts have large minority populations of a single language background while others may have a few students from as many as 100 home languages. Factors such as the total number of language minority students, the number of students from each language background, and their distribution across grades and schools will affect the type of program needed to aid district students (McKeon, 1987).

Student characteristics: Student populations may differ because of educational factors present in their home countries before arriving in the U.S. Many may have little or no academic preparation while others may be equal or surpass their peers in the U.S. District or school resources: School districts with the infrastructure to deal with significant language minorities have teachers, aides, and administrators trained to work with ELLs. They may have a strong community pool of bilingual personnel with which to staff bilingual programs. Other school districts may have serious problems in these areas when faced with a sudden influx of students from one or more unfamiliar language backgrounds. Material resources also influence the type of program chosen. Some districts may have difficulty in finding classrooms for pull-out programs while others with declining enrollment may be able to accommodate magnet or ESL resource centers (McKeon 1987).

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 5.4 Identify major research findings (e.g., L1 maintenance, L2 acquisition, weak and strong forms) of bilingual and ESOL programs Bilingual education has two goals. One is the achievement of academic English and school success, and the other is the development of the heritage language. Good bilingual education programs achieve both goals (Krashen 1999, Baker 2001).

“Weak” forms of bilingual education either elect to assimilate the minority students to the majority language (submersion models) or preserve the minority language (pull-out education). These programs are designed to usher the ELLs into the mainstream classroom with little or no concern for the minority or heritage language and frequently before the ELL has sufficient English proficiency. “Strong” forms of bilingual education are those which aim for genuine bilingualism such as the Canadian French immersion programs and the dual language programs of the U.S. Students in the Canadian French immersion programs achieve high levels of fluency in French (L2), score at or above the norm of monolinguals in English in reading and mathematics tests. However, their L2 is “fossilized” since they have no contact with native French (L2) speaking peers and they have limited interpersonal communication skills. Students in U.S. dual language programs are reported as achieving academic success and high levels of language proficiency for both groups of students. These students not only learn the language, but also acquire positive cross-cultural attitudes. To achieve L1 maintenance, Kuncha and Bathula (2004) believe that language loss occurs more in reading and writing than in speaking and listening. For the first language to be maintained, efforts must be made to maintain literacy in both the first and second generation users. Otherwise, language loss occurs quickly and language shift occurs. Other researchers (Garcia 1991; Anderson-Mejías 2002) have pointed out the importance of active involvement of both minority and majority parents and communities in the schools and their ESOL programs. Teachers are the key to achieving communication with the parents of heritage language children. They need to convey the heritage language in a positive way to all students and to accurately and compassionately interpret heritage languages and their culture within the classroom.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE It is Krashen’s belief that for L2 acquisition to take place, there are five essential hypotheses which must be in place. They are: The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis: An adult acquires language through two interrelated processes: the conscious effort of formal instruction of the classroom or other language study and the subconscious acquisition of language through meaningful interaction and natural communication in the second language. The Monitor hypothesis: The monitor of the language learner functions as a learner attempts to acquire the language through natural means. The monitor edits for correctness and accuracy. The extrovert often underedits while the introvert, the perfectionist, and the self-conscious learner often overedit. The Natural Order hypothesis: The grammatical rules and structures of (all) languages are acquired in a predictable order. The Input hypothesis: Acquiring a second language requires learners to receive comprehensible input slightly beyond their present ability (i + 1). This may be achieved through visuals, graphics, gestures, or actions with repeated exposure to the new vocabulary and concepts. The Affective Filter: Affective factors such as emotions, feelings, and disposition impact second language acquisition. When the affective filter is ‘up’, a ‘mental block’ makes language learning ineffective. When the filter is ‘down’, the learner is motivated, has self-confidence, a good selfimage and a low-level of anxiety that promote language acquisition.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 6.0 Knowledge of instructional methods and strategies Skill 6.1 Identify instructional strategies that promote second language acquisition The following are key concepts that promote second language acquisition as determined by the Florida Department of Education’s Language Arts Through ESOL: A Guide for ESOL Teachers and Administrators (1999). Perceive the learner as motivated and “owning” the challenges inherent in second language acquisition. Create a classroom that encourages communication, discourages judgment, and instructs that proficiency is developed over time. ESOL instructional strategies are created out of all academic skills and competencies. Daily curriculum is competency-based, with consistent grammar instruction inherent in each activity. Each unit/lesson of curriculum is based on a theme. Reading and writing are reinforced as competency-building tools. Varying cultural experiences and themes are included in the curriculum. Curriculum is learner-centered and designed for meaningful learning. Language skills are assessed with the learners applying new skills and competencies to solving new problems. Skill 6.2 Identify metacognitive, cognitive, and socioaffective strategies that promote second language acquisition

Cognitive strategies Cognitive strategies are vital to second language acquisition; their most salient feature is the manipulation of the second language. The following are the most basic strategies: “Practicing,” “Receiving and Sending Messages,” “Analyzing and Reasoning,” and “Creating Structure for Input and Output,” which can be remembered by the acronym, “PRAC.” Practicing: The following strategies promote the learner’s grasp of the language: practice constant repetition, make attempts to imitate a native speaker’s accent, concentrate on sounds, and practice in a realistic setting. Receiving and Sending Messages: These strategies help the learner quickly locate salient points and then interpret the meaning: skim through information to determine “need to know” vs. “nice to know,” use available resources (print and non-print) to interpret messages. Analyzing and Reasoning: Use general rules to understand the meaning and then work into specifics, and break down an unfamiliar expressions into parts.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Creating Structure for Input and Output: choose a format for taking meaningful notes, practice summarizing long passages, use highlighters as a way to focus on main ideas or important specific details. Metacognitive Strategies The ESOL teacher is responsible for helping students become aware of their own individual learning strategies and to help them constantly improve those strategies and add to them. Each student should have his/her own “tool-box” of skills for planning, managing, and evaluating the language-learning process. Centering Your Learning: Review a key concept or principle and link it to already existing knowledge, make a firm decision to pay attention to the general concept, ignore input that is distracting, and learn skills in the proper order. Arranging and Planning Your Learning: The following strategies help the learner maximize the learning experience: take the time to understand how a language is learned; create optimal learning conditions, i.e., regulate noise, lighting and temperature; obtain the appropriate books, etc.; and set reasonable long-term and short-term goals. Evaluate Your Learning: The following strategies help learners assess their learning achievements: keep track of errors that prevent further progress and keep track of progress, e.g., reading faster now than the previous month.

Socioaffective Strategies (a) Affective strategies are those that help the learner to control the emotions and attitudes that hinder progress in learning the second language and at the same time to learn to interact in a social environment. Socioaffective strategies are broken down into “affective” and “social” strategies. There are three sets of affective strategies: “Lowering Your Anxiety.” “Encouraging Yourself,” and “Taking Your Emotional Temperature,” which are easily remembered with the acronym LET. Lowering Your Anxiety: These strategies try to maintain emotional equilibrium with physical activities: use meditation and/or deep breathing to relax, listen to calming music, and read a funny book or watch a comedy Encourage Yourself: These strategies help support and self-motivate the learner. Stay positive through self-affirmations, take risks, and give yourself rewards.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Take Your Emotional Temperature: These strategies help learners control their emotions by understanding what they are feeling emotionally, as well as why they are feeling that way. Listen to body signals; create a checklist to keep track of feelings and motivations during the second-language-acquisition process; keep a diary to record progress and feelings; and share feelings with a classmate or friend. (b) Social strategies affect how the learner interacts in a social setting. The following are three useful strategies for interacting socially: asking questions, cooperating with others, and empathizing with others, which can be remembered by the acronym ACE. Asking Questions: Ask for clarification or help. Request that the speaker slow down, repeat, paraphrase, etc., and ask to be corrected. Cooperate with Others: Interact with more than one person: work cooperatively with a partner or small group and work with a native speaker of the language.

Empathizing with Others: Learn how to relate to others, remembering that people usually have more aspects in common than differences. Empathize with another student by learning about his/her culture and being aware and sensitive to the thoughts and feelings of others. Perhaps a fellow student is sad because of something that has happened. Understanding and emphasizing will help that student but it will also help the empathizer. Skill 6.3 Identify features of the natural approach and activities for various proficiency levels The Natural Approach According to (Krashen and Terrell, 1983) students can improve vocabulary through meaningful interaction. For example, curriculums with games, illustrations, physical contact with objects and/or illustrations, “yes” and “no” questions, as well as “choice” questions, provide opportunities for meaningful context and ways to acquire vocabulary. Whereas, a curriculum which requires “passive” listening limits the student’s mental stimulation. The ultimate goal for second language acquisition is to move students from the “listening” mode to the “speaking” mode (Badia 1996). The first two levels demonstrate skills for promoting listening (“yes” and “no” answers being the exception): Level 1: The primary goal in learning a second language is meaningful and successful communication Level 2: Students are encouraged to assimilate the language, rather than possess “knowledge” of it

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The second two levels demonstrate skills for promoting speaking: Level 1: “Low” affective factors encourage students to take risks and challenges and promote success in second language acquisition Level 2: Comprehension and speaking skills are enhanced through vocabulary identified through contextual cues Willig & Lee (1996) have specified four developmental stages for this approach. Pre-production stage concentrates on listening comprehension and nonverbal responses from the students. Early production stage emphasizes an increasing receptive vocabulary and beginning production language. The Speech emergence stage allows the student to focus on speaking in simple sentences. The Intermediate Fluency stage encourages the student’s ability to engage in discourse. Skill 6.4 Identify appropriate total physical response (TPR) activities for various proficiency levels Total Physical Response (TPR) is a “command-driven” instructional technique developed by the psychologist James Asher. TPR is a useful tool in the early developmental stages of second language acquisition, as well as for LEP students without any previous exposure to the English regardless of the age of the student. Through TPR, instructors interact with students by way of commands/gestures, and the students respond physically. TPR emphasizes listening rather than speaking; and, students are encouraged to speak only when they feel ready. After numerous demonstrations by the teacher and classroom students, the entire group can act out a series of commands concerning daily events (such as going shopping, taking a bus, or preparing a simple sandwich). Total Physical Response (TPR) is generally not used with higher proficiency levels after students begin speaking. Beginning Levels: Teaching body parts Touch your nose. Touch your ear. Touch your hair. Touch your toes. Touch your shoulder. ESOL

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Simple Instructions Open the door. Stand up. Sit down. Turn on the light. Turn off the water. Close the door. Preparing a Sandwich Take out the bread. Take out a spatula. Spread peanut butter on one piece of bread. Spread jelly on the other piece of bread. Put the two pieces of bread together. Cut the sandwich in four squares. Eat the sandwich. Skill 6.5 Identify features of communicative approaches and activities for teaching ESOL for various proficiency levels The three main trends in the communicative approach are: Communicativeness: Activities that use genuine communication of meaning between the participants. Tasks: Activities that encourage meaningful communication necessary in the carrying out of tasks. Meaningfulness: Using language in a meaningful context (activity/task) so that the learning process is more efficient. When engaging in the communicative approaches, activities or tasks can be adjusted to the levels and needs of the ELL. An ESOL instructor uses a variety of instructional methods to communicate with LEP students. Common techniques, suitable for all levels, are: Contextual: gestures body language facial expressions props visual illustrations manipulatives

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Linguistic Modifications (within a “natural” setting): standardized vocabulary set standard for sentence length and complexity reinforcement through repetition, summarization and restatement slower speaking pace Teaching Vocabulary: use of “charades,” when trying to communicate a word (acting out the word with physical actions or gestures) introduce new vocabulary through familiar vocabulary utilize visual props, antonyms and synonyms to communicate vocabulary As the ELL progresses, these techniques are adjusted according to individual or group needs or proficiency levels. Skill 6.6 Identify appropriate language experience approach activities for various proficiency levels The Language Experience Approach (LEA) is an instructional technique used to encourage spoken responses from LEP students, after they are exposed to a variety of first-hand, sensory experiences (Badia, 1966). LEA develops and improves the student’s reading and writing skills by using their ideas and language. The following are eight steps for incorporating LEA into LEP curriculum (Dixon & Nessel, 1983): Step 1: An “Experience” Story (Motivation): An experience story is a story characterized as an “experience which is shared by both the student and teacher.” The goal here is for the student’s thinking and language production to be stimulated, when retelling a story or experience. Step 2: Facilitating the Language Process: Once a student has finished telling a story or experience, the instructor should immediately initiate conversation. Step 3: Creating a Personal View Representation The individual draws or paints a picture to represent something interesting about the experience. The experience works best when there are 6 to 8 students. Step 4: Retelling Events/Reactions A volunteer is selected to share his/her picture with the entire group. The teacher elicits, from other students, the parts they found interesting. Using the vocabulary and syntax, when possible, sentences are written on the board and later copied on chart paper or even in the students’ notebooks (at higher levels).

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Step 5: Writing Students’ Statements For this step, the teacher questions the students individually and writes their exact words on the board. After writing each statement on the board, the teacher reads it back to the class for confirmation of accuracy. The teacher should stop after every four or five statements to allow the students to organize the statements in sequential order. The statements are numbered and copied onto sentence strip paper. Students are then given the sentence strip to place in the chart holder. Step 6: Reading When the chart has been completed, each student reads his or her statement to the group and the teacher. Next the teacher reads the story, underlining each statement as it is read moving from left-to-right. The entire group reads the story chorus fashion or volunteers may read it. Step 7: Writing Once the students have acquired writing skills, they can copy the stories onto lined paper or into their notebooks. Stories can be collected into a bound folder called “Our Stories.” Step 8: Follow Up with Activities During the following days, the story may be read again by either the teacher or the students or both. ELLs can be asked to match letter, word, or sentence cards to the original story. Students may wish to illustrate or dramatize the story and present it to other classes, parents, or administrators. Skill 6.7 Identify appropriate ESOL strategies and modifications for content-based instruction for various proficiency levels Content-based instruction (CBI) or “Sheltered Instruction” integrates L2 acquisition and the basic content areas of math, science, social studies, literature, etc. The most current research continues to find validity in the following: Learners do not learn L2 through singular instruction in the language’s rules; they learn from meaningful interaction in the language. Learners will gain proficiency in a language, only if they receive adequate input, i.e., speaking and listening start to make sense to a learner when they can build upon previous knowledge as well as understand context and cues. Although conversational fluency in L2 is a goal, speaking is not sufficient to develop the academic cognitive skills needed to learn the basic content areas.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The goal in every classroom is for Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students to learn the basic content areas (math, science, social studies, etc.) To accomplish this goal, LEP students must learn an “academic language” which takes from five to seven years (Cummins, 1993-2003), because LEP students typically encounter issues with vocabulary when being instructed in the content areas. The following are strategies for CBI or “Sheltered Instructional Delivery”: When speaking, instructors should: Speak slower, but naturally, taking care to enunciate without raising the volume Use short sentences when explaining a concept or instructions Use instructional strategies like repeating or rephrasing Write new vocabulary, expressions, or idioms on the board for further reinforcement When solving word problems in math, the instructors should first: Work through a word problem with the student step-by-step Demonstrate various strategies for problem-solving When providing contextualization, the instructor should: Use facial expressions and gestures Use realia (cultural objects) Use visual cues, such as pictures, blackboard sketches, DVDs, videos, slides, transparencies, etc. Use graphic organizers When giving directions, the instructor should: Simplify complicated tasks by giving specific instructions such as, “Open to page 107. Read the story. Once you have finished, wait for the class to finish reading.” Periodically check for comprehension during the lesson. The instructor should provide opportunities for learner interactions. Cooperative learning groups are essential for LEP learners with varying levels of proficiency; “heterogeneous” groupings help to improve academic performance, especially if LEP students have the opportunity to clarify concepts and ask questions in their primary language. When checking for understanding, the instructor should: Ask the learners to clarify the first, second, and continuing steps of a process. Ask a “who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” or “whose” question. Ask silly questions. Ask for clarification from the learner.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE When correcting an error, the instructor should: NEVER embarrass or humiliate a LEP learner. Avoid corrections when possible and simply accept the ELL’s efforts at language attempts. Model the language correctly without comments. Keep error correction to a minimum at first. Emphasize that making mistakes and being corrected is a basic tenet of any learning process but especially when learning a language. Focus on what a learner is trying to communicate rather than on how correct the communication is. When the error interferes with understanding, restate the question or sentence correctly. Included with the preceding strategies, are the following reminders: always announce and write down the objectives for a particular unit, use handwriting that is readable, develop consistency through daily routines, list step-by-step instructions, and use blended instructional approaches, whenever possible. Skill 6.8 Identify major researchers and their contributions to the field of second language teaching and learning L. Vygotsky, S. Krashen, J. Asher, V. A. Postovsky, H. Wintz , T. Terrell, and C. Gattegno are the major researchers, whose theories have shaped the evolution of second language learning strategies. J. Asher, V.A. Postovsky, H. Wintz, and T. Terrell all contributed theories for “Comprehension-Based Approaches (CBA)” or “Comprehension-Based Learning (CBL),” while C. Gattegno’s research was almost “anti-CBA/CBL.” CBA/CBL approaches are focused on building up the learner’s receptiveness for learning listening skills as well as some reading skills. The case for using a CBL or CBA approach is the following: the processes of sending and receiving information require different mental processing as “speaking” is much more complex than listening. Therefore, placing extreme emphasis on “speaking,” when learning a second language, is counter-productive to positive second language acquisition (Celce-Murcia, 1991.) In the 1960’s, J. Asher developed a CBA-based approach, better known as “Total Physical Response” (TPR.) The main premise underlying TPR is that children begin to learn, when situations require them to give a meaningful action response, rather than a verbal one. The TPR approach is not as demanding or intimidating because it allows for the learner to casually acquire the basic comprehensive skills needed to acquire future L2 proficiency (Celce-Murcia, 1991.)

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE V.A. Postovsky also developed a CBA/CBL-based approach, which is known as “Delayed Oral Response” (DOR). DOR is a model based on listening and visualization. He created a test program for instructing Russian through problem-solving tasks and multiple-choice answers. The learner was presented with four pictures on a screen, while listening to the “problem” in Russian. The learner responded by touching one of the four pictures. If the correct picture was selected, then the program went to the next task. If the program did not go to the next task, then the learner knew that he/she had to try again (Celce-Murcia, 1991.) H. Winitz, a professor of speech science and psychology at the University of Missouri, experimented with a model called “Optimal Habit Reinforcement” (OHR) and created a self-instructional program of audio cassettes and an accompanying book, which is based on the principles of CBA/CBL. The selfinstructional audio cassettes and book called “The Learnables” provided no feedback to the learners. The learning was very self-directed; if the learner decided that he/she did not understand the script corresponding to the picture in the book, then the learner would just rewind the tape (Celce-Murcia, 1991.) T. Terrell and S. Krashen are the researchers behind the most comprehensive CBA/CBL approach: the “Natural Approach.” The underlying assumption is that any learner of any age has the ability to receive comprehensible speech input and determine its pattern, without someone else having to “spell it out” for them. According to Terrell & Krashen, the approach involves large amounts of comprehensible input, whether it is situational, from visual aids/cues, or grammatical. This input is “respectful” of “the initial preproduction period, expecting speech to emerge not from artificial practice, but from motivated language use, progressing from early single-word responses up to more and more coherent discourse” (Celce-Murcia, 1991.) He also maintains that being “grammatically correct” is not as important as the learner enjoying the learning process. Critics of Terrell maintain that by not correcting the learner’s errors early on, fluency is achieved at the expense of accuracy. Caleb Gattegno pioneered the “Silent Way Learning” (SWL.) This strategy requires the instructor, not the learner, remain quiet while trying to elicit input from the learners. The instructor may use visual aids/cues, gestures, etc. to give hints to the learners. The actual learning occurs, when the learners attempt to speak, testing speaking skills related to meaning, form and function. It is entirely up to the learner to decide what he/she will say, as well as which level of speech to use. “The cardinal principle the teacher must follow is phrased in four words: Subordinate teaching to learning” (Celce-Murcia, 1991).

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Wilkins (1976) developed a system of language learning based on the “notions” (concepts such as location, frequency, time, sequence, etc.) and “functions” (requests, threats, complaints, offers, etc.) based on the system of meanings a learner would need to know in order to communicate. His “notional/ functional” syllabus did not emphasize grammatical correctness but accuracy was implicit in the structures students practiced. Lewis (1993, 1997) proposed the idea of “chunks” of language that the learner must master to be able to communicate, thus firmly placing lexis back at the center of the language learning process. By learning fixed chunks (How do you do?) and semi-fixed chunks (According to the author/writer/editor, the main/principal/most interesting point to be seen is…), the ELL can greatly increase his/her language abilities. Prabhu (1983) believes that language is acquired through meaning. The mental act of reasoning creates the conditions for learning and tasks are an effective way of achieving learning in the language classroom which he classified into three categories: Information-gap activities: Information is transferred from one person to another, one form to another, or one place to another. Reasoning activities: Implies the discovery through reasoning, inference, deduction, or a perception of patterns. Opinion-gap activities: Identification and expression of personal preferences or attitude in response to a situation. Skill 6.9 Match instructional approaches with language learning theories The following language learning theories support specific instructional strategies. Theory: If the instructional environment for L2 learners is characterized by high expectations for: speaking correctly, total memorization of grammatical rules and vocabulary, as well as constant error correction, then the L2 learner will quickly lose motivation to continue the learning process.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Strategy: Total Physical Response (TPR) is a “command-driven” instructional technique developed by the psychologist James Asher. TPR is a useful tool in the early developmental stage of second language acquisition, as well as for LEP students without any previous exposure to the English. The main tenet of TPR is that input is very comprehensible, in the form of commands and gestures and is also fun for the L2 learner. Asher supports this theory with the process that young children use, when acquiring their primary language: Children gradually develop both their awareness and attempts to communicate, until listening comprehension skills have reached a comfortable level, and at this point, the child will begin to speak. Through TPR, instructors interact with students by way of commands/gestures, and the students respond with a “physical response.” TPR emphasizes listening rather than speaking; and, students are encouraged to speak, only when they feel ready. Theory: In order for the L2 learner to begin production in the target language (TL), the following principles must be observed and implemented: During the silent period (when learners listen, instead of speaking), the instructors must use comprehensible input, corresponding to the learners’ level of understanding in the TL. Attempts to speak and produce language on the part of the L2 learner, will gradually occur The class curriculum must be aligned with specific speech production skills, i.e., instead of a linear-grammatical approach, instruction should be topically-centered, such as non-sequential lessons on weather, things found in a house, how to tell time, etc. Strategy: The Natural Approach T. Terrell and S. Krashen are the researchers behind the most comprehensive CBA/CBL approach: the “Natural Approach.” The underlying assumption is that any learner of any age has the ability to receive comprehensible speech input and determine its pattern, without someone else having to “spell it out” for them. According to Terrell & Krashen, the approach involves large amounts of comprehensible input, whether it is situational, from visual aides/cues, or grammatical. This input is “respectful” of “the initial preproduction period, expecting speech to emerge not from artificial practice, but from motivated language use, progressing from early single-word responses up to more and more coherent discourse” (Celce-Murcia, 1991.) He also maintains that being “grammatically correct” is not as important as the learner enjoying the learning process. Critics of Terrell maintain that by not correcting the learner’s errors early on, fluency is achieved at the expense of accuracy. Theory: When learners are instructed through content-based instruction such as mathematics, science, social studies, they tend to achieve a much higher proficiency level in the TL, than if they were only instructed in the TL through ESOL methods.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Strategy: The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) Integrates the following tenets: The L2 learners’ actual grade level in the main subject areas of mathematics, science, and social studies etc. should be the deciding factor for content. The L2 learners’ should be exposed to and gradually acquire the specific language used when studying in the subject areas, like: add this column of numbers, determine “x” in this algebraic problem, identify the properties of this cell, etc. The L2 learners’ should be encouraged to use higher level cognitive processes, such as: application, analysis and synthesis. Skill 6.10 Identify appropriate methods and strategies to teach language arts to ELLs There is no one method or strategy that is effective in all situations or with all ELLs. Thinking today suggests an eclectic approach using elements from many different methods and strategies to ensure ELLs get the most access to the language arts curriculum and to learning. Total Physical Response is a systematized approach using commands devised by psychologist James Asher (1982). TPR is an effective means of introducing students and adults to second language. It works on their listening skills in the early developmental stage or with students who have had no previous exposure to English. Teachers speak a command, e.g. “Stand up” and the students respond physically. The teacher continues with other commands until the activity reaches its end. There is no pressure to speak so the affective filter is lowered. This is especially useful with beginners who may be in a “silent period.” The Natural Approach, devised by Krashen and Terrell (1983), exposes children to new vocabulary used in meaningful context. They have extended listening experiences including TPR, colorful pictures explaining concepts, and active involvement of the children through physical contact with the pictures and objects being discussed. They will make choices, answer yes-no questions, and engage in game-like situations. For listening comprehension, ELLs conduct meaningful communication and acquire language instead of learning it. The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) (Chamot & O’Malley, 1994) assists in the transition from an ESOL driven language arts program to a “mainstream” language arts program by teaching ELLs how to handle content area material with success. CALLA helps intermediate and advanced students understand and retain content area material while they are improving their English language skills.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE CALLA lessons incorporate content-area lessons based on the grade-level curriculum in science, math, social studies, etc. The language functions used in the content class such as describing, classifying, explaining, etc. must be acquired by the student. The learning strategy instruction will be given in critical and creative thinking skills so that ELLs develop the ability to solve problems, extrapolate, make inferences, etc. The Whole Language Approach increases linguistic, cognitive and early literacy skills in an integrated fashion by developing all four language skills (listening, speaking, writing, and reading) (Goodman, Goodman, & Hood, 1989). This approach incorporates elements from several instructional strategies to further reading and writing skills. The primary strategy is the Language Experience Approach. Activating Background Knowledge is essential for material to be meaningful. Material is not meaningful unless it is related to existing knowledge that the learner possesses (Omaggio, 1993). Otherwise, schemas are not activated and the material remains free of meaning according to the Schema Theory of Carrell & Eisterhold (1983). Teachers must include activities in their lesson plans to activate students’ previous knowledge on topics being presented. Storytelling provides natural language experiences for all levels of learners. Stories for the classroom should be easily understood or familiar to the students from their native cultures. Stories using repetitive patterns are desirable for their language. The story should lend itself to dramatization and pantomime to encourage theater and mime activities. Skill 6.11 Identify appropriate methods and strategies to teach basic language skills Language skills used to communicate with others in everyday activities are called in Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS). Children acquire BICs naturally in their social environment from their parents, teachers, other children, and the media. Gestures, body language, and facial expressions offer contextual support to learners as they try to acquire these skills. Acquiring BICs generally takes from six months to two years (Cummins, 1999-2003) after first being exposed to a second language. From their earliest days in a school system, children are molded by BICs. They must learn to ask for permission to go to the bathroom, ask for their food in the cafeteria, state their name, address and telephone number, explain who their parents are and what they do, ask for help in tying their shoes, state if they are cold or hot, feeling well or feel sick, learn to use their “inside” voice versus their “outside” voice in the classroom, and so forth.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Instructors help ELLs by modeling the correct language, requiring the child how to raise his or her hand to ask for permission, supplying the correct item when it is requested, motivating the child with stickers or stamps on their hands, and congratulating the child when a new BIC is learned. Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) refers to the language skills required for academic achievement and are usually more difficult to acquire than BICS. Cummins (1993-2003) states that it takes from five to seven years for students to acquire CALP after initial exposure to a second language. The following chart demonstrates Cummins’ four levels of difficulty: Level 1: Cognitive undemanding / Context-embedded Examples: talking with friends; ordering book in the library; playing sports; talking at parties Level 2: Cognitively undemanding / Context-reduced Ordering book by phone; following instructions from a taped-message; reading a letter from a pen-pal Level 3: Cognitively demanding / context-embedded Solving a math problem using graphs, charts, etc.; doing a hands-on science experiment; playing an interactive computer game Level 4: Cognitive demanding / Context-reduced Proving math theorems; writing a research report; listening to a lecture on an unfamiliar subject Academic tasks tend to increase in their cognitive demands as students progress in their schooling, but the context becomes increasingly reduced. ELLs who have not developed CALPs need additional teacher support to achieve success. Contextual support in the form of realia, demonstrations, pictures, graphs, etc. provide the ELL with scaffolding and reduce the language difficulty level of the task.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 6.12 Identify appropriate instructional interventions to address fossilization Fossilization (Selinker 1972) occurs when a learner has reached a good level of communication and is no longer worried about mistakes made. Fossilized errors are habits of speech and are rarely corrected. As such, ELLs do not improve despite repeated instruction. Certain pronunciation, use of vocabulary items, and grammar mistakes are made repeatedly. It becomes very difficult to eliminate them because they become part of the ELL’s newly acquired interlanguage. One very common example of this is the omission of the final /s/ on the third person singular verbs. However, this does not usually create confusion with meaning because English requires a subject for each verb. Therefore, one method for dealing with the errors of this type is to ignore them when they do not interfere in meaning and concentrate on the content being taught. Also, it is easier to ignore the incorrect oral speech and work on the mistakes in written work. Frequently, the ELL does not “hear” the spoken error even if it is taped for them to listen to. By dealing with the error in written work, a visible source of the student’s error is present for the instructor to work with. Mini lessons can be provided for the individual to work on in the hopes that future work (both spoken and written) will be self-edited. Another strategy would be to use peer correction of written work after specific items such as subject-verb agreement have been taught. Once the items have been taught in mini-lessons, they may then be incorporated into individual or group checklists. Since writing is a process, mechanical details can be peer edited in several revisions after students are satisfied with achieving their personal goals of self-expression, style, and content. A third activity could be dictation of sentences in English containing sources of frequent error patterns. By showing the structures correctly, many students realize that they say something different and are amazed that this really is the correct way to state the sentence. Sometimes acting like you don’t understand, especially with incorrect verb tenses, may help the learner understand that his or her structures are wrong and need work. For example, if the learner says, “I went to my house after school every day.” By acting confused, the teacher could say, “Where do you go now? Did you move in with your Grandmother?” Finally, encourage reading and writing. As students become more proficient in these two areas, they will be better at communicating.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Ellis in The Study of SLA suggests “certain error types are not susceptible to defossilization.” So, teachers may have to ask themselves—is it worth it? If the errors don’t interfere with communication, it may be wiser to celebrate communication and ignore the inevitable. Skill 6.13 Identify methods and strategies of differentiating instruction for ELLs in general education classes In the inclusion classroom, ELLs may be given materials that are adapted for their skill levels, and/or they may have an ESOL teacher or aide when available. All vocabulary and language concepts should be taught using highinterest activities. For ELLs that are given adapted materials, teachers should keep in mind that they may not know the Roman alphabet and have to learn it (e.g. those students from countries such as Saudi Arabia and Korea). Even when the ELLs are familiar with the Roman alphabet, the letter/sound correspondence may not be the same. In Spanish, for example, the letter /g/ can be pronounced three different ways: like an /h/ in gema and girasol; like a hard /g/ in gato and gramatica; or like a /w/ in agua. Care should be taken to explain these differences to the ELLs. Many children have difficulty pronouncing English when they arrive in the English language classroom. They may have been introduced to English in their country or home, but still do not speak English fluently. Most will probably not have read in English extensively and are not familiar with writing in English. (Even if they should be familiar with text messaging, this is not standard English and will have to be ignored for most classroom work.) Spanish speakers have difficulty pronouncing the /th/ in English and the numerous ways English vowels can be pronounced. This will affect their listening, writing, pronunciation skills as well as their work in the content areas. Other decoding skills will also have to be given special attention. All of these areas will need to be addressed for the ELLs to succeed in the general education class. ELLs whose cultural or ethnic background is different may need special explanations of the typical holidays. Halloween, Thanksgiving, and Christmas all occur within the first few months of the school year. For children from different backgrounds, not only will materials have to be adapted, but special explanations given also. ELLs will also need to have background knowledge activated before introducing reading content. They should also be given permission to uses translating dictionaries in content areas in order to understand new content or confirm previous knowledge.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The use of peer tutoring can be achieved by seating students in problem-solving work groups. Mix ability levels both in content areas and in language ability so that all students to benefit. Frequently, ELLs do well in mathematics because mathematic symbols are the same or similar in native cultures, but because of language difficulties, they may not be able to work word problems well. Try to avoid abstract problems in the lower grades especially by relating math and science problems to the real world. Use manipulatives and visual aids to make problems more concrete and life-like. Skill 6.14 Identify methods of incorporating students’ first languages and cultures into the existing curriculum Multiculturalism “speaks to the issue of many cultures combining to form a better society” (Finazzo, 2000). Multiculturalism includes both assimilation and pluralism which “recognizes that in diversity lies strength and in acceptance of different races, ethnicities, languages, and cultures [lies] understanding and growth” (Finazzo, 1997). To promote multiculturalism in the classroom, teachers can emphasize the diversity of American cultures, the influence of cultures on society, the numerous cultures in the world, and the origins of rhymes, stories, games and riddles (Davis, 2006). When using books showing different cultures, teachers should be careful to select books which explain the uniqueness of different cultures and not simply a character that is universal except for the unique color of his or her skin in order to permit each child to take pride in his or her cultural heritage and family as well as that of others (Micklos,1995). The following activities will enhance the classes’ appreciation of cultural pluralism: Use different stories to encourage students to see a situation through different viewpoints. Invite members of the community to share their diverse backgrounds. Establish a cooperative work environment in the classroom and schools. Investigate the origin of rhymes, riddles, superstitions (black cats bring bad luck), customs, symbols (flags, different types of stars), chants, songs (La Cucaracha, Hava Nagila), foods (succotash, muesli, fish ’n’ chips), dances and games. Identify authors who represent different cultures, such as the Colombian Rafael Pombo. Read books about different cultures, such as “Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s Ears.” Explore various family structures. Compare and contrast the “melting pot” view with the “salad bowl” and “flower garden” view of American society. Show successful individuals from various cultural groups. ESOL

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Experiment with writing haiku and make origami figures after reading Japanese stories.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 7.0 Knowledge of instructional technology Skill 7.1 Identify appropriate instructional technology (e.g., CDs, DVDs, video, audio cassettes) and its use in ESOL lessons Instructional technology in ESOL can enrich language learning, by creating a more authentic experience, as well as change the environment from “instructorcentered” to “learner-centered.” Technology such as videos and DVDs promote three different types of literacy: auditory (through listening), visual (through pictures) and verbal (through words.) When choosing a DVD or video, an instructor should consider segments, which are long enough to present an authentic situation, but short enough, so students are able to apply their knowledge of language, without being overstimulated. According to Altman, the general rule is: “Don’t expect—or even seek—full comprehension” (1989, p.42). Instructors can use the following instructional techniques when incorporating DVDs and videos into the curriculum. (The same techniques can be used for CDs and audiocassettes minus the specific video component.): Pause the video/DVD to ask questions and check for comprehension Assign tasks to be fulfilled during and after, such as: identification of learned and new vocabulary and/or grammatical structures Compare differences between cultures Identify words which express emotions Use games such as a “video split.” A “video split” is an activity designed to enhance the learner’s comprehension through visual and auditory cues. For example, half of the class (Group A) watches the video, but cannot hear it, while the second half (Group B) listens, but cannot see. The students from Group A are then paired with Group B, and the new pair must recreate the conversation, using the visual and auditory cues understood by both learners. DVDs and videos also offer the option of “captions.” And, according to the research of Garza (1991), using captions is beneficial because it improves aural comprehension (ear training) and reading, as well as increases awareness of authentic language and vocabulary.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 7.2 Identify the classroom implications of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and computer-mediated communication (CMC) in instructing ELLs Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has tremendous positive implications for creating highly individualized, interactive and meaningful learning experiences and simulation exercises. Instead of having to create tests, question banks, practice exercises, and remedial curriculum themselves, instructors now have access to these components through CALL. What makes it even more attractive is that the instructor can tailor the instruction, according to the learner’s individual needs, rather than interrupting the learning process of the entire class. Typically, these software programs also integrate a computerized “grade book,” which allows the instructor to track the learner’s progress and scores. Furthermore, in terms of testing learners, instructors can not only create individualized tests, but also take advantage of randomization features, which protect the integrity of the testing material. CALL even integrates feedback into the instruction. Learners can receive useful feedback in response to their interaction with the software and then branch off limitlessly, depending on their interests and needs. Nagata and Swisher (1995) demonstrated that “computer-mediated feedback, which recognizes and offers meaningful language practice is beneficial to learners at the sentence level” (Shrum, J. and Glisan, E., 2000). According to researchers (Alderson, 2000; Brown, 1997; Dunkel, 1999), the following factors diminished the practicality of CALL: computer-generated feedback for measuring the accuracy of the learners’ speaking ability was not reliable, learners who were not computer-literate were disadvantaged and the testing was limited by the lack of “context.” Computer Mediated Communication (CMC) is considered more appropriate for writing purposes rather than speaking, as all input and output happens with the keyboard; and, learners cannot be assessed accuracy for pronunciation. It shares many of the same qualities of CALL, such as: creating a learner-centered environment, instead of instructor-centered, offering a variety of interactive and meaningful learning experiences, and tailoring individual sequences of instruction. Skill 7.3 Identify the instructional implications of using synchronous and asynchronous software to promote ELLs’ language acquisition Russell (1997) compared traditional classroom courses with distance studies and found no significant difference although there was considerable variation. Machtmes and Asher (2000) analysis of video-based distances courses (telecourses) found that two-way communication between the instructor and the students was more effective than traditional courses.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Asynchronous Learning: InterChange is an asynchronous application, which permits learners to communicate in real- time. As an instructional tool, it has gained popularity because L2 learners can communicate with speakers in the TL; and as the L2 learner has a socially internalized motivation to participate and communicate effectively, the learning experience itself becomes highly meaningful. Synchronous Learning: There are three kinds of synchronous (real-time or live-interactions) communications: chatrooms, instant messaging (IM), and videoconferencing. Chatrooms on the internet allow live conversations or chats between two or more users. Different users can add their comments on a topic and everyone in the chatroom sees what they type in. For classroom instruction, chatrooms can be used to pose questions which the members of the class answer or comment on. Instant messaging (IM) is a service that allows users to alert other users when they wish to chat. The users are then able to receive messages immediately. The service is usually live, but messages can be left for later. IM makes frequent use of abbreviations such as: ?4U—I have a question for you, ADAD—another day, another dollar, and FTF—face-to-face. Videoconferencing is a form of two-way interactive communication where the users can see and hear each other. The set-up requires a camera, a microphone, and speakers. High-speed connections are necessary for the video to project smoothly. One shared program for videoconferencing is Microsoft’s NetMeeting. Skill 7.4 Identify major research findings since 1995 on the use of CALL and CMC with ELLs Major Research Findings: Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) Since 1995, CALL has been researched and evaluated to determine its usefulness and effectiveness in SLA. The interest in Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) is by no means, “mild.” Educators and researchers are looking to explore CALL and reap all potential benefits, such as integrating video and audio into instruction, to increase the learner’s textual comprehension (Chun and Pass 1997.) In 1999, Kramsch and Anderson were in favor of the cultural authenticity brought to life by multimedia. This type of realism provides a language-rich learning environment, second-best to actually experiencing the culture first-hand. The possibilities for integrating CALL into mainstream instruction are less and less limited. For example, some proponents like (Eshani & Knodt 1998) and (James, 1996) see potential in CALL for voice-recognition, which could develop the learners’ speaking skills.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE For instructors, CALL has enormous potential, because certain authoring software tools have features for creating computer-based course materials, which virtually require no programming skills on the instructors’ part and are not cost-prohibitive, such as “HyperCard” from Macintosh. Major Research Findings: Computer-medicated Communication (CMC) Computer-mediated Communication (CMC) is different from CALL in that CALL programs are typically individual in nature. Whereas CMC is “socially-friendly” and offers a forum for online interaction, which potentially can be a significant source of support and collaboration between learners. For instance, email, chat rooms, list-serves, etc. provide “very realistic form[s] of communication because it is a real conversation about real, relevant topics with real people” (Kroonenberg, 1994/95). Skill 7.5 Identify criteria for evaluating commercially available ESOL software Roblyer (2006) in Integrating Education Technology into Teaching suggests that there are two types of criteria that should be considered when evaluating software for classroom instruction. The first type includes essential criteria and the second type is optional or situational characteristics which are applied dependent upon the user’s needs. The first type includes four sets of essential criteria categorized as follows: Set 1: Essential instructional design and pedagogy characteristics: Does it teach? Appropriate teaching strategy, based on best known methods Presentation on screen contains nothing that misleads or confuses students Comments to students not abusive or insulting Readability at an appropriate level for students who will use it Graphics fulfill important purpose and are not distracting to learners Criteria specific to software types Set 2: Essential content characteristics: Is content accurate, current, and appropriate? No grammar, spelling or punctuation errors on the screen All content accurate and up to date No racial or gender stereotypes: not geared toward only one sex or to certain races Social characteristics Match to instructional needs

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Set 3: Essential user interface characteristics: Is it “user friendly” and easy to navigate? User has appropriate control of movement within the program User can turn off sound, if desired Interface is intuitive Set 4: Essential technical soundness characteristics: Does it work correctly? Program loads consistently, without error Program does not break, no matter what the student enters Program works on desired platform Program does what the screen says it should do Online links work correctly Videos and animations work correctly The second type of criteria focus on instructional design, interface/navigation, teacher use, presentation, technical and publisher support. These points should be used to judge between programs should they all possess the essential criteria. Skill 7.6

Identify criteria for evaluating Internet resources for ESOL

The Internet is a tool and as such should be used with an instructional purpose in mind. Instructors should ask themselves if the Internet is the most efficient and effective medium to reach the instructional goals. The following guidelines will help in the determining the value of such projects. Projects should be meaningful, well-designed and interesting to the students. The Internet is a tool and not a means in itself. Projects should have specific goals and be timely. Start small until you gain experience in planning telecommunications projects. Communicate frequently (at least once a week) with all participants. Share the results of the project with the participants, the school and the community.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Two valuable resources for ESOL teachers are WebQuests and electronic portfolios. By using these tools teachers are able to create their own projects based on established criteria. WebQuests were developed by Bernie Dodge of San Diego State University. They allow students to work independently or in small groups while doing research, problem solving, and application of basic skills. The essential components of WebQuests are Introduction, Task, Process, Resources, Evaluation, and Conclusion. An electronic portfolio is a concise, annotated collection of a student’s work that displays his/her knowledge, understanding, skills, accomplishments, interests, and achievements over a period of time. By placing this information on the Web or a CD-Rom, the student is able to communicate with teachers, parents and others about their learning. The key elements of an electronic portfolio are: deciding on goals; designing flow charts, storyboards and template needed for the portfolio; developing the multimedia elements needed and creating the portfolio; and evaluating the product and the process.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 8.0 Knowledge of literacy development and classroom application Skill 8.1

Identify characteristics of reading stages for ELLs

Children learn to read only once. If they are able to read in their native language, they are able to read in English. It is important for ELLs to increase their vocabulary and knowledge of the structure of English, their second language. By building on what the ELL already knows with regards to literacy, language, and experiences in his or her native language, teachers will be able to improve the reading level of the ELL in English. For this reason, it is necessary to evaluate the ELL in his or her first, native, or heritage language in order to initiate the best reading instruction in English. Reading stages were first studied by Chall (1983). She proposed six stages of reading that change over time as children progress through school. 0 Pre-reading: typical of preschool through late kindergarten (also called pre-alphabetic, logographic, pre-conventional) 1 Initial reading or alphabetic decoding: typical of kindergarten through early second grade (also called alphabetic decoding stage) 2 Confirmation and fluency: typical of second and third grades 3 Reading to learn: typical of fourth to eighth grades 4 Multiple points of view: typical of high school 5 Construction and reconstruction: typical of college and adulthood Later studies have modified Chall’s work. Newer studies emphasize the integration of processing skills and importance of sound, spelling, and meaning in learning words. These elements develop together on a continuum. Rich text environments are crucial to development of the growth process. Ehri (1996) developed a continuum of word reading development demonstrating how children master the alphabetic principle. Children cannot retain more than a few dozen sight words and progress is developed only if they are able to relate letters to sounds. For many ELLs, this is particularly difficult if their language is phonetic since English is not. English has roughly forty-four sounds corresponding to twenty-six letters while Spanish, for example, has direct lettersound correspondence. For phonetic readers, decoding English words can be difficult. The Logographic Phase: Child may o Try to remember words by incidental visual characteristics o Treat words as pictograms and make a direct association to meaning o Equate the length of the word with its meaning

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The Novice Alphabetic Phase: Child may o Identify first consonant in word, must learn to separate all sounds o Rely on letter names to identify word, needs to distinguish between letter sounds and their names o Confuse similar words, needs to decode the whole word, left to right, with sound-symbol links The Mature Alphabetic Phase: Child o Can sound out regular one-syllable words o Can increase speed of whole word recognition when decoding becomes accurate o Has well established phonemic awareness o Can represent almost every sound with a logical letter choice o Can represent and recognize spelling patterns, words of more than one syllable, meaningful parts of words and basic sight vocabulary The Orthographic Phase: Child can o Read words using phonemes, syllabic units, morpheme units, and whole words o Use sequential and hierarchical decoding, i.e. notices familiar parts first then decodes unfamiliar parts o Remember multisyllabic words o Use knowledge of word origin, syntactic role, ending rules, prefix, suffix and root forms to decode words and their meanings Schumm (2006) emphasizes that not only are the reading levels characteristics important, but also the differences between L1 and L2, because these may influence the assumed level of the student. Some of the questions she proposes to elicit these similarities and differences are for further evaluation of reading level characteristics: Is the L1 writing system logographic like Arabic, syllabic like Cherokee, or alphabetic like English and Greek? How does the L1 syntax compare with the L2 syntax? Are the spelling patterns phonetic with consistent grapheme-phoneme relationships (e.g. Spanish or French) or are there multiple vowel sounds (e.g. English)? Do students read from left to right and top to bottom in their L1? Are there true cognates (Spanish instrucción and English instruction) and false cognates (Spanish librería and English library) that will help or confuse the ELL? Are the discourse patterns and writing styles of L1 and L2 similar or different? Are questions with known answers asked (teacher questions) or are rhetorical questions (found among many working class families) asked? Is L1 writing style circular, with long sentences and many details (e.g. Spanish) or linear, with the minimum number of facts or supporting details needed to support the main idea (e.g. English)? ESOL

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Research shows that students who are proficient readers in L1 have more reading success in L2 (Collier & Thomas, 1989: Ovando et al, 2003; and Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998). This leads us to the question, “What role does the oral second language play in the reading process?” In general, bilingual education models maintain the idea that ELLs be at least at the level of speech emergence before reading instruction begins. However, given the increasing variation of the U.S. school population, many believe that it is no longer equitable to wait for oral proficiency before beginning reading instruction. Anderson & Roit (1998) argue that reading instruction should be used with certain L2 learners and avoided with others. When instruction is well planned and teachers consider the individual students’ needs, all ELLs can benefit from reading instruction in L2.

Skill 8.2

Identify characteristics of writing stages for ELLs

Just as the native English speaker has to manage many different skills to become a proficient writer, so must the ELL student including clarity of thought and expression, how to use different genres to convey different purposes in writing as well as conventional spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Since these skills vary in addition to the traits of each specific type of writing, it is not easy to discuss writing stages. Even so, it is important for teachers to have a general guide on which to base their instruction plans. The following chart, based on a Writing Matrix developed by Peregoy and Boyle (2008), offers a good guide to identifying characteristics of a student’s writing level. It encompasses three developmental levels and six traits. Trait 1: Fluency Beginning Level: Writes one or two short sentences. Intermediate Level: Writes several sentences. Advanced Level: Writes a paragraph or more. Trait 2: Organization Beginning Level: Lacks logical sequence or so short that organization presents no problem. Intermediate Level: Somewhat sequenced. Advanced Level: Follows standard organization for genre. Trait 3: Grammar Beginning Level: Basic word-order problems. Uses only present tense form. Intermediate Level: Minor grammatical errors. Advanced Level: Grammar resembles that of native speaker of same age.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Trait 4: Vocabulary Beginning Level: Limited vocabulary. Needs to rely at times on L1 or ask for translation. Intermediate Level: Knows most words needed to express ideas but lacks vocabulary for finer shades of meaning. Advanced Level: Flexible in word choice; similar to good native writer or same age. Trait 5: Genre Beginning Level: Does not differentiate form to suit purpose. Intermediate Level: Chooses form to suit purpose but limited in choices of expository forms. Advanced Level: Knows several genres; makes appropriate choices. Similar to effective native writers of same age. Trait 6: Sentence variety Beginning Level: Uses one or two sentence patterns. Intermediate Level: Uses several sentence patterns. Advanced Level: Uses a good variety of sentence patterns effectively. Skill 8.3

Identify characteristics of emergent literacy

Emergent literacy begins when a child is born and continues throughout the preschool years. During this period, the child learns to communicate through language and he or she begins to learn about print. In the pre-school years and early school years, the child learns to connect the spoken language to reading and writing. He or she begins to understand that print carries meaning and information. Each child goes through the emergent literacy stage at an individual pace. Areas of emergent literacy are evidenced by: Children’s previous experience with print (both reading and writing) helps children develop an understanding of the conventions, purposes, and functions of print. Children are involved in a variety of social situations where people read and write for a variety of purposes. They see people making lists and notes, writing letters, as well as reading stories, road signs, product labels, magazines, and other print messages. From this rich context, they gradually construct knowledge of the importance of the written word in our lives.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Phonological awareness and letter recognition contribute to reading acquisition by helping children develop word recognition strategies. Children slowly recognize that speech can be broken down into sounds or phonemes; letters of the alphabet can represent these speech sounds; and knowing letter-sound correspondences permits a reader to “recode” words from the written form to the oral (Adams, 1990). Storybook reading affects the child’s knowledge about, strategies for, and attitudes towards reading. Different children have received different amounts of reading experiences previous to schooling for many reasons including culture and social groupings. However, storybook reading is the most highly recommended strategy used today for emergent readers. Skill 8.4

Identify strategies to promote emergent literacy

Children need to engage in authentic, purposeful reading and writing, regardless of how elementary their efforts are. Peregoy and Boyle (2008) suggest the following strategies may be used with both emergent native speakers of English and ELLs alike: Recognize that all children bring knowledge of literary concepts and skills to the classroom although these will vary in the degree of sophistication.

Children need to be engaged in a wide variety of functional reading and writing experiences that demonstrate literacy while illustrating and modeling the reading and writing processes. Dramatic play centers filled with printed realia (lists, catalogs, and phone books) permit children to experiment with reading and writing during their play. Accept and celebrate each child’s progress in their approximation to literacy. Involve parents in the child’s reading and writing efforts by having them talk to their parents about their reading and writing. Instruct the child in phonemic awareness and phonics based upon individualized needs.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE There are other strategies that may be used in the classroom. The use of big books in the classroom allows the teacher to read to the students from a stand using a pointer. This way, all the words and pictures are visible and the children can relate the visual symbol to the auditory one. The classroom should be rich in print. Familiar rhymes or poems may be displayed in a pocket chart for children to arrange in order and then read. A wide variety of books for the children to read on their own permits the teacher to observe how the child holds the book and reads the words. A word wall with ample words beginning with each letter gives the child extra practice in locating and reading words in isolation. Sounds of the letters need to be taught for future decoding of words. Rhyming words are an efficient way to teach letter sounds. Skill 8.5 Identify methods of incorporating the student’s first language into second language literacy development Peregoy & Boyle (2008) state that literacy scaffolding helps ELLs with reading and writing at a level that would be impossible for them otherwise. Scaffolding allows ELLs to work at their level in both reading and writing, and at the same time, challenges them to reach their next level of development. To help students achieve their level, several criteria are suggested: Use of functional, meaningful communication found in whole texts. Use of language and discourse patterns that repeat themselves and are predictable. Provide a model (from teacher or peers) for understanding and producing particular written language patterns. Supports students at a level Krashen refers to as i + 1. May be discarded when the student no longer needs them.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Keeping in mind the scaffolding theory, teachers may use the first language in instruction—when they know it. This is not always possible. In many states, there are hundreds of language communities represented in the statewide school system. A danger of this method is that some students become dependent on instruction in their first language and are reluctant to utilize their knowledge of the second language. However, for most children instruction in their first language has numerous advantages. First language instruction lowers the affective filter by reducing tension, anxiety, and even fear, thus permitting faster learning; it can clarify misunderstandings in the second language content; and it can be used to explain how the two languages differ or are the same with respect to different types of reading texts or writing tasks. Teachers can also use the similarities and differences of the different languages to teach learning strategies. For example, the adjective comes before the noun in English but in Spanish it comes after the noun. A text written in English is expected to have a main idea and several supporting details to explain or support it. Other languages are more descriptive and depend on the beauty of the language to convey the writer’s meaning. By using the concept of cognates, both true and false, teachers can improve vocabulary development. Schemata need to be activated to draw upon the previous knowledge and learning of the ELL especially when the ELL may not have had similar experiences to the mainstream culture. The use of graphics to encourage prereading thought about a topic (e.g. brainstorming, web maps, and organizational charts) activates this knowledge and shows how information is organized in the students’ minds. Schumm (2006) states that research has shown: More prior knowledge permits a reader to understand and remember more (Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983). Prior knowledge must be activated to improve comprehension (Bransford & Johnson, 1972). Failure to activate prior knowledge is one cause of poor readers (Paris & Lindauer, 1976). Good readers accept new information if they are convinced by an author’s arguments. Likewise, they may reject ideas when they conflict with a reader’s prior knowledge (Pressley, 2000).

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Teachers may organize students in pairs for peer tutoring (Schumm, 2006). The teacher becomes a facilitator who circulates around the room answering questions or clarifying pronunciation and meaning. The tutee (the more proficient reader) reads the text aloud. The tutor listens. The roles are reversed. The new tutor points out mistakes to the tutee and asks for corrections or if the tutee can figure it out. Students can retell the story to check for comprehension. Skill 8.6

Identify characteristics of critical literacy

Critical literacy is the process of in-depth text analysis, in which the learner seeks an understanding, application, and synthesis of the material, including the intentions and resources of the author or speaker, which reaches well beyond the surface meaning (Lohrey, 1998.) According to Van Duzer & Florez (2001), “Critical literacy takes learners beyond the development of basic literacy skills such as decoding, predicting, and summarizing and asks them to become critical consumers of the information they receive.” There is no “correct” or “preferred method” for critical literacy—how it is approached and analyzed, depends on the style, thought processes, perspective and pedagogies of the reader or listener. For example, because the use of language is hardly impartial; there are readers who use critical literacy to explore the relationship between power and language. And, there are those who believe that written or spoken text, be it from a speech, interview newspaper, magazine, internet site, or research book is meant to convince, rationalize, amuse, etc., and, so for those individuals, critical literacy is almost an “investigation” into the motivation and goals of the author or speaker. Some theorists of critical literacy, such as Freire, maintain that knowledge and education give power to individuals who live under oppressive conditions (Peyton & Crandall, 1995.) Through the process of analysis and investigation, critical literacy provides a means for individuals to identify the nature of social conditions and find a means to change them (Auerbach, 1999; Brown, 1999; Hammond & Macken-Horarik, 1999, Hull, 2000.)

Spoken or written words typically assume that the listener or reader has background knowledge and/or experience particular to a certain culture and its generally accepted norms, values, and attitudes. Thus, instruction in critical literacy is of enormous benefit for L2 learners, as they learn about a new culture by the simple process of questioning it.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 8.7

Identify strategies to promote critical literacy

The instructor can integrate the following strategies to promote critical literacy for L2 learners: Ask the L2 learners to consider the author’s motivation for writing a certain newspaper or magazine article. Specifically, ask the learners to support their opinions and answers, using examples of tone, structure, and word choice. Ask the L2 learners to compare/contrast the photographs, topics, writing style of an L1 and L2 newspaper. Specifically, ask the learners what the style of each reveals about the different cultures, whether these differences influence readership, as well as if the choice of advertising influences readership. The critical piece of both activities is for the learners to not only consider the specific questions, but to also consider which values, ethics, and cultural factors influence their own thinking and responses. Most importantly, instructors need to introduce topics that are relevant to the L2 learner, as well as use codes. “Codes” are graphics, pictures, speeches, themes, issues, or realia—objects from a specific culture that help stimulate discussion. “Simple, familiar, focused representations of complex, often emotionally charged issues or situations, codes can be structured for use with low level learners” (Van Duzer & Florez, 2001.) The following is an example of how an instructor might use codes to and facilitate a “critical” discussion: Have the L2 learners watch a clip from the movie “Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner?” whose basic theme is racial acceptance and whether a wealthy young college girl’s parents will accept her African-American fiancé. After viewing the clip, the instructor might ask the following types of questions:

How do you think both sets of parents handled the situation? If you would have handled it differently, what would you have done and why? How would your family react, if this happened to you? Is it possible that this situation could happen to you? Why or why not? Is this racially-based theme still common on television and in the movies? Such questions provide a framework for L2 students to examine their individual values, morals, and biases, as well as society’s.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 8.8 Identify appropriate methods of instructing ELLs in the areas of phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension Since ELLs run the gamut of pre-emergent literacy to full literacy in their first language, it is vitally important to evaluate their language skills in their first language and in their second language before planning instruction. For the young child in the pre-emergent literacy group, it may be sufficient to provide instruction in the mainstream second language classroom. However, for ELLs who are not literate in their first language, or are literate in their first language but are below grade level in their second language, remedial instruction may be necessary to bring them up to grade level. For the student who is not literate, the same steps used for native speakers will have to be followed though perhaps at a slightly more accelerated pace depending on the age of the student. Peregoy and Boyle (2008) state that the following sequence of phonics instruction usually recommended for native speakers would probably be helpful to non-native speakers as well: o Single consonants at the beginning of words o Short and long vowels o Letter patterns and word families (onsets and rimes) o Digraphs (e.g. th, ch, ph) and blends (e.g. cl, bl, tr, cr, pr) Remember: phonics is a means to an end (comprehension), not isolated rules to be memorized. The student who is literate in a native language with an alphabet similar to English (e.g. Spanish, German, or French) is likely to need less work in phonics because the consonants are similar. English vowels and their spellings cause difficulties for most readers, including native speakers, so extra care should be given to instruction in this area. Reading aloud, journal writing, games with sound/symbol correspondence, and different kinds of computer software for beginning readers can all help the student get extra work in this area. Fluency is developed over time through extensive practice both in speaking and in reading. Ample opportunities should be given to ELLs to develop their speaking abilities and listening abilities to help them achieve more oral fluency. Role plays, skits, poems, singing, and telephone dialogs are good ways to increase oral fluency. Fluency in reading interacts with oral fluency. Wide exposure to print and reading will increase both reading fluency and oral fluency. The two are intertwined.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Fluent readers are able to grasp chunks of language, read for meaning and not word by word, decode automatically, and are confident readers who are able to self-monitor, but maintain comprehension. Specific instruction devoted to these areas should improve fluency rates in slower readers. Vocabulary Research has shown that the same 1000 words (approximately) make up 84 percent of the words used in conversation and 74 percent of the words in academic texts ( The Nation, 2001). The second most frequently used 1000 words increases the percentages to 90 percent of the words used in conversation and 78 percent used in academic texts. The ELL needs to understand 95 percent to achieve comprehension of the academic text. (Lists may be found at: http://www.harenet.ne.jp/~waring/vocab/index.html.) ELLs need to acquire the 2000 most used words and work on academic content words at the same time. In order to help students acquire the vocabulary they need for school, consider the following. Vocabulary development for young children is increased using the same methods used with native speaker beginning readers: ample exposure to print, word walls, realia, signs on objects around the room, and so on. Older children may take advantage of all these methods in addition to studying true and false cognates, creating personal dictionaries, journal writing between themselves and their teacher, and using learning strategies to augment their vocabulary. Other strategies from Peregoy and Boyle (2008) are: o Activate the prior knowledge of the ELL o Repeat the new word in meaningful contexts o Explore the word in depth through demonstrations, direct experience, concrete examples, and applications to real life o Have students explain concepts and ideas in writing and speaking using the new words o Provide explicit strategy instruction so that students can independently understand and use the new words Many people wait for a reading passage to present the information in an organized way for them. However, reading comprehension is a highly complex area where successful readers use reading strategies in each of the three distinct phases of reading—prereading, reading, and postreading—to successfully understand a text (Peregoy and Boyle, 2008). The purposes of the prereading phase are for teachers to build background knowledge through anticipation guides or field trips, motivate the reader with structured overviews or films, and establish the purpose using experiments or pictures.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The purposes of the during-reading phase are to read based upon the established purpose using learning logs or annotating texts to record information, improved comprehension by Directed Reading-Thinking Activities and asking questions, and utilize background knowledge by studying headings and subheadings and answering questions. The purposes of the postreading phase are to help the student with organizing and remembering information through activities such as art work, maps, or summaries and to use the information in reporting, making a film, or publishing. Skill 8.9 Identify appropriate methods for developing literacy for ELLs with limited literacy in their first language Research suggests that, contrary to popular opinion, immigrant children, poor families, and other minority group families do value literacy and education. Although literacy varies in different families, literacy serves many functions in families living below the poverty level, families in which English is not the primary language, and families with low educational levels (Peregoy and Boyle, 2008). Teachers need to be perceptive and draw upon the child’s home language and literacy experiences so that the child is better served when beginning literacy instruction.

Encouraging home involvement in the literacy process is critical. Family members model reading and writing every time they read the newspaper, a magazine, make a shopping list, note an appointment on a calendar, discuss their work schedule, or discuss charges on the the most recent phone bill. Many children come from societies where oral storytelling traditions (e.g. Navajo, Spanish, Hmong, or African American) provide excellent foundations for literacy development. Nevertheless, little research has been conducted about how to teach ELLs with limited literacy in their first language while learning a second language—whether it be a young child or an older one. If feasible, students should first learn to read in their native language and later the second language. When instruction is begun in English, many ESOL practitioners believe that the same methods used to teach the native speaker will be beneficial to the ELL because similar literacy patterns will probably emerge. Older learners may be able to progress more rapidly because they use their worldly experiences to help them with comprehension and communication. National reading authorities recommend phonemic awareness, phonics, reading fluency, and comprehension as the keys to success in achieving literacy. All of these elements should be considered meaningful in context rather than in isolation. Instruction in specific strategies (e. g. summarizing, retelling, answering questions) will help ELLs to become independent readers and writers.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 9.0 Knowledge of assessment Skill 9.1

Identify factors that affect the assessment of ELLs

Certain factors may affect the assessment of ELLs who are not familiar with assessment in the U.S. or Florida classroom. Among these is unfamiliarity with standard testing techniques. Students may become disconcerted when they are not allowed to ask questions of the teacher, are restricted by time constraints, or are permitted to work only on certain sections of the test at a time. Students may also be uncomfortable when ELLs are allowed specific accommodation during the test session. Accommodations allowed by the test publisher or those prescribed by the State of Florida need to be introduced in the regular classroom so that ELLs and other students are familiar with them before the testing session begins. The constructs of reliability and validity are crucial in assessing ELLs because of the high stakes involved in testing in today’s schools. Decisions about schools, teachers, and students are based on these tests. A reliable assessment test for ELLs will have the following three attributes: validity, reliability, and practicality.

Validity: An assessment test can only be considered “valid,” if it measures what it asserts to measure. If an ELL assessment test claims to measure oral proficiency, then the test should include a section where instructors ask the ELL learner to pronounce certain words, listen to the instructor’s pronunciation, and determine if it is correct and/or ask the learner to respond directly to the instructor’s questions. According to Díaz-Rico & Weed (1995), “empirical validity is a measure of how effectively a test relates to some other known measure.” There are different types of validity: predictive and concurrent (Díaz-Rico & Weed, 1995.) “Predictive” empirical validity is concerned with the possible outcomes of test performance, while, “concurrent” empirical validity is connected with another variable for measurement. For example, if a learner shows a high amount of English speech proficiency in class, then the instructor would have the expectation that the learner would perform well during an oral proficiency exam. Avalos (in Schumm: Reading Assessment and Instruction for All Learners, 2006) states that there are four types of bias which can affect validity: Cultural bias: Concerns acquired knowledge from participating in and sharing certain cultural values and experiences. Asking questions about birthdays or holiday celebrations presumes a middle-class family experience. Immigrants frequently do not celebrate birthdays because they live in poverty or perhaps because they celebrate the birthday differently (with an extended family and piñatas).

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Attitudinal bias: This refers to the negative attitude of the examiner towards a certain language, dialect, or culture. Just as low expectations from instructors can cause low results (the Pygmalion effect), the same thing happens during testing when a negative attitude conveyed by the assessor, teacher, or school culture can have negative results on the test results. Test bias or norming bias: This type of bias refers to excluding ELLs or different populations from the school’s population used to obtain the norm results. Translation bias: Occurs when the test is literally translated from L2 to L1 by interpreters or other means. The “essence” of the test may be lost in such translation because it is difficult to translate cultural concepts. Reliability: An assessment test can only be considered “reliable,” if similar scores result when the test is taken a second time. Factors such as anxiety, hunger, tiredness, and uncomfortable environmental conditions should not cause a huge fluctuation in the learner’s score. Typically, if a learner earns a score of 90% on a test that was created by the instructor, then averages predict that the learner probably scored 45% on one half of the test and 45% on the other half, regardless of the structure of the test items. Practicality: A test that proves to be both valid and reliable may unfortunately prove to be cost- or time-prohibitive. The ideal assessment test would be one that is easy to administer and easy to grade, that includes testing items closely similar to what the learners have experienced in class. However, when learners encounter test items such as writing journals, then practicality becomes an issue. A writing journal, although an excellent method for learners to explore their critical literacy skills, as well as track language achievement progress, can be difficult to grade due to the subjective content, and it may not act as a fair representation of what the learners have encountered in class. Skill 9.2 Identify appropriate alternative assessments that measure English Language Learners’ (ELLs’) performance The following are examples of alternative assessments that offer options for an instructor. Portfolios: Portfolios are a collection of the student’s work over a period of time (report cards, creative writing, and drawing, and so on) that also function as an assessment, because it: indicates a range of competencies and skills is representative of instructional goals and academic growth

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Conferencing: This assessment tool allows the instructor to evaluate a student’s progress or decline. Students also learn techniques for self-evaluation. Oral Interviews: Teachers can use oral interviews to evaluate the language the students are using or in their ability to provide content information when asked questions— both of which have implications for further instructional planning. Teacher Observation: During this type of assessment, the instructor observes the student behavior during an activity alone or within a group. Before the observation occurs, the instructor may want to create a numerical scale to rate desired outcomes. Documentation: Documentation shares similarities with teacher observations. However, documentation tends to transpire over a period of time, rather than isolated observations. Interviews: This type of assessment allows instructors to evaluate the student’s level of English proficiency, as well as identify potential problem areas, which may require correctional strategies. Self-Assessment: Students benefit tremendously from a “self-assessment,” because through the process of self-analysis they begin to “think” for themselves. Instructors need to provide guidance as well as the criteria related to success. Student Journals: Students benefit from journals because they are useful for keeping records, as well as promoting an inner dialogue. Story or Text Retelling: Students respond orally and can be assessed on how well they describe events in the story or text as well as their response to the story and or to their language proficiency. Experiments and/or Demonstrations: Students complete an experiment or demonstration and present it through an oral or written report. Students can be evaluated on their understanding of the concept, explanation of the scientific method, and/or their language proficiency.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Constructed-Response Items: Students respond in writing to open-ended questions. This method focuses on how students apply information rather than on how much they recall of content lessons. In this assessment, they may use a semantic map, a brief comment on a couple of points made in the readings, or an essay discussing or evaluating the material. Skill 9.3

Identify examples of cultural and linguistic bias in tests

Instructors of LEP students need to be aware of the less obvious cultural and linguistic bias in tests, such as students who are unfamiliar with the testtaking techniques of multiple-choice questions and/or bubble answer sheets. The debate as to the “fairness” and/or “cultural bias” often associated with the practice of standardized tests for assessment seems to be particularly true in the case of ELL learners. It has been argued by some that the “very use of tests is unfair, because tests are used to deprive people of color of their place in society” (Díaz-Rico & Weed, 1995.) However, the use of such testing as an assessment tool for ELL learners is standard and will continue to be so, in the foreseeable future. That being said, the following factors can affect how a test or assessment is administered to the ELL learner and should be taken into consideration:

Anxiety: Testing for an ELL may go well beyond what is considered “normal” anxiety for a native English speaker. ELLs are potentially at a much higher disadvantage, because not only is there “anxiety” about studying for a test, the test format itself could be unfamiliar, depending on the ELLs’ culture and previous test-taking experience. Multiple choice questions and especially “cloze’’ or fill-in-the-blanks, can be intimidating, because such formats may not be a true indicator of the ELLs’ actual level of ELL proficiency (Díaz-Rico & Weed, 1995.) A potential “workaround” to reduce the ELLs’ anxiety would be to administer practice tests, to allow the ELL to develop a comfort level. Time Limitations: The time limitations to which L1 learners in the U.S. are typically very accustomed may create issues for ELLs of other cultures, especially in Europe. In the U.S., it is customary for the instructor to assign a class period to complete an exam, or for L1 learners to take statewide school achievement tests, which are timed in a non-negotiable fashion and do not allow the learner to skip forward or back while taking the test. ELLs may need additional time, depending on their comfort level and experience.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Instructor/Learner Rapport: If the ELL does not share a comfortable relationship with the instructor, and/or there are significant language barriers between them, the ELL may not be forthcoming about any questions or clarification about the test. Without the ability or comfort level to address these issues, the ELLs’ success could be compromised before the test begins. Furthermore, nuances of the English language, idiomatic phrasing, and confusing instructions can also negatively impact the ELLs’ test performance. Troublesome Testing Content: Achievement tests for measuring abilities other than language may contain cultural biases or incorrect translations, which can comprise the scoring for the ELL learner. For example, some words tend to be lost in translation, such as the word “belfry” in English and its corresponding word in Spanish, which is “campanario.” “Belfry” is not common in everyday language use, but is usually found in classic literature. However, “campanario” is commonly used in Spanish. The ELL learner’s overall achievement on such a test could be greatly diminished by unequal translation. In addition to the above mentioned factors, cultural and linguistic bias often occurs in tests in other ways. For example, the story in the English culture generally has a hero and a villain. The leading character is pro-active, assertive, and in search of a goal for which he or she will be rewarded (a pot of gold, the charming prince, or a safe haven). In a Japanese story, the main character’s adventures come through chance or fate. His or her rewards come from the kindness or goodness demonstrated throughout the story. Therefore, cultural bias in the story text may lead to testing bias.

The structure of English discourse is usually straightforward. The story starts at Point A and continues until Point Z is reached. There are very few digressions. Many cultures, however, have discourse styles that reflect their culture and are very different. Just as certain cultural amenities (sipping tea as a prelude to business) must be conducted in oral speech, so must they be conducted in writing in certain cultures. To go straight from Point A to Point Z would show rudeness (in oriental cultures which tend to wander) and a total lack of writing ability in Spanish (where the author likes to demonstrate his linguistic abilities through verbosity).

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 9.4 Identify appropriate adaptations of tests, test items, and test tasks according to the student’s level of English proficiency When any learners are tested, the main goal is to gather the information necessary for providing them with the most appropriate instruction. And, as we have seen in the last topic, for ELLs, cultural and linguistic biases do exist in testing. The unfortunate result may be that their true level of English proficiency and/or achievement in various content areas is incorrectly reported. (Not only is this problematic for the ELL himself/herself, but school districts must test learners in order to comply with federal legislation, also known as “Title 1” or T1. Low test scores can sometimes result in a loss of funding for the school.) The typical guidelines for testing ELLs are the following: Be tested with certain minor accommodations. *The final decision of when to test and with what accommodations should be made based on each individual ELL. The following guidelines are accommodations for testing ELLs with at least 1 year in the T1 environment: Give additional time for the ELL to complete the test Give permission for the use of a bilingual dictionary Read specific parts of the test, as necessary (this accommodation is not appropriate for vocabulary or reading comprehension parts) Provide pronunciation and word meaning help These accommodations are offered to the ELL, so that any deficit in the T1 will not cause inaccurate performance results. Skill 9.5 Identify statewide assessment policies and accommodations in ESOL In 1990, the Florida Consent Decree (Decree) became the settlement agreement reached as a result of the lawsuit between LULAC (The League of United Latin American Citizens) et. al. and Florida Board of Education et. al., between the state of Florida and a coalition of eight groups led by LULAC who were advocating for the rights of ELLs in the state. The document contained six sections; the section on assessment concerns us here. The assessment procedure varies according to grade level. Within 20 school days of registration, prospective ELL students are given an age-appropriate English aural/oral proficiency test to evaluate their English listening and speaking abilities. Students (K-12) who do not obtain proficiency remain classified as LEP and remain in an ESOL program with a code of LY. ESOL

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE If the student (K-3) is classified as fully English proficient, then the student is placed in the regular classroom and the code is changed to ZZ. Students in grade 4 or above who test fully English proficient remain in an ESOL program with the code LY until they take a norm referenced test on reading and writing. They must be referred to the LEP committee if they are not receiving ESOL services. The LEP committee will determine the eligibility of the student for the ESOL program. nd If the student scores at or below the 32 percentile on the reading and writing parts of the test, the student is classified LEP and remains in the ESOL program with a code of LY. At any point during the testing procedures, the teacher or parent may request that the student be referred to the LEP committee. th

All students enrolled in the 11 grade in the state of Florida are required to take the High School Competency Test (HSCT). Students are required to demonstrate that they have achieved a high competency level in reading, writing and mathematics. Special accommodations for administering the HSCT to LEP students are available. The following are other assessment instruments used by the state of Florida to collect student achievement data: School district norm-referenced achievement information, which is gathered from grades 4 and 8 “Florida Writes,” an assessment to measure the writing performance of students in grades 4, 8, and 10 The “Grade Ten Assessment Test” (GTAT) is a nationally recognized assessment test for measuring achievement School districts in the state of Florida have the ability to administer other assessment instruments, including the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) and the American College Test (ACT), which students have the option to take. Skill 9.6

Interpret ELL assessment data (e.g., proficiency, achievement)

There are a multitude of tests for evaluating, assessing, and placing ELLs in the appropriate programs. Each test can test a narrow range of language skills (such as discrete tests designed to measure grammar sub-skills or vocabulary). A language test should be chosen on the basis of the information it gives, the appropriateness of the instrument for the purpose, and the soundness of the test content. Language has over two hundred dimensions which can be evaluated, and yet most tests assess less than twelve of them. Therefore, all language testing should be done cautiously; backed up by teacher observations, oral interviews, and family life variables; and grounded in school records.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Language placement tests: A language placement test is designed to place a student within a specific program. The school district may design its own instrument or use a standardized test. Language proficiency tests: These tests measure how well students have met certain standards in a particular language. The standards have been predetermined and are unrelated to any course of study, curriculum, or program. These tests are frequently used to enter or exit a particular program. Examples are: ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) Test of Spoken English (TSE) Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) Foreign Service Exam (Foreign Service Institute) Oral Language Proficiency Scale from Miami-Dade County Public Schools Language achievement tests: These tests relate directly to a specific curriculum or course of study. The tests includes language sub-skills, reading comprehension, parts of speech, and other mechanical parts of the language such as spelling, punctuation, and paragraphing. Examples are: Unit exams Final exams Diagnostic language tests: These tests are designed to identify individual students’ strengths and weaknesses in languages. They are generally administered by speech therapists or psychologists in clinical settings when specific language learning problems are present.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 10.0 Knowledge of ELL exceptionality issues Skill 10.1 Identify the similarities and differences between second language development and learning disabilities Learning disabilities refer to either a physical, emotional, cognitive, or social component that severely limits what is considered to be “normal” functioning behavior. Children who fall into this category can be one or more of the following: emotionally challenged; hearing, vision, or speech impaired; learning disabled, and so on. One similarity between second language development and learning disabilities is comprehensive diagnostic testing before placement. Similarities: Educators have numerous assessment tools to evaluate the proficiency level of a L2 learner. They also have various assessment tools to determine if a L1 learner has a disability, whether it is physical, emotional or learning. However, assessment tools to determine whether a L2 learner has a learning disability is not currently available. The most reliable method to date, is that of observation and interpretation. The typical blueprint, which L2 learners seem to follow in terms of developing their pronunciation skills, can be easily confused as a learning disability, because they have difficulties with the following areas: omission, substitution, distortion and addition (Lue, 2001.) These areas are the same as encountered by some L1 learners with learning disabilities. The following are examples of the problem areas: Omission: The L1/L2 learner omits a phoneme (the smallest unit of a word); for example, the L1/L2 learner pronounces “ar,” instead of “bar.” Substitution: The L1/L2 learner substitutes a phoneme; for example, the L1/L2 learner pronounces “take,” instead of “rake.” Distortion: The L1/L2 learner pronounces a phoneme incorrectly, and the sound produced is not considered normal. For example, the L1/L2 learner pronounces the phoneme “three” as “free.” Addition: The L1/L2 learner adds an additional syllable to a word. For example, a learner pronounces the word “liked” as “like-id.”

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 10.2 Identify the similarities and differences between second language development and language disorders A language disorder is characterized by the learner experiencing difficulties in communication and speech motor skills, and typically the learner will be noticeably behind his/her classmates in language acquisition or speech skills. The following summaries outline both the similarities and differences between second language development and language disorders. Remember that an LEP learner who has proficiency in his/her native language, but struggles in the L2 environment, is not considered to have a language disorder. Similarities: Some language disorders cause the learner to: Mispronounce phonemes (the smallest unit of a word) Have issues with properly identifying a word in context (either verbally or non-verbally) Have difficulty associating words and their appropriate meanings Confuse proper grammatical structures Have difficulty understanding advanced vocabulary Experience difficulty following directions All of these characteristics of language disorders are problems experienced by the L2 learner during the process of second language acquisition, the only exception being the problem with following directions. (This falls under language disorders if the learner understands directions but is not cognitively able to follow them.) During the early stages of SLA, L2 learners experience all of the characteristics that are similar to language disorders. However, this is due primarily to unfamiliarity with the structure of the L2 language, not due to dysfunctions of communication or speech motor skills. Differences: The differences between language disorders and second language learning are more distinguishing than their similarities. First, learners experiencing problems with speech motor skills face the following challenges: Unable to produce certain sounds such as “r” or “l” Have voice quality issues (such as pitch or volume) Experience “dysfluency” or stuttering Experience difficulty creating speech that is understandable to others

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 10.3 Identify strategies for early identification of possible Exceptionalities prior to any formal referral process Before a formal referral is given for an ELL, a “pre-referral” could be an option, which could circumnavigate the referral process completely. When a learner is having academic difficulties in reading and learning, the following questions are necessary to ask to determine if the contributing factors are: prior academic training, related to language, or cultural, etc.: What are the specific errors the student encounters while reading? Could the errors be related to differences between the learner’s L1 and L2 language? Does the learner write in a language with non-Roman or non-Latin letters? (For example, Cyrillic has some letters that are very similar to reversed Roman and Latin letters.) Are word problems difficult for the ELL? (Word problems can typically be frustrating, because of the wording, as well as the cultural and economic context in which they are placed.) Bored ELLs In terms of math, it is common for children who have immigrated from other countries to the U.S. to lose interest in math tasks, because they have previously mastered the concepts in their native country. Pre-referral questions which can be asked before identifying such learners as “exceptional” are: Does the subject matter and level of language seem suitable for the learner? Are the tasks presented in a clear, simple, and concise manner? Are the tasks scaffolded upon the learner’s prior knowledge? Behavioral Issues ELLs may not respond to the expectations of cultural behaviors in the U.S., and this factor alone could cause ELLs to act out. The following are important prereferral questions to ask: Have the classroom and school’s expectations regarding appropriate behavior been explained to the ELL? Are the ELL’s parents aware as well? What is the cultural background of the ELL? Is he/she from another country where the ELL was exposed to political and civil strife/unrest? Might the ELL be suffering from PTSD (post traumatic stress disorder)?

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Dialect If the ELL is from a country such as West Africa or India, he/she may have learned English, but speak it with a different or confusing dialect. The following are important pre-referral questions to ask: How many dialects and languages has the ELL had experience with? Finally, having an ELL’s vision and hearing checked and ruled out as contributing factors, in addition to asking the questions mentioned above, is essential to prevent an unnecessary referral and related extensive assessment and testing.

Skill 10.4 Identify the policies and procedures in referral processes for ELLs with possible exceptionalities Exceptional student education (ESE) is a term used in Florida to designate special services for students with disabilities and students who are gifted.

Exceptionality is a special need that qualifies the student for exceptional student education. Some of the characteristics of learning a second language seem to be the same characteristics as those with learning disabilities. This has resulted in an overrepresentation of ELLs in the exceptional groupings (Ortiz & Garcia, 1995). While learning another language, students may show apparent processing difficulties, behavioral differences, reading difficulties, and expressive difficulties (Lock & Layton, 2002). Only careful observation can determine if these are natural language learning difficulties or, in fact, learning disabilities.

Before students are referred to special education classes, their previous learning experiences should be analyzed using ESOL techniques. Also, any interventions should be documented and implemented for up to 10 weeks (Burnette, 1998; Rodriguez & Carrasquillo, 1997). The analysis of the results of early intervention strategies should make allowances for typical second language difficulties (Almandos & Petzold, 2001). Teachers should be able to recognize certain characteristics as possible signs of giftedness in LEP students so that when one or more of these are present to a significant degree, the student is referred for screening and possible evaluation.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE The following characteristics are often seen among students who are intellectually advanced ELLs: Successful history in previous school setting Advanced developmental history based on information provided in parent/guardian interview Rapidity of learning Ability to solve problems that are not dependent on English (e.g. putting complex pieces together to make a whole, sorting according to complex attributes, or doing mathematical calculations) High academic performance in tasks using heritage language Successful history in environments where heritage language is required Skill 10.5 Identify appropriate assessment procedures for ELLs with exceptionalities If an ELL is identified as having possible exceptionalities and is to be referred for special education evaluation, there are seven essential steps to complete for the formal referral: Step 1: The Referral A formal referral form is filled out by a school administrator, using information obtained from a parent interview and the ELL’s school records. According to Baca & Cervantes (1989), the referral form could be as long as three pages in length and is typically lengthy and complicated in nature. Examples of possible questions are: “How familiar is the person with the student’s culture?” “What type of instructional program is the student receiving?” Step 2: The Parent Interview The interview with the ELL’s parents can prove to be highly beneficial, as the parents can potentially shed light on any possible speech and language disorders, as well as help clarify whether a “communicative difference, rather than a communicative disorder, might explain the child’s language problems” (Baca & Cervantes, 1989.) Step 3: Language Proficiency This part of the referral seeks to determine if the ELL has already been evaluated and determined to be LEP. The questions in this section help the administrator decide if the ELL should be evaluated in his or her native language or English.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Step 4: Language for Assessment The purpose of this step is to determine whether and in which content areas the ELL may have already been evaluated, within his or her primary language. If these questions cannot be thoroughly answered, the administrator cannot move to the next step. Step 5: Speech and Language Assessment This step assesses the ELL’s proficiency in his or her native language. Step 6: English Language Assessment After assessing the ELL’s proficiency in his or her native language, the ELL’s proficiency in English will also need to be assessed. It is essential to gather the correct information in both Steps 5 and 6, because the assessments in L1 and L2 will determine if additional instruction is needed in one or both. Step 7: Summary and Recommendation A team including the bilingual instructor and evaluation team, as well as the parents, would discuss the results and decide on an appropriate course of action. Skill 10.6 Identify appropriate instructional strategies for ELLs with exceptionalities In the state of Florida, exceptionalities are described as children whose behavior deviates from society’s norms, have physical impairments, and/or are gifted. Exceptional students may have the added necessity of learning a new language. IDEA does not provide for funding and services for gifted programs, but leaves these programs up to the individual states.

All exceptional students must have an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) developed in a meeting of the local education agency (LEA), special education teacher(s), general education teacher(s), someone to interpret assessment information, the parents, and the student (when appropriate). This IEP is a legally binding document for both the school and any teacher working with the student. Because of the multitude of exceptionalities, it is not practical in this guide to detail all possible instructional strategies. Specific instructions for dealing with an individual’s exceptionality should be spelled out in the IEP.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE If no two students are alike, then no two students learn in the same way. However, certain strategies may be mentioned as good teaching practices for all teachers, especially those dealing with exceptional students. Teachers should use multiple instructional and assessment strategies to ensure that each student has the opportunity to learn. Lectures are efficient methods of transferring large amounts of information, but are limited to only one sense—hearing. Combine lectures with other instructional strategies. Objectives should be centered on students’ interests and be relevant to their lives to maintain motivation. Differentiated instruction may be used to help all students achieve their maximum potential. Differentiated instruction encompasses content, process, product, and assessment. Students may need to prepare for test taking, because this is a stressful activity for many students with behavioral or learning disabilities. Teachers can give practice timed tests, provide study guides, leave ample space for easier reading, reduce the number of choices on multiple choice tests, use cloze tests or give a selection of choices for blank spaces in tests, give students partial outlines for essay tests, and gradually reduce the amount of scaffolding for successful students.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE COMPETENCY 11.0 Knowledge of federal and state policies and mandates Skill 11.1 Identify regulations of the most recent reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act as they apply to ELLs The most recent reauthorization of the No Child Left Behind Act (formerly the Elementary and Secondary Education Act or ESEA) was signed into law on January 8, 2002 and is effective for a period of six years. Reauthorization of this Act was expected in 2007, but as of October 2008, Senate reauthorization has been withheld as Senators study hundreds of reform ideas. It is unlikely that the No Child Left Behind Act will be discussed until the convening of the th 111 Congress in January 2009. The NCLB Act requires schools to focus on providing quality education for students who are often overlooked by the educational system: children with disabilities, children from low-income families, non-English speakers, and African-Americans and Latinos. The following regulations, geared specifically for LEP students, were implemented in the latest revision: LEP students are required to be included in all academic assessments that are currently administered to other (non-LEP) students. When possible, the assessments must be administered in the language most likely to provide the most accurate data of the student’s academic achievement and performance. When and if academic assessments in the student’s native language cannot be obtained, the state is responsible for developing the appropriate assessment. In general, LEP students who have attended U.S. schools (except Puerto Rico) for at least three consecutive years must be administered assessments in English. The exception to this last regulation is the following: on an individualcase basis, schools have the option of permitting LEP students an extra two years before the school administers English-based assessments, if the school has determined that the LEP student’s current level of English proficiency will not provide valid data.. Parents are to be provided with a detailed report of student achievement, and explanations are provided of achievement levels.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Skill 11.2 Identify major U.S. Supreme Court decisions that have affected the education of ELLs In 1961, due to the large numbers of Cuban children who migrated to Florida, Dade County Public Schools became one of the first school districts to put a major bilingual education program into action. In 1968, the Bilingual Education Act, now known as Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), was passed by Congress, which provided funding for all school districts to implement programs for LEP students to “participate” in academic activities.

Since then, the Supreme Court ruled favorably in the following case, which legally required school districts to improve educational opportunities for LEP students. Lau v. Nichols (1974): A 1969 class action suit filed on behalf of the Chinese community in San Francisco alleged that the school district denied “equal educational opportunity” to their children because the classes the children were required to attend were not taught in the Chinese native language. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, and determined a set of requirements that academic programs must provide. Related to Lau v. Nichols, the Office of the Department of Health, Education and Welfare created a committee of experts, who established guidelines and procedures for local educational groups serving the LEP population. The “Lau Remedies” became guidelines for all states to assist in the academic needs of LEP students; the “Lau Remedies” also provided guidelines for “exiting” LEP programs. Per Lau v. Nichols, the Supreme Court ruled that no student shall be denied “equal access” to any academic program, due to “limited English proficiency.” Skill 11.3 Identify major court decisions, legislation, and legal agreements that have affected the education of ELLs

LULAC, et al. v. State Board of Education Consent Decree (1990) was a major piece of legislation, significantly paving the way for increased LEP education. In 1990, a Consent Decree was entered in the U.S. District Court through an agreement between the opposing parties and provides for the following: Complete access to academic programs for LEP students Schools will be compliant in providing academic instruction for LEP students, allowing them to pass final graduation exams and receive a diploma School districts are required to adequately identify LEP students and administer appropriate academic assessment

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Create an LEP Plan to meet the individual needs of each district that is approved by the DOE LEP Plan makes provisions, protecting the constitutional rights of LEP students Access to appropriate curriculum and certified instructors are essential for LEP students, regardless of the instructional system or methodology Skill 11.4 Apply the major components of the LULAC et al. v. State Board of Education Consent Decree to specific school situations The League of United Latin American Citizens or LULAC et. al. v. State Board of Education resulted in a Consent Decree on August 14, 1990. The Consent Decree constituted Florida’s blueprint for compliance with the ten federal and state laws, for accommodating non-native speakers of English or Limited English Proficiency (LEP) students. Basically, the Consent Decree addresses the civil rights of LEP students specifically their right to have the same equal rights as native speakers regarding access to all educational programs. The Consent Decree addresses six sections, which specify how instruction is to be implemented for non-native speakers of English. Section I: Identification and Assessment All non-native speakers of English must be appropriately identified and their abilities assessed. The Consent Decree outlines: How the ELL student is to be integrated into English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) The procedures for the transition out of an ESOL program How the students will be monitored, once they have transitioned out of the ESOL program Section II: Equal Access to Appropriate Programming All Florida public school-enrolled ELL students are entitled to educational programs, which: Support their level of English language proficiency, academic standing, as well as any additional programs, designed to support special needs Provide instruction in basic subject areas, which are aligned with their level of proficiency with English The basic subject areas must be equivalent in quality of instruction available for non-ELL students

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Section III: Equal Access to Appropriate Categorical and Other Programs for ELL Students All ELL students are entitled to educational programs, which support their individual academic needs, such as early childhood education and vocational and adult programs. These programs will be appropriately adjusted, according to the ELL students’ level of English language proficiency. Other programs, such as drop-out prevention and various other support services shall be made available regardless of the ELL’s level of English language proficiency. Section IV: Personnel Teachers must have appropriate certification and in-service training to qualify as ESOL instructors. Training may be obtained through a college or university program, as well as in-service training offered through the school district. The Consent Decree outlines the necessary requirements for ESOL certification, as well as ESOL instructor standards. Section V: Monitoring Issues To ensure compliance with the provisions of the Consent Decree, the Office of Academic Achievement through Language Acquisition (AALA) within the Florida Department of Education is responsible for monitoring all local school districts. Section VI: Outcome Measures The Florida Department of Education is required to develop a system that evaluates the ELL’s access to academic programs, as well as track the program’s effectiveness. Data such as retention, graduation, dropout rates, as well as grade point averages and state assessment scores of the ELL will be collected and analyzed. Comparisons will then be made between ELL and non-ELL students. The LULAC, et al. v. State Board of Education Consent Decree covers the following specific situations: equal educational opportunities, equal access monitoring, compensatory education, exceptional education, drop-out prevention, and graduation requirements. Underlying all situations are the two following guidelines: 1. All instruction, communication, services, etc., must be aligned with the English language proficiency level of the LEP student. 2. All instruction must be equal in quality, depth, and scope to the instruction made available to native speakers of English.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE Equal Educational Opportunities: Every LEP student has the right to equal access to comprehensive academic programs, in alignment with the student’s level of English proficiency, scholarly achievement, and special needs. “Equal access” is not limited to ESOL instructional programs; it includes math, science, social studies, computer proficiency, as well as special services, such as early childhood, vocational, adult education, extended day care programs, and remedial instruction, etc. Equal Access Monitoring: Every three years, the Florida Department of Education reviews each school within the district. The results reveal whether the schools are complying with the Consent Decree (1990) resolutions. Should it be discovered that schools are not in compliance, the school district is notified and requested to make corrections. Compensatory Education Exceptional Education Drop-out Prevention Graduation Requirement

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE SAMPLE TEST 1.

If you are studying phonology, then you are studying: (Easy) (Skill 1.1)

A.

The smallest unit within a language system, to which meaning is attached. The way in which speech sound patterns are formed Individual letters and letter combinations. The definition of individual words and sentences.

B. C. D. 2.

Speakers can change sentences to questions by changing the: (Easy) (Skill 1.1)

A. B. C. D.

Pitch Morphemes Root words Stress

3.

“Bite” and “byte’ are examples of a phonographemic differences known as: (Average) (Skill 1.2)

A. B. C. D.

ESOL

4.

Words which have the same spelling or pronunciation, but different meaning are: (Easy) (Skill 1.2)

A. B. C. D.

Homonyms Homographs Homophones Heteronyms

5.

If you are studying “morphemic analysis”, then you are studying: (Easy) (Skill 1.3)

A.

The smallest unit within a language system to which meaning is attached. The root word and the suffix and/or prefix. The way in which speech sound patterns are formed. Answers A and B only.

B. C. D.

Homonyms Homographs Homophones Heteronyms

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6.

When the teacher is correcting a student’s language, the teacher should: (Easy) (Skill 1.4)

A. B. C. D.

Carefully correct all mistakes. Consider the context of the error. Confirm the error by repeating it. Repeat the student’s message in a correct fashion.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 7.

The study of morphemes may provide the student with: (Average) (Skill 1.4)

A. B. C. D.

The meaning of the root word. The meaning of the phonemes. Grammatical information. All of the above.

8.

Which one of the following is NOT included in the study of “semantics”? (Rigorous) (Skill 1.5)

A. B. C. D.

A. B.

C. D.

Idioms are particularly difficult for ELLs because: (Average) (Skill 1.5)

A.

Idioms frequently rely on hyperbole or metaphors. They can’t be translated. They are in context. The language is old fashioned.

A teacher who asks the ELL if he or she has finished the task really means ‘Finish the assignment.’ This is an example of: (Easy) (Skill 1.6)

A. B. C. D.

Synonyms. Pragmatics. Culture in the classroom. Body language.

12.

If you are studying “syntax”, then you are studying: (Average) (Skill 1.7)

A.

Intonation and accent when conveying a message The rules for correct sentence structure. The definition of individual words and meanings. The subject-verb-object order of the English sentence.

B. C. D.

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The definition of individual words and meanings. How context impacts the interpretation of language. Meaning which is “inherent”, as well as “contextual”. All of the above.

11. Culture. The definition of individual words and meanings. The intonation of the speaker. Meaning which is “inherent”, as well as “contextual”.

9.

B. C. D.

10. If you are studying “pragmatics”, then you are studying: (Easy) (Skill 1.6)

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 13.

Language learners seem to acquire syntax: (Average) (Skill 1.7)

A. B. C.

At the same rate in L1 and L2. Faster in L2 than L1. In the same order regardless of whether it is in L1 or L2 In different order for L1

D. 14.

Arrange the following sentences to show the order of acquisition of negation, starting with the least developed one:

B. C. D.

ESOL

When referring to discourse in the English language, which is the most important principle for successful oral communication? (Average) (Skill 1.8)

A. B. C.

Taking “turns” in conversation Choice of topic The setting or context of the conversation. Empty language

D.

Sentence 1: Kim didn’t went to school. Sentence 2: No school. No like. Sentence 3: Kim doesn’t like to go to school. (Average) (Skill 1.7) A.

15.

Sentence 1, Sentence 2, Sentence 3. Sentence 3, Sentence 2, Sentence 1. Sentence 1, Sentence 3, Sentence 2. Sentence 2, Sentence 1, Sentence 3.

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16. Polite discourse includes phrases such as ‘How are you?’ or ‘See you later’ as examples of: (Easy) (Skill 1.8) A. B. C. D.

CALPs A skit Empty language. Formal speech.

17.

The sentence: “The bus was late and he was late, but John still managed to catch it.” Is an example of a _________ . (Rigorous) (Skill 1.9)

A. B. C. D.

Simple sentence. Compound sentence. Complex sentence. Compound-complex sentence.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

18. The vocabulary word “ain’t” has been used for /am not/, /is not/, and /has not/. It is an example of _________. (Rigorous) (Skill 1.10) A. B. C. D. 19.

A dialect. How language evolves. Socio-economic effects on language. A southern drawl. Which one of the following is not a factor in people changing their register? The: (Average) (Skill 1.11)

20.

“Maria is a profesora” is an example of: (Rigorous) (Skill 1.12)

A. B. C. D.

Dialect Inter-language Code-switching Formulaic speech

21.

English has grown as a language primarily because of: (Easy) (Skill 1.12)

A. B. C.

Wars/technology and science Text messaging/immigrants Immigrants/technology and science Contemporary culture/wars

D. A. B. C. D.

Relationship between the speakers. Formality of the situation. Attitude towards the listeners and subject. Culture of the speakers.

22. Identify the major factor in the spread of English. (Easy) (Skill 1.13) A. B. C. D.

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The invasion of the Germanic tribes in England. The pronunciation changes in Middle English. The extension of the British Empire. The introduction of new words from different cultures.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 23.

Match the theorists with the elements of their explanations. (Place the number after the letter.) (Rigorous) (Skill 2.1)

25. According to Krashen and Terrell’s Input Hypothesis, language learners are able to understand: (Average) (Skill 2.2)

A. B. C. D.

_____ Chomsky _____ Piaget _____ Vygotsky _____ Collier

A.

1.

Children are active learners who construct their worlds. Social communication which promotes language and cognition. Nature is more important than nurture. Language is a reflection of thought.

2.

3. 4.

B. C. D.

The difference between learning a language and acquiring it is best explained by the statement: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.2)

A.

Studying the grammar of a language instead of learning it through reading, TV, etc. Children using language in play compared to an adult watching a movie. A child sounding out words and an adult helping the child with pronunciation. An immigrant trying to learn the language while at work compared to a child learning the language at school.

B.

C.

D.

ESOL

26.

Place the number in front of the phrase to order the stages in the language acquisition process, from Beginning (1) to Proficiency (5). (Rigorous) (Skill 2.3)

A.

_____ Experimental simplified speech _____ Lexical chunks _____ Private speech _____ Formulaic speech _____ Silent period

B. C. D. E.

24.

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Slightly more than they can produce. The same as they speak. Less than they speak. Lots more than they speak.

or

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 27.

A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H.

Teachers of ELL students should be able to use both verbal and non-verbal communication techniques. Identify each of the following as Verbal (V) or Non-verbal Speech (NV). (Average) (Skill 2.4) _____ Mime _____ Initiating _____ Paraphrasing _____ Gestures _____ Summarizing _____ Acting out a sequence of events _____ Questioning _____ Listening

29.

Identify the major characteristics of second language acquisition research theories by matching the following: (Place the number after the letter.) (Rigorous) (Skill 2.5)

A.

_____ Grammar Translation Method _____ Direct Method _____ Audio-Lingual Method _____ The Silent Way _____ Community Language Learning _____ Total Physical Response _____ Communicative Approach

B. C. D. E. F. G. 1. 2. 3.

28. Communication involves specific skills such as: (Average) (Skill 2.4) A. Turn-taking. B. Silent period C. Lexical chunks D. Repetition

4.

5.

6.

7.

ESOL

128

Emphasizes use vs. usage Uses only target language Uses second language to communicate; students induce grammar Teacher gives students chunks of language in the first language to ensure understanding Teacher gives and acts out commands with students Transcription of literary texts into language being learned or vice versa Believes people learn language by forming rules and applying them

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 30.

A. B. C. D.

Community Language Learning requires the members of the group and the teacher to: (Average) (Skill 2.5) Use cue cards and pictures. Trust each other. Use self-expression to expand their knowledge. React physically to a command

B. C. D.

32.

A. B. C. D.

ESOL

Bilingualism of ELLs can be greatly improved by: (Average) (Skill 2.7)

A. B. C. D.

A block schedule Community’s value of L2 Speaking L2 in the school Interference occurring between L1 and L2

31. Interlanguage is best described as: (Easy) (Skill 2.6) A.

33.

A language characterized by overgeneralization. Bilingualism. A language learning strategy. A strategy characterized by poor grammar. “The teacher ‘writted’ on the whiteboard” is an example of: (Easy) (Skill 2.6) Simplification. Fossilization. Inter-language. Overgeneralization.

129

34.

Experts on bilingualism recommend: (Average) (Skill 2.7)

A.

The use of native language (mother tongue) until schooling begins. Reading in L1 while speaking L2 in the home. Exposing the child to both languages as early as possible. Speak the language of the school as much as possible.

B. C.

D.

35.

The creation of original utterances is proof that the L2 learner is: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.8)

A. B. C. D.

Recalling previous patterns Mimicking language chunks Applying knowledge of L1 to L2 Using cognitive processes to acquire the L2

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 36. One of the reasons for learning and using more than one language is to: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.8)

38.

Social factors influence second language learning because: (Average) (Skill 2.10)

A. B. C. D.

Encourage elitism Support cognitive flexibility Provide basis for cultural bias Lessen schema patterns and connections

A.

37.

The affective domain affects how students acquire a second language because: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.9)

D.

Age determines how much one learns. Gender roles are predetermined. Social status influences ELL’s ability to perform well in the learning situation. Many ELLS cannot ignore their

A.

B. C. D.

B. C.

Learning a second language may make the learner feel vulnerable. The attitude of peers and family is motivating. Motivation is a powerful personal factor. Facilitative anxiety determines our reaction to competition and is positive.

social conditions. 39.

Schumman’s acculturation model does not assert: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.11)

A.

L1 language learners want to acquire L2 in order to remain in their new culture. The target language group accepts L1 learners in their culture. L1 and L2 groups both wish for the L1 to assimilate into the culture. L1 and L2 advocates disagree on the sharing of social services and conveniences.

B.

C.

D.

ESOL

130

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 40.

Simplification means: (Easy) (Skill 2.12)

A.

Adding ‘ed’ to irregular verbs as a way to use the past tense. Stating ‘I have a house beautiful in Miami’ for ‘I have a beautiful house in Miami’. Hispanics pronouncing words like ‘student’ as ‘estudent’. Asking someone if ‘You like?’

B.

C. D.

instead of ‘Do you like this one?’

41. Research shows that error correction in ELLs is a delicate business. Which of the following correction techniques contribute best to learning? (Rigorous) (Skill 2.12) A. B. C. D.

Semantic errors. Grammatical errors. Pronunciation. All written work errors.

42.

Respecting social diversity in the classroom means that teachers should teach standard English: (Easy) (Skill 3.1)

A. B. C.

D.

ESOL

43.

The decision by which the US Supreme Court essentially mandated bilingual instruction was: (Easy) (Skill 3.2)

A. B. C. D.

The Civil Rights Act Lau v. Nichols Castaneda v. Pickard No Child Left Behind

44.

The No Child Left Behind Act established: (Rigorous) (Skill 3.2)

A.

Title I funds are available only if the schools participate in National Assessment of Education Progress. Bilingual programs must be effective and established three criteria. High performance children cannot be used to average out low performing ELLs. Schools must form and convene assessment committees.

B.

C.

D.

45. In contrast to many state positions, the federal government advocates ____ for ELLs: (Average) (Skill 3.3)

Exclusively. While ignoring dialects. And explain the value of unique group variations as far as possible. While respecting and teaching awareness of unique group variations.

A. B. C. D.

Higher funding for inner-city schools Equal opportunities and protection Restructuring of school districts A technologically prepared workforce

131

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 46.

A. B. C. D.

47.

A. B. C. D.

ESOL

Technology and globalization have placed increased demands on schools. One major disappointment in ELL education has been: (Rigorous) (Skill 3.3)

48. Culture and cultural differences: (Average) (Skill 3.5) A.

ELLs often succeed in the corporate ranks. Bilingual skills are in great demand. Few ELLs make use of their language skills. ELLs frequently return to their native lands.

B.

C.

D.

Second language programs in the future will have to deal with: (Average) (Skill 3.4)

Must be addressed by the teacher in the ELL classroom by pointing out cultural similarities and differences. Should be the starting point for learning about how culture affects the ELLs attitude towards education. Positively affects how well ELLs perform in the language classroom. May have strong emotional influence on the ELL learner.

49.

Pierre arrived in the U. S. in 2005. He has been living with his uncle and aunt who are well assimilated into the U.S. culture. Pierre misses his parents and brothers. He finds his high school studies fairly easy and his classmates lazy. He is worried about his goal of becoming a professional soccer player and doesn’t understand why he can’t have wine with his meals when he eats out with his aunt and uncle. In which stage of assimilation is Pierre? (Average) (Skill 3.6)

A. B. C. D.

Honeymoon stage. Hostility stage. Humor stage. Home stage.

Demands by ELL groups Polarity among different racial/ethnic groups Multiculturalism All of the above.

132

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 50.

Upon arriving to a new country, immigrants frequently show signs of _____ in order to get a job. (Easy) (Skill 3.7)

A. B. C. D.

Assimilation. Acculturation. Transculturation. Accommodation.

51.

To help his class deal with the many different aspects of cultural differences, Mr. Smith asked each student (or group of students from the same culture) to talk about a special event, ceremony, or food item from their native or heritage culture. Mr. Smith was following the principles of: (Easy) (Skill 3.8)

A. B. C. D.

52.

Ms. Jones is a middle school teacher of many years experience and highly respected. This year, however, she has a class with many immigrants from several different cultures. She finds it easy to deal with the outgoing Marco who has been in the U. S. for 6 months, but doesn’t understand the reserved Leilani who has been in the U.S. for 2 years. A fellow teacher suggested that Leilani may: (Rigorous) (Skill 3.9)

A.

Need more time to formulate her answers. Be showing respect to the authority figure—her teacher. Need extra help in reducing her anxiety. All of the above.

B.

C. D.

Piaget Chamot & O’Malley Krashen Asher

53.

ESOL instruction frequently requires the teacher to change her instruction methods. She might find more difficulty during: (Rigorous) (Skill 3.9)

A. B. C.

Wait time. The establishment of group work. Show and tell based on different cultures. Extensive reading time.

D.

ESOL

133

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 54.

A. B. C. D. 55.

A. B.

C.

D.

ESOL

In the kindergarten classroom, the teacher designed a language experience story on plants after the children observed bean seeds sprouting and developing leaves. This activity followed good ESOL practice because: (Average) (Skill 4.1) Background knowledge was activated. Plants were part of the science curriculum. The story represented genuine communication. All of the above. In a school where numerous ELL students of the same language group are present, the most efficient way to ensure conformity with the Consent Decree may be: (Rigorous) (Skill 4.2)

56.

If the teacher circulates around the room answering questions and asking others, which level(s) of scaffolding is she demonstrating? (Rigorous) (Skill 4.3)

A. B. C. D.

Modeling. Interactive. Guided. Independent.

A.

Bilingual Schooling and the Miami Experience documents Miami-Dade County’s: (Easy) (Skill 4.4)

A. B. C.

Experience in scaffolding Pioneers in ESL in the U.S. Leading investigators in EFL in the U.S. Reaction to cultural differences.

D.

Pull-out classes for science and math Mainstream content instruction with pull-out for Language Arts instruction. Mainstream instruction for Language Arts, science and math with tutorials in problem areas. Pull-out classes for Language Arts and science, mainstream for math.

134

58.

Many sites listed on the Internet under English as a Second Language/Foreign Language have resources designed for teachers and researchers. In the following group, identify the one specifically designed for ELLs. (Rigorous) (Skill 4.5)

A. B. C. D.

http://www.cal.org http://www.K12.wa.us http://www.esl.about.com http://www.ed.gov./offices/OBEM LA

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 59.

Students who are reading but need help in understanding texts may benefit from which computer program? (Rigorous) (Skill 4.6)

A. B. C. D.

Watch Me Read Power Point Sim City Google

60.

In schools with large immigrant populations of diverse origin, the most commonly used model is: (Average) (Skill 5.1)

62.

School district Y is located in a depressed economic area with many immigrants from different cultures. It is small but populous. Budgets have been cut because of an economic slow-down and rising fuel costs. A possible solution for the up-coming school year would be: (Rigorous) (Skill 5.3)

A.

Busing ELLs to neighboring ESL resource centers Encouraging the establishment of a magnet school within the district Assigning additional ESOL support staff to the district for pull-out instruction. Retraining the existing staff in ESOL techniques.

B.

A. B. C. D.

Submersion. Pull-out ESL. SDAIE. Transition.

C.

61.

Widdowson’s definition of ‘use’ and ‘usage’ is well demonstrated in which of the following models? (Rigorous) (Skill 5.2)

63.

‘Weak’ forms of bilingual education may be identified with: (Average) (Skill 5.4)

A. B. C. D.

Transculturation. L1 maintenance. The Melting Pot theory. True bilingualism.

A. B. C.

D.

ESOL

D.

Canadian French Immersion and Miami-Dade Count models Submersion with primary language support Content-based ESL and indigenous language immersion Communication-based ESL and Grammar-based ESL.

135

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 64.

Ms. Mejia is concerned with her ELLs learning to write correctly in English. She: (Average) (Skill 6.1)

A.

Dictates sentences with the week’s spelling words. Plays Hangman to reinforce spelling of the words. Reads stories using vocabulary the ELLs need for BICS or CALPS. Sends extra work home for the ELLs to practice.

B.

C.

D. 65.

A. B. C. D.

Angela needs help in English. Her teacher suggested several things Angela can do to improve her learning strategies. Which of the following suggestions is not a socioaffective learning strategy? (Easy) (Skill 6.2) Read a funny book. Work cooperatively with her classmates. Ask the teacher to speak more slowly. Skim for information.

66.

Which learning strategy is an ESOL teacher who encourages her students to keep track of their progress in English Language Learning stimulating? (Rigorous) (Skill 6.2)

A. B. C. D.

Metacognitive Affective Cognitive Social

ESOL

136

67.

Kindergarten-type worksheets working on pre-literacy may ask students to identify objects beginning with a certain letter. These worksheets are designed to promote: (Easy) (Skill 6.3)

A. B. C. D.

Early speech emergence Receptive vocabulary. Speech. Literacy.

68.

Advanced TPR might include: (Average) (Skill 6.4)

A. B. C. D.

Rapid fire commands. More advanced vocabulary. Funny commands. All of the above.

69.

When introducing the human body using the communicative approach, the ESOL instructor might: (Easy) (Skill 6.5)

A. B. C.

Use gestures or mime. Play ‘Simon Says’. Sing a ‘song: The Hip Bone’s connected to the Leg Bone’. All of the above.

D.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 70.

Which of the following is not a step in the Language Experience Approach? (Average) (Skill 6.6)

A.

Students draw a picture to represent something personal about an experience. Students dictate their story to the teacher. The teacher reads the story revising where necessary. The story is read in later days as a follow-up activity.

B. C. D. 71.

A. B. C.

D.

Content-based instruction suggests LEP students need an additional 5-7 years to pick-up academic language. During this time period, content area teachers should not: (Average) (Skill 6.7)

Correct the LEP’s oral language mistakes. Speak more slowly, enunciation. Demonstrate new materials using various strategies to increase input. Check frequently for comprehension by asking students to explain what was said to a classmate or back to the teacher.

72. Which of the following options is not appropriate to Contentbased Instruction (CBI)? (Average) (Skill 6.7) A. B. C. D.

ESOL

Asking silly questions. Speaking at a normal pace. Using visual cues. Restating errors.

137

73.

The researcher most identified with the importance of working through problems to obtain a solution and to learn a foreign language is: (Rigorous) (Skill 6.8)

A. B. C. D.

Asher. Krashen & Terrell. Postovsky. Prabhu.

74.

Which of the following instructional approaches emphasizes LEPs working on content? (Average) (Skill 6.9)

A. B. C. D.

TPR. The Natural Approach. CALLA. The Communicative Approach.

75.

The Schema Theory of Carrell & Eisterhold suggests that for learning to take place, teachers must: (Average) (Skill 6.10)

A.

Integrate content areas with ESOL techniques. Emphasize all four language skills. Present comprehensible input in a meaningful context. Relate new materials to previous knowledge.

B. C. D.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 76.

According to Cummin’s four levels of difficulty, the high school math teacher whose ELLs work on standard workbook problems, is using __________ materials. (Average) (Skill 6.11)

79.

Identify one method of adapting general education instruction to ELLs. (Average) (Skill 6.13)

A.

Providing extra listening materials (e.g. CD-Rom’s of stories). Arrange homogenous work groups. Using an English dictionary. Using grade-level storybooks.

B. A.

B.

C. D.

Level 1: Cognitively undemanding / Context-embedded Level 2: Cognitively undemanding / Context-reduced Level 3: Cognitively demanding / Context-embedded Level 4: Cognitively demanding / Context-reduced

77. Identify the CALP in the following sentences. (Average) (Skill 6.11)

C. D. 80.

Which activity could be used to explore the cultural heritage of many diverse countries? (Average) (Skill 6.14)

A. B.

Singing ‘Hava Nagila’. Composing original parodies (e.g. ‘On Top of Spaghetti’). Comparing proverbs from different countries. Writing Haiku poems.

C.

A. B. C. D.

I want a Coke. My name is _____ . I want to return this book. Can I go to the bathroom?

D. 81.

Using a ‘video split’: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.1)

78.

Identify the method of dealing with fossilization that is not appropriate. (Average) (Skill 6.12)

A.

Is effective with science experiments. Is an information gap activity. Forces ELLs to use L2. Creates awareness of authentic language.

A. B.

C. D.

ESOL

Ignore mistakes that do not interfere with meaning. Work on items such as ending /s/ for third person singular in written work. Teacher (or aide) corrects all papers. Dictating correct sentences of patterns frequently used incorrectly by ELLs.

138

B. C. D.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 82.

A. B. C. D. 83.

A. B. C. D.

When using instructional technology (e.g. videos, DVDs, or CDs) in ESOL classes, the instructor should: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.1)

85.

CALL gives ELLs the opportunity to: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.3)

A.

Play the entire piece to build listening skills. Frequently stop to check on comprehension. Quiz the ELLs for comprehension after listening. Block the captions on the video.

B.

Practice writing skills in chatrooms. Receive instructor feedback during the class. See each other through video conferencing. All of the above.

CALL instruction allows the instructor to: (Easy) (Skill 7.2)

C. D. 86.

Kroonenberg believes the value of CMC: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.4)

A.

Is the possibility of integrating video and audio into instruction. Is the authoring software tools that help teachers prepare course materials. Lies in its ability to imitate live conversation. Is achieved by cultural authenticity.

B.

Grade quizzes on-line. Mediate discussions. E-mail a student or groups of students 24/7. All of the above.

C. D.

84.

A.

B. C. D.

By using asynchronous applications teachers can: (Average) (Skill 7.3) Design coursework for students to complete by specific dates. Send instant messages (IMs). Enhance student interaction. Increase student’s interest.

87.

Teachers looking for reading comprehension software for young ELLs should look for: (Average) (Skill 7.5)

A.

Illustrated vocabulary lists, which are presented before the story. A text which is read accompanied by animation. Interactive vocabulary words. A page for the students to illustrate their retelling of the story at the end.

B. C. D.

ESOL

139

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 88.

Which of the following is not a guideline for a successful Internet project? (Average) (Skill 7.6)

90.

Which of the following traits are present in ELLs who are beginning to write in L2? (Average) (Skill 8.2)

A.

Appropriate language demands for the level. Communicate when necessary to see how things are going. Share the results with other classes. Projects should be interesting, timely, and have specific goals.

A.

Word-order problems, lack of variety in vocabulary, uses different sentence patterns. Writes 3 or more paragraphs with run-on sentences, little vocabulary above basic level, limited organization. Limited vocabulary, uses one or two sentence patterns, writes only a few sentences. Asks for translation of vocabulary at times, good variety of sentence patterns, writes a paragraph or more.

B. C. D.

89.

A.

B. C. D.

The most appropriate ESOL strategy for readers who do not read in their L1 is to: (Average) (Skill 8.1)

B.

C.

D.

Postpone reading until the ELLs acquire intermediate oral language proficiency. Teach cognates and high frequency words. Develop literacy in L1 first. Use pull-out reading support in L2.

91.

ELLs demonstrate emergent literacy in English by: (Average) (Skill 8.3)

A. B.

Making play grocery lists. Listening passively when classmates read aloud. Frequently moving around during reading time Becoming easily distracted during storybook time.

C. D.

ESOL

140

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 92.

Which of the following strategies is NOT recommended to promote emergent literacy? (Average) (Skill 8.4)

A.

Teacher reads oversized books carefully pointing to each word as she reads. Mother Goose rhymes illustrated around the room. Spelling lists for homework practice. Word wall with words listed under each beginning letter.

B. C. D. 93.

A. B. C. D.

Incorporating prior knowledge into L2 learning does not: (Average) (Skill 8.5)

Permit readers to learn and remember more. Result is poor readers. Help readers to evaluate new arguments. Improve comprehension.

95.

An English teacher included a unit on Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet in her programming. To promote critical literacy, she could have her students: (Average) (Skill 8.7)

A.

Provide a list of pre-reading questions for discussion. Use a flow-chart to outline the plot. Compare the story of Prince Charles and Princess Diana to Romeo and Juliet. Show the movie and provide comprehension questions.

B. C.

D.

96.

Instruction to fluency includes: (Average) (Skill 8.8)

A.

Developing writing and reading skills separately. Explicit study of vocabulary lists. Role plays, phonics instruction, journal writing. Learning only the specific language for the task at hand.

B. C. D.

94.

Freire’s research states that: (Average) (Skill 8.6)

A.

Critical literacy provides a means for individuals to identify with the nature of social conditions and change them. Critical literacy is an investigation into the motives and goals of an author or speaker. Readers are critical consumers of received information. Oppressed people obtain power through education and knowledge.

B.

C. D.

ESOL

141

promote

97.

Vocabulary levels are extremely important in L2 learning. However, an ELL needs only _____ words to understand up to 74% of academic texts and 84% of conversational English. (Average) (Skill 8.8)

A. B. C. D.

1000. 1200. 1500. 2000.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 98.

Which of the following strategies is not appropriate for home-involved reading instruction? (Easy) (Skill 8.9)

100.

Which of the following accommodations may be allowed for ELLs during assessment? (Average) (Skill 9.1)

A.

Encourage parents to model reading and writing in L2 when possible. Suggest parents to read or tell stories in L1 to their children. Phonics practice. Having the child re-tell the reading selection to their parents.

A. B.

Giving extra time. Asking proctor to explain certain words or test items. Paraphrasing the prompt. Allowing usage of an Englishheritage translating dictionary.

B. C. D. 99.

A.

B. C.

D.

Young children are often considered better language learners than older children or adults. However, older children or adults may be able to progress more rapidly in reading instruction because: (Rigorous) (Skill 8.9) They have more worldly experience to help them understand the texts. Their vocabulary concepts in L2 are less developed. They have more language learning experience. Phonics is the same whether in L1 or L2.

C. D. 101.

Which of the following is not an acceptable alternative assessment strategy for ELLs? (Average) (Skill 9.2)

A. B. C. D.

Portfolios. Observation. Self-assessment. Essay writing.

102.

Which method is the most appropriate one for dealing partially with cultural bias in tests? (Rigorous) (Skill 9.3)

A.

Translate the tests previous to the actual exam. Provide pictures and graphics during the test. Administer practice tests with time limits. Provide a study guide and give test orally.

B. C. D.

ESOL

142

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 103.

When testing for an ELLs level of English proficiency, which minor accommodation is appropriate? (Rigorous) (Skill 9.4)

A. B. C. D.

Allowing extra time. Using the ELLs portfolio. Reciting. Providing translation of prompts as needed for understanding.

104.

A parent filled out the home language survey as indicated below: Is a language other than English used in the home? Yes. Does the student have a first language other than English? Yes. Does the student use the language other than English more frequently? No.

1.

2.

3.

All 11 graders in Florida must take: (Rigorous) (Skill 9.5)

A. B. C. D.

SAT or ACT HSCT GTAT Florida Writes

106.

Before coming to the U.S., Sven, an 11-grade student took the TOEFL. This is a ________ test. (Easy) (Skill 9.6)

A. B. C. D.

Language proficiency. Language achievement. Language placement. Diagnostic language.

107.

A 5 grader has completed one year in the ESOL program but does not seem to make progress. Which of the following might indicate a learning disability? (Rigorous) (Skill 10.1)

A. B.

Frequently switching codes. Needing extra time to answer questions. Decoding successfully but having comprehension difficulties. Dropping the final consonants of words.

What is the school’s next step? (Rigorous) (Skill 9.5)

A. B. C. D.

ESOL

Placing the student at gradelevel with no assessment. Postponing admission until testing is completed. Assigning to ESOL program while beginning testing. Placing in the grade-level ESOL program.

143

th

105.

C.

D.

th

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 108.

An ELL student may pronounce /free/ instead of /three/. This is an example of: (Rigorous) (Skill 10.1)

111.

Which of the following is a possible sign of the gifted ELL student? (Average) (Skill 10.4)

A. B. C. D.

Omission. Substitution. Distortion. Addition.

A.

109.

Which of the following is indicative of a language disorder rather than a L2 developmental issue? (Rigorous) (Skill 10.2)

D.

Normal development according to parental interview. Speech delayed in L2. Seems to solve logic problems with difficulty. High academic performance in L1.

A. B. C. D.

B. C.

Difficulty in identifying words in context. Inability to produce grammatically correct sentences. Dropping of specific word endings. Speech is difficult for others to understand.

110.

Which of the following should be done prior to initiating a formal referral process for an ELL with possible learning disabilities? (Rigorous) (Skill 10.3)

A.

A vision and hearing test. A language diagnostic test. Documentation of at least 1 intervention. Consultation with principal about ELL’s progress.

B.

C. D.

ESOL

144

112.

An ELL suspected of having learning difficulties: (Rigorous) (Skill 10.4)

A.

May present behavioral differences when asked to produce written work. Demonstrates the ability to learn quickly. Should be analyzed for up to 10 weeks using ESOL techniques. Demonstrates the ability to solve problems not dependent on English.

B. C. D.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 113.

Identify the correct order for the assessment of ELLs with exceptionalities. (Rigorous) (Skill 10.5)

A.

English language assessment, language proficiency assessment, language for assessment. Speech and language assessment, language for assessment, English language assessment. Language for assessment, speech and language assessment, language proficiency. Language proficiency assessment, speech and language assessment, English language assessment.

B.

C.

D.

114.

115.

Based on Title III of the No Child Left Behind Act, schools are required to include ELLs in state-mandated testing: (Rigorous) (Skill 11.1)

B.

In mathematics and science after 2 years of enrollment. In English language arts, math, and science after 2 years enrollment. In English language arts and math after enrollment. In mathematics with 1 year of enrollment.

C.

D. E. 116.

A.

Which of the following instructional strategies would not be appropriate for ELLs with exceptionalities? (Rigorous) (Skill 10.6)

B. C. D.

A. B. C. D.

ESOL

Use of texts adapted to for students disability. Practice testing opportunities. Differentiated instruction. Lectures.

145

The No Child Left Behind Act requires schools to: (Rigorous) (Skill 11.1) Give assessment in English if the LEP has received 3 years of schooling in the US (except for Puerto Rico). Measure school districts by status. Inform parents of the school’s evaluation. Includes LEPs in all academic assessments.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 117.

In Lau v Nichols (1974), the Supreme Court ruled that: (Rigorous) (Skill 11.2)

119.

The Consent Decree does not outline: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.1)

A.

School districts may not continue education programs that fail to produce positive results for ELLs. Prohibited sexual harassment in any school activity on or off campus. Students were denied an ‘equal’ education. Prohibited discrimination against students and employers based on race, ethnicity, national origins, disability, or marital status.

A.

How ELLs are to be integrated into the ESOL programs. Procedures for dealing with homeless ELLs. Procedures for transition out of ESOL programs. How school districts shall be monitored.

B.

C. D.

118.

Which legal action resulted in the Florida Consent Decree which mandates all public schools must offer equal access to subject matter, content, and benefits to ESOL students? (Rigorous) (Skill 11.3)

A. B. C.

Castaneda v Pickard Goss v Lopez LULAC v Florida Board of Education Florida Education Equity Act

D.

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B. C. D.

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE ANSWER KEY 1. B 2. A 3. C 4. B 5. D 6. D 7. C 8. A 9. A 10. B 11. B 12. B 13. C 14. D 15. A 16. C 17. D 18. B 19. D 20. C 21. C 22. C 23. A 3, B 4, C 2, D 1 24. A 25. A 26. A 5, B 3, C 2, D 4, E 1 27. A NV, B V, C V, D NV, E V, F NV, G V, H V, I N & NV 28. A 29. A 6, B 3, C 2, D 7, E 4, F 5, G 1 30. C 31. C 32. D 33. B 34. C 35. D 36. B 37. A

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38. D 39. D 40. D 41. A 42. D 43. B 44. C 45. B 46. C 47. D 48. D 49. B 50. D 51. C 52. D 53. A 54. D 55. D 56. B 57. B 58. C 59. C 60. B 61. D 62. C 63. C 64. C 65. D 66. A 67. B 68. D 69. D 70. C 71. A 72. B 73. D 74. C 75. D 76. D 77. C 78. C

79. A 80. C 81. B 82. B 83. D 84. A 85. D 86. D 87. B 88. B 89. C 90. C 91. A 92. C 93. D 94. D 95. C 96. C 97. A 98. C 99. A 100. D 101. D 102. C 103. A 104. C 105. B 106. A 107. C 108. C 109. D 110. A 111. D 112. D 113. B 114. D. 115. D 116. A 117. C 118. C 119. B

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE RIGOR TABLE

Easy 20 %

1, 2, 5, 6, 10, 11, 16, 22, 23, 32, 33, 41, 43, 44, 51, 52, 58, 61, 66, 68, 70, 84, 99, 107

Average Rigor 40%

3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 15, 18, 20, 26, 28, 29, 31, 34, 35, 39, 43, 46, 48, 49, 50, 55, 64, 65, 69, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 85, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, 98, 101, 102, 112

Rigorous 40 %

8, 14, 17, 19, 21, 24, 25, 27, 30, 36, 37, 38, 40. 42, 45, 47, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 67, 74, 82, 83, 86, 87, 91, 94, 100, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE RATIONALE FOR ANSWERS 1. If you are studying phonology, then you are studying: (Easy) (Skill 1.1)

A. B. C. D.

The smallest unit within a language system to which meaning is attached. The way in which speech sound patterns are formed. Individual letters and letter combinations. The definition of individual words.

Answer: B. The way in which speech sound patterns are formed. The smallest unit within a language system to which meaning is attached to is a morpheme. The term phonographemic refers to the study of individual letters and letter combinations. The definition of individual words is known as making the meaning of a word explicit. The way in which speech sound patterns are formed is known as phonology, so option B the best answer. 2. Speakers can change sentences to questions by changing the: (Easy) (Skill 1.1)

A. B. C. D.

Pitch Morphemes Root words Stress

Answer: A. Pitch. The smallest unit within a language system to which meaning is attached to is a morpheme. Root words are one type of morphemes and the key to understanding a word because this is where the actual meaning is determined. Stress occurs at sentence or word level and can modify meaning. Pitch determines the context or the meaning of words in communication and is therefore, the correct answer.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 3. “Bite” and “byte’ are examples of a phonographemic differences known as: (Average) (Skill 1.2) A. B. C. D.

Homonyms Homographs Homophones Heteronyms

Answer: C. Homophones. Homonym is a general term for words with two or more meanings. Homographs are two or more words with the same spelling or pronunciation, but with different meanings. Heteronyms are two or more words that have the same spelling but different meaning and pronunciation. Homophones are words that have the same pronunciation, but different meaning and spelling and the correct response. 4. Words which have the same spelling or pronunciation, but different meaning are: (Easy) (Skill 1.2) A. B. C. D.

Homonyms Homographs Homophones Heteronyms

Answer: B. Homographs. See explanation given after question 3. 5. If you are studying “morphemic analysis”, then you are studying: (Easy) (Skill 1.3)

A. B. C. D.

The smallest unit within a language system to which meaning is attached. The root word and the suffix and/or prefix. The way in which speech sound patterns are formed Answers A and B only.

Answer: D. Answers A and B only. The study of the way in which speech sound patterns are formed is called phonology. The smallest unit within a language system to which meaning is attached to is a morpheme. The root word and the suffix and/or prefix are components of morphemes and basic to the analysis of a word. Therefore, both A and B are necessary for the study of morphemic analysis, so the correct answer is D.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 6. When the teacher is correcting a student’s language, the teacher should: (Easy) (Skill 1.4)

A. Carefully correct all mistakes. B. Consider the context of the error. C. Confirm the error by repeating it. D. Repeat the student’s message in a correct fashion. Answer: D. Repeat the student’s message in a correct fashion. To carefully correct all mistakes a student makes would raise the affective filter and probably cause the student to hesitate before speaking. Considering the context of the error gives the teacher insight into the student’s learning, but it isn’t a method of correction. To confirm the error by repeating it would suggest to the student that his or her utterance was correct and therefore not a good practice. The best option is D which corrects the error but in a way that shows the student the correct form without embarrassing him or her. 7. The study of morphemes may provide the student with: (Average) (Skill 1.4)

A. B. C. D.

The meaning of the root word. The meaning of the phonemes. Grammatical information. All of the above.

Answer: C. Grammatical information. The meaning of the root word comes from its source or origin, and the meaning of phonemes relates to its sound. The correct answer is C which gives grammatical information to the student.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 8. Which one of the following is NOT included in the study of “semantics”? (Rigorous) (Skill 1.5) A. B. C. D.

Culture. The definition of individual words and meanings. The intonation of the speaker. Meaning which is “inherent”, as well as “contextual”.

Answer: A. Culture. Since semantics refer to the definition of individual words and meanings, the intonation of the speaker, and meaning which is “inherent” as well as “contextual” as well, option A is the best response. 9. Idioms are particularly difficult for ELLs because: (Average) (Skill 1.5)

A. B. C. D.

Idioms frequently rely on hyperbole or metaphors. They can’t be translated. They are in context. The language is old fashioned.

Answer: A. Idioms frequently rely on hyperbole or metaphors. Idioms are translated, usually literally, which prevents the ELL from understanding what is being implied. Idioms may not be in context which makes them even more difficult to be understood. The language may be old fashioned, which younger students wouldn’t get, or be part of today’s pop culture and thus difficult for many adults to understand. The correct option is A because idioms frequently rely on hyperbole or metaphors. 10. If you are studying “pragmatics”, then you are studying: (Easy) (Skill 1.6)

A. B. C. D.

The definition of individual words and meanings. How context impacts the interpretation of language. Meaning which is “inherent” as well as “contextual”. All of the above.

Answer: B. How context impacts the interpretation of language. The definition of individual words and meanings refer to semantics. Meaning which is “inherent” as well as contextual refers to the lexicon of the language. The best option is B as pragmatics refers to the study of how context impacts the interpretation of language.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 11. A teacher who asks the ELL if he or she has finished the task really means ‘Finish the assignment.’ This is an example of: (Easy) (Skill 1.6)

A. B. C. D.

Synonyms. Pragmatics. Culture in the classroom. Body language.

Answer: B. Pragmatics. ‘Synonyms’ refer to two words that mean the same. The statement ‘finish the assignment’ has no particular significance and the teacher is not using ‘body language’ when she makes a simple statement. The best option is B, pragmatics where the teacher is implying that she can see that it has not been finished and is issuing a command to do so. 12. If you are studying “syntax”, then you are studying: (Average) (Skill 1.7)

A. B. C. D.

Intonation and accent when conveying a message The rules for correct sentence structure. The definition of individual words and meanings. The subject-verb-object order of the English sentence.

Answer: B. The rules for correct sentence structure. The intonation and accent used when conveying a message refer to pitch and stress. The definition of individual words and meanings is part of semantics. The subject-verb-object order of the English sentence refers to the correct order for most English sentences, but the rules for correct sentence structure refer to syntax, so B is the best option.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 13. Language learners seem to acquire syntax: (Average) (Skill 1.7)

A. B. C. D.

At the same rate in L1 and L2. Faster in L2 than L1. In the same order regardless of whether it is in L1 or L2 In different order for L1

Answer: C. In the same order regardless of whether it is in L1 or L2. All language learners must progress through the same hierarchical steps in their language learning process. They go from the least to the most complicated stages regardless of whether it is L1 or L2. 14. Arrange the following sentences to show the order of acquisition of negation, starting with the least developed one: Sentence 1: Kim didn’t went to school. Sentence 2: No school. No like. Sentence 3: Kim doesn’t like to go to school. (Average) (Skill 1.7)

A. B. C. D.

Sentence 1, Sentence 2, Sentence 3. Sentence 3, Sentence 2, Sentence 1. Sentence 1, Sentence 3, Sentence 2. Sentence 2, Sentence 1, Sentence 3.

Answer: D. Sentence 2, Sentence 1, Sentence 3. The correct order is D.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 15. When referring to discourse in the English language, which is the most important principle for successful oral communication? (Average) (Skill 1.8)

A. B. C. D.

Taking “turns” in conversation Choice of topic The setting or context of the conversation. Empty language

Answer: A. Taking “turns” in conversation. For discourse to be successful in any language, a set of ingrained social rules and discourse patterns must be followed. Both the choice of topic and the setting, or context, of the conversation are important elements of discourse in English, but not the most important ones. Empty language refers to discourse perfunctory speech that has little meaning but is important in social exchanges. In oral English discourse, taking “turns” is primordial. The correct option would be A. 16. Polite discourse includes phrases such as ‘How are you?’ or ‘See you later’ as examples of: (Easy) (Skill 1.8)

A. B. C. D.

CALPs A skit Empty language. Formal speech.

Answer: C. Empty language. The two statements are examples of empty language which is used in polite discourse but carries very little meaning.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 17. The sentence: “The bus was late and he was late, but John still managed to catch it.” Is an example of a _________. (Rigorous) (Skill 1.9)

A. B. C. D.

Simple sentence. Compound sentence. Complex sentence. Compound-complex sentence.

Answer: D. Compound-complex sentence. The first sentence contains two independent clauses ‘The bus was late’ and ‘he was late’ as well as ‘John still managed to catch it.’ The first clause is also a compound clause with two independent clauses ‘The bus was late’ ‘he was late’. Thus our sentence becomes a compound-complex one. 18. The vocabulary word “ain’t” has been used for /am not/, /is not/, and /has not/. It is an example of _________. (Rigorous) (Skill 1.10)

A. B. C. D.

A dialect. How language evolves. Socio-economic effects on language. A southern drawl.

Answer: B. How language evolves. th The word “ain’t” first came into usage in the 17 century when many different contracted forms of speech began to appear. For reasons unknown, in the U.S. it became unacceptable (as did many other contracted forms) but remains in regular usage in rural, working class, and inner city people’s speech. In the th

17 century it was used instead of has not/have not (an’t/ain’t), in the 18 century /an’t/ was used for am not, are not, and is not. It is an excellent example of B-- how language evolves.

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th

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 19. Which one of the following is not a factor in people changing their register? The: (Average) (Skill 1.11)

A. B. C. D.

Relationship between the speakers. Formality of the situation. Attitude towards the listeners and the subject. Culture of the speakers.

Answer: D. Culture of the speakers. People change their register depending on the relationship between the speakers, the formality of the situation, and the attitude towards the listeners and the subject. Answer D—culture of the speakers is not a reason for people to change their register. 20. “Maria is a profesora” is an example of: (Rigorous) (Skill 1.12)

A. B. C. D.

Dialect Inter-language Code-switching Formulaic speech

Answer: C. Code-switching. Dialect is any form or variety of a spoken language peculiar to a region, community, social group, etc. Inter-language is the language spoken by ELLs that is between their L1 and L2. Formulaic speech refers to speech that is ritualistic in nature and perhaps used for social politeness rather than information. Sociolinguistics is a very broad term used to understand the relationship between language and people including the phenomenon of people switching languages during a conversation. One person may switch languages when a word is not known in the other language. Option C is the correct option.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 21. English has grown as a language primarily because of: (Easy) (Skill 1.12)

A. B. C. D.

Wars/technology and science Text messaging/immigrants Immigrants/technology and science Contemporary culture/wars

Answer: C. Immigration/technology and science. While all of the options have influenced the growth of English, new immigrants continually adding new words to the language is the most influential factor. The second largest body of new words comes from technology and science, making Option C the best option. 22. Identify the major factor in the spread of English. (Easy) (Skill 1.13)

A. B. C. D.

The invasion of the Germanic tribes in England. The pronunciation changes in Middle English. The extension of the British Empire. The introduction of new words from different cultures.

Answer: C. The extension of the British Empire. th The sun never set on the British Empire during the 19 century causing English to spread all over the world. Nowadays, it is estimated that 80-90 percent of the world’s data banks are in English, which keep English as the foremost language in the world today. Thus, Option C is the correct one. 23. Match the theorists with the elements of their explanations. (Place the number after the letter.) (Rigorous) (Skill 2.1)

A. B. C. D. 1. 2. 3. 4.

_____ Chomsky _____ Piaget _____ Vygotsky _____ Collier

Children are active learners who construct their worlds. Social communication which promotes language and cognition. Nature is more important than nurture. Language is a reflection of thought.

Answers: A-3, B-4, C-2, D-1.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 24. The difference between learning a language and acquiring it is best explained by the statement: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.2)

A. Studying the grammar of a language instead of learning it through reading, TV, etc. B. Children using language in play compared to an adult watching a movie. C. A child sounding out words and an adult helping the child with pronunciation. D. An immigrant trying to learn the language while at work compared to a child learning the language at school. Answer: A. Studying the grammar of a language instead of learning it through reading, TV, etc. This question refers to Krashen’s Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis of his theory on second language acquisition which states that children “acquire” a second language using the same process they used to learn their first language, while adults who have already learned one language will often have to “learn” the language through coursework, studying and memorizing. Option A is the correct one. 25. According to Krashen and Terrell’s Input language learners are able to understand:

Hypothesis,

(Average) (Skill 2.2)

A. B. C. D.

Slightly more than they can produce. The same as they speak. Less than they speak. Lots more than they speak.

Answer: A. Slightly more than they can produce. Krashen and Terrell’s Input Hypothesis (i + 1) states that instruction should be at a level slightly above the language learner’s production level. In this way the learner will have the basis with which to understand but will have to figure out the unknown language in context.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 26. Place the number in front of the phrase to order the stages in the language acquisition process, from Beginning (1) to Proficiency (5). (Rigorous) (Skill 2.3) A. B. C. D. E.

_____ Experimental or simplified speech _____ Lexical chunks _____ Private speech _____ Formulaic speech _____ Silent period

Answers: A-5, B-3, C-2, D-4, E-1. 27. Teachers of ELL students should be able to use both verbal and nonverbal communication techniques. Identify each of the following as Verbal (V) or Non-verbal Speech (NV). (Average) (Skill 2.4)

A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H.

_____ Mime _____ Initiating _____ Paraphrasing _____ Gestures _____ Summarizing _____ Acting out a sequence of events _____ Questioning _____ Listening

Answers: A-NV, B-V, C-V, D-NV, E-V, F-NV, G-V, H-V. 28. Communication involves specific skills such as: (Average) (Skill 2.4)

A. Turn-taking. B. Silent period C. Lexical chunks D. Repetition Answer: A. Turn-taking. The silent period refers to a pre-production period observed before the ELL begins communicating. Lexical chunks are blocks of language used in everyday speech and writing. Repetition is used as a clarification technique or a stalling technique before the ELL is ready to proceed. All are part of the language acquisition process. There are many skills involved in communication, but the only one listed is turn-taking.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 29. Identify the major characteristics of second language acquisition research theories by matching the following: (Place the number after the letter.) (Rigorous) (Skill 2.5)

A. B. C. D. E. F. G.

_____ Grammar Translation Method _____ Direct Method _____ Audio-Lingual Method _____ The Silent Way _____ Community Language Learning _____ Total Physical Response _____ Communicative Approach

1. 2. 3. 4.

Emphasizes use vs. usage Uses only the target language Uses second language to communicate; students induce grammar Teacher gives students chunks of language in the first language to ensure understanding 5. Teacher gives and acts out commands with students 6. Transcription of literary texts into language being learned or vice versa 7. Believes people learn language by forming rules and applying them Answers: A-6, B-3, C-2, D-7, E-4, F-5, G-1. 30. Community Language Learning requires the members of the group and the teacher to: (Average) (Skill 2.5)

A. B. C. D.

Use cue cards and pictures. Trust each other. Use self-expression to expand their knowledge. React physically to a command

Answer: B. Trust each other Cue cards and pictures were used in the audio-lingual method. The Silent Way is based on student’s use of self-expression to expand their knowledge. TPR expects students to react physically and carry out commands. The Community Language Learning method emphasizes teacher-student trust and approaching learning as a dynamic and creative process, therefore B is the correct answer.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 31. Interlanguage is best described as: (Easy) (Skill 2.6)

A. B. C. D.

A language characterized by overgeneralization. Bilingualism. A language learning strategy. A strategy characterized by poor grammar.

Answer: C. A language learning strategy. Interlanguage occurs when the second language learner lacks proficiency in L2 and tries to compensate for his or her lack of fluency in the new language. Three components are overgeneralization, simplification, and L1 interference or language transfer. Therefore, answer A is only one component of interlanguage making option C a better answer. 32. “The teacher ‘writted’ on the whiteboard” is an example of: (Easy) (Skill 2.6)

A. B. C. D.

Simplification. Fossilization. Inter-language. Overgeneralization.

Answer: D. Overgeneralization. In this case, the ELL has tried to apply the rule of /ed/ endings to an irregular verb to form the past tense verb, i. e. he has used ‘overgeneralization’ to create an incorrect verb form. The correct answer is D. 33. Bilingualism of ELLs can be greatly improved by: (Average) (Skill 2.7)

A. B. C. D.

A block schedule Community’s value of L2 Speaking L2 in the school Interference occurring between L1 and L2

Answer: B. Community’s value of L2. Motivation is always a key factor in language learning and when an ELL has community support for second language/cultural learning, bilingualism is greatly enhanced. Option B is the best option.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 34. Experts on bilingualism recommend: (Average) (Skill 2.7)

A. B. C. D.

The use of the native language (mother tongue) until schooling begins. Reading in L1 while speaking L2 in the home. Exposing the child to both languages as early as possible. Speak the language of the school as much as possible.

Answer: C. Exposing the child to both languages as early as possible. Research on bilingualism suggests that children should be exposed to both languages from birth where possible for maximum bilingual benefit. 35. The creation of original utterances is proof that the L2 learner is: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.8)

A. B. C. D.

Recalling previous patterns Mimicking language chunks Applying knowledge of L1 to L2 Using cognitive processes to acquire the L2

Answer: D. Using cognitive processes to acquire the L2. Recalling previous patterns, mimicking language chunks, and applying knowledge of L1 to L2 do not demonstrate organization or direction of second language acquisition. The ELL has not integrated the L2 into his or her thought processes. When the ELL is able to form rules, then they are able to understand and create new utterances. Selection D is the correct option. 36. One of the reasons for learning and using more than one language is to: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.8)

A. B. C. D.

Encourage elitism. Support cognitive flexibility Provide basis for cultural bias Lessen schema patterns and connections

Answer: B. Support cognitive flexibility. Cognitive skills are used in the process of acquiring knowledge, including reasoning, perception and intuition. Using cognitive skills while learning a second language applies L2 vocabulary and sentence patterns to thought process already established in L1.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 37. The affective domain affects how students acquire a second language because: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.9)

A. B. C. D.

Learning a second language may make the learner feel vulnerable. The attitude of peers and family is motivating. Motivation is a powerful personal factor. Facilitative anxiety determines our reaction to competition and is positive.

Answer: A. Learning a second language may make the learner feel vulnerable. The affective domain refers to the full range of human feelings and emotions that come into play during second language acquisition. Learning a second language may make the learner vulnerable because they may have to leave their comfort zone behind. This can be especially difficult for adults who are used to being ‘powerful’ or ‘in control’ in their profession, but it also affects children and teens. Option A is the best selection here. 38. Social factors influence second language learning because: (Average) (Skill 2.10)

A. Age determines how much one learns. B. Gender roles are predetermined. C. Social status influences ELL’s ability to perform well in the learning situation. D. Many ELLS cannot ignore their social conditions. Answer: D. Many ELLs cannot ignore their social conditions. Motivation, be it a trait (state) or a state (instrumental), is probably the most powerful element in the acquisition of a second language. Without family or community support, the ELL may be under tremendous pressure and feel threatened by the new language. For them to succeed, they must do so at considerable personal sacrifice.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 39. Schumman’s acculturation model does not assert: (Rigorous) (Skill 2.11)

A. L1 language learners want to acquire L2 in order to remain in their new culture. B. The target language group accepts L1 learners in their culture. C. L1 and L2 groups both wish for the L1 to assimilate into the culture. D. L1 and L2 advocates disagree on the sharing of social services and conveniences. Answer: D. L1 and L2 advocates disagree on the sharing of social services and conveniences. Schumman’s acculturation model asserts the first three affirmations. Option D is the fourth affirmation, but should read ‘L1 and L2 advocates agree to share social services and conveniences’. Thus as written, Option D is the correct option. 40. Simplification means: (Easy) (Skill 2.12)

A. Adding ‘ed’ to irregular verbs as a way to use the past tense. B. Stating ‘I have a house beautiful in Miami’ for ‘I have a beautiful house in Miami’. C. Hispanics pronouncing words like ‘student’ as ‘estudent’. D. Asking someone if ‘You like?’ instead of ‘Do you like this one?’ Answer: D. Asking someone if ‘You like?’ instead of ‘Do you like this one?’ Simplification is a common learner error involving simplifying the language when the correct structures have not been internalized. In this case, the correct question form has not been acquired although the ELLs meaning is clear.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 41. Research shows that error correction in ELLs is a delicate business. Which of the following correction techniques contribute best to learning? (Rigorous) (Skill 2.12) A. B. C. D.

Semantic errors. Grammatical errors. Pronunciation. All written work.

Answer: A. Semantic errors. The correction of semantic errors leads to increased vocabulary and L2 learning. All other options have been proven to be ineffective. 42. Respecting social diversity in the classroom means that teachers should teach standard English: (Easy) (Skill 3.1)

A. B. C. D.

Exclusively. While ignoring dialects. And explain the value of unique group variations as far as possible. While respecting and teaching awareness of unique group variations.

Answer: D. While respecting and teaching awareness of unique group variations. In the modern world, English is being seen more and more as a ‘world language’ used by many peoples who are not from the traditional English speaking countries: Great Britain, the United States, Canada, Australia, etc. This has caused theorists to suggest that while we may wish to ‘hold firm’ to traditional standard English, it may not longer be possible to do so. Regardless, a respectful teacher would place her personal feelings ‘on the back burner’ and teach awareness of each group’s uniqueness.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 43. The decision by which the US Supreme Court essentially mandated bilingual instruction was: (Easy) (Skill 3.2)

A. B. C. D.

The Civil Rights Act Lau v. Nichols Castaneda v. Pickard No Child Left Behind

Answer: B. Lau v Nichols. In this decision, the U.S. Supreme Court found that Chinese ELLs were denied an equal education because their instruction was in a language they could not understand. The ruling was that ‘identical’ education is not necessarily ‘equal’ education and schools must take steps to overcome educational barriers to LEPs. 44. The No Child Left Behind Act established: (Rigorous) (Skill 3.2)

A. Title I funds are available only if the schools participate in National Assessment of Education Progress. B. Bilingual programs must be effective and established three criteria. C. High performance children cannot be used to average out low performing ELLs. D. Schools must form and convene assessment committees. Answer: C. High performance children cannot be used to average out low performing ELLs. Selection A refers to the establishment of voluntary school participation in NAEP after the National Committee on Excellence in Education produced their report A Nation at Risk (1983). Selection B refers to the decision rendered in Castaneda v Pickard (1981). One requirement resulting from Lau v Nichols (1974) was that schools must form and convene assessment committees. The NCLB act specifically states that disaggregated data must be used in evaluating school performance.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 45. In contrast to many state positions, the federal government advocates ____ for ELLs: (Average) (Skill 3.3)

A. B. C. D.

Higher funding for inner-city schools Equal opportunities and protection Restructuring of school districts A technologically prepared workforce

Answer: B. Equal opportunities and protection. 46. Technology and globalization have placed increased demands on schools. One major disappointment in ELL education has been: (Rigorous) (Skill 3.3)

A. B. C. D.

ELLs often succeed in the corporate ranks. Bilingual skills are in great demand. Few ELLs make use of their language skills. ELLs frequently return to their native lands.

Answer: C. Few ELLs make use of their language skills. Many factors enter into the politics of L2 learning. One disappointment has been the inability of low-achieving students to graduate from high school, enter college, and graduate. Their place in the workforce has too often seen ELLs accepting low paying or low skilled jobs that do not take advantage of their language skills. 47. Second language programs in the future will have to deal with: (Average) (Skill 3.4)

A. B. C. D.

Demands by ELL groups Polarity among different racial/ethnic groups Multiculturalism All of the above.

Answer: D. All of the above. For the foreseeable future, ELL groups will undoubtedly hold schools to higher and higher standards especially as research continues to show how second languages are learned. Despite efforts to reduce racial and ethnic tensions, they continue to rise in many parts of the world. Multiculturalism has its rewards, but many people believe in the purity of their own group. Therefore, second language programs in the United States (and other parts of the world) is where many of these issues will have to be dealt with.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 48. Culture and cultural differences: (Average) (Skill 3.5)

A. Must be addressed by the teacher in the ELL classroom by pointing out cultural similarities and differences. B. Should be the starting point for learning about how culture affects the ELLs attitude towards education. C. Positively affects how well ELLs perform in the language classroom. D. May have strong emotional influence on the ELL learner. Answer: D. May have strong emotional influence on the ELL learner. Culture and cultural differences may be addressed by a skillful ESOL teacher, but teachers are frequently unaware of all the cultures and cultural differences they are dealing with. At the same time, it may be possible to determine how his or her culture affects the ELL’s attitude towards education; however, it may well be something the young child cannot express or the adult hides for various reasons. Culture and cultural differences does not always play a positive role in the learning process. Culture and cultural differences may have a strong emotional influence on the ELL learner frequently the case whether it is negative or positive. Thus, D is our best option. 49. Pierre arrived in the U. S. in 2005. He has been living with his uncle

and aunt who are well assimilated into the U.S. culture. Pierre misses his parents and brothers. He finds his high school studies fairly easy and his classmates lazy. He is worried about his goal of becoming a professional soccer player and doesn’t understand why he can’t have wine with his meals when he eats out with his aunt and uncle. In which stage of assimilation is Pierre? (Average) (Skill 3.6)

A. B. C. D.

Honeymoon stage. Hostility stage. Humor stage. Home stage.

Answer: B. Hostility stage. While Pierre is probably adapting, he still finds his culture superior (‘his classmates are lazy’ and ‘why he can’t have wine with his meal’) and the new culture deficient (‘worried about his goal of becoming a professional soccer player’).

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 50. Upon arriving to a new country, immigrants frequently show signs of _____ in order to get a job. (Easy) (Skill 3.7)

A. B. C. D.

Assimilation. Acculturation. Transculturation. Accommodation.

Answer: D. Accommodation. While new immigrants acquire the skills they need to succeed in their new culture, they may accommodate their cultural heritage to the new one. Later as they are more fully integrated into the host society, they may begin to feel less intimidated and demonstrate their heritage culture more openly. 51. To help his class deal with the many different aspects of cultural differences, Mr. Smith asked each student (or group of students from the same culture) to talk about a special event, ceremony, or food item from their native or heritage culture. Mr. Smith was following the principles of: (Easy) (Skill 3.8)

A. B. C. D.

Piaget Chamot & O’Malley Krashen Asher

Answer: C. Krashen. Recall that Piaget is a developmental psychologist, that Chamot & O’Malley developed CALLA—whole language in content areas, and that Asher proposed TPR as a L2 learning technique. Krashen’s theory of Second Language Acquisition proposes lowering the affective filter to encourage language learning. Encouraging students to talk about themselves or their culture is one way of lowering the affective filter.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 52. Ms. Jones is a middle school teacher of many years experience and highly respected. This year, however, she has a class with many immigrants from several different cultures. She finds it easy to deal with the outgoing Marco who has been in the U. S. for 6 months, but doesn’t understand the reserved Leilani who has been in the U.S. for 2 years. A fellow teacher suggested that Leilani may: (Rigorous) (Skill 3.9)

A. B. C. D.

Need more time to formulate her answers. Be showing respect to the authority figure—her teacher. Need extra help in reducing her anxiety. All of the above.

Answer: D. All of the above. If no two students learn the same way, then no two students react to new or different situations in the same way. Their cultural background may be completely different. In this particular instance, Leilani may be suffering from any or all of the above—Answer D. 53. ESOL instruction frequently requires the teacher to change her instruction methods. She might find more difficulty during: (Rigorous) (Skill 3.9)

A. B. C. D.

Wait time. The establishment of group work. Show and tell based on different cultures. Extensive reading time.

Answer: A. Wait time. Answer B, C, and D can all be discounted since they are standard practice for language arts teachers. Answer A (the amount of time a teacher waits for an answer from her students) can be very difficult to change. Teachers may be somewhat impatient (‘Let’s get on with it’), lack understanding (‘If they knew the answer, they would respond’), and unaware of differences between the U.S. and other cultures. Answer A is the correct response.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 54. In the kindergarten classroom, the teacher designed a language experience story on plants after the children observed bean seeds sprouting and developing leaves. This activity followed good ESOL practice because: (Average) (Skill 4.1)

A. B. C. D.

Background knowledge was activated. Plants were part of the science curriculum. The story represented genuine communication. All of the above.

Answer: D. All of the above. The language experience story followed good ESOL practice because background knowledge was activated thus permitting more learning. As plants were part of the science curriculum, the story uses words from the content area, too. And as the children wanted to communicate what they had learned, it represented real communication. 55. In a school where numerous ELL students of the same language group are present, the most efficient way to ensure conformity with the Consent Decree may be: (Rigorous) (Skill 4.2)

A. Pull-out classes for science and math B. Mainstream content instruction with pull-out for Language Arts instruction. C. Mainstream instruction for Language Arts, science and math with tutorials in problem areas. D. Pull-out classes for Language Arts and science, mainstream for math. Answer: D. Pull-out classes for Language Arts and science, mainstream for math. In many cases, where students come to the U.S. with previous schooling, it is considered unnecessary, and indeed undesirable, for students to be pulled-out for math classes since math symbols are usually universal. Therefore, students will probably benefit more from remaining in the regular math classroom.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 56. If the teacher circulates around the room answering questions and asking others, which level(s) of scaffolding is she demonstrating? (Rigorous) (Skill 4.3)

A. B. C. D.

Modeling. Interactive. Guided. Independent.

Answer: B. Interactive. If the teacher were modeling, she would be demonstrating correct pronunciation or syntax to the students. If the ELLs were at an independent level, they would not need scaffolding. By circulating and answering questions, she can be interactive and guide the learning—possibly through asking other questions. 57. Bilingual Schooling and the Miami Experience documents Miami-Dade County’s: (Rigorous) (Skill 4.4)

A. B. C. D.

Experience in scaffolding Pioneers in ESL in the U.S. Leading investigators in EFL in the U.S. Reaction to cultural differences.

Answer: B. Pioneers in ESL in the U. S. Bilingual Schooling and the Miami Experience is a re-issue of Bilingual School for a Bicultural Community: Miami’s Adaptation to the Cuban Refugees. It documents the experiences of Miami-Dade County in reaction to the increased demands placed on the school system from 1959 up to 1973 when there was a wave of Cuban immigrants. There is a new introduction providing information on more recent immigration from Cuba, the Caribbean as well as Central and South America.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 58. Many sites listed on the Internet under English as a Second Language/Foreign Language have resources designed for teachers and researchers. In the following group, identify the one specifically designed for ELLs. (Rigorous) (Skill 4.5)

A. B. C. D.

http://www.cal.org http://www.K12.wa.us http://www.esl.about.com http://www.ed.gov./offices/OBEMLA

Answer: C. http://www.esl.about.com Answer A refers to the Center for Applied Linguistics. B refers to the home site of the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) at Washington State University. Answer C is for the U.S Dept. of Education. Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA). Option C is the correct answer as it is the only one which is dedicated primarily to ELLs. The others refer to research centers or official agencies dealing with various aspects of languages and language acquisition. 59. Students who are reading but need help in understanding texts may benefit from which computer program? (Rigorous) (Skill 4.6)

A. B. C. D.

Watch Me Read Power Point Sim City Google

Answer: C. Sim City. Watch Me Read is a tutoring application. Power Point is a program for preparing presentations. Google is a access application. Sim City is the only option for problem-solving.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 60. In schools with large immigrant populations of diverse origin, the most commonly used model is: (Easy) (Skill 5.1)

A. B. C. D.

Submersion. Pull-out ESL. SDAIE. Transition.

Answer: B. Pull-out model. SDAIE or Specially Designed Academic Programs in English is structured immersion model most commonly used in California. The submersion model does not provide the necessary support that ELLs need and is in disfavor. Transition models provided approximately three years of BICs but frequently leave the LEP with almost no support while learning CALPs. Today, the most commonly used model is B: Pull-out ESL. 61. Widdowson’s definition of ‘use’ and ‘usage’ is well demonstrated in which of the following models? (Rigorous) (Skill 5.2)

A. B. C. D.

Canadian French Immersion and Miami-Dade Count models. Submersion with primary language support. Content-based ESL and indigenous language immersion. Communication-based ESL and Grammar-based ESL.

Answer: D. Grammar-based ESL and Communication-based ESL. The question refers to Answer D. Widdowson differentiated between how the grammar of a language is reflected in its ‘usage’ and how the language is actually ‘used’ in communicative situations.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 62. School district Y is located in a depressed economic area with many immigrants from different cultures. It is small but populous. Budgets have been cut because of an economic slow-down and rising fuel costs. A possible solution for the up-coming school year would be: (Rigorous) (Skill 5.3)

A. Busing ELLs to neighboring ESL resource centers B. Encouraging the establishment of a magnet school within the district C. Assigning additional ESOL support staff to the district for pullout instruction. D. Retraining the existing staff in ESOL techniques. Answer: C. Assigning additional ESOL support staff to the district for pullout classes. Busing ELLs may not be an option in economic crisis which include high fuel costs. The establishment of a magnet school within the district could take considerable time to implement. Retraining teachers also requires long-term planning and substantial investment. Assigning addition ESOL support staff to the school district may be the only option for the up-coming school year. Thus, Option C is probably the most satisfactory answer. 63. ‘Weak’ forms of bilingual education may be identified with: (Average) (Skill 5.4)

A. B. C. D.

Transculturation. L1 maintenance. The Melting Pot theory. True bilingualism.

Answer: C. The Melting Pot theory. Answers B (L1 maintenance) and D (true bilingualism) indicate a desire to implement strong forms of bilingual education where the native or heritage cultures are valued and as such may be discarded. Answer A refers to the individual’s process of acculturation. The Melting Pot theory assumed that the U.S. was an ideal homogeneous society and that the immigrant or heritage culture was of far less importance than learning the language of the country in order to be assimilated.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 64. Ms. Mejia is concerned with her ELLs learning to write correctly in English. She: (Average) (Skill 6.1)

A. B. C. D.

Dictates sentences with the week’s spelling words. Plays Hangman to reinforce spelling of the words. Reads stories using vocabulary the ELLs need for BICS or CALPS. Sends extra work home for the ELLs to practice.

Answer: C. Reads stories using vocabulary the ELLs need for BICs or CALPs. Dictation is a good strategy if the words are in context. Hangman is a fun game and good for spelling, but little else. Extra writing homework for the ELLs would probably not improve their writing skills as they’d continue making the same errors. The best option is C: to provide ELLs with the vocabulary they need for BICs and CALPs. By modeling the language the ELLs need in contexts, they should be able to acquire it. 65. Angela needs help in English. Her teacher suggested several things Angela can do to improve her learning strategies. One of the following is not a socioaffective learning strategy. (Easy) (Skill 6.2) A. B. C. D.

Read a funny book. Work cooperatively with her classmates. Ask the teacher to speak more slowly. Skim for information.

Answer: D. Skim for information. Options A, B and C are all socioaffective learning strategies. Answer D is a cognitive strategy and the correct choice. 66. Which learning strategy is an ESOL teacher who encourages her

students to keep track of their progress in English Language Learning stimulating? (Rigorous) (Skill 6.2) A. B. C. D.

Metacognitive Affective Cognitive Social

Answer: A. Metacognitive. This ESOL teacher is instructing her ELLs in strategies that make them aware of their individual learning. By being aware of their learning strategies, ELLs can compare their previous learning with their present/current learning and measure their progress (or lack thereof).

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 67. Kindergarten-type worksheets working on pre-literacy may ask students to identify objects beginning with a certain letter. These worksheets are designed to promote: (Easy) (Skill 6.3)

A. B. C. D.

Early speech emergence Receptive vocabulary. Speech. Literacy.

Answer: B. Receptive vocabulary. This type of worksheet promotes receptive vocabulary development through beginning sounds and letters. It is a stage of pre-literacy. 68. Advanced TPR might include: (Average) (Skill 6.4) A. B. C. D.

Rapid fire commands. More advanced vocabulary. Funny commands. All of the above.

Answer: D. All of the above. Total Physical Response can be done slowly as a starting activity for ELLs. As they begin to understand more oral English and the game, TPR can be ‘spiced up’ by all of the other suggestions. 69. When introducing the human body using the approach, the ESOL instructor might:

communicative

(Easy) (Skill 6.5)

A. B. C. D.

Use gestures or mime. Play ‘Simon Says’. Sing a ‘song: The Hip Bone’s connected to the Leg Bone’. All of the above.

Answer: D. All of the above. All of the suggestions incorporate good ESOL theory and practice.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 70. Which of the following is not a step in the Language Experience Approach? (Average) (Skill 6.6)

A. Students draw a picture to represent something personal about an experience. B. Students dictate their story to the teacher. C. The teacher reads the story revising where necessary. D. The story is read in later days as a follow-up activity. Answer: C. The teacher reads the story revising where necessary. In the Language Experience Approach, the teacher writes the revised sentences on the storyboard making the necessary corrections at this time. 71. Content-based instruction suggests LEP students need an additional 5-7 years to pick-up academic language. During this time period, content area teachers should not: (Average) (Skill 6.7)

A. B. C. D.

Correct the LEP’s oral language mistakes. Speak more slowly, enunciation. Demonstrate new materials using various strategies to increase input. Check frequently for comprehension by asking students to explain what was said to a classmate or back to the teacher.

Answer: A. Correct the LEP’s oral language mistakes. A far more effective method is to correct the LEP’s mistakes when working on written work because there is a visual record of the mistake. 72. Which of the following options is not appropriate to Content-based Instruction (CBI)? (Average) (Skill 6.7)

A. B. C. D.

Asking silly questions. Speaking at a normal pace. Using visual cues. Restating errors.

Answer: B. Speaking at a normal pace. Teachers must learn to slow down their pace in order for ELLs to understand their speech. They should not, however, speak too slowly or raise their voice.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 73. The researcher most identified with the importance of working through problems to obtain a solution and to learn a foreign language is: (Rigorous) (Skill 6.8)

A. B. C. D.

Asher. Krashen & Terrell. Postovsky. Prabhu.

Answer: D. Prabhu. Asher’s work was based on Total Physical Response (TPR) as a comprehension-based approach (CBA). Krashen & Terrell theorized about Second Language Acquisition. Postovsky’s work concerned a CBA/CBL-based approach involving computers and problem-solving tasks. Prabhu researched the effectiveness of problem solving as a means for students to acquire the language they needed to learn English versus the learning of the language in order to solve problems. His students used information-gap activities, reasoning activities, and opinion-gap activities to acquire the new language they needed. 74. Which of the following instructional approaches emphasizes LEPs working on content material? (Average) (Skill 6.9)

A. B. C. D.

TPR. The Natural Approach. CALLA. The Communicative Approach.

Answer: C. CALLA. CALLA is the brain-child of Chamot and O’Malley. Their work is based on the principle that the child learns far more language in content classes than in ESOL pull-out classes. CALLA (Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach) integrates language development, content area instruction and explicit instruction in learning strategies.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 75. The Schema Theory of Carrell & Eisterhold suggests that for learning to take place, teachers must: (Average) (Skill 6.10)

A. B. C. D.

Integrate content areas with ESOL techniques. Emphasize all four language skills. Present comprehensible input in a meaningful context. Relate new materials to previous knowledge.

Answer: D. Relate new materials to previous knowledge. The schema theory of Carrell & Eisterhold suggests that schema must be related to previous knowledge otherwise learning will not take place. When activated, schema are able to evaluate the new materials in light of previous knowledge. If the arguments made convince the learner, he or she accepts them and integrates the new knowledge in to his data bank. Otherwise, if the new materials are unconvincing, the new knowledge is rejected by the learner. 76. According to Cummins’ four levels of difficulty, the high school math teacher whose ELLs work on standard workbook problems, is using __________ materials. (Average) (Skill 6.11)

A. B. C. D.

Level 1: Cognitively undemanding / Context-embedded Level 2: Cognitively undemanding / Context-reduced Level 3: Cognitively demanding / Context-embedded Level 4: Cognitively demanding / Context-reduced

Answer: D. Level 4: Cognitively demanding / Context-reduced. Math materials in high school are cognitively demanding, but standard workbook activities are not related to a context the ELLs are familiar with—their school, their community, or their families -- and are therefore, context-reduced. 77. Identify the CALP in the following sentences: (Average) (Skill 6.11)

A. B. C. D.

I want a Coke. My name is _____ . I want to return this book. Can I go to the bathroom?

Answer: C. I want to return this book. According to Cummins’ four levels of difficulty, this would be Level 1: Cognitively undemanding / Context embedded. Thus, it is a CALP. All other answers are BICs.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 78. Identify the method of dealing with fossilization that is not appropriate. (Average) (Skill 6.12)

A. B. C. D.

Ignore mistakes that do not interfere with meaning. Work on items such as ending /s/ for third person singular in written work. Teacher (or aide) corrects all papers. Dictating correct sentences of patterns frequently used incorrectly by ELLs.

Answer: C. Teacher (or aide) corrects all papers. Peer correction is an effective way of dealing with fossilization. Both the ELL and his or her peer have the opportunity to analyze errors in a nonconfrontational way. 79. Identify one method of adapting general education instruction to ELLs. (Average) (Skill 6.13)

A. B. C. D.

Providing extra listening materials (e.g. CD-Rom’s of stories). Arrange homogenous work groups. Using an English dictionary. Using grade-level storybooks.

Answer: A. Providing extra listening materials (e.g. CD-Rom’s of stories). By providing extra listening materials to the ELLs, they are receiving scaffolding. Since the CD-Rom’s provide modeling of correct pronunciation and stress, the ELLs are receiving English language instruction at the same time they receive additional help in understanding the story. 80. Which activity could be used to explore the cultural heritage of many diverse countries? (Average) (Skill 6.14)

A. B. C. D.

Singing ‘Hava Nagila’. Composing original parodies (e.g. ‘On Top of Spaghetti’). Comparing proverbs from different countries. Writing Haiku poems.

Answer: C. Comparing proverbs from different countries. Answers A, B, and C are country specific. Option C provides the opportunity to compare proverbs from different countries. By demonstrating to the ELLs and their classmates that many countries share similar sayings or proverbs on universal topics, we are sponsoring the idea of cultural unity.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 81. Using a ‘video split’: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.1)

A. B. C. D.

Is effective with science experiments. Is an information gap activity. Forces ELLs to use L2. Creates awareness of authentic language.

Answer: B. Is an information gap activity. Information gap activities are activities in which certain information is revealed to the different groups. A video split might typically allow one group to see the video without sound and the other group to hear the sound without the visuals. They would share the information they received in order to complete the task. 82. When using instructional technology (e.g. videos, DVDs, or CDs) in ESOL classes, the instructor should: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.1)

A. B. C. D.

Play the entire piece to build listening skills. Frequently stop to check on comprehension. Quiz the ELLs for comprehension after listening. Block the captions on the video.

Answer: B. Frequently stop to check on comprehension. Answer A: playing the entire piece to build listening skills would be tiring and boring for most ELLs. Listening for long periods of time before they are ready causes most language learners to ‘tune out’. Answer C would raise the affective filter and lessen language learning. Answer D omits a source of visual information for the ELLs. Answer D is the correct option as the teacher can stop the video and check to see that everyone understands. This will maintain motivation and increase interest in the activity. 83. CALL instruction allows the instructor to: (Easy) (Skill 7.2)

A. B. C. D.

Grade quizzes on-line. Mediate discussions. E-mail a student or groups of students 24/7. All of the above.

Answer: D. All of the above. Computer assisted language learning would permit the teacher to do all of the mentioned items. It is a support for the teacher as well as a learning tool for the students.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 84. By using asynchronous applications teachers can: (Average) (Skill 7.3)

A. B. C. D.

Design coursework for students to complete by specific dates. Send instant messages (IMs). Enhance student interaction. Increase student’s interest.

Answer: A. Design coursework for students to complete by specific dates. Asynchronous applications are applications off-line. As such, the teacher can script a course completely at the teacher’s convenience and programmed to be available on a specific date of the teacher’s choice. Once completed, it may be used over and over. 85. CALL gives ELLs the opportunity to: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.3)

A. B. C. D.

Practice writing skills in chatrooms. Receive instructor feedback during the class. See each other through video conferencing. All of the above.

Answer: D. All of the above. 86. Kroonenberg believes the value of CMC: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.4)

A. Is the possibility of integrating video and audio into instruction. B. Is the authoring software tools that help teachers prepare course material. C. Lies in its ability to imitate live conversation. D. Is the cultural authenticity achieved. Answer: C. Lies in its ability to imitate a live conversation Computer-mediated communication simulates a live conversation and is the best choice.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 87. Teachers looking for reading comprehension software for young ELLs should look for: (Average) (Skill 7.5)

A. B. C. D.

Illustrated vocabulary lists, which are presented before the story. A text which is read accompanied by animation. Interactive vocabulary words. A page for the students to paint at the end of the story.

Answer: B. A text which is read accompanied by animation. Vocabulary lists and vocabulary words will help the student understand more, but do not help in the comprehension of the story. The painting activity would be a concluding activity and not necessarily based on understanding the story. The best option is B because the animation attracts a young child visually. Having a story read to the child helps with pre-literacy skills especially comprehension where much of our understanding may come from hearing the pronunciation of the words that we see. 88. Which of the following is not a guideline for a successful Internet project? (Average) (Skill 7.6)

A. B. C. D.

Appropriate language demands for the level. Communicate when necessary to see how things are going. Share the results with other classes. Projects should be interesting, timely, and have specific goals.

Answer: B. Communicate when necessary to see how things are going. Answer B is too casual. Most students are not accustomed to working in an independent learning environment and need continuous communication to motivate them and keep them on track so the project can come to a successful end.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 89. The most appropriate ESOL strategy for readers who do not read in their L1 is: (Average) (Skill 8.1)

A. Postpone reading until the ELLs acquire intermediate oral language proficiency. B. Teach cognates and high frequency words. C. Develop literacy in L1 first. D. Use pull-out reading support in L2. Answer: C. Develop literacy in L1 first. Once the ELL understands pre-reading strategies and how the written word is connected to the spoken word, the learner is ready to read. Once fluency is achieved in the first language, second language reading instruction can begin and be more successful. 90. Which of the following traits are present in ELLs who are beginning to write in L2? (Average) (Skill 8.2)

A. Word-order problems, lack of variety in vocabulary, uses different sentence patterns. B. Writes 3 or more paragraphs with run-on sentences, little vocabulary above basic level, limited organization. C. Limited vocabulary, uses one or two sentence patterns, writes only a few sentences. D. Asks for translation of vocabulary at times, good variety of sentence patterns, writes a paragraph or more. Answer: C. Limited vocabulary, uses one or two sentence patterns, writes only a few sentences. ELLs often demonstrate mixed traits in their writing skills. Answer C is the best option because all of the traits mentioned are present at a beginning level. 91. ELLs demonstrate emergent literacy in English by: (Average) (Skill 8.3)

A. B. C. D.

Making play grocery lists. Listening passively when classmates read aloud. Frequently moving around during reading time Becoming easily distracted during storybook time.

Answer: A. Making play grocery lists. Answers B, C, and D indicate behaviors that are immature for a child interested in reading. They also indicate a lack of understanding of the role the printed word plays in our daily lives. Answer A is the best option because it illustrates an ELLs growing awareness of writing and literacy in the daily routines of the home.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 92. Which of the following strategies is NOT recommended to promote emergent literacy? (Average) (Skill 8.4)

A. Teacher reads oversized books carefully pointing to each word as she reads. B. Mother Goose rhymes illustrated around the room. C. Spelling lists for homework practice. D. Word wall with words listed under each beginning letter. Answer: C. Spelling lists for homework practice. Spelling lists are out of context and not recommended to promote literacy. Any word list, if given, must be within the context of the classroom learning. 93. Incorporating prior knowledge into L2 learning does not: (Average) (Skill 8.5)

A. B. C. D.

Permit readers to learn and remember more. Cause poor readers. Help readers to evaluate new arguments. Improve comprehension.

Answer: B. Cause poor readers. Activating schema and incorporating previous knowledge into L2 learning will strengthen the learning process. It certainly does not cause poor readers. 94. Freire’s research states that : (Average) (Skill 8.6)

A. Critical literacy provides a means for individual to identify with the nature of social conditions and change them. B. Critical literacy is an investigation into the motives and goals of an author or speaker. C. Readers are critical consumers of received information. D. Oppressed people obtain power through education and knowledge. Answer: D. Oppressed people obtain power through education and knowledge. Various authors (Auerbach 1999; Brown, 1999; Hammond & Macken Horaik, 1999 and Hull, 2000) have stated that critical literacy provides individuals with the means to identify with it and change social conditions. Lohrey (1998) spoke of critical literacy as an investigation into the motives and goals of an author. Van Duzer & Florez (2000) asserted that critical literacy goes beyond the basic literacy skills and asks readers to become critical consumers of information. Freire’s assertion was that oppressed people obtain power through education and knowledge.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 95. An English teacher included a unit on Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet in her programming. To promote critical literacy, she could have her students: (Average) (Skill 8.7)

A. Provide a list of pre-reading questions for discussion. B. Use a flow-chart to outline the plot. C. Compare the story of Prince Charles and Princess Diana to Romeo and Juliet. D. Show the movie and provide comprehension questions. Answer: C. Compare the story of Prince Charles and Princess Diana to Romeo and Juliet. Answer A would activate previous knowledge and create interest in the story. Option B suggests that a flow-chart could be used as a plot summary. Option D provides extra input for better understanding of the story. Only answer C is giving the students opportunities for critical analysis and a means of exploring universal themes in family relationships with a meaningful context within the modern world. 96. Instruction to promote fluency includes: (Average) (Skill 8.8)

A. B. C. D.

Developing writing and reading skills separately. Explicit study of vocabulary lists. Role plays, phonics instruction, journal writing. Learning only the specific language for the task at hand.

Answer: C. Role plays, phonics instruction, journal writing. Answers A, B, and D may be discarded as options since they are all poor ESOL techniques. Only Answer C suggests various ways in which fluency is developed by constant practice in non-threatening ways. 97. Vocabulary levels are extremely important in L2 learning. However, an ELL needs only _____ words to understand up to 74% of academic texts and 84% of conversational English. (Average) (Skill 8.8)

A. B. C. D.

1000. 1200. 1500. 2000.

Answer: A. 1000. Despite our efforts to teach vocabulary (and increase the vocabularies of our ELLs), recent corpus-based studies suggest that the basic vocabulary words our students need may not be as high as we previously thought.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 98. Which of the following strategies is not appropriate for homeinvolved reading instruction? (Easy) (Skill 8.9)

A. B. C. D.

Encourage parents to model reading and writing in L2 when possible. Suggest parents to read or tell stories in L1 to their children. Phonics practice. Having the child re-tell the reading selection to their parents.

Answer: C. Phonics practice. Answers A and B are positive ways for parents to emphasize the importance of reading in modern society. Answer D, having the child re-tell the reading selection to their parents, encourages reading comprehension. Only Answer C (phonics practice) is ill advised since the parents may speak English poorly or not at all. 99. Young children are often considered better language learners than older children or adults. However, older children or adults may be able to progress more rapidly in reading instruction because: (Rigorous) (Skill 8.9) A. B. C. D.

They have more worldly experience to help them understand the texts. Their vocabulary concepts in L2 are less developed. They have more language learning experience. Phonics is the same whether in L1 or L2.

Answer: A. They have more worldly experience to help them understand texts. Answers B and C would depend on the individuals involved in the learning situation. Answer D can readily be discarded as sounds are what distinguish many languages one from another. The correct answer is A. Older learners can apply their worldly experience and schema developed in L1 to understanding L2 texts as well as other language learning situations. 100. Which of the following accommodations may be allowed for ELLs during assessment? (Average) (Skill 9.1)

A. B. C. D.

Giving extra time. Asking proctor to explain certain words or test items. Paraphrasing the prompt. Allowing usage of anEnglish-heritage translating dictionary.

Answer: D. Allowing usage of an English-heritage dictionary. Answers A, B, and C would defeat the purpose of assessing the ELLs. Answer D is the appropriate accommodation during assessment.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 101. Which of the following is not an acceptable alternative assessment strategy for ELLs? (Average) (Skill 9.2)

A. B. C. D.

Portfolios. Observation. Self-assessment. Essay writing.

Answer: D. Essay writing. Answer D is the correct response, as essay writing is not an appropriate strategy for evaluating the English capabilities of ELLs. 102. Which method is the most appropriate one for dealing partially with cultural bias in tests? (Rigorous) (Skill 9.3)

A. B. C. D.

Translate the tests previous to the actual exam. Provide pictures and graphics during the test. Administer practice tests with time limits. Provide a study guide and give test orally.

Answer: C. Administer practice tests with time limits. Answers A, B, and D are accommodations to the language deficiencies of ELLs, but do not address cultural bias. Answer C addresses cultural bias since many cultures do not time tests and ELLs may find this a difficulty since it is a norm in many U.S. testing environments. 103. When testing for an ELLs level of English proficiency, which minor accommodation is appropriate? (Rigorous) (Skill 9.4)

A. B. C. D.

Allowing extra time. Using the ELLs portfolio. Recitating. Providing translation of prompts as needed for understanding.

Answer: A. Allowing extra time. Answers B and C suggest alternative testing methods. Answer D is inappropriate as the level of English proficiency is being tested. Answer A is the correct answer as ELLs may need more time to respond to questions until they become more familiar with the English language and U.S. testing situations.

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191

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 104. A parent filled out the home language survey as indicated below: 1. Is a language other than English used in the home? Yes. 2. Does the student have a first language other than English? Yes. 3. Does the student use the language other than English more frequently? No. What is the school’s next step? (Rigorous) (Skill 9.5)

A. B. C. D.

Placing the student at grade-level with no assessment. Postponing admission until testing is completed. Assigning to ESOL program while beginning testing. Placing in the grade-level ESOL program.

Answer: C. Assigning to ESOL program while beginning testing. Answers A (placing the student at grade-level with no assessment) and D (placing in the grade-level ESOL program) do an injustice to the ELL as the student has not been given a chance to demonstrate his or her capabilities. Answer B is equally inappropriate as the child has the right to schooling. Answer C is the appropriate selection since the ELLs’ right to an education is being protected while the most appropriate environment is being determined. 105. All 11

th

graders in Florida must take:

(Rigorous) (Skill 9.5)

A. B. C. D.

SAT or ACT HSCT GTAT Florida Writes

Answer: B. HSCT. Answer A: SAT or ACT are optional tests for university candidates. Answer C: th GTAT is a nationally recognized 10 grade achievement test. Florida Writes measures writing ability in grades 4, 8, and 10. Answer B: HSCT—High School Competency Test is the correct response.

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192

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 106. Before coming to the U.S., Sven, an 11-grade student took the TOEFL. This is a ________ test. (Easy) (Skill 9.6)

A. B. C. D.

Language proficiency. Language achievement. Language placement. Diagnostic language.

Answer: A. Language proficiency. Since the TOEFL tests a student’s English language ability in reading comprehension, essay writing, syntax and lexis, it tests for language proficiency. th

107. A 5 grader has completed one year in the ESOL program but does not seem to make progress. Which of the following might indicate a learning disability? (Rigorous) (Skill 10.1)

A. B. C. D.

Frequently switches codes. Needing extra time to answer questions. Decoding successfully but having comprehension difficulties. Dropping of the final consonants of words.

Answer: C. Decoding successfully but having comprehension difficulties. Answers A and B are normal ELL reactions to the stress of learning a new language. Answer D refers to a pronunciation error which may be normal in the ELL’s first language. Only C goes beyond the normal problems of ESOL and possibly into the realm of learning difficulties. 108. An ELL student may pronounce /free/ instead of /three/. This is an example of: (Rigorous) (Skill 10.1)

A. B. C. D.

Omission. Substitution. Distortion. Addition.

Answer: C. Distortion. In distortion, the ELL pronounces the phoneme incorrectly and ‘distorts’ the sound.

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193

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 109. Which of the following is indicative of a language disorder rather than a L2 developmental issue? (Rigorous) (Skill 10.2)

A. B. C. D.

Difficulty in identifying words in context. Inability to produce grammatically correct sentences. Dropping of specific word endings. Speech is difficult for others to understand.

Answer: D. Speech is difficult for others to understand. Answers A, B, and C are all problems in ELLs. Only Answer D would not be considered a problem of L2 learners. Therefore, it may indicate a language disorder. 110. Which of the following should be done prior to initiating a formal referral process for an ELL with possible learning disabilities? (Rigorous) (Skill 10.3)

A. B. C. D.

A vision and hearing test. A language diagnostic test. Documentation of at least 1 intervention. Consultation with principal about ELL’s progress.

Answer: A. A vision and hearing test. Answer A is the correct selection since it eliminates the possibility of a childhood health issue before classifying it as a learning disorder problem. 111. Which of the following is a possible sign of the gifted ELL student? (Average) (Skill 10.4)

A. B. C. D.

Normal development according to parental interview. Speech delayed in L2. Seems to solve logic problems with difficulty. High academic performance in L1.

Answer: D. High academic performance in L1. Answer D suggests that ELLs who performed excellent academic work in their first language would be the prime indicator of a student with exceptional abilities, especially if they are also apparent in the L2.

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TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 112. An ELL suspected of having learning difficulties: (Rigorous) (Skill 10.4)

A. B. C. D.

May present behavioral differences when asked to produce written work. Demonstrates the ability to learn quickly. Should be analyzed for up to 10 weeks using ESOL techniques. Demonstrates the ability to solve problems not dependent on English.

Answer: C. Should be analyzed for up to 10 weeks using ESOL techniques. Answers B and D indicate ability beyond the realm of language learning difficulties; they suggest gifted exceptionalities. Answer A suggests the ELL may be acting out to avoid producing work that is challenging or too difficult. The correct answer would be C which indicates carefully documented follow-up to avoid placing an ELL in the incorrect environment. 113. Identify the correct order for the assessment of ELLs with exceptionalities. (Rigorous) (Skill 10.5) A. English language assessment, language proficiency assessment, language for assessment. B. Language proficiency assessment, speech and language assessment, English language assessment. C. Speech and language assessment, language for assessment, English language assessment. D. Language for assessment, speech and language assessment, language proficiency. Answer: B. Language proficiency assessment, speech and language assessment, English language assessment. Answer B reflects the correct order of assessment. 114. Which of the following instructional strategies would not be appropriate for ELLs with exceptionalities? (Rigorous) (Skill 10.6) A. B. C. D.

Use of texts adapted to students disability. Practice testing opportunities. Differentiated instruction. Lectures.

Answer: D. Lectures. Answer D is the correct one. Lectures are difficult for most people and certainly for ELLs whose attention span may be limited by their exceptionality and their L2 language proficiency level.

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195

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 115. Based on Title III of the No Child Left Behind Act, schools are required to include ELLs in state-mandated testing: (Rigorous) (Skill 11.1) A. B. C. D.

In mathematics and science after 2 years of enrollment. In English language arts, math, and science after 2 years enrollment. In English language arts and math after enrollment. In mathematics with 1 year of enrollment.

Answer: D. In mathematics with 1 year of enrollment. 116. The No Child Left Behind Act requires schools to: (Rigorous) (Skill 11.1) A. Give assessment in English if the LEP has received 3 years of schooling in the US (except for Puerto Rico). B. Measure school districts by status. C. Inform parents of the school’s evaluation. D. Includes LEPs in all academic assessments. Answer: A. Give assessment in English if the LEP has received 3 years of schooling in the U.S.(except for Puerto Rico). Since NCLB requires schools to focus on quality education for students who were often overlooked by the educational system, in general, LEPs with three years of schooling must be tested in English. 117. In Lau v Nichols (1974), the Supreme Court ruled that: (Rigorous) (Skill 11.2) A. School districts may not continue education programs that fail to produce positive results for ELLs. B. Prohibited sexual harassment in any school activity on or off campus. C. Students were denied an ‘equal’ education. D. Prohibited discrimination against students and employers based on race, ethnicity, national origins, disability, or marital status. Answer: C. Students were denied and ‘equal’ education. Answer A refers to Castaneda v Pickard (1981). Answer B refers to Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972. Answer D was covered in the Florida Educational Equity Act of 1984. Only Option C refers to Lau v Nichols (1974).

ESOL

196

TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE 118. Which legal action resulted in the Florida Consent Decree which mandates all public schools must offer equal access to subject matter, content, and benefits to ESOL students? (Rigorous) (Skill 11.3) A. B. C. D.

Castaneda v Pickard Goss v Lopez LULAC v Florida Board of Education Florida Education Equity Act

Answer: C. LULAC v Florida Board of Education. When sued by the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) in 1990, the Florida Consent Decree was entered in the US District Court through an agreement of the opposing parties and mandated that equal access to educational benefits must be given to all ESOL students. 119. A. B. C. D.

The Consent Decree does not outline: (Rigorous) (Skill 7.1)

How ELLs are to be integrated into the ESOL programs. Procedures for dealing with homeless ELLs. Procedures for transition out of ESOL programs. How school districts shall be monitored.

Answer: B. Procedures for dealing with homeless ELLs. The Consent Decree outlines all other options. Homeless ELLs are covered by the McKinney-Vento Act (reauthorized in 2001and 2003) protects the educational rights of all homeless children.

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