Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

FRESHWATER FISHES of IRAQ BRIAN W. COAD

Freshwater Fishes of Iraq 1

Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

2 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

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Freshwater Fishes of Iraq 3

FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAQ by

Brian W. Coad

Sofia–Moscow 2010

4 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq FRESHWATER FISHES OF IRAQ by Brian W. Coad Canadian Museum of Nature, P.O. Box 3443, Station D, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1P 6P4 email: [email protected] www.briancoad.com

On the front cover: Barbus esocinus, 32-34 kg, 1.32 m, Camp Slayer, Baghdad, released alive (Kevin Choules).

First published 2010 ISBN 978-954-642-530-0 Pensoft Series Faunistica No 93 ISSN 1312-0174

© PENSOFT Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

Pensoft Publishers Geo Milev Str. 13a, Sofia 1111, Bulgaria e-mail: [email protected] www.pensoft.net

Printed in Bulgaria, February 2010

Freshwater Fishes of Iraq 5

CONTENTS 7

Acknowledgements Introduction

9 9

Purpose of the Work

10

Materials and Methods 14

Environment

32

History of Research Fisheries

36 40

Scientific Names

Collecting and Preserving Fishes

45

Identification Keys Species Accounts

71 71

Family Carcharhinidae Family Engraulidae Family Clupeidae

75 78

Family Cyprinidae

86

Family Cobitidae

200

Family Balitoridae

203

42

6 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Family Sisoridae

210

Family Siluridae

215 220

Family Heteropneustidae Family Ariidae

224

Family Bagridae

224 227

Family Mugilidae

240

Family Hemiramphidae 241

Family Belonidae

241

Family Cyprinodontidae 250

Family Poeciliidae

258

Family Mastacembelidae

261

Family Platycephalidae 261

Family Sillaginidae Family Sparidae

261

Family Sciaenidae

266

Family Cichlidae

267

Family Gobiidae

267

Family Scatophagidae Family Stromateidae Family Soleidae

Checklists

Bibliography Colour Plates

269 275 277

268

268 268

Freshwater Fishes of Iraq 7

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Prof. Barry G. Warner, University of Waterloo, Ontario and Clayton Rubec, then with the Canadian International Development Agency, Ottawa, are thanked for the opportunity to work on this book. The book was undertaken with the financial support of the Government of Canada provided through the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). The Canada-Iraq Marshlands Initiative (CIMI; at www.iraqimarshlands.org/ site/home/) was funded by CIDA and produced valuable data used in this book. The time of B. W. Coad and laboratory resources were supported by the Canadian Museum of Nature (CMN), Ottawa. Noel Alfonso and Sylvie Laframboise of the CMN helped in various ways through research assistance on specimens and cataloguing collections. Staff of the museum library searched out copies for the extensive reference database used in this work. Iraqi colleagues Najah Hussain and Sadek Hussein at the University of Basrah provided specimens, reprints, photographs, notes on biology, and proofread parts of the manuscript. Michel Lamboeuf, Fishery Resource Officer and Rick Sutton, Chief, Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome kindly facilitated, and gave permission to use, illustrations from the publication “FAO Species Identification Sheets, Western Indian Ocean”. Most line drawings are by Susan Laurie-Bourque. Ottawa. Keith Holmes, CanadaIraq Marshlands Initiative (CIMI), Victoria, B.C. provided the drainage and marsh maps. Friedhelm Krupp, Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt allowed me to use illustrations from his 1985 dissertation. John E. Randall, Bishop Museum, Hawaii gave permission for use of colour illustrations of marine species. Kevin Choules gave his permission to use the photograph of the large Barbus esocinus he caught at Baghdad. Various American and British soldiers also sent photographs of fishes caught by angling for identification that helped in description of live material. A wide range of Iraqi and Iranian students and scientists sent information and pictures of fishes for identification. They cannot all be thanked here as they number in the hundreds but their contributions aided production of this book and many are listed at www.briancoad.com. A few people are acknowledged below with apologies to anyone who feels left out. Ibrahem M. Abd, Nature Iraq sent photographs of specimens and the fish themselves for identification as well as providing data from surveys. M. A. Al-Mukhtar, Basrah

8 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

University sent me information on colour of living fishes. Roland Beck, COFAD GmbH, Tutzing provided useful data on Syrian fishes. F. Kedairy, Iraq provided interpretation on the common names of Heteropneustes fossilis in Iraq. Stanley Cowton, US Army Corps of Engineers sent information on carp behaviour in palace ponds as well as various photos and permission to use them from Joel Stewart. Najim R. Khamees, University of Basrah sent information on fish in Lake Razzazah and on cichlids, and Beshar Abd Al-Hussain Al-Saadi on cichlids in the Euphrates River. Amir Al-Shamma’a and S. M. A. Abdullah, Iraq sent reprints, photos and information on fishes. Atabak Mahjoorazad and Afshin Afzali, Iran kindly provide photos of some cyprinids and catfishes. A. J. Al-Rudainy, Baghad sent a series of photos from his Atlas of Iraqi Freshwater Fishes. Barbara Herzig, Naturhistorisches Museum Wien photographed the syntype of Silurus triostegus. Materials were studied in various collections and their curators are thanked for their permission to examine specimens and assistance in locating them. These include K. Banister, B. Brewster, P. Campbell, O. Crimmen, S. Davidson, P. H. Greenwood, A.-M. Hodges, G. Howes, J. Maclaine, N. Merrett, D. Siebert, E. Trewavas, A. Wheeler and P. J. P. Whitehead of the Natural History Museum, London; P. Bartsch and C. Lamour, Museum für Naturkunde, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin; R. K. Johnson, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; H. Ahnelt, R. Hacker, E. Mikschi and B. Herzig, Naturhistorsches Museum, Wien; F. Krupp, Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt; and an extensive list of people acknowledged in Freshwater Fishes of Iran at www.briancoad. com as their help is a basis for part of this work. Many people sent copies of their articles on Iraqi or related fishes or helped provide copies from their libraries. They include A. DouAboul and B. Warner, University of Waterloo, Ontario, L. A. J. Jawad, then of the National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research Institute Ltd., Wellington, New Zealand, who also read a draft of the manuscript and made many useful comments, Amir Al-Shamma’a, Iraq, Jeff Williams and David Steere, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Jean Collins and staff at the Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.

Introduction 9

INTRODUCTION PURPOSE OF THE WORK This work provides a guide to the freshwater fishes of Iraq. There are no modern keys to this fauna, some available books are incomplete or cursory treatments or are outdated, and the detailed and diverse scientific literature is widely scattered in time, languages and journals. An accurate identification is a pre-requisite for further scientific studies and this book aims to serve that purpose and to be an introductory guide to the fishes and their biology. The guide aims at a mixed audience, including scientists familiar with ichthyology to whom some introductory sections of this work will be superfluous, and those whose knowledge of fishes is embryonic or who may have limited access to literature sources. This “Introduction” contains several explanatory sections. These sections include methods of counting characters, an explanation of scientific names of fishes, ways of capturing and preserving fishes and recording the all-important collection data, and how to identify fishes. It also includes a brief review of the history of research on Iraqi fishes, descriptions of the environment including geography, climate, habitats and environmental change, and an overview of fisheries. Technical terms used in ichthyology and in this work are in the “Dictionary of Ichthyology” and can be accessed through www.briancoad.com. The bulk of the text is the “Species Accounts” which serve to identify, describe and outline the distribution of each species. Families of fishes follow J. S. Nelson’s “Fishes of the World” (2006 edition) with genera and species arranged alphabetically within each family. Each Species Account is comprised of the following parts: the scientific name, common names, sections on systematics, key characters, morphology, colour, size, distribution, habitat, biology (age and growth, food, reproduction, parasites and predators), economic importance, and conservation, and an illustration. Common names are in Arabic and in English. Arabic names in English script appear in various spellings that are cited here. A few species in Iraq lack an Arabic name. More species lack an English common name, as these fishes do not occur in English-speaking countries. The biological information may be cursory. Many species are poorly known and their biology has not been studied, especially within Iraq. Some information is available

10 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

for species shared with the Levant, Turkey, Syria and Iran and this literature is incorporated as being less well known or accessible. Biological information generally is a brief summary of field experience and literature and readers should consult the original papers for more details (see below). The biology of the fishes will vary with the type of habitat studied; marshes, rivers, streams, lakes, reservoirs, polluted and pristine habitats, habitats on the plains and those in the mountains, in southern Iraq and in northern Iraq, and by the effectiveness of the fishing apparatus used and whether the population is heavily exploited for food, both of which can govern the age groups caught. There have been extensive studies on the parasites of fishes in Iraqi fresh waters, mostly recording species present and describing new species. Parasites do not appear to be a significant problem for Iraqi fishes generally, although of course in the crowded conditions of fish farms this is always a potential problem. Some anecdotal biological information is from field collections. Most fish spawn in the spring. Feeding habits can often be deduced from morphology. Fish with an arched and ventral mouth, horny jaw edge, elongate gut and black peritoneum are detritivores, feeders on detritus and aufwuchs scraped from rocks. Most fish with a simple, s-shaped gut feed on invertebrates such as crustaceans and aquatic insect larvae. A few fish with molar pharyngeal teeth have a diet of molluscs whose shells are crushed by the heavy teeth. Some fish are piscivores and have an appropriate jaw shape and streamlined appearance suitable for catching and holding their fish prey. Fish with elongate and numerous fine gill rakers filter phytoplankton or zooplankton from the water column. Very few fish are herbivores, feeding on macrophytes (large plants). A “Checklist” summarise the diversity of the ichthyofauna. The website www.briancoad.com has an extensive “Bibliography” on the freshwater fishes of Iraq, which form a good general basis for the serious student of Iraqi freshwater fishes. The fishes found in Iraqi fresh waters comprise those fishes which spend their whole lives in fresh waters and certain, primarily marine, species that penetrate into fresh waters or waters under tidal influence from the Arabian Gulf such as the Hammar Marsh. 

MATERIALS AND METHODS The descriptions in this work are founded on original observations of material and a consideration of the literature, coupled with extensive field experience. The sources of this material are various museums that house collections of Iraqi species including in particular the Natural History Museum, London, the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien, and the Field Museum, Chicago, among others. The former two are depositories for older type material. Extensive comparative material is available from Iran in the Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa and from Syria in the Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt. Some Iraqi material is stored at the Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa that also has a literature

Introduction 11

base including translations from foreign languages, and comparative specimens and literature from other countries in Southwest Asia. Material is listed at www.briancoad.com. Most species can be adequately described by meristic (countable) characters such as scales and fin rays and by general features of the anatomy such as presence and number of barbels, fin numbers and positions, mouth structures, presence or absence of scales, colour, size, etc. Measurements (morphometric characters) may also be of value. In this work, scale counts, numbers of gill rakers and of vertebrae are usually expressed as ranges based on museum material examined and literature sources. Fin ray counts often show strong modes, but citing the mode alone would be misleading. Pharyngeal tooth formula is often a modal value from the literature; loss of or incomplete development of major or minor row teeth is not uncommon, so counts may vary quite markedly. Scale counts and paired fin ray counts were made on the left side of each fish. In some instances, such as a badly deformed fin or where scales on the left were mostly missing, counts were made on the right. These instances were rare and restricted to species with low sample sizes. Not all meristic characters had equal sample sizes; some material from other museums was not available for x-rays, large series of pharyngeal tooth counts was not often available because removal of arches damages specimens, some specimens were damaged in certain characters, time did not always permit all characters to be counted, some species are well-known and additional data from Iraq is clearly a subset of widely gathered data, some species were examined in detail to address systematic problems, and so on. 1) Vertebrae All vertebrae were counted including the hypural plate as one vertebra. In Cypriniformes and Siluriformes, the four Weberian vertebrae were included in the count. Almost all counts were made from radiographs. 2) Gill rakers All rakers on the first gill arch were counted. A lower limb count in the literature includes any raker at the angle of the upper and lower limbs. Gill raker counts presented something of a problem when comparing specimens of disparate sizes. The smaller fish often had very small rakers at each end of the arch. These were easily missed or torn off when cleaning a debris-encrusted arch. Removal of arches for a more careful examination may also damage or destroy the finer rakers that are intimately associated with the tissues adjacent to the arches. Alizarin preparations can be of assistance, but the finer rakers may have no bony content and thereby be omitted. Counts of juvenile fish may therefore give lower values than counts for larger fish, whether this is due to an increase in gill raker number with age or because rakers are easier to count in larger fish. This kind of variation is only critical where this character is being used in species identification or in analyses meant to define and relate species.

12 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

3) Pharyngeal teeth The teeth of the modified fifth gill arch in Cyprinidae were counted in each row and given as a formula from left to right. A count of 2,5-4,2 consists of two teeth in both the outer left and outer right rows, five teeth in the inner left row and four teeth in the inner right row. Pharyngeal teeth rows in Iraqi cyprinids varied from one to three on each side. In certain cases, it was evident from the presence of a socket that a tooth had been lost. The count then included that tooth. 4) Fin rays a) Dorsal and anal fins Fin ray counts were divided into two types. One count is of spines or hardened soft rays or any unbranched, unpaired unsegmented rays and this is usually given in Roman numerals in the literature. In deference to some Iraqi unfamiliarity with Roman numerals, the spine count is given in Arabic numerals in this text. Spine count included rudimentary rays that, at the anterior dorsal and anal fins, may be obscured by flesh or scales requiring some probing or dissection. Radiographs were often useful to confirm counts made under a microscope. The second count is of soft rays and is also indicated by Arabic numerals. These rays are usually branched, flexible, segmented and laterally paired. The last two unbranched rays often arise from a single internal base and were then counted as one. This is generally the case in Cyprinidae. The branched ray count is the most diagnostic and variable in such fishes. Some families contain species with more than one dorsal fin. The first dorsal fin may be composed of spines and the second dorsal fin of spines and soft rays. In such species, the count is given separately for each fin. b) Caudal fin The branched caudal fin rays only were counted. Dorsal and ventral to these central rays are a series of unbranched rays that become progressively smaller and may be obscured by flesh and scales where the caudal fin attaches to the caudal peduncle. Counts in other works often comprise the branched rays plus one dorsal and one ventral unbranched ray. Caudal fin ray counts are remarkably uniform within families, e.g. in Cyprinidae the count is almost always 17, except for occasional variants c) Paired fins Paired fin ray counts can be separated into unbranched and branched rays. A small splint in some species at the origin of the paired fins was excluded from the count. There is usually one unbranched ray that is not included in counts cited here. The branched ray counts were the most important and are the ones given here. However, in the pectoral fin the innermost rays were often difficult to discern and may increase with age.

Introduction 13

5) Scales The principal scale count is the number of scales along the lateral line. The first scale counted was that scale contacting the pectoral girdle. The count continued along the flank following the pored scales and including small, additional scales lying between the large, regular scales as well as any unpored scales. The small, additional scales were relatively rare occurrences and any obviously abnormal fish - those with healed injuries for example - were not counted. The count terminated with the scale lying over the end of the hypural plate as determined by flexing the caudal fin. Some works recommend inclusion of a scale overlying the flexure only if most of its exposed field is closer to the body than to the caudal fin. Since the flexure of the caudal fin produces a relatively broad groove, this is difficult to judge in smaller fish. Therefore, the most posterior scale whose exposed surface touched the groove was the last scale counted. The count is also continued onto the caudal fin in some species for a total count, as this sometimes proved useful in comparison with counts in older literature. Other scale counts, not always used, include scales above the lateral line, below the lateral line, between the lateral line and the pelvic fin origin, predorsal scale rows and scales around the caudal peduncle. All measurements were to the nearest 0.1 mm using dial calipers. Measurements were taken on the left side unless a left fin, for example, was badly deformed or broken. Badly deformed specimens were not measured. Distortions due to preservation, such as a gaping mouth or expanded gill covers, were gently adjusted to as natural a position as possible. A list in Freshwater Fishes of Iran at www.briancoad.com explains how the various measurements were taken. All measurements were taken in a straight line and not over the curve of the head or body. Three basic measurements are total length, from the anteriormost part of the head to the tip of either lobe of the caudal fin when that fin is normally splayed, fork length from the head tip to the fork in the tail fin (used mostly in fisheries biology), and standard length, from the anteriormost part of the snout (even when the lower jaw projects) to the end of the hypural plate. Standard length is used in taxonomic studies because tail fins can easily be broken off when preserved in alcohol. Standard length can be difficult to measure. The end of the hypural plate is obscured by scales, flesh and caudal rays. Its position is determined by flexing the caudal fin; this flexure is taken to be the end of the hypural plate. Small fish have thin, delicate bones and the flexure may be at the anterior base of the hypural plate, at the origin of the caudal fin rays that articulate with and overlap the end of the hypural plate, or even between the last whole vertebra and the hypural plate. Large fish have a broad flexure that can give a variety of measurements by independent observers. Fortunately, in this study, most fish were comparatively small and strong illumination helped to discern the end of the hypural plate. For larger fish, an attempt at consistency was made.

14 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

ENVIRONMENT Introduction The fresh waters of Iraq are contained in a single basin, the Tigris-Euphrates, shared with Turkey, Syria and Iran, occupying 915,000 sq km. Much of Iraq is, however, desert or semi-desert extending from the Euphrates to the borders of Syria, Jordan and Saudi Arabia, at ca. 57% of the land surface. The basin comprises two main rivers, the Tigris to the east and the Euphrates to the west. The headwater catchment for the Euphrates lies in Turkey near Lake Van at an altitude of about 4500 m and the river runs for about 2700-3000 km through Turkey, Syria and Iraq. Its maximum average annual volume at Hit, Iraq is 35.9 billion cu m. The sources for the Tigris are distributed through Turkey, Iran and Iraq. Its main source is Hazar Lake in Turkey at 1150 m and it runs for 18402032 km. Its maximum average annual volume at Baghdad is 70.4 billion cu m. Only the Tigris River has significant tributary rivers within Iraq from the Zagros Mountains to the east. The lowlands of Iraq, known as Mesopotamia, the land between the rivers, have extensive marsh and lake habitats dating from the Middle PliocThe fresh waters of Iraq comprise about 700,000-750,000 ha of which 44% is marshes, 39% is natural lakes, 13.3% is dams and reservoirs, and 3.7% is rivers. The large marsh and lake areas are occasioned by the flat landscape that has a fall of 4 cm/km over the lower 300 km of the Euphrates and 8 cm/km along the Tigris. The alluvial delta of the Euphrates near Hit, Iraq is 735 km from the Gulf but only 53 m above sea level. The Tigris and Euphrates meander across the plain and end up partly as an inland delta. Spring snowmelt causes extensive flooding on the plains and is critical to the ecology of the marshlands centred on the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in southern Iraq.

Climate Iraq is semi-arid overall and is one of the hottest countries in the world. It has three climatic types - warm, temperate and rainy with a dry summer, a small area in the north; a dry, hot desert in the west; and a dry, hot steppe covering the central and southern parts. Extremes of temperature are not uncommon, reaching a low below -10ºC with a high above 50ºC in Mosul in the north, while even Basrah in the warmer south has recorded -5ºC. The mean daily temperature for Mosul ranges from 6.9ºC in January to 33.9ºC in July; for Basrah 12.2ºC and 33.9ºC. For 10 stations across Iraq, the mean maximum temperature was over 42ºC for July and August. Evaporation from surface water bodies is therefore tremendous. The hottest months from June to September are essentially rainless. Most rain falls in winter and spring and is relatively slight with a mean annual total less than 250 mm. The annual total in a very small area of the north-

Introduction 15

east in the mountains is about 700 mm but in the southwest, it is less than 100 mm. Much of central Iraq lies between the 100 and 300 mm mean annual rainfall isohyets and so lies outside the 400 mm minimum for dry farming. Irrigation farming is dependent on water from the main rivers with consequent effects on the fish fauna. Snow is an important factor in filling the rivers and marshes with water in spring and there are heavy snowfalls in the Zagros Mountains (some of which lie in Iran). The annual water regime of the Tigris-Euphrates has, therefore, two periods based on climate, the winter-spring flood period (December-July) and the summer-autumn low-water period (August-November). Even though Iraq contains large water bodies compared to other countries in the Middle East, arid and semi-arid weather prevails.

Water Bodies The Tigris-Euphrates basin is the largest and most important river system between the Nile and the Indus. The southern marshes have received much attention and are dealt with separately below, as are some studies of pollution as examples. The marshes have names in English including words such as “hawr” or “hor” from the Arabic for marsh or lake. In the English version of this book, these terms are replaced by marsh, e.g. Hawr al Hammar becomes Hammar Marsh, as this is more readily understandable. Similarly “shatt” means a river, stream or distributary in Arabic and appears as part of the name in such water bodies as Shatt al Arab. In this case, understanding is enhanced by adding River to this name, although it is a tautology. “Khawr”, “khowr” and “khor” all mean a tidal inlet, channel, tidal creek, bay or estuary, usually the former in Iraq. In this book, it is given as inlet, e.g. Khawr az Zubayr or Khor al-Zubair becomes Zubayr Inlet. The Euphrates does not receive any tributaries within Iraq apart from seasonal runoff from wadis. The Tigris has four main tributaries from the Zagros Mountains, the Khabour (not the Khabour or Khabur of Syria, tributary to the Euphrates just north of the border with Iraq), the Great or Greater Zab (from Turkey, regulated by the Bakhma Dam, with 62% of its 25,810 sq km basin in Iraq and with 13.18 cu km at its Tigris confluence), the Little or Lesser Zab which drains a small stretch of mountains south of Lake Orumiyeh in Iran (74% of the 21,475 sq km basin is in Iraq, generates 7.17 cu km, of which 5.07 cu km is the safe yield after the Dukan Dam), and the Diyala which drains the western mountains of Kordestan (75% of 31,896 sq km in Iraq, 5.74 cu km at the Tigris confluence, the Derbendikhan Dam is on this river). There is also the Al-Adhaim (or Al-Authaim or Nahr al Uzaym), a seasonal river rising in northern Iraq, draining 13,000 sq km and generating 0.79 cu km at its confluence with the Tigris, the Nahr at Tib, Dewarege (Doveyrich in Iran) and Shehabi rivers draining 8000 sq km and delivering about 1 cu km of highly saline water, and the Al-Karkha (Karkheh in Iran) draining 46,000 sq km and bringing 6.3 cu km into the Hawizah Marsh during the flood season and into the Tigris in the dry season. A variety of dams have been built in Iraq for flood

16 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

control, irrigation or power generation. These provide additional lacustrine habitats for fishes as do the irrigation canals too, to some extent. The barrage at Ramadi across the Euphrates had a fish ladder, as did those at Kut and Samarra on the Tigris although these were apparently not very effective. The Haditha Dam on the Euphrates River had no fish pass and fish accumulated at its base; these were caught with explosives in the past. The Tigris regime fluctuates much more than the Euphrates as the latter receives its water from more distant sources, rainfall being different too. The minimum-recorded flow of the Tigris at Baghdad was 158 cu m/sec but the maximum was 13,000 cu m/ sec (181-5200 cu m/sec for the Euphrates at Hit). Snowmelt in March-May causes the high floods and then the rivers start to fall in June, reaching their lowest levels in September-October. The Tigris is a swifter river than the Euphrates with a more complex regime because of its tributaries. The Tigris in flood may discharge twice as much water per second as the Euphrates. The Tigris flood may peak a month or more before the Euphrates and the highest flood was 9 m in 1954. The Tigris south of Baghdad can be up to 17 m deep but generally both the Tigris and Euphrates are comparatively shallow rivers, about 2-5 m deep. The Zagros Mountains form the eastern flank of Iraq and store water as snow. The higher peaks are snow-capped even in summer. Zard Kuh in Iran for example, reaches 4548 m. Rivers drain south and west to become tributaries of the Tigris River in Iraq or its confluence with the Euphrates River, the Shatt al Arab River (known as the Arvand (= swift) Rud in Iran). The Shatt al Arab River has a course variously given as 195 to 204 km to the head of the Arabian Gulf, is 250-2250 m wide and up to 24 m deep, and is navigable by ocean-going ships. It forms part of the Iran-Iraq border. The origin of the Tigris River is the Hazar Gölü (= Lake) of Elazig (38°41’N, 39°14’E) between the Murat Nehri and the Euphrates. It flows southeast, forming a short section of the border of Syria with Turkey, before entering Iraq to parallel, roughly, the course of the Euphrates River. It is a larger and swifter river than the Euphrates because of its left bank tributaries from Iran. The Tigris is over 1900 km long (1840 km and 2032 km are extremes cited in the literature). It is the 81st river in size in the world. The Tigris-Euphrates basin encompasses 884,000 sq km of which 27% or 238,500 sq km lies in Iran; note that these figure vary widely between sources and Iran’s contribution may be as low as 19%. The Tigris catchment is 166,155 sq km. It is an alkaline river (pH 7.8-8.2) with a total hardness of 200-350 mg/l. Water temperatures range from 8.5°C in January to 31.4°C in August. The flow pattern of the Tigris and its tributaries has a sharp peak in April at about 9 billion cu m, falling rapidly to about 1 billion cu m from September to October before beginning to rise again. While the St. Lawrence River in Canada has a 1:2 ratio between low and high water, the Tigris has a 1:80 ratio. The water level may fall by as much as 2 m over the summer. Inter-annual variations in spring flood levels are marked. The main river of Iranian Khuzestan on the southern border with Iraq is the Karun, with a catchment of 67,340 sq km, a length of 820 km and a mean annual flow into the Shatt al Arab River of 24.7 cu km. It now drains to the Shatt al Arab River but once

Introduction 17

drained directly into the Arabian Gulf. Its discharge is comparable to the Euphrates and its contribution to the discharge of the Shatt al Arab River is about 52%. Its sediment contribution is also significant as much of it is deposited in the Shatt al Arab River. The annual suspended load of the Shatt al Arab River north of the Karun entrance is 0.22 million tons and 20 million tons downstream of the confluence. The combined TigrisEuphrates-Karun in flood carries five times the load of the Nile. The Zagros Mountains consist of tightly packed ranges in the Tigris basin trending north-west to southeast. A trellis drainage pattern is imposed on this. Tangs or deep defiles may exceed 2400 m in depth with vertical walls of 300 m splitting anticlinal mountain ranges instead of taking apparently easier routes around their ends. They may well be barriers to the movement of less vagile fish species or a highway into the interior for those with some dispersal ability. Tangs formed because an antecedent drainage over lower relief was gradually uplifted at a rate slow enough to permit streams to cut through ridges and retain the original pattern of drainage once the softer material washed out of the valleys between the anticlines. The uppermost parts of the basin show evidence of headwater captures and this orogenic zone is very unstable. The divide between endo- and exo-rheic basins is not the snowline of the Zagros but is east of it, so streams must first cross the Zagros peaks to start on their journey to the Arabian Gulf. Springs are important in the mountains, tapping aquifers and helping to maintain river flow. Serchinar Spring near Sulaimaniyah has mean temperature of 17.7ºC with a fluctuation of only 1Cº, pH 7.3, low turbidity, hard water and fish kills in late summer through oxygen depletion. Thermal springs are rare.

The Marshes The devastation of the southern marshes of Iraq (al ahwar in Arabic) as an ethno-political weapon, with consequent deleterious effects on the fish fauna, has been widely reported and documented in both the scientific and the popular literature. There are also significant affects on the marine environment of the northern Gulf. Various proposals have been put forward to remedy the situation in whole or in part. Websites give colour satellite maps of the marshes, their desiccation and partial recovery. Some of the marshes can be seen with Google Earth but the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in particular shows colour images from satellites in their Iraqi Marshlands Observation System (IMOS) (http://imos.grid.unep.ch/) as well as numerous images of the marshes themselves, and also UNEP documents. Another point of entry to sources of information is the Marshlands Information Network (MIN) at http://jp1.estis.net/communities/min_eng/. This whole marsh area of about 17,000 sq km, is the most important wetland in the Middle East and one of the top ten in the world. The Central and Hammar marshes in Iraq by 2001 have had 97% and 94% of their land converted into bare ground and salt crusts. Less than one-third of the Hawizah Marsh survived. It was estimated in the 1990s that the marsh area would be a desert within a decade and this seems to have been an accurate

18 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

assessment. The effects on the fishes in Iraq are unknown but much habitat was lost which could have served as a reserve against loss in Iraq through natural and man-made changes. The marshes were a complex system of channels, permanent open water (sometimes referred to as lakes), ponds (bogs), permanent and seasonal wetlands, mudflats and desert. Depending on the natural variation in flooding, these all interconnected and overflowed in complex patterns. For convenience, three main areas are recognised, the Hammar Marsh, the Central (or Qurnah) Marsh and the Hawizah Marsh. The Hammar Marsh lies mostly south of the Euphrates River, is about 120 km long and 25 km wide at its maximum, the largest water body on the lower Euphrates. The permanent marsh and open water encompassed 2800 sq km, flooding to 4500 sq km. These open waters were eutrophic and slightly brackish because of its proximity to the tidal influence of the Arabian Gulf. Maximum depth at flood is about 3 m, 1.8 m at other times. It is fed principally by the Euphrates and with overflow from Central Marshes, and drains into the Shatt al Arab River. The Central Marshes lie north of the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, north of the Euphrates and west of the Tigris. They are mostly fed by Tigris distributaries and covered 3000 sq km, flooding to 4000 sq km. Permanent lakes in the centre of the marshes were about 3 m deep. The Hawizah Marshes lie to the east of the Tigris River and cross the Iraq-Iran border, being known as the Hawr al Azim in Iran. In the west, they are fed by two main distributaries from the Tigris, the Al Musharah and Al Kahla, but may be fed directly from the Tigris at flood time. The marshes are also fed by the Karkheh River from Iran. They encompass an area of at least 3000 sq km, 5000 sq km in flood. The northern and central parts of the marshes are permanent but the southern sections are more seasonal. Large and permanent open waters are up to 6 m deep. The marshes drain to the Shatt al Arab River via the Al Swaib River. The permanent marshes are dominated by such emergent plants as common reed, Phragmites australis., with reed mace, Typha domingensis, and such floating plants as hornwort, Ceratophyllum demersum, eelgrass, Vallisneria spiralis, pondweed, Potamogeton crispus and P. nodosus, stonewort, Chara sp., water lilies Nymphaea indica and N. alba, duckweed Lemna gibba, and other plants. Various piscivorous birds (Dalmatian pelican, pygmy cormorant, etc.) thrive here along with a wide variety of waterfowl. The lowlands of Iraq may be inundated for more than 100 days. Early accounts of floods in Mesopotamia date back to Sumerian times almost 5000 years ago. Floods can encompass close to 100,000 sq km in Iraq and Iran at the head of the Arabian Gulf. The water level in the Tigris River can rise a at a rate of over 30 cm/h. Progressive clearing of woodland over the last 7000 years increased runoff, causing higher and more severe floods, soil erosion, increased turbidity in streams and higher sedimentation. Aridity also seems to have been a factor. Erosion is three times the world standard rate at 30 tonnes/hectare and will rise twofold over the next ten years. All these factors must have, and continue, to affect the fishes in this basin, favouring those species able to cope with these conditions. Major drainage works in southern Iraq were initially planned and undertaken to reduce salinisation resulting from irrigation agriculture and for sewage discharge. Construc-

Introduction 19

tion of the Main Outfall Drain (later called the Third River or Saddam River) began in 1953 and extended into the 1990s. The MOD runs for 565 km from just south of Baghdad to Al Nasiriyah on the plain between the Tigris and Euphrates. It then passes under the Euphrates in siphon pipes, passes around most of the Hammar Marsh but cutting through its southeastern section in a raised embankment, and then joins the Shatt al Basrah Canal that drains to the Zubayr Inlet, an arm of the Arabian Gulf. The physico-chemical conditions in the northern part of the Main Outfall Drain were found to be within acceptable levels for fish. The southern Main Outfall Drain is close to marine waters in its hydrochemical characteristics but is naturally affected by the competing influence of upstream fresh waters from the Hammar Marsh and downstream saline waters of the Zubayr Inlet. The emphasis shifted from irrigation drainage to marsh drainage as a means to reclaim land and later to eliminate the marshes as a refuge for government opponents. A dam was built near the siphons to divert Euphrates water into the Main Outfall Drain and an embankment was built to prevent overflow of the Central Marsh into the Hammar Marsh. This led to the drying of the Hammar Marsh, especially since the Ataturk Dam in Turkey had already reduced the flow of the Euphrates. Additionally, the Al Qadisiyah River was constructed in 1993, diverting the water from the Shatt al Atshan, a branch of the Euphrates into the Al Sulaybiyat depression where the water evaporates. Other major water diversions include the Mother of Battles River (Umm al-Maarik) completed in 1994 which runs from near the MOD siphons, parallels the MOD for 108 km and discharges into the embanked southeast Hammar Lake and the Fidelity to the Leader River (Wafaa lil-Qaid) which is 90 km long and carries water from the MOD to the south of Basrah. The eastern Central Marshes had partially dried in 1990 because of construction of causeways built for transport in the Iran-Iraq War. The distributaries from the Tigris were captured by a 1-2 km wide west-east canal along the northern border of the marshes. This canal then joins the Prosperity River (Nahr al-Izz), 50 km long and 2 km wide running north to south to discharge into the Euphrates near its confluence with the Tigris. The two canals block recharge of the Central Marshes and the Medina Dam on the Euphrates west of its junction with the Prosperity River blocked any backflow into the marshes. Another river, the Crown of Battles (Tajj al-Maarik) to the north diverted Tigris River water from the Central Marsh to the Hawizah Marsh. Both the Hammar and Central marshes were divided into polders and diked, and canals were built to dry and drain them more quickly. The Hawizah Marsh was less affected but even there distributaries form the Tigris were canalised such that they discharged deep in the marshes and the northwestern shores dried out. The Aybas Canal desiccated the southern Hawizah Marsh by re-directing water from the marsh into the Shatt al Arab River near the Tigris-Euphrates confluence. Canals and polders have been constructed to drain the marshes and facilitate evaporation. Iran has a large dam on the Karkheh River that began to fill in 2000 and will be used for irrigation. This further reduces flow into the Hawizah Marsh and irrigation return water may well be salty and of poor quality.

20 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

The Karkheh River of Iran is 320 km long, but is lost in the Hawr al Azim marshes of the Tigris after draining 43,000 sq km. These marshes straddle the Iran-Iraq border and are called Hawizah in Iraq. The Karkheh flow was depleted by 70% in 2001 during a drought and it was thought that this river might dry completely. The marshes along the Karkheh River, with oxbow lakes and riverine forest, are a habitat now rare in southern Iran and Iraq outside protected areas. The Karkheh Dam, 20 km northwest of Andimeshk, has a crest 3030 m long, a height of 127 m and is the sixth largest dam in the world with a capacity of 7.8 billion cu m, nearly a third of the total dam capacity for Iran. The dam is meant to produce electricity, for fish farming and to control floods and drought The Karkheh Dam is planned to carry water via pipeline over land (330 km in length) and under the sea (210 km) to Kuwait. The supply rate would be 200 million gallons per day or 300 million cu m. A dam has been built by Iran across the Hawizah Marsh to retain water on the border with Iraq. All these factors have obvious consequences for the marshes shared with Iraq. Almost 5800 sq km of marshes in 1970 shrank to about 500 sq km in 2002 but by August 2005, the area was back up to 2200 sq km, although this flooded area was not fully recovered ecologically. A progress report on recovery in 2006 was generally positive but warned that two years of good-quality water entering the marshes resulting from snow-pack melt in Turkey and Iran may not obtain in the future and restoration may only be partial. The marsh extent was 8926 sq km in 1973-1976 (extending to 20,000 sq km during flood season) reduced to 1297 sq km by 2000. The Central Marshes were completely devastated with 97% of the land dried up, the Hammar Marsh was 94% bare land but the Hawizah Marsh retained somewhat less than a third of its former size. This last area did better because it is fed by the Karkheh River from Iran. The marshes used to account for 60% of Iraq’s inland water fish catch. The commercial catch in the Hawizah Marsh in April 2005 was dominated by khishni Liza abu, himri Barbus luteus, bunni B. sharpeyi and Carassius carassius (presumably goldfish, C. auratus). The number of fish species in the marshes, during the beginnings of recovery, was 27-36% of historic surveys although not all the smaller species were probably captured nor were rarer marine entrants found. Barbus sharpeyi was at only 30-40% of historic body lengths and Carassius carassius (probably C. auratus) introduced from Iran formed up to 46% of captures. Jirri, Silurus triostegus, comprised up to 60% of the catch and, as a scaleless species, is not eaten by the local Shi’a. The dominance of this predator is due to prolonged marsh drying and an absence of algae and aquatic plants on which Barbus spp. fed. The increase in this species is also attributed to a loss in predators such as otters and aquatic birds and the abundance of smaller fishes as food. The Hammar Marsh had 72% of the historic number of fish species according to a study in 2006. The east Hammar Marsh is under tidal influence from the Shatt al Arab River and in April 2005 had a salinity of 2.4-2.6‰, slightly higher compared to previous records. In February 1978, salinities less than 1.0‰ were found in the marshes and Shatt al Arab River, slightly exceeding 1.0‰ at depth and only attaining a salinity of 29.5‰ at sea

Introduction 21

under a freshwater plume with 0.72‰ This was at a time of increased freshwater flow in winter. Marsh and Shatt al Arab River pH was7.7-8.5 and dissolved oxygen ranged from 3.8-7.0 mg/l. The Al-Khafigiea or Susangerd Marsh at 31°45’N, 47°55’E are northwest of Ahvaz near the Iraqi border and form the extreme eastern edge of the Hawr al Azim marshes, most of which lies in Iraq. The marshes occupy about 30,000 ha and are made up of permanent and seasonal fresh and brackish marshes, and seasonally flooded arable land. The marshes are on the floodplain of the Karkheh River. Irrigation projects, grazing by livestock, reed cutting and fishing all occur here. Parts of the marsh were damaged by the Iran-Iraq War. The Iran-Iraq marshes declined in area from 1089 sq km to 758 sq km from 2000 to 2002 and were predicted to dry up in 5 years from 2002 because of the Karkheh Dam. Reports conflict since once the dam was full, a relatively normal flow regime would help maintain the marshes. The lower Mesopotamian Plain narrows towards the Arabian Gulf to less than 45 km wide occasioned by the large alluvial fan of Wadi Batin and the Al Dibdibah plain from the west and the Karkheh and Karun rivers from the east with their heavy silt loads. This prevents the Tigris and Euphrates from flowing directly to the sea and they deposit their sediment inland to form the marshes. However, the flow of the Karun has been regulated recently and its discharge and sediment contribution has been reduced significantly. As lowlands at the head of the Arabian Gulf receive waters from this vast drainage basin, floods occur, increasing the depth and extent of marshes. Floods occur in late winter and spring from increased rainfall and snowmelt. Floodwaters may increase depths by 1.0-1.5 m, with 2.0-3.5 m in more permanent basins. Marsh temperatures generally range from 15°C in January to 31°C in August and fish may retreat to deeper areas or move upriver at the higher temperatures. The first marsh area re-flooded, Abu Zirig on the western side of the Central Marshes, had a temperature range of 11-39.9ºC in its southern sector. Flooded marshes tend to be warmer than rivers in winter. Marshes also tend to be more saline than rivers due to evaporation and agricultural runoff. The principal, larger marsh species familiar to fishermen are Acanthobrama marmid, Alburnus mossulensis, Aspius vorax, Barbus sharpeyi (a keystone species), B. grypus, B. luteus, B. xanthopterus, Carassius auratus, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinion macrostomum, Cyprinus carpio, Liza abu, and Silurus triostegus. The introduced Ctenopharyngodon idella showed some competition with native Barbus sharpeyi as juveniles with similar diets on filamentous algae, diatoms and plant. Stocking of the marshes through the USAID’s Agriculture Restoration Program for Iraq (ARDI) had plans to buy one million fish fingerlings from hatcheries in Basrah and Babil and release them in Basrah and Dhi Qar marshes. Approximately 225,000 fingerlings were released 3 July 2006 in the Hammar Marsh. Studies in the recovering Hammar Marsh in 2005-2006 showed a fauna of 31 species, 14 native freshwater fishes (including Acanthobrama lissneri, presumably a mis-identifica-

22 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

tion), 6 exotic freshwater fishes (including Carassius carassius, presumably C. auratus and Poecilia sphenops, presumably P. latipinna), and 11 species of marine origin. Resident species (present for 9-12 months) numbered 10, seasonal species (6-8 months) numbered 5 and occasional species (1-5 months) numbered 16, indicating a low diversity. The number of species was lowest in December at only 5 species and diversity increased in March-April and in July, which was the highest at 22 species. The most abundant captures in terms of individuals were Liza abu, Carassius carassius (probably C. auratus), Acanthobrama marmid, Tenualosa ilisha, Thryssa mystax (possibly T. whiteheadi), Alburnus mossulensis, Cyprinus carpio, Aspius vorax, Barbus luteus, Liza subviridis, Silurus triostegus, and Heteropneustes fossilis. Captures of ten species numbered less than 10 individuals. The Hawizah Marsh had 15 species, 12 being native and 3 exotics (none of marine origin) in the same study. Resident species numbered 9, seasonal species 3 and occasional species 3. The number of species was lowest in December at 5 species and diversity increased in March-April, in July and September, the latter two being highest at 13 species. The most abundant species in terms of individuals were Liza abu (37.1%), Barbus luteus (29.4%) and Carassius carassius (15.3%) (presumably C. auratus). The remaining species all numbered less than 5% each. The Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh had 14 species, 10 being native and 4 exotics. Resident species numbered 8, seasonal species 1 and occasional species 5. The highest number of species was found in June at 11, and the lowest in December at 6, with diversity increasing in June-August and February-April and decreasing in November-January. The most abundant species in terms of individuals were Liza abu (61.9%), Carassius carassius (19.7%) (presumably C. auratus). The remaining species all numbered less than 4% each. A theory has been advanced that the silt-laden discharge of the Tigris-EuphratesKarun rivers has built out a delta into the Arabian Gulf. The head of the Gulf would have reached Baghdad and Samarra about 7000-6000 B.P. and since then the land area is supposed to have extended some 200 km southward. The present plains would not then have been as extensive and rivers from Iran would have entered directly into the Gulf. In fact, down warping occurs under the weight of sediment. Certainly, the silt load has not built up a land surface. The coastline, under this alternate theory, has been constant since the end of the Pliocene and presumably as a marsh habitat for fishes too. However, there were advances and retreats through historic and prehistoric time. Marine clays and silts indicate a marine embayment as far inland as Amara in Iraq (31°50’N, 47°09’E) and the third millennium cities of Ur and Eridu have left cuneiform sources placing them on the sea although now they are 100 km from the head of the Arabian Gulf. Sea level changes such as the postglacial rise of 100 m and interglacial rises of 30-100 m were not taken into account. Active growth of a delta at the head of the Gulf over the last 20,000 years may only have occurred from 10,000 to 2000 B.P. and again in the last 300 years. Subsidence levels are probably not as great as postulated. Nevertheless, there were probably marshes to the north and they may have just become more available and extensive in recent centuries. The Arabian Gulf shoreline at the head of the Gulf has been affected by, and rendered difficult to interpret by, a complex of factors including confusion of

Introduction 23

marine and freshwater fossils in an estuarine environment, subsidence, eustatic sea level fluctuations, local seismic activity, climate and therefore hydrologic changes, and cultural changes such as irrigation. Grain size and pteropod distributions in the Arabian Gulf record an arid period about 9000 B.P., succeeded by a more humid period, then a period of less rainfall and then, in the late Holocene, by an increase in rainfall. Irrigation systems from the eighth century B.C. are recorded and some of the changes in the courses of rivers and canals, based on evidence of ancient settlements that were presumed to be linearly arranged along water courses. Quaternary climate changed the discharge of rivers and even how landslides created lakes. The fish fauna has evidently had to cope with a changing availability of habitat and varying human pressures through the post-glacial period. Floods and changes in river courses over this time have no doubt facilitated movement of fishes between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the various marshes.

The Shatt al Arab River The Shatt al Arab River has been studied extensively for its importance as a fish habitat, its proximity to the marshes and because of a local concentration of scientists at the University of Basrah. It is up to 500-700 m wide downstream of the Karun River, has a tidal range of 1.8 m at Basrah and is 8-15 m deep below. The Shatt al Arab River is under some tidal influence up to 110-140 km from the mouth (sources differ). Its waters are therefore strongly mineralised. Salinity varies with distance from the sea but the freshwater input from the Karun River of Iran can make even its lower reaches fairly fresh, around 5‰. The salinity situation is complicated by the input of agricultural runoff from upriver which is often salinised, by precipitation regimes far away in the mountains of Iran and Turkey (snow melt April to June, least flow September to November), local seasonal rainfall (December to March), by withdrawal or withholding of water for industry, irrigation and power generation in all the upriver dams, by seasonal evaporation from open water bodies, and by recent changes in flow patterns associated with the draining of the southern marshes. Nutrient salts increase towards the mouth. Water temperature, transparency and salinity correlate positively with number of species and individuals. A total of 44 species in 23 families were found in one survey. The estuary is an important nursery and feeding ground for marine species (some of which enter fresh water) as turbidity provides a measure of protection from predators and detritus serves as food. The intertidal mudflats of the estuary have a fish assemblage of 34 species that shows seasonal fluctuations as salinity varies with the flood regime. Salinity at Fao fell as low as 0.7‰ and the mouth of the estuary to 0.9‰, with such freshwater fishes as Cyprinus carpio being abundant, and Silurus triostegus, Barbus xanthopterus, B. sharpeyi, B. kersin, Acanthobrama marmid, Garra variabilis and Liza abu being present. Most fish were resident euryhaline or marine species, represented by juveniles, or the anadromous Tenualosa ilisha on its way to spawn in fresh water.

24 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

It is an important source of nutrients for the Arabian Gulf and for the production of fishes there. Crops are irrigated by means of the tidal rise that is used to push fresh water into the fields. This has obvious effects for the fish fauna and its composition as well as for increased salinisation of habitats. There are appreciable diurnal and seasonal fluctuations in physico-chemical conditions. The Shatt al Arab River has temperatures of 32°C in August and 10°C in January but there is little or no vertical stratification. Tidal waters probably penetrated far inland through the Holocene as evidenced by faunal remains in boreholes of the Hammar Formation. The composition of the fish fauna in the Shatt al Arab River at Basrah was examined in two studies although different areas were sampled for these two studies, the later study being on side channels. In 1982-1983, five species formed 44% of the total specimens collected out of 33 species. These were Nematolosa nasus, Gambusia holbrooki, Liza abu, Acanthopagrus latus and Heteropneustes fossilis. Seasonal variations occurred in the number of individuals and species. In 1992 and 1993, six freshwater species formed 96% of the assemblage of small fishes (25 species in 13 families). Acanthobrama marmid was dominant (70.8%) with Liza abu, Aphanius dispar, Alburnus mossulensis, Barbus luteus and Garra rufa constituting 7.5, 5.2, 4.4, 4.3 and 4.1% respectively of total fish captured. Seven marine species made up 2.1% of the assemblage. An increase in the Tigris River discharge decreased salinity in the Shatt al Arab River: previously marine species were common at Basrah in Iraq but they became rare, Carassius auratus appeared in Basrah fish market and Cyprinus carpio was caught in large numbers down to the estuary. Another study was of the fish community in the Al-Khandak branch of the Shatt al Arab River, which passes through Basrah, and receives large amounts of domestic sewage. Three major fish groups were found (Aspius vorax and Tenualosa ilisha), (Liza abu and L. carinata (= klunzingeri) and (Alburnus mossulensis, Acanthobrama marmid, Cyprinus carpio and Aphanius dispar). Another group, consisting of Barbus luteus and Garra rufa, tended to switch from one group to another according to the pollution and environmental conditions, as did some members of other groups. The Al-Khandak branch is now barren of fish (observation by S. Hussein, 14 November 2006). The fish assemblage in the upper reaches of the Shatt al Arab River showed a decline in biodiversity over three periods, 1982-1983, 1992-1993 and 2003-2004. In the first period, five species comprised 44% of the population, of which Nematolosa nasus was 13.3%, Gambusia holbrooki 8.6%, Acanthopagrus latus 8.2% and Heteropneustes fossilis 5.7%. Note that Gambusia and Heteropneustes are exotics and not part of natural fauna and the two other species are marine ones. In the second period Acanthobrama marmid, a native freshwater species, dominated at 70.7%. Barbus species almost disappeared because of sensitivity to pollution. In the third period, four species comprised 97.7% of the catch, namely Liza abu (58.0%), Tenualosa ilisha (19.4%), Carassius carassius (sic, probably C. auratus) (10.5%) and Liza carinata (9.8%). Liza abu is a native freshwater fish that is tolerant of high temperatures and salinities and Tenualosa and L. carinata are marine species tolerant of pollution and varying conditions. The northern Shatt is an important nursery for freshwater species such as Alburnus mossulensis, Cyprinus carpio, Barbus sharpeyi, B. luteus, Aspius vorax and Liza abu as well as

Introduction 25

Tenualosa ilisha and Hemiramphus sp. The side branches have a richer fauna of eggs and larvae than the main channel due to the higher density of aquatic plants and the weaker current. The Shatt al Arab River was the sole waterway connecting Iraqi fresh waters with the Arabian Gulf. The Shatt al Basrah Canal was constructed in 1983 between the Euphrates River, after its emergence from the lower Hammar Marsh, and the Zubayr Inlet, a 40 km long marine inlet. The Shatt al Basrah Canal is 37 km long, 59 m wide and 5-7 m deep. The Zubayr Inlet has mostly a marine fauna but during February and March, flood waters released from a dam freshens the upper reaches of the inlet which then has a salinity of 2-12‰ and such species as Barbus grypus, B. luteus, B. sharpeyi, Cyprinus carpio and Silurus triostegus can be found. Freshwater species found in estuarine conditions (salinity unspecified) were Liza abu, Heteropneustes fossilis and Alburnus capito (presumably A. mossulensis). The salinity of the Shatt al Basrah Canal varies with tidal range, level of water in the Euphrates and amount of water released by a water regulator 22 km from the Canal entrance. Three stations were sampled, one near Hammar Marsh (salinity range 1.0 to 3.5‰ from March to October), one three-quarters of the way from the marsh to the inlet (1.0 to 24.4‰ from March to November), and one at the end of the Canal near the Zubayr Inlet (14.8 to 33.0‰ from March to October). Water temperatures ranged from 10ºC in January to 33ºC in August, Secchi disc readings from 8 cm in June to 101 cm in April, pH from 7.4 in October to 9.0 in April, and total suspended solids from 1.7 g l-1 in march to 48.4 g l-1 in January. Forty-seven species were recorded. Liza viridis was the most abundant species at 59.6% of total numbers and 40.0% of total weight followed by Acanthopagrus latus at 7.08% and 10.92%. Thryssa malabarica (possibly T. whiteheadi) and Aspius vorax accounted for over 10% of total numbers but less than 3% of total weight. Barbus luteus and B. sharpeyi accounted for over 11% of total weight but less than 3% of total numbers. As expected, the more marine station near the Zubayr Inlet was dominated by marine species and the station near the Hammar Marsh by freshwater species and euryhaline marine species. Of 15 species designated as freshwater fishes, 14 were captured at station 1, nine at station 2 and 5 at station 3; these latter being Aspius vorax, Barbus luteus, Alburnus orontis (= A. mossulensis), Liza abu and Heteropneustes fossilis. A side channel of the Zubayr Inlet was investigated as a site for fish culture but was found unsuitable because of a reducing environment.

Canals, Dams and Lakes Canals, and other irrigation structures, have long been a feature of the Mesopotamian plains, forming habitats for fishes dating back thousands of years. Their loss through natural and man-made disasters must have affected fish populations but sufficient natural habitat remained to ensure survival. A network of canals existed in the Abbasid period ca. 850-1000 A.D., irrigating dry areas and draining areas liable to flood. The Hindiyah barrage was completed in 1913 and diverted Euphrates River water into reconstructed irrigation canals that dated back

26 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

to mediaeval and ancient times. The natural system of water distribution in Iraq was first changed significantly in modern times by construction of the Ramadi barrage in 1951. This diverted water from the Euphrates into the Habbaniyah depression (Habbaniyah Lake) and, with excess flow, into the Abu Dibbis and Bahr al Milh depressions forming brackish Lake Razzazah. Lake Habbaniyah had an important commercial fishery, and Razzazah is also currently used for fishing and was the site for introduction of mullets and the sparid Acanthopagrus latus from the Zubayr Inlet and Abdullah Inlet. The mullets were less successful than the sparid. The salinity of Lake Razzazah precludes spawning of some fish species. Abu Dibbis was twice a brackish lake in the Quaternary but dried out with increasing aridity. The Samarra barrage constructed on the Tigris in 1954 diverted floods into the Tharthar depression to protect Baghdad. Tharthar Lake is 50 m below the level of the main rivers and 4 m below mean sea level. The early 1960s saw the construction of the Dukan Dam (270 sq km) on the Little Zab River and the Derbendikhan Dam (140 sq km) on the Diyala River, both about 75-85 m deep. There are at least 26 planned and operational dams and barrages of some size in Iraq. These lakes and dams now support fish faunas. The Dukan Dam is considered a principal source for fish in northern Iraq. At high water, the reservoir covers 270 sq km and at low water 48 sq km. Surface water temperatures had a range of 24-30ºC and the lake was thermally stratified. Fifteen fish species were recorded from the reservoir. Habbaniyah Lake has an area 184-426 sq km with a maximum depth of 13 m, Tharthar Lake 1875-2223 sq km, maximum depth 68.4 m and Razzazah Lake 1050-1700 sq km, maximum depth 17 m. The lake and dam areas and levels oscillate through spring inflows, evaporation in summer, irrigation requirements and power generation for the dams. The lowest levels are in fall and early winter. Dukan, Derbendikhan and Tharthar are monomictic with high water visibility in the 5-9 m range. Lack of thermal and oxygen stratification occurred only in the shallow Habbaniyah and Razzazah lakes. Salinity in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah was 0.2‰, 2‰ and 11‰ respectively, the last lake having no outlet and receiving accumulated salinisation products from irrigation agriculture. The only fish available to fishermen in Razzazah Lake in 2008 was shanak (Acanthopagrus latus) as freshwater input had been diverted for irrigation, increasing salinity. Benthivorous fish had the most suitable conditions in terms of macrozoobenthos density in Razzazah followed by Habbaniyah and Tharthar. Epiphytic fauna is an important fish food and may be more important than zoobenthos in some instances.

Upriver Dams The water supply of Iraq is heavily dependent on sources lying outside that country. A variety of popular and scientific articles has been published on these water resources and the potential for conflict between the countries harbouring or relying on the water. Agriculture in Iraq depends on the water of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and hydraulic irrigation has been practiced for at least 6000 years. These water diversion schemes have had

Introduction 27

effects on the fish fauna but in the past, there was usually enough water to make the main rivers refuges for fishes at the height of the dry season. However, in the mid-1960s, Turkey began construction of a series of dams, as did Syria in the 1970s. Initially, dam construction had little effect on Iraq but later dams extracted 45% of the pre-1974 flow of the Euphrates into Iraq when Iraq itself had higher demands for its own irrigation. A further complication is the water quality; Iraq has salinisation problems and upriver irrigation will only add to this. Some transfer of Tigris River water via the Tharthar basin helps ameliorate the problem as this is better quality water. The water in the Euphrates River is 88% controlled by Turkey, 9% by Syria and only 3% by Iraq. For the Tigris River, Turkey controls 56%, Iran 12% and Iraq 32%. Flows into Iraq in 2005 were about a third to half what they were 12 years ago. The Southeast Anatolia Project (known as GAP after its Turkish acronym) incorporates 21 dams and 19 hydroelectric facilities including the massive Ataturk Dam on the Euphrates completed in 1993. It plans to draw off one-third of the waters originating in Turkey and it will also use water from the Tigris. The reduction in flow for Iraq may reach 60-90% (sources vary on the amount), especially when water is taken from the Euphrates or ath-Thawrah Dam (its reservoir is Lake Assad) at Tabqa in Syria. This will have major downstream effects and flow into the Shatt al Arab River shared between Iran and Iraq will be greatly decreased, perhaps allowing greater penetration of saline water and restricting migrations of fishes. The discharge regime of the Euphrates River at Hit-Husabia in Iraq for 1937-1973, before construction of large upriver dams, showed a peak in May of 2594 cu m/sec and a low in September at 272 cu m/sec. For the period 1974-1998, the flow had evened out with a range of 575-841 cu m/sec. The spring floodwaters, essential to the marshes and the significant factor in the reproductive life of the fishes, have been eliminated. Marshes will be reduced in size and may even be eliminated. Salinisation, pollution and sediment load trapped behind dams, will all affect the fish fauna adversely.

Zoogeography Several zoogeographic studies have been carried out on the Tigris-Euphrates basin and its ichthyofauna. This basin has been placed in a Mesopotamian Transitional Region, since the boundaries of three zoogeographical regions meet here, namely the Holarctic (i.e. its Palaearctic part), Sino-Indian (= Oriental) and the African (= Ethiopian). The Mesopotamian Transitional Region includes the Tigris and Euphrates basins and the Quwayq River, Syria, forming a single Mesopotamian Province. The area is regarded as a zoogeographic crossroads. The province is transitional between the Mediterranean Subregion and the Indian Subregion. Genera such as Leuciscus, Aspius, Chondrostoma and Alburnus point to a Mediterranean or European association while such genera as Glyptothorax, Barilius, Mystus and Mastacembelus point to an Indian association. The Tigris-Euphrates or Mesopotamian basin has been regarded as a cradle for inland aquatic faunas. A proto-Euphrates collected water from the Levant and had con-

28 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

tacts with the Black and Caspian Sea drainages before the Pliocene orogeny. The upper reaches of the Tigris-Euphrates basin today lie on a plateau close to the upper reaches of the Caspian Sea basin. The basin acted as an area where African and Asian species could meet or transit. These connections were interrupted in the early Pliocene by orogeny, rifting and desert formation. Between 20 and 15 thousand years ago, the Arabian Gulf was dry as water was locked up in ice-caps and sea level was 110-120 m lower than today. The floor of the Gulf was then thought to be a generally waterless, flat depression with a few swampy tracts rather than a “Garden of Eden” as has been proposed. A marine transgression occurred between 12 to 8 thousand years ago and, by 6 thousand years ago, the present sea level was attained. Streams now isolated from the Tigris River basin by the sea in the Gulf and Hormozgan basins of Iran would have been tributary to an extended Shatt al Arab River, extending 800 km down the gulf to form an estuary at the shelf margin in the Sea of Oman, now under 110 m of sea. Earlier regressions no doubt occurred and facilitated the movement of fishes. This basin is mainly Black-Caspian sea basin in its connections, with minor links to Asia and possibly Africa. Numbers of families, genera and species shared between the Tigris-Euphrates and neighbouring basins have been summarised in an analysis. Relatively few taxa appear to have made the transition between Asia and Africa or survived subsequent climatic and habitat changes. Certain families are absent from the Tigris-Euphrates but are found in the Indus and the Nile (Notopteridae, Schilbeidae, Clariidae, Anabantidae, Channidae). These are assumed to be of Gondwanic origin and are separated today by plate tectonic movements. Only two families are shared between the three basins but are not found to the north, Bagridae and Mastacembelidae, and the relationships of the two species in Iraq in these families are with the Indus. At the generic level, some have dispersed into eastern Iran from the Indus and other eastern basins but have not reached the Tigris-Euphrates basin, presumably for reasons of time or lack of suitable environmental conditions, e.g. Aspidoparia, Crossocheilus, schizothoracines. However, two genera have reached the Tigris-Euphrates (Glyptothorax, Barilius) and Cyprinion may be related to the eastern genus Semiplotus. Barilius resembles Indus and other eastern species superficially although its relationships have not been fully worked out. Assuming that these taxa dispersed westward from the Indus and the east, the route must be determined. All but Cyprinion are absent from much of Iran, including the bagrid Mystus and the mastacembelid Mastacembelus referred to at the family level above (Mastacembelus is not found in eastern Iran and hence does not have a continuous range throughout the Orient). It is unlikely that rivers of the Tigris-Euphrates basin were once tributary to the Indus when sea levels were lower during glaciations as the Gulf of Oman descends to an abyssal plain at 3340 m. Presumably these taxa reached the Tigris-Euphrates basin across the Iranian land mass and subsequently became extinct as desiccation increased. Many of the rivers in southern and eastern Iran today are very

Introduction 29

small, regularly dry up and some are highly saline. They may be unsuitable for these taxa. Barilius, it should be noted, appears to prefer, in Asia and the Tigris-Euphrates basin, large lowland rivers and its dispersal across Iran is difficult to envisage by headwater capture (the other genera can be found in small streams at higher altitudes as well as lowland rivers). It has been suggested that fish dispersal across this region was facilitated by the coastal rivers of Iranian and Pakistani Baluchestan being part of a single river system in the Pliocene, since submerged by subsidence. The presence of Mastacembelus and Barilius in western Iranian basins is attributed to headwater capture and/or colonisation from the Tigris-Euphrates basin when Gulf rivers were tributary to an expanded Tigris-Euphrates basin during lowered sea levels in glacial times. This distribution of these genera is not, therefore, a remnant of the dispersal across Iran from Asia. At the generic level, only Garra is found from the Indus to the Nile and in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Garra has been suggested to reach the Tigris-Euphrates basin and Africa in two “waves” from Asia, the first wave being in the Miocene to the TigrisEuphrates basin, the second through southern Arabia to Africa during the Pliocene. The Garra wave hypothesis has been disputed based on anatomy and zoogeography. Garra presumably dispersed from Asia to Africa via the Tigris-Euphrates basin and the Levant. The apparent continuous distribution of Garra across southern Arabia is not borne out in systematic analyses. Garra (and Cyprinion) species of southeastern Arabia are clearly related to southern Iranian species, having crossed the Arabian Gulf when it was drained during the Pleistocene and part of an extended Tigris-Euphrates basin. Southwestern Arabian species (and a Barbus species) are a mixture of African and Levantine elements. No evidence was found in studies for the Arabian Peninsula serving as a transition area in an exchange of freshwater fishes between Asia and Africa. Nemacheilus sensu lato (Balitoridae) also has a similar wide distribution but is probably polyphyletic and requires a detailed revision to enable adequate zoogeographical analyses to be made. The systematics of loaches in the Middle East is a contentious subject. The absence of Balitoridae species from southern Arabia also argues for a dispersal route through the Tigris-Euphrates basin as these cryptic fishes are found today in many small streams throughout Southwest Asia and are unlikely to have been eliminated from southern Arabia through desiccation. The only Nile (or east African) genus present in the Tigris-Euphrates basin is Barbus. Certain members of this polyphyletic genus in Southwest Asia are characterised by sharing 6 branched anal fin rays, last unbranched dorsal fin ray a smooth spine, large scales, few gill rakers, high dorsal fin ray counts, reduced barbel numbers, compressed body, and other characters which set them apart from European Barbus as a monophyletic group, probably related to east African Barbus. These Barbus species are found from southwestern Arabia (but not southeastern Arabia), through the Levant and the Tigris-Euphrates basin to rivers at the Strait of Hormuz in Iran. They may represent an African element in the fauna of the Tigris-Euphrates. African elements in Southwest Asia are considered the oldest, of at least Miocene age.

30 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

A significant proportion of the families and genera in the Tigris-Euphrates basin are also found in the Black-Caspian sea basin. Such widespread, northern cyprinid genera as Alburnoides, Alburnus, Aspius, Chondrostoma, and Squalius reach their southern limit in the Tigris-Euphrates basin (and neighbouring Iranian basins) suggesting that they reached the Tigris-Euphrates basin from the north. The presence of Glyptothorax in the Black Sea basin is a recent event through headwater capture from the Tigris-Euphrates basin and thus far is the only example of a clearly defined Indus genus reaching the Black-Caspian seas basin. It is probably an example, in reverse, of the colonisation of the Tigris-Euphrates basin in recent times from the BlackCaspian seas basin. Headwaters of a number of Tigris-Euphrates basin rivers interdigitate with the upper reaches of Black-Caspian seas basin rivers, e.g. the Aras River of the Caspian Sea and the Kizilirmak of the Black Sea with the Euphrates near Erzurum and Sivas respectively; the Qezel Owzan of the Caspian Sea with Tigris River tributaries. Headwater capture is common in the Zagros Mountains and in Anatolia and pluvial conditions in the past would have facilitated fish dispersal. Direct connections of a proto-Euphrates with Black Sea and Caspian Sea fluviatile drainages before the Pliocene orogeny would serve to allow entry of taxa to the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Direct connections were interrupted by the early Pliocene as orogeny, rifting and desertification took hold. A review of possible routes for Barbus species into Iran and the Tigris-Euphrates basin indicated paths from the north via what is now Anatolia and east of the Caspian Sea dating from the early Oligocene. A continuous route for exchange of taxa has been possible since the upper Miocene, almost 12 million years ago. These routes have been variously available down to modern times for Barbus and other taxa as exemplified by some species being in common between the Black-Caspian seas basin while others are distinct but related at the generic level. Northern or European elements penetrated to the Tigris-Euphrates basin earlier than Asian ones, and this partially explains their prevalence. The Tigris-Euphrates basin is regarded as one of the most isolated major freshwater areas in the world. However, endemism is only at the species level and diversity is low with only about 52 primary division species in 7 families, 34 species of which are Cyprinidae (and fewer species in Iraq itself ). Scenarios for freshwater extinctions based on climate change and water withdrawal show that the combined effect of these two factors could lead to the loss of 30% of the Tigris River fish species and 54% of the Euphrates River species by the year 2070.

Pollution Pollution is an ongoing problem in Iraq as with any area heavily dependent of limited water supplies, especially when much of the available water originates from outside the country. The country has also been subject to sanctions and wars in recent decades and this disruption of civil society contributes to pollution, along with the debris of military action.

Introduction 31

As examples of pollution, the following events can be documented. The effects of tannery wastes containing sulphur compounds near Mosul were the apparent cause of a fish kill through reduction in dissolved oxygen. A proteolytic enzyme, papain, was also involved. The Tigris was polluted near Mosul from raw wastewater discharge. Bacterial pollution is recorded in the Tigris at Baghdad, and faecal pollution in the Army Canal at Baghdad and in the Diyala River. A fish kill at Mosul resulted from dairy and brewery water discharges that also caused a sudden drop in dissolved oxygen levels. Bioaccumulation of copper, cadmium, lead and zinc is reported in Barbus belayewi (= Capoeta damascina) and Barbus grypus in the Diyala River at Rustemyia, an area where municipal and industrial sewage is thrown into the river. Severe depletion of dissolved oxygen occurred in the Diyala River in summer downstream of a wastewater treatment plant although Barbus grypus, Chondrostoma regium and Heteropneustes fossilis thrived. The presence of high levels of organochlorine insecticides (formerly used in malaria control) was found in 11 species of fish from the Diyala River. The water quality in the Al-Jaysh (= Army) Canal at Baghdad, used for irrigation but also supporting a fish fauna, declined with reduction in flow rate, consequent demands in summer and a high rate of oxygen depletion. Pollution from the Gulf War, the burning of the Kuwaiti oil wells and Iraqi tankers has affected the marshes and their fishes, as well as much of southern Iraq. The Iran-Iraq War of 1980-1988 severely damaged the Hawizah Marsh in Iraq, and presumably to some extent in Iran. Bombs and shells, chemical weapons, pollution, burning of reed beds, reed cutting and armoured boats used to smash through obstructing reeds all had deleterious effects. The Iraqi shores of this marsh have been drained by dyke construction and river control presumably for military reasons in this border area. Some marsh will survive in Iran because it is fed from wholly Iranian rivers. The southern areas of this basin are areas with high temperatures and large cities (Basrah in Iraq and Abadan in Iran), exacerbated by power plants such as the Al-Najebia on the Qarmat Ali Canal with an effluent water temperature of 41ºC. Adjacent waters are highly polluted with sewage, agricultural waste and other chemicals. Mines and depleted uranium along with other substances are pollutants resulting from wars in Iraq. The increased use of motor boats has led to oil pollution. However, mercury pollution in fish was below levels considered as background except where fish had eaten treated seed dumped in rivers (levels of 25-30 mg/kg). Chloridrin, a persistent insecticide, was sold to residents of the Hawizah Marsh in Iran as a means of poisoning large numbers of fish for sale. Phytoplankton blooms are common and in canals the chlorosity increases, transparency decreases and pH is reduced because of the dying plant material. The Shatt al Arab River is more affected by physical factors, as it is an estuary. Historical problems with salinisation of soils (and presumably water) and siltation extend back 5000 years in southern Mesopotamia, a consequence of over-irrigation and inadequate drainage. However, pollution is widespread in the Shatt al Arab River from industrial, agricultural and untreated human wastes. Domestic sewage was a problem at one site while agricultural drainage affected another site adversely. Petroleum hydrocarbons were recorded from

32 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

seven fish species in the Shatt al Arab River, although levels indicated no direct danger to human health. Petroleum hydrocarbons are generally present in southern Iraqi rivers due to industrial processes and waste from loading ships. Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Shatt al Arab River estuary and in some fishes from the 1991 oil spill had relatively low levels, reflecting their hydrophobic nature, the complexities of the estuarine system and fish avoidance of oil spills. The levels did not present a hazard to human health. High nutrient levels were attributed to agricultural activities in 1979/80 and 1991/92 while in 1997/98 an increase in phosphate was thought to be due to pesticides or sewage waste. Fishes like Tenualosa ilisha, Barbus grypus and B. xanthopterus from the Shatt al Arab River, for example, frequently carried an odour of oil or of kerosene when cooked. Organochlorine pesticides are reported in fish from the Shatt al Arab River and Hammar Marsh, with higher levels of dieldrin in Tenualosa ilisha, a migratory species, which may have been exposed elsewhere. Trace elements in sediments and a wide range of commercial fish species is reported from the Shatt al Arab River and Zubayr Inlet. Concentrations were lower than at heavily polluted sites but there was no correlation with feeding habits. Zinc and copper concentrations are higher than baseline in Aphanius dispar and Gambusia holbrooki from the Shatt al Arab River and Hammar Marsh. The Shatt al Arab was polluted with PHCs and trace metals and these were found in fish muscle samples. A high concentration (12.55 μg.g-1) was noted in Liza subviridis in autumn for example. After the occupation by British soldiers, the use of nets attached to car batteries to electroshock fish within a 5 m radius became prevalent in the marshes. This yielded, exceptionally, 20 kg of fish per fisherman each day but also killed species not marketable, such as jirri (Silurus triostegus), and left their bodies to rot. Poisons such as pesticides and herbicides were used to catch birds and farmers used chemicals intended to treat lice in sheep as crop pesticides, polluting the marshes. Pesticides have also been used to catch fish in the marshes.

HISTORY OF RESEARCH Written records extend back to the third millennium B.C. in Mesopotamia, the plain shared between Iraq and Iran. A copper and bronze fishhook from Mesopotamia has been dated to 3500 B.C. The Uruk IV symbol for fish is dated to 3100 B.C. or 5050 B.P. Later cuneiform writing on clay tablets, pottery, cylinder seals, reliefs and sculptures refer to or illustrate fishes and fishing, and attempts have been made to identify the species, with variable results, and their cultural significance. About 324 Sumerian and Babylonian fish names have been identified referring to about 90 species (some of which are marine ones). Even a wind vane was in the shape of a fish, perhaps a shark or a mythological water creature. Fish played a prominent part in every day life, both as food and as religious symbols, and fish oil was used in ointments. A fermented sauce called siqqu was made from fish, shellfish and grasshoppers and was used in the kitchen and at the table.

Introduction 33

Fishing regulations had set penalties and fishing rights were leased. Guilds of fishermen existed and transport to cities with marketing was organised. Fishermen were divided into freshwater fishers, sea fishers and fishers in salt water, the latter working in tidal lagoons and the delta of the Tigris and Euphrates. Fish were sun-dried, salted, pickled, fermented and possibly smoked. Fishermen had to deliver part of their catch to the temples or as duties. Surplus fish were sold to the public. Consumption of fish was prohibited on certain days. Fishponds were used to keep a food supply available. The Babylonian Epic of Creation mentions nets and splitting fish for drying. Amulets and cylinder seals depicting fish were common. A hymn that praises Ishtar of Uruk gives the result of her favour as “whole channels are filled with fish, the channels swarm with fish and with dates”. Fish were offered as sacrifices to gods and as part of funeral rites, as symbols of life and its renewal, and of fertility. The amount of fish required was clearly stipulated and whether it should be fresh, roasted or dried. The commoner species were requested by the basketful but rarer species were requested by numbers so a practical knowledge of diversity existed in the distant past. So numerous were sacrificial offerings that at Uruk I the floor of a room or court was covered with a thick layer of fish scales and fatty waste that gave it a deep golden-yellow tinge. Some areas had layers of compacted fish, 4-5 cm thick, comprising skeletons, skin and scales, indicative that these were not kitchen wastes but were sacrifices. An Assyrian king would have 10,000 fish served at a banquet, although these were cheaper food items and the Sumerians favoured large, plant-eating carps from muddy pond bottoms. Archaeological remains containing fish bones at Abu Salabikh, Iraq, dated to 3000 B.C. have been identified to include Barbus esocinus, B. grypus, B. kersin, B. luteus, B. sharpeyi, B. xanthopterus, Aspius vorax, Acanthobrama (presumably A. marmid), Cyprinion sp., Alburnus sp., Silurus triostegus, Mystus pelusius, Mastacembelus mastacembelus, Liza abu, Acanthopagrus sp., and Tenualosa ilisha. Fishhooks and stone weights, presumed to be for nets, have been found at Jemdet Nasr and Kish from about 3500 B.C. and fish remains found at Kish were from the third millennium and attributed to a flood stratum. Fishing in Assyrian and Sumerian-Akkadian times used nets, spears, traps, weirs, and copper hooks and line, sometimes fished from boats. Contracts concerned with fish ponds date from the reign of Darius II, in 422 B.C., and with fishing in 419 B.C. Ea, the god of water dates back to Sumerian times, for which a fish-god or man-fish was a symbol, still to be seen on ancient monuments. The Arabic work Aja’ibu-l-Makhluqat or “Wonders of Creation” by Zakariya b. Muhammad b. Mahmud al-Kammuni al-Qazwini published in 1263 A.D. and later translated into Persian and enlarged in 1275, records sharks entering rivers at the head of the Arabian Gulf to Basrah on the Tigris and comments on their ferocity and their teeth like points of spears, swords or saws. Other Arabic works contain few recognisable species of freshwater fishes although the tenth century Kitab al-Tabikh (Cookery Book) from Baghdad contains some fish names such as bunni (Barbus sharpeyi) and shabbût

34 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

(Barbus grypus). The Kitab al-Tabikh also points out that the best fish to eat are river fish, mainly bizz (Barbus esocinus), particularly those from cold, stony rivers with the first quality fish being from the Tigris and the second from the Euphrates. Various recipes are given including fish skin stuffed with fish forcemeat, a fish drowned in grape juice to give its flesh a savour, and a fish cooked in a clay oven with its head free, the middle of the body wrapped in cloth and the tail in coarse cloth soaked in oil to give a fish with a roasted head, baked middle and fried tail. Scientific fish descriptions from the Middle East begin with the work of Fredrik Hasselquist (1722-1752) in his “Iter Palaestinum eller Resa til Heliga Landet Förrättad ifrån År 1749 till 1752” or “Voyage to the Holy Land Undertaken from the Year 1749 to 1752” which was published by Linnaeus in 1757 after Hasselquist “Succumbed to the fatigues and cares of the Journey”. Although this work appeared before Linnaeus’ 10th Edition and is thus rejected as far as scientific nomenclature goes, it still contains recognisable and scientific descriptions of fishes. Alexander Russell, physician to the British Factory at Aleppo (= Halab, Syria) from 1742?-1753, gave an account of four undescribed fishes from modern Syria in 1756, of which Mystus pelusius and Mastacembelus mastacembelus were later found in Iraq. The descriptions in this work are attributed to Daniel Carl Solander (1736-1782) and to Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820). Since then a number of works have appeared on Middle East fishes and although many were restricted to Syria, the Jordan River basin or drainages of Anatolian Turkey they often contain descriptions of species also found in Iraq. The most important early work on the Middle East and specifically on Iraq is that of Johann Jakob Heckel (1790-1857), Inspector at the Imperial Royal Court Collection of Natural History in Vienna. He described the collections sent by Theodor Kotschy (1813-1866) to Vienna from “Syria” which includes such places as the Quwayq (= Coic, Kueik or Kuweiq) and Orontes (= Asi) rivers near Aleppo (= Halab) in Syria and Antioch (= Antakya, Turkey), Damascus, the Jordan River, Mosul on the Tigris River and Kurdistan. The “Syrian” collections contained a number of species later found in Iraq. Of 70 taxa described from Syria (in its broad sense) and Iraq, most were new species, although all are not now recognised as valid. Some of these species, described from other countries, have since been found in Iraq. Heckel’s new species from Iraq are all from the Tigris near Mosul save one from mountain streams of Kurdistan, totaling 23 species. At the time Heckel’s descriptions came out a series of 22 volumes was being published in Paris covering all the fishes then known. This work by Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier (1769-1832) and Achille Valenciennes (1794-1865) appeared from 1828 to 1849 and was a seminal work in ichthyology, the “Histoire naturelle des poissons”. It contained new species and summaries of descriptions by other authors for a total of over 4500 fishes, including some now known from Iraq or introduced there (3 native species, see Checklist below).

Introduction 35

A similar work was undertaken by Albert Carl Ludwig Gotthilf Günther (18301914) whose “Catalogue of the Fishes of the British Museum” in 8 volumes appeared from 1859 to 1870 and contained new descriptions and reviews of earlier works with over 6840 species described and over 1680 doubtful species mentioned. New species from Iraq were Barbus subquincunciatus and Hemigarra elegans. Albert Günther also described collections and new species from Iraq presented to the Natural History Museum (formerly the British Museum (Natural History)), London. The earliest of these was the collection made by William Henry Colvill at Baghdad which Günther referred to 9 extant species in 1874, including a freshwater shark, and 2 new species, Barbus sharpeyi and Macrones colvillii (= Mystus pelusius). Barbus faoensis (= B. sharpeyi) was described from Fao (= Faw) in another paper in 1896. Henri Emile Sauvage (1844-?) described in 1882 and 1884 the fishes collected by Ernest Chantre of the Lyon Museum on a scientific expedition to Syria, upper Mesopotamia, Kurdistan and the Caucasus including Silurus chantrei from the Kura River of the Caspian Sea basin (possibly S. triostegus from Mesopotamia), and Labeobarbus euphrati from the Euphrates River in Turkey (= B. esocinus). Viktor Pietschmann (1881-1956) in charge of the fish collection at the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien (1919-1946) described Mugil pseudotelestes (= Liza abu) and Glyptothorax steindachneri (identification uncertain) from the Tigris River basin in Iraq based on materials collected on the Mesopotamian Expedition in 1910. Lev Semenovich Berg (1876-1950) was a leading Soviet physical geographer and biologist. His contributions to the ichthyology of the former U.S.S.R. and to that of the Middle East appeared in a number of shorter articles and in lengthy monographs from the late nineteenth century onwards. The shorter works are listed in the “Bibliography” and include descriptions of such new species now known from Iraq as Barilius mesopotamicus and Glyptothorax kurdistanicus. His summary work “Freshwater Fishes of the U.S.S.R. and adjacent countries” was published in 1948-1949 and in English translation in 1962-1965 and has some work of relevance to Iraq, although the taxonomy is now dated. His 1940 work on the “Zoogeography of freshwater fish of the Near East” placed that fauna in context and included Iraq but it was his 1949 work “Freshwater Fishes of Iran and adjacent countries” which has been the major modern work on Iranian fishes, with relevance to Iraq. This was based on collections deposited in the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences Zoological Institute in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg, Russia). The collections had been made by two Russian biologists. The first of these was Nikolai Alekseevich Zarudnyi (1859-1919), a zoologist and ornithologist who made four journeys to Iran. His last journey (1903-1904) included a visit to Khuzestan. The second biologist was P. V. Nestorov who worked with the Turko-Persian Demarcation Commission in 1914 and collected fishes in the Tigris basin along the present Iran-Iraq frontier. Modern studies can be viewed in the bibliography of the “Freshwater Fishes of Iraq” website at www.briancoad.com.

36 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

FISHERIES Iraq has only a small coastline on the Arabian Gulf and traditionally freshwater fishes have been the primary and preferred form of fish food. Masgouf is an Iraqi delicacy, particularly in Baghdad. Members of the carp family (Cyprinidae) are degutted, split along the back, salted and woven onto stakes over an open fire of pomegranate wood for roasting. Originally, these would have been native species but modern photographs often show Cyprinus carpio, due to a decline in availability of indigenous species in local markets. Salted and sun-dried fish hung on lines date back to Sumerian times. When required the fish was boiled in water and eaten with rice and, in modern times, boiled in tomato juice and eaten with bread or rice. Various sources give different values for catches so figures from any source should be regarded as evidence of trends rather than absolute values. The total freshwater catch was as follows: Year 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Catch (tonnes) 20,906 22,955 19,049 21,338 9101 11,730 10,122 11,794 13,884

and catches in tonnes by selected species, before the marshes were drained, were as follows: Year/Species 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974

Barbus grypus 943 660 336 747 951 1475 1338 1052 438 197

Barbus Barbus sharpeyi xanthopterus 2516 2738 2653 1809 1706 1533 4040 2634 3667 4788 7000 5797 7225 3054 6801 2439 4914 3084 4019 1703

Barbus esocinus 388 333 128 143 17 49 240 40 41 59

Other species 4301 6171 2095 76 4552 6062 4749 7736 4135 3466

Total 10,886 11,626 5798 7640 13,975 20,404 16,606 20,868 12,612 9444

Introduction 37

The Food and Agriculture Organization gives total freshwater catches as: Year 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

tonnes 17,000 16,500 16,000 15,941 15,564 16,250 21,461 20,938 20,475 15,110 22,280

Year 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

tonnes 21,808 25,026 25,555 21,549 23,919 16,611 11,513 10,123 16,100 13,900 14,700

Historically the freshwater fisheries have had a much higher yield but political disruptions and drainage of the southern marshes has severely affected the fisheries. Per capita fish supply (including marine fisheries and aquaculture) is 0.8 kg (in 2005), very low compared to 14 kg internationally. The number of licenses issued for inland water fisheries in 2001 was 15,960. Minimum net size is 50 mm stretched mesh. Fish farming licenses issued in 2001 numbered 1893, mainly in Baghdad and adjacent areas, the southern provinces being neglected in this regard, although only about 25% of 7500 ha of fish farms were operational in 2003. Catch, production and marketing of fish products is carried out by the private sector with prices set by the local market. It was estimated that 30,000 t were produced from inland freshwater fisheries as many fish were sold in small communities and not recorded for the larger markets. In addition to catches listed above for 1965, 5 t of himri (Barbus luteus) were also caught. Catfish (Silurus triostegus) are not consumed in Baghdad but some 40-50 t were exported to Lebanon. Catches by 1682 fishermen on Lake Tharthar in 1982-1983 fishing for 200 days were 1600 tons/year or about 8 kg/ha, considered a high yield. In Lake Habbaniyah the yield was probably 20 kg/ha and in Lake Razzazah about 15 kg/ha. Given the productivity of these lakes and the high yields, catches cannot be increased by increasing exploitation intensity. The Ashar wholesale fish market in Basrah handled 1557 tons per annum in the mid-1960s and in the mid-1970s the freshwater fish on sale in order of importance were Barbus sharpeyi, B. xanthopterus, B. luteus, B. grypus, Liza abu, L. dussumieri (= L. subviridis), Aspius vorax and Cyprinus carpio. Tenualosa ilisha, Stromateus niger (= Parastromateus niger), Pampus argenteus and Acanthopagrus berda led the marine fish sales. Barbus xanthopterus is the most expensive fish followed by B. sharpeyi, Pampus argenteus, Tenualosa ilisha, Cyprinus carpio and Barbus grypus. June is the month with the highest quantity of

38 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

fish received for sale. Barbus sharpeyi, B. xanthopterus, B. luteus, B. grypus, Liza abu and Aspius vorax are available year round. Barbus sharpeyi forms the largest catch at almost 320 t, followed by Tenualosa ilisha (>280 t), B. xanthopterus (230 t), B. luteus (149 t) and Liza dussumieri (= L. subviridis) at 110 t. Other species are caught at less than 80 t. Species in Iraq of commercial value in recent years are Barbus grypus, B. sharpeyi, B. xanthopterus, B. esocinus and B. luteus. Prices of fish in December 2003 were given as current (and before the war) in Iraqi dinars per kg:- Cyprinus carpio 3000 (1800), Barbus grypus, 4500 (2750), Barbus xanthopterus 4000 (2750), Barbus sharpeyi 6000 (3500), Hypophthalmichthys molitrix 2200 (1200) and Ctenopharyngodon idella 2500 (1500). Occupation soldiers in 2004-2005 sent photographs of fishes they were catching for identification. American anglers using spoons and other actively retrieved bait caught mostly Aspius vorax, a predator, with some Barbus grypus, a species also known to take fishes, as well as the large predatory Barbus esocinus. Curiously, British soldiers using passive gear such as bread bait also caught Barbus esocinus. Some of the various techniques and nets used in Iraq are as follows. Seines called karfa or garfa measured 150-225 m long and 10-14 m deep with a 4-7 cm mesh used in rivers, 60-120 m long and 4-6 m deep in lakes and marshes, and in Lake Habbaniyah 800-1200 m seines 8-9 m deep were used. Hiyala was a drift gill net used in rivers or open deep lakes, measuring 50-200 m long and 5-10 m deep with a mesh size of 5-12 cm. Tayar was a gill net 20-25 m long, 2.5-3.0 m deep with a mesh size of 6-10 cm used in shallow waters fixed to poles. Seliya, silliye or hadafi was a cast net 2-3 m wide with a 2.5 cm mesh. Sissi or sisse was a fine mesh dragnet 10-12 m long and 2 m wide used during periods of low water. Chiha was dip-net used in broad rivers and taruf a rectangular dip-net 4 m long and 2 m wide used in shallow marshes. Dissid was a small crossbow net about 1.5 m in width used in slow moving water in a canal or marsh. It was placed in a compartment half way along a reed barrier that fish followed trying to find a passage. The fish entering the net touched a stick, ringing a bell to alert the fisherman lying on a pile of floating reeds. Maddih was a longline with 200-250 hooks baited with boiled potatoes, bran and sometimes dates. Tahar was a line with ten hooks baited with meat, bilid was a line of 3-4 hooks baited with meat, and shas a line with one hook. Gargor or kerkur was a small round trap made of reeds. Felleh was a spear or pike with five barbed hooks used at low water. Kelan was a fish trap used on the Shatt al Arab River and made of the leaf stalks of date palms. Two types of kelan were used, one with a leader at right angles to the bank and one with two leaders, one parallel to the bank, the other slanting towards it at an angle. The kelan was used between November and April and rebuilt the following year. Al-zahar or zahar was a process and a poison. The seeds of a black berry called zahar were used, being ground and mixed with small balls of boiled bran. The neem tree (Azadirachta indica, family Meliaceae) is also used in poisoning, crushed parts being mixed with dough and thrown in the water. Fish eating either mixture are either killed or paralysed and float to the surface. Salvaged mines and explosives from recent

Introduction 39

wars have been used in northern Iraq for fishing although this practice is now banned and has declined. Another illegal method is to use a light at night to blind and confuse a fish that is then jabbed by a wire connected to a battery or generator, enabling the fish to be scooped up with a net. The marshes provided about 60% of the fishes eaten in Iraq. Traditionally spears were used in the marshes along with datura mixed into pellets or shrimp bait as a stupefying poison. Lamps were attached to canoes to attract fish and Liza abu would jump into boats. Cast nets were also used. Cooperative fishing ventures existed in the marshes. Seine nets were used, drift nets on rivers and long fixed stake nets. Trap nets had bells on them to advise fishermen that a large fish was in the net. Smaller pot traps, often baited, were also used. Reed islands were encircled by a net and the reeds set on fire to drive the fish into the net (al-suwaise). Diving and catching larger fish by hand from under reed islands was also effective (al-tawamees). Small areas of the marsh could be dammed by mud leaving an exit with netting and empty cans to warn the fisherman that a fish had entered the net (al-shiah). Various natural and man-made poisons have been used and even stirring up anoxic mud will poison or stifle fish and allow them to be caught. Gill nets could be several hundred metres long. They were anchored to shore and payed out from a small boat. Catches could attain 2500 kg. Gill nets had 5-7 cm meshes before the marshes were drained but in 2004, only 2-3 cm meshes were effective at catching fish. Fish are difficult to catch at flood times when they are widely spread through the marshes but were easy to catch when they concentrate to return to the rivers during the dry season or are stranded in confined water bodies. Barrier nets are used across the migration routes. Fish in the marshes and neighbouring rivers were recently divided into three types. Whitefish (not Coregonus spp., or any other taxon) are those that live in rivers and migrate seasonally to the marshes or upriver for feeding and/or reproduction, e.g. Barbus grypus, B. xanthopterus. Those that enter the marshes are not tolerant of dry season conditions and return to the rivers. Blackfish are more tolerant and do not migrate as extensively and may remain in the marshes in the dry season, e.g. Barbus sharpeyi, B. luteus. Greyfish are intermediate in their habits. The marshes were dominated in their refilling phase in 2004 by Silurus triostegus, Carassius auratus and Cyprinus carpio, the latter two species being exotics. In the Hawizah marsh, the fish catch was dominated by Barbus luteus, B. sharpeyi and Carassius auratus. Aquaculture was introduced to Iraq in the mid-1950s but only expanded significantly in the late 1970s. It is concentrated in the central part of the country. There were 105 fish farms in the late 1970s and, by the late 1990s, 1900. Aquaculture produced a mean annual production of 4000 t from 1986 to 1997, was 3400 t in 1997, 7500 t in 1998, 2183 t in 1999 and 1745 t in 2000, with the main species being predominately Cyprinus carpio, and also some Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and Ctenopharyngodon idella. Most farms are earth ponds of about 5-10 ha with productivity low at 1400-2000 kg/ha through absence of appropriate fish feed. Cage farming was tried in Lake Habbaniyah but is no longer commercially viable and is used for research. Brackish Lake Razzazah

40 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

was considered for tilapia farming and fish identified as Liza oligolepis is some sources (actually L. subviridis and L. klunzingeri) were introduced in an attempt to establish a fishery. However, Iraq was only responsible for 2% of the aquaculture production in the Near East. There were only four hatcheries in Iraq in 2005 producing fingerlings of Ctenopharyngodon idella, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and Cyprinus carpio. The fingerlings sell for $0.13-0.23 per 12-15 g unit, more than twice the cost in the United States. This high price, and widely fluctuating prices, inhibits development of aquaculture as does low quality and insufficient supply of feed. Cormorants take many fish from fish farms, up to 500 g in weight for common carp, and up to 100% losses at some ponds. Fish farms proved profitable after the American occupation, yielding a reputed and most probably exaggerated $8500 in six months from a single small pool. Pollution had made river fish less popular. Fish rustling from farms is now a problem. Various illegal methods of capturing fish have been employed, small mesh sizes, poisons and explosives, and fishing during the closed season. Nets for Tenualosa ilisha can extend across the whole Shatt al Arab River. Overfishing is common and, for example, has been reported at Tharthar Lake. Certain species are not fished as they lack scales (or have scales so small that they are perceived as scaleless) and as such are haram or forbidden to Moslems. These include the scaleless catfishes and Mastacembelus mastacembelus (finely scaled). There are also days and times when fishing is not allowed such as Fridays, three days at the end of Ramadan, reduced activity during Ramadan because of daytime fasting, three days at the Eid, and for Shi’ites during the month of Moharram. Large numbers of ornamental fishes are imported into Iraq each year (500,000 from Iran alone as well as being cultured within the country. These may well escape or be released and colonize Iraqi waters; see the account for Poecilia latipinna for example.

SCIENTIFIC NAMES The common names of fishes vary with language between countries and within a country with local usage. This problem is overcome to the scientists’ satisfaction by the scientific name, consisting of two words, the genus name and the specific or trivial name. A genus, e.g. Barbus, may contain many species but each species is a unique combination of Barbus and a specific or trivial name. This scientific name is used the world over whatever the local common name may be. It is always written in Latin script and the genus and trivial names are derived from and spelt according to rules of grammar in Latin and Classical Greek. Both these languages are “dead” so the rules and spelling are fixed and not subject to change with time as modern languages are. It is generally felt that the advantages of this system outweigh the unfamiliarity of Latin and Greek words and grammar for most people.

Introduction 41

As an example of the scientific name, we can consider Capoeta damascina. This species was first described in 1842 by Achille Valenciennes in an extensive co-authored work with Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier, who by this time was dead (see History of Research above). However, the species was described originally in the genus Gobio as Gobio damascinus and subsequent research showed that it belongs in Capoeta – the authors’ names and the date of description are placed in parentheses to show this change in genus. Gobio is masculine and Capoeta feminine so the –us ending of damascinus was changed to an –a. Note also that it is now more usual simply to cite the name of the person who described the species (as Valenciennes, 1842) since the authorship of species in many major works has been carefully attributed and on-line sources such as “Catalog of Fishes” (at www.calacademy.org/research/ology/catalog/) make searches of authorships and dates much easier. The scientific name is used to show relationships between species as noted above and can therefore be altered if views on the relationships of the species are changed, according to the “International Code of Zoological Nomenclature”. The Fourth Edition of the Code came into effect on 1 January 2000. Errors also arise in giving species scientific names and these must be corrected by name changes according to the Code. Some of the more common reasons for name changes are given below. A single species may be described twice, either by the same person or by two people. At the time of these descriptions, it was genuinely believed that there were two species but subsequent studies showed that they were the same. This error often arises with confusion between juveniles and adults and between males and females that may be quite different in appearance. Older collections from remote areas often comprised only a few specimens and could be in rather poor condition by the time they came into the hands of an ichthyologist and were described scientifically. It is also possible, where two people are concerned, that the author who published his description later was ignorant of the first author’s work. The first name published has priority and the second name is called a synonym and is no longer used. There may be several synonyms for a species. These are listed in the species descriptions. There is also the problem of misidentification of specimens. When these specimens are available for study identification can be confirmed (or amended) but often specimens are discarded or lost. These errors too may be listed in a synonymy. Friedhelm Krupp gave a synonymy for Aphanius cypris which amply illustrates how a scientific name may be mis-applied (there are 89 uses of names which all refer to one species in Krupp’s opinion). A. cypris is now thought to be correctly named A. mento. Occasionally the same name is given to two distinct species because the later author was not aware that the name had already been used. The name of the species described first is called a senior homonym and is retained while the later species name, the junior homonym, must be replaced. The genus name of a species can be changed because an ichthyologist, who has studied the species and its relatives in detail, considers that it is more closely related to another species or group of species with a distinct genus name. A case of this was discussed

42 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

above with Gobio damascinus where a new genus was used for this species. The species placed in a different genus will retain its trivial or species name unless this trivial name is already in use in the different genus. Homonymy has then occurred, and the species that has priority retains its trivial name and a replacement name must be given to the more recently described species. It is not unusual for scientists to disagree about the interpretation of the same data and a species may have a long and complex career being switched from genus to genus as publications advocate one view or another of its relationships. There is a higher classification which groups together related genera into Families, Families into Orders and Orders into Classes. The vast majority of Iraqi freshwater fishes belong to the Class Actinopterygii, the ray-finned bony fishes, with only the bull shark being in a second Class, namely Chondrichthyes or cartilaginous fishes.

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING FISHES Collecting methods and literature are summarized in Freshwater Fishes of Iran at www. briancoad.com and in Expedition Field Techniques: Fishes, Expedition Advisory Centre, Royal Geographical Society, London, 2nd Edition, 1995. Luck plays a part even in scientific collecting as discovery of new species in areas previously sampled demonstrates. Repeated visits to areas already sampled may prove rewarding. Many areas of Iraq have not been fully explored, particularly with reference to the smaller, non-commercial species. New species remain to be discovered and it is important to document them properly as explained below. Captured fishes which cannot be identified or seem unusual enough to warrant further attention should be preserved. Labeled, preserved specimens deposited in a museum are a permanent record of species identity and distribution. Some taxa present problems of identification even for experts so that misidentifications are often a nuisance if there is no material to examine. Samples from ecological or experimental studies as well as systematic and distributional works may be preserved and sent to a museum where their identity can be confirmed and where they are available to workers in the future. Major museums in a number of countries welcome exotic material to enhance the variety of their collections. Specimens should be preserved whole, without removal of the guts or gills so that no key characters are lost. Specimens may be frozen, or even salted, but the best method and the one used by scientists is to drop fish into 1 part full-strength formalin to kill the fish quickly and then immediately add 9 parts of water to form a 10% preserving solution. The fish may first be anaesthetized by various chemicals such as MS-222. Large specimens (larger than about 15 cm) should have a small slit made in the right side of the belly to allow formalin to penetrate the tissues. Ichthyologists cut the right side of the fish and leave the left side undamaged for illustration and scale counting. Hypodermic syringes are used to inject the abdominal cavity and muscle blocks of very large fish with

Introduction 43

formalin, otherwise the preservative will not penetrate all the tissues before decay sets in. This is especially important in a hot climate like that of Iraq. Syringes should have a capacity of up to 100 ml and be capable of taking needles of various sizes. Particular care should be taken when injecting formalin into tissues; the needle should be withdrawn gradually while injecting the formalin solution to avoid a sudden spurt of liquid under pressure from the injection site. Wherever possible some specimens or tissue parts should be preserved in 95+% ethanol for potential molecular studies. Modern DNA techniques may be the only way to resolve some systematic problems, as morphology has proved inadequate. If a tissue sample is taken, the whole fish should also be preserved as a voucher specimen for confirmation of identity. Formalin should be handled with care, as it is a noxious chemical that irritates the eyes and nose and is painful in skin cuts. It may be carcinogenic and repeated exposure can trigger allergic reactions in the skin. Gloves and safety glasses are useful when diluting full-strength formalin. It should only be handled in well-ventilated rooms or in the open air. In the field, care should be exercised in packing specimens for transport so that leakages do not occur. Long-term preservation in formalin is not advisable as the solution becomes acidic and rots the fish. It also wrinkles and hardens the specimens. Most museums store their specimens in alcohol for the long term. The formalin-fixed specimens are washed briefly in water and then transferred to 45% iso-propyl alcohol or preferably 70% ethanol. These chemicals are pleasanter to work with. Some care should be taken such that specimens are not twisted and bent inside the preserving container. It is difficult to make counts and measurements necessary for identification on badly deformed specimens. Each specimen or group of specimens should have at least an equal volume of preservative, as water in the fish tissues tends to dilute the preserving fluid. Specimens may be stepped through 30%, 50% and 70% ethanol solutions to reduce wrinkling and ensure a fuller penetration of alcohol into tissues and a final storage solution of at least 70% ethanol. Ethanol may be difficult to obtain in Islamic countries and undrinkable iso-propyl alcohol can be substituted.The best containers for long-term storage are made of glass with tightly sealing polypropylene lids. Plastic containers deteriorate with time and tend to crack. Metal containers and metal lids eventually rust. In the field, large plastic buckets with tightly sealed lids are less likely to break than glass containers and are not as heavy. Very large fish may require some sort of drum, such as a clean oil drum but it should be noted that formalin corrodes metal and the drums should be lined with plastic or lacquered. Museums use expensive stainless steel containers. Fluid levels in the collection should be checked regularly and alcohol concentrations maintained at the recommended values or the specimens will deteriorate. Collections should be kept in the dark to reduce fading of pigments and at a constant, cool temperature. Fish, which have been preserved for a week in formalin, more for larger fishes, or transferred to alcohol, can be sent to a museum for identification. It is usually best to enquire if the chosen museum has a resident expert first and, if not, can recommend one

44 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

that does. Glass containers full of formalin or alcohol should not be mailed because of the danger of breakage. The fish should be wrapped in cheesecloth or some other absorbent packaging, with its label, the cheesecloth dampened with preservative, and tightly sealed in several, leak-proof plastic bags before being placed in a padded box for mailing. Spiny fish should be especially well wrapped to avoid puncturing the plastic bags. A tightly sealed package retains the preservative that keeps the fish in good condition. The box may be labeled “Scientific specimens, no commercial value”. The label is as important as the fish itself. An interesting specimen is of little or no scientific value if there is no locality data. Labels should be written at the time of capture. Faulty memory and good intentions to label specimens later make a poor combination and often result in collections with no data, or worse with incorrect data. The label should bear the place of capture, such as a stream, lake, spring, etc., including a reference to the nearest town (local names may not be on maps or in gazetteers and some village names are very common), latitude and longitude (a GPS or Global Positioning System can ensure an accurate locality), province, date, name of collector, notes on the habitat and live colour of the specimens, and any other items likely to be useful. Colour photographs of fresh fish are most useful, especially if the fins are pinned erect. Pencil or India ink should be used on stout, waterproof paper that will not disintegrate in liquid. The label must be dropped in the jar with the fish. Labels on the outside of jars always fall off and lids with labels always are put on the wrong jar! In fact, the amount of information that should be usefully recorded cannot be put on a small label. Instead, extensive field sheets are used and related to the specimen or sample by a field number. The Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa has field sheets with over 70 categories which can, potentially, be filled in and some categories have as many as 30 alternatives, e.g. Category 17, Environment, includes fresh spring, cave, canal, stream/river, river-lake junction, flooded area, fresh pool, pond, lake, marsh (treeless), swamp (with trees), reservoir, ditch, etc.. As an insurance against loss of field sheets or confusion of numbers, the jar label should carry minimal locality data as well as the field number. It is essential that a collector obtain the necessary licences for scientific purposes from the appropriate authorities. Closed seasons for fishing in Iraq have been reported as 15 February to 1 May in southern areas, 1 March to 15 May in central areas and 1 April to 15 June in northern areas or as 15 February to 15 April, 1 April to 1 June, and 1 June to 1 July! Minimum legal sizes (total length) for Barbus sharpeyi are 30 cm, and for B, grypus and B. xanthopterus 45 cm. Regulations existed for commercial fishing (ca. 1965) too such as use of nets with less than 6.5 cm meshes, prohibition of use of fishing gear across a whole stretch of water, distance between nets not less than 100 m, seasonal restrictions on fishing, prohibition of fishing gattan and shabout less than 40 cm, binni less than 30 cm, carp less than 30 cm, licensing of wholesalers and retailers, and renewal of old licences and issuing new licences. However, few conservation laws, including restrictions on fishing, have been implemented or enforced.

Identification Keys 45

IDENTIFICATION KEYS The freshwater fishes of Iraq can be identified using these keys, aided by the illustrations and characters in the species. There are two keys in this work. There is a general key to families (although all major freshwater fish families are recognisable at a glance in Iraq with a little experience) and a key to genera and species. Ideally, each couplet has a series of characters that reinforce each other and allow for any loss or damage to characters. Additionally, some characters are “key” but difficult to interpret without experience, or are internal and require dissection that is not always possible. In some cases, only one character is available since it must encompass all included species below that point in the key. Since some species are difficult to identify, additional characters may be given in brackets [.....]. These additional characters are not unique to the species but, in combination, help to identify the species. Definitions of characters are given in the “Dictionary of Ichthyology” at www.briancoad.com. If used properly, a key is more accurate and less time consuming than flicking through pages of text. The disadvantage of keys is that the alternative state in each couplet is not at hand if you only have one fish to examine, and a simple error can lead you widely astray. Some recognised species have overlapping counts for obvious meristic characters, although means and modes are significantly different, and differ in other, subtler ways not readily summarised in a key. Ideally, a student of fishes should collect a series of individuals of different sizes and sexes from each locality, wherever conservation demands and practicality permits. A series of about 30-40 specimens allows for character variations dependent on sex and size, and on abnormalities, and also allows for comparative measurements and counts to be made. In addition, a more careful examination may reveal more than one species in the sample. Distribution is often an important aid in assigning samples to a species. The two species of cave fishes have a very limited distribution and some of the primarily marine species found in the Hammar Marsh are not found in more northern areas of Iraq. The most important characters for identification are the general body shape, the number, position and size of the fins, the position, shape and size of the mouth, whether teeth are obvious or not, the number of scales along the flank, and the number of rays in various fins, among others. Although colour is often a useful guide, it can also be misleading. Fish vary their colour to match their background or for spawning rituals. In

46 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

general, it is best to use several characters to identify a fish rather than relying on a single one which can easily be misleading. Large fishes can be examined for these characters using the naked eye, but various pieces of equipment are necessary for identification of smaller species or juveniles. Hand lenses are of some use in magnifying small characters but by far the best instrument is a binocular microscope that can magnify up to 50 times. Pharyngeal teeth, fin rays and scales can be counted with ease using a microscope. Attachments can be used to take photographs or project images of structures for drawing. Measurements can be taken under a microscope on small specimens to ensure accuracy, and a microscope leaves both hands free to handle the specimen and dissecting tools or calipers. Ichthyologists develop their own techniques for manipulating light sources and specimens for making structures readily visible. Two light sources are useful. One of these illuminates the surface of the fish for scale counts and observation of structures. The other bounces light off a white enamel tray into the microscope and is particularly useful for counting fin rays as the light travels through the fin enabling clear distinction of rays. Two types of forceps are very useful. A large pair (25-35 cm long) enables specimens to be taken out of a jar and sorted without immersing one’s fingers. Preservative solutions will irritate the skin and contact should be minimised; some ichthyologists wash the specimen in water before handling, but this may compromise subsequent effectiveness of preservatives. Fine plastic gloves can be worn, but some people develop allergies to latex. A very fine pair of forceps with needle-like points is used to spread folded fins to see the rays and to probe and examine other structures. Scissors are necessary for slitting the belly and these will vary in size depending on the size of the fish. Fine scissors can be useful in dissection. Very large fish may require a sharp knife or scalpel for dissection or slitting the abdomen. The slit is usually made on the right side of the fish as the left side (head to left) is used for drawings and photographs. A needle mounted on a wooden or metal handle can be used for cleaning gill arches of debris, clearing flesh from pharyngeal arches or lifting the edges of scales to help in counting them. Most commercial dissecting needles are too blunt and a fine needle can be taped on the end. Measurements are best made with calipers for accuracy. Dial or electronic calipers are available which measure to an accuracy of 0.1 mm, and are available in several lengths. Very large calipers are usually vernier calipers, but an accuracy of 0.1 mm for large specimens is not required, or even attainable. Examination of minute scales, debris encrusted gill arches or the lateral and cephalic line canals is facilitated by using compressed air delivered through a glass tube of 1 mm diameter. The air can come from a compressor or aquarium air pump, or even from a hand-squeezed bulb.

Identification Keys 47

KEY TO FAMILIES A little experience will soon make this key to families redundant as all Iraqi freshwater fish families can be recognised at a glance. The keys included are for freshwater fishes only – see the Checklist at the end of this book. Separate keys are given for families with two or more species. Only species that have definitive records for Iraq as museum material or reliable literature records are included. Key characters, e.g. fin ray counts, are restricted to the Iraqi species; family members from elsewhere may not key out here. Families with a single representative in Iraq will key out here; those with more than one species in the following Key to Genera and Species. 1a. Pelvic fins absent; body very elongate (“eel-like”); dorsal fin comprising 30-35 short, sharp spines; flexible snout tip ............................................................................... ................................................ Mastacembelidae (Mastacembelus mastacembelus)

1b. Pelvic fins present; body not very elongate; without numerous, short dorsal fin spines and flexible snout tip ................................................................................2 2a. Nostril with a single opening; lateral line in two parts, a higher one ending below the soft dorsal fin and a shorter mid-flank one beginning below it and ending at the tail base; single dorsal fin comprised of anterior spines and posterior soft rays . .......................................................................................Cichlidae (Tilapia zillii)

2b. Nostril with a double opening; lateral line continuous or absent; dorsal fin without spines or only one ...............................................................................................3 3a. Three or more pairs of barbels present; no scales or scales minute ........................4 3b. Barbels two pairs, one pair, or absent; scales present and well developed..............9

48 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

4a. Four pairs of barbels present; air sacs present, extending backwards from gill chamber ....................................................... Heteropneustidae (Heteropneustes fossilis)

4b. Three pairs of barbels present; no air sacs ............................................................5 5a. A thoracic adhesive apparatus (“sucker”) present on the belly between the pectoral fins formed from longitudinal skin folds ............................................................... ...............................................................Sisoridae e.g. Glyptothorax kurdistanicus

5b. No sucker............................................................................................................6 6a. Barbels longer than head; no scales; strong pectoral fin spine ..............................7 6b. Barbels shorter than head; scales minute or absent; no pectoral fin spine .............8 7a. Dorsal fin spineless, small and short (3-4 rays); anal fin elongate (> 69 rays) ......... ..................................................................................Siluridae (Silurus triostegus)

7b.  Dorsal fin with a strong spine, well-developed (7-8 rays); anal fin shorter (6-10 rays) ............................................................................. Bagridae (Mystus pelusius)

Identification Keys 49

8a.  Bifid, erectile spine below the eye (sometimes hidden under the skin); body and head compressed .......................................................... Cobitidae (Cobitis taenia)

8b.  No spine; body and head more rounded............Balitoridae e.g. Barbatula frenata

9a. A first dorsal fin with 4 very strong spines followed by a second dorsal fin; anal fin spines strong, 2-4 (usually 3) ............................................... Mugilidae (Liza abu)

9b.  Not as above .....................................................................................................10 10a. No teeth in mouth; no scales on top of head ......................................................... ................................................................ Cyprinidae e.g. Acanthobrama marmid

10b. Mouth with teeth; scales on top of head ............................................................11

50 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

11a. Teeth conical; anal fin in males enlarged as a copulatory organ; females without sheath around anterior anal fin rays; body slender ................................................. ............................................................................ Poeciliidae e.g. Gambusia male

11b. Teeth trifid; anal fin in males normal; females with a sheath around anterior anal fin rays; body robust.................................. Cyprinodontidae e.g. Aphanius mento

KEYS TO GENERA AND SPECIES The following keys identify species in the more speciose families and genera. Keys are arranged alphabetically by family and by genera within families.

Key to Cyprinidae The cyprinid family is the most speciose in Iraqi fresh waters. Members of the family are more easily identified first to genus and then to species. Keys are then shorter and less liable to error in use. Additional characters can be listed under each genus or species that are not unique or readily incorporated into keys but which in combination help to identify the genus or species. These additional characters are given in brackets. Monotypic genera key out to species in the generic key.

Identification Keys 51

1a. Branchiostegal membranes not attached to isthmus; eyes low on side of head, below midline; suprabranchial organ present ................................................................... .............................................. Hypophthalmichthys e.g. Hypophthalmichthys nobilis

1b. Branchiostegal membranes attached to isthmus; eyes at or above midline of head; suprabranchial organ absent ................................................................................2 2a. Serrated stiffened ray (spine-like) in the dorsal and anal fins; dorsal fin elongate (fin rays usually 15 or more); anal fin origin below dorsal fin .....................................3 2b. No serrated stiffened ray (spine-like) in the anal fin; dorsal fin short to moderately elongate (rays usually less, often 8 or 9); anal fin origin behind dorsal fin end .....4 3a. Barbels absent; pharyngeal teeth in one row ................................ Carassius auratus

gill arch

pharyngeal arch

3b. Barbels present (two pairs); pharyngeal teeth in three rows ............ Cyprinus carpio

4a. Eyes absent; body pink through lack of pigment; restricted to a cave system at Haditha...............................................................................................................5 4b. Eyes present; body pigmented; widespread ..........................................................6

52 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

5a. Barbels and mental (chin) disc present ............................. Typhlogarra widdowsoni

5b. Barbels and chin disc absent ......................................................Caecocypris basimi

6a. An adhesive disc on the underside of the head...............Garra e.g. Garra variabilis

6b. No adhesive disc .................................................................................................7 7a.  A naked (no scales) ventral keel of variable extent on the belly .............................. ........................................................................... 8 e.g. in Alburnoides bipunctatus

7b. No keel .............................................................................................................11

Identification Keys 53

8a. Belly keel extending from below pectoral fin to anal fin; pharyngeal teeth in three rows [dorsal fin with a spine; mouth almost vertical] ............Hemiculter leucisculus

8b. Belly keel from pelvic fins to anal fin; pharyngeal teeth in one or two rows .........9 9a. Pharyngeal teeth in a single row 5-5 [lateral line scales 53-72; total gill rakers 12-17; anal fin rays 13-22; last unbranched dorsal fin ray thickened as a spine] ................ ..........................................................................................Acanthobrama marmid

9b. Pharyngeal teeth in two rows usually 2,5-4,2 ....................................................10 10a. Pharyngeal teeth smooth; lateral line with a stitched pigment pattern (spots above and below the pores); total gill rakers 5-12 usually 7-10 [lateral line scales 45-89; last unbranched dorsal fin ray thickened] ..........................Alburnoides bipunctatus

10b. Pharyngeal teeth usually serrated; lateral line without a stitched pattern; total gill rakers 10 or more [last unbranched dorsal fin ray not thickened] .......................... .........................................................................Alburnus e.g. Alburnus mossulensis

54 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

11a. Barbels present ..................................................................................................12 11b. Barbels absent ...................................................................................................17 12a. Strong spine in dorsal fin, with or without teeth, usually with teeth; large fishes, maximum size from 19 to 210 cm................................ 13 e.g. in Barbus pectoralis

12b. No spine in dorsal fin, or only a weak spine without teeth and chin papillose; small fishes, maximum size 11 cm, usually much smaller ...........................................16 13a. Spine smooth ................................................................................Barbus (partim) 13b. Spine with teeth ................................................................................................14 14a. Mouth sector-shaped (an arch with a horny lower edge, u-shaped in young); barbels in one pair in Iraqi species ................................ 15 e.g. in Cyprinion macrostomum

14b. Mouth not sector-shaped; barbels in two pairs in Iraqi species ......Barbus (partim) 15a. Branched anal fin rays 6, dorsal fin branched rays 10 or more; lateral line scales 33-45 .................................................... Cyprinion e.g. in Cyprinion macrostomum

Identification Keys 55

15b. Branched anal fin rays 5; dorsal fin branched rays 9 or less; lateral line scales 60-99 (36-52 in one species) .......................................... Capoeta e.g. Capoeta damascina

16a. Anal fin branched rays 10 or more; lateral line scales 42-58; no spine in dorsal fin .......................................................................................... Barilius mesopotamicus

16b. Anal fin branched rays 5; lateral line scales 33-38; weak spine in dorsal fin............ .................................................................................. Hemigrammocapoeta elegans

17a. Lateral line scales 82-110; pharyngeal teeth 3,5-5,3 ........................... Aspius vorax

17b. Lateral line scales less than 73; pharyngeal teeth in a single row or 2,5-5,2 or 2,54,2 ....................................................................................................................18

56 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

18a. Mouth inferior with cutting edge to lower jaw; pharyngeal teeth in a single row [6-6 or 6-7] ..........................................................................Chondrostoma regium

18b. Mouth terminal or superior; pharyngeal teeth in two rows ................................19 19a. Eyes low on side of head; pharyngeal teeth with large parallel grooves; total gill rakers 15-18 .....................................................................Ctenopharyngodon idella

19b. Eyes in middle of side of head; pharyngeal teeth without large parallel grooves; total gill rakers 7-12 ........................................................Squalius e.g. Squalius cephalus

Identification Keys 57

Key to Alburnus 1a. Lateral line scales 45-58; body deep, 2.9-3.5 times in standard length ................... .................................................................................................Alburnus caeruleus

1b. Lateral line scales 60-89; body shallow, 4.0-5.1 times in standard length ............... ..............................................................................................Alburnus mossulensis

Key to Barbus 1a. Barbels absent [scales large, 29-35 in lateral line; body compressed; dorsal fin spine smooth, without denticulations] ................................................... Barbus sharpeyi

1b. Barbels present ....................................................................................................2 2a. Branched dorsal fin rays 9-11, usually 10 (9 = 7.5%, 10 = 86.9%, 11 = 5.6% for 160 fish); anal fin branched rays with strong mode at 6 (99%); lateral line scales large, 38 or less and mostly 35 or less; body compressed......................................3

58 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

2b. Branched dorsal fin rays with strong mode at 8 (97.5%); anal fin branched rays with strong mode at 5 (100%); lateral line scales medium to small, rarely large, 34-103, mostly 42 or more; body rounded in cross section...............................................4 3a.  Mouth terminal, no rounded median lobe on lower lip, usually 2 barbels (third or fourth barbels if present minute) [lateral line scales 23-31; dorsal fin spine without denticulations] ..................................................................................Barbus luteus

3b. Mouth subterminal, rounded median lobe on lower lip, 4 barbels [lateral line scales 29-38; dorsal fin spine without denticulations] ............................. Barbus kosswigi

4a. Dorsal fin spine smooth, without denticulations; scales large, 34-43 in lateral line [total gill rakers 19-22]..................................................................... Barbus grypus

4b. Dorsal fin spine with denticulations; scales medium to small, 42-103, mostly 50 or more [total gill rakers less in 5 species, overlapping in 2 species]..........................5

Identification Keys 59

5a.  Head, body and fins with large, dark spots arranged almost in a quincunx pattern [total gill rakers 10-13; lateral line scales 75-88] ...............Barbus subquincunciatus

5b. Head, body and fins without large, dark spots although speckling may be present ...........................................................................................................................6 6a. Head pike-shaped, tapering and depressed anteriorly [adults very large, reputedly over 2 m long [total gill rakers 8-12; lateral line scales 63-78] ........Barbus esocinus

6b. Head not pike-shaped .........................................................................................7 7a. Body covered with distinctive speckles [total gill rakers 5-13; lateral line scales 49-87]............................................................................................. Barbus lacerta

7b. Body not covered with distinctive speckles ..........................................................8 8a.  Total gill rakers 7-13 [lateral line scales 57-68] ....................... Barbus xanthopterus

60 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

8b. Total gill rakers 14-24 [lateral line scales 60 or less] .............................................9 9a.  Lips fleshy, often with a central lobe between lower lips [fourth major row pharyngeal tooth large and molariform; total gill rakers 14-24; lateral line scales 47-59] ......... .................................................................................................... Barbus barbulus

9b. Lips thin, no central lobe [lateral line scales 42-60] ...........................................10 10a.  Dorsal fin origin at or ahead of pelvic fins origin [fourth major row pharyngeal tooth large and molariform; total gill rakers usually 14-17; lateral line scales 42-60] ...... ....................................................................................................Barbus pectoralis

10b. Dorsal fin origin behind pelvic fins origin [fourth major row pharyngeal tooth not molariform; total gill rakers 19-23; lateral line scales 49-58]............. Barbus kersin

Identification Keys 61

Key to Capoeta 1a. Lateral line scales 52 or less (usually 48 or less) [usually 8 branched dorsal fin rays, total gill rakers 16-25] ................................................................. Capoeta aculeata

1b. Lateral line scales 60 or more ..............................................................................2 2a. Dorsal fin spine strong, longer than head length [usually 8 branched dorsal fin rays; total gill rakers 22-33; flank spotted, spots often c- or x-shaped] .....Capoeta trutta

2b. Dorsal fin spine weaker, shorter than head length [dorsal fin branched rays often 9] ..................................................................................................................3 3a. Body and head with irregular brownish to black speckles [dorsal fin branched rays modally 9; total gill rakers 18-31] ................................................ Capoeta barroisi

3b. Body without speckles, may have large dark blotches or spots [dorsal fin branched rays modally 8 or 9; total gill rakers 17-25] ..............................Capoeta damascina

62 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Key to Carassius 1a. Lateral line scales 25-34, mostly 31 or less; gill rakers 35-54, size dependent and mostly 39 or more in adults; anal fin branched rays modally 5; young never with dark spot on caudal peduncle ...................................................... Carassius auratus

1b. Lateral line scales 32-36; gill rakers 23-35, mostly 31 or less; anal fin branched rays modally 6; young usually with dark spot on caudal peduncle ........................ ............................................................................................... Carassius carassius 1

1

This species is reported from Iraq in various studies but has to be verified by specimens. Most specimens are probably C. auratus.

Identification Keys 63

Key to Cyprinion 1a. Lower jaw lip with large lateral lobes; mouth narrow (13.5-22.0% of head length) ...........................................................................................Cyprinion kais

1b. Lower jaw lip without large lateral lobes; mouth wide (22.0-27.0% of head length) ............................................................................. Cyprinion macrostomum

Key to Garra 1a.  Two pairs of barbels; dorsal fin branched rays modally 8 (87.1% for 534 fish, range 6-8); adhesive disc on lower head surface well-developed with free anterior margin ....................................................................................................... Garra rufa

64 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

1b. Usually one pair of barbels; dorsal fin branched rays modally 7 (91.5% for 59 fish, range 6-8); adhesive disc on lower head surface weakly-developed without free anterior margin .............................................................................Garra variabilis

Key to Hypophthalmichthys 1a. Abdomen with a compressed keel extending from the breast (pelvic fins) to the vent; pectoral fins short, not extending past the origin of the pelvic fins; gill rakers a continuous band uniting both sides, roots fused into a spongy mass ................... ................................................................................. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix

1b. Abdomen with a compressed keel extending from the throat to vent; pectoral fins long, extending past the origin of the pelvic fins; gill rakers free, no spongy mass .. ....................................................................................Hypophthalmichthys nobilis

Identification Keys 65

Key to Squalius 1a. Scales outlined by pigment and strongly delimited; lower jaw not projecting and not elongate; head length 24-28% standard length......................Squalius cephalus

1b. Scales not clearly outlined with pigment; lower jaw projecting and fitting into a notch in the upper jaw; head length 28-33% standard length .......Squalius lepidus

Key to Balitoridae 1a. Adipose fin between dorsal and caudal fins present; adults with a strong reticulated pattern on body and head ................................................. Paracobitis malapterura

1b. Adipose fin between dorsal and caudal fins absent; no reticulated pattern on head and body .............................................................................................................2

66 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

2a. Body with 10-12 bands along the flank; band from eye to eye across snout not always evident; dark band at caudal base ......................... Barbatula argyrogramma

2b. Body mottled but without distinctive banding; band from eye to eye across snout very distinctive; dark spots above and below mid-line at caudal base ..................... .................................................................................................. Barbatula frenata

Key to Sisoridae This family has several species in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. The family there requires further study and this key is to the known species in the Middle East with the exception of G. steindachneri, known only from the type description and with no types extant. 1a. Head and body dorso-laterally without striated or elongate tubercles .................... ............................................................................................... Glyptothorax silviae

1b. Head and body dorso-laterally with striated or elongate tubercles .......................2

Identification Keys 67

2a. Thoracic adhesive apparatus (“sucker”) wider than long or about equal; caudal peduncle short (5.9-6.0 in standard length)...................Glyptothorax kurdistanicus

2b. Thoracic adhesive apparatus markedly longer than wide; caudal peduncle long (4.05.3 in standard length) ........................................................................................3 3a. Pectoral fin extends to origin of pelvic fin (pectoral fin length in standard length 3.8-4.1); head long (4.0-4.2 in standard length) ......................... Glyptothorax cous

from Russell (1794)

3b. Pectoral fin does not extend to origin of pelvic fin (pectoral fin length in standard length 4.3-4.6); head short (4.3-4.5 in standard length) ...Glyptothorax armeniacus

68 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Key to Poeciliidae 1a. Dorsal fin rays 5-9, usually 7; dorsal fin not enlarged ............. Gambusia holbrooki

1b. Dorsal fin rays 10 or more; dorsal fin sail-like in mature males .... Poecilia latipinna

Key to Cyprinodontidae 1a.  Males with lemon-yellow pectoral, pelvic and anal fins and with two broad, curved dark bars on caudal fin; females with thin flank bars .....................Aphanius dispar

1b. Males without lemon-yellow fins, without broad bars on the caudal fin; females without flank bars ...............................................................................................2

Identification Keys 69

2a. Males with blue-black to black body with iridescent blue-white to silvery spots; females with small flank spots and without caudal peduncle spot ..Aphanius mento

2b. Males with thick, dark flank bars; broad pale margins to the dorsal, anal and caudal fins; female with a dark spot at the caudal fin base, large and few flank spots and blotches, vertically elongate on caudal peduncle and approaching a bar shape ....... ......................................................................................................... Aphanius sp.

70 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

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Species Accounts 71

SPECIES ACCOUNTS The following accounts treat freshwater fishes from Iraq. Some species spend part of their life in the Arabian Gulf and part in fresh to brackish waters. Choice for inclusion of these latter species is somewhat arbitrary. The shark that once penetrated to Baghdad is an obvious choice as is the clupeid that spawns in fresh water (Tenualosa ilisha). Other species are found in the Shatt al Arab River, some as far inland as the Hammar Marsh or even the Hawizah Marsh, but they are caught infrequently and are probably not an important part of the freshwater ecosystem. Those species reported to reach as far as the Hammar Marsh and further inland are listed here. A checklist at www.briancoad. com gives further details of the records of these primarily marine species. This website also provides more details on material examined, taxonomy and systematics, sources for statements on biology, and an extensive literature database including some papers and books on marine fishes in the Arabian Gulf.

FAMILY CARCHARHINIDAE This family, the requiem or ground sharks, contains over 50 species of large sharks found worldwide in tropical to warm-temperate waters. There is only one species in inland Iraqi fresh waters. They are distinguished from other sharks by a complex of characters including having an anal fin, 5 gill slits, 2 dorsal fins, no fin spines, nictitating eyelids, a scroll intestinal valve, the first dorsal fin base is in front of the pelvic bases, a wavy dorsal tail fin margin, well-developed, knife-like teeth with cutting edges, usually no spiracles, and precaudal pits. This is one of the largest and most economically important shark families. Most members are voracious predators, as their common name suggests, and they are frequently dangerous to man. Some of these species enter rivers and remain there for long periods causing human fatalities. These sharks are usually viviparous. Food includes a variety of fishes, sharks, rays, squids, crustaceans, marine reptiles, birds and mammals, and carrion and garbage. Various other shark species are reported from the Shatt al Arab River in Iraq but these need preserved specimens to confirm identities.

72 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Genus Carcharhinus Blainville, 1816 There are about 30 species of gray sharks found worldwide but only one regularly enters fresh water in Iraq. Carcharhinus leucas (Valenciennes in Müller and Henle, 1839) Common names. Kosetch; kossage; koseage; khushu (Sumerian for shark). [bull shark]. Systematics. A number of carcharhinid or related shark species have been reported as entering rivers of the Tigris-Euphrates basin under such names as Carcharhinus gangeticus (Müller and Henle, 1839), Carcharias lamia (sic, identification uncertain) and Carcharhinus menisorrah (Valenciennes in Müller and Henle, 1839). Studies on carcharhinid sharks and museum specimens indicate only Carcharhinus leucas occurs in fresh waters of the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Carcharias leucas was originally described from the Antilles.

Carcharhinus leucas

Lower tooth

Upper tooth

Teeth from a shark captured south of Nasiriyah in the Main Outfall Drain, October 2007

Species Accounts 73

Key characters. This is the only shark species commonly encountered in inland Iraqi fresh waters in the past and can be recognised by the 5 gill slits, upper caudal fin lobe larger than lower, and the arched mouth armed with teeth on the underside of the head. Morphology. The snout is very short, rounded and ends bluntly; its length being less than the distance between the nostrils and much less than the mouth width. There are 12-14, usually 13, teeth on each side of a median tooth in the upper jaw and 12-13, usually 12, teeth on each side of a median tooth in the lower jaw. Teeth are heavy, broad and almost triangular, erect near the jaw symphysis but becoming slightly oblique and more concave or notched nearer the mouth corners. The teeth are strongly serrated, more so near the base, and upper teeth more so than lower teeth. The first dorsal fin lies over or just behind the level of the axil of the pectoral fin. The apex of the first dorsal fin is pointed to somewhat rounded. The second dorsal fin is high, has a short posterior lobe, a concave upper margin and lies just over the level of the anal fin origin. Pectoral fins are broad and their tips are narrow and pointed. There is no interdorsal ridge (the back is smooth between the dorsal fins). The upper precaudal pit is well developed while the lower pit is weak. Males bear claspers. The pelvic fins are partially modified into grooved, rod-like structures which are held together to form a tube and are used in mating. They are not used to clasp the female but as an intromittent organ. Females are larger than males. Colour. Fin tips are dusky to black, particularly in young. There is no other obvious colour pattern although the back is darker than the belly, being bluish, grey or brown. Fins are similar in colour to the neighbouring body. Size. Attains 3.4 m. Fish in Iraqi fresh waters have been estimated as up to 2 m in length but naturally circumstances were not always favourable for an objective and detached size judgment. Distribution. This shark is found worldwide in warm temperate to tropical seas and is reported from fresh waters in Africa, Asia, Australia and the Americas. Sharks have long been known to enter fresh waters in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. A book by the traveler and geographer Pausanias, “Guide to Greece”, written in the late second century A.D. refers to sharks in “the Euphrates...., which fatten monsters as maneating as any in existence”. One of the earliest distributional records is found in the Arabic work “Wonders of Creation” by Zakariya al-Qazwini published in 1263 A.D. The sharks were found at Basrah on the Shatt al Arab and were cited as formidable because of their voracity and teeth like the points of spears. Albert C. L. G. Günther in 1874 gave the first modern account of sharks in the Tigris at Baghdad, about 850 river km from the sea, confirmed by specimens in the Natural History Museum, London. Walter P. Kennedy in 1937 commented that sharks were still reported from Baghdad every year although less frequently than at Basrah nearer the sea. This was before dams were built. Shark attacks still occur at Basrah on the Shatt al Arab River, in the Ashar Canal at Basrah and at Abu al Qasib, 15 km downriver from Basrah. GavinYoung in 1983 recorded reports of small sharks in the Iraqi marshes at flood time.

74 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Other shark species are reported from the Shatt al Arab River but, in the absence of preserved material, their identities cannot be confirmed, e.g. Chiloscyllium griseum Müller and Henle, 1838 and Carcharhinus falciformis (Müller and Henle, 1839) (as Carcharhinus menisorrah (Müller and Henle, 1839)) from Abu al Khasib (L. A. Jawad, in litt., 21 August 2006). Habitat. This is a shark of coastal waters such as harbours, bays and estuaries but unusually it will penetrate far up rivers, as far as 4000 km up the Amazon River. It is said to be a sluggish bottom dweller except when attacking prey and in the sea may be found down to at least 150 m although usually at less than 30 m. This species is said to invade the Khowr-e Bahmanshir and Karun River of Iran from July to September when freshwater flow is at a minimum and tidal penetration of salt water is at its highest. However, these sharks do travel well beyond tidal influence in both Iraq and Iran. Local people along the Bahmanshir River near Tangeh Se in Khuzestan maintain that it is dangerous to swim there because of these sharks. They are occasionally trapped in nets set for Tenualosa ilisha and may be caught on hook and line. At Basrah, they are caught on hook and line more often in summer than in winter. The biology of this species in fresh water is unknown for Iraq and should be thoroughly investigated as a real hazard to those using rivers of Mesopotamia. Are the sharks permanent residents or seasonal visitors? Detailed records of attacks should be kept and analyzed in an attempt to determine any triggering actions. It may prove possible to make recommendations for use of water resources to avoid shark attacks in future. Biology. Maturity in males is attained at 1.60-2.25 m, in females at 1.80-2.30 m. Mature fish are about 6 years old and life span is up to about 14 years. Food is a wide variety of fishes including tunas, small sharks, and rays, as well as crabs, shrimps, molluscs, cephalopods, sea urchins, turtles, sea birds and mammals. Diet in fresh water has not been investigated in Southwest Asia although sharks have been reported as stationing themselves under the date palms at Khorramshahr, Iran to eat the falling dates! Birth size is about 56-81 cm and takes place in estuaries and river mouths. Females may contain up to 13 embryos and the gestation period is 10-11 months. This species is known to breed in fresh waters, such as Lake Nicaragua in Central America, but there have been no reports of reproduction in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Economic importance. This shark has a considerable impact on people using water directly in Iraq. A number of severe injuries and fatalities have been reported in fresh waters through shark attacks. Eleven attacks at and near Basrah from 1938 to the 1970s have been documented. Only in one case was the shark provoked and in no case was the shark cornered. Two attacks were fatal, loss of a limb was common, and all attacks featured some form of splashing by the human victim. With records of Iranian attacks, this brings freshwater shark attacks in rivers at the head of the Arabian Gulf to 45, 34% of freshwater attacks worldwide, with 19 of these 45 attacks (or 42%) fatal.

Species Accounts 75

In other parts of the world, this species has been used for its flesh and fins, as leather, for its liver oil and for fishmeal. Sunni Muslims in Iraq, but not Shi’a Muslims, eat shark meat and small ones are consumed for their more tender flesh. Conservation. This shark appears to still be common in Iraqi and Iranian fresh waters judging from the attacks reported over the past 50 years or more and no conservation measures are needed (or likely to be acceptable to the local population).

FAMILY ENGRAULIDAE Anchovies are found pelagically worldwide in warmer coastal waters and occasionally in fresh water. There are about 139 species and they are related to the herrings (Clupeidae). These are small, silvery fishes with a characteristic pig-like snout protruding over the mouth and the upper jaw extending back to the rear of the head in most species. Fins lack spines. There is no lateral line and scales are cycloid and easily lost. There are typically two supramaxillae. Teeth may be present or absent, large or small. Gill rakers are usually short and not very numerous although some species have more than 100 long rakers. A pelvic scute or modified scale with lateral arms is always present but a row of scutes before and behind the pelvic fin is present in most Indo-Pacific species and absent in New World species. A silver stripe along the flank is usually present or flanks are silvery. Anchovies feed mostly on zooplankton in the sea although some larger species will take fish. The mouth can gape at over 90º, the gill covers flare out and the red gills can be seen, giving the impression that the head is falling apart. The mouth is closed every few seconds to allow the filtered food to be swallowed. Larger food items that could escape filter feeding can be picked from the water individually. Large numbers of eggs are produced which hatch into planktonic larvae. Anchovies are important in the ocean food chain and are caught in immense numbers by fishing fleets for food, as savoury pastes and for fishmeal.

Genus Thryssa Cuvier, 1829 This Indo-Pacific genus is distinguished from its relatives by having an anal fin separate from the forked caudal fin, scutes are present in front of and behind the pelvic fin forming a keel, the maxilla tip is pointed, there is a small spine-like scute at the dorsal fin origin, the anal fin is long with more than 23 rays and its origin is under the last rays of the dorsal fin, there is a dark humeral area behind the gill opening, and dorsal and caudal fins are often yellow with black tips or margin. Members of this genus are marine, schooling fishes found mostly inshore with some taking up permanent freshwater residence. There are about 22 species. The records of these species in Iraqi fresh waters need careful re-examination. A study in 1988 by

76 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Peter J. P. Whitehead and colleagues recorded only T. hamiltonii and T. whiteheadi for certain in the inner Arabian Gulf, and presumably in fresh waters in Iraq. Reports of T. mystax could be T. whiteheadi as may be records of T. malabarica (Bloch, 1795) and T. purava (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) from Iraqi fresh waters. Thryssa hamiltonii (Gray, 1835) Common names. Balam; shega; usbur. [Hamilton’s thryssa]. Systematics. Studies have shown genetically different populations in the marine Zubayr Inlet and the fresher waters of the Hammar Marsh based on allele frequencies and meristic characters. This species has not always been identified correctly so information on biology may be confused. Thrissa hamiltonii was originally described from India. Key characters. The gill raker count (11-15 on the lower arm) is lower than in T. malabarica (usually 17-19) and T. whiteheadi (18-21), a dark median band or lines are present on the back (absent in T. malabarica), branched anal rays count (usually 34-37) are less than in T. whiteheadi (40-45), the snout tip is above the level of the middle of the eye (at the middle of the eye in other species such as T. mystax), and the maxilla is short, reaching the edge of the gill opening or just beyond (reaches pectoral fin base in T. mystax). Morphology. The body is fairly strongly compressed with scutes from the isthmus to the anus. Scutes number 15-20 + 8-12, total 23-26. The tip of the snout is above the level of the eye centre. The first supramaxilla is small and oval. Dorsal fin unbranched rays 3-4, branched rays 10-12 and anal fin unbranched rays 3-4 and branched rays 3239, usually 34-37. Vertebrae 40-47.

Thryssa hamiltonii

Species Accounts 77

Colour. The back is blue-green or brown with dark median bands or lines. The flanks are silvery and there is a black venulose area behind the gill opening. Fins are hyaline. Size. Attains 22.5 cm total length. Distribution. Found from the Arabian Gulf east to southeast Asia and northern Australia. Reported from the Shatt al Arab River, in the Hammar Marsh, and to Nasiriyah on the Euphrates River. Habitat. Found pelagically in coastal waters, entering estuaries. Habitat requirements in fresher waters are unknown. Biology. In the marine Zubayr Inlet, this species attained 20.22 cm total length in five years and the maximum relative condition was reached in September. Various crustaceans such as prawns, copepods, brachuran larvae, crabs and amphipods are taken along with polychaetes and fish, in marine conditions. This species is a spring visitor to the Hammar Marsh and young stages are found there too suggesting spawning under brackish water conditions. There is a spawning peak in December-January and March-April in the marine Zubayr Inlet; assortative mating may occur. The release of larvae is timed to take advantage of phytoplankton and zooplankton blooms. Fecundity reaches 23,060 eggs. Economic importance. Caught throughout its range with seines, gillnets and trawls in shallow waters and marketed fresh or dried and salted, mostly as fishmeal. Conservation. Confusion of identity makes assessment of conservation status difficult. Thryssa mystax (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) Recorded from the Shatt al Arab River, eastern and northern Hammar Marsh and Hawizah Marsh. A specimen identified as this species was found in a recent survey in the Main Outfall Drain at Suq ash Shuyukh. This species may be mis-identified and records from Iraq may be the following species. Thryssa whiteheadi Wongratana, 1983 Common names. None. [Whitehead’s thryssa]. Systematics. Described from “Basra, Iraq, Persian Gulf ”. Thrissocles purava, reported as such from the Hammar Marsh, is this species and probably other records refer to this species (see above).

78 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Thryssa whiteheadi

Key characters. This species is similar to T. hamiltonii but that species has only 11-15 gill rakers and fewer anal fin branched rays, usually 32-39. Morphology. The tip of the snout is above the level of the eye centre, usually at the upper eye rim level. The maxilla is relatively short, extending little beyond the edge of the gill cover. The first supra-maxilla is absent. Jaw teeth are slightly enlarged compared to other species. Anal fin branched rays usually 40-45. Scutes along belly 15-17 (usually 15-16) + 10-12 (usually 10-11), total 25-28 (usually 25-27). Gill rakers 18-21, usually 19 on lower arch. Colour. Unknown. Size. Attains 15.8 cm standard length. Distribution. Found in the Arabian Gulf and probably the Sea of Oman. Reported from the Hammar Marsh by K. S. Misra in 1949 as Thrissocles purava, but this specimen was re-identified as T. whiteheadi. Other records of Thryssa purava from the Shatt al Arab River, eastern and northern Hammar Marsh and Hawizah Marsh are probably this species. Habitat. This is a marine, pelagic, schooling species that also enters fresh water. Biology. Unknown. Economic importance. Reported as common but seldom seen in the Kuwait market. Conservation. As a recently described species, confused with others, its conservation status is unknown.

FAMILY CLUPEIDAE Herrings, shads, sardines, pilchards and menhadens are moderate-sized fishes, usually less than 25 cm long, found in warmer marine waters with some species anadromous or permanent freshwater residents. There are about 188 species worldwide. These fishes usually have modified scales on the belly forming abdominal scutes with a saw-like edge. Most species have two, long, rod-like postcleithra. The lateral line

Species Accounts 79

is usually absent or on only a few scales. Silvery cycloid scales are easily detached and are found only on the body. The mouth is usually terminal with jaws about equal in length. Teeth are small or absent but gill rakers are long and numerous for sieving plankton. Fins lack spines and there are no barbels. There is no adipose fin. The pectoral and pelvic fins each have a large axillary scale. The caudal fin is deeply forked. The eye is partly covered by an adipose eyelid. The flesh is particularly oily and is highly nutritional. Herring are easily caught and are extremely valuable to commercial fisheries. They are the most important fishes economically, both as food for man and for many other commercial fish species. Wars have been fought over fisheries for herrings. In one year, members of the herring family made up 37.3% of all fish caught in the world. Some are used for fishmeal, as fertiliser and as an oil source.

Genus Nematalosa Regan, 1917 These fishes are medium-sized shads found in both marine and fresh waters. The last dorsal fin ray is distinctive, being elongate and filamentous. The ventral body margin has a row of scutes. The mouth is usually inferior and the snout rounded. The maxilla is expanded at its posterior tip and turned downwards. There is a single small supra-maxilla. The dentary is flared outward in front of the maxilla. Gill rakers are slender, relatively short and numerous. The predorsal scales are paired and overlap in the midline. Lateral line scales number more than 40. Nematalosa nasus (Bloch, 1795) Common names. Jaffot; yaffoud; juwwaf; shroom. [Bloch’s gizzard shad, hairback]. Systematics. Note that fish identified as N. nasus from the Arabian Gulf may be other species, N. resticularia Nelson and McCarthy, 1995 and N. persara Nelson and McCarthy, 1995. One study showed genetically different populations in the Zubayr Inlet and Shatt al Arab based on allele frequencies, complementing an earlier study using meristic characters. Key characters. The last dorsal fin ray is elongate and filamentous in adults. The lower jaw is flared outward along its edge, the mouth is inferior, there are 6 prepectoral scutes, and the rear scale edges are toothed. Morphology. The belly has a sharp keel of scutes, 17-20 + 9-13, usually 18 + 11, total 28-32. The predorsal scales are in a double overlapping series. The top of the head has 6-11 fronto-parietal striae. The anterior arm of the preoperculum has the third infraorbital

80 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Nematalosa nasus

bone immediately above it without a fleshy gap. Dorsal fin with 3-5 unbranched rays and 12-14 branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched rays and 18-22 branched rays, pectoral fin with 12-16 branched rays, and pelvic fin with 7 branched rays. A pectoral axillary scale is present. Scales in lateral series 46-49. Gill rakers number more than 200. Colour. Back greyish-green to dark bluish, upper flank with horizontal lines occasioned by the centre of each scale being dark for the first seven rows, the lowest row not extending to the caudal fin. Flank silvery and belly whitish with golden tints. Dark blotch in the shoulder region. Pectoral, pelvic, anal and caudal fins yellowish, caudal fin dark distally. Size. Attains 23 cm total length. Distribution. Found from the Arabian (= Persian) Gulf east to Malaysia, China and southern Japan. Reported from the Shatt al Arab River, the Hammar Marsh and formerly to Al ‘Uzayr on the Tigris River. Habitat. Pelagic in coastal waters but does enter estuaries and called semi-anadromous as it migrates into rivers for feeding. It is found in the upper reaches of the Shatt al Arab for 7 months (April-October) and in the estuary for 10 months (March-December). Fish in the Shatt al Basrah Canal are at salinities at or below 3.5‰. This species is a spring visitor to the Hammar Marsh and young stages are found there too suggesting spawning under brackish water conditions. They leave the Shatt al Arab River in July. It is found in the Zubayr Inlet for ten months, from March to December, abundantly from May to September, migrating back to the Arabian Gulf in January and February. Medium sized fish migrate in March, followed by large fish in May.

Species Accounts 81

Biology. In the Zubayr Inlet, a low-level exploitation rate indicated that fishing effort was limited in 1988-1989. Four age groups were reported with fish attaining about 50% of total length during the first year, indicating a short life-span species that rapidly attains maximum length. Lengths were 10.7, 13.9, 16.6 and 18.9 cm for age groups 1-4. Slower growth in the Shatt al Arab River may be due to different ecological conditions or possibly different stocks. Five age groups were found in the Shatt al Arab with lengths 6.0, 10.4, 13.4, 16.0 and 18.0 cm. Maximum life span is probably 10 years. Zubayr Inlet fish were up to 23.0 cm long in May and juveniles appeared in September, the smallest being 67 mm long. Size at first maturity was 10.4 cm for females and 10.5 cm for males with a sex ratio of male:female of 1:1.23. The gonadosomatic index peaked in September with a smaller peak in April, indicating a main and lesser breeding season. Absolute fecundity was 55,656-208,395 eggs. This species filter-feeds on plankton in the sea. It is an omnivore in the Zubayr Inlet where gut contents were detritus (30%), sand grains (25%), crustaceans (13%), diatoms (10%), molluscs (9%), foraminferans (8%) and nematodes (6%). In the upper reaches and estuary of the Shatt al Arab, it feeds on diatoms (29.2%, both localities), organic detritus (28.9%, both), molluscs (8.2% and 7.9% respectively), crustaceans (4.4% and 10.3% respectively) and some foraminiferans, filamentous algae, zooplankton and fish remains, with sand as a significant inclusion. Economic importance. Caught in the southern marshes, and, in the northern Gulf with other Nematalosa species, it forms about 50% of the clupeid catch. A fishing season in the Shatt al Arab River was April-August, peaking in April. Annual Iraqi landings were 96 t to 978 t in 1990-1994, about 10% of total landings. It was caught throughout the year by drift gill nets except December-February. It is characterised as a fatty fish according to a lipid content 9-14% by wet weight of muscle in autumn. Conservation. Confusion of identity makes assessment of conservation status difficult.

Genus Tenualosa Fowler, 1934 This genus comprises 5 species found from the Indian Ocean to Indonesia and China. A single species enters rivers of southern Iraq. The genus is defined by a series of characters listed below under Key characters. These fishes form part of local, artisanal fisheries throughout their range. The species found in Iraq also occurs in the Indian subcontinent. Migrations in the Indus River of Pakistan may last over 7 months and the migration up the Ganges River in India extends over 1287 km. Fish may move as much as 70.8 km in one day.

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Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) Common names. Sbour; zoboor; soboor; sobour. [hilsa, Indian shad or river shad]. Systematics. Formerly placed in the genus Hilsa. Originally described from the Ganges estuaries, Patua, Goyakarra, Calcutta, and Dhasa, India. Shatt al Arab River fish may be distinct from those in Pakistan on morphometric and meristic grounds but no data have been published. Genetic and otolith chemistry data provided strong evidence for a distinct stock in Kuwait, compared with stocks from India to Sumatra. People in Basrah can distinguish two kinds of sbour, based on taste. One is the tastier and pricier Shatt al Arab River form and the other is the less desirable estuarine/sea form. This has not been confirmed by systematic studies. Key characters. This species is distinguished from other Indian Ocean clupeids by the upper jaw with a median notch, the anal fin ray count being less than 30 rays, a terminal mouth (lower jaw not prominent nor flared at the corners), scales in lateral series are not perforated posteriorly, last dorsal fin ray not filamentous, weakly developed lines (the fronto-parietal striae) on top of the head (usually covered by skin and not visible), gill rakers on inner arches straight not curled, a long head 28-32% of standard length, and 30-33 ventral scutes forming a keel along the belly, 15-18 being prepelvic and 11-15 postpelvic. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 4-5 unbranched rays followed by 14-16 branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched rays followed by 16-20 branched rays, pectoral fin

Tenualosa ilisha

Species Accounts 83

branched rays 12-15 and pelvic fin branched rays 7-8. Lateral series scales 44-51. Gill rakers are fine and numerous, up to about 275 on the lower arch. Colour. The back is grey-blue, bluish to green and the sides are silvery with golden, purplish or pink highlights. The dorsal fin is grey, the caudal fin grey-blue with a silvery tinge and darkened margin, and the anal fin is light blue with some silvery tinges. Paired fins are hyaline. The area behind the gill cover in young fish and many adults have a dark blotch followed by a series of spots or blotches running along the upper flank, for a total of 6-7. The blotches may take the form of bars. The eye is yellow to red. Young have a bronze back, silvery flanks and a caudal fin margined in black. Size. Attains 60.6 cm total length and 2.49 kg for females and 43 cm and 0.68 kg for males. A sample of 233 moribund fish from the Ashar Canal, a branch of the Shatt al Arab River, had a total length range of 70-152 mm. Fish migrating to the Shatt al Arab River for breeding were at 21-38 cm for males and 33-43 cm for females. Mature females in the Shatt al Arab River weighed about 0.5-1.1 kg. Fishes from Kuwait attained 57 cm and fishes from the Arvand, Bahmanshir, Karun and Dez rivers of Iran were 12-50 cm long. Distribution. Reportedly, found from the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf through the Indian subcontinent to the Malayan Archipelago in some general works, or more narrowly from the Arabian Gulf to Myanmar. It enters the Shatt al Arab River, and once penetrated as far north as Baghdad on the Tigris River and Habbaniyah Lake on the Euphrates River, but the northernmost distribution today in Iraq is the Hammar Marsh. The lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers were connected by a channel to the Zubayr Inlet in Iraq during 1983. Consequently, the inlet became oligohaline (at less than 10‰) rather than hypersaline (at more than 40‰), becoming an estuary with heavy reed growth. The catch of sbour in the inlet by 1997 exceeded that in the Shatt al Arab River and may have involved diversion of stocks from the original habitat of the Shatt al Arab River. In the sea, they are found from Bushehr, Iran around to Kuwait in coastal waters. Habitat. This species occurs in river estuaries and coastal waters and appears to be restricted to the northern end of the Arabian Gulf because this is the only part with large spawning rivers. An anadromous stock from the Shatt al Arab River may migrate to warmer waters off Bushehr, Iran during January, February and March. At the same time, there is a winter decline of Kuwaiti stocks. There may also be a marine stock inhabiting coastal waters of Kuwait since larvae have been found in Kuwait Bay during June and November and catches are made in the Bay year round. Sbour enter the Shatt al Arab River in February and March during high tides and do not feed on their migration. Earlier reports stated that most fish enter the Shatt al Arab River in April during the last and first phase of the moon and anecdotal reports indicate the end of March to be the peak period of entry. They ascended into the Hammar Marsh and, in the past, from there into the Euphrates as well as into the Tigris. A continuing migration upstream occurs through April to July for spawning and a return migration to the sea during August to November. Significant numbers were recording as

84 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

entering the recovering Hammar Marsh in 2005-2006. Small specimens (50-100 mm) were observed in the east Hammar Marsh in June 2005. Fry are found in the rivers of Iraq at the end of the June suggesting spawning in May. Local people believe that sbour ascend the Shatt al Arab River during spring to marshes north of Basrah for spawning, suggesting that they are the fluvial anadromous type. Males and females move upriver in separate groups according to Iraqi fishermen. Larvae were found in the Shatt al Arab River and east Hammar Marsh from May to October, and one specimen was collected in the marshes at Suq ash Shuyukh in October 2005. They are landed in Kuwait after migrating back to sea, and they then migrate to the Iranian coast during December-January. Migrations prior to construction of dams found sbour below the Yaou (just north of Mishkhab) and Meshkhau (Mishkhab) regulators on the Euphrates and up to Amara on the Tigris River by mid-April. Large concentrations of sbour occur below any dams blocking their migration. The main spawning grounds in the Euphrates were probably somewhere between Shinafiya and Samawa and in the Tigris between Amara and Qalat Saleh. They may be found in deep water, over 18 m, or in shallows, on their spawning migration. Young occur in side branches of the Shatt al Arab River near food, shelter and the spawning grounds. The high fat content of this shad is a factor in the retention in the flesh of high levels of biogenic and anthropogenic sources of hydrocarbons. Biology. Fishes in the Shatt al Arab River are in age groups 5 to 6 for the period May to August. In contrast, a later study on the Shatt al Arab River fish showed there are 5 age groups and the second and third age groups dominated in catches. In this latter study, Shatt al Arab River fish matured at 25 cm for males and 33 cm for females. Slower growth is reported than in Indian and Bangladesh populations and they probably mature later. Lengths of 25 to 35 cm are recorded for fish caught in the Shatt al Arab River on their spawning migration. Young grow rapidly, attaining 4.3 cm in October-November. Life span is up to an estimated 10 years with maturity as early as 1 year. An Ashar Canal study on a settled stock found them to feed on phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates and diatoms, and on zooplankton, mainly copepods. The sieve-like gill rakers are used to strain out planktonic organisms without selection. Presence of some sand grains indicates that feeding can occur on the riverbed. Feeding intensity may decrease or cease on the spawning migration and is very high after spawning. Shatt al Arab River juveniles feed mostly on filamentous algae and diatoms with some organic matter, fish eggs and zooplankton while adults have empty stomachs on the spawning migration. The spawning migration depends on the flood regime of the rivers. Turbid water and fast current are probably stimulants to egg deposition. The sbour depends on river-edge vegetation for egg deposition. Spawning grounds in Iraq are probably located near the beginning of the side branches of the northern sector of the Shatt al Arab River, 120 km from the sea. Males may ascend the river before females but females become dominant in Indian populations. Males dominate in March in the Shatt al Arab River and the sex

Species Accounts 85

ratio reaches equilibrium in the spawning months of May-August. Spawning may occur more than once in a season in India. This has not been demonstrated for Iraq but could occur. The gonadosomatic index for fishes in the Shatt al Arab River indicates peaks in March-May and July-August, suggesting two spawnings although a later report gives spawning as June to July and July to August as evidenced by two modes of juveniles found in September. All females entering the Shatt al Arab River were mature with smallest female being 33.0 cm long. Males less than 25.0 cm were immature, the population reaching 100% maturity at 31-32 cm. In the Indus River, a mature fish, with a length ranging from 30 to 55 centimeters, lays 100,000 to 2,917,000 eggs with a diameter of 0.89 mm. Estimates for the Hooghly River of India reach 13,230,500 eggs per female. Fecundity in the Shatt al Arab River ranges between 444,960 and 1,616,560 eggs for fish 33.0-41.5 cm total length although 2 fish 37.3 and 2 fish 39.0 cm total length had a range in egg numbers of 109,000233,840, showing that great variations in fecundity occur between individuals; possibly some fish had partially spawned before capture. Relative fecundity (ova/gramme body weight) varied from 737 to 1721, mean 1216. Hatching can occur within one day at an average temperature of 23°C. Eggs, larvae and young are found on the spawning grounds but with growth the young move into estuarine and foreshore areas during winter months. The appearance of juveniles from the northern Shatt al Arab River is reported from June to November. Adults return to their original habitat in the sea after spawning. There is some evidence for freshwater resident populations in India which migrate upriver to spawn but do not descend to the sea. This condition is not reported for Iraq. Economic importance. The Ashar Canal study cites 996,308 kg reaching the Ashar fish market from October 1975 to June 1977. The catch landed at Fao on the Shatt al Arab River estuary of Iraq was 6576 t in 1990-1991. A highest landing of 1796 t occurred in May 1992 over a study period of 1990-1994. This species forms the most important commercial fishery in the Basrah region of southern Iraq, average catches being 491.086, 319.661 and 267.988 tons in 1977, 1978 and 1979 respectively (sic). There is a drift net and stake-net (“hadra”) fishery in the sea by Kuwait in Kuwait Bay and around Falaikah Island. The fishing season on the Tigris-Euphrates is March to August with a peak in April, or late April to early June or to November (authors differ). Fish are caught at the mouth of the Shatt al Arab River as they enter the river with stationary gill nets, drifting gill nets, in “mailan” and “odda” traps from March to August. The catch averaged 150-180 kg per ten odda and, in March 1953, the total catch at the mouth of the Shatt al Arab River was about 25,000 kg. Large fish are only caught in the summer. The catch at Abadan, Iran from February to November in 1943 was about 401.42 t and from January to June about 336.67 t. This species is seen on markets at Ahvaz, Khuzestan in November but these are sea-caught fish. Marjan Iran Company was selling 600-800 g fish for U.S.$1.40/ kg, 800-1000 g fish for U.S.$1.60/kg, 1000-1200 g fish for U.S.$1.70/kg, and 1200 g

86 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

and larger fish for U.S.$1.80/kg in August 2003. The catch in Khuzestan province in 2000 was 2688 t. The fishing season for this species in the early 1950s was March-August (peaking in April) in rivers, and March-May (peaking in April) in the Hammar Marsh. These fish are caught with traps, weirs, gill nets and other devices in rivers on the spawning migration. They are excellent eating until spawning occurs after which they lose their flavour. However, this species has been implicated in clupeotoxic poisoning. In Pakistan, the Indus River fishermen number between 8,000 and 9,000 and the fishery had yields up to 2694 t. It is the most important Indo-Pacific shad species. Conservation. A decline in catches over the previous two decades from 1994 in the Shatt al Arab River is recorded from overfishing in the 1970s. A study recommended adjusting the mesh of gill nets so as to capture fish greater than 25 cm long. Fish enter the polluted Ashar Canal, a side tributary of the Shatt al Arab River, during high tide when waters were diluted. A low tide in October resulted in severe dissolved oxygen depletion and the fish suffocated. Petroleum hydrocarbon residues are high in Zubayr Inlet fish at 40.6 μg/g as this species is one that accumulates fat. Samples from the Ashar fish market in Basrah in the 1970s were contaminated with hydrocarbons, emitting a kerosene smell and being unfit for human consumption. Evidently, overfishing and pollution are major factors in the conservation of this species, to which must be added variations in freshwater flow and quality from the marshes and Tigris-Euphrates through human processes.

FAMILY CYPRINIDAE This family contains by far the most species in Iraqi fresh waters, ca. 72% of native fishes. The carp or minnow family is one of the most widespread and speciose families of fishes in the world, certainly the most speciose in fresh water and possibly the largest family of vertebrates (the Gobiidae may be the first). The family is found in North America, Eurasia and Africa. There are over 2420 species, about 8.5% of the world’s fishes. The family is comprised of small to very large fishes (1 cm and up to 3 m, with some of the largest members in Iraq) characterised by throat or pharyngeal teeth usually in 1-3 rows on each side, with a maximum of 8 teeth in a row, tooth counts and form are often characteristic of the genus or species, no jaw teeth, body form various from fusiform to compressed, lips are usually thin and not sucker-like but can be very fleshy, the upper jaw is bordered by the premaxillae bones and is usually protrusible, barbels are absent or present in 1-3 pairs (not more than 2 pairs in Iraqi species), body covered in cycloid scales, in some species easily lost, while the head is scaleless, no adipose fin, the anterior 4 vertebrae are modified for conduction of sound from the air bladder to the ear and are known as the Weberian apparatus, pelvic fins are abdominal in position, no pyloric caeca, air bladder usually present and well-developed, connected to the gut by a duct, and not enclosed in a bony capsule, no true stomach, no true spines in the fins although

Species Accounts 87

in some the last unbranched dorsal fin ray (at the front of the fin) may be thickened and spine-like and, in Cyprinus and Carassius, the last unbranched anal ray is also thickened. The primitive chromosome number is 2n = 50 but polyploidy is common and seen in Cyprinus and Carassius e.g. 2n = 100). There are 2-4 unbranched rays (including rudimentary ones) in the dorsal and anal fins followed by the more numerous branched rays (the last two branched rays are counted as one). The first pectoral and the first pelvic fin ray are unbranched and not included in counts. Pharyngeal teeth lie on a modified, fifth gill arch which can be seen or probed behind the shoulder girdle, just inside the gill opening. The arch has to be removed with dissecting equipment to count the teeth. Tooth counts are presented as a formula such as 2,5-4,1 that indicates 2 teeth in the outer left row and 4 on the inner right row. Teeth may be lost from major or minor rows so variant formulae are given after the principal one. A horny pad on the underside of the basioccipital bone of the skull is used to masticate the food against. Tooth form varies with the food - molar-shaped teeth are used to crush molluscs, flat but grooved surfaces for grinding plant food, and sharp edged teeth for slicing various invertebrate foods. Evidence from cytochrome b DNA studies on Cyprinidae shows that the Middle East is an important interchange area for this freshwater ichthyofauna, rather than a centre of speciation. The Middle East leuciscine cyprinids have Europe as an important Palaearctic influence consistent with the Lago Mare dispersion while the cyprinine cyprinids show three highly divergent lineages, namely one shared with the Euro-Mediterranean area (Barbus/Luciobarbus), one shared with Africa (Carasobarbus/Varicorhinus subgenus), and one with Asia (Garra). The Lago Mare dispersion occurred during a salinity crisis in the Mediterranean Sea 5.5 MY ago in the Late Miocene when freshwater fish were able to disperse through oligohaline or fresh water in the Paratethys Sea to reach the Middle East. Some data conflict with this scenario - the Carasobarbus clade that includes Tor (or Barbus grypus) shows a separation divergence later than the salinity crisis in the Pliocene when no migration route was available. Note that some authors place Barbus grypus in the Indian genus Tor and that evidently more work needs to be done on its relationships and on those of other species that have no evident Euro-Mediterranean relatives, but whose origins may well lie in the Oriental Region. Other Middle Eastern cyprinid genera are regarded as relicts of older colonization waves and show an eastern influence consistent with an Asian origin of the family Cyprinidae. Cyprinion has no sister species in the Euro-Mediterranean area and has been isolated in the Middle East since before the salinity crisis, 7.8-8.8 MY ago. Cyprinion may have entered the Middle East during the colonization event that isolated the genera Barbus and Schizothorax in the European and Asian basins respectively. The divergence of these species is similar in time to the radiation of the Leuciscinae, supposedly centred in Siberia based on fossil records. Siberia was probably an important dispersion centre for both Leuciscinae and Cyprininae at that time. A possible Barbus sp. from the Lower Miocene of Saudi Arabia shows an early date for the entry of cyprinids to the Afro-Arabian Plate.

88 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Some species may enter brackish water but the family is primarily a freshwater one. Carps have extremely sensitive hearing via the Weberian apparatus and this is thought to account for their success. Carps produce an “alarm substance” when injured. This chemical stimulates other carps to flee and hide, another useful adaptation. Carps are remarkable for changes they undergo during the spawning season. Some fish, which are usually silvery, develop bright reds and yellows. Nuptial, pearl or breeding tubercles develop on the head, scales and fin rays often in distinct patterns, and there are in some species swellings of the head or fin rays. These changes are most apparent in males. Tubercles and swollen rays are used to clasp females during the spawning act. Generally, males have longer pectoral fins than females at all seasons. Tubercles are also used to fight other males and defend and clean nests. Colour attracts females for mating. Nest building males are larger than females, the reverse of the situation in most fishes where egg-bearing females are the largest. Not all species build nests and some simply broadcast eggs over weed, gravel or sand. Fractional spawning is common in carps. This is a prolonged spawning season that ensures no single batch of eggs is lost to unfavourable, temporary environmental changes such as floods. Carps are mostly omnivores, feeding on small crustaceans, insects and some minute plants but some specialise in eating large plants, or other fishes. Diet is reflected in pharyngeal tooth shape as mentioned above. Gut length is important too. A long intestine indicates a reliance on plant material that takes longer to digest. A simple, s-shaped gut is found in insectivorous and piscivorous fish. A black peritoneum is thought to protect gut bacteria from damaging light. The bacteria aid in breaking down the strong cell walls of plants. Size and shape of the mouth are also indicative of diet. Carps are found in many diverse habitats from swift, cold streams to warm bogs. These are schooling fishes, especially when young. Carps play an important role in fresh waters as food for other fishes and some species are commercially important as baitfish, as sport fish, or as food in Asian countries. They are an important element in the commercial aquarium trade and certain species are used in experimental studies by scientists. Cyprinids were also important in the past, sacred fishponds being reported from Mesopotamia in 3000 B.C. Carp family members are particularly important in Iraq in aquaculture. The “Chinese carps” (Cyprinus carpio or common carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella or grass carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix or silver carp, and to a lesser extent Hypophthalmichthys nobilis or bighead carp) are the main species used in warm water. Many larger carp species can be caught on hook and line by various angling techniques. Even small species and specimens can give some sport on light tackle such as worm-baited hooks including Barbus barbulus, Barbus luteus, Alburnus mossulensis, Cyprinion macrostomum and Garra rufa among others. The rosy barb, Puntius conchonius (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822), may become established in Iraq as escapees from aquarium culture south of Basrah at Abu Al Kasib. The fish were bred in small rivers and irrigation ditches, separated from tidal flow by a wire

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mesh barrier. Tidal flow was used for water exchange. In about 2001, a flood breached the ditches and swept these species into the Shatt al Arab. They were bred for the local market and export to Jordan and possibly Syria.

Genus Acanthobrama Heckel, 1843 This genus is characterised by a compressed, deep body of small to moderate size, no barbels, relatively small scales with reduced numbers of radii, a fleshy keel between the base of the pelvic fins and the vent, the last unbranched dorsal fin ray is thickened, spine-like and smooth, and the anal fin is long (9-22 branched rays). Pharyngeal teeth are usually in a single row on each arch. Gut short. There are 8 species endemic to Southwest Asia with 1 found in Iraq. Acanthobrama marmid Heckel, 1843 Common names. Semnan arrez; semnan areed; arath. Systematics. Acanthobrama Arrhada Heckel, 1843 described from “Mossul” is a synonym as is Acanthobrama cupida from “Aleppo” (= Halab, Syria). Acanthobrama arrhada may be a subspecies of A. marmid rather than a synonym based on an unusually strongly ossified spiny dorsal fin ray in the former. Since A. marmid was described from “Gewässern bei Aleppo” and A. arrhada from Mosul, the synonymy of these two taxa may warrant re-examination (but see below). A hybrid with Alburnus mossulensis was reported from the Hammar Marsh in southern Iraq. Key characters. The characters of the genus distinguish this species from all other Iraqi cyprinids. Morphology. Mouth nearly horizontal to oblique, equal, or lower jaw slightly behind the upper. The belly has a fleshy keel where the ventral scales do not meet along the mid-line between the pelvic base and the anus. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is a thickened, stiff and smooth spine, the rigid part varying from 15 to 26% of standard length. The spine may be strong for much of its length and then abruptly become thin and flexible or it may taper gradually to a flexible tip. Some small fish lack an enlarged dorsal fin spine. Lateral line scales 53-72. There is a pelvic axillary scale. Radii are restricted to the posterior field on scales and are few in number. The focus is subcentral anterior to almost central. Dorsal fin with 3 unbranched rays and 7-9 branched rays, usually 8. Anal fin unbranched rays 3, branched rays 13-22. Pectoral fin branched rays 12-18, pelvic fin branched rays 7-9, usually 8. Total vertebrae 38-43. Gill rakers short with a

90 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Acanthobrama marmid

pharyngeal teeth

basal swelling, 2-4 on the upper arch, 0-1 at the flexure and 9-12 on the lower arch. Total rakers 12-17. The rakers reach the one below or to its further base end when appressed. Pharyngeal teeth usually 5-5, with the anterior tooth compressed and bluntly pointed, the remainder beveled with a cutting edge and a hooked tip. The two anterior teeth are more rounded than the others are, although the second one may have a slight hook and is beveled. Tigris River basin fish may have 1-2 teeth in a second row. The gut is an elongate s-shape with a large anterior loop in larger fish. The chromosome number is 2n=50. Different body forms occur in slow-flowing and fast-flowing waters. In the former habitat fish have a deep body, often humped behind the head, while in the latter the body is more streamlined. It seems that A. marmid could be founded on the humped form and A. arrhada on the streamlined one.

Species Accounts 91

Fine tubercles are found over the top, sides and bottom of the head in males. Tubercles line the first, unbranched pectoral fin ray irregularly with up to 2 branching rows. Very fine tubercles are found on the adjacent membrane and on the lower pectoral fin surface. Tubercles line the pelvic fin rays in branching rows. The lower caudal fin rays are lined with tubercles. Anterior upper flank scales, all belly scales and lower caudal peduncle scales have their margin lined with tubercles, the peduncle with some tubercles on the mid-scale and the belly with a concentration on the scale base. Colour. The overall colour is silvery to whitish with the head and back reddishbrown. The flanks can be greyish to blackish from numerous melanophores. There may be a well-developed mid-flank stripe or it may be poorly developed or only evident posteriorly. The pelvic fins are bright red, the pectoral and anal fins less red and the dorsal and caudal fins reddish proximally and black distally. Fin colours may be more orange or yellow than red. All fin rays and membranes have melanophores and these can be quite concentrated such that some fish have dark fins. Young fish in preservative have numerous, distinctive, small to minute, rounded, square or oblong patches of pigment in 1-3, irregular, mid-flank rows. Peritoneum black, silvery with a dorsal concentration of melanophores, or with widely scattered melanophores so it appears silvery. Size. Reaches 20.8 cm. Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, the Quwayq (= Kueik) and Orontes (= Asi) rivers, and possibly the Amik Lake and the Bardan suyu (= stream) near Tarsus, Turkey. In Iraq, it is reported from the southern marshes, small streams, and major rivers such as the Shatt al Arab River, Tigris, Euphrates, Little Zab, Great Zab and Diyala, and reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah Dam Lake on the Euphrates River. Habitat. This species is dominant in the small fish assemblages in the Shatt al Arab River near Basrah at 70.8% of 14,084 fish caught. It favours side branches off the Shatt al Arab River, presumably to avoid predators found in deeper water. This species dominated in the polluted and disturbed environment of a dockyard on the Shatt al Arab River. This was one of the most abundant species in the recovering marshes of southern Iraq in 2005-2006. It is also recorded from large rivers and dams. Biology. A study of this species in the Little Zab River found the largest specimen to be 13.7 cm. Three populations of this species were examined in the Shatt al Arab River and it was found that the 0+ age group was represented by fish 2.1-11.0 cm long and 1+ age group by fish 8.3-14.1cm. Four age groups with a length range of 4-19 cm were found in the Qarmat Ali River of southern Iraq, with maturity in the first year. A population of this species in the Tigris River, Turkey showed that females grew faster and were larger than males at the same age, particularly for age groups 3 and 4. Five age groups were found with age group 3 dominant for both sexes. Overall sex ratio was 1.83 females:1 male. Sexual maturity was attained by 75% of females and 85% of males in the second year of life and all fish in age group 3 were mature.

92 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Shatt al Arab River fish had organic detritus as the dominant gut content, followed by phytoplankton (blue-green algae and diatoms), small crustaceans (ostracods, cyclopoids, cladocerans), and aquatic plants, with dominance varying by month. In a study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 70.77% insects and 9.81% algae with diatoms, plants, crustaceans and snails at less than 10% each, in the Hawizah Marsh 66.4% insects and 14.1% algae, with amounts of diatoms and various crustaceans being less than 10% each, and in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 62.7% insects and 17.7% algae with diatoms, plants and various crustaceans at less than 10% each. Gut contents were crustaceans, insects, and plant and gastropod shell fragments in fish from Iran. Most females in the Shatt al Arab River were ripe in March and July samples, and some were spent. Well-developed testes were noted in fish caught on 16 May in Turkey and 7 July near Ravansar, Kermanshahan, Iran indicating either a prolonged breeding season or local variations in timing. Spawning was reported in May to late June for a Tigris River, Turkey population. A Keban Dam population on the Euphrates River in Turkey had an extended spawning season that ran from April to August. Egg diameter exceeded 1.2 mm and egg numbers reached 8125, and elsewhere may reach 11,000 eggs. In the Qarmat Ali River in southern Iraq, fecundity reached 1759-9293 eggs. Economic importance. In the early 1990s in Iraq, this species was used for human consumption and for fishmeal. Conservation. This species is infrequently reported from Iraqi waters overall and its status needs to be assessed through further fieldwork.

Genus Alburnoides Jeitteles, 1861 This genus is found in Europe, Asia Minor and Central Asia with about 17 species, only one of which is reported in Iraq. The riffle minnows are similar in appearance to the genus Alburnus but have smooth rather than serrated pharyngeal teeth. Arguably, this distinction is insufficient to warrant a separate genus but it is retained here as this has not been investigated in depth and the genus has widespread usage. Certainly, it is not uncommon to find individuals of some Alburnus species lacking serrations on their pharyngeal teeth. Pharyngeal teeth in Alburnoides are in 2 rows with strongly hooked tips but unserrated, scales of medium size, no groove before the dorsal fin, a keel behind the pelvic fins is usually scaleless but may be wholly scaled, short dorsal and moderate to long anal fin, dorsal fin unbranched ray thickened, decurved lateral line often with a characteristic spotting pattern above and below each pore, and gill rakers short and few.

Species Accounts 93

Alburnoides bipunctatus (Bloch, 1782) Common names. None. [spirlin, riffle minnow or riffle bleak]. Systematics. Originally described from Germany. Alburnoides bipunctatus in Iraq must be regarded as part of a species complex; whether the taxon in Iraq is distinct from named taxa elsewhere, for example in the Black-Caspian seas basin, remains to be determined. Key characters. The pigmentation along the lateral line is distinctive in combination with scale and anal fin ray counts.

Alburnoides bipunctatus

pharyngeal teeth

ventral keel

94 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Morphology. Dorsal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 6-10, usually 8, branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 10-18 branched rays, usually 12-13, pectoral fin branched rays 12-16, and pelvic fin branched rays 6-8, usually 7. Lateral line scales 41-58. Gill rakers 5-12, usually 7-10. Vertebrae 38-44. Pharyngeal teeth 2,5-4,2, rarely 2,5-5,2 or 1,5-4,2, with variants being 1,5-4,1, 2,5-4,3, 2,3-4,2, 2,4-4,2, 1,5-4,0, and 1,2,5-4,3. Total vertebrae 38-43. The chromosome number is 2n = 50. Pelvic fin length is greater in males and snout length greater in females for this species in Azerbaijan. Colour. There is a characteristic pigmentation along the lateral line with a small spot above, and another below, the lateral line opening on each scale, giving a stitched appearance. This only appears in preserved material, as live fish are an overall silvery colour. It can be absent, mostly in lake forms. The flank has a blue-grey stripe wider than the eye diameter. Above the lateral line, there may be a series of 5-9 black lines formed of triangular blotches and 3-5 similar lines below the lateral line. The back and head are dark olive, almost black, dark green or dark brown. The flank above the lateral line may have purple iridescent tints. The flanks can be a golden yellow. The belly and lower head are pearly-white. The dorsal and caudal fins have some grey pigment or may be dark grey. The bases of the pectoral, pelvic and anal fins have orange to red pigmentation that is not well developed in young. The extent and intensity of this pigment is variable between fins, although in some fish it is equally developed in all these fins. Size. Reaches 14.5 cm, rarely over 16.0 cm. Distribution. Found from France through Europe north of the Alps eastwards to the Black, Caspian and Aral Sea basins. In Iraq, and Iran south of the Caspian Sea basin, as the Alburnoides bipunctatus species complex, it is widely distributed and is found as far south as the endorheic Kor River basin near Shiraz, Iran. It is recorded from the Tigris River basin in Iran in the Karun and Karkheh River basins and the upper Iranian Diyala River basin. It has probably been mis-identified or confused with other species in Iraq. One specimen from Iraq in the Natural History Museum, London has no locality data and a second is listed as from Sarchinar near Sulaymaniyah in the Diyala River basin. Habitat. This species inhabits small streams and is less frequent in the main flow of large rivers. It prefers well-oxygenated water, low in pollution, with hard streambeds. In laboratory experiments with European specimens, reproduction requires a stream velocity of 0.4 ms-1 and a gravel substrate with a diameter of 2-15 cm that allows interstitial flow. Biology. In Azerbaijan, maturity is attained at 1-2 years and life span is 3 years. Food is taken from the bottom or from the water surface, the former being mostly insect larvae and the latter terrestrial organisms which fall on the water. Simuliidae, Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, Chironomidae and Trichoptera, and diatoms are found in fish from Iran. Spawning takes place in spring (April-June) at 13-15.6°C and adhesive eggs are laid on sand or gravel in fast-flowing water. Fecundity reaches 6496 eggs and egg diameter 2.16 mm in the Caspian Sea basin. Multiple spawning over a period of 15 weeks occurs in laboratory conditions.

Species Accounts 95

Economic importance. This species is important based on its use as bait and in textbooks. It is also a known feeder on the larvae of the malaria-carrying mosquito. Conservation. This species is vulnerable to endangered in Europe through pollution and eutrophication but its status in Iraq is unknown.

Genus Alburnus Rafinesque, 1820 The genus Chalcalburnus Berg, 1933 is a synonym. There have been numerous variant views of this synonymy. The distinction of the genus from Alburnus is based on the relative lengths of the ventral keel and the relative thickness of the last unbranched dorsal fin ray, characters that can be viewed with suspicion in the absence of other corroborating evidence. The genus is characterised by a short and scaleless keel in front of the vent, the naked part reaching or not reaching as far forward as the pelvic fin bases, scales moderate to small in size, lower jaw prominent and sometimes protruding, gill rakers long and fairly numerous, pharyngeal teeth in 2 rows and slightly or not serrated, dorsal fin short and anal fin usually long. Alburnus caeruleus Heckel, 1843 Common names. Lassafa. Systematics. The type locality is “Aleppo” (= Halab, Syria). Key characters. Distinguished from its relative by fewer scales along the lateral line (45-58 compared to 60-89) and a deeper body (2.9-3.5 in standard length compared to 4.0-5.1). Morphology. Dorsal fin with 3 unbranched and 8-9 branched rays, usually 8, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 13-16 branched rays, pectoral fin rays 12-15 and pelvic fin rays 7-8. Lateral line moderately to strongly decurved, scales 45-58. Scales lack radii on the anterior field. The naked ventral keel is obvious. Pharyngeal teeth hooked at tip and deeply notched or serrated below. Modally 2,5-4,2, with variants 2,5-5,2, and 2,5-4,1. Total gill rakers 10-12, just reaching past adjacent raker when appressed. Total vertebrae 39. The body is relatively deep with a slight nuchal hump, 2.9-3.5 times in standard length. The gut is s-shaped. Males have tubercles on the lower jaw, the sides and dorsal surface of the head and on flank scales. Tubercles are evident on the pectoral fin and appear as traces on the pelvic fins. Colour. Back blackish, flanks silvery. Horizontal stripe along flank sky-blue. Flanks, even lower flanks, and head heavily speckled. Fins generally yellowish, dorsal, anal and

96 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Alburnus caeruleus

pelvic fins apically black to sky blue. The membranes of the dorsal and anal fins are heavily pigmented while the rays are clearer. In some specimens, the edge of the caudal fin is quite dark. The peritoneum is brown to black. Size. Attains 86.9 mm standard length. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates and Quwaiq River systems. In Iraq, it is recorded from the southern marshes, rivers such as the Tigris and Saddam (Main Outfall Drain), streams such as the one at Sarchinar in the Diyala River basin, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, and reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah Dam Lake on the Euphrates River. It is probably more widely distributed than museum and literature records suggest. Habitat. Found in rivers, streams, reservoirs, lakes and ponds. The third most dominant species of fish in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, comprising 8.7% of all fish collected. Biology. Unknown although large eggs were visible in fish from Syria caught in mid-May, suggesting spring spawning. Economic importance. None. Conservation. This species is poorly known and documented in Iraq so its conservation status is unknown. Alburnus mossulensis Heckel, 1843 Common names. Semnan; simnan; semnan tuyel; sink; lassaf; zurri at Mosul (zurri is also used for Chondrostoma regium, Aphanius spp., Gambusia and any small fishes or large fishes when young).

Species Accounts 97

Systematics. Alburnus capito Heckel, 1843 from “Gebirgsflüssen Kurdistans” (mountain streams of Kurdistan) or “Gebirgsbache in Kurdistan” is probably a synonym. The type locality of Alburnus mossulensis is the “Tigris bei Mossul”. A subspecies, Alburnus mossulensis delineatus (Battalgil, 1942), is reported from Diyarbakir on the Tigris River in Turkey. A hybrid with Acanthobrama marmid was reported from the Hammar Marsh in southern Iraq. A. mossulensis is probably a synonym of A. sellal (Heckel, 1843), a species originally described the Quwayq River at Aleppo (= Halab, Syria). However, mossulensis is retained as a distinct species because of colour differences and the difficulty of obtaining fresh material of sellal in its polluted habitat at Aleppo. A. mossulensis is differentiated from sellal by the former being more slender and elongate, the pelvic, dorsal and anal fins are more anterior so the caudal peduncle is more elongate, the eyes are larger and lower on the head, and there is a lead-coloured stripe separating the upper third of the body from the lower part. A. mossulensis may be nothing more than a subspecies of A. sellal. Samples from the Middle East may show clinal variation from northwest to southeast, with numbers of anal fin branched rays, lateral line scales and gill rakers gradually decreasing. However, variation in this species has not been fully examined, local envi-

Alburnus mossulensis

pharyngeal teeth

98 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

ronmental conditions such as temperature can affect scale counts and the problem of the relationship of C. sellal remains to be resolved. Key characters. Distinguished from its relative by more scales along the lateral line (60-89 compared to 45-58) and a shallower body (4.0-5.1 in standard length compared to 2.9-3.5). Morphology. Dorsal fin with 3 unbranched and 7-9 branched rays, usually 8, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 10-14 branched rays. Pectoral fin branched rays 14-16, pelvic fin branched rays 8-9. Lateral line scales 60-89. Gill rakers 11-16. Pharyngeal teeth 2,54,2, with hooked tips and serrated edges to the crowns. Variants include 2,5-5,2, 3,5-5,3 and 2,5-5,3. Populations vary sympatrically in total vertebral counts in the upper and lower Tigris River basin: 40-43 and 42-45; and in abdominal counts 20-22 and 22-24. The body is relatively shallow, usually greater than 4.0 times in standard length. Colour. Overall colour is silvery. The back is a bluish- or reddish-brown, bluish-black or blackish. A dark, lead-coloured stripe runs along and above the mid-flank and has a width about the same as the eye diameter. The stripe may only be evident posteriorly. Scales above the lateral line have fine melanophores at their base. The dorsal, anal and caudal fins are margined with black, the latter the darkest. There may be a black spot at the caudal fin base and the first pectoral fin ray may be black dorsally. The pectoral, pelvic and anal fins are yellowish at their base. Pelvic and anal fins may be reddish. The peritoneum is brown but may be thickly speckled with black-brown spots and thus appear almost black. Size. Reaches about 22 cm and, in the recovering southern marshes, reaches 20 cm (2005-2006 studies). Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin and adjacent basins in Iran. In Iraq it is found widely from the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the southern marshes, rivers such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Diyala, Little Zab, Great Zab, Rawanduz as well as smaller rivers and streams, lakes such as Tharthar, Habbaniyah and Razzazah, and reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah Dam Lake on the Euphrates River. Habitat. This species is found in streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs and marshes. Experimentally, for specimens taken from the Aloka River, north of Mosul, this species can survive temperatures in the range of about 1.25-36.2°C when acclimated (fish were identified incorrectly as Chalcalburnus chalcoides). It is the second most dominant species of fish (identified as A. sheitan) in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, comprising 10% of all fish collected. This was one of the most abundant species in the recovering marshes of southern Iraq in 2005-2006. Biology. Young fish (up to age 3) of this species were aged by measurements of lens diameter from fish of the marshes north of Basrah. Four age groups, 3.8-20.0 cm in length, were found in fish from Qarmat Ali River, maturing in the first year. A study of the growth of this species in the Karasu of Turkey found 4 age groups, and 5 age groups for another Turkish study were mentioned. Mean fork length is 118.2 mm, 131.0 mm, 145.2 mm and 163.3 mm respectively for 4 age groups. Another study on this species in

Species Accounts 99

the Karasu River found age groups 1 to 6 with age group 3 the most abundant. A female 15.5 cm long had mature eggs. Qarmat Ali River fish had a fecundity of 1926-11,779 eggs. Shatt al Arab River fish fed on phytoplankton (algae and diatoms) at 44%, followed by organic detritus at 36.7% (33% in a table), and arthropods at 3.1%, It had a dietary overlap of 89% with Barbus luteus in May, the highest in the study. In a study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 67.95% insects and 14.34% algae with diatoms, plants, crustaceans and fish at less than 10% each, in the Hawizah Marsh 66.2% insects and 19.2% algae, with amounts of diatoms and crustaceans being less than 10% each, and in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 73.7% insects and 13.1% algae with diatoms, plants and crustaceans at less than 10% each. Economic importance. Used in the preparation of fishmeal. Conservation. An abundant species where studied, it seems to be under no threat in Iraq.

Genus Aspius Agassiz, 1832 The asps comprise 2 species found in Europe and Southwest Asia. One species is found in Iraq. This genus is characterised by an elongate, rounded and large body, small scales, a long, oblique mouth with the lower jaw projecting, lower jaw with a symphysis knob fitting into a notch in the upper jaw, no barbels, pharyngeal teeth in 2 rows, pointed and hooked, gill rakers short and wide apart, short dorsal fin without a thickened ray, a long anal fin, a scaled keel behind the pelvic fins, and gill slits very wide such that the branchiostegal membranes attach under the posterior end of the eye. Aspius vorax Heckel, 1843 Common names. Shillig; shillik; shelej; shalaj; sholgeh; bu aliawi; abu elawi. [called “snake” by American soldiers because of the name asp being familiar as the snake that killed Cleopatra]. Systematics. The type locality for this species is the “Tigris bei Mossul”. This species may be close to Aspius aspius, perhaps a clinal variant, since the Caspian Sea basin subspecies, A. a. taeniatus (67-90) has scale counts intermediate in range between European populations of A. aspius (65-74) and A. vorax (82-110). However, this may be more apparent than real as there is considerable overlap and frequency distributions are not given. There was insufficient material on hand from Iraq and Iran to investigate this character in more detail.

100 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Aspius vorax

Key characters. The small scales, mouth shape and other characters of the genus serve to identify this species. Morphology. The head is long and tapers anteriorly. The mouth is elongate, reaching to the anterior half of the eye. There is a hump as the back rises abruptly after the head. Fins are more falcate than in the line illustration when partially collapsed. Dorsal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 7-9, usually 8, branched rays. Anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 9-13 branched rays, modally 10 but high frequencies at 11. Pectoral fin branched rays 16-18, pelvic fin branched rays 8-9, usually 8. Lateral line scales 82-110, lateral line low on the flank anteriorly, rising to the midline of the caudal peduncle. There is a pelvic axillary scale. Scales have a few radii on the posterior field only, a central focus and numerous, fine, concentric circuli. Pharyngeal teeth 3,5-5,3 with variants 2,5-5,3 and 2,5-5,2, long, compressed and hooked at the tip. Gill rakers 9-14, reaching base of adjacent raker when appressed but widely spaced and not developed anteriorly. Some rakers do reach the adjacent one when appressed in some fish. Total vertebrae 51-53. The gut is an elongate s-shape. Colour. The back is greenish to blackish but overall colour is silvery-grey or silverywhite. Fins are said to be all pale yellow in live fish but are dark in some preserved specimens. A photograph of one freshly caught specimen showed reddish pectoral, pelvic and anal fins, with the dorsal fin greenish, similar to the back and flanks. Another freshly caught specimen was overall silvery, with a brownish-green back, fins overall grey with some yellowish tinges. The peritoneum is black to brown. Size. Reaches 1.5 m and 60 kg in the Syrian Euphrates. The Suq ash Shuyukh Marsh in April 2005 contained specimens larger than 65.0 cm and fish in Baghdad palace ponds were estimated to reach 36-40 inches (91-102 cm) and 15-20 pounds (6.8-9.1 kg). Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates and the Orontes (= Asi) River basins in the Middle East. In Iraq this species is recorded from the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the southern marshes, rivers such as the Tigris, Euphrates,

Species Accounts 101

Diyala and Little Zab as well as smaller streams, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, and reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah Dam Lake on the Euphrates and the Dukan Dam. Found in palace ponds in Baghdad and caught by American soldiers using various angling gear. Habitat. In Iraq, it lives in rivers, streams, ponds, lakes and marshes in both open and vegetated areas and remains in shallow water even in summer. From spring to fall, it is found mainly in marshes and lakes. The barrages at Hindiyah and Kut blocked the upstream migration of this species. Lakes at Camp Slayer in Baghdad contain this species and, in the shallows, the larger fish chase smaller shillig and other fishes, leaving v-shaped wakes with the tail fin exposed. Smaller fish leap out of the water to escape the shillig. Biology. Observations on the biology of this cyprinid were made in Habbaniyah Reservoir. Eight age groups were reported with most rapid growth in summer months when water temperatures were above 25°C. Another study found the oldest age groups to be 5+, 6+ and 7+ in lakes Razzazah, Habbaniyah and Tharthar respectively. Growth in weight was about 160.1 g per year to the fourth year of life and about 331 g per year afterwards. Mean condition factor was 1.0, a stable value probably related to piscivory. This species had a higher fat content than Barbus luteus with which it was studied. Annual survival in Lake Tharthar for fish 2.6-5.5 years was 62.0%. Productivity in this lake was low, based on chemical and limnological studies, limiting fish production. This species is mainly piscivorous, feeding almost entirely on fish when adult, although aufwuchs and other items may be found in gut contents. The gill rakers are widely spaced, indicative of a piscivorous diet and the gut is a short s-shape, about equal to fish standard length, also indicative of a piscivorous diet. It is mainly a mid-water and benthic feeder with limited predation on surface water organisms. The diet in the Garma Marshes was aquatic insects and crustaceans in young shillig in both summer and winter, with molluscs and fish less important. Even in large shillig, fish were outranked by aquatic insects and in winter by crustaceans as well. Molluscs were a minor food. Shillig rejected certain molluscs while taking others, attributed to variations in shell thickness and attachment strength to substrates. Examination of the diet of this species in the Hammar Marsh found a gradually reduced feeding intensity towards the winter months, a highest fullness index in May and lowest in January, and a diet governed by food accessibility and availability. Crustaceans, fish and aquatic insects were the main food items in descending order of importance, fish being the most important on a percentage-ranking index in large shillig and even in small shillig by volume. Benthic molluscs were the third most important food for young shillig after crustaceans and fish. Fish were the main diet item of large shillig and there is a gradual shift from small- to large-sized prey as the shillig grows. Frogs, molluscs and aquatic plants and algae were also found in stomach contents, with frogs being important to large shillig in terms of prey volume. Plants may be accidental inclusions taken when seizing prey in weed beds. The fish eaten in descending order

102 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

of importance were Liza abu, Gambusia affinis (sic, probably G. holbrooki), Garra rufa and Cyprinus carpio. The main crustacean eaten was Metapenaeus affinis. In another study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 80.0% fish and 20.0% insects, in the Hawizah Marsh 47.4% fish and 29.4% insects with shrimps, other crustaceans, algae, diatoms, plants and snails at less than10% each, and in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 73.0% fish and 16.8% insects with shrimps, other crustaceans, algae and plants at less than 10% each. The diet of this species in Lake Tharthar found year-old shillig to be eating oligochaetes, tendipedids and plants material with only fish in 2-7 year old shillig. Dietary coincidence with bizz was high in Lake Tharthar, 96.1%. In its turn, it is eaten by Silurus triostegus. Possible spawning is recorded in Habbaniyah Reservoir in January at 10°C with a fecundity up to 74,509 eggs, a mean of 1157 eggs/g body weight and egg diameter of about 1.1 mm. In the early 1950s, this species was found in deep parts of rivers in December-January, entering marshes and lakes in February to spawn at the end of February and the beginning of March. Spawning took place on gravel beds, the same as those used by Barbus xanthopterus, but also on plants. Reproduction in lakes Tharthar and Habbaniyah found males to achieve maturity in the third year of life at 44.2 cm and females in the fourth at 47.2 cm. Spawning occurred in February at 13-14ºC. Fecundity was 92,000 eggs/kg body mass. Economic importance. Shillig were an important fish species at the Basrah fish market, accounting for 68,948 kg from October 1975 to June 1977, although this is an order of magnitude less than for the three most important species. Its potential for fish farming may be limited by its small gill area which makes it unfit to maintain gas exchange in oxygen-poor water. However, another study showed locally-raised Scenedesmus acutus algal cultures at 0.5*106 cell/ml, with baker’s yeast at 0.05 g/L, was the best formula for raising the rotifer Brachionus calcyflorus as live food for shillig larvae. Growth rate was higher on an artificial diet of boiled eggs and soybean meal at 52% compared to 48%, in contrast to common carp (q.v.). The fishing season for this species in the 1950s was December-February (peaking in January) and February and June-November (peaking in February and July-August). Foreign soldiers in Iraq during 2005 regularly caught this species on angling gear using spoons and streamer flies. Conservation. Commonly caught by American soldiers in Iraq in 2004 as evidenced by emailed photographs sent for identification. It is an important food fish in Iraq. Studies advocate no large-scale exploitation of fish under 17.3 cm length or overall yield would be reduced.

Species Accounts 103

Genus Barbus Cuvier and Cloquet, 1816 The barbels, genus Barbus sensu lato, are found in Europe, Southwest Asia and Africa and comprise about 800 species. This genus includes a wide variety of species and is something of a catchall, serving to cover groups of species that have not been satisfactorily defined as distinct genera to general acceptance. Some authors recognise genera not recognised by others or regard these genera as subgenera - this necessarily affects the species count above. Characters in Southwest Asian species include a rounded or compressed body of moderate to very large size, large to very small scales (lateral line scale count range is at least 26-103), no scale sheath around the anal fin, scales have moderate to high numbers of radii and numerous fine circuli, the presence of barbels in most species, usually 2 pairs, often 1 pair and sometimes none (and individually variable within species), lips variably developed from thin to thick and fleshy, the lower lip sometimes with a well-developed median lobe (and lip development individually variable within species), the last unbranched ray in the short dorsal fin (usually 7-8 branched rays but sometimes more) is thickened and spine-like and may bear teeth or be smooth, a short anal fin, usually with 5 branched rays (but some have 6), pharyngeal teeth in 3 rows with hooked or spoon-shaped tips but sometimes heavy and massive or molariform, gut short, peritoneum white to brown or black, and colour usually brown without distinctive markings in the form of stripes, bands or spots (the spotty Barbus subquincunciatus is an exception). Some authors restrict Barbus to tetraploid species with scales having divergent striae. These species have 7-8, occasionally 9, branched dorsal fin rays, 5 branched anal fin rays, papillose lips and two pairs of barbels. This then excludes species placed in Carasobarbus, Kosswigobarbus, Mesopotamichthys and Tor. Carasobarbus has modally 10 dorsal fin branched rays, modally 6 branched anal fin rays, usually one pair of barbels, smooth last unbranched dorsal fin ray, and large scales. Kosswigichthys has two pairs of thin barbels, 6 branched anal fin rays, the last unbranched dorsal fin ray strong and sharp-edged but smooth, 9-11 branched dorsal fin rays, large scales, small, ventral and u-shaped mouth, and lips are thick, continuous and fleshy and there is a large median lobe to the lower lip. Mesopotamichthys lacks barbels, the last dorsal fin unbranched ray is moderately ossified but lacks teeth, scales are large, dorsal fin with 8 branched rays, and anal fin 5 branched rays. Tor has two pairs of barbels, a strong, smooth spine in the dorsal fin, large scales, dorsal fin branched rays usually 8, and anal fin branched rays 5. For the moment, Barbus is used as a catchall genus and these proposed genera are not separated. The genus is clearly in need of a revision using molecular methods to complement data in morphology. Barbus under this restricted definition ranges from England to the Urals, in northwest Africa, the basins of the Black, Caspian and Aral seas, Anatolia, the Levant, the Tigris-Euphrates basin and adjacent parts of Iran. African species

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do not belong to this genus. Two groups of species can be distinguished in this restricted Barbus according to authors, namely those with 5 pharyngeal teeth in the main row and a papillose lower lip separated from the chin by a groove and those with 4 pharyngeal teeth in the main row and a lower lip without papillae and continuous with the chin, this latter group being formerly recognised as the genus Luciobarbus Heckel, 1843. The European/Caucasian member(s) of Barbus sensu stricto in Iraq is lacerta representing a Northern Mediterranean Group and of Luciobarbus are barbulus, esocinus, kersin, pectoralis, subquincunciatus and xanthopterus representing a Southern Group. A review of Barbus using molecular markers concurs. The genus Barbus Cuvier and Cloquet, 1816 has been split into a number of genera that have not met with general acceptance, as noted above. Names used in Southwest Asia include Tor Gray, 1834 sensu Karaman, 1971, Labeobarbus Rüppell, 1836, Systomus McClelland, 1838, Luciobarbus Heckel, 1843, Barynotus Günther, 1868 (preoccupied), Aspiobarbus Berg, 1932 (= Luciobarbus), Bertinius Fang, 1943 (and Bertinus Banister, 1980, a misspelling), Bertinichthys Whitley, 1953 (an unneeded replacement of Bertinius), Mesopotamichthys Karaman, 1971, Carasobarbus Karaman, 1971 and Kosswigobarbus Karaman, 1971. Labeobarbus is generally considered to be a synonym of Tor, species of which are found mostly in the Oriental Realm, with perhaps only Barbus grypus in Iraq being a member of Tor. Bertinius is regarded as a synonym of Luciobarbus by some authors. There are also conflicting views on the validity and synonymy of several nominal Barbus species. An extensive comparison of these views is not given. Author’s views conflict, even when examining the same material. Problems include:- the low number of specimens (one author examined 11 nominal taxa relevant to Iraq in detail but averaged only about 6 specimens per taxon, often from a single locality or outside Iraqi waters); a wide range in size of individuals of species being compared making age related changes difficult to assess (denticles in the dorsal fin are often lost with age, barbels are shorter, body shape changes, etc); the possibility of sexual dimorphism; possible variation between populations; ecomorphs being recognised as genera, e.g. Luciobarbus was recognised by having 4, as opposed to 5, teeth in the outer pharyngeal tooth row; Bertinius is founded on this condition and development of molar teeth for crushing molluscs - but this may have risen independently in response to an ecological opportunity; paedomorphosis and independent origins from a generalised form in different sites, and the lack of a wide range of new material. An adequate resolution of the systematics of the Barbus sensu lato species in the Tigris-Euphrates basin in particular would require extensive collections of new material from type localities and from the whole basin and comparison of this material with the extant types. Not all types are extant and some that do exist are in poor condition. If this were not complication enough, Barbus species are prone to hybridisation with other Barbus species and even other genera, further confusing the resolution of the issue. A hybridization rate of 5.5-6.0% in Barbus of the Iberian Peninsula has been recorded, higher under changed ecological conditions such as the building of dams.

Species Accounts 105

The origin of the genus Barbus according to authors lies in East Asia and the genus reached the Euro-Mediterranean region by a Siberian route. Barbus became extinct in northern East Asia, Siberia and northern Europe when the climate cooled during either the Pliocene or the Quaternary. Europe was colonised during the Oligocene and it is from Europe through Anatolia that Southwest Asia received many of its “palaearctic” Barbus. This route of entry probably did not occur before the Pliocene because the Syrian-Iranian Sea, the last connection between the Tethys Sea and the Indian Ocean, blocked passage of primary freshwater fishes into what is now Iraq/Iran and adjacent regions although a connection between a Balkan-Aegean-Anatolian landmass and Iraq/Iran was possible during the early Miocene (20-17 MYA). A marine transgression 16.8-11.8 MYA flooding the eastern Paratethys and the rise of mountain barriers led to independent evolution of Barbus in the Balkan-Aegean-Anatolian landmass and in the Iranian Plateau. During the late Miocene the eastern marine connection of Paratethys closed (11.8-10.5 MYA) allowing an exchange of Barbus between Iraq/Iran and Anatolia, continuous from that time. The Paratethys became an intracontinental sea, the Sarmatian Sea, with a basin encompassing the present Black, Caspian and Aral seas and neighbouring low-lying areas. The Sarmatian Sea freshened as large rivers entered it during the late Miocene and Pliocene, facilitating dispersal of freshwater fishes. A second route of entry for Barbus to northern Iraq/Iran was via southwestern Siberia and the Aral Sea basin during the early to middle Oligocene. The group from East Asia split into two branches, one forming Barbus sensu stricto and using a dispersal route north of the Ponto-Caspian basin and reaching western Europe and another (Luciobarbus) dispersing across the present-day Mediterranean. A recent overview of Barbus systematics restricts the genus to Europe, Southwest Asia and Northwest Africa. Barbus sensu stricto is recognised as a lineage which shares morphological characters, has an ancestral tetraploid origin of 2n = 100, and has similar karyotypes, biochemical markers and parasites. Genetic studies indicate four groups of species, namely West European and Ponto-Caspian, Iberian, Northwest African and Levantine. Iberian barbels are found in Spain and Portugal and along within the Northwest African barbels share no species with Iraq, the West European and Ponto-Caspian barbels are also not found in Iraq, and the Levantine barbels include B. barbulus, B. cyri, B. esocinus, B. lacerta, B. pectoralis, B. rajanorum, B. scincus, B. subquincunciatus and B. xanthopterus. The authors make no comments on the validity of these nominal species. This work is continuing and the authors advocate various methods. They note that accurate descriptions of many taxa are lacking and that morphology is still the fastest and most cost-efficient way to identify species. Accurate identification is the foundation for all other studies. They recommend that Barbus-like species, which cannot be allocated to a clearly defined genus, should be placed in a genus called `Barbus’, surrounded by single quotation marks, until the systematic position is elucidated. Barbels are found in running water of streams and rivers although some may inhabit ponds, springs, lakes and marshes. Most show migrations for spawning. The roe or eggs of species in this genus have been implicated in poisoning and should be avoided. There

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are no modern reports of poisoning from Iraqi species but fish should be carefully cleaned in the spawning season to remove the eggs and ensure against contamination of flesh. A recent report exists on an Iranian case of poisoning from eating eggs of Barbus luteus. Severe cases of egg poisoning in other species have resulted in death. The Barbus species in Iraq are the most popular food fishes there. Recent studies have shown a sharp decline in availability and abundance of the species B. sharpeyi, B. xanthopterus, B. luteus and B. grypus. Local fishermen blame introduced carps and Heteropneustes fossilis but overfishing, habitat change and pollution may be contributory factors Barbus barbulus Heckel, 1849 Common names. Abu-barattum; abu baratem; abu bratum; nabbash. Systematics. Placed in the genus Luciobarbus by some authors. The type locality is the “Kara-Agatsch River…..near the village of Geré” (the Mand River in Fars, Iran) and the species is also recorded from the “Kueik near Aleppo” (= Quwayq near Halab, Syria). This species has been placed in the synonymy of Barbus rajanorum but this is a hybrid and other authors consider it to be a synonym of Barbus pectoralis or a subspecies of Barbus mystaceus sensu Heckel. See under B. pectoralis for more discussion. It is retained as a species under Heckel’s name for this taxon until the systematics of this and related species can be worked out as indicated above. Key characters. This species is characterised by having two pairs of barbels, a serrated and very strong dorsal fin spine similar to that in Capoeta trutta in its proportions relative to the body, usually 8 dorsal fin rays (never 10), fleshy lips, and 47 or more lateral line scales.

Barbus barbulus

Species Accounts 107

Morphology. The inferior mouth is moderate in size, with moderate to thick lips and with or without a median lower lip lobe. Some fish have very thick lips so a central lobe is apparent. Some show such a degree of lip development as to appear almost abnormal while fish of similar size or larger lack this hypertrophy. In the latter case, the anterior head may be bluntly rounded and foreshortened rather than having an almost straight upper margin tapering to a pointed end. Barbels are relatively thin, occasionally quite thick. The anterior barbel does not extend past the anterior eye margin level and the posterior one not past the posterior eye margin in all sizes of fish. Rarely the anterior barbel extends to mid-eye level and the posterior one almost to the anterior operculum margin. Dorsal fin with 4 unbranched and 8-9, usually 8, branched rays, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5 branched rays. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is usually very strong with a moderate density of denticles extending along much of the ray but its strength is variably developed. Pectoral fin branched rays 17-19, pelvic fin branched rays 8, rarely 9. Lateral line scales 47-59. Scale focus subcentral anterior, many fine circuli, and numerous radii on all fields, curved in the lateral fields. A pelvic axillary scale is present but not strongly developed or apparent. Gill rakers 14-24, reaching second raker when appressed. The interior raker surface may be covered with spinules, the internal base is heavily tubercular and the tips may become club-shaped. Pharyngeal teeth 1 or 2,3,4 or 5-5 or 4,3,2 or 1, usually 2,3,5-5,3,2, hooked at the tip but spoon-like below with the fourth tooth of the inner row molariform, with or without a blunt projection (hooked in small fish) and much larger than the third, and the fifth tooth very small and rounded and sometimes absent apparently independent of size. The gut is elongate and complexly coiled with one anterior and 3 posterior loops. Total vertebrae 44. Colour. The back and upper flank are brownish, the lower flank yellowish and the belly whitish. Upper flank scales are outlined with pigment, and the anterior edge of the dorsal fin and the caudal fin margin are black in preserved fish. Small fish have a few spots on the upper to mid-flank or may be profusely speckled in preservative. Small live fish are silvery overall and have anal and caudal fins orange to bright red, especially the lower caudal fin lobe. The dorsal fin is grey and the pectoral and pelvic fins yellowish. The operculum is greenish. The lower flank is greenish-golden and the upper flank brown to grey. Large specimens are silvery with clear fins. The belly in small and large fish is white and the back grey to brown. The iris is silvery. The peritoneum is black. Size. Reaches 38 cm, possibly to 1.5 m and 90 kg in the Zagros rivers of western Iran. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, the Orontes (= Asi) River and the Quwayq River. In Iraq found in the southern marshes, rivers such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Little Zab and Diyala, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, and reservoirs such as Dukan and Derbendikhan. Habitat. Recorded from rivers in Iraq, moving into lakes and marshes on the floods but never far from rivers. Also reported from reservoirs and smaller streams. Biology. The oldest age groups were 3+, 4+ and 7+ in lakes Habbaniyah, Razzazah and Tharthar respectively. The mean condition factor was 0.92 for Lake Habbaniyah

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and 0.86 for Lake Tharthar. Annual survival in Lake Tharthar for fish 2.3-4.6 years was 42.5%. Productivity was low based on chemical and limnological studies, and this limited fish production. Diet is benthic organisms including insects. Large plant remains and detritus are also present in gut contents of Iranian fish. Spawning is reported during July and August in fish from the Tigris River at Mosul. Economic importance. This species is a preferred catch of anglers at Ahvaz in Khuzestan, Iran, second only to Barbus grypus. Conservation. The population numbers of this species have not been well studied nor has its distribution been well documented. Since it does appear on fish markets, e.g. in Khuzestan and presumably in Iraq, is a large species and its habitats are under threat, it may require protection. Taxonomic problems also confuse assessment. Barbus esocinus (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Bizz; farkh; farch; farkh-el-biz; mangar. [Tigris “salmon”, Euphrates “salmon” (not a salmon of course), pike barb]. Systematics. Placed in the genus Luciobarbus by some authors. The type locality is “bei Mossul im Tigris”. Labeobarbus Euphrati Sauvage, 1882 described from “Biredjik (Euphrates)”, Turkey (not “Irak” as some reports) is a synonym. Placed in the synonymy of Barbus xanthopterus by some authors as several meristic characters are similar but examination of type material shows head size differs in the two

Barbus esocinus

Species Accounts 109

taxa in that esocinus postorbital length is very elongate and the head tapers anteriorly in a distinctive fashion. Key characters. This species is characterised by large size, a long, tapering and depressed head (rather pike-like in shape, hence the scientific name), two pairs of barbels, lateral line scale count high (62-78), head length in standard length 3.1-3.6 and postorbital length in standard length 5.9-7.2. Morphology. Head length in standard length is 3.2-3.6, mean 3.4 for esocinus type material and 4.0-4.2, mean 4.1 for xanthopterus and postorbital length in standard length is 5.9-7.2, mean 6.5 for esocinus and 7.7-7.8, mean 7.8 for xanthopterus with the higher values for esocinus based on smaller fish which tend to have proportionately larger heads. Total gill raker counts are 8-10, mean 9.3 for esocinus and 12-13, mean 12.5 for xanthopterus. Larger esocinus appear to lose anterior rakers with age but still have fewer than xanthopterus of similar size. Lateral line scale counts are 63-70, mean 67.3 in esocinus and 57-60, mean 58.5 in xanthopterus. Dorsal fin with 4 unbranched and 8 branched rays, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5 branched rays, pectoral fin with 16-18 branched rays and pelvic fin with 8 branched rays. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is very strong, with a low density of denticles but with fine denticles extending over much of the ray. Scales are regularly arranged, the smallest being on the isthmus anterior to the pectoral fin bases. There is a pelvic axillary scale. Scales have a central focus, numerous fine circuli, a wavy or rounded anterior margin, and radii on the anterior and posterior fields with a few widely spaced ones on the lateral fields. Gill rakers 8-12, well spaced and just touching the one below when appressed. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,5-5,3,2, hooked with the third tooth of the inner row slightly larger than the fourth and the fifth smaller. Johann Jakob Heckel gave 2,3,4-4,3,2 and teeth from large specimens seen at Ahvaz in 1995 had 2,3,4-4,3,2 and 2,3,5-4,3,2, the anteriormost tooth being small or absent. Even small specimens (85.7 mm standard length) may have the anteriormost tooth absent. Total vertebrae 48. The mouth is large, terminal and almost horizontal and extends back to the anterior eye margin. Lips are thin to moderate without a median lobe to the interrupted lower lip, and barbels are thin to very thin. The anterior barbel does not reach past the nostril level and the posterior barbel does not pass the mid-eye to rear eye level. The nostril is elongate and closer to the eye than the snout tip. The cephalic canals on the suborbital series have numerous branches. The gut is an elongate s-shape with several anterior loops. Colour. The back has numerous scattered, black spots on an olivaceous background, the spots extending onto the base of the dorsal fin. Spots may be weak or absent but this is comparatively rare. Overall colour is silvery with the anal and caudal fins dark red. The flanks and belly are lighter. The eye is yellowish in colour. Young fish have a yellow tinge or sulphur yellow colour to the fins. Size. Famous for its large size documented as follows by various authors. Frequently up to 3 hundredweights (= 152.4 kg) in the Zab River southeast of Mosul;

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7 feet (2.1 m) and 300 lbs (136 kg) in Iraq; a fish 6’4” (1.93 m) long with a girth of 3’10” (1.17 m) and a weight of 215 lbs (97.6 kg) from the Euphrates River at Hakika (wrongly identified as Barbus scheich); 69 inches (1.75 m) measured over the curve of a back with a 38 inch (0.97 m) girth and a weight of 123 lbs (55.8 kg) caught in the Diyala River on a light 14-foot (4.3 m) rod taking 1½ hours to land; 96 lb (43.6 kg) fish caught near Kizil Robat (= As Sa`diyah) in the Diyala River on a lump of atta (atta = ground corn with the husks unsifted); 140 lbs (63.6 kg) Tigris salmon caught on a 2” spoon at Samarra; hundreds of good weight up to 112 lbs (50.8 kg), one caught on a hand-line at 170 lbs (77.2 kg), one netted at 252 lbs (114.4 kg), and reputedly over 300 lbs (136 kg); up to two yards (1.83 m) as evidenced by a photograph of a specimen draped over a donkey in Iraqi Kurdistan; 2 m and 150 kg in Iraq; a 167 lb (75.8 kg) Tigris specimen and a 213 lb (96.7 kg) specimen at Nasiriyah on the Euphrates, called both gattan and “Euphrates salmon” but it was presumably the latter; weights up to 300 lbs (136 kg) and the largest taken on rod-and-line as 220 lb (100 kg) and 7 feet (2.1 m), baits used included balls of dough (atta) and dates, and chicken or sheep liver. A fish measuring 70.5 inches (179.1 cm) in length and 39 inches (99.1 cm) in girth with an estimated weight of 134-147 lbs (60.8-66.7 kg) was caught at Camp Slayer, Baghdad in 2008 using a bagel as bait. The largest fish seen in the 1990s along the Syrian Euphrates and its tributaries weighed 198 kg. A fish caught in 2001 on the Euphrates River near Birecik in Turkey with a net weighed 111 kg and was 2.4 m long. A 2.1 m specimen is reported from the market at Ahvaz, Khuzestan in 1993 (this last fish may have weighed 150 kg, original report not seen). Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin including its Iranian portion and the adjacent northern Gulf. In Iraq found in the southern marshes, in such rivers as the Tigris, Euphrates, Great and Little Zab and Diyala, in lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, in Al Faw Palace ponds at Baghdad, and reservoirs such as the Dukan and Derbendikhan dams and the Al Qadisiyah Dam Lake on the Euphrates River. Habitat. Found in large rivers, reservoirs of dams, and in smaller water bodies such as ponds and marshes connected to larger rivers. Fingerlings may be found in marshes. Found in considerable numbers in the Tigris River, some spawning there but the main spawning grounds are in the Little (between Altun Kupri and Taktak) and the Great (upstream of Eski Kelek) Zab rivers. Biology. Life span is at least 11 years. Fish 10.0-83.3 cm and 17-5800 g were collected from the Tigris at Za’faraniyah. Age groups were 1-11 years. The oldest age groups were 3+ and 4+ in lakes Habbaniyah and Tharthar. Growth was fastest in Lake Tharthar and was generally slower in northern mountain reservoirs than in lakes and rivers in the central and southern lowlands of Iraq. This species is a predator on other fishes. Small fishes were the diet in Al Qadisiyah Reservoir. Bizz from one to four years of age in Lake Tharthar fed only on fish. In Lake Habbaniyah, fish comprised 97.0% of the diet but food also included some plants (1.5%),

Species Accounts 111

oligochaetes (0.9%) and tendipedids (0.6%), these last three only forming 50% of dietary components for one-year-olds, older fish feeding exclusively on fish. Eggs are laid between large stones in the deep part of rivers in March or April. Some fingerlings drift down into lakes and marshes, and later migrate upstream to grow and spawn. The most important spawning areas in the Euphrates were 10 km above and below Haditha, and in the Diyala River above the weir that is 40 km above Abu Saida. Economic importance. The annual turnover in 1965 for seven main wholesale markets was 388 t. The fishing season for this species is February-April and July-November (peaking in March and August-September) in rivers. This species is in heavy demand on fish markets and is heavily exploited in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs as evidenced by absence of older fish in catches. It is the most valuable fish caught in Iraq. In Iraqi Kurdistan, these fish were caught and tethered by a cord passed through the lips until eaten by the villagers. At Altun Kupri on the Little Zab River, a drugged bait was used to stupefy the fish so it could be netted and dragged to shore. The growth hormone gene of this species has been cloned and used to increase growth of Cyprinus carpio. This species was being considered for aquaculture during the year 2000 in Khuzestan, Iran although fish larger than 1 m are needed to be ripe adults. Anglers and commercial fishermen seek this fish in the Iranian Zagros Mountains using ducklings (!) as bait. Baits in Iraq have included balls of dough and dates, chicken and sheep livers, flies and spoons, and bread. Conservation. This species is under severe threat in the Syrian Euphrates and its tributaries. A survey in 1997-1998 caught only a single juvenile and the commercial fisheries had not more than two dozen fish. Blast fishing and poisoning had led to a decline in age of catches since 1993. Large-scale water abstraction, dam building and pollution had destroyed habitats. Its status in Iraq has not been assessed but could be similar. It is an iconic species and part of a world survey to assess the status of large freshwater fish species by the World Wildlife Fund and the National Geographic Society of the United States. Barbus grypus Heckel, 1843 Common names. Shabout; shabbout; hamrawi. [large-scaled barb]. Systematics. This species has been placed it in the genus Tor and it may belong in Naziritor Mirza and Javed, 1985. The type locality of Barbus Grypus is “Tigris bei Mossul”. Labeobarbus Kotschyi Heckel, 1843, described from the “Tigris bei Mossul”, is a synonym. Key characters. This species is identified by having two pairs of barbels, a strong, smooth spine in the dorsal fin, and less than 44 scales in the lateral line.

112 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Barbus grypus

head

Morphology. The forehead is more rounded than in type material of kotschyi, although kotschyi types are smaller than grypus types, which may account for this distinction. The mouth is inferior, horseshoe-shaped and has fleshy lips. The median lobe of the lower lip is well-developed in some individuals (such specimens were described as kotschyi - this form is rare in Khuzestan, Iran according to N. Najafpour and intermediates can be seen) but not in others (grypus). The median lobe may extend back almost as far as the level of the rear margin of the lower lip or be distinctive with free lateral and rear margins but only extend back one third of this distance. The much fleshier lip structure in kotschyi (the upper lip can be reflexed for example) may be a form of hypertrophy seen in other cyprinid fishes. Barbels are about equal in length. The gut has two anterior and two posterior loops. Dorsal fin unbranched rays 4, branched rays 7-9, usually 8, anal fin unbranched rays 3, branched rays 5, pectoral fin branched rays 14-18, and pelvic fin branched rays 7-8, usually 8. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is smooth and spine-like, with sharp edges but no serrations although serrations are weakly developed in young fish. Total gill rakers 16-22. There is some evidence of higher counts in larger fish examined. Gill rakers reach the second raker below or beyond when appressed, with large tubercles or branches on

Species Accounts 113

the inner surface in 2 rows alternating left and right. Lateral line scales 34-43. A pelvic axillary scale is present. Scales have a subcentral anterior, almost central, focus, numerous fine circuli and many radii on all fields with the exposed part of the scale tubercular. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,5-5,3,2, in contrast to literature reports of 4 main row teeth being typical. Anterior teeth are rounded, the most anterior one small and blunt, posterior ones spatulate with hooked tips. Variants are 2,3,5-4,3,2, 2,3,4-5,3,2, 2,2,5-5,3,2 and 1,2,5-4,3,2. Total vertebrae 44-47 or 43-45 (authors vary). Colour. Overall colour is a pale rose to orange, usually without other markings. The back is a dark olive-brown to blackish-green with the flanks yellowish to silvery and belly silvery to milk-white. There may be an indistinct stripe along the mid-flank. Large fish have the upper flank darkened from the overall orange colour of the mid-flank and the lower flank scales are rimmed in white so they stand out. Lips are pale red. The operculum is golden. The pectoral, pelvic, anal and caudal fins are bright orange or pink at the base (perhaps white after preservation), distally blackish. Pectoral and pelvic fins may be dark overall with a reddish to reddish-brown tinge, and the leading edge of the pelvic fin pink. The anal fin may be a bluish-black distally. In some fish the caudal fin is black proximally and reddish distally. In large fish the pectoral, pelvic, anal and caudal are progressively darker in this order. The anal and pelvic fins, the pectoral fins less so, may be heavily pigmented with melanophores on rays and membranes so as to appear black in preserved fish. The dorsal fin is hyaline. The eye rim is yellow-green to lime-green. Young fish may have some scales darkened, giving a mottled effect and are more silvery on the flank than large fish. Their pectoral and pelvic fins are more orange and the anal and caudal fins are only slightly tinged with colour. The caudal fin carries a lot of grey. The smallest fish have a very faint fin colouration. Peritoneum black. Size. Reports of maximum size vary. 1.5 m and 30 kg is recorded for Syria. Attains 96.0 cm and 9.7 kg in Dukan Reservoir while other reports gave maximum weights of 12 and 20 kg in Iraq. Sizes up to nearly 2 m and 100 kg are reported but this may be confusion with B. esocinus. Reputedly reaches 60 kg in Lorestan, Iran. Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, the adjacent Gulf basins of Iran, and the Orontes (= Asi) River basin. In Iraq it is recorded from the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the southern marshes, rivers such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Little Zab and Diyala, some smaller streams, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, the Al Faw Palace ponds at Baghdad, and reservoirs such as the Al-Hindiya Dam, Al Qadisiyah Dam Reservoir on the Euphrates and the Dukan and Derbendikhan dams. Habitat. The habitat for this species in the Tigris River is given as distributed throughout the river and its tributaries. It is a strong swimmer, more at home in rivers than in marshes or lakes. Mature fish move upstream to the spawning grounds and spent fish descend to their original habitat. It spawns further upstream than gattan, in the Euphrates 30 km beyond Haditha and beyond Daur on the Tigris. In summer under low water level conditions and high temperatures, the smaller fish remain in the lower reaches of rivers but the larger fish migrate up rivers and tributaries, returning in September and October

114 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

when temperatures fall. It comprised 25% of the total fish population in the Euphrates in Iraq in the 1950s, centred in the upper reaches but moving downstream in certain seasons. The upstream migration on the Tigris was in early May, spawning between mid-May and mid-June. It was able to pass barrages at the flood peak and, because it spawns later than gattan, it can reach the spawning grounds in time. This species may enter marshes on floods, favouring areas where there is fresh river water, but returns to rivers as it requires a higher dissolved oxygen concentration than most marsh residents do. By the end of May all shabout larger than 30 cm have left lakes and marshes. A favoured temperature range of 9-31ºC is recorded for this species under culture conditions in Khuzestan. This species is versatile in its habitats in the Zohreh River, which drains to the northern Arabian Gulf in Iran. It was found throughout the river in contrast to Barbus sharpeyi, which being stenohaline, was restricted in its distribution. The form with a well-developed median lobe was said to occur in rocky habitats.  A report of infestation with the anchor worm, Lernaea cyprinacea, at Za’faraniyah Fish Farm, south of Baghdad, caused a high rate of fish mortality. The infestation was controlled by use of the chemicals formalin and dipterex. Biology. Males in Tigris River populations mature at about 45 cm and females at about 50 cm, with most fish mature in their fourth year and spawning at the beginning of their fifth year of life. Some fish mature in age group 3 and some as late as age group 5. Maximum age observed was 12 years. This species had the slowest growth compared to B. sharpeyi and B. xanthopterus. Males outnumber females, being two thirds of the fish on the spawning grounds. Growth was found to be better in fish from Tharthar Lake compared to those from the Tigris River. In the Dukan Reservoir, west of Sulaimaniyah, life span was 17 years for females and 11 years for males. Growth slows with age, and especially after maturity, and is fastest in the first year of life. 30% of males mature at age group 3 (39 cm) and all were mature at age group 6 (48 cm). Another study found life span of 11 years in the Dukan Reservoir and 8 years in the Derbendikhan Reservoir. This material was collected in 1980 so the age discrepancy with the previous study at about the same time is interesting and may be due to sampling methodology or ageing techniques. Fish aged 4-6 years dominated the catch in the two reservoirs, as exploitation is intense. A better condition was found in the reservoirs than in the lower Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Growth was slower in northern mountain reservoirs than in lakes and rivers in the central and southern lowlands of Iraq. In Lake Razzazah, males are longer than females before maturation and shorter thereafter. Females reach 13 years and males 8 years of age and fish mature at 40-50 cm total length at 3-5 years. Another study found the oldest age group was 5+ years. Males mature earlier than females. The condition coefficient for fish from Lake Razzazah was 0.804, a lower value than for Dukan Reservoir being attributed to the more saline conditions in Razzazah Lake. Another study found the condition factor to be 0.94. All females are mature at 51 cm (age group 7) in Dukan Reservoir but only 10% at 42 cm. Males mature earlier than females and may grow faster and die younger.

Species Accounts 115

The oldest age groups were 5+ in Lake Habbaniyah and 7+ in Tharthar Lake. The mean condition factor was 0.78 and 0.72 in lakes Habbaniyah and Tharthar respectively. Annual survival in Lake Tharthar for fish 2.5-5.3 years was 46.0% and for Lake Habbaniyah for fish aged 2.7-5.8 years was 24.7%. Productivity was low based on chemical and limnological studies, especially in Lake Tharthar, limiting fish production. Growth in a polluted section of the Diyala River near Baghdad was poor compared to other populations. Age groups varied from 3-12 years with age groups 6 and 7 being the most common. The condition factor had a range of 1.04-1.30. It was highest in April, presumably related to maturation, and lowest in May post-spawning. These values are higher than those obtained in other areas of Iraq. This species is an herbivore taking filamentous algae and higher plant parts. Incidental food items taken while feeding on plants include fish tissue and scales. Fallen ripe fruits from trees overhanging the water are also consumed, as are cereal grains from loading docks. It may also take some small fishes. Other authors however consider this fish to be an omnivore in Al Qadisiyah Reservoir and Hammar Marsh consuming green and blue-green algae, molluscs and detritus in the former and algae (29% of diet), detritus (39%) and crustaceans (17%) in the latter. Diet was dominated by plants (71.1% in Lake Tharthar, 43.3% in Lake Habbaniyah), followed by fish (8.0% and 36.2% respectively), detritus (7.0% and 7.6%) with smaller and varying amounts of oligochaetes, tendipedids and molluscs. Plants and detritus reached 84.0% in Lake Tharthar in September and 89.0% in Lake Habbaniyah in November. This fish had the ability to use any available food type. Dietary coincidence in Lake Habbaniyah was high, with gattan 61.6% and with himri 53.1%, as in Lake Habbaniyah with himri (81.9%), bunni (71.1%) and gattan (58.8%). Dietary overlap of 77% was found between this species and Barbus subquincunciatus but the availability of food resources offset possible competition. The diet of this species in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs was terrestrial plants and seeds in the first half of the growth season (in 78% of a small sample examined). Fish were found in 40% of specimens and snails, terrestrial insects, dipterans and chironomids were found in 22%. In late summer and fall, mainly invertebrates were found, chironomids dominating at 83%, and fish of the genus Alburnus were found in 50% of specimens. In Dukan Reservoir, spawning takes place from the beginning of May until the end of June. Eggs are deposited on fine gravels overlying a layer of coarse sand in shallow, wide holes. Water depth varies from 30 to 150 cm. Egg diameter is 1.5 mm and fecundity up to 147,000. The spawning season on the Tigris River between Beled and Tigrit is late May to late June after an upriver migration in April. Most fish prefer the Zab rivers for spawning. Fish appear on the spawning grounds in schools just before dark and remain there until shortly before midnight, making loud noises by splashing, jumping and chasing. After spawning, the fish return downriver but do not enter marshes, as these are now too warm. The most important spawning areas in the Euphrates are 10 km above and below Haditha and up to Ana, between 20 May and 10 June. The 40 km stretch between Altun Kupri and Taktak on the Little Zab River is also a spawning area

116 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

as is the Khabour River about 30 km above Sakho between Zorawa and Gund Nazi, the Great Zab between Guwair and the junction of the Khazir River from 10-20 June, and the Diyala River between Abu Saida and the Diyala weir 40 km higher. Reproduction studies in lakes Tharthar and Habbaniyah found males to achieve maturity in the fifth year of life at 57.4 cm and females in the sixth at 63.3 cm. Spawning occurred in April and fecundity was about 11.5 thousand eggs/kg body mass. Eggs are shed on, and adhere to, vegetation. Spawn was viscous and transparent. Economic importance. An important food fish, comprising 23% of the total fish production in Iraq for example, and forming the most important commercial fish there. It was ranked third in the inland wholesale trade of Iraq for the period 1967-1970. The catch for all Iraq in 1976 was 519 t. The price of shabbout in Iraq was U.S.$6 per kilogramme pre-war and was U.S.$13.50/kg in 2006. The annual turnover in 1965 for seven main wholesale markets was 943 t. The weight at the Basrah fish market from October 1975 to June 1977 was only 3,330 kg It forms about 50% of the commercial catch mass in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs in northeastern Iraq, is in heavy demand on local fish markets and is heavily exploited as evidenced by absence of older fish in catches. The fishing season for this species is April-October (peaking in June) and JanuaryJuly (peaking in March-April) for lakes and marshes. A mesh size of 50 mm was recommended for the fishery. This species is the preferred catch of anglers at Ahvaz in Khuzestan, with bread or potato as bait. American soldiers in Iraq found this fish to be a wary but scrappy fighter when angling. The Khuzestan Fisheries Research Centre at Ahvaz has experimented with this species in pond culture. This species is supposed to be the one mentioned in the Jewish Talmud as a kosher fish tasting like pork. According to rabbinic writings, seven hundred pure (permitted) fish were exiled with Israel to Babylonia, and all returned except for the shabout. Conservation. The stock of this species in the Gav Masiab River, Iran is severely reduced and only 3 fish were caught in western Iran in the Zagros rivers during a 4-year survey. It is therefore in need of conservation in some parts of its range and its abundance in Iraq should be studied carefully. This species is affected by pollution near Baghdad. More than 90% of this species on sale at fish markets in Baghdad and Karbala were females ready for first spawning and the rest had gonads at maturity stage 4. The low percentage of valuable fishes in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah was attributed to the overfishing of spawners in the closed season. Spawners from Lake Tharthar and the Tigris River were captured for hatchery, pond and pen rearing of eggs, larvae and fry. The average survival rate of eggs was 85%, of larvae and of fry 75%. This monocyclic species has a low spawning effectivity in dams and lakes in Iraq but these studies show that traditional cyprinid culture techniques work with this species.

Species Accounts 117

Barbus kersin Heckel, 1843 Common names. Jassan; shissan; jazzan; gazzan; djissan; barzam; barsam; kersin at Aleppo (= Halab, Syria) (hence the scientific name). Systematics. Placed in the genus Luciobarbus by some authors. This species may be only subspecifically distinct from Barbus pectoralis (q.v.). A wider range of material is needed to resolve this question. Barbus Kersin was described from “Aleppo”. Key characters. This species differs from the similar B. pectoralis by the generally smaller scales and body depth usually being greater than head length (equal in pectoralis). Morphology. Dorsal fin unbranched rays 3-4, usually 4, branched rays 7-8, usually 8, anal fin with 3 branched and 5-6, usually 5, unbranched rays. Pectoral fin branched rays 16-18, usually 17, pelvic fin rays 7-8, usually 8. The dorsal spine is strong but not as deep as the body nor as strong as in B. barbulus. Lateral line scales 49-58. Gill rakers 19-23, stubby anteriorly and only slender at the junction of the upper and lower arms of the arch, reaching just past the one below when appressed. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,55,3,2. The anterior tooth is thickened and rounded, the next less so and the remainder have a hooked tip with a scalloped area below. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is strong (as in pectoralis) with a low density of coarse denticles extending over much of the ray. The mouth is moderate in size and subterminal. The highly rounded snout projects a little. Lips are thin to moderate but not fleshy and lack a median lobe. The upper lip is covered partly by the snout. Two pairs of thin barbels, the anterior barbel not extending back beyond the anterior eye margin or just past it, and the posterior

Barbus kersin

118 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

barbel not beyond the middle of the eye. Body depth is equal to or greater than head length in the types. Colour. The body lacks distinctive markings and is olive to reddish-brown above, silvery on the flanks and white below. The dorsal and caudal fins have a blackish margin. Size. Attains 70.1 cm total length and 5 kg with some reports of 2 m and over 100 kg, possibly confused with larger species. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates and adjacent rivers in the Gulf basin of Iran, and the Quwayq and Orontes (= Asi) River basins. In Iraq, it is recorded from the Shatt al Arab River, Tigris, Little Zab and Diyala rivers, and the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs. Its uncertain taxonomic status means that specimens are seldom identified to this species. Habitat. The main habitat of Iraqi fish is rivers, entering marshes and lakes during floods but returning to rivers in June. It is also found in artificial reservoirs on dammed rivers. Biology. This species has been confused with related species and its biology is poorly known. It is said to eat a wide range of food items. Eggs are deposited on clay or gravel bottoms during mid-February to early March. The 40 km stretch between Altun Kupri and Taktak on the Little Zab River was a spawning area but the Tigris was the main spawning area in that basin. They also spawned in the Diyala River between Abu Saida and the Diyala weir, which is about 40 km above Abu Saida. Economic importance. The fishing season for this species in the early 1950s was January-March (peaking in February) and June-November (peaking in July) in rivers, and March-July (peaking in mid-May-mid-June) for lakes and marshes. Conservation. Data is unavailable on numbers and distribution in detail for this species so an assessment of conservations status is not possible. Barbus kosswigi (Ladiges, 1960) Common names. None. Systematics. This species was described as Cyclocheilichthys kosswigi Ladiges, 1960 from the “Batman suyu”, Turkey. The genus Cyclocheilichthys Bleeker, 1860 is found only in Southeast Asia. A new and monotypic genus, Kosswigobarbus, was erected for this species. The genus is distinguished based on the fin ray characters, a well-developed rostral flap, numerous fine pores on the head, and a large lachrymal bone. The relationships of this species appear to lie with other Southwest Asian species in the catchall genus Barbus which possess a compressed body, large scales with counts of 38 or less in the lateral line, a smooth dorsal fin spine, 9 or more branched dorsal fin rays and 6 anal fin branched rays, in particular B. sublimus Coad and Najafpour, 1997

Species Accounts 119

Barbus kosswigi

from Khuzestan in the Tigris-Euphrates basin of Iran. A systematic revision of these species and potential African, European and Asian relatives may demonstrate that generic distinctions are warranted. Key characters. This species is characterised by having a rostral flap and large median lobe on the lower lip, two pairs of thin barbels, 6 branched anal fin rays, the last unbranched dorsal fin ray strong and sharp-edged but smooth, 9-11 branched dorsal fin rays, large scales (41 or less in the lateral line), and a deep and compressed body. Morphology. The rostral flap shows variable development, sometimes overlapping the upper lip to become visible in ventral view and other times not so well developed. Lips are thick, continuous and fleshy and there is a large median lobe to the lower lip. The mouth is small, ventral and u-shaped. There are two pairs of barbels. The dorsal fin origin lies over or slightly in advance of the pelvic fin origin. The dorsal fin margin is strongly concave and the last unbranched dorsal fin ray is a strong spine without teeth. The caudal fin is deeply forked. The anal fin is long and may overlap the caudal fin base. Scales are regularly arranged over the body. A low sheath of scales is found at the base of the anal and dorsal fins, being most evident anteriorly, and enclosing the anal papilla. There is a pelvic axillary scale. Anterior scale radii are few (5-11) while posterior radii are numerous (35-40). There is a scaled keel or ridge before the dorsal fin as the back narrows dorsally. Pharyngeal tooth formulae 2,3,5-5,3,2, 2,3,5-4,3,2, 2,3,4-5,3,2 and 2,3,4-4,3,2. The teeth are quite small even in the largest specimens. Teeth are hooked at the tip and strongly recurved there, teeth are conical and have a small, concave to irregular or even rounded grinding surface below the tip. The fifth and most anterior tooth in the main row is small to minute in most fish and may be

120 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

absent but this is not size related as both large and small specimens have or lack this tooth. The gut is elongate and coiled. Dorsal fin branched rays 9-11, usually 10, after 4 unbranched rays; anal fin branched rays 6 (not 7 as in the original description) after 3 unbranched rays; pectoral fin branched rays 15-17; and pelvic fin branched rays 7-8, usually 8. Lateral line scales 29-41. Total gill rakers 9-14, touching the raker adjacent when appressed. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,5-5,3,2, 2,3,4-4,3,2 or 2,3,4-5,3,2. Total vertebrae 39-40. Colour. Upper flank scales are outlined by pigment, most evidently anteriorly on each scale. Fins are lightly pigmented with scattered melanophores on both rays and membranes with some concentration on dorsal fin membranes although the extent varies individually. The peritoneum is black. Size. Reaches 19.4 cm total length (the holotype). Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Reported from Haditha in Iraq on the Euphrates River. It may be more common but has not always been recognized in field samples or museum collections. Habitat. Data on Iraqi fish are lacking. This species is found in large rivers in Iran, which however, in mid-summer are more stream-like in water flow. Collections are from the plains of Khuzestan and from altitudes in excess of 1600 m in the Zagros Mountains. Temperatures in early July range from 21 to 23°C. One locality was polluted and others were cloudy or muddy. The riverbeds are composed of stones. Biology. The elongate gut and black peritoneum suggest a plant component to the diet but examination of two gut contents reveal insect remains including chironomid larvae. Economic importance. This species is too rare in Iraq to be of any economic importance. Conservation. Recommendations are difficult to make since the ecological requirements of this species are unknown. It appears to be rare but this may only be inadequate sampling techniques. Further collections in addition to the holotype have been made in southern Anatolian Turkey but it does not seem to be common. Barbus lacerta Heckel, 1843 Common names. Shabout moraqqat. Systematics. The type locality is “Flüsschen Kueik bei Aleppo” (= Quwayq River, Halab, Syria). Barbus Scincus Heckel, 1843 was described from “Aleppo” and later from the “Flusse Kueik bei Aleppo” is a synonym sometimes used for Iraqi fishes. The original describer, Johann Jakob Heckel, recognised Barbus scincus as close to his Barbus lacerta but with a shorter head, sharply decurved forehead, small mouth, and small eyes, all characters not easily quantified without detailed analysis.

Species Accounts 121

Barbus lacerta

Many taxa, including lacerta, have been recognised as subspecies of Barbus plebejus Bonaparte, 1832 found throughout Europe and Southwest Asia but this species is restricted to Adriatic drainages of Italy and Croatia. The taxon lacerta, recognized from the Tigris-Euphrates basin, is given specific status, distinguishing it from Barbus plebejus by the strong denticulations on the last dorsal fin unbranched ray, lower denticle density, number of scales in transverse rows, shorter head and pectoral fin, longer snout, lower body, the decrease in height of the branched dorsal fin rays is gradual and the profile of the fin is straight, unusual in Barbus with a strongly denticulated dorsal spine. Some authors recognize the taxon cyri from the Tigris River basin too but B. lacerta cyri is subject to extremely wide variations in such characters as body depth, fin and barbel lengths, dorsal spine denticle numbers (even absent in some very large fish) and lateral line scale counts, among others. It is most probably a Caspian Sea basin taxon. A large series of specimens would be needed to resolve these problems, allowing for size and sexual variation, new character discoveries and consistent methodologies. Key characters. The spotting on the body is characteristic. Morphology. The mouth is moderate in size, with moderate to thick tuberculate lips. The median lobe of the lower lip is not developed, being small to absent; however, the lip does have a central area that is thicker and distinct from the lips laterally in small fish. Males were thought to have a straight head profile while in females, the profile falls steeply in front of the nostrils but some males have been found with a hump on the snout. Morphology is quite variable. Two pairs of thick barbels, the anterior one not extending past the nostril level and the posterior one reaching or exceeding the preopercle level. Dorsal fin with 3-5, usually 4-5, unbranched rays followed by 7-9, usually 8, branched rays, and anal fin with 3 unbranched rays followed by 4-6, usually 5, branched rays. Pectoral fin branched rays 13-19 and pelvic fin branched rays 7-8, usually 8. The last unbranched ray of the dorsal fin is moderately to strongly developed, varying between

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individuals and populations, with denticle density high (up to 65) along three-fifths to two-thirds of its length. Denticle extent appears to be quite variable. Denticles are proportionately larger in small fish. The tip of the last unbranched ray is thin and flexible. Denticles may be absent in large fish. Lateral line scales 49-87. Scales are a horizontal oval to rectangular in shape with the anterior margin bearing a central protuberance, and sometimes a wavy form. Radii are numerous on all scale fields around a subcentral anterior focus with few to moderate numbers of circuli (as scales are small). Scales may be irregularly arranged on the flank because of their small size giving different counts depending on whether smaller scales are included in the lateral line count. There is a pelvic axillary scale. Gill rakers 5-13, short and just reaching the one adjacent when appressed. Rakers may not develop on the anterior arch giving a wide range in counts. Vertebrae 39-45. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,5-5,3,2 with variants 2,3,5-5,3,1, 1,3,5-5,3,2, 1,3,5-5,3,1, 2,3,45,3,2, 2,3,4-4,3,2, 2,3,5-4,4,2, 2,4,5-4,4,4 and even 1,2,3,5-5,3,2,1. The fourth inner row tooth is usually the largest, slightly larger, or slightly smaller in some, than the third. The fifth inner row tooth is blunt and other teeth are hooked or pointed. Teeth may be slightly serrated and there is a short concave surface below the hook. The gut is elongate with about 2 anterior and 1 posterior loops. Females have shorter barbels than males and females have longer anal and ventral fins. Tubercle development in males caught on 25-26 June in Iran consisted of minute tubercles thickly developed on the head top, sides and ventrally, lining the margin of anterior belly scales but also 1-2 tubercles in mid-scale, on anterior flank scales numbering 1-4 becoming 1 tubercle on more posterior scales although most mid-flank scales lack tubercles. Lower flank and lower caudal peduncle scales bear a tubercle. Back scales have a unique tuberculation consisting of a line rather than a rounded tubercle. The line lies centrally on the scale and extends from the margin part way along the exposed scale. Behind the dorsal fin the back scales have the central line and one on each side radiating back and up and back and down. Tubercles on the dorsal, caudal and anal fins are small and follow the fin branching. They are weak to absent on the pectoral and pelvic fins but are found on the first unbranched pectoral ray in two rows. Colour. The overall colour is yellowish to olive-grey (and possibly bluish) with numerous, regular dark-brown to black spots on the back, upper flank and dorsal and caudal fins or irregular mottling. The spots may form a stripe in young fish. In general, appearance fish may be quite light or almost blackish as pigmentation level varies individually. The back is olive-brown to light or reddish-brown and the flanks silvery to yellowish. The belly and lower head surface are white. The iris is dark to silvery with a narrow silver-golden ring. Barbels are white. The dorsal fin bears dark spots and extended lines of dark pigment on the rays and membranes. These are not clearly arranged as bars. The margin of the caudal fin is dark in some fish and there may be a band on mid-fin. The caudal fin is often speckled with dark spots, which do not form clear bars. The pectoral fin has dark spots and there are odd dark spots on the pelvic and anal fins. Males are a

Species Accounts 123

dark gold dorsally and all fins slightly reddish with a gold iridescence when spawning. Spawning females have reddish ventral and anal fins. The peritoneum is a light brown with dense but spaced melanophores. Size. Reaches 37.5 cm and possibly to 550 g. Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates and Quwayq river basins. Possibly in the Caspian Sea basin as well as some internal basins of Iran if the taxon there is the same. In Iraq, it is reported from the Tigris, Euphrates, Little Zab and Rawanduz rivers and the Dukan Reservoir. This species has not been recognized in field samples and museum collections and may be more widespread than the few localities recorded indicate. Habitat. This species is found in fresh waters and is not migratory. It is found in streams, rivers and also reservoirs. It avoids muddy bottoms and prefers sandy or stony substrates. The habitats in running water are rich in benthos, cool, with rapid currents and well oxygenated; however, it may congregate in slow waters where temperatures reach 26°C. Biology. Biology in Iraq is unknown. A population identified as this species in the Aras River in Turkey had up to 6 age groups although most fish were 0+ to 3+. Five age groups have been found in Azerbaijan and in Çıldır Lake, Turkey (for Barbus plebejus, probably this species). Fish in age group 2 dominated and the largest fish attained 320 mm and 550 g. Maturity is attained at 2 years for males and 3 years for females. Plant remains, crustaceans such as amphipods and insect remains such as chironomids, stoneflies, mayflies and dragonfly larvae have been found in gut contents. Algae is also consumed. Eggs number up to 19,680 and a diameter of 2.3 mm. Spawning may occur 2-3 times in a season judging by oocyte sizes in mature ovaries and occurs from the end of April to August, varying with locality, once temperatures reach 14°C, ceasing if the temperature exceeds 20°C. Small Iranian specimens (130.7-157.7 mm standard length) have eggs of 1.0 mm diameter and 1.1 mm on 9 July and 11 May respectively. Larger eggs were noted in a fish caught on 9 July (1.7 mm). The spawning season is probably in spring for large fish. Economic importance. Not commercially important although it does provide sport in mountain areas of the former U.S.S.R. Conservation. The Iraqi status is unknown as there have been no studies on its biology there. This species is near threatened in the south Caspian Sea. Barbus luteus (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Himri; hamria or hamra; binni hamour, binni hamri, bunni himri, binni shifatha, beni asphar; beni abjad or beni ebjas (for Systomus albus); zurri; bartema. [golden barb]. Systematics. The types of Systomus luteus were described from “Orontes” (= Asi), and “Tigris”, and in the next sentence at “Aleppo” (= Halab, Syria) and “Mossul”. Systo-

124 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Barbus luteus

mus albus Heckel, 1843 from the “Tigris” and “Orontes” and Systomus albus var. alpina Heckel, 1849 from “Flusse Kara-Agatsch und den Alpenseen Pire-San und Deria Kaserun” (= Qarah Aqaj River and Lake Famur, Fars; Pire-San being Parishan and Deria Kaserun being Lake Kazerun, both other names for Lake Famur), are synonyms. This species was placed in Barynotus Günther, 1868, a genus with the type species from West Africa. Barynotus is preoccupied in Coleoptera and was replaced by Barbellion Whitley, 1931. Most authors place the species in Barbus although a new genus was erected for it, Carasobarbus, and various authors accept or reject this genus. A group of related species share characters with this species (see under Barbus kosswigi). Barbellion and/or Carasobarbus may be the generic names for certain members of the group but a complete systematic revision is needed to place these conflicting opinions on a firm basis. Key characters. This species is characterised by a low scale count, smooth last unbranched dorsal fin ray, one or two pairs of barbels, and 10 branched dorsal and 6 branched anal fin rays. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 4 unbranched rays followed by 9-11, usually 10, branched rays. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is smooth, thickened, sharp-edged and spine-like. Anal fin with 3 unbranched rays followed by 5-7, usually 6, branched rays. Pectoral fin branched rays 13-17, usually 15-16, and pelvic fin branched rays 7-9, usually 8. Vertebrae 36-37. Lateral line scales 23-36. There is a pelvic axillary scale. There are moderate to many anterior field radii, many posterior field radii and occasionally few lateral radii. The focus is central to subcentral anterior, the anterior scale margin is wavy and the exposed part of the scale is coarse. The concealed part of the scale has numerous fine circuli. Total gill rakers 7-17, reaching the adjacent raker when appressed, sometimes forked at the tip and with spinules on the anterior side. Pharyngeal teeth usually 2,3,5-5,3,2, with the anterior 2-3 teeth rounded and heavier than the posterior teeth. Posterior teeth are hooked at the tip and the grinding surface below the tip is irregular

Species Accounts 125

with a protuberant knob that may be striated. Variants include 2,3,4-5,3,2 and 2,3,54,3,2. The gut is elongate with both posterior and anterior loops. The mouth is terminal to subterminal and lips are weakly developed. There is one pair of short and thin barbels at the corner in most descriptions. Number and frequencies for 130 fish are 2 barbels (47 or 36.2%), 3 barbels with left anterior present (7 or 5.4%), 3 barbels with right anterior present (5 or 3.8%), or 4 barbels (71 or 54.6%). However, this sample is 112 fish or 86.2% from Fars and Hormozgan in Iran. Fish from these provinces consistently have a high frequency of 4 barbels (58.9%), and with 3 barbel counts included 68.8%, than fish from the Tigris River basin. However even the 18 fish from the Tigris River basin had 5 fish with 4 barbels so, at least in the eastern part of this species range, 4-barbelled fish are not rare. Body form varies with habitat, there being lake and river forms as with many other cyprinid species. A 12.7 cm specimen from the Mand River, Fars, Iran had tubercles on the dorsal, anal, caudal, pectoral and pelvic fins, most strongly on the anal fin rays. Fine tubercles cover the top and sides of the head. A 20 cm fish from the same collection lacked tubercles. Another fish from the lower Mand River (128.5 mm standard length) also has fine tubercles on the upper flank scales as well as the head and fin rays. Colour. The back and upper flank is dark brown, greenish black or grey-green fading to a whitish or silvery belly all overlain by an orange to yellowish tinge. On the upper flank, scale bases are black-brown with a light blue-grey margin. There is a dark stripe along the mid-line of the back and a dark mid-lateral stripe. Fins are greyish to lime-green, reddish-yellow or orange, becoming blackish distally. The pectoral and pelvic fins tend to be more orange than the anal and caudal fins that are more a faint lime-green. The lips are orange. The eye rim is yellow-green. The peritoneum is black. Small fish have a collection of melanophores at the mid-base of the caudal fin forming a spot-like structure. The fish described by Johann Jakob Heckel as Systomus albus var. alpina were also painted live and had a lead-grey body, light brown at the head and reddish-white on the belly. Each scale was black-brown at the base and light blue-grey at the margin, particularly on the upper flank. All fins were blackish and the eyes orange-red. Size. Attains 43 cm total length and 1090 g. Johann Jakob Heckel in 1843 gave 44.8 cm for Systomus albus and others cite fish up to 80 cm. A maximum weight of 3 kg has been recorded for Iraqi lakes and fish in the recovering southern marshes reach 34 cm (2005-2006 studies). Distribution. This species is found in the Orontes (= Asi) and Quwayq rivers and the Tigris-Euphrates basin. In Iraq, it is known from the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the southern marshes, large rivers such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Little Zab, Great Zab, Diyala and Saddam (Main Outfall Drain) as well as smaller streams, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, and reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah Dam Lake and Dukan and Derbendikhan dams.

126 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Habitat. This species is a resident in still water and the slower sections of rivers and is the main fish in canals. It is also found in springs, streams, lakes, reservoirs, gravel pits and pools, and invades fish farm ponds. In summer, it goes to the deeper basins of marshes and remains in the shade of plants. It tolerates warm water but does not go into open waters. It was one the most abundant species in the southern marshes in the 1980’s. Its small gill area makes it unfit to maintain gas exchange in oxygen-poor water and it is a relatively inactive fish. This species is recorded from the Zubayr Inlet in southern Iraq where annual temperature range is 12-30°C and annual salinity change is 28-47‰. The fish appear unaffected by these conditions while Heteropneustes fossilis is moribund. Six specimens of Barbus luteus are recorded from 2 km southward of Fao in a pure marine habitat (temperature 13-35°C and salinity 30-47‰). The fish were caught in April, which is the flood season. Biology. The reproductive cycle of this species was studied in the Hammar Marsh near Basrah. Maturity was attained at a minimum of 11.2 cm for females and 12.2 cm for males, at age 1+. The largest fish are 26.0 cm and age 6. Six age groups were found for fish from the Garma Marshes too and a weight-length relationship showed that fish become plumper as they grew. A population in Tharthar Reservoir about 65 km northwest of Baghdad had 7 age groups. This study has the fastest growth of Iraqi populations. A population in a flooded gravel pit near Al-Nibaey about 50 km north of Baghdad had fish up to age group 7+. The majority (82.2%) of fish were in age groups 3+ and 4+. Growth is greatest in the first year (67 mm) and averaged only 22.5 mm in the following years. Growth is slow in consequence of high salinity (3-6% (sic)) and poor food resources. Fish up to 7 years of age were reported in a marine setting in Iraq, up to 5+ years in fresh and salty Iraqi lakes, up to age group 8+ in the Diyala River, up to 8+ years in fish invading farm ponds, age groups up to 3+ in Lake Habbaniyah, 5+ in Lake Tharthar and 7+ in Lake Razzazah, and up to age 4 years in the Dukan Dam and 6 years in the Derbendikhan. Growth was slower in these northern mountain reservoirs than in lakes and rivers in the central and southern lowlands of Iraq. Annual survival in Lake Tharthar for fish 3.0-5.4 years was 23.1% and for Lake Razzazah for fish aged 3.1-6.3 years was 24.9%. Productivity was low based on chemical and limnological studies, especially in Lake Tharthar, limiting fish production. Spawned specimens were caught in April 2005 in east Hammar Marsh that measured 20.0 cm. A study of age and growth in the lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah in 1981 and 1982, found this species grew fastest in Lake Tharthar. A stock assessment by in a man-made lake west of Baghdad gave a length at first capture as 21 cm, and length at first maturation 14 cm in females and 16 cm in males. The gill rakers are relatively widely spaced and showed characters of phytoplanktivorous and omnivorous feeding. Animal and plant materials were found in small fish, with larger fish eating more aquatic plants and algal material. The gut is coiled and 3.2 times standard length. Food in the Hammar Marsh is mainly detritus, aquatic plants and algae taken throughout the night and day. The peak feeding period was 1130 hours. Peak feeding

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levels in the Garma Marshes were at 0800 and 2000 hours. Feeding in the Hammar Marsh is related to temperature, the peak intensities being September and the minimum in February with peak activity in October and minimum in January. Feeding does occur year round and smaller fish (<200 mm) have highest feeding activity in spring while adults have this in summer. Another study in the Hammar Marsh found this species to be an omnivore, 34.1% of the diet being plant, 21.8% algae, 13.6% crustaceans, 14.1% insects and 16.4% molluscs. Dietary overlap of 77% was found between this species and Barbus grypus but the availability of food resources offset possible competition. A marked overlap in diet was noted with the exotics Cyprinus carpio and Heteropneustes fossilis. A third study in the recovering Hammar Marsh in 2005-2006, found diet is 39.4% algae, 20.0% diatoms, 17.2% insects, 10% plants with amounts of crustaceans, snails and fish being less than 10% each, in the Hawizah Marsh 54.7% algae and 23.9% diatoms, with amounts of plants, crustaceans, snails and insects being less than 10% each, and in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 43.8% algae, 32.7% diatoms, with plants, various crustaceans, insects, fish and snails at less than 10% each. Food habits in the Garma Marshes, near Basrah found this fish to eat principally aquatic plants, the broken and fragmented leaves and stems of Vallisneria in particular. Diatoms and other algae as well as shrimps, chironomid larvae, gastropods and cladocerans were important foods. Invertebrates are about eight times more important in fish smaller than 30 cm, than in larger fish. Plant parts are more important, almost twice as much, in larger fish than smaller. Plant remains were dominant and fish eggs were found in lesser quantities in a marine setting in Iraq. Plants dominated in fish from fresh and salty Iraqi lakes, although not to the same extent as in Barbus sharpeyi where 95.7-100% of the diet was plants. Tendipedids, worms, detritus and fish were also found in B. luteus. The food of this species in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs was dominated by vascular terrestrial plants (69%) and their seeds (31%) in the first half of the growth season with terrestrial insects in 31% of fish studied. In the second part of the growth season, chironomids were found in 40% of specimens and snails, terrestrial insects, dipterans and detritus in 20%. The diet in Lake Tharthar was mainly plants (69.3%) with detritus (25.0%) and fish (5.7%); similarly in Lake Razzazah diet was dominated by plants (64.0%) but also included tendipedids (16.7%), detritus (12.2%), fish (5.2%) and oligochaetes (0.3%). The fish contribution to the diet was highest in May at 60.0% and 49.0% respectively for the two lakes. Dietary coincidence was high in Lake Habbaniyah with shabout (81.9%) and bunni (69.3%), and in Lake Razzazah with bunni (64.8%). Spawning in the Hammar Marsh started in April and by after July no partially spent females were found. Eggs were yellow to orange in colour and testes white. The eggs attain 1.86 mm in diameter and number up to 38,433 for the oldest fish. A spawning season of May-July (peak June-July) is reported for the Shatt al Arab River and lower Euphrates River populations, perhaps because of cooler temperatures outside the shallow marshes where warmer temperatures cause an earlier development of gonads. Spawning was in June/July in freshwater Iraqi lakes, earlier in a saline lake. In lakes Tharthar and

128 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Habbaniyah, both sexes achieve maturity in the first year of life at 14.1 cm for males and 14.0 cm for females. Spawning occurred in June and eggs were shed on vegetation to which they adhere. Invaders in fish farm ponds bred from mid-April to September. An infestation with the anchor worm, Lernaea cyprinacea, at Za’faraniyah Fish Farm, south of Baghdad, caused a high rate of fish mortality. The infestation was controlled by use of the chemicals formalin and dipterex. This species, along with Liza abu, had the highest recorded number of parasite species in Iraq. Economic importance. An important food fish in southern Iraq and Iran. Himri were the fourth most important fish species at Basrah fish market, accounting for 267,570 kg from October 1975 to June 1977. However, the annual turnover in 1965 for seven main wholesale markets was only 5 t. The fishing season for this species in the early 1950s was March-October (peaking in April) for lakes and marshes. It is characterised as a semi-fatty fish according to a lipid content 7-8% by wet weight of muscle in autumn. Johann Jakob Heckel in 1846 reports that they “reach a good size and are very tasty” in Lake Famur, Fars, Iran. In some parts of Southwest Asia, this species is regarded as “sacred” kept and bred in special pools where fishing is forbidden. The eggs of this species are poisonous. A kebab made of about one-quarter of an ovary was eaten in one report. Toxic effects were dizziness, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, bitter taste, dryness of mouth, intense thirst, and faintness. One victim was hospitalised for two days and his stomach pumped while a second victim recovered after one day’s rest. Investigations are ongoing regarding culturing of this species. Various treatments have been undertaken to eliminate adhesiveness of eggs so as to attain good swelling and development under artificial conditions. The eggs showed good water hardening from 1.10-1.18 mm dry diameter to 2.19-2.45 mm wet diameter. It is hardy in farm ponds, has less ectoparasites than some exotics and is herbivorous, making it a good candidate to be cultured with exotic carps. Conservation. As an important food fish, stocks should be carefully monitored and managed. Aquaculture of this species may help protect wild populations. Barbus pectoralis Heckel, 1843 Common names. Nebbash; sheikh san; ajzan. Systematics. Placed in the genus Luciobarbus by some authors. The type locality is the “Orontes” (= Asi) but the catalogue in Vienna reads “Damascus” (possibly in confusion as this part of the catalogue has been overwritten). Barbus perniciosus Heckel, 1843 described from “Gewässern bei Damascus”, Luciobarbus Schejch Heckel, 1843 described from “Mossul” (also spelt schech, presumably in

Species Accounts 129

Barbus pectoralis

pharyngeal teeth

error, and sometimes emended to scheich), Labeobarbus Orontis Sauvage, 1882 from the “Canal de l’Oronte à Antioche”, Turkey and possibly Barbus kersin Heckel, 1843 (q.v.) and possibly Barbus barbulus Heckel, 1849 (q.v.) are synonyms. B. pectoralis has been placed as a subspecies of Barbus capito but the number of pharyngeal teeth (5 in capito and 4 in pectoralis in the main row) is different. Barbus barbulus, Luciobarbus schejch and fish Johann Jakob Heckel referred to Luciobarbus mystaceus (Pallas, 1814) have been placed as synonyms of B. rajanorum. However Barbus Rajanorum Heckel, 1843 described from “Aleppo” (= Halab, Syria) is a hybrid of this species and Capoeta damascina. Pallas’s Cyprinus mystaceus is partly Barbus mursa and B. capito (Black-Caspian Sea species). Barbus mystaceus has also been recognized with two subspecies, mystaceus from Aleppo, Tigris at Mosul and the Euphrates, and barbulus (see above under this latter species). Barbus barbulus and Heckel’s Luciobarbus mystaceus have also been placed in Barbus pectoralis. Heckel’s B. mystaceus is most probably either B. barbulus or B. pectoralis.

130 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Barbus schejch has recognised as a distinct species but barbel and mouth characters, gill raker counts, denticles in the fin spine, scale counts and pharyngeal tooth counts in museum are contradictory and further data are required to resolve the status of this nominal species. The synonymy of Barbus barbulus with B. pectoralis remains uncertain. The putative holotype of B. pectoralis was compared with a specimen of similar size from Iran referred to B. barbulus. The B. pectoralis specimen is partly dried so direct measurement comparisons are not possible. The B. pectoralis specimen has more teeth in the dorsal fin spine (27 teeth even though it is broken off, much more than 30 presumably in the intact spine), barbels in pectoralis are shorter, the posterior one reaching the anterior half of the eye, the anterior one short of the mouth angle, mouths similar in shape but lips appear to be less fleshy, gill rakers number 16, lateral line scales number 44, and 4 main row pharyngeal teeth but there is a trace of a fifth tooth not fully ossified. Most Iraqi fish seen in museum collections had fleshy lips and would be B. barbulus if this were a consistent character distinguishing the two species. Key characters. The dorsal spine is much stronger than in Barbus barbulus and arises from an elevated base that supports the dorsal fin base. The body is deeper than in Barbus barbulus and the lips usually less fleshy. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 4 unbranched and 7-9 branched rays (7 in the holotype, usually 8), anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5, rarely 6, branched rays. Pectoral fin branched rays 16, pelvic fin rays 8. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is moderate to very strong with a low density of denticles extending along much of the ray. Larger specimens have a lesser extent of denticles along the ray. Lateral line scales 42-60 (44 in the holotype; 42 in Barbus perniciosus). Gill rakers 14-17 (to 21 if Barbus schejch is included). Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,4-4,3,2 or 2,3,5-5,3,2, rarely 2,3,5-4,3,2 or 2,3,4-5,3,2, spoon-shaped or pointed. Larger fish usually have 4 teeth in the main row, the fourth large and globose, while smaller fish have 5 cylindrical teeth in the main row. All intermediates stages exist. The mouth is moderate in size and subterminal. Lips are thin to moderate and the median lobe of the lower lip may be present or absent. The two pairs of barbels are thin to moderate, the anterior one not extending back beyond the nostril to anterior eye margin level and the posterior one not beyond the middle to the posterior margin of the eye. The body form is extremely variable. Colour. The back is brown to bluish-green and the flanks yellowish to silvery-white. Size. 46.9 cm standard length. Distribution. Tigris-Euphrates basin and adjacent Iranian tributaries to the Arabian Gulf, and the Orontes (= Asi) and Quwayq rivers. Its Iraqi distribution is poorly known as it has been confused with B. barbulus. Literature records include the Hammar Marsh, Shatt al Arab River, Tigris, Little Zab and Diyala rivers and the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs but is probably more widespread, certainly so if records for B. barbulus are included under this name. Habitat. This species is found in marshes, rivers and reservoirs and probably inhabits lakes and other suitable water bodies as documented for better-known Barbus species.

Species Accounts 131

Biology. Little is known of the biology of this species. Feeding relationships among fishes in the Hammar Marsh show this species (as B. sheich) to be a carnivore, 59.8% of the diet being crustaceans and 18.1% detritus. Economic importance. The fishing season in the early 1950s was June-November (peaking in July) in rivers, and January-April (peaking in March) for lakes and marshes. Conservation. As an actively sought food fish, the populations of this species should be managed and monitored. It does not seem to be under immediate threat as it is a widespread species. Barbus sharpeyi Günther, 1874 Common names. Binni, bunni, bunia; aradah at Baghdad according to Albert Günther but this may be an error for Acanthobrama marmid. Systematics. A new genus was erected for this species, Mesopotamichthys, which has found variable acceptance. The large-scaled Barbus of Southwest Asia require a detailed revision probably with additional, molecular characters (see also under Barbus luteus and Barbus kosswigi). Barbus faoensis Günther, 1896 described from “Fao (Persian Gulf )”, Iraq is a synonym. Some authors retain it as the subspecies of the lower part of the Tigris-Euphrates basin with the type subspecies in the upper part of the Tigris River basin. Barbus sharpeyi was described from “Baghdad”. A hybrid of this species and Carassius auratus is reported from Al-Hayei (= Al Ha’i), a seasonal lake between the Karkheh and Dez rivers in Khuzestan, Iran.

Barbus sharpeyi

132 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Key characters. The absence of barbels, the last dorsal fin unbranched ray moderately ossified but lacking teeth, and the low scale count are characteristic. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 4 unbranched and 7-9, usually 8, branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 4-5, usually 5, branched rays, pectoral rays 13-19, usually 16-17, and pelvic fin branched rays usually 8. The last third or quarter of the last unbranched dorsal fin ray is thin, flexible and tapering. The gut has several loops, two anteriorly and three posteriorly. Pharyngeal tooth formula is 2,3,5-5,3,2, sometimes with only 4 teeth in the main row but the anterior tooth is missing in both small and large fish and so does not appear to be age related, with teeth hooked at the tip but not strongly on the posterior teeth which are spoon-shaped with the hollow of the spoon filled in with bone. Total gill rakers number 13-19, reaching the raker below or just beyond when appressed. Total vertebrae 38-42 (lower values, 38-39, may not include hypural plate). Lateral line scales 29-37. A small pelvic axillary scale may be present or scales in this area may be so weakly developed as not to be an apparent axillary scale. Scales have a slightly anterior focus, fine concentric circuli, many radii on all fields and the posterior, exposed field bears numerous small tubercles. The mouth is slightly subterminal. Lips are well developed but not fleshy and the lower lip is interrupted in the middle. Microscopic studies of the pharynx and oesophagus have been carried out confirming that it is adapted for herbivory. Chromosome number 2n = 98. Males have longer pelvic fins than females, the distance between the pelvic and pectoral fins is shorter and the head length is shorter based on fish from Lake Razzazah. Colour. Overall colour is greenish to light brown or golden brown with the belly white to silvery or yellowish-brown. Scales on the back and uppermost flank have solid dark brown pigment on the exposed part of the scale. The scale edge is thinner and so appears lighter. The eye is brownish orange, golden or silvery. Fins are darker than the adjacent body, a deep reddish-brown, with melanophores on rays and membranes in preserved fish. The peritoneum is black. Size. Attains 55 cm and 4 kg. Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates River basin including its Iranian portion in such marshes as the Hawr Al Azim and in rivers in the northern Gulf basin. In Iraq, it is recorded from the Shatt al Arab River, the southern marshes, large rivers such as the Tigris, Euphrates and Diyala, lakes such as Saniyah, Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, and reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah and Dukan dams. It is not an endemic of the southern marshes as often reported in the literature. Habitat. Some movement occurs from lakes and marshes, from the end of February to the beginning of March, to rivers in the Tigris-Euphrates basin of Iraq during floods for about 3 weeks. There is a return to lakes and marshes for spawning in mid-March to mid-April. However, most fish remain in marshes and lakes for most of the year, in overgrown areas avoiding open water, and the species shows a preference for still waters. In marshes, it prefers areas overgrown with reeds and avoids open waters. Low water levels and high temperatures in the lakes and marshes may cause a migration to their deepest

Species Accounts 133

parts or into the lower reaches of the main and more permanent rivers. This species is less tolerant of low dissolved oxygen than Barbus xanthopterus, which probably accounts for them not being caught together in any number. Its small gill area makes it unfit to maintain gas exchange in oxygen-poor water and it is a relatively inactive fish. An area of the Central Marshes was known as umm al-bunni as the species was so common it could be picked up by hand. This species is considered to be stenohaline and so restricted in its distribution in the Zohreh River of Iran that drains to the northern Arabian Gulf. This species survived well in saline water from the Main Outfall Drain (Saddam River) fed into concrete ponds. A survival rate greater than 70% was found at 10-19‰. Biology. In Razzazah Lake, females are longer and heavier than males at advanced ages. Life span of females is 9 years and for males 8 years. Maturity starts in the third year at 32-35 cm total length. Males mature earlier than females. Tigris River fish in Iraq mature at 25 cm for males and 28 cm for females in the second year of life and spawning took place early in the third year. A few matured in age group 1 and some as late as age group 3. Males are somewhat more abundant than females on the spawning grounds, averaging 57.4% of the fish caught. Maximum age is 6 years in the Tigris study and this age was also reported from Basrah. This species had the fastest growth compared to B. grypus and B. xanthopterus. Another study showed that this species matured in the fourth year of life in Iraq, with growth better in the marshes than in Tharthar Reservoir. Growth in the Hammar Marsh was better than in the Shatt al Arab River and this was attributed to the more favourable environment for this species in the lake. Six age groups are reported from Basrah, fish up to age 6+ years are found in fresh and salty Iraqi lakes. In the Hammar Marsh a sex ratio of 1 female:3 males exists for all months and length groups caught. No explanation for this skewed ratio was found. Age groups up to 5+ years were found in the marsh although their study was not directed to ageing. The oldest age groups were 4+, 6+ and 7+ in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah respectively. The gonadosomatic index decreased sharply in March and April as eggs were spawned. Once spawning happened, a lipid depletion occurred in the carcass in March and in the liver in March and April to maintain spawning activities. This species has been characterised as strictly herbivorous, feeding on unicellular Chlorophyceae, diatoms and filamentous algae when young and on higher plants and detritus when older. In the Hammar Marsh, this species had the most herbivorous habit of any fish species, 96.7% of food being plants and algae. Another study in the recovering Hammar Marsh, found diet is 50.0% algae, 20.0% diatoms, and 16.3% plant tissues with amounts of crustaceans and insects being less than 10% each, and in the Hawizah Marsh 52.0% algae and 26.7% diatoms and 15.9% plant tissues, with amounts of various crustaceans and insects being less than 10% each. Some studies show copepods and molluscs are taken, most probably incidental to filamentous algae, diatoms and detritus. Feeding occurs even in cold winters. Peak feeding levels in the Garma Marshes were at 0800 and 2000 hours. Feeding in the Al-Hammar

134 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Marsh is related to temperature, the peak intensities being September and the minimum in February with peak activity in October and minimum in January. Feeding does occur year round and smaller fish (<200 mm) have highest feeding activity in summer while adults have this in autumn. The gut is coiled and 4.36 times standard length, indicative of a plant diet. Only plants were found in the guts of this fish from lakes Tharthar and Habbaniyah while in Lake Razzazah snails (3.5%), detritus (0.6%) and tendipedids (0.2%) formed small dietary components. Dietary coincidence was high in Lake Tharthar with shabout (71.1%), himri (69.3%) and gattan (37.8%), and in Lake Razzazah with himri (64.8%). Spawning occurs chiefly in lakes and marshes, with some spawning in the lower reaches of rivers. Eggs are deposited on submerged, or partially submerged, vegetation, from the surface down to about 1 m depth. Eggs are large and yellow, measure up to 1.7 mm in diameter, number up to 158,000 and have a relative fecundity of 10,021 to 28,471 eggs for fish 4+ to 6+ in age from Iraqi lakes. Fish spawned in April in a freshwater lake and February/March in a saline lake. A fecundity range of 16,068 to 358,343 eggs was reported for fish of total length 253-561 mm from the Hammar Marsh, spawning in the marsh being in March and April. This species has been investigated in the Hawizah Marsh as a source of spawners for aquaculture. Ripe eggs appeared in January and 25% were running in February and 30% in March. Half of the fish were spent in April. The spawning migration was lead by males in October and December with females increasing rapidly in February. Males disappeared in April. Absolute fecundity reached 236,160 eggs. The spawning season in Lake Saniyah just north of Amara is March and April, with some ripe fish caught in May. Fish appear on the spawning grounds about sunset and left before darkness is complete. They return in the early morning and leave again at about 0800 hours. These fish chase each other, darted about singly or in pairs and sometimes come to the surface and splash. In lakes Tharthar and Habbaniyah males achieved maturity in the third year of life at 38.5 cm and females in the fourth at 39.9 cm. Spawning occurred in April and fecundity was 19-28 thousand eggs/kg body mass. An epizootic involving the protozoan Ichthyophthirius multifilis occurred in a pond south of Baghdad.  Economic importance. This species was regarded as the tastiest fish available from the marshes of Iraq. It is second in importance after sobour (Tenualosa ilisha) at the Basrah fish market in Iraq with a weight from October 1975 to June 1977 of 772,775 kg. Estimates in the early 1950s showed that this fish accounted for a quarter of total fish production in Iraq. The annual turnover in 1965 for seven main wholesale markets was 2516 t. A total catch for Iraq of 5000 t per year has been cited; another report for 1976 gave a catch of 4243 t. The fishing season in the early 1950s for this species was February-May (peaking in March) in rivers and January-July (peaking in March-April) for lakes and marshes. A mesh size of 45 mm was recommended for the fishery based on an average length coefficient of 0.14.

Species Accounts 135

Conservation. The use of this popular food fish for aquaculture has been investigated in Iraq. Although its growth rate is slower than in Cyprinus carpio, a popular fish for aquaculture, its plankton feeding makes it adaptable to pond life without competition with Cyprinus carpio; it has tasty flesh, reaches at least 2 kg, and has a relatively high fecundity. Hormonal injections with hypophysial extract from the more readily available Cyprinus carpio induced breeding in this species. Natural production can be increased to 450-600 kg/ha with the use of mineral fertilizers in ponds to stimulate plankton growth. The effect of chemical fertilisation and supplementary feeding on the growth of this species in earthen ponds has been investigated. Spawners have been captured from Lake Razzazah for hatchery, pond and pen rearing of eggs, larvae and fry. The average survival rate of eggs was 13%, of larvae 60% and of fry 84%. After 28 days, larvae attained 69 mg and 10 mm and after 50 days 200 mg and 21 mm. This monocyclic species has a low spawning effectivity in dams and lakes in Iraq but these studies show that traditional cyprinid culture techniques work with this species. The conditions in hatcheries for this species are 22-23°C water temperature, dissolved oxygen 6-8 p.p.m. and pH 7.9-8.1. New hatched larvae were fed with Artemia naupliae in indoor tanks. In 2005, more than 200 kg of adult fish were collected as broodstock for artificial spawning. The aim was to release more than 2.5 million fingerlings in the southern marshes in the following year although a later report from the same source stated 300,000 fry (50-60 mm) were to be released in August 2005. However, there was some indication that local fishermen were catching young fish to feed their families and would not allow the fingerlings to grow to reproductive size. Local fishermen in Khuzestan, Iran believe numbers of this species declined in the Shadegan marshes after young Hypophthalmichthys molitrix from the Caspian were released. H. molitrix is also known from Iraq and may prove to be a problem there. Barbus subquincunciatus Günther, 1868 Common names. Abu khazzama; a’djzan; ajzan; agzan; adzan; nabish. [black spot barb, leopard barbel]. Systematics. The type locality of this species is unknown. Albert Günther gives the following account:- “From the Collection of the East-India Company.- Although no record of the history of this specimen has been preserved, it is probable that it came from Mesopotamia, as other examples from this country are preserved in precisely the same manner”. The type specimen is a “Skin, 15 inches long” (= 5.9 cm). Placed in the genus Luciobarbus by some authors. Once placed in the genus Bertinius Fang, 1943 but since removed as the enlarged molariform pharyngeal teeth on which this genus was erected are due to convergence and are not evidence of monophyly.

136 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Barbus subquincunciatus

young

adult pharyngeal teeth

Key characters. The numerous, large, dark spots arranged in an almost quincunx pattern are distinctive. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 3-4 unbranched and 8 branched rays, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5 branched rays. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is very strong and bears denticles along almost its whole length or three-quarters of the length. Pectoral fin branched rays 14-18, pelvic fin rays 7. Lateral line scales 75-88. Scales have few radii on all fields, fine circuli and a focus slightly subcentral anterior. Total gill rakers about 10-13, broad based and triangular in shape with highly tubercular distal or foliose margin. The longest raker reaches the one below when appressed. Total vertebrae 45. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,3,-3,3,2, occasionally 2,3,4-4,3,2, the usual number of teeth in the inner row in large specimens being 3. The third inner row tooth is the biggest by far and is molariform. Juveniles have 5 inner row teeth. The mouth is horseshoe-shaped, small and inferior. Lips are well developed and fleshy. The median lobe of the lower lip is undeveloped. The two pairs of barbels are thick. The gut has many anterior loops, the number increasing with size. Colour. The whole body, head, fins, barbels, lips and even eyeball are covered with dark spots about the same size as or larger than the eye. Some larger flank spots are 2-3 times the eye diameter. Spots on fins are elongated along the fin length. These spots are arranged in patterns similar to a quincunx, hence the species name. A quincunx comprises four spots, one at each corner of a square with the fifth spot in the middle of the square.

Species Accounts 137

Sometimes a spot runs into an adjacent one. Some spots below the lateral line may be elongate, three times longer than wide, and arranged vertically. Occasional fish lack spots on the mid-flank but are still distinctively spotted elsewhere. The overall colour is greenish to brownish-yellow with the belly white. Peritoneum dark brown to black. Size. Reaches 45.7 cm, perhaps to 60 cm. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. In Iraq reported from the Shatt al Arab River, the Hammar Marsh, Tigris and Diyala rivers and the Dukan reservoir. Habitat. It appears to be mostly a species of rivers but is also known from some artificial habitats such as reservoirs or dams and is found in the southern marshes. Its environmental requirements are unknown. Biology. Little is known of its biology. The molariform pharyngeal teeth and evidence from gut contents showed this species is an obligate molluscivore. A study of feeding relationships among fishes in the Hammar Marsh found it to be an omnivore, 47.2% of the diet being algae and 28.9% detritus. Dietary overlap of 77% was found between this species and Barbus grypus but the availability of food resources offset possible competition. Economic importance. This species occasionally occurs in commercial catches in Khuzestan, Iran, and presumably in Iraq, but is not a common food fish compared to other Barbus species. It has been investigated for aquaculture in Khuzestan but fish are rare and so adults are caught and released. Conservation. The status of this species in Iraq is unknown. It is now very rare in Iran and “critically endangered”. Syrian populations in the Euphrates River and parts of its tributaries are also in a parlous state. Barbus xanthopterus (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Gattan; ghattan; kattan; khattan; nobbash; thekar. Systematics. Placed in the genus Luciobarbus by some authors. Barbus xanthopterus has been considered as a variant of Barbus schejch but differs in gill raker count (10-13 in xanthopterus, 21 in schejch) and main row pharyngeal tooth count (5 in xanthopterus and 4 in schejch). It has also been considered as a synonym of B. esocinus (q.v.). Luciobarbus xanthopterus was described from the “Tigris bei Mossul”. Key characters. This species is characterised by two pairs of barbels, a serrated dorsal fin spine, small scales (57-68 in lateral line), and a subterminal to terminal and oblique mouth. The elongate postorbital length is also seen in Barbus esocinus but is more marked in the latter (7.2 times or less in standard length for esocinus compared to 7.7 or more times in xanthopterus). Morphology. Dorsal fin with 4 unbranched and 7-9, usually 8, branched rays, and anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5 branched rays. Pelvic fin branched rays 8. Pectoral fin branched rays 14-18. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is moderately to very strong, has a

138 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Barbus xanthopterus

low denticle density and is serrate along much of its length. Lateral line scales 57-68. Scales have rounded dorsal, ventral and posterior margins and an anterior margin with a central protuberance and indentations above and below. Circuli are fine and radii are found on the anterior and posterior fields and sometimes the lateral fields. The focus is subcentral anterior. There is no distinct pelvic axillary scale. Gill rakers 7-13, short and reaching the adjacent raker when appressed. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,5-5,3,2 with some literature reports giving 2,3,4-4,3,2, strongly hooked, the fourth tooth of the inner row being the largest (molariform) and anterior teeth being rounded with a small flat or concave grinding surface below the tip. Total vertebrae 40-44. Barbels are thin, the maxillary barbels are longer than rostral barbels but both are short, the rostral ones not extending beyond the level of the nostrils and the maxillary ones not extending back beyond mid-eye to rear eye level. The gut has one anterior and two posterior loops in an elongate s-shape. The mouth is moderate in size, inferior and an elongate u-shape in young fish and as development progresses becomes terminal in adults. Lips are thin to moderate and the lower lip has no median lobe. Colour. The body is without distinctive marks. The back is brownish to bluishgrey, the flanks silvery to silvery-yellow, and the belly white. The scales are outlined by melanophores. The overall colour from a marsh habitat is darker than from a riverine habitat, the pigment outlining scales being thicker, for example, especially at the scale base. The eye is red in marsh specimens, white to yellowish elsewhere. All fins are lemonyellow to orange with some darker melanophores. The unbranched dorsal fin rays and the uppermost caudal fin rays are black. Two small specimens from Iran have irregular spots and blotches on the flank. The peritoneum is silvery with melanophores developed dorsally. Size. Attains 1.5 m total length and 8.6 kg from the Abu Al Khasib area in the Shatt al Arab River, Iraq. A maximum weight of 30 kg for Iraqi lakes has been recorded,

Species Accounts 139

if correctly identified. A fish presumed to be this species caught in Lost Lake, a palace pond in Baghdad, weighed 15 pounds (6.8 kg) and was 34 inches long (0.86 m). Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. In Iraq it is found in the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the southern marshes, large rivers such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Little Zab, Great Zab and Diyala, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, ponds near Samarra, and reservoirs such as the Hindiya, Al Qadisiyah, Dukan and Derbendikhan dams. Habitat. The habitat for this species is described as principally distributed in the deep, open waters of lakes and vegetated marshes and to a lesser extent in rivers and tributaries. Mature fish move upstream to the spawning grounds in February-March and spent fish descend to their original habitat in lakes and marshes. In summer, beginning in June, under low water level conditions and high temperatures, the smaller fish remain in the deepest depressions of lakes but the large fish (3 kg or more) migrate up rivers and tributaries in search of cooler water, returning in September and October when temperatures fall to fatten over winter. Large gattan migrate out of Iraq into Syria up the Euphrates in summer and beyond Mosul in the Tigris. In cold winters, they descend to the deeper water layers and remain on the bottom without feeding. Migratory patterns have been disrupted by dam construction. The numbers of gattan remaining in southern waters is considerable because they can tolerate low oxygen conditions in marshes. Gattan in shallow waters do die in summer when it is very hot but this is often due to fishermen deliberately muddying the waters. The dam at Hindiyah in the early 1950s blocked the migration of this species, as floodwaters were only high enough to allow passage at the end of April and in May, too late to reach spawning grounds at the end of March and the beginning of April. Estimates in the 1950s found that this species totals 60-70% of the fish population in the Euphrates in Iraq and that the Euphrates has a smaller population than the Tigris because of a lack of suitable spawning grounds. This species survived well in saline water from the Main Outfall Drain (Saddam River) fed into concrete ponds. A survival rate greater than 70% was found at 10-19‰. Biology. Life span is at least 11 years, although even a large fish has been estimated at only 3-4 years old. In Tigris River fishes, males mature at about 43 cm and females at about 48 cm, maturity being attained in the fourth year of life and spawning occurring at the beginning of the fifth. Some fish mature at age group 3 and some as late as age group 5. Males outnumber females on the spawning grounds, comprising 62% of the population. Tigris River and Tharthar reservoir fish in Iraq had 7 age groups with growth good in the first three years and slower thereafter. In Al Qadisiyah Dam Lake on the Euphrates fish 215-420 mm in total length had an age range of 3-10 years. Growth in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs in northeastern Iraq was slower than in waters of central Iraq although fry in Lake Tharthar reached 11 cm total length in the first year, only slightly faster than in northern Iraqi basins. The oldest fish caught was 7 years old and ca. 50 cm total length in the Dukan reservoir and 5 years and ca.

140 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

40 cm in the Derbendikhan. The condition coefficient was 1.4 in Dukan and 1.56 in Derbendikhan, indicating condition was good. The oldest age groups were 5+, 7+ and 8+ in lakes Habbaniyah, Razzazah and Tharthar respectively. In 1981 and 1982, this species grew fastest in Lake Tharthar. Growth rates were rather uniform. Annual survival in Lake Tharthar for fish 1.5-3.8 years was 58.8% and for Lake Habbaniyah for fish aged 2.0-4.3 years was 41.9%. Productivity was low based on chemical and limnological studies, especially in Lake Tharthar, limiting fish production. A small sample of mature fish caught in spring in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs was feeding on plants and seeds of terrestrial origin, detritus and less commonly insects. The detritus component was much higher in summer as were chironomids; fish were also eaten. This species has been considered to be an omnivore, consuming filamentous algae, plants, epiphytes, detritus, frogs, molluscs, crustaceans, insect larvae and fishes and even planktonic organisms. Organic matter is obtained in periods of food shortage by engulfing mud from the pond bottom. In cold winters, they take no food. The diet of this species in the Garma Marshes found molluscs to rank first in both winter and summer, with amphipods second. Other food groups were seeds and aquatic plants, insects, oligochaetes and fishes. Selectivity of diet items depended on fish size and availability. Molluscs such as Corbicula spp. were of particular importance to gattan, probably because of their large flesh content compared to other foods coupled with a benthic life and colourful appearance making them easy to capture. The diet in Lake Tharthar was dominated by plants (37.8%) and molluscs (37.6%) followed by fishes at 10.6% of the diet. In Lake Habbaniyah plants dominated (39.5%) followed by tendipedids (30.5%), detritus (11.5%), oligochaetes (7.6%) and fish (6.6%). Plants were important throughout the year with fish important between March and July. Dietary coincidence was high in Lake Habbaniyah, 48.6% with himri. Fish from a man-made lake west of Baghdad ate aquatic plants, insects and their larvae, algae, diatoms, detritus, zooplankton, molluscs and fish, indicating an omnivorous diet with the main food being aquatic plants. Feeding was highest in summer months. Feeding relationships among fishes in the Hammar Marsh classed this species as a carnivore (in the definition system of that particular study), 23.4% of the diet being detritus, 26.9% crustaceans, 16.6% insects and 26.3% molluscs. Dietary overlap of 84% was found between this species and Cyprinus carpio but the availability of food resources offset possible competition. Dietary overlap with Heteropneustes fossilis is also recorded. Feeding in the Hammar Marsh is related to temperature, the peak intensities being June and the minimum in January with peak activity in June and minimum in February. Feeding does occur year round and smaller fish (<200 mm) have highest feeding activity in spring while adults have this in summer. In another study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 50.0% insects, 20.0% algae, 15.0% snails and 10.0% diatoms. The condition factor for fish from Bab-Elssef district, Baghdad varied from 1.51 to 2.00 and the total calorific value of the flesh from 86.39-208.8 kcal/100g. These figures indicate that the fish had a good supply of food and the calorific values were similar to other native and exotic fishes.

Species Accounts 141

Eggs are deposited on fine gravels overlying a layer of coarse sand in shallow, wide holes excavated by the fish. Water depth varies from 30 to 150 cm. Egg diameter is 2.25 mm and fecundity up to 350,000 grey, shiny eggs. Eggs are very viscous and transparent. In the 1950s, a spawning season of April in the Euphrates was reported for grounds extending from Hit to 20 km above Haditha with the most important spawning areas being 10 km above and below Haditha. The spawning season on the Tigris River between Beled and Tigrit was April and May. The spawning season in the Great Zab and the Khazir rivers is towards the end of April and in early May. There is a 5 km stretch on the Adhaim River used for spawning and the 40 km stretch between Altun Kupri and Taktak on the Little Zab River is also used but to a lesser extent than the Tigris. They also spawn in the Diyala River between Abu Saida and the Diyala weir that is about 40 km above Abu Saida. Fish appear on the spawning grounds in schools just before dark and remain there until shortly before midnight, making loud noises by splashing, jumping and chasing. The fish return downstream after spawning. Fry can be found in the Tigris at Baghdad and in the Euphrates near Samawa in April. A study of reproduction in lakes Tharthar and Habbaniyah found males to achieve maturity in the third year of life at 39.4 cm and females in the sixth at 73.8 cm. Spawning occurred in May and fecundity was 64-76 thousand eggs/kg body mass. An infestation with the anchor worm, Lernaea cyprinacea, at Za’faraniyah Fish Farm, south of Baghdad, caused a high rate of fish mortality. The infestation was controlled by use of the chemicals formalin and dipterex. Economic importance. Gattan is the third most important fish species at Basrah fish market, accounting for 510,503 kg for the period from October 1975 to June 1977. The annual turnover in 1965 for seven main wholesale markets was 2738 t. The annual catch for 1976 in Iraq was 2543 t. This species is in heavy demand on fish markets and is heavily exploited in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs as evidenced by absence of older fish in catches. The price of this species in Iraq was U.S.$6 per kilogramme pre-war and was U.S.$13.50/kg in 2006. Anglers in Iraq catch this fish, which will reject any bait showing resistance, requiring a fast strike at the first indication that the fish has taken the bait. In the early 1950s, the fishing season for this species was February-May (peaking in April) and June-October (peaking in July) in rivers, and February-April (peaking in March) and May-November (peaking in June-July) for lakes and marshes. A mesh size of 56 mm was recommended for the fishery. This fish has been cultured in floating cages in saline water (3.5-4.3 g/l) in the Saddam River.  This species has been studied for pond culture in Khuzestan, Iran where over 95% of young survived, using hormones to stimulate reproduction. It has been kept in fishponds and on fish farms in Iraq. Fish were stocked in earthern ponds in Iraq at densities of 100 and 200 fish to study rearing over a 199-day period. The former density had a higher

142 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

weight increment (434.6 g/fish) than the higher density (341.1 g/fish) but production of fish in the high density pond was higher. Conservation. More than 90% of this species on sale at fish markets in Baghdad and Karbala were females ready for first spawning and the rest had gonads at maturity stage IV in 1980-1981. The low percentage of valuable fishes in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah was attributed to the overfishing of spawners in the closed season. An effective closed season is essential to allow stocks to maintain themselves. This species is now relatively rare through drainage of the marsh nursery grounds and barrage construction on rivers preventing migration to spawning grounds. Spawners captured from the Tigris River for hatchery, pond and pen rearing of eggs, larvae and fry had an average survival rate 30% for eggs, 40% for larvae and 45% for fry. This monocyclic species has a low spawning effectivity in dams and lakes in Iraq but these studies show that traditional cyprinid culture techniques work with this species. Samples from the Ashar fish market in Basrah in the 1970s were contaminated with hydrocarbons, emitting a kerosene smell and being unfit for human consumption.

Genus Barilius Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 The members of this genus are found from Pakistan to Thailand with one species in the Tigris-Euphrates and adjacent basins. Their systematics is still poorly understood and there may be about 25 species. This genus is characterised by a compressed but slender and small body, having small to moderate sized scales, a decurved lateral line, running, for example, on the lower part of the caudal peduncle, lateral line complete, incomplete or absent, a short dorsal fin and a long anal fin, no fin spines, a moderate and terminal mouth, barbels absent or in 1 or 2 pairs, short gill rakers, pharyngeal teeth in 3 rows, and usually with dark bands or spots on the flank. These fishes are found mostly in mountain streams although some are lowland species. Barilius mesopotamicus Berg, 1932 Common names. Sboura iraqia. Systematics. The type locality is “Stromgebiete des Tigris, in (Siaret) Seid-Hassan, an der persisch-türkischen Grenze, unter 33°20’n. Br., 46°20’ö. L. Seid-Hassan liegt am Flusse Gawi, welcher sich mit dem Kundschian (Gundschian)-tschai vereinigt; der letztere mündet in den Tigris”. Seyyed Hasan (33°06’N, 46°11’E) lies on a tributary of

Species Accounts 143

Barilius mesopotamicus

the Kanjan Cham River near the Iranian town of Mehran on the Iran-Iraq border. The tributary is presumably the Gawi River. This species has been placed in the genus Leucaspius Heckel and Kner, 1858 but this seems unlikely on general morphological. It resembles other Barilius in having barbels (none in Leucaspius), a lateral line low on the body (short and mid-body), broad suborbital bones, and flank bars (none), while Leucaspius is unique in that females have a fold of skin in the shape of two, large, rounded papillae around the genital opening. Authors consider it closer to Indian species of the genus Barilius than to African ones. Key characters. The only member of its genus in Iraq, this species is easily identified by the pigment pattern, low lateral line, broad suborbital bones and the barbels. Morphology. The lower jaw bears a small symphysial knob. The mouth is slightly subterminal, oblique and elongate with the mouth corner under the anterior half of the eye. A well-developed barbel has its origin just anterior to the level of the nostril above the upper lip and lies in a groove between the upper lip and the beginning of the suborbital bone series. This barbel can be absent or minute in some fish (females from Habbaniyah). In addition to these maxillary barbels, a second pair of barbels has their origin slightly above the posterior edge of the mouth in 8 out of 259 fish examined. They are usually rudimentary but may reach 10.7% of head length. Barbels are difficult to see in smaller fish without magnification. The suborbital bone series is large. Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-3, usually 3, branched rays 7-9, usually 8; anal fin unbranched rays 2-3, usually 3, branched rays 10-14, branched pectoral fin rays 11-15 and branched pelvic fin rays 6-8, usually 7. Lateral line scales 42-58. Lateral line incomplete or complete, rarely terminating at the pectoral fin level. Lateral line decurved and parallel to the ventral body profile from the pelvic fin origin to the caudal peduncle, being 2-3 scales above this profile. On the caudal peduncle, the lateral line is below the mid-line while scales on the caudal fin posterior to the hypural plate are perforated in the mid-line. Pectoral and pelvic axillary scales present. Scales are regularly arranged over the whole body but are not strongly imbricate, particularly on the belly and back anterior to the dorsal fin. Total gill rakers 7-14. Gill rakers are short and rounded, reaching to or part

144 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

way to the raker below when appressed. Total vertebrae 38-41. Pharyngeal teeth usually 4,5-5,4, often 4,5-5,3 (25% of 20 fish examined), or more rarely in three rows 1,3,5-5,3,1 or 1,4,5-5,4,1. Teeth are hooked at the tip, slender and have a concave grinding surface below the tip. The gut is a simple s-shape. Colour. Overall colour is brilliant silver with a golden-yellow glimmer, and with the back darker and having a thin, variably developed, median stripe. Scales are highly deciduous and leave a silvery smear on the hand. The flanks have 6-11 roundish dark, grey-green spots, not clearly apparent in live fish. In preserved fish, the spots are brown. Fins are lightly pigmented, most melanophores being on the rays rather than the membranes. The anal and paired fins are almost entirely hyaline. The caudal fin may show one or two irregular bars running parallel to the posterior margin. The peritoneum is light to silvery but bears scattered melanophores that give a greyish tinge in preserved fish. Fish from the Habbaniyah stream lacked, or had weakly expressed, flank spots. Size. Reaches 50.7 mm standard length. Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin, and the adjacent Gulf basin of Iran. In Iraq recorded only from the Tigris River near Baghdad, Mandali northeast of Baghdad, a stream between Habbaniyah and the Euphrates and, in one study, several locations along the Little Zab River, which would seem to indicate it is more widely distributed elsewhere but not generally collected or recognized. Habitat. Found in both running and still water, from small streams only 1 m wide and irrigation ditches to major rivers more than 200 m across. Current is slow to fast but generally an obvious flow is apparent. However, one specimen was collected in a fishpond near Ahvaz, Iran. Collections were made over mud and pebble substrates in shallow streams or at river margins. The species may also occur at the surface in mid-river but no collections confirm this supposition. Capture temperatures were 12-24°C and conductivity 0.45-10.5 mS. Salinity in drying pools of 20 cm depth in Syria, where this species was caught in March, had Cl-1 = 390 mg/l and a salinity of 1.5‰ Biology. Little known. Gut contents include winged insects such as Coleoptera, Heteroptera, Thysanoptera, Diptera, Hymenoptera, Brachycera and Culicidae, and spiders, suggestive of surface feeding. Most fish were collected in January when eggs were small but developing suggestive of spring spawning. Economic importance. None. Conservation. This fish is found in suitable habitats of large rivers and in small ditches and does not appear to be in need of conservation.

Genus Caecocypris Banister and Bunni, 1980 The characters of this genus are those of its single included species.

Species Accounts 145

Caecocypris basimi Banister and Bunni, 1980 Common names. None. Systematics. This species is a cave fish, the sole member of its genus, which was founded on an absence of any clear anatomical resemblance to surface-dwelling species. The type locality is the “a sinkhole at the Sheikh Hadid shrine near Haditha”. The species is named for Basim M. Al-Azzawi from the Natural History Research Centre, Baghdad who collected the new species. It was placed in a new genus because the authors could find no relatives below the family level. Key characters. The whitish to pinkish colour and absence of eyes indicates that the species is a cave fish. It is distinguished from Typhlogarra widdowsoni from the same cave system by the absence of barbels and mental disc, the large terminal mouth, and a free branchiostegal membrane. Morphology. An eyeless species as an adult with the orbits filled with fatty tissue. Juveniles have vestigial eyes. Only large specimens have scales outside the lateral series. Lateral series scales 28-31, without pores, and scale around the caudal peduncle 12. Dorsal fin with 3 unbranched and 7-9, usually 8 branched rays, anal fin with 2 unbranched rays and 4-5, usually 5, branched rays, pectoral fin rays 13-15 and pelvic fin rays 6-8, usually 7. Gill rakers on the lower limb of the first arch 12-14, short and slightly curved, total rakers 18. Total vertebrae 36. Pharyngeal teeth 1,5-5,1, slender and conical. The mouth is horseshoe shaped in ventral view and oblique in lateral view. There is no mental disc and no barbels. There is a symphysial lower jaw knob but no corresponding notch in the upper jaw. The isthmus is not joined to the branchiostegal membrane. The gut is short with one major coil. Colour. In life, dead white suffused with a pale pink, with the branchial region a deep red from the blood supply. The fins are colourless. Preserved fish are an opaque, flat white with fins translucent.

Caecocypris basimi

146 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Size. Attains 49 mm standard length. Distribution. Found in the same locality as Typhlogarra widdowsoni, a sinkhole near the peak of a small hill topped by the Sheikh Hadid shrine. The hill is 500 m west of the Euphrates River on the northern outskirts of Haditha. Access to the sinkhole is through a 2-3 by 6 m opening in a quarry a few metres to the west of the shrine. Habitat. This species is rarer than Typhlogarra widdowsoni from the same cave system, estimated to be half as common. Below the quarry opening is a cavern containing a natural well 1-2 by 3-4 m with a depth of about 2 m. Water enters the well from two narrow slits and two oval openings about 15-30 cm deep. Water depth at time of capture was 63 cm but a rising water table in spring fills the well. The well is shaded from direct sunlight except in the late afternoon. On 13 June 1979 the well water temperature was 22ºC (and varies little during the year at 20-22ºC), pH was 7.5 and salinity 1.75g/l. The fish avoid the light and are most abundant at night. If disturbed, they hide among stones or swim back into the four openings. Biology. Unknown but suspected to include aquatic insects, diatoms and green algae. The holotype is a mature female collected on 21 October with eggs 1.0 mm in diameter. Small specimens are always present, suggesting breeding year round. Economic importance. None, although any cave fish is attractive to the aquarium trade and could be bred for sale. Judicious capture of fresh specimens could be made at intervals to maintain the genetic diversity of the species held in aquaria. Conservation. This species is listed as Vulnerable (D2) in the 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

Genus Capoeta Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1842 The genus Capoeta has a wide distribution in Southwest Asia and contains about 10 species of which 4 occur in Iraq. Its affinities are uncertain and may lie with the European Barbus/Aulopyge group or with Cyprinion and its southern and east Asian relatives. Varicorhinus Rüppell, 1836 (as used for Southwest Asian cyprinids) is a synonym of Capoeta Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1842. Capoeta is distinguished from Varicorhinus of Africa since it has a denticulate last unbranched dorsal fin ray (as opposed to smooth), very small to medium-sized scales (large), lachrymal bone narrow and covering only a small part of the upper side of the rostrum (large and covering most of the rostrum), suborbital bones narrow and long (short and wide), posterior maxillary process not extending back to a level with the centre of the jugal (extends back to a level of the centre of the suborbitals), lower jaw long (short). Scaphiodon Heckel, 1843 has been used for Capoeta species in Southwest Asia. This genus Capoeta is characterised by a compressed to rounded and moderately elongate body, small to moderately large scales (lateral line counts 37-99), scales at the anal fin

Species Accounts 147

base and anus not usually enlarged (sometimes variably enlarged as is the case with certain cyprinids), an inferior, transverse mouth, the lower jaw with a sharp, horny sheath, barbels absent or in 1 or 2 pairs (1 pair in Iraqi species), dorsal fin short (usually 7-9 branched rays) with the last unbranched ray thickened and bearing serrations (serrations sometimes reduced to absent), anal fin short (usually 5 branched rays), gill rakers short, moderate to numerous, pharyngeal teeth in 3 rows with spoon-shaped and truncate tips, a very long and coiled gut (ca. 7-10 times body length), mostly of uniform colour, and a black peritoneum. A general name for the members of this genus is twiny or touyeni. The name Capoeta is derived from the Armenian and Georgian name for female Capoeta capoeta packed with eggs “Kapwaeti”. The origin of Capoeta in Southwest Asia follows the same route as the genus Barbus (q.v.). Capoeta aculeata (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844) Common names. None. Systematics. Chondrostoma aculeatum was originally described from “eaux douces de la Perse”. Key characters. This species differs from all others in the genus Capoeta in Iraq by the lower number of lateral line (93% of 314 fish had range of 39-48) and caudal peduncle scales (90% of 303 fish had a range of 16-20). Morphology. Dorsal fin with 3-5, modally 4, unbranched and 7-9, modally 8, branched rays. The last dorsal fin unbranched ray is thickened and serrated, the denticles being long and narrowly spaced but not strongly developed. Distally this spiny ray is flexible. Smaller fish have proportionately larger and more extensive denticles than larger fish. The extent of denticles from the base distally varies between about two-thirds and three-quarters. Anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5-6, modally 5, branched rays, pectoral fin with 14-21 branched rays, and pelvic fin with 7-10, usually 8 or 9, branched rays. Lateral line scales 36-52. Caudal peduncle scales 13-23. Scale shape is squarish with shallowly rounded to straight dorsal and ventral margins, sharp corners anteriorly, and a large to moderate central protuberance on the anterior margin. Radii are most numerous on the posterior field but even there are few, relatively few laterally and few anteriorly. Circuli are very fine but break into coarser “bubbles” on the posterior field. The focus is subcentral anterior. The pelvic fin axillary scale varies greatly in size. The mouth is slightly arched or even straight in ventral view. The horny edge to the lower jaw is usually well developed but may be lost in preserved specimens. Gill rakers number 16-25 and are short, reaching past the first or second raker when appressed. Rakers are thick and usually hooked at their tips. Pharyngeal teeth are modally 2,3,4-4,3,2 (in 10 fish). Major row teeth are spatulate with a wide crown in large fish. Total vertebrae number 39-44. The gut is extremely elongate with numerous anterior and posterior coils.

148 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Capoeta aculeata

pharyngeal teeth

Males have moderately large tubercles on the anal fin rays following the ray branching (2-4 tubercles on last 4 branched anal rays), small tubercles on the lowest caudal fin ray, very fine tubercles on top of the head, larger tubercles on the side of the head, largest on the snout below the eye and nostril as far as the mouth, connecting across the snout, and numbering 1-5 moderately large tubercles on flank scales variously arranged on each scale and best developed on the posterior part of the body. Colour. The back is almost entirely black to green-brown or olive-green, the upper flank is brownish, and the belly and lower flank are yellow up to the lateral line, only the belly centre being white. The flanks are generally silvery in live fish. Some fish have small black spots on the sides and fins. Preserved fish have pigment on the posterior, exposed margin and so are outlined on the flank. The sides of the head are golden-brown. Flank spots may be in 5 longitudinal rows above, and 2 rows below, the lateral line. Some populations have fish with spots and mottles on the body and fins but these are probably occasioned by a parasitic infestation. Fins are often reddish-brown to pink although pelvic and anal fins may be yellowish-green and the dorsal and caudal fins very light to hyaline. Preserved fish have pigment on the rays and membranes of fins without any distinctive pattern. The dorsal and caudal fins are darker than the lower fins. The iris is golden to orange. The peritoneum is black. Size. Reaches 23.4 cm standard length.

Species Accounts 149

Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin and central and western basins of Iran. A single record for Iraq is from Jarmo near Chamchamal east of Kirkuk but it may be more widely distributed and not recognized, as it is not uncommon in the Tigris River basin of neighbouring Iran. Habitat. Habitat requirements of this species are unknown. Biology. Generally unknown. Gut contents include filamentous algae, plant fragments and diatoms with large amounts of sand. Reproduction has not been studied in this species. However, specimens from the Khorramabad River, Iran contained eggs 1.5 mm in diameter on 6 July and some seemed to be reabsorbing eggs. Spawning presumably takes place in late spring and summer. Economic importance. None. Conservation. Distribution, biology and abundance in Iraq are poorly known so no conservation status can be assessed. Capoeta barroisi Lortet in Barrois, 1894 Common names. None. [spotted barb]. Systematics. The type locality is Syria. A subspecies is Capoeta barroisi persica Karaman, 1969 described from “See Zariwar, Mariwan, 120 km westlich v. Sannadaj” (Lake Zaribar near Marivan, Kordestan, Iran in the Tigris River basin near the Iraq border) but other authors considers it to be a synonym of the nominal subspecies, C. b. barroisi. The subspecies persica is distinguished from the type subspecies by having a more horseshoe-shaped mouth, 8 branched dorsal fin rays, 18 gill rakers, blackish pectoral, pelvic and anal fins, few but very large black spots on the body, a shorter anal fin and a longer pectoral fin, and a deep body, based on a single specimen. The characters of mouth

Capoeta barroisi

150 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

form and colour fall within the range of the nominal subspecies (and by implication, the other characters too). Key characters. The dorsal fin branched ray count of usually 9 rays is characteristic, along with a head length greater than the dorsal fin spine length and the small spots on a silvery-white body are also distinctive. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 3-4 unbranched and 8-10 branched rays, usually 9 in the type subspecies, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5 branched rays. Pectoral fin branched rays 15-16, pelvic fin rays 7-8. Lateral line scales 61-82. Scales on the belly in front of the pelvic fins are small and may not be imbricate. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,4-4,3,2. Gill rakers 18-31, reaching the second adjacent raker when appressed. The last dorsal fin unbranched ray is very strong, but narrows distally, and bears large denticles or serrations on three-quarters of its length. Tubercles in males are found from eye to eye around the snout with fine tubercles sparse on the top of the head. Most flank scales have a single, centrally-placed tubercle as do scales on the caudal peduncle. There is a single row of tubercles on the last three anal fin rays. There are some weak tubercles on the side of the head. Colour. There are numerous, small, distinctive brown to black spots on the head, flank and dorsal and anal fins. The back and upper flank are silvery-white with slate to violet overtones and the belly is yellowish. Size. Reaches 31.6 cm standard length. Distribution. Found in the Ceyhan, Orontes (= Asi), Quwayq and Tigris-Euphrates basins. In Iraq reported from the Khalis River (tributary to the Tigris River just north of Baghdad), the Little Zab River, and the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs. Habitat. Unknown. Biology. Unknown. Economic importance. None. Conservation. The absence of detailed distributional data, habitat and biological information makes it impossible to assess conservation status. Capoeta damascina (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1842) Common names. Toueni; toyueni; twena; bertin; bartin; tin; zardah masih; tela shami. Systematics. Gobio damascinus was described from the “fleuve de Damas” (= river of Damascus, Syria). Synonyms are possibly Scaphiodon Umbla Heckel, 1843 described from the “Tigris bei Mossul” and Barbus belayewi Menon, 1960 from the “Tigris, Baghdad, Iraq”. Some authors place damascina in Capoeta capoeta (Güldenstädt, 1773) as a subspecies and umbla as another subspecies or recognise umbla as a distinct species. Key characters. The combination of scale counts, lack of numerous small flank spots and a dorsal fin with 8 or 9 rays is distinctive.

Species Accounts 151

Capoeta damascina

pharyngeal teeth

Morphology. Dorsal fin with 3-5 unbranched rays and 8-10 branched rays with modes at 8 and 9 rays for extensive material from Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Jordan, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5-6 branched rays, modally 5, pectoral fin branched rays 15-20, and pelvic fin branched rays 8-10. The last unbranched dorsal fin ray is moderate to strong with denticles along two-thirds of its length. Lateral line scales 60-99. Gill rakers 17-25. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,4-4,3,2, often 2,3,5-5,3,2, with spoon-shaped crowns. The mouth is usually horseshoe-shaped, seldom transverse. The karyotype for fish in the Tigris River basin of Turkey identified as Capoeta capoeta umbla is 2n = 150, possibly hexaploid and of fish identified as C. damascina from the Wadi Karak, Jordan 2n = 148150, also indicating a hexaploid species. Body form is highly variable as are scale counts between populations and even within populations when large series are examined. Subspecific designations can only be valid if very large series from the whole range of the species are compared. Males develop breeding tubercles around the snout and the posterior body on both sides of the lateral line.

152 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Colour. The back is dark brown or brownish to olive or blue-grey, the flanks silvery with some yellowish tinges, sometimes golden, or yellow-brown or reddish-brown above the lateral line, silvery below. The belly is white to yellowish. Cheeks are golden. Dark brown or black spots or large black botches numbering up to 20 may be scattered irregularly on the flanks. Fins are reddish-brown, yellowish or grey and may be hyaline. The caudal and pectoral fins may be very dark compared to other fins. The pectoral and pelvic fins may be a light pink tinge. The cartilaginous edge to the lower jaw is bright yellow to red-yellow. The peritoneum is black. Size. Attains 35.3 cm standard length, about 45.0 cm total length and 0.5 kg. Distribution. Found from Turkey, Syria, Lebanon and Israel to Iraq and internal basins of Iran. In Iraq it is recorded from large rivers such as the Shatt al Arab River, Tigris, Euphrates, Great and Little Zabs, Diyala, Rawanduz, smaller rivers and streams, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, reservoirs such as the Dukan and Derbendikhan, and canals. There appear to be no records for the southern marshes. Habitat. This species is known from small streams, large rivers, lakes and reservoirs but details on its environmental requirements are unknown. Biology. The age and growth of this species (as Barbus belayewi) was examined in the Diyala River at Rustamiyah in a section polluted with sewage. The oldest fish was in age group 9, growth in weight was always very poor (attributed to the polluted habitat), and maximum growth occurred between ages 1 and 2. Condition factors were highest in April (maturation) and lowest in May (post-spawning). Any exploitation of fish smaller than 90.08 mm fork length would seriously affect overall yield. All males are mature at 18 cm and all females at 20 cm in a study in the Lebanon. In Lake Kinneret, Israel, fish longer than 25 cm have developed gonads, occasionally males matured between 16 and 25 cm as did females between 20 and 25 cm. Six age classes (1+ to 6+) were found in the Nahr el Khalb, a Lebanese stream. Maximal growth was in July and August and minimal growth between December and February. The food of this species (as Barbus belayewi) was examined in the Diyala River at Rustamiyah. Heavy feeding only occurred during September and December, poor feeding only in June and the rest of the year was considered to be moderate feeding. Organic debris and detritus was the bulk of the diet followed by planktonic algae and aquatic plant parts. Zooplankton, aquatic insects and nematodes (presumably parasites) occurred occasionally. The food of this species in Lebanon and Israel was benthic diatoms and filamentous algae. The nutritional value of the ingested food was low because of the included mud. The species is classified as a phytobenthophagous fish, one that takes its plant food from bottom sediments. Leaf remains have also been found in gut contents. In Iranian waters, a variety of insects: Chironomidae, Formicidae, Epididae, Empididae, Tipulidae, Tabanidae, Simuliidae, Hydroptilidae, Grouvellinus, Elmis, Hydropsyche, Heptagenia and Baetis were taken, along with hydracarinans. Gonads were mature in April and May in the Diyala River. The 40 km stretch between Altun Kupri and Taktak on the Little Zab River was a spawning area as was

Species Accounts 153

the Khazir River between 10-20 June and the Khabour River about 30 km above Sakho between Zorawa and Gund Nazi. Spawning begins in May and ends in July in Lebanese waters. Eggs number up to 5,138 and egg diameters are up to 2.2 mm. In marked contrast, gonad weights are greatest in January in Lake Kinneret, Israel, 4 months earlier. This may be evidence of different temperature regimes or populational variation. Egg numbers up to 25,000 are reported for Tigris River fish in Turkey. This species migrates in winter, December to February in the upper Jordan River of Israel, the process being initiated by rainfall and flooding and a decrease in temperature to 16-18°C. The gonadosomatic index is highest in February and the final months of reproduction are March to May. Lake dwelling fish aggregate and swim up streams as far as 25 km and altitudes of 400-900 m, fattening and ripening at the spawning site. They can jump rapids on this migration (and in Iran, large fish cornered in small streams will jump over seine nets!). The females excavate a shallow nest in which to deposit adhesive eggs, up to 4.5 mm in diameter. Dozens of nests are found close together and sand and gravel stirred up by the excavation covers adjacent nests. After spawning, the adults return downstream to the stream mouth and lake. Economic importance. This species is of no economic importance in Iraq although in Israel annual catches in Lake Kinneret have been as high as 29 t or 7% of the total fishery. Johann Jakob Heckel in 1846 reported that this species was “greatly appreciated as food fish by the local people” in the Kor River basin, Fars, Iran (as his Scaphiodon amir). The eggs are reputedly poisonous and this is said to account for the low population of introduced Oncorhynchus mykiss in Gahaar Lake, Lorestan. Conservation. This species has not been as well investigated as others in Iraq and its conservation status cannot be determined. Capoeta trutta (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Touyeni; twena; hemira; tela morqat; kwesa; ethra or ethry at Mosul. Systematics. Placement of this species in Schizocypris has been advocated based on enlarged scales forming a split to encompass the urogenital region and a bare, to partially bare, mid-dorsal strip anterior to the dorsal fin. However the schizothoracine fishes are quite different (see accounts for Schizothorax, Schizopygopsis and Schizocypris in Freshwater Fishes of Iran at www.briancoad.com) and this placement is not accepted here. The type localities of Capoeta Trutta are “Gewässern bei Aleppo” (= Halab, Syria) and the “Tigris bei Mossul”. Key characters. The combination of small scales, transverse mouth, dorsal and anal fin branched ray counts, the very strong last unbranched dorsal fin ray (longer than head length - usually strong but rarely weak), and the colour pattern identifies this species.

154 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Capoeta trutta

Morphology. Dorsal fin with 3-5 unbranched rays followed by 7-9, usually 8, branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched rays followed by 5 branched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 14-18, and branched pelvic fin rays 7-8, usually 7. There are 23-31 denticles or teeth on the serrated dorsal fin ray, the largest near the centre of the ray length. Scales in lateral line 68-90, scales above lateral line 15-18 and scales below lateral line 10-17. The back anterior to the dorsal fin is compressed and lacks scales except near the occiput. Scales have a protruding anterior margin but are otherwise rounded, anterior and posterior radii, fine circuli and a subcentral anterior focus. There is a pelvic axillary scale. Gill rakers 22-33, on the lower arm 18-25 (with lowest counts in smallest fish). The rakers reach the second raker below when appressed. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,4-4,3,2. Teeth are broadly spoon-shaped at the tip, with narrow cusps and stems such that they are quite fragile. Total vertebrae 43-46. The mouth is inferior and transverse with a strong horny cover to the lower jaw. The gut is very elongate with numerous anterior and posterior loops. The karyotype is 2n = 150, possibly hexaploid. Males bear a single tubercle on each flank scale, sometimes 2 tubercles, positioned about the middle of the exposed scale or nearer the posterior edge. The head has small and widely scattered tubercles on the top and sides and large tubercles around the snout from eye to eye below the nostril level. Large tubercles occur in single files on the anal and dorsal fin rays, particularly the posterior rays, becoming apparent on the more anterior rays as tuberculation develops more highly. Colour. The head and body and the dorsal fin (and sometimes the caudal fin) are covered with small, distinctive black spots, often c- or x-shaped. Spots are apparent through the silver flank colour. Some fish in Khuzestan, Iran lack spots but transitional specimens

Species Accounts 155

from fully spotted through weakly spotted to immaculate are found in the same sample. Colour is brownish to yellowish or olive-green on the back with silvery-white flanks and the belly lighter, white with silvery tints. Some fish are very pale, almost whitish. Upper flank scales in particular are outlined with dark pigment. The eye is orange above or mostly silvery. Lower fins are orange to yellow at the base and blackish distally, or may be orange to yellow overall. The dorsal and caudal fins are grey or hyaline. The lower rays of the caudal fin have a slight orange-yellow tint. The peritoneum is dark brown to black. Size. Attains 52.7 cm. Distribution. Found in the Quwayq, Orontes (= Asi) and Tigris-Euphrates basins. In Iraq, it is reported from such large rivers as the Tigris, Euphrates, Great and Little Zabs and possibly the Shatt al Arab River, smaller rivers and streams, and reservoirs such as the Dukan and Derbendikhan. There appear to be no records for the southern marshes. Habitat. Considered to be stenohaline in Iran but nonetheless more widely distributed than stenohaline Barbus sharpeyi. It is reported from large and small rivers and from reservoirs. Biology. This species attained 3 years in the Dukan Dam and 4 years in the Derbendikhan Dam with growth slightly faster in the latter. Growth rate in the first two years was fast, slowing in the third. Studies in the Tigris River near Tikrit showed a maximum age of 7 years was attained and the populations were dominated by the 3 and 4 year age classes. Growth during the second and third years was rapid but dropped off after. There were no marked differences between the sexes in growth or longevity. The majority of the population studied in the Tigris River in Turkey was in age groups 2 and 3 although males lived to age 7 and females to age 10. Females are usually longer and heavier than males of the same age. Males comprised 41.26% and females 58.74% of this population. The highest condition factor was January and the lowest in February. In a stream in the Euphrates River drainage of Turkey, fish were found to live for 8 years with 60-90% of the fish in age groups 1 to 3, making it a young population as in the Tigris. Females comprised 53.3% and males 46.7% of this population. The condition factor in females was 1.17 at the lowest (age 4) and 1.72 at the highest (age 8). Males had a condition factor of 1.69 at age 2. The diet of this species in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs was mainly algae in spring (in 50% of fish studied), detritus (50%) and terrestrial plant seeds (19%). In summer and fall algae dominated (50%) with chironomids and detritus both at 40% and with snails, copepods, terrestrial insects and dipterans at 10-20%. Algae also dominated in fish from the Tigris River in Turkey at 99.7% of gut contents. A breeding season of March until July is reported for Tigris River fish near Tikrit. Spawning in the Tigris River in Turkey took place in May-June. Males matured at age 2 and females at age 3. Ripe egg size varied between 1.33 and 2.11 mm and egg numbers between 4713 and 18,240. Fish from Khuzestan, Iran had well-developed eggs on 30 January while adult fish taken on 7 July were not in reproductive condition. Economic importance. This fish is little used in Iraq because it is not highly valued for its taste, although a commercial fishery in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs

156 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

occurred, as it was abundant. The largest fish were about 42 cm in total length and weighed over 600 g. Conservation. Probably more common than studies indicate. It is probably not under threat in Iraq except possibly where exploited.

Genus Carassius Nilsson, 1832 The goldfishes comprise 2-3 species found in Europe, northern Asia and the Far East. One species is now common in Iraq and is probably C. auratus, the goldfish of aquaria. These fishes are characterised by a stout and compressed body, last unbranched dorsal and anal fin rays developed as spines and finely serrated, long dorsal and short anal fin, mouth small and terminal, lips thick and fleshy, no barbels, pharyngeal teeth in 1 row and molariform but compressed, numerous gill rakers, and scales large. Carassius auratus (Linnaeus, 1758) Common names. Samak zahabi; buj-buj in Nasiriyah; samti; yaybash in Basrah; karssen in Baghdad. [goldfish]. Systematics. The type locality is China and Japanese rivers. Iraqi “goldfish” are often identified in the literature as C. carassius. However, all diploid goldfish of western Europe are Carassius auratus auratus (from introductions, and presumably including releases and escapes in Iraq) and all triploid goldfish are C. auratus gibelio from eastern areas. True goldfish do not appear to be native to Iraq. Iraqi specimens could be referred to Carassius auratus gibelio (Bloch, 1782) known as the Prussian carp, European goldfish or silver crucian carp. Additionally C. auratus may be a tetraploid derivative of Carassius carassius. The native distribution of C. carassius is in Europe and western Asia, reaching northern drainages of the Caspian Sea in the southern limits of its distribution. It differs from C. auratus in having a slightly convex margin to the dorsal fin (straight or slightly concave in C. auratus), caudal fin slightly emarginate (deeply emarginate), usually 6 branched anal rays (always 5), 23-33 gill rakers (37-53), 31-34 vertebrae, usually 32-33 (28-31, usually 29-30), 28-29 fin denticles posteriorly on the dorsal fin spine (10-15), peritoneum light (dark), black spot at the caudal fin base in young and some adults (absent), and a coppery gold body (silvery, pinkish gold, gold or red). Other characters are body rounded, back thick (body angular, back compressed) and scales weakly sculptured (rough), although this comparison is with C. a. gibelio.

Species Accounts 157

Carassius auratus

Goldfish commonly hybridise with Cyprinus carpio to confuse the identity of these fishes further. Iraqi material needs careful and detailed study, using DNA, karyology and extensive comparative material from other countries, to determine the species. It is here referred to C. auratus for convenience and would include Iraqi literature records of C. carassius. A hybrid of this species and Barbus sharpeyi is described from Al-Hayei (= Al Ha’i), a seasonal lake between the Karkheh and Dez rivers in Khuzestan, Iran. Key characters. The combination of spines in both the dorsal and anal fins and the absence of barbels are unique to this species complex among Iraqi cyprinids. The subspecies auratus is distinguished from gibelio by 21-36 lateral line scales (27-35 in gibelio) and a pink or gold colour (yellowish silver) colour, clearly not very diagnostic. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 3-4 unbranched rays followed by 12-20 branched rays (usually the higher end of this range), anal fin with 2-4, usually 3, unbranched rays followed by 5-6, usually 5, branched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 11-18, and pelvic fin branched rays 6-9, usually 8. Dorsal and anal fin spine denticles coarse and few (about 10-15). Lateral line scales 21-36. The anterior scale margin is wavy and there are very few anterior and posterior radii, as few as 3-4. The focus is slightly subcentral posterior. Circuli on the exposed part of the scale are coarser and more widely spaced than on the concealed part of the scale. Gill rakers long with serrated interior margins, reaching the fifth to eighth raker below when appressed with younger fish having longer rakers proportionately. Counts are size dependent in the range 35-54. Total vertebrae 25-34. Pharyngeal teeth 4-4, with very elongate, narrow, flattened and horizontal cusps arising from a much narrower stem. The gut is coiled with several loops. The chromosome number is 2n = 100-104, a tetraploid.

158 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

There are elongate specimens (morpha humilis, where fish density is high) and deep-bodied specimens (morpha vovki, where fish density is low) but these names have no taxonomic significance. Breeding males have small nuptial tubercles on the operculum, back and pectoral fin rays. Colour. The golden or orange colour of artificially bred aquarium goldfish is distinctive. However, populations in the wild, if they breed successfully, gradually revert to a wild-type of colour, without the appropriate diet supplement fed aquarium fish and, as golden fish, are readily eaten by birds and other fishes. The pigmentation increases with fish weight when specimens are fed the carotenoid zeaxanthin. Wild-type colour is an overall olive-green fading to a white belly. Flanks can be silvery to almost black. Fins are a dark olive-bronze, the membranes in particular being heavily pigmented. Young goldfish are usually green, brown or bronze to almost black and only after about 1 year do they take on the colour of adult auratus or gibelio. Peritoneum dusky to black. Young fish at Ahvaz, Khuzestan, however, are a bright silvery overall (more so than Cyprinus carpio of similar size), the back is grey, the caudal fin is grey on the proximal half and hyaline distally, and the anal fin rays are white (and thus partly resemble gibelio). Prussian carp (subspecies gibelio) is a dark steel colour with dark blue or greenish dorsally, silver-grey laterally and white ventrally, dorsal and caudal fins are dark grey and the paired fins and anal fin are light pinkish. Size. Attains 52.0 cm and about 5.0 kg, the subspecies gibelio being smaller, up to 45.0 cm and 1.24 kg. Fishes in the recovering southern Iraqi marshes attained 37 cm (2005-2006 studies). Distribution. The native distribution is in northern Asia and China, reaching northern drainages of the Caspian Sea in the western limits of its distribution. The goldfish has been widely introduced to garden ponds and released from aquaria in temperate to warm waters worldwide including Iraq. Reproduction has occurred for many generations in the Za’faraniyah Fish Farm, Baghdad and it is found throughout the southern marshes. In Iran, it has been introduced throughout the country including Khuzestan where it is now common. Some introductions are probably discarded aquarium fish as goldfish are sold as pets and for the Now Ruz (= New Year) festivities. They may also have been introduced accidentally with the commercially important Chinese carps. These fish can easily have crossed the border into southern Iraq. Goldfish could be partly escapees from aquarium culture south of Basrah at Abu Al Kasib. The fish were bred in small rivers and irrigation ditches, separated from tidal flow by a wire mesh barrier. Tidal flow was used for water exchange. In about 2001, a flood breached the ditches and swept these species into the Shatt al Arab. They were bred for the local market and export to Jordan and possibly Syria. The Prussian carp (subspecies gibelio) is less widely distributed and its presence and distribution in Iraq are not known. Habitat. Reported as common in the east Hammar Marsh in April 2005 (as C. carassius).

Species Accounts 159

Goldfish are hardy and can live in winterkill water bodies with much aquatic vegetation, low oxygen, and high pollution. They can also survive several hours out of water and may bury themselves in mud, albeit temporarily, when scared. This was one of the most abundant species in the recovering marshes of southern Iraq in 2005-2006 (at 23.6% of 16,199 fishes collected, second only to Liza abu). Goldfish appear to favour ponds or pools in streams with aquatic vegetation but are often introduced into small bodies of water as ornamental fish. They are tolerant of turbidity, e.g. clay at 225,000 mg/l, pH from 4.5 to 10.5, very high temperatures (upper lethal limit 41.4°C), and high salinity (17‰). This species was killed under experimental conditions, when gradually acclimated to increasing salinity at 28,200 μmho and, by sudden exposure, at 19,200 μmho. This is a greater tolerance than that shown by Cyprinus carpio, another exotic introduced to Iraq. However, Carassius auratus appeared in the Basrah fish market when an increase in the Tigris River discharge reduced the salinity of the Shatt al Arab River. Biology. Biology has not been studied in detail in Iraq. Maturity is attained at 3-4 years in the Volga Delta for goldfish. Life span is 13 years with most growth in the first 2-4 years to a size of 15-20 cm. Life span in captivity in China may exceed 50 years. Population numbers in confined areas are limited by a chemical released by the goldfish that represses more spawning. Prussian carp live up to 11 years. In the Anzali Mordab on the Caspian coast of Iran, only 6 age groups were found as in reservoirs of Azerbaijan while 9 age groups were found in Armenia with the largest fish 32 cm standard length owing to intense fishing pressure. The population at Anzali is entirely female (see below). Individual life span is greater in Armenia where males are scarce or absent than in bisexual populations. Food is predominately zooplankton but also includes aquatic insects, crustaceans, molluscs, worms, detritus, filamentous algae, macrophytes and young fish, switching from one kind of food to another as circumstances warrant. Goldfish have a palatal organ on the roof of the mouth used to taste and touch food and their dense gill rakers aid in feeding on smaller food items. In the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet is 46.1% algae and 25.5% diatoms, with amounts of plants, crustaceans, insects, snails and fishes being less than 10% each, in the Hawizah Marsh 36.3% algae, 21.3% diatoms and 17.5% copepods, with amounts of plants, cladocerans, ostracods and insects being less than 10% each, in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 45.5% algae, 25.2% diatoms, with plants, various crustaceans, insects and snails at less than 10% each. The fish in the Anzali Mordab on the Caspian Sea coast of Iran are all female, reproducing through gynogenesis. Egg development is stimulated by sperm probably from Cyprinus carpio, Tinca tinca, Blicca bjoerkna or Scardinius erythrophthalmus. Here fish may mature at 1 year of age, and coupled with polycyclic ripening of eggs and intermittent spawning, this has led to the dominance of this species in the fresh waters of the lagoon. In Armenia, maturity appears to be linked with average annual temperature - at 12.013.1°C it occurs at the end of the first year of life while at 8.4-9.0°C it occurs at the end of third and fourth years.

160 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Spawning begins in late April to mid-May in the Volga Delta. Eggs are laid in 2-5 batches over a spawning period extending into July. Up to 10 batches are laid elsewhere at 8-10 day intervals with up to 4000 greenish-yellow eggs in each batch. Fecundity reaches 253,200 eggs (elsewhere to 685,700 with absolute fecundity reaching 860,000 eggs). The largest eggs are 1.6 mm in diameter. Each female is accompanied by 2 or more males and chases are reported with splashing and shooting through the water near the surface. The eggs are adhesive, attach to water plants and hatch in 5-8 days. An infestation with the anchor worm, Lernaea cyprinacea, at Za’faraniyah Fish Farm, south of Baghdad, caused a high rate of fish mortality. The infestation was controlled by use of the chemicals formalin and dipterex. Economic importance. This species is raised on Tehran fish farms for the pet trade. Escapees have become established in Middle East fresh waters to such an extent that in the Anzali Mordab of Iran, for example, 62% of the total catch is goldfish, and in 1990 weighed 46,472 kg. This species is caught by anglers at Ahvaz in Khuzestan using bread or potato as bait. The peculiar type of reproduction is very successful and affects the catches of other cyprinid species, being equivalent to a predatory effect. There is some evidence that this fish disturbs the habitat of native species, muddying waters, and it may compete for food and space. Goldfish have destroyed some amphibian populations in other parts of the world by consuming frog eggs. This species is important based on its use in textbooks, in aquaria and in aquaculture, as bait, as an experimental species and because it has been introduced outside its natural range. There are numerous, commercial aquarium forms with particular morphologies and colours that are assigned common names, e.g. common, veiltail, comet, fans, calicoe, black-moor, telescope-veiltail, lionhead, egg-fish, shubunkin. Conservation. This species is a successful exotic, in no need of conservation.

Genus Chondrostoma Agassiz, 1832 The nases are found from the Iberian Peninsula and France to the Caspian and TigrisEuphrates basins and neighbouring areas of Iran. There are about 26 species of which one is known for Iraq. The monophyly of the genus is based on the cytochrome b gene with vicariant events accounting for distribution of taxa better than a dispersalist model. Middle East taxa belong to a single lineage with the more differentiated and basal species in the Caucasus and Mesopotamia, having been isolated in the Upper Miocene-Pliocene. This genus is characterised by being of moderate size, with a somewhat compressed body, scales of moderate to small size (44-106 in the lateral line), scales squarish with radii in the anterior and posterior fields and a subcentral anterior focus, no barbels, an inferior and transverse or crescentic mouth with a cutting edge to the lower jaw, thin

Species Accounts 161

upper lip and no lower lip, pharyngeal teeth in 1 row with a high count (5, 6 or 7, the same number on each arch or one more on the left) and knife-like, gill rakers short and moderately numerous (up to 40), short dorsal fin without a thickened ray, 8-11 dorsal fin branched rays, a moderately elongate anal fin with 8-12 branched rays, deeply forked caudal fin and usually concave dorsal and anal fins, a pelvic axillary process always present, 42-49 vertebrae, a black peritoneum, and a long, coiled gut. The Iraqi species is in a group characterised by a straight or only slightly arched mouth cleft, high vertebral counts (total vertebrae modes 45-47 and abdominal modes 26-28) and often, or commonly, 4 unbranched rays in the dorsal fin. Chondrostoma regium (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Baloot muluki; pangka; zurri at Mosul (also used for Alburnus mossulensis, Aphanius spp., Gambusia and any small fishes or large fishes when young). Systematics. Chondrochilus regius Heckel, 1843 was described from the “Orontes” (= Asi) and “Tigris”, the former locality possibly in error. Some authors regard C. regium as only a race of a widespread species, C. nasus (Linnaeus, 1758). C. nasus has larger scales on average and 6-6 pharyngeal teeth while in C. regium the count is mostly 7-6. However, a small degree of morphological variation between species in this genus is recognised. There may well be significant variation of a clinal nature, altitude and temperature may be important, and habitat types (lentic or lotic) may affect body form. Most samples examined previously are too small in numbers and differences due to size and sex could not be adequately assessed. Key characters. The characters of the genus are distinctive.

Chondrostoma regium

162 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Morphology. Dorsal fin branched rays 8-11, mode 9 or 10 (authors differ), anal fin branched rays 9-12, mode 11 or 12, pectoral fin rays 14-18, mostly 15-17, and pelvic fin rays 6-9, mostly 8. Gill rakers 18-36 (probably lower counts are of rakers on the lower arch only and ranges in single studies, presumably to a consistent technique, are 22-34, 24-31, 25-34 and 25-36). Counts for the whole arch on 90 Iranian fish give a wide range of 19-34, highly correlated with size, larger fish having more (or more discernible) rakers than smaller fish. Lateral line scales 56-72, scales above the lateral line 9-13, and scales below the lateral line 5-6. Scale radii are few and restricted to the posterior field. Total vertebrae 46-49. Pharyngeal teeth 6-5, 6-6, 6-7, 7-5, 7-6 and 7-7, mode 6-6 or 7-6. The mouth is straight (= transverse) with a thick horny layer on the lower jaw. Colour. The back is olive-brown with bluish tinges and the flanks and belly are silvery-white. The dorsal and caudal fins are greyish and the other fins hyaline. Some fish have bright orange fins, the pectorals paler, the pelvics and anal fins fringed by white. The dorsal and caudal fins have a black margin, wide on the caudal. These fin colours give them a flag-like effect. The caudal fin can be orange, distally black, with the extreme edge white in freshly dead fish. Size. Attains 40 cm and 1 kg. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin and the Mediterranean basins of southeastern Turkey and the northern Levant. In Iraq this species is found in large rivers such as the Tigris, Little and Great Zabs and Diyala as well as smaller rivers and streams, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah and reservoirs such as the Dukan and Derbendikhan. It has not been reported from the southern marshes. Habitat. Found in both rivers and lakes (and reservoirs) but habitat requirements have not been studied in Iraq. In Turkey, this species prefers stone grounds and still waters in rivers and lakes. Biology. In the Diyala River, the maximum age group was 7+ years, males and females showed no difference in weight at the same length and samples from three adjacent areas showed no major differences in growth rates. Males matured at 15.0 cm and females at 19.0 cm in the Diyala River at Rustamiyah. A population at Al Kadhmia north of Baghdad in the Tigris River had four age classes dominated by the three year age class, with all fish being sexually mature during the second year. Fish smaller than 15 cm for males and 17 cm for females were immature. The disparity in age structure with the Diyala River population was attributed to pollution in the Diyala. A population of this species in the Bafra Altınkaya Dam Lake in Turkey was aged using vertebrae, otoliths, scales, opercle and subopercle. Age reached 5, perhaps 6, years and scales were found to be the best structure to use. A similar age range was found in the Suat Uğurlu Dam, Turkey with annulus (hyaline ring) formation in October to February. Deposition of hyaline rings was synchronous with decrease in food diversity in autumn in this dam. In the Atatürk Dam on the Turkish Euphrates River, 8 age groups were found. The condition factor was high in age group 7 and high in April and May, lowest in December and January.

Species Accounts 163

This species is omnivorous taking insect larvae, and eggs and fry of other fishes. Gut contents also include diatoms and algae as well as large quantities of sand. Diet in the Suat Uğurlu Dam included Navicula, Cymbella and Synedra as the most frequently consumed organisms. This species feeds mostly on Bacillariophyta in this dam but also Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Xanthophyta, Euglenophyta and Rotifera and, at least in this habitat, can be considered to be planktivorous. Diet varied with seasonable availability of food items. Studies on the Diyala River population found fish to be mature in December and by January females lacked eggs. Each female produces up to 6900 eggs and number of eggs increases linearly with length. The breeding season at Al Kadhmia in the Tigris River near Baghdad was March-May. In the Tigris River in Turkey, fecundity reaches 13,280 eggs. This species probably spawns in May or June in Syria and condition factors were highest in April and May in the Atatürk Dam, Turkey. Economic importance. This species has been caught and used for food in Khuzestan, Iran. Conservation. This species has not been widely studied in Iraq but is probably not under any specific threat.

Genus Ctenopharyngodon Steindachner, 1866 The grass carp genus contains only a single species found in East Asia but widely introduced for food and its ability to digest macrophytes. This genus is characterised by a rounded body and broad head, the eyes are large and low on the head and often visible from the underside of the head, mouth wide and terminal, no barbels, moderate-sized scales, a complete lateral line, dorsal and anal fins short and lacking spines, branchial membranes attached to the isthmus, short unfused gill rakers, brown to black peritoneum, and pharyngeal teeth in 2 rows with the crowns strongly compressed and serrate and with a longitudinal groove on the grinding surface. Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844) Common names. Carp eshaby, gareba. [grass carp, white amur]. Systematics. This species was originally described from China. Key characters. This species is identified by the eyes being low on the side of the head, the anal fin is far back on the body close to the caudal fin, and pharyngeal teeth have large, parallel grooves on the grinding surface.

164 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Ctenopharyngodon idella

Morphology. Lateral line scales 34-47. Scales have a wavy anterior edge, central focus and moderate numbers of anterior and posterior radii. Dorsal fin branched rays 6-8, usually 7, after 3 unbranched rays, anal fin branched rays 7-9, usually 8, after 3 unbranched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 13-20 and pelvic fin branched rays 7-8. Gill rakers number 15-18 and touch the adjacent raker when appressed. Vertebrae 40-47. Pharyngeal teeth are 2,5-5,2, 2,4-5,2, 2,4-4,2, or 1,4-5,2 and are obviously serrated with a longitudinal grooves. The gut is long and complexly coiled. The diploid chromosome number is 48, the triploid 72. Nuptial tubercles are evident on the male head, upper caudal peduncle, dorsal and caudal fins and in particular on the pectoral fins, the first ray of which is thickened, while the female has a distended belly and a swollen and pinkish vent. Colour. The back is dark, olive to greenish-brown, the flanks are silvery but scales are marked with darker pigment on their posterior margin giving the appearance of a row of spots, and the belly is white to cream-yellow. Scale centres may reflect golden or yellowish tints. Upper scales are outlined with dark pigment to give a cross-hatching effect. The fins are grey-green, or grey to black, except the pelvics that resemble the belly colour. Peritoneum brownish black. Size. Reputed to attain 1.6 m and about 50 kg in its native range; reports of weights up to 180 kg probably being exaggerations. Attains at least 31 inches (0.79 m) and 12 pounds (5.5 kg) in Lost Lake, a palace pond at Baghdad. Distribution. The native distribution is in East Asia but it has been introduced to Iraqi waters, the first record being for 1968 from Japan for use in pond culture. As well as being present in fish ponds throughout Iraq, this species is found in the southern marshes, the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the Tigris and Diyala rivers and in Lake Habbaniyah. Habitat. Large grass carp are recorded from the recovering the Suq ash Shuyukh Marsh in April 2005 and elsewhere in Iraq as free-living fish. They were also introduced to Khuzestan, Iran in the 1970s to control vegetation in irrigation ditches. Grass carp could establish breeding populations in the large rivers of southern Iraq and Iran if the environment proves favourable and there is enough uninterrupted river flow for eggs to hatch.

Species Accounts 165

The natural habitat is large rivers but this species adapts easily to pond culture. Grass carp can live in the Caspian Sea at salinities of 5-8‰ although a few are found at 10-12‰. Temperatures in the range 0-41°C are survived and low dissolved oxygen concentrations (0.2 mg/l) are tolerated by this species, as is high turbidity. Fry have an upper lethal temperature range of 33-41°C and temperatures greater than 38°C are lethal for adults. pH range is 5.0-9.0. Adults prefer densely vegetated inshore areas with depths of 1-3 m. Those living in lake areas enter rivers to spawn. Adults leave the river after spawning and feed in lakes, reservoirs and on floodplains, returning to the river in autumn to overwinter in deep holes separate from the juveniles. Young hide in vegetation of lakes, reservoirs and floodplains. Juveniles may migrate as much as 1000 km up- or downstream from the original spawning site in their native habitat. Biology. Growth rate in Khuzestan canals was 1.8 g per day while in ponds growth was 6.6 g per day when fed alfalfa during a 5-month growing season from April to September. Males begin to mature at 4 years and females at 5 years in the Terek River of Dagestan. Maturity is attained at 6-10 years in the Amur River, the native habitat, and as early as 10 months in Malaysia. Life span is up to 21 years. Growth rate in this species is perhaps greater than in any other fish. Growth to 1 kg in the first year of life and 2-3 kg per year thereafter in temperate areas is very high; in tropical areas, a 20 g fingerling can reach 8.5 kg in 1 year. Rates of 10-22 g per day have been reported in various areas of the world depending on local conditions. Grass carp are herbivores, except for quite small fish (20 mm total length or less) which consume zooplankton. The grass carp can consume 100-150% of its body weight per day of aquatic vegetation. Peak feeding occurs at 25-30°C but food is taken in the range 15-35°C. Grass carp stocked in the Anzali Mordab of Iran and fish farms of the Caspian Sea basin consume fresh Azolla, an introduced fern. Grass carp stocked at 800/ ha consume 400-500 kg of Azolla daily gaining 800-1200 g in 5 months. In China, this species is known to eat grass, leaves, small fishes, insects and other items in addition to aquatic vegetation, or when such vegetation is in low supply. About half the plant food passing through the digestive system is undigested and large quantities of plant material must be eaten to sustain life. This consumption rate is the reason for its success at aquatic vegetation control. Grass carp overwinter without feeding. A spawning migration to a large river takes place at about 15-17°C water temperature. The female swims in the centre of the river at the surface accompanied by 2-3 males, they roll and rub their bodies together and often jump out of the water. A male prods the female’s body to stimulate egg release and leans closely to one side. Eggs are semibuoyant and require a slow and steady current to keep them off the bottom (minimum water velocity of 0.23 m/second or more to support them and allow hatching; this is found in large rivers where the eggs hatch as they drift downstream; at 20°C and a not unusual velocity of 1.2 m/second, hatching requires 180 km of river). Temperatures should be above 20°C and preferably 21-25°C, or 26-30°C in another source. At these temperatures, hatching takes about 40 hours. Spawning occurs after heavy rain in rising

166 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

rivers, when turbidity may reduce predatory attacks on the semi-pelagic eggs. This regime is also required for newly hatched fry and such conditions are rare outside their native habitat. In the Terek River of the Caspian Sea basin, the spawning migration begins in mid-April and continues until August although numbers begin to decrease from the end of May. Spawning takes place after a sharp rise in water level and current speed. Eggs are first found in the drift in the second week of June and hatch 34-70 hours later depending on temperature. Some larvae reach rice fields and live there until autumn when the fields dry up where some are lost, others migrating. Up to 100,000 eggs are laid at one time and in the Terek River, fecundity reaches 1,230,700 eggs. Absolute fecundity may reach 2 million eggs. Eggs are up to 2.5 mm in diameter before fertilisation and are greyish-blue to bright orange. In water, they swell to over 5.3 mm in 2 hours, becoming buoyant in flowing water. An infestation with the anchor worm, Lernaea cyprinacea, at Za’faraniyah Fish Farm, south of Baghdad, caused a high rate of fish mortality. The infestation was controlled by use of the chemicals formalin and dipterex. Economic importance. In Iraqi waters, this species has been introduced as an aquaculture fish although it is not as common as in some other countries in Southwest and Central Asia. In some countries, it is sought after by anglers. Iraqi fish farmers are said to prefer this species, as they grow larger over a shorter time span than other species. A business model for farming this species in Iraq was developed by the United States Agency for International Development in 2006. Semi-intensive cultivation in earthen ponds (1 ha) would require a relatively small investment, ca. $31,000, and only $11,000 in marsh areas where nets can be used to confine the fish without pond construction. Current retail price for fish is $2.33/kg, similar to poultry, and aquaculture could reduce this to 15% lower than poultry and 70% lower than red meat. This species has been introduced to Iran to control aquatic weeds in drainage and irrigation canals as an alternative to using polluting chemicals or mechanical removal. Grass carp may also help to control the snail-carried, human disease schistosomiasis, since the vegetation on which the snails live is severely reduced, and they also help to reduce malaria-carrying mosquito numbers. They are also a food fish which relies on food sources not available to native fish (few fish consume whole plants). Grass carp consume vegetation at a rate of 100:1, i.e. for every 1 kg increase in grass carp biomass 100 kg of vegetation is consumed. Removal rates may exceed this figure since leaves are bitten off and branches clipped with not all of it being consumed. In the Dez Irrigation Project, Khuzestan, large amounts of this vegetation were removed daily from screens in test sections. Stocking in the Dez Irrigation Project showed a removal rate approximately the same as mechanical control. During a 5 month period, the grass carp controlled 250 tons of aquatic vegetation per hectare. The fish preferred plant species that blocked the canals (Potamogeton spp. and Alisma gramineum) rather than those that grew close to the substrate (Chara and Cladophora) and did not interfere with water flow. Marjan Iran Company was selling 1500-2000 g fish for U.S.$2.10/kg in August 2003.

Species Accounts 167

The advantages and disadvantages of using this species as a weed control agent in the have been studied in the U.S.A. and in the Kara-kum Canal in Turkmenistan. Problems include destruction of habitat for fishes and waterfowl, competition with native species, loss of breeding grounds, facilitating the attacks of predators in areas cleared of vegetation, promotion of algal blooms from faecal remains fertilising the water, reduction of dissolved oxygen levels and water clarity, loss of food sources, shelter and spawning substrate for other fishes, and introduction of exotic diseases and parasites. Ideally, triploids, produced by cold or warm shocks or by hydrostatic pressure on fertilised eggs, should be used initially as they cannot reproduce. However, the chromosome number of each fish must be checked (by electronically measuring the volume of a red blood cell nucleus) as the process is not 100% effective. Conservation. None is required for this exotic species. Experiments on induction of triploidy have been carried out in Iran using cold and heat. Triploids cannot reproduce and escapes from fish farms would not survive to compete with a native species.

Genus Cyprinion Heckel, 1843 Synonyms are Scaphiodon Heckel, 1843, Semiplotus Bleeker, 1859, a genus found from Nepal to Viet Nam, and Scaphiodonichthys Vinciguerra, 1890, a genus from Indochina, according to one author while others regard Semiplotus as a distinct genus but probably related to Cyprinion. They comment that Semiplotus differs sharply from Cyprinion sensu stricto in the absence of barbels, a higher number of branched dorsal fin rays (20 or more), and in a lower number of branched anal fin rays (5 as in most related genera rather than the unusual 7 in Cyprinion). Scaphiodonichthys has 2 pairs of barbels (only 1 in Cyprinion), and 5 branched anal fin rays as well as differing from both Cyprinion and Semiplotus by having the lateral line closer to the ventral margin of the caudal peduncle and divergent rather than parallel striae on the scales. These latter 2 characters justify generic separation of Scaphiodonichthys. Characters used by others to define Cyprinion such as expansion of the proximal part of the pelvic fin rays, interpelvic papillate flaps and a naked predorsal ridge do not occur in all species in this genus. If Semiplotus is included in Cyprinion then several osteological structures, particularly a synarthritic dentary joint, are uniquely derived or synapomorphic. In the absence of a detailed revision, species are retained within Cyprinion as the most familiar name in use in Southwest Asia for these fishes. Cyprinion sensu stricto is found from the Indus River basin west to the Arabian Peninsula and the Tigris-Euphrates basin but excluding northern drainages in Iran and excluding the westernmost edge of Southwest Asia such as the Jordan River basin and coastal drainages of Israel. This genus is characterised by a moderate sized, compressed body, a thick and blunt snout, an inferior mouth with a straight, crescentic or arched shape and a sharp horny edge to the lower jaw (which may fall off in preserved specimens), 1 pair of small barbels

168 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

at the mouth corner, the last dorsal fin unbranched ray is thickened and bears weak to strong serrations (highly variable between individuals within a species and not a good character in species definitions), the dorsal fin is long (up to 16 branched rays) and the anal fin short (typically 7 branched rays), a ridge in front of the dorsal fin is formed internally from fused pterygiophores and lacks scales externally, pharyngeal teeth are in 3 rows and are compressed and spoon-shaped, scales large to moderate in size (lateral line counts (31-45), breast and belly scales may be absent (individually variable and not a good character), scale radii are restricted to the posterior field, peritoneum black, and gut very long and coiled (several times body length). Cyprinion kais Heckel, 1843 Common names. Bunni saghir; bnaini; kais at Aleppo (= Halab, Syria), hence the scientific name. Systematics. Cyprinion Cypris Heckel, 1843 is a synonym, being a juvenile with keratinization of the lower jaw incomplete. The type localities for Cyprinion Kais are “Aleppo” and “Mossul” and for Cyprinion Cypris the “Tigris bei Mossul”. Key characters. Mouth shape is distinctive. It is small and semicircular with a width about the size of the eye diameter and has large lateral lobes (= lower lips). The cartilaginous sheath is thickened between the corners of the mouth and is rounded posteriorly with a distinct margin. The cartilage can form a tooth-like structure protruding anteriorly from the lower lip. The mouth in C. macrostomum is wider, arched and lacks the lateral lobes. The width of the mouth opening is only 13.5-22.0% of the head length (22.0-27.0% in C. macrostomum) for adult fish and the height of the arch or mouth opening (a line perpendicular from a line between the mouth corners to the tip of the lower jaw) 48-80% of the mouth width (29-47% in C. macrostomum), i.e. the mouth is narrower and more arched in C. kais. On this character, therefore, the two species can be distinguished as adults but there is potential for confusion in young fish. The intestine is shorter and less complexly coiled in this species and the mean number of gill rakers is less in contrast to C. macrostomum. The back is higher and more curved, the eyes are larger and the anal fin is more posterior, in addition to the mouth shape. The dorsal fin origin arises over that of the pelvic fins. The edge of the dorsal fin is more notched in C. kais than in C. macrostomum (the length of the fourth branched ray is 48-62% of the length of the first ray as opposed to 55-79% in C. macrostomum, with extreme values overlapping). The form of the pharyngeal teeth is different from C. macrostomum (kais has hooked tips and macrostomum does not), there are fewer gill rakers (8-12 on the lower arch in kais, 12-16 in macrostomum), on average there are fewer dorsal fin rays, the last unbranched dorsal fin ray is longer, and interorbital width is smaller. However sample sizes in some

Species Accounts 169

Cyprinion kais

head

studies are small, morphometric characters are notoriously size-dependent, gill raker counts are also size dependent, and even pharyngeal tooth form varies with age (small macrostomum have hooked tips). C. kais may well be a good species but a wide-ranging comparison of adults and young and of localities is needed. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 4 unbranched and 12-16 branched rays, often 14, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 7 branched rays. The dorsal fin has the last unbranched ray developed as a spine with strong teeth except at the tip that is thin and flexible. Pectoral fin with 14-18 branched rays and pelvic fin with 8 branched rays. Lateral line with 3643 scales. The belly is scaled. There is a well-developed pelvic axillary scale. Scales have a subcentral anterior focus, fine circuli, few posterior radii and no or very few anterior radii. Total gill rakers 10-15, short and reaching the raker below when appressed. Rakers are absent on the anterior arch where there are only tubercles. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,4-4,3,2, with variants 2,3,5-5,3,2 and 2,3,5-4,3,2, spoon-shaped with a small hook at the tip. Tuberculation in a 103.5 mm standard length specimen consisted of ca. 20 tubercles restricted to the area over the lachrymal bone. A specimen 147.5 mm standard length had

170 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

small to minute tubercles in front of the eye, under the eye, on the mid-preoperculum and on the mid-operculum. Curiously, the individual small tubercles on the operculum were connected by thin lines of horny tissue. Colour. Overall colour is silvery to yellowish-white with the back grey-brown and the lower surfaces a lemon yellow. The lower jaw margin is a glossy yellow. The pelvic fins are a bright orange-red, the pectorals paler. Some fish have a less strong colour in the pelvic than in the anal fin. The anal fin is yellow, to orange or greenish, distally black and anteriorly mostly orange. The caudal fin has light orange to greenish tints. The dorsal fin is black with a yellow-tinged base becoming anteriorly reddish. In preserved fish, there is some concentration of pigment above and below each lateral line pore, scales on the back and upper flank are outlined with pigment, and there is some concentration of pigment into a few to moderate number of diffuse spots on the uppermost flank and back midline. The leading edge of the dorsal fin is very dark (but may be light), dorsal fin membranes are dark, anal fin membranes also dark but to a lesser extent, and the caudal, pectoral and pelvic fins have pigment lining the rays. Peritoneum black. Size. Attains 21.5 cm total length. Distribution. This species is found in the Tigris-Euphrates and Quwaiq basins. It is also found in the Gulf basin of southwestern Iran. In Iraq, it is recorded from marshes such as Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish), large rivers such as the Shatt al Arab River, Tigris and Little Zab, smaller rivers such as the Khalis near Baghdad, in ponds such as those on Za’faraniyah Fish Farm south of Baghdad, in springs such as Chamal near Kirkuk, and in reservoirs such as the Dukan Dam. Habitat. This species is recorded from a variety of habitats as listed above and is also known to inhabit canals but nothing is known of its environmental requirements. Biology. Poorly known. Gut contents are filamentous algae in the one specimen examined. Diet may be similar to Cyprinion macrostomum. Economic importance. None. Conservation. This species appears to be rare, or at least is rarely collected, in Iraq. Cyprinion macrostomum is much more common and is taken in most seine hauls in streams and rivers.  Cyprinion macrostomum Heckel, 1843 Common names. Himriya sefra; hmarriya sefra; surrah masih; dunbuk kabir al-fam, benayne; dombok or dumbek at Mosul (= meaning solid or compact flesh, a good source of food, according to Johann Jakob Heckel; kais at Aleppo (= Halab, Syria) according to Johann Jakob Heckel (but see above species). [large-mouthed barb].

Species Accounts 171

Cyprinion macrostomum

head

Systematics. Originally spelt macrostomus but correctly macrostomum. Cyprinion neglectus Heckel, 1849 from the “Tigris bei Mossul” is a synonym. C. kais has been placed in the synonymy of this species along with C. cypris. The type locality of Cyprinion macrostomus is “Aleppo” (= Halab, Syria) and “Mossul”. Key characters. Distinguished from C. kais by mouth and dorsal fin ray characters as described under that species, by having more gill rakers and a longer and more coiled intestine. The dorsal fin origin is in front of that of the pelvic fins. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 4 unbranched and 12-17 branched rays (usually 1415 according to a literature source but 77% of fish in Iran are 13-14). The last dorsal fin unbranched ray is strong and serrated to the tip. The anal fin has 3 unbranched and 6-7, usually 7, branched rays. In Iranian specimens, 96.1% of 127 fish have 7 rays, the remainder 6 rays. Pectoral fin branched rays are 12-17, usually 15-17, and pelvic fin branched rays 7-9, usually 8. Lateral line scales 33-45 (usually 41-44 in the literature but a broader range in Iran, 35-41). The breast is covered with scales. The pelvic axillary scale is very elongate. Scales are squarish, being deeper than long, often with parallel

172 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

dorsal and ventral margins (or rounded margins). The anterior margin has a marked central protuberance and the posterior margin is rounded. Radii are numerous on the posterior field and circuli are fine and numerous. The posterior field circuli break into “bubbles”. The focus is subcentral anterior. Gill rakers 13-21, without a strong mode, on the lower arm 12-16. Rakers are short and only touch the raker below or a little further when appressed. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,5-5,3,2, with variations 2,3,4-5,3,2, 2,3,5-4,3,2, or 2,3,4-4,3,2. Teeth are spatulate with broad, flattened crowns. The tips of teeth are slightly hooked in small fish. The most anterior tooth in the main row may be very small or absent (or incompletely ossified and hard to distinguish). The gut is very elongate with complex coils. In small fish, the upper lip is not covered with a fold of the snout as in large fish. In addition, the gut is not as coiled in young fish as in adults. Chromosome number is 2n = 48. The mouth is usually transverse or slightly arched and usually has a horny covering. Small fish have a crescentic mouth. A wide range of mouth arching is seen in fish of varying sizes and even in fish of the same size and locality of capture. The syntypes of Cyprinion neglectus have a mouth arch that is more curved and not as wide, somewhat intermediate between C. macrostomum and C. kais, being closer to the former. This variation is attributed to the material possibly being from some tributary of the Tigris River, or from isolated ponds, where introgression with C. kais took place. It may well be that variation in mouth shape is more marked than limited sample sizes would indicate. Certainly in smaller fish, e.g. in 20 specimens of C. macrostomum (38.554.0 mm SL) examined from Iran, values for mouth width and depth compared to a literature source are not as clear cut and there is a variable developmental gradient in mouth shape. Mouth “height” as a percentage (%) of width was 29.2-53.8 and width as % of head length was 22.1-36.6. The literature source gives “height” as 19-31% of width and width as 26-44% head length for macrostomum and 48-80% and 13.5-22.0% respectively for kais. Large macrostomum and kais (>100 mm SL) can be distinguished on mouth shape but not smaller specimens which bridge the gap between the two species. The possibility that kais is a developmental anomaly of macrostomum, retaining juvenile features, should be investigated. Mature males have large tubercles on the snout in a broad band below the nostril level, extending back under the eye and breaking up into a few tubercles on the operculum. There is a large tubercle between the nostril and the eye. Fine tubercles are scattered over the top of the head. Three tubercles are found in rows on the first branched pectoral fin ray and very strong tubercles line each anal fin branched ray in single file. The anterior pelvic fin rays have the occasional 1-2 tubercles or a row of tubercles. Dorsal and caudal fin rays have fine tubercles, much smaller than those on the anal fin. Mid and posterior flank scales have 1-3 small tubercles, variably arranged on the exposed scale. Colour. The back is bluish-grey to bluish-black or brown, flanks silvery or silveryyellow and the belly whitish with silvery tints. The upper head is light brown. Scales are outlined with dark pigment and the anterior exposed scale base is darkened. The cleithrum

Species Accounts 173

area is pink or orange in some fish with pink or orange spots on up to 5 rows of flank scales but mostly along the anterior lateral line. Fish from a saline stream in Khuzestan had a pale-pink cleithrum and lateral line spots. There is a reddish-yellow spot at the base of the pectoral and pelvic fins. The pectoral, pelvic, anal and caudal fins are yellowish to pinkish or orange proximally and blackish distally. The dorsal fin has a narrow, yellow stripe at the base and the rest of the fin is black. The cartilaginous lower jaw is reddishyellow to orange. The eye is slightly yellow. Small live fish are silvery overall with a white belly and olive back, the pectoral and pelvic fins slightly orange-yellow and other fins greyish although all fins may be hyaline. The peritoneum is black. Small preserved fish have an indistinct blotch at the caudal fin base and a similar blotch on the back at the base of the spine in the dorsal fin. In very small fish, these blotches are more distinct and there are 4-7 irregular blotches on the mid-flank above the lateral line and 3 blotches at the dorsal fin base. Development of blotches is individually variable, some fish being almost immaculate while in others the blotches extend vertically as bars as far as the back. Size. Reaches 19.3 cm standard length. Distribution. Found in the Orontes (= Asi), Quwayq and Tigris-Euphrates basins. In Iraq it is known from large rivers like the Tigris, Great and Little Zab, Diyala, Rawanduz and Saddam (Main Outfall Drain), as well as smaller rivers and streams such as the Adhaim and Khalis, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah, Dukan and Derbendikhan, in ponds such as those on Za’faraniyah Fish Farm south of Baghdad, and in springs such as Nawaran north of Mosul. Not reported from the Euphrates but occurs in the Khabour River of Syria to the north of the Iraq border and presumably is present in the Iraqi Euphrates. It is reported as found in the southern marshes but few collections have been made of this species there. Habitat. Known from a variety of habitats as listed above as well as canals and gravel pits. A sample from Nawaran Spring showed that this species could survive temperatures up to about 37°C. At an acclimation temperature of 30°C, the LT50 (lethal temperature when half the fish die) is increased to 39.3°C. This species is reported from the Kangal Thermal Spring, Sivas, Turkey at a constant temperature of 35°C. This is the commonest species in catches in southwestern Iran, followed by Garra rufa. In areas under human influence in Lorestan, Iran such as the lower reaches of rivers and near cities, it exceeds 80% in numbers in catches. Biology. Maximum age reported for a population in the Al-Nibaey Lakes near Baghdad is 7+ years. Growth is slow and there is no difference in growth between males and females, although the habitat is not considered ideal for these fishes. Females tend to be slightly heavier than males of the same length especially in older fish. Maturity is attained at 10.0-11.1 cm, corresponding to age group 2. Fish from commercial catches in the Tigris River were immature up to age 2+. Major food items in the Baghdad study are of plant origin with occasionally some chironomid larvae, copepods and cladocerans, suggesting an omnivorous diet. Fish from

174 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

near Sulaimaniyah showed that diatoms and decayed organic matter are the main foods, with some green algae. Zooplankton is thought to be an accidental food item. Guts contain mud and sand, evidence of a bottom feeding habit. Feeding increases at the start of the breeding season but is low in ripe fish. The horny lower jaw covering is used to scrape algal food off hard bottom objects. Near Baghdad, most fish are mature by April, the gonads occupying about one-third of the body cavity. Ovaries are orange to yellowish and testes milky white. Spawning occurs principally in May and June, with some in early July, but by July, most fish are spent. Iranian material shows minute but developing eggs in a 71.3 mm SL fish caught on 31 January and specimens caught on 5 July have eggs 1.4 mm in diameter. The 31 January fish has tubercles on the snout and anal rays so tubercles develop quite early and in small fish. A fish caught on 20 September also shows tubercles around the snout. Small fish caught in January about 20 mm SL are presumably the young from the previous season and so show slow growth or are evidence of a prolonged or late spawning season. Economic importance. This species is important in riverine and culture fisheries in northern Iraq. This species and Garra rufa are the “doctor fish” of the Kangal Thermal Spring in Turkey. High water temperatures reduce the amount of plankton available as fish food and the fish nibble away infected skin of humans who bathe in these waters. The fish is known as “striker” (and Garra rufa as “licker”) from its behaviour in the spa pools. The healing properties are linked to the high level of selenium (1.3 p.p.m.) in the water, selenium being beneficial in some skin diseases. The fish facilitate the action of the selenium by softening and clearing away psoriatic plaque and scale, exposing the lesions to the water and sunlight. However, some lesions are made worse and the fish can cause some new ones. Conservation. This species is widely distributed in southern areas and does not appear to be under threat other than that suffered by all species by pollution and water abstraction.

Genus Cyprinus Linnaeus, 1758 The carp genus is found in Europe and Asia and comprises several species of which one has been widely introduced as a food fish. This genus is characterised by a compressed but heavy body, large size, rounded snout, 2 pairs of barbels, large molar pharyngeal teeth in 3 rows, a very long dorsal fin with the last unbranched ray spine-like and serrated, the anal fin short but with the last unbranched ray spine-like and serrated, the gut is moderately long, and the dorsal and lateral skull bones are sculptured.

Species Accounts 175

Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758 Common names. Carp; karp; carp shaeeh; samti (= helicopter – used in the marshes from a supposed resemblance in shape). [carp, European carp, German carp, wild carp; mirror carp, leather carp, line carp, naked carp (last four referring to different forms of scalation), koi (aquarium variety)]. Systematics. The carp was described from Europe. Key characters. This species is easily identified by the long dorsal fin, the spine in both the dorsal and anal fins, and the two pairs of barbels. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 2-5 unbranched rays followed by 14-23, usually 18-20, branched rays, anal fin with 2-4, usually 3, unbranched rays followed by 3-7, usually 5, branched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 13-19, usually 15-17, and pelvic fin branched rays 5-9, usually 8. The dorsal fin has the last unbranched ray developed as a toothed spine and the anal fin has a similar spine. Lateral line scales 26-41, mostly 36-39. Scales may be absent (leather carp), restricted to a few, enlarged scales (mirror carp, this form found in Iraq), or only a mid-lateral row of scales (line carp), in cultivated varieties. Wild carp are fully scaled. Individual scales have a central focus, wavy anterior margin, few radii on the anterior and posterior fields in young fish, and medium numbers of radii on fish 12-14 cm standard length. There are numerous fine circuli and the posterior scale field breaks up into bubble-like structures. Gill rakers 17-29 (some literature counts may be lower arm of arch only and there may be size variation too) and vertebrae 32-39 (lower counts may not include Weberian vertebrae). Rakers touch the second raker below when

Cyprinus carpio

176 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

appressed and have a row of knobs on their medial surface. Pharyngeal teeth 1,1,3-3,1,1 with variants 1,2,3-3,2,1, 1,2,3-3,1,1, 1,1,1,3-3,1,1, 1,1,3-2,1,1 and 1,3-3,1,1. Posterior major row teeth are large with flattened crowns bearing wavy ridges while more anterior teeth are a rounded knob, or even concave on top of the knob. The gut is elongate with several coils. This species is a tetraploid (2n = 98-104). Females are deeper bodied than males because of their eggs and the distance between the pectoral and pelvic fins and the pelvic and anal fins is more. Dorsal and anal fins in males are higher, the anal fin is longer at the base, the pectoral fin is longer and the lobes of the caudal fin are longer. This is accounted for by the greater swimming activity of males during spawning. Breeding males have fine tubercles on the head, particularly on the anterior operculum and preoperculum and under the eye, above the lateral line and more frequently below it, and on the fin rays. Colour. Carp in Iraq are silvery to golden on the flanks, the dorsal fin is relatively pale, the lower fins increasingly orange from the pectoral to the pelvic to the anal fin, and the caudal is the brightest orange to red with the lower lobe brighter than the upper. Lake populations can be darker than river fish. Young fish from Iran are silvery on the flanks (but not as bright as Carassius auratus), greyish on the back, silver-pearl on the belly, the iris is silvery with grey above and below, the dorsal fin and upper caudal lobe are pale grey, the lower caudal lobe and anal fin are orange, the pelvic fin is pale orange, and the pectoral fin has only traces of orange. The caudal fin may be yellow-orange with lobe margins red. The peritoneum is grey to silvery and may be speckled. Size. Fish observed at Camp Slayer in Baghdad by American soldiers were over 3 feet long (ca. 1.0+ m). Maximum size exceeds 1.2 m and 68 kg. Distribution. Pond culture of carp started in Iraq after its introduction in 1955 and lakes, reservoirs and irrigation channels were subsequently stocked with fingerlings. This species is now widespread in Iraq found in all the main rivers and marshes. Habitat. This species favours an abundance of soft vegetation in shallow water, necessary for successful reproduction. Still waters are preferred but they are found in the lower courses of lowland rivers with moderately flowing water, and occasionally in water exceeding 2 m/sec. They can often be seen basking at the surface or feeding on algae and their dorsal fins break the water surface. Groups of this species have been observed gaping at the surface in the artificial lake or pond around Al Faw Palace in Baghdad, presumably in response to high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen. Large fish often move into shallows in the afternoon and evening. Carp also leap from the water but the reason is unknown. They rarely descend below 30 m in lakes and avoid fast water in streams. Carp have a salinity tolerance under experimental conditions of up to 8‰, and for short periods 18.6‰ with acclimation, and this has significance for survival of carp in waters of southern Iraq and Iran where this species is farmed. Carp eggs hatch in water up to 10‰, with the favourable level being up to 6.6‰ Low dissolved oxygen concentrations of 3 mg/l are tolerated and levels as low as 0.5 mg/l can be withstood for 2-3 hours. Normal growth has occurred in fish kept at 35°C.

Species Accounts 177

Introduced to Iraqi waters as juveniles, this species rapidly became established. It was one of the most abundant species in the southern Iraqi marshes in the 1980’s. In Al Qadisiyah Dam Lake, this species comprised about 70% of the fishes by weight. Cyprinus carpio was caught in large numbers in the Shatt al Arab River of Iraq down to the estuary after an increase in the discharge of the Tigris River reduced salinity. Biology. This species was stocked in the Dukan and Derbendikhan dams in the 1960s where fish up to 3 years of age were reported. Decreasing growth rates indicate conditions are not too favourable although growth in the first two years is comparable with that in lakes of central Iraq. The condition coefficient (K) was higher among smaller fish, e.g. fish from Dukan at 230 g had a K of 2.32, at 1 kg K was 1.75. The growth of 0+ carp in the Hammar Marsh was relatively higher than for other parts of the world, indicating a successful introduction of this exotic. The smallest mature male was 182 mm and the smallest female was 184 mm in Hammar Marsh, with sexual maturity achieved in the first year of life, and a maximum life span of 8+ years. The oldest age groups found in Lake Habbaniyah was 5+ and in Lake Razzazah 3+ years. Females are larger and mature a year later than males. Maturity may be attained in a few fish by the end of the first year of life or as late as four years. A fecundity range of 14,150-1,492,500 eggs is recorded in the Hammar Marsh with a mean relative fecundity of 182 eggs/g of body weight, and an egg diameter of 0.90-1.02 mm. The gonadosomatic index indicated spawning in March and possibly October-November. In Sariyar Dam Lake near Ankara in central Anatolia, ages range from 0 to 18 years. In their first year fish have an average fork length of 103 mm and weigh 24 g, in 5 years they average 357 mm and 822 g, and in 10 years 580 mm and 3365 g. In Gölhisar Lake by contrast, a small water body in western Turkey, age composition was from 1 to 6 years, and fish attained a maximum of 494 mm and 1922 g. Maximum life span for this species is reported as 47 years for domestic fish. The gill rakers show an efficient structure for filtration, indicative of a phytoplanktivorous and omnivorous feeding. The gut is coiled and 3.42 times standard length, indicating omnivory with plant food being important. Food is derived from browsing on the substrate at all hours, if the temperature is favourable. Browsing muddies the water and can inhibit other species and uproot plants. Mouthfuls of bottom ooze are taken up, food items selected, and the mud spat out. Food includes aquatic insects, crustaceans, worms and molluscs, and more rarely, fish. Plant material is ground up by the molar pharyngeal teeth and includes algae, seeds, wild rice, leaves and various aquatic plants. Organic sewage is also eaten. Some surface feeding on algal mats or insects will also occur. Feeding almost completely stops in winter in colder regions and the fish go into a form of hibernation. Diet in the Garma Marshes was crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants and seeds, aquatic insects, oligochaetes and fish to be dietary items, selection and numbers varying with carp size and season. Some fish were found to have fed exclusively on only a single, different mollusc species, presumably as opportunity presented. The food of this species in Al Qadisiyah Reservoir was plants, their seeds, molluscs and aquatic insects, all bottom

178 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

foods. In a farm pond at Al-Latifiyah, Baghdad zooplankton was the principal diet. The diet in Lake Habbaniyah was 51.7% plants, 15.7% oligochaetes, 15.2% tendipedids, 7.2% molluscs, 5.2% detritus and 4.1% cladocerans. Where there is significant competition between autochthonous species, as here, carp become another strong competitor for food. Dietary coincidence between carp and shabout, gattan and himri was 58.5, 68.5 and 54.2 % respectively. Feeding relationships among fishes in the Hammar Marsh showed this species to be a carnivore under this study’s definition, 26.4% of the diet being crustaceans, 12.7% insects and 30.5% molluscs. Dietary overlap of 84% was found between this species and Barbus xanthopterus but the availability of food resources offset possible competition. Other studies showed dietary overlap between this species and three native carps in the Hammar Marsh. Overlap with Barbus sharpeyi was the weakest as this species is an herbivore but small B. luteus (<200 mm) and B. xanthopterus showed strong overlaps. This study, in contrast to the previous one, concluded that overlap might explain the decline in some native carps. In another study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 25.45% algae, 18.18% snails, 12.73% diatoms and 12.73% copepods, 10.91% insects with plants, cladocerans and shrimps at less than 10% each, in the Hawizah Marsh diet was 27.3% snails, 18.2% insects and 12.1% for algae, plants and cladocerans with fish, diatoms and copepods at less than 10% each, and in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 33.3% algae, 20.4% insects, 11.1% snails and diatoms and plants at 10.2, with various crustaceans at less than 10% each. Diet of this species in the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs was mainly algae, copepods and chironomids. Under natural conditions, males spend more time on the spawning grounds than females and spawn several times. More than 7 million eggs up to 1.71 mm in diameter may be present in a female but only about 500 are laid at a time. Fish in Iraqi ponds grew 25-30 cm in the first year of life and matured in 1-2 years. At 16-26ºC, they spawned from late February to late April and again in the autumn. Palm tree fibres were used for egg deposition and eggs hatched in 4-8 days. Reproduction in lakes Tharthar and Habbaniyah showed both sexes to achieve maturity in the first year of life at 13.5 cm for males and 12.6 cm for females. Spawning occurred in May and fecundity was 186-531 thousand eggs/kg body mass. The spawning behaviour involves stimulation of a female while moving over vegetation and being accompanied by 2-3 males, active movement and spawning are induced by blows from the male(s). The eggs adhere to the vegetation or are lost. Most eggs are shed at night or in the early morning. Lernaeosis is a problem on Iraqi fish farms, caused by the copepod crustacean Lernaea cyprinacea, also known as anchor worm, and it is easily transferred elsewhere and to other species with carp fingerlings. An infestation with the anchor worm at Za’faraniyah Fish Farm, south of Baghdad, caused a high rate of fish mortality. The infestation was controlled by use of the chemicals formalin and dipterex. Eggs and fry are eaten by frogs, snakes, insects and adult carp on farm ponds in Iraq. A wide variety of other fishes and birds eat smaller carp as do predatory aquatic

Species Accounts 179

insects, frogs and toads. Carp eggs are eaten by many fishes. Adult carp are too large for most predators to take. Economic importance. Carp have been a cultivated fish for over 2000 years and is a valuable food fish. Carp were first introduced to Iraq in 1955 from Holland and Indonesia. As recently as 2004, 2 million larvae of this species were distributed by FAO to the Dukan hatchery to enhance production in the Northern Governates. It is characterised as a fatty fish according to a lipid content 9-14% by wet weight of muscle in autumn. The carp is an important table fish in Iraq where details of farming techniques and growth in ponds under artificial conditions are given by various authors. It shows better growth than native carps under experimental conditions. For example, the yield per hectare in earthen ponds reached a maximum value of 3525.4 kg at 3200 fish per hectare in 199 days. The effect of stocking density on growth in brackish water ponds at Basrah has been studied as well as food quantities, supplementary diets, fertilization and polyculture. This fish has been cultured in floating cages in saline water (3.5-4.3 g/l) in the Saddam River. Absolute weight increment exceeded that reported for carp from cages in lakes Habbaniyah and Razzazah at 70.2 g and 25.21 g respectively. The use of the salt marsh chenopod Schanginia (= Suaeda) aegyptiaca has been investigated as food for carp, as has Ilisha megaloptera (sic, species probably mis-identified) from Iraqi marine waters as fishmeal, finding promising growth rates and survival of carp on this diet. Locally-raised Scenedesmus acutus algal cultures at 0.5*106 cell/ml, with baker’s yeast at 0.05 g/L, were found to be the best formula for raising the rotifer Brachionus calcyflorus as live food for carp larvae. Growth rate was higher on this live diet (81.5%) than on an artificial diet (60%). Various other diets for raising this fish on farms have been tried in Iraq, including sunflower meal, yellow corn, yellow corn germ meal, barley, sesbania (Sesbania cannabina) seeds, soybeans, field beans (Vicia faba), tomato pulp, irradiated khishni (Liza abu) fish meal, brewery by-products, and salt-enriched diets. The price of farm-bred carp in Iraq was U.S.$4 per kilogramme pre-war and was U.S.$8/kg in 2006. Carp have been caught by angling at various places around Baghdad by foreign soldiers, even on topwater poppers. An exotic species in some parts of the world, carp are a nuisance because they uproot vegetation used by native species for cover, food and spawning. This activity also increases water turbidity to levels that many native species cannot tolerate. Stirred up silt may smother eggs of native species. Carp also compete with other species for food and eat the eggs of other species. It is a serious competitor with native species such as Barbus sharpeyi, B. xanthopterus and B. grypus, popular Iraqi food fishes. The roe or eggs of this species have been implicated in poisoning and should be avoided. Fish should be carefully cleaned in the spawning season to remove the eggs and ensure against contamination of flesh. Severe cases of egg poisoning in other species have resulted in death.

180 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

This species is important based on its use in aquaria and aquaculture, as food, in textbooks, for sport, as an experimental species and because it has been introduced outside its natural range. Brightly coloured varieties of carp are known as “koi” and are kept as ornamental fish. Colours include red, orange, white, black, blue and yellow in various combinations. Conservation. This species is an exotic in Iraq and is in no need of conservation.

Genus Garra Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822 The genus Garra is found throughout Southwest Asia and from Africa to southeast Asia. There are about 73 species and 2 are recognised from Iraq. The genera Discognathus Heckel, 1843 and Discognathichthys Bleeker, 1859 are synonyms. This genus is characterised by a small to moderate-sized body, elongate and almost cylindrical, a rounded snout with the mouth inferior and crescent-shaped, the lower jaw has a horny edge, the upper lip is usually fringed and continuous with the snout, the lower lip and chin area modified into a suctorial disc with free posterior margin, the anterior disc margin free or adherent (species with the latter condition were placed in a separate genus, Discognathus or Discognathichthys), 1 or 2 pairs of short barbels (species with the former condition were placed in a separate genus, Discognathus or Discognathichthys), eyes small, usually large scales, lateral line complete, small dorsal and anal fins without thickened rays, pectoral and pelvic fins placed horizontally on the body, pharyngeal teeth in 3 rows with hook-shaped tips and spoon-shaped crowns, vent may be midway between pelvic and anal fin bases or nearer the latter, elongate and coiled gut, and a black peritoneum. These fishes are found in mountains streams and other flowing waters, maintaining position with their suctorial disc, reduced swimbladder, flattened belly and large, splayed and horizontal paired fins. They scrape algae from rocks. These are oily fishes that are eaten in India. Garra rufa (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Djulake; kokur ahmar; karkoor ahmar; garagoor; algargor alahmer. Systematics. The type locality is “Aleppo” (= Halab, Syria). Discognathus obtusus Heckel, 1843 described from “Aleppo” and “Mossul” is a synonym, Records of Garra lamta (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822) from Iraq are in error. Key characters. Two pairs of barbels are present, the adhesive disc is well developed with a free anterior margin, and the dorsal fin has 8 branched rays modally.

Species Accounts 181

Garra rufa

Morphology. Some fish are very rounded in cross section while others are more terete, perhaps related to habitat. Dorsal fin with 2-3, usually 3, unbranched and 7-9 branched rays with a very strong mode at 8, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 4-6 with a very strong mode at 5 branched rays (99.6% of 534 specimens from Iran). Pectoral fin branched rays 12-14, pelvic fin branched rays 7-8. Lateral line scales 31-38, scales from the dorsal fin origin to the lateral line 3-6, from the lateral line to the pelvic fin origin 2-5, predorsal mid-line scales 9-13, and scales around the caudal peduncle 12-17 with a strong mode at 16. Pharyngeal tooth formula 2,4,5-5,4,2 or 2,4,4-4,4,2. Teeth are hooked at the tip. The short gill rakers number 14-26, 12-17 on the lower arm. The upper lip is delicately fimbriated. The chromosome number is probably 2n = 52 although 2n = 38 is recorded for Turkish specimens with 26 meta- to submetacentric chromosomes and 12 telo- to subtelocentric chromosomes (NF = 64) and other authors record 2n = 44 for Turkish specimens with 22 metacentric and 20 submetacentric chromosomes and 2 acrocentric ones (NF = 85). Large males become heavily tuberculate on the front and sides of the snout and in a band from the eye to the nostril and across to the other. A deep, tubercle-free groove is apparent between the upper band of tubercles through the nostrils and the tubercles on the snout above the mouth. Colour. Overall colour is brownish-olive to dark green with darkly mottled flanks and a yellowish to whitish belly. The head and flanks may be a rusty-red, bronze or golden. A dark or bluish-green band runs along the whole flank ending in a spot on the caudal fin base. Much of the body may be blackish with only the belly creamy. Others are a light olive-green with lime-green highlights giving an iridescent effect especially on upper anterior flank scales. There is a black, greenish-blue, lime-green or dusky-blue spot behind the upper corner of the gill opening, sometimes extending as a bar to the pectoral fin base where the skin is also blue. Fins can be yellowish with darker margins. The pectoral fins can be orange-pink dorsally, grey-white or slightly orange-pink ventrally. The pelvic and anal fins may be orange with the fin rays yellow posteriorly in the anal fin but yellow mesially in the pelvic fin. The bases of the pectoral, pelvic and anal

182 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

fins are orange-red in breeding males and the caudal fin is orange. The caudal fin can be orange to red ventrally and yellow dorsally. There is a black spot at the caudal fin base and the upper caudal lobe may have a few dark grey spots. The dorsal fin is dark green with reddish pigment at its middle. There is usually a dark spot at the bases of each of the middle 4-5 dorsal fin rays. In some specimens, the dorsal fin is orange with yellow posterior rays. The pectoral, dorsal and caudal fin rays may be olive to black rather than yellow or orange. The iris is bright yellow, orange or red. There is variation in colouration. Some fish are pale while others are very dark; the spots on the dorsal fin may extend two-thirds of the way up the fin rather than being restricted to the base; and the flanks may not be mottled. Fish from muddy water are a sickly grey with the body mottled and the lower caudal lobe dark. Their colour darkens and becomes brighter after immersion in ice water. Fish from deep in qanats (underground irrigation channels) are very pale. Size. Attains 24 cm total length. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin and the Ceyhan, Orontes (= Asi), Quwayq and Jordan River basins and coastal drainages of the eastern Mediterranean as well as much of southern Iran. In Iraq, it is recorded from large rivers such as the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, Tigris, Little and Great Zab, Diyala and Saddam (Main Outfall Drain) as well as smaller rivers and streams such as the Khalis and Adhaim rivers, springs such as Kizil Kan near Sinjar, lakes such as Habbaniyah, reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah on the Euphrates River, Dukan and Derbendikhan, and marshes such Suq ash Shuyukh and Hawizah. Habitat. In areas under human influence, such as the lower reaches of rivers and near cities, it is more common than in higher, pristine waters. It is reported from streams, rivers, reservoirs and springs. Biology. Fish up to age 7 are recorded from the Tigris River in a parasitological study. Gut contents include diatoms, algae and large quantities of sand in Iranian fish. Shatt al Arab River fish fed mainly on organic detritus, followed by diatoms and algae, with arthropods ranking third. In the Asi (= Orontes) River in Turkey this species is a grazer on aquatic plants, mostly consisting of benthic cyanobacteria, chrysophytes and phytoplankton with included rotifers and protozoans. Both season and location in a stream affected the composition of the diet with season the most important factor. A study noted depression of vitellogenesis in a hot spring population in Turkey, perhaps due to temperature and starvation. A nearby stream population had a higher gonadosomatic index. Ovaries increased in size and weight from May to July in both localities although the hot spring had fewer mature oocytes and more atretic oocytes at various development stages. High temperatures and poor food conditions in some habitats may be limiting factors in reproduction for this species. Eaten by Silurus triostegus at Baghdad. Economic importance. This species and Cyprinion macrostomum are the “doctor fish” of the Kangal Thermal Spring in Turkey. High water temperatures around 35°C

Species Accounts 183

reduce the amount of plankton available as fish food and the fish nibble away infected skin of humans who bathe in these waters. This fish is known as “licker” (and Cyprinion macostomum as “striker”) from its behaviour in the spa pools. The healing properties are linked to the high level of selenium (1.3 p.p.m.) in the water, selenium being beneficial in some skin diseases. The fish facilitate the action of the selenium by softening and clearing away psoriatic plaque and scale, exposing the lesions to the water and sunlight. However, some lesions are made worse and the fish can cause some new ones. Conservation. A common species with a wide distribution and not under any specific threat. Garra variabilis (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Karkoor mit-la’oon. Systematics. Formerly placed in the genus Discognathichthys Bleeker, 1860. The type localities are “Mossul” and “Aleppo” (= Halab, Syria). Garra variabilis

head

184 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Key characters. The single pair of maxillary barbels, absence of a free anterior margin to a weakly developed adhesive disc on the lower head surface without papillae on the rear part, and modally 7 branched dorsal fin rays distinguish this species. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 2-3, usually 3, unbranched and 6-8, modally 7, branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 5 branched rays. Pectoral fin branched rays 11-14, pelvic fin branched rays 7-8. Lateral line scales 32-40, scale from the dorsal fin origin to the lateral line 4-6, scales below the lateral line to the pelvic fin origin 3-4, scales around the caudal peduncle usually 16, and predorsal scales in mid-line 12-14. The chest and belly are scaled. The upper lip is not fimbriate. There may be 2 pairs of barbels in some larger fish. Pharyngeal tooth formula 2,4,5-5,4,2 (variants 2,3,5-5,3,2 and 3,3,5-5,3,3, perhaps due to counting methods). The short gill rakers number 13-20, on the lower arm of the gill arch only. Gut very elongate and coiled. The top and sides of the head are finely tuberculate and scales on the back before the dorsal fin have fine tubercles lining the scale margins. The upper lip, lip sides and sucker (except for a naked central area) have keratinised tubercles. Tubercles line the dorsal surface of pectoral fin rays, fading medially and following the ray branching in single rows. Colour. Overall colour is olivaceous brown or greyish with darker mottlings. The flanks may have large, irregularly arranged dark spots. The upper corner of the operculum may have a black spot. The belly is reddish-yellow. The middle 3-4 rays of the dorsal fin each have a small, black spot at their bases. There is a black spot at the caudal fin base. The lateral line may occasionally have a double row of black spots as in Alburnoides bipunctatus. Young fish may have a dark lateral stripe. Peritoneum black. Size. Reaches 15.5 cm. Distribution. Found in the Kueik ( = Quwayq), Orontes (= Asi) and Nahr al-Kabir Rivers of the Levant and the Tigris-Euphrates. In Iraq, it is only recorded from the Tigris River at Mosul and Baghdad but is probably more widely distributed but not recognized. Habitat. Garra rufa and this species seem to exclude each other, variabilis being more common in faster water. Biology. Unknown.  Economic importance. None. Conservation. This species has been little studied and conservation status cannot be assessed.

Genus Hemiculter Bleeker, 1859 This genus contains several species with a native distribution in the Amur River basin of the Russian Far East and in China, Taiwan and Viet Nam. A single species has been accidentally introduced to Iraq.

Species Accounts 185

The sawbellies are characterised by an elongate body, moderate-sized scales with a deeply-decurved lateral line only 1-3 scales above the mid-ventral line, a scaleless keel from the level of the pectoral fins to the vent, a short dorsal fin with a spine and an elongate anal fin, pharyngeal teeth in 3 rows, gill rakers short and numerous, and pelagic eggs. Hemiculter leucisculus (Basilewsky, 1855) Common names. None. [sharpbelly, common sawbelly, knifefish]. Systematics. Culter leucisculus was originally described from Peking, China. Hemiculter eigenmanni (Jordan and Metz, 1913) is a synonym. Key characters. The long keel on the belly, originating under the pectoral fin level, is distinctive, especially when combined with the three rows of pharyngeal teeth. Morphology. There is a sharp keel lacking scales from the vent or anus to the throat below the pectoral fin on the mid-ventral surface. The last dorsal fin unbranched ray is a sharp spine with a flexible tip. The lateral line curves downward from its origin on the head to the level of the end of the pectoral fin and then parallels the lower body margin eventually to curve upward at the end of the anal fin level and run along the middle part of the caudal peduncle. There is a tubercle on the lower jaw that fits into a notch on the upper jaw. Dorsal fin branched rays 6-8, usually 7, after 2-3 unbranched rays and anal fin branched rays 10-18, mostly 13-14, after 3 unbranched rays. Lateral line scales 43-55, scales above the lateral line 8-11, and scales below the lateral line to the pelvic fin origin 1-3. Scales bear numerous fine circuli and a few posterior radii. Total gill rakers 17-29, reaching the second raker below when appressed. Pharyngeal teeth, 2,4,5-5,4,2, 2,4,5-4,4,2, 2,4,4-5,4,2, or 2,4,4-4,3,2. Teeth are hooked at the

Hemiculter leucisculus

186 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

tip with an elongate and narrow grinding surface. The gut is an elongate s-shape. The chromosome number is 2n=48. Colour. Overall colour dark above, silvery on the flanks and whitish on the belly. There is a dark stripe along the upper flank. The lips are dark. The dorsal, caudal and anterior pectoral and anal fin ray edges and the fin membranes are lightly pigmented with melanophores. The peritoneum is silvery with some melanophores giving it a brownish pigmentation in preserved fish. Size. Reaches 25 cm. Distribution. The native range of this species is from Maritime Russia south through China to Korea and Viet Nam. Reported from southern Iraq from the Hawizah Marsh in the Umm al Naaj and Umm al Ward open waters, presumably an accidental introduction with commercial shipments of Chinese major carps or possibly from populations in neighboring Iran where this species is recorded from the Caspian Sea basin. Habitat. Found in large streams and reservoirs Biology. Life span in Iran is at least six years and the smallest mature specimens are 2 years old. Macrophytes, fish and insects are eaten by this species and young fish feed on zooplankton. Iranian fish contain large plant fragments and filamentous algae. Up to 1,180 eggs are produced. Fish from a swamp near Hendeh Khaleh in Gilan, Iran taken on 9 August contained well-developed eggs but a peak spawning in March is recorded in the International Wetlands of Alma-Gol, Adji-Gol and Ala-Gol in Iran. Economic importance. This species has potential as a food fish but this is probably outweighed by its competition with native species for food and the possibility of predation on fish eggs and young. The sawbelly is easily able to switch from one food to another as conditions warrant. It is regarded as a pest when introduced. It is found on the fish market at Bandar Anzali in Iran and a catch of 41 kg is reported from the Anzali Mordab in 1990. Conservation. None required for an introduced species.

Genus Hemigrammocapoeta Pellegrin, 1927 This genus comprises 5 species of which 1 is found in Iraq. The genera Tylognathoides Tortonese, 1938, Neotylognathus Kosswig, 1950 and Hemigarra Karaman, 1971 are synonyms. The genus is characterised by having a distinct rostral flap without separate lateral lobes, underslung mouth, horny covering to the upper and lower jaws, no disc on the chin behind the lower lip but this area papillose, no or up to 2 pairs of barbels (mouth and lip structures can be quite variable), short dorsal and anal fins, complete or incomplete lateral line, and pharyngeal teeth in 3 rows with somewhat hooked tips and spoon-shaped crowns, count often uniquely 2,4,5-5,4,2. Most species are found in the Levant. The genus is closely related to Garra.

Species Accounts 187

Hemigrammocapoeta elegans (Günther, 1868) Common names. None. Systematics. Originally described in the genus Tylognathus Heckel, 1843 and also placed in the genus Hemigarra Karaman, 1971. Tylognathus elegans was described from Mesopotamia? (sic). Key characters. Characters of the genus serve to identify this species in Iraq, particularly those around the mouth region. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 3 unbranched and 6-9, usually 8 branched rays, anal fin with 3 unbranched and 5 branched rays, pectoral fin with 11-17 branched rays, usually 16-17, and pelvic fin with 8 branched rays. Last unbranched dorsal fin ray thickened although concave posteriorly, tapering distally to a thin ray. Unbranched ray anterior to the last one also thickened in large fish. Lateral line scales 33-38. Flank scales have a wavy anterior margin, very fine and numerous circuli, few anterior and more numerous posterior radii, posterior scale field with tubercles and a subcentral anterior focus. Pelvic axillary scale present. There is a scale between the anus and the anal fin origin. Gill rakers short, just reaching the base of the second raker below when appressed. Total gill rakers 17-20. Barbels 4, thin but moderately long. Snout projecting over inferior mouth but not strongly folded over the upper lip. Upper lip free. Lower lip thicker in the middle but no sucker, posterior edge wavy. Horny edge to lower jaw. Weakly papillose behind the lower lip. Large nasal flap and large first suborbital bone. The gill rakers are short, just reaching the second raker below when appressed. Pharyngeal teeth 2,3,5-5,3,2. Pharyngeal teeth in the major row quiet massive and obviously hooked with a concave space below. The most anterior tooth is the largest

Hemigrammocapoeta elegans

188 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

and posterior teeth are slender. Minor row teeth are similar but smaller. Gut complexly coiled. Total vertebrae 46-48. Colour. There is an indistinct silvery stripe along the flank. Dark pigment ends about one scale above the lateral line along the flank. Peritoneum black with some silvery patches. Size. Reaches 10.9 cm total length. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Recorded from the Tigris and Diyala rivers and the Tabin River 30 km from Dukan Dam in the Little Zab basin. Probably more widely distributed, as this species is not always recognised in field and museum collections. Habitat. Unknown. Biology. Generally unknown. One specimen examined was from the gut of a Silurus triostegus taken at Harmalah on the Dez River, Iran. Economic importance. None. Conservation. This species is rarely collected in Iraq and is poorly known elsewhere. Assuming this is not the result of inappropriate collecting techniques, then the status of this species should be assessed by field surveys.

Genus Hypophthalmichthys Bleeker, 1859 The silver carp genus contains 3 species with a native distribution in eastern Asia. Two species have been widely introduced for food in aquaculture and for phytoplankton control. The genus is characterised by an elongate and compressed body, very small scales (usually over 100 in the lateral line), eyes low on the head with their lower margin below the mouth corner level, a terminal mouth, no barbels, gill rakers long and thin, a very long gut, branchiostegal membranes joined and free of the isthmus, a short dorsal and elongate anal fin, both spineless, pharyngeal teeth in 1 row, and a ventral keel from the throat or pelvic fins to the anus. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844) Common names. None. [silver carp, thickforehead, white thickforehead]. Systematics. This species was originally described from China. Key characters. The abdomen has a compressed keel extending from the breast to the vent, the eyes are positioned low such that they are visible from the underside of the head, and scales are minute. The similar bighead (H. nobilis) can be distinguished by the long pectoral fins which extend past the origin of the pelvic fins, a shorter keel (pelvic fins to anus), and gill raker structure (free, no spongy root mass).

Species Accounts 189

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix

Morphology. Dorsal fin with 2-3 unbranched rays followed by 6-7 branched rays, anal fin with 2-3, usually 3, unbranched rays and 11-15 branched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 17, and pelvic fin branched rays 7. Lateral line scales 85-125 Scales are rounded to oval with a posterior focus and very few posterior radii. Pharyngeal teeth 4-4, well-developed, compressed and with striated grinding surfaces. Gill rakers exceed 650 and are longer than the gill filaments. The left and right sides of the gill arches are united by a mucous membrane to form a continuous band; the gill rakers are distinguishable distally but the roots form a spongy mass. Total vertebrae 36-40. The gut is long and complexly coiled. The diploid chromosome number is 48. Colour. Overall colour is silvery, the back bluish to grey-black with upper flanks olivaceous but silver laterally and ventrally, and the fins red or immaculate. Size. Reaches 1.42 m and 56 kg. Distribution. The natural distribution is from the Amur River in the former U.S.S.R. southward to southern China. It has been introduced to Iraqi waters, the first record being for 1968 from Japan to be used in pond culture. It has been planted in open waters and is known from the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the Tigris River and Lake Habbaniyah. Habitat. This exotic may become established in the large river systems of southern Iraq and Iran from escapees. It is a riverine fish in its native habitat but is extensively cultivated in ponds for food throughout Asia. Silver carp can live in salinities of 5-8‰ although a few are found at 10-12‰. Temperatures in the range 0-40ºC are tolerated although 26-30ºC or 3034ºC is preferred in different studies. It is more cold tolerant than bighead carp. They enter rivers to spawn. This species can be difficult to catch as it will jump over nets, to a height of about 2 m, and when frightened by noise has been known to jump into boats. Biology. Biology in Iraq has not been studied. Silver carp in the Terek River of the Caspian Sea basin in Dagestan first mature at 4 years for males and 5 years for females.

190 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

About 15% of females mature at 4 years but 87% of the females and 85% of the males are in the 5-7 age groups. Maturity varies with locality, at 2-8 years, with males maturing a year earlier than females. Life span is at least 20 years. The gill rakers form a very fine, sponge-like mesh used to filter small planktonic food, aided by the epibranchial organ that produces mucus to trap very small particles. This species is a pump filter feeder, taking smaller particles than bighead carp. . Food in Lake Kinneret, Israel is phytoplankton from February to August and predominately zooplankton from September to January, a response to a decrease in phytoplankton biomass in summer-fall. Cladocerans and cyclopoid copepods dominate the biomass of zooplankton taken. The ability to take cyclopoids is due to the large mouth, strong sucking power and the high filtration rate when feeding. Food is taken passively rather than selectively. Silver carp require cool, flowing water to breed. The spawning migration begins at the end of April in the Terek River at 16-17°C, with a peak between the middle of May and the beginning of June. Generally spawning occurs between 18 and 26°C. Fecundity reaches 1,340,500 large, greyish eggs (and in the Kara-kum Canal, Turkmenistan, 1,525,000 eggs; elsewhere to 5.4 million eggs). Water hardened eggs are 4.9-5.6 mm, smaller than those of bighead carp. Spawning takes place after a sharp rise in water level and current speed. Spawners chase each other near the water surface where eggs and sperm are shed. Eggs are first found in the drift in the second week of June and hatch 34-70 hours later depending on temperature. Some larvae reach rice fields and live there until autumn when the fields dry up where some are lost, others migrating. It does not breed in the wild in Iraq. An infestation with the anchor worm, Lernaea cyprinacea, at Za’faraniyah Fish Farm, south of Baghdad, caused a high rate of fish mortality. The infestation was controlled by use of the chemicals formalin and dipterex. Economic importance. This species is important based on its use in aquaculture and as food. It is the most productive freshwater fish in the world, with 3.1 million metric tons produced in 1997 (versus 2.2 million mt for Cyprinus carpio).1,750,000 larvae of this species were distributed by FAO to the Ainkawa hatchery to enhance production in the Northern Governates. It is used in polyculture with common and grass carp in suitable waters worldwide. The food of this species being phytoplankton, it has been introduced to areas lacking filter feeders such as Europe and Israel in efforts to control algal blooms associated with eutrophication. In some cases the effects of the introduction were negative because the silver carp fed from September to January on zooplankton which themselves reduce algal blooms. There was also competition with a more valuable native species for the same zooplankton resource. This fish can be dangerous to boaters as it leaps out of the water. The consumption of plankton may remove food for native, larval fishes, and affect the diet of piscivorous fishes and birds. This species can also cause habitat alteration, increasing turbidity, and introduce diseases and parasites. Conservation. An exotic species, it requires no conservation effort.

Species Accounts 191

Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1844) Common names. None. [bighead, painted thickforehead]. Systematics. This species was originally described from Canton, China. The placement of this species in Hypophthalmichthys is based on the consideration that the characters of abdominal keel length, pharyngeal dentition and gill raker form are insufficient to place this species in the distinct genus Aristichthys Oshima, 1919. Some authors disagree and retain it in Aristichthys. Key characters. The similar silver carp (H. molitrix) can be distinguished by the short pectoral fins which do not extend past the origin of the pelvic fins, a longer keel (throat to anus), and gill raker structure (continuous band uniting both sides, roots fused into a spongy mass). Morphology. Dorsal fin unbranched rays 3 followed by 7 unbranched rays, anal fin unbranched rays 3 with 11-14 branched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 16-19, and pelvic fin branched rays 7-9. Lateral line scales 92-115. Scales are a rounded oval with a slightly posterior focus, very few posterior radii and numerous fine circuli. Total vertebrae number 36-41. Pharyngeal teeth 4-4, with smooth grinding surfaces. Gill rakers are very numerous. The gut is elongate and convoluted. The diploid chromosome number is 48. Males have a sharp edge along the dorsal surface of several anterior pectoral fin rays. Colour. Overall colour is silvery and the body has numerous scattered small black spots, which makes some fish speckled or darker in overall colour. A few larger blotches may be present. The head is often darker and contrasts with the silvery body. Fins are greyish and similar to the adjacent body colour with the caudal fin darkest, sometimes reddish.

Hypophthalmichthys nobilis

192 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Size. Attains 1.46 m in length and over 50 kg. Distribution. This species is a native of China and is introduced in Iraq for fish farming. Also reported from Camp Liberty in Baghdad. Habitat. Biology in Iraq has not been studied. In their natural habitat, bigheads migrate upstream to spawning grounds when water levels rise, moving to flooded land afterwards, and returning to the river channel as water levels. Bigheads can live in the Caspian Sea at salinities of 5-8‰ although a few are found at 10-12‰. They can adjust gradually to salinities of 15-20 p.p.t. They enter rivers to spawn but are known to spawn in the Karakum Canal of Turkmenistan. Preferred temperatures for feeding and reproduction are within the general range 20-30°C. Activity almost ceases at 10°C and the critical thermal maximum is 38.8°C. Biology. Males achieve first maturity at age 5 and males of 5-7 years and 81-90 cm make up 90% of the run in the Terek River of the Caspian Sea basin. Most females mature at 6 years and 81% of the females on the spawning run are 6-7 years old and 75-100 cm. Males mature at 2-4 years and females at 3-5 years (and 10 kg) in Turkmenistan. Sexual maturity varies widely with environmental conditions, 2-6 years for males and a year later for females. Life span is up to 16 years. Growth is rapid, attaining 18-23 kg in 4-5 years. Zooplankton is almost exclusively the food of this species. Phytoplankton and detritus may be taken when zooplankton biomass is low. Most feeding occurs during summer and peaks daily in the range 1200 to 2000 hours. This species is both a pump feeder, using the buccal pump to push food-laden water through the gill rakers, and a ram feeder, swimming with the mouth open to force water through the gills, with intermittent gulps. Feeding often occurs at the water surface, in contrast to silver carp, as well as in the water column and on the bottom. A spawning migration of this species enters the Terek River in the second week of May at water temperatures of 18-19°C, numbers increasing until the end of June. Spawning takes place after a sharp rise in water level and current speed. Males actively chase females near the water surface, occasionally butting the female’s belly, and sometimes leaping out of the water. Eggs and sperm may be cast into the air. Fecundity is 1,860,800 eggs. Unswollen eggs are 1.4-1.5 mm in diameter and water hardened eggs are 5.7-6.2 mm. Eggs are first found in the drift in the second week of June and hatch 34-70 hours later depending on temperature. Some larvae reach rice fields and live there until autumn when the fields dry up where some are lost, others migrating. Other larvae are carried into the Caspian Sea where they are sensitive to the prevailing salinity at 1.0-1.5 days old. Economic importance. This species has been caught in 2005 by foreign soldiers in Baghdad angling at Camp Liberty. Some were estimated at 30 lbs (13.6 kg) plus. This species is important based on its use in aquaculture and food and it ranks fourth on world aquaculture production. It has been used in Israel to reduce zooplankton populations in reservoirs in an effort to improve water quality. It has a higher net production in culture systems than H. molitrix and Ctenopharyngodon idella. The consumption

Species Accounts 193

of plankton may remove food for native, larval fishes, and affect the diet of piscivorous fishes and birds. This species can also cause habitat alteration, increasing turbidity, and introduce diseases and parasites. Conservation. Some populations in Iran are hybrids with H. molitrix and this could happen in Iraq too. There is a danger of loss of genetic purity in fish farm stocks should breeding adults be captured in the wild. As an exotic, there is no conservation need.

Genus Squalius Bonaparte, 1837 The daces and their relatives currently comprise several genera that have not been adequately revised. Species reported from Iraq were once referred to the genus Leuciscus Cuvier, 1816 but are now in the genus Squalius. The characters of the genus Squalius are numerous total vertebrae (commonly more than 40, up to 48), increased number of sensory cephalic pores (up to 12-20 in the supraorbital canal) in most species, often fused and very expanded fourth and fifth infraorbitals, and a depressed neurocranium with a reduced interorbital septum. Members of this genus share a somewhat compressed body, moderate to large scales, a complete lateral line, no barbels, mouth terminal or subterminal, no notch in the upper jaw accommodating a tubercle on the lower jaw, thin lips with the lower one interrupted medially, a short dorsal fin without a thickened ray, a moderately long anal fin, long and hooked pharyngeal teeth in 2 rows (2,5-4,2, 2,5-5,2 or 3,5-5,3 modally) usually with hooked tips and spoon-shaped crowns, short gut, no keel on the belly, and short and relatively few gill rakers. Squalius cephalus (Linnaeus, 1758) Common names. Bir-aan siphaloos; barayan; baraan. [European chub]. Systematics. Cyprinus Cephalus was originally described from southern Europe. Leuciscus orientalis Nordmann, 1840 described from Abkhazia, Georgia is a synonym. Iraqi populations are usually recognised as the subspecies Squalius cephalus orientalis. However, there has been no critical revision of the subspecies and differences are slight. Recognition of subspecies is disputable. Examination of cytochrome b indicates that S. cephalus may have originated from Mesopotamia and, in the late Pliocene, used the large inland lake of Anatolia existing at that time for dispersion. Uplift of the Anatolian Plateau, climatic changes and river isolation was probably the main vicariant event leading to a quick radiation in these chubs.

194 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Squalius cephalus

The nominal Iraqi subspecies, S. c. orientalis, differs from the European subspecies, S. c. cephalus, by having a more elongate body, a dark stripe behind the operculum and on average fewer scales and anal fin branched rays. Key characters. The relatively large scales outlined by pigment give this fish a distinctive appearance and, combined with large body size, fin ray counts, rounded belly and the absence of barbels, separates it from other Iraqi cyprinids. Morphology. Dorsal fin branched rays 7-9, usually 8, after 2-3, usually 3, unbranched rays, anal fin branched rays 7-10, usually 8 or 9, after 3 unbranched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 14-19, and pelvic fin branched rays 6-9, usually 8. Lateral line scales 38-48. Scales have few to moderate numbers of radii on the anterior and posterior fields. The focus is central to subcentral anterior and circuli are fine. On the posterior field, circuli break up into “bubbles” and are coarser than on other fields. The anterior scale margin is wavy, sometimes irregular and others with a small central protuberance and indentations above and below. Gill rakers short, 7-12, touching the adjacent raker when appressed. Vertebrae 40-46. Pharyngeal teeth 2,5-5,2, with variants 2,5-4,2, 2,44,2, 2,5-5,1, 1,5-5,2, 1,5-5,1, 2,5-5,3, 2,6-5,2, or even 1,5-5,1,2 and 1,2,5-5,2,2. Teeth are very narrow, strongly hooked at the tip and strongly serrated so that there is no obvious flat surface. The serrations on the teeth of orientalis are stronger than in the typical subspecies. The gut is an elongate s-shape. Chromosome number is 2n = 50. Head length, eye diameter, caudal peduncle length, dorsal and anal fin heights, pectoral and pelvic fin lengths and lower caudal fin lobe length are all greater in males while postorbital length, interorbital width, head depth and pectoral-pelvic fin distance are greater in females. Colour. Overall colour is silvery to grey. Scales of the lateral line and upper back have a strong dark pigmentation along the posterior margin and a distinct dark spot anteriorly. Scales may have some gold in their centre. This pattern outlines the scales and makes them distinctive. The back is dark brown or reddish-brown to blue-grey and the belly and lower head are pearly-white to a silvery yellow. The operculum is a strong

Species Accounts 195

copper-yellow colour and the opercular opening is dark, nearly black. The iris is silvery and has very little gold, or is golden with a lot of dark grey pigment. There may be an upper spot of dark grey on the iris. The dorsal and anal fins are grey and may have some pink. The dorsal fin is blackish distally. The pectoral fin has a little pale grey pigment and there may be a yellow or yellow-pink spot at its upper base with this colour extending onto the first 2-3 rays. The pelvic and anal fins are pink to red-pink with somewhat colourless posterior margins, especially in spawning males. The caudal fin is a pale pink to dirty reddish with some dark pigmentation to the posterior margin. Size. Attains 39.0 cm fork length in Turkey, possibly as long as 80 cm although 45 cm is a more likely maximum and a weight of 6-8 kg. Distribution. Found from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula eastwards in its southern distribution to Turkey, the northern half of Iran, and the whole Caspian and Aral seas drainages. In Iraq known from such large rivers as the Tigris, Great and Little Zab, some smaller rivers, and the Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs. Habitat. The habitat of this species in Iraq has not been studied. It does inhabit streams, rivers and reservoirs but has not been recorded from the southern marshes. Biology. This chub has been studied in the Aras River of Turkey. Its condition factor was higher in summer and autumn and varied between age groups. Life span there is over 8 years, compared with 7 years in other Turkish localities such as Lake Akşehir, Lake Tödürge and in the Savur stream in the Tigris River basin of southeast Anatolia, over 8 years in the Euphrates River and Lake Çıldır, and 10 years in Sariyar Dam Lake near Ankara. In the Aras, females grow faster than males and there are more sexually mature females in the older age groups. Sexual maturity is attained at age 2-3 in males and ages 3-4 for females. In the Savur stream, 80% of females and 75% of males reaching sexual maturity at their third (14.6 cm fork length) and second years (13.0 cm) respectively. Females grow larger than males and live about 2 years longer as they do in Lake Akşehir. Sexual maturity is attained at ages 3-4 in Sariyar Dam Lake and these fish at age 1 have a mean fork length of 90 mm and a mean weight of 9.4 g which, by age 10, can reach 370 mm and 910 g. Akşehir Lake fish reached 44 cm forked length and 1766 g for females and 31 cm and 557 g for males. In Lake Tödürge, males reached maturity in their second or third year of life while females were in their third or fourth year. Over 68% of the catch was female. In Lake Çıldır, the age groups were dominated by fish in age group 3 at 67.3% and by males at 73%, and with maximum fork length at 390 mm and maximum weight at 720 g. Food items include mayfly and caddisfly larvae, other small organisms such as molluscs, and crayfishes, small fishes and frogs. Reputedly even fruit fallen in the water will be eaten. Trout eggs and fry are also eaten. Guts of Iranian specimens contained a wide variety of organisms including ants (presumably taken at the water surface), aquatic insects such as chironomids ephemeropterans and trichopterans among others, crustaceans, filamentous algae, higher plant fragments, scales of cyprinids and the remains of a Paracobitis malapterura.

196 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Reproduction of this species was examined in a stream tributary to the Aras River in Turkey. Spawning begins at the end of May although most fish spawn in June. Water temperatures at this time were 12-18°C. Fecundity is up to 61,808 eggs and maximum egg diameter was 1.39 mm. Spawning occurred between May and July in the Aras River proper with fecundity up to 17,187 eggs. Spawning took place from May to late June in southeast Anatolia in a tributary of the Tigris River. Fecundity reaches 20,140 eggs and egg diameter 1.5 mm. In Sariyar Dam Lake near Ankara, spawning took place between April and June. Fish in Lake Tödürge, Turkey spawned between May and July with a mean egg diameter of 0.65 mm (highest 1.04 mm) and a mean fecundity of 14,500 eggs (highest 28,664 eggs). In Azerbaijan, spawning temperatures are 12-21°C, maximum fecundity is 118,000 eggs and maximum egg diameter is 1.8 mm. Economic importance. This species is economically important in the Turkish Euphrates but is little used in Iraq. Conservation. This species is important based on its use in textbooks and for sport. A Turkish study recommends a minimum fishing size of 28 cm and a prohibition of fishing during the April-June spawning season for this Anatolian population. Squalius lepidus Heckel, 1843 Common names. Bara’an; bir-aan abiadh. Systematics. Squalius lepidus was originally described from the “Tigris bei Mossul” Key characters. This species is distinguished from other Squalius by the elongate (28-33% standard length) and pointed head with a projecting lower jaw, an adaptation for piscivory which develops early and is not evident in other Squalius even when these feed on fish as adults. Squalius lepidus

Species Accounts 197

Morphology. Dorsal fin branched rays 8-10, usually 8 or 9 (authors vary), after 3 unbranched rays, anal fin branched rays 9-11, usually 9, after 3 unbranched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 14-18, and pelvic fin branched rays 8. Lateral line scales 42-50. Scales have few radii on the anterior and posterior fields. Gill rakers 7-12, reaching the one below when appressed (near junction of upper and lower arches), and sometimes curled. Pharyngeal teeth 2,5-5,2 or 2,5-4,2, strongly hooked and serrated. Total vertebrae 42-46. The projecting lower jaw fits into a notch in the upper jaw. Colour. The back and upper flank are brown to bluish-brown or blackish, the flanks generally silvery, and the belly silvery-yellow. The upper flank, head and fins may be sprinkled with black spots. Flank scales have a spot at their base. All fins are reddish, with the pectoral and anal fins the brightest. The dorsal fin has a black margin. The caudal fin is blue-grey and its margin is blackish. Size. Reaches 54.2 cm. Distribution. Found in the Orontes (= Asi), Quwayq and Tigris-Euphrates basins as well as some lakes in central Anatolia (Beyşehir, Akşehir) and the rivers Ceyhan and Seyhan in southern Anatolia. No extensive records from Iraq despite being described from the Tigris River. Habitat. Unknown in detail. Biology. Fishes identified as this species from Lake Beyşehir in Turkey had condition coefficients of 1.30-1.45 pre-spawning, 1.13-1.24 spawning and 1.24-130 post-spawning, with maximum values in the pre-spawning period coincident with maximum gonad development. Males and females showed similar length-weight relationships although females were slightly heavier because of their eggs. The maximum age of this species in the Keban Dam, Turkey was 8 years, females grew faster and were longer than males, and growth was rapid until five years of age when it fell by almost half in each succeeding year. Plant remains and fish scales have been found in gut contents. Fish appear to be the main diet item even in young from about 10 cm in length. The Lake Beyşehir population had a peak spawning in mid to late June at 20.021.5°C with the highest gonadosomatic index (11.7) on 15 May at 16.0-17.2°C. The spawning season could extend from late May to early July. Economic importance. Economically important in Turkey in Lake Beyşehir, but not of any importance in Iraq. Conservation. The distribution, numbers and biology of this species in Iraq are not known so conservation status cannot be assessed.

Genus Typhlogarra Trewavas, 1955 The characters of the genus are the same as the single included species.

198 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Typhlogarra widdowsoni Trewavas, 1955 Common names. Samak aa’ama. [Iraq blind barb]. Systematics. The type locality is “in a cavern about 25 ft. below ground, some six miles north of Haditha, which is near the Euphrates at about 34º 4’ N and 42º 24’ E”. The species is named after A. G. Widdowson who had arranged their collection. This localised species appear to be related to the surface dwelling species Garra rufa on anatomical grounds Key characters. The whitish to pinkish colour and absence of eyes indicates that the species is a cave fish. The ventral sucker and two pairs of barbels as in Garra species are distinctive and serve to separate this species from Caecocypris basimi that lives in the same cave system. Morphology. The optic lobes and eyes are much regressed in the “blind” cave species. Optic nerves do not connect to the brain and parts of an eye structure are not easily recognisable. In adults, there is no trace of the eyes, only a pit, smaller than the nostril.

Typhlogarra widdowsoni

head

Species Accounts 199

Individuals vary from scaleless (except for the lateral line) to fully scaled. Lateral line scale counts 28-35. Pored scales in the lateral line 6-31, randomly distributed but the first 6 scales are always pored. Dorsal fin unbranched rays 3, branched rays 7-8, anal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 5-6, pectoral fin rays 12-17, and pelvic fin rays 7-11, usually 7-8. Total gill rakers 16-21, small reaching the adjacent one when appressed. Counts as low as 13 have been recorded for gill rakers and the number may be size (or visibility) related. The mental disc is usually arc-shaped and free posteriorly but may be straight or emarginate. In small fish, there is no clear posterior edge to the disc. A small nodule is variably present behind the disc. There are two pairs of barbels, of varying length. Pharyngeal teeth 1,4-4,1, slightly hooked at the tip, flattened below the tip and moderately broad. The gut is very elongate and coiled. The chromosome number is 2n = 48. Males bear tubercles on the anterior pectoral fin rays in a single file. Fully developed, mature males have not been examined. Colour. Colourless, creamy or pink with the heart, gill and the liver cherry red. A few melanophores are present between the optic lobes and cerebellum. A silvery spot is present in the opercular region. Size. Reaches 63 mm total length. Distribution. This species is found in a cave system near Haditha (see above for details). It has also been collected from a well about 3 m below ground at Shaikh Hadeed, 2.9 km north of Haditha and from another well about 9 m deep and 135 m southwest of Shaikh Hadeed. “Pidgeon Hole” is illustrated and described in an article by A. G. Widdowson in 1954 but is not clearly located in their text as it is given in relation to a pipeline (“about five miles west of K.3 and two-and-a-half miles north of the pipeline.... 300 feet below desert level.... suspected that it was the same warm fresh stream that syphons up into Wadi Hajlan all the year round, running 300 yards along the wadi and joining the Euphrates, the distance between the hole and the wadi being about seven miles”. The describer of the species states that the Pidgeon Hole is about five miles south of Haditha. The connections between these localities are unclear, but are indicated by the presence of the cave fish. Keith Banister in 1992 illustrated a surface entrance to the cave system. The species appears to be relatively common, one author examining 69 specimens. Habitat. The stream habitat was clear and warm at 20ºC. A temperature range in aquaria of 10-22.5ºC was tolerated but outside this range, they became inactive. Aquarium specimens seem to wander around the tank, apparently carrying out a sensory scanning of the environment. The lateral line system is apparently not as well developed as in surface fishes, the cave fish avoiding objects only at the last moment or briefly contacting the aquarium wall before turning away. A bang or sharp rap on the side of the aquarium often fails to elicit a response or the fish may show a sudden but not vigorous start (compared to other cave fishes). There was a rheotactic response that matched observations in the field where fish swam in shallows where the current was less than the 2 miles/hour (3.2 km/h) observed in the main stream. A slight preference was shown for the darker side of an aquarium, a slight photonegative response, compared with some other cave fish spe-

200 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

cies that show a much stronger response even when lacking developed eyes (and perhaps therefore having extraocular light receptors). Fish from Pidgeon Hole reacted to sound but not light. Fish were kept at 70ºF (21.1ºC) and in winter at 50ºF (10ºC). The hardness of the water from Haditha was, in parts per million parts of water by weight as CaCo3, to be temporary 160, permanent 910, total 1070, due to calcium salts 576 and due to magnesium salts 494. Biology. Aquarium fish are known to feed at the surface, at an angle of 20º, bringing the mental disc into contact with the surface layer with some fish feeding upside down. Gut contents indicate insect larvae are consumed. Economic importance. None, although any cave fish is attractive to the aquarium trade and could be bred for sale. Judicious capture of fresh specimens could be made at intervals to maintain the genetic diversity of the species held in aquaria. Conservation. This species is listed as Vulnerable (D2) on the 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.

FAMILY COBITIDAE This family of loaches, sometimes called sting-loaches, is found in Eurasia and Morocco and has about 26 genera with about 177 species. The body form is fusiform to rounded or elongate, the mouth is subterminal and has 3-6 pairs of barbels, the mental lobes of the lower lip have two parts: the anterior which is usually short and sometimes divided into lobules, and the posterior which is flap-like and longer and sometimes divided into 2 or more barbel-like extensions, there is 1 row of pharyngeal teeth, and there is an erectile spine in a groove below the eye. Iraqi species have one pair of rostral barbels and a rounded or slightly emarginate caudal fin and belong to the subfamily Cobitinae. Characters used in the study of these fishes include scales characteristic of each species along with colour pattern, sexual dimorphism, suborbital spine morphology, barbel and mental lobe morphology, and others. Maximum size is about 40 cm but most are much smaller. The origins of this group of loaches may well lie at the end of the Eocene or in the early Oligocene in South China, spreading along a northern route through Europe and Siberia during the Oligocene-Miocene-Pliocene period and then later southwards into Southwest Asia. Some members of this family can live in oxygen-poor waters. They take in air at the surface, and pass it through the intestine where the mucosa absorbs the oxygen and carbon dioxide waste is released through the vent. In addition, they may be very sensitive to air pressure changes and become restless when it falls. They can be used to predict the weather. Foods are mostly small insects, worms and crustaceans detected by the aid of the barbels on the habitat bottom. Some eat algal films or mats. Most species bury themselves in sand or mud during the day, emerging to feed at night. Movement is by undulations of

Species Accounts 201

the body, particularly marked in the more elongate species. A consequence of this form of movement is a reduction in fin size and morphological variation.

Genus Cobitis Linnaeus, 1758 These fishes are found in Europe, North Africa and Asia. There is 1 species in Iraq. This genus is characterised by an elongate and compressed body, a usually bifid, erectile spine below the eye (sometimes hidden under the skin), 3 pairs of short barbels (4 at the snout tip and 2 at the mouth corners), minute scales cover the body (as many as 200 but they are seldom counted accurately), lateral line faint or indistinct, dorsal and anal fins small, caudal fin rounded or truncate, and swimbladder in a bony capsule with a free portion visible. Males have bony extensions of their pectoral fin rays, known as lamina circularis or scale of Canestrini, and no swellings of their body sides. Polyploid unisexual, bisexual-unisexual complexes and gynogenetic forms of Cobitis exist in the basins of the Baltic, Black, Caspian and Mediterranean. The species are morphologically undifferentiated and therefore require detailed study to resolve taxonomic and systematic problems. The Iraqi Cobitis has not been investigated. These loaches often bury themselves in mud to overwinter or escape predators. The spine under the eye when erected is an anti-predator device, discouraging swallowing by other fishes and birds. The fish is said to swing the head actively from side to side to prick predators. Cobitis taenia Linnaeus, 1758 Common names. Lakh mukhattat. [spined or spiny loach, stone loach, weatherfish, spotted weatherfish, Siberian loach]. Systematics. This species was originally described from Europe. This taxon requires further study in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Records from the Tigris River basin are based on material from Iranian waters. Mid-flank spots are less distinct than in C. taenia from the Caspian Sea basin of Iran of similar size, being smaller and more numerous and the stripe on the centre of the back is continuous rather than spots as in Caspian fish. Identification is tentative although the general description and biology is based on data for C. taenia. Key characters. Characters are those of the family and genus. Morphology. Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 6-8, anal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 4-7, usually 5, pectoral fin branched rays 5-9, pelvic fin branched rays 5-7, and caudal fin branched rays 12-16. Vertebrae 40-46. Some specimens are elongate while others are deeper bodied. Chromosome number is 2n = 48-50 but triploids and tetraploids are also known.

202 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Cobitis taenia

suborbital spine

The second ray of the male pectoral fin is thickened and there is an enlarged scale at the base (Canestrini scale). The body in front of the dorsal fin of males is not distended as in some other Cobitis. Colour. The back is light brown. The flanks are pale yellow with a series of 10-20, usually 16-18, dark brown blotches or spots and the back bears a more or less distinct series of 12-21 dark spots. A small stripe of brown spots on the upper flank lies between the 2 series of dark spots. The spaces between these stripes are finely speckled with brown. The belly and lower head are yellowish white. The head is mottled with brown dots and there is usually a band from the eye to the snout tip. The head can have lime-green iridescent tints. Females have yellow-orange dorsal and caudal fins bearing dark spots while in males these fins are almost orange with dark spots. There is a distinctive dark spot or two at the upper base of the caudal fin, often of a crescent shape, although this spot may be absent occasionally. Dorsal and caudal fins have 3-4 rows of brown spots. The pectoral, pelvic and anal fins are whitish without dark pigment. The iris is silvery, slightly golden or orange. Size. Reaches 15.0 cm. Distribution. Found from England and the Iberian Peninsula across Eurasia to Japan, probably including Iraq as a Cobitis species is recorded from the Dukan and Derbendikhan dams, and specimens in this genus are found in the neighbouring Tigris River basin in Iran and the Syrian Euphrates River.

Species Accounts 203

Habitat. This species remains buried in sand, in mud that is not too thick, or in dense weed growths during the day, is active at night, and is mostly solitary. Swimming is by undulating motions over short distances. When concealed, the body is bent into an arch so only the head and tail protrude. It prefers cool, clear running waters. Biology. This loach lives up to 5 years and is mature in its second year of life. Diet is small crustaceans such as ostracods, copepods and rotifers in the bottom mud or sand. A mouthful of mud or sand is taken in, chewed, food items extracted, and the residue expelled convulsively through the gill openings. Fecundity reaches 5072 eggs, perhaps as high as 10,000, and egg diameter reaches 1.58 mm. Spawning takes place from April to June in slow to still water. Eggs are laid on sand, stones and vegetation in several batches. Eggs may be deposited on the roots of water plants cleared of debris by males rooting among them. Males use their enlarged pectoral fins to turn the female during spawning. Economic importance. Importance is based on its use in textbooks and in aquaria. Conservation. This species is classified as rare in Europe and its status in Iraq is unknown both taxonomically and in terms of numbers and biology

FAMILY BALITORIDAE The Iraqi species were classified in Cobitidae in older works and more recently in Homalopteridae. Some scientists consider that the correct name for this family is Noemacheilidae or Nemacheilidae, but this is not widely accepted yet. The family is found throughout Eurasia with a single species in northeast Africa. There are about 60 genera and about 590 species. Iraqi species belong to the subfamily Nemacheilinae. The hillstream, mountain or river loach family is characterised by a rounded, cylindrical or compressed, elongate body (in the Iraqi species), subterminal mouth with 6 barbels (4 at the snout tip, i.e. 2 pairs of rostral barbels, and 2 at the mouth corners, lips fleshy, no collapsible spine under the eye, mental lobes absent, swimbladder reduced and modified, caudal fin entire, emarginate or forked, and osteological characters such as the shape of bones in the Weberian apparatus used in sound transmission from the swimbladder to the ear. Iraqi species may lack scales, may have an adipose fin, and have a single unbranched ray leading the pectoral and pelvic fins. These small fishes are quite secretive, hiding under stones or in mud. Some are known only from caves. Despite their small size, they are regarded as a delicacy in India. This family probably dispersed by two routes from Southeast Asia, one through Siberia and one through South Asia to reach what is now Iraq. In the past, Iraqi and Middle Eastern loaches were included in the genus Nemacheilus. Noemacheilus Kuhl and van Hasselt in van Hasselt, 1823 is a nomen nudum since there are no taxonomic characters accompanying the original description. The

204 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

next available name is Nemacheilus Bleeker, 1863. Nemachilus Günther, 1868 is an incorrect spelling. These loaches have been placed in several other genera or subgenera including the following relevant to Iraq: Orthrias (now Barbatula Linck, 1790) and Paracobitis Bleeker, 1863. Views on the generic validity of these names conflict between authors and between the same author at different dates. One option is to retain Nemacheilus until a revision of all species is complete. However, Nemacheilus may contain only species from Southeast Asia, in which case the genera above come into play. This family has been poorly studied and collected in Iraq and it seems very likely that more species, probably involving new ones, remain to be discovered or identities confirmed by new material. Records of several loach species from Iraq are incorrect, being mis-identifications; they usually appeared under the genus Nemacheilus or Orthrias. Barbatula insignis (Heckel, 1843) is found only in the Jordan-Dead Sea basin and around Damascus and Barbatula panthera (Heckel, 1843) is found only around Damascus. The identity of specimens referred to Barbatula angorae (Steindachner, 1897) is unclear. Barbatula tigris (Heckel, 1843) was originally described from the Quwayq River near Halab, Syria; the presence of this species in Iraq needs confirmation with new material. Characters used in studying Nemacheilus include morphometric characters, which can vary with nutritional status and ecological factors, and meristic characters which do not vary as much as in other fish families. Stable characters in one study were head length, interorbital width, caudal peduncle length and depth, and predorsal length. Fin lengths are dependent on sex in some species, less so in others. Allometry is a problem in fin positions and measurements involving such characters can only be used when comparing fish of equal size. Mouth width and digestive tract shape are good characters but lip shape and development of the processus dentiformis are not. The swimbladder capsule form, including the presence or absence of a continuous collar between the two hemispheres and the shape of laminae, is an important character. Reduced laminae and wide recesses on the hemispheres are derived characters. The dorsal adipose fin development is stable in some species, variable in others, and is independently derived in different phyletic lines, thus being of limited value. The shortening and deepening of the caudal peduncle is derived in one Levantine species. Scale characters such as size and position of the focus and general scale structure are very variable and not characters easily quantified. Only specimens of the same size are comparable and numerous scales must be examined because aberrant ones are common. The lateral line length is a good character, although juvenile fish may have a shortened one. A reduced lateral line is a derived character but extent of the lateral line can be variable. Colour patterns are subject to variation and both spotted and striped forms can be found within one species. The habitat and the temperature can affect colour (fish kept in ice water have strong colour patterns while those preserved immediately from murky waters have faint patterns). Nevertheless, patterns can be important in distinguishing species. Thickening of pectoral fin rays is a derived feature but absence of this character is a symplesiomorph condition and cannot be used to relate species.

Species Accounts 205

As the above indicates, the species in the catchall genus Nemacheilus are often difficult to identify. Scale counts are not available, fin ray counts are very similar and unique structures uncommon. Colour patterns can be used but are notoriously variable and many types in museums are decoloured making comparisons difficult. Morphometric characters require good series of adult fish of both sexes, from various localities in the species range, preferably even from the same locality taken over several years to allow for local variations in habitat that may conceivably affect shape. Many species in this genus are from very similar habitats, the stressful one of running water, and have been constantly selected to fit this niche. Valid species resemble one another closely. Such characters as position of the anal opening, the dorsal fin origin and barbel length, have been used in species definitions but these vary with growth. Swimbladder structure depends on the habitat where the fish live and scale coverage on the physico-chemical nature of the water. Vertebral patterns may well prove a fruitful area of study and molecular data could prove very informative. This genus is characterised by an elongate and weakly compressed and almost cylindrical body, head not compressed but rounded, scaleless or body covered in minute scales (too small for scale counts to be commonly or easily made), lateral line complete or incomplete, a small and inferior mouth, lips thick, fleshy and papillose, lower lip interrupted in the middle, 2 pairs of barbels on the snout and 1 pair at the mouth corners, eyes small to minute, usually not visible from the underside of the head, reduced gill opening, short to moderate dorsal fin without spines, short anal fins, vent a short distance in front of anal fin origin, swimbladder enclosed partially or entirely in a bony capsule, gut short or long, a dermal crest or adipose fin may be present, caudal fin truncate, rounded or slightly forked, and often distinctive colour patterns of bars, stripes and blotches. Loaches are found usually in running water, hiding under rocks. This common and stressful habitat may have led to a general similarity in body form among the various species.

Genus Barbatula Linck, 1789 Species in this genus were formerly placed in Orthrias and Nemacheilus. There are at least 18 species found mainly in western Asia with a few in Europe. The body is elongate, thick, and rounded or slightly compressed. The head is slightly depressed or compressed. Eyes are small and widely spaced. The caudal peduncle is relatively deep. The body is covered by scales at least on the posterior part of the body, the lateral line is complete or at least passes the middle of the body length, and the lateral line tubes do not penetrate the scales. There are no nasal barbels. The lower lips are moderately furrowed. The dorsal fin has 7-9, rarely 10, branched rays. The pelvic fins are inserted slightly behind the dorsal fin origin. The caudal fin is slightly emarginated to deeply forked. There is no dorsal crest on the caudal peduncle. The processus dentiformis (a tooth-like projection at the symphysis of the upper jaw) is weakly or moderately developed and lacks a corresponding gap in the lower jaw. The

206 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

gut is short. Colour is variable, being barred, striped, irregular spots and blotches, or more or less regular rows of spots. The pectoral fin of males is broadened and thickened, and covered by tubercles in the spawning season. Tubercles also develop on the sides of the head. Barbatula argyrogramma (Heckel, 1849) Common names. Kebudi at Aleppo (= Halab, Syria) according to Johann Jakob Heckel. Systematics. The type locality of Cobitis argyrogramma is “Aleppo”. It was formerly placed in the genus Orthrias. The identification of Iraqi specimens with this species remains tentative. This taxon has been placed in the synonomy of Barbatula tigris (Heckel, 1843) (F. Krupp, in litt., 31 August 2006). However, the Quwayq River at Halab, Syria is completely dry so topotypical material for molecular analyses, which might resolve species status, is unavailable. It may be a synonym of Barbatula insignis (Heckel, 1843) but this too remains to be explored. Key characters. The colour pattern is distinctive and there is no dermal crest or adipose fin behind the dorsal fin. Morphology. The dorsal fin is obliquely truncate and the caudal fin is sub-emarginate or slightly forked. The dorsal fin origin is just in front of the level of the origin of the pelvic fins. Dorsal fin unbranched rays 3, branched rays 8 or 9, anal fin unbranched rays 2, branched rays 5, pectoral fin branched rays 9 or 10, pelvic fin branched rays 6-7. The processus dentiformis is developed but has no, or only a very shallow, notch on the opposite jaw. There is an elongate tuberculate swelling anterior to the lower eye margin below the nostril on the snout in males. The anterior two branched pectoral fin rays in males are broadened.

Barbatula argyrogramma

Species Accounts 207

The swelling below the nostril bears fine tubercles in mature males and there are broad bands of fine tubercles on the upper pectoral fin, overlapping rays and membranes, the breadth and extent of the bands decreasing medially. Colour. The body has 10-12 broad bands or brown spots arranged as irregular bands but interrupted by a silvery lateral line. The back has 2-3 bands behind the dorsal fin. Anteriorly the bands are less evident in smaller fish and the appearance is of brown mottling. The bands of spots are separated by a narrow gap. The spots or bands extend in irregular patterns down towards the belly, sometimes expanding or dividing, appearing as rudiments and, towards the lower flank, becoming small spots. There is a deep black band at the caudal fin base. The snout has a black band from eye to eye, not always evident. The dorsal, pectoral and caudal fins have up to 5 rows of spots. The pelvic and anal fins are mostly transparent with some spotting in one row in some fish. Size. Reaches about 7.0 cm. Distribution. Found in the Quwayq and Tigris-Euphrates rivers including the upper Diyala River basin near Sulaymaniyah, the vicinity of Baghdad, and possibly the upper Little Zab River near Qal’at Dizah and the Dukan Dam in Iraq. Habitat. Unknown. Biology. Unknown. Economic importance. None. Conservation. More collections of loaches need to be made in Iraq in order to assess their identities, distribution and numbers before any conservation recommendations can be made. Barbatula frenata (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Lakh; telay at Mosul according to Johann Jakob Heckel. Systematics. The type locality of Cobitis frenata is “Tigris”, at Mosul. It was formerly placed in the genus Orthrias. Nemacheilus frenatus afrenatus Battalgil, 1942 described from “un petit ruisseau à Diyarbakir” is also from the Tigris River basin but in Turkey. This subspecies lacks the “frein à la bouche” (presumably the band across the snout) of N. f. frenatus and its dorsal fin is higher than long (as measured at the base) while in N. f. frenatus it is as high as long. Key characters. The colour pattern is distinctive and there is no dermal crest or adipose fin behind the dorsal fin. Morphology. Dorsal fin unbranched rays 2-3, branched rays 7-8, anal fin unbranched rays 2, branched 5, pectoral fin branched rays 10-13, pelvic fin branched rays 6-7. Scales are present over the whole body but not readily visible without magnification. The anterior pectoral fin rays are thickened. Caudal peduncle thick (depth 80-90% of length). The bulb of the swimbladder capsule has large ovoid to circular perforations and

208 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Barbatula frenata

the anterior and posterior lamina or wings are only moderately developed. Lips are not strongly plicate and the dentiform process is well-developed. The gut has a posterior loop. Bands of tubercles are found on the pectoral fin rays of males, including the first, declining in breadth and extent on the smaller rays. Tubercles are also present on the pelvic and anal fin rays but are much less developed. The head is covered in fine tubercles. Flank scales, particularly anterior ones, are lined anteriorly with tubercles. There is an elongate tuberculate swelling anterior to the lower eye margin on the snout. Colour. Overall colour is yellowish, mottled with fine but irregular brown or black dots, bars and blotches, some flank blotches being quite large. The rear of the body and the caudal fin in particular are mottled with brown, tending to form bars. A black band is continuous from the front of one eye, across the snout and round to the other eye. It may be diffuse on the snout or well defined in fish from the same locality. There are about 4 bars over the back in front of the dorsal fin. The dorsal and caudal fins have thin but irregular bands made up of spots on the rays (up to 3 on the dorsal and 4 on the caudal fin), bands are faintly present on the anal and pelvic fins, and only a few are visible on the pectoral fins. The dorsal fin has an anterior basal spot at its origin, variably developed in individuals. There are distinct, dark spots at the base of the caudal fin above and below the body mid-line. Size. Reaches about 9.2 cm. Distribution. Found in the Quwayq and Tigris-Euphrates rivers. In Iraq recorded from the Tigris River, Little Zab River, the Khalis River near Baghdad and Lake Habbaniyah. It is probably more widely distributed than the few recorded collections suggest. Habitat. Known to inhabit both rivers and lakes, the environmental requirements of this species are unknown. Biology. Unknown. Economic importance. None. Conservation. The biology of this species, its distribution, numbers and habitat requirements are unknown so no comments on conservation can be made.

Species Accounts 209

Genus Paracobitis Bleeker, 1863 This genus comprises about 8, comparatively large species in western Asia. The body is elongate, thick anteriorly and posteriorly compressed. The head is strongly depressed. The caudal peduncle is long, low and bears an elongate crest dorsally from the dorsal fin to the caudal fin. The caudal fin is slightly emarginate or truncate, rarely rounded. Scales are present and the lateral line is complete. The processus dentiformis is strongly developed but its notch on the lower jaw is reduced. Lips are smooth or grooved. The gut is short with a single loop. The colour pattern is variable comprising bars or irregular spotting. Males and females show no external differences. Paracobitis malapterura (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1846) Common names. Lakh. Systematics. The type locality of Cobitis malapterura is given as “Syrie” but it has not been found there since; it does occur in the Tigris-Euphrates basin however. The type material was collected by Aucher-Éloy who visited Iran and the specimen may in fact be from there. It is possible that the type locality is in the Caspian Sea basin of Iran. Possibly the taxon in the Tigris-Euphrates basin is distinct but this needs further study. Key characters. The colour pattern is distinctive and there is a well-developed dermal crest or adipose fin behind the dorsal fin to the caudal fin base. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 6-8 branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 unbranched and 5 branched rays, pectoral fin branched rays 10-12 (one author gives 7-10) and pelvic fin branched rays 5-7. Caudal fin slightly emarginate. There is a well-

Paracobitis malapterura

210 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

developed dermal crest or adipose fin behind the dorsal fin to the caudal fin base. Scales are scattered on the posterior body in large fish but need magnification to be seen. The lateral line extends almost to the caudal fin. The dentiform process of the upper jaw is well developed and fits in a lower jaw groove. The lips, especially the lower one, are strongly plicate. The eyes are small and widely spaced. Caudal peduncle short, 5.6-6.3 times in standard length. The gut is straight posteriorly. The cheeks are distended in some fish and this is believed to be a sexual character. Colour. The top and sides of the body and head are mottled or reticulated with grey and some yellowish pigment. The reticulations may be very fine, giving a more mottled appearance. The belly and lower head surface are white. The flank reticulations extend onto the caudal peduncle crest. When touching the dorsal margin of the crest, the reticulations make the crest there dark, otherwise the crest is a light creamy colour along the margin and, in some fish without reticulations reaching the margin, the whole edge is light. The lateral line is white, sometimes in marked contrast to the rest of the flank. The dorsal fin has darkly pigmented rays, sometimes broken into series of spots. The caudal fin has a series of 4-5 small spots elongated along the rays, the middle series being the blackest. The dorsal margin of the caudal fin may have 2-4 isolated spots. The pectoral fin has dark pigment along the rays or 2-3 series of small spots. The pelvic and anal fins have 1-2 series of grey spots and the pelvic fin may have only 1-2 spots. Pelvic and anal fins may be immaculate. At the front or along the base of the anal fin there is a broad pigmented band. There may be a dark, zigzag bar at the caudal base, merging dorsally and/or ventrally with flank botches. The barbel bases are all darkly pigmented especially the second pair. The iris is silvery. Young fish have a less reticulated pattern with more blotches on the flank. Size. Reaches 15.0 cm. Distribution. This species is found in the Caspian Sea basin, adjacent northern basins in Iran and the Tigris-Euphrates basin. In Iraq, a specimen is recorded from Sangasar near Dukan Reservoir. Habitat. This species appears to favour deeper water and stronger current than other sympatric loaches. Biology. Unknown.  Economic importance. None. Conservation. Little is known of the biology and population numbers so no conservation assessment can be made.

FAMILY SISORIDAE The sisorid or sucker catfishes are found in Asia as far east as Borneo. There are about 17 genera with about 112 species. They are mostly small (as small as 2 cm) although some are very large (200 cm). Five nominal species are reported from the Tigris-Euphrates basin in

Species Accounts 211

Southwest Asia but the diversity there is very limited, compared to India for example. A single specimen of a sisorid catfish has been caught in the Yeşil Irmak of Anatolian Turkey at Taşova. This Black Sea drainage specimen calls into question the utility of characters used in identifying and defining species in Southwest Asia. Its characters are a mixture of features shared by G. armeniacus and G. silviae. A wide range of specimens of both sexes, various age groups and from various localities is not available to assess variation and resolve the species composition of the Southwest Asian fauna. The sisorid catfish family is characterised by a rounded to compressed body and a flattened head, short dorsal fin positioned anterior to the level of the pelvic fins, a spine in the dorsal fin (absent in some non-Iranian species) and in the pectoral fin, a welldeveloped adipose fin, a short anal fin, paired fins horizontal, gill membranes generally united to the isthmus, anterior and posterior nostrils close together, distinct nasal barbel present, 4-6 pairs of barbels, body with small tubercles (unculi), and a distinct thoracic adhesive apparatus in Iraqi species but absent in some other species. These catfishes are found in mountain streams where they use the adhesive apparatus to maintain position in the current. In Iran, they are reputed to lie on their backs in the water to take a rest! They are also very resistant and can live for 6 hours wrapped in wet cloth, reviving when placed in an aquarium.

Genus Glyptothorax Blyth, 1860 This genus is characterised by a flattened head, an adipose fin of moderate length, a short dorsal fin with a strong spine, the spine serrated anteriorly or posteriorly, or smooth, pectoral fin spine serrated posteriorly and in some with plicate skin ventrally, 4 pairs of barbels, maxillary barbels broadly based, an inferior and transverse mouth, villiform teeth on the roof of the mouth in two patches, eyes small and partly obscured by skin, gill openings wide, gill membranes joined to the isthmus, and an adhesive apparatus on the chest formed from plaits or folds of skin, often with a central depression. The validity of the described Glyptothorax species in the Tigris-Euphrates has not been adequately resolved. Three other nominal species occur in addition to the two reported here from Iraq, namely G. armeniacus (Berg, 1918), G. cous (Linnaeus, 1766), and G. silviae Coad, 1982. G. cous (originally described from Syria) has been reported from Iraqi waters but its presence needs confirmation. Resolution of the taxa found in Iraq awaits more extensive material for a better understanding of individual and species variation. Aglyptosternon Bleeker, 1862 (and such mispellings as Aclyptosteron, Euclyptosternum and variants) are synonyms of Glyptothorax. There has been confusion over the family placement of these fishes in various literature sources for the Middle East, e.g. they have been listed incorrectly in Siluridae and Ariidae.

212 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Members of this genus may have spread westwards along the Himalayas as late as the early Pleistocene. A centre of origin in western Yunnan and the southern slopes of the Himalayas are advocated and a Pliocene movement occurred westwards and that, as well, the distribution of Glyptothorax was influenced by Pleistocene glaciations. Their entry route into the Tigris-Euphrates basin is given as along the Amu Darya system. Glyptothorax kurdistanicus (Berg, 1931) Common names. None. Systematics. This species was originally described in the genus Glyptosternum Agassiz, 1846, an unjustified emendation of Glyptosternon McClelland, 1842. The type locality is “in Kurdistan, at the village Germau (or Germav), at the height of 1500 m, during the works of the Turko-Persian delimitation commission. Germau (or Germav, Germaw) is situated in latitude 36°N south-east of Serdesht, on the western slope of the Sur-kei Range, in the basin of the river Bané, tributary to the Little Zab, which is tributary to the Tigris R.”. Bané is probably Baneh in Iran near the Iraq border. The village Germau could not be located in gazetteers or on maps but Sar Dasht (36°09’N, 45°28’E) and Baneh (35°59’N, 45°53’E) are evident and the locality is between them. Key characters. This species is separated from G. armeniacus by the broader than long adhesive apparatus, which does not have pinnate lateral branches. The caudal peduncle is short (5.9-6.0 in standard length compared to 4.0-5.3 in other nominal species). Morphology. Dorsal fin with 1 spine followed by 5-7 branched rays, anal fin with 2 unbranched rays followed by 7-9 branched. Pectoral fin with 1 spine and 7-9 branched rays. Total gill rakers 7-9, moderately long and reaching beyond the base of the second raker below when appressed. The adipose fin is short, much shorter than the distance between the dorsal and adipose fins. There are oblique osseus striae under the skin of the upper surface of the first pectoral ray. Head and body covered with minute, elongate tubercles oriented longitudinally but without striae. Tubercles are also present on the base of the caudal fin rays, adipose fin, base of the dorsal and pectoral fins, on the pectoral spine along its whole length both dorsally and ventrally, a few on the base of the pelvic fin rays and few to none on the belly particularly anterior to the pelvic fins. Tubercles on the side of the head are more rounded. The upper jaw tooth patch has well-developed lateral rami, but these do not extend markedly from the main patch. The nasal barbel is short and does not extend back to the eye. The maxillary barbel is shorter than head length and the mandibular and mental barbels are progressively shorter. The gut is an elongate s-shape after a muscular stomach. Colour. Overall colour grey to brown with large, obvious, round, black spots and blotches on the sides or with small round black spots about eye size. All fins with broad

Species Accounts 213

Glyptothorax kurdistanicus

ventral sucker

black central band and variably developed basal bar. Basal bar most evident on the caudal fin. Adipose mostly covered with a large dark spot but dorsal and posterior edges hyaline. Size. Attains 267.2 mm total length. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin including that part in Iran and presumably neighbouring Iraq, as there are literature reports of Glyptothorax species in Dukan and Derbendikhan reservoirs and the Little Zab River. Habitat. Unknown in detail but it is assumed to be in rocky and gravelly rivers that provide hiding places. Biology. Unknown although Turkish specimens contained fish remains in the stomach. Economic importance. This species is not of any direct economic importance. Conservation. This species is poorly known in Iraq and may be rare enough to warrant conservation efforts.

214 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Glyptothorax steindachneri (Pietschmann, 1913) Common names. None. Systematics. The type locality is “Mosul”. This species was originally described in the genus Glyptosternum Agassiz, 1846, an unjustified emendation of Glyptosternon McClelland, 1842. The two syntypes in the Naturhistorisches Museum Wien have not been located (as of 1997). The brief description is without figures or details of the thoracic adhesive apparatus. Its validity is in question. Key characters. None is apparent as characters overlap with other nominal taxa. The broader mouth (4.2-4.3 times in head length) is actually a narrower mouth than all other Glyptothorax from the Middle East (ca. 1.8-3.6) but measurement techniques may not be consistent nor fully allow for proportional changes with size disparity of specimens. Without the type specimens or new topotypic material, the status of this taxon remains unclear. Morphology. The following is a partial translation and interpretation of the original description in German, the only known information on this species. Dorsal fin with 2 unbranched and 6 branched rays, anal fin with 2 unbranched and 9 branched rays, pectoral fin with 1 unbranched and 8 branched rays, pelvic fin with 6 rays and caudal fin with 17 rays. The body is elongate and slender, the flanks are compressed, and only the head is broad, low and depressed. Head length is contained 4.41-4.78 times in total length and 3.65 times in body length (without the tail fin). Greatest head breadth is 1.49-1.62 times head length. The eyes are small, vertically shorter than the horizontal diameter, 3.75-4.45 times in snout length and 8.5-9.88 times in head length. The inferior mouth is a little broader than hitherto known in species of the genus, 4.16-4.25 times in head length. The upper lip shows numerous, short, densely close and fringing lobes. The nasal barbel, just as the maxillary barbel, is strongly broadened at its base and reaches a little over half the distance from its root to the foremost eye margin when extended posteriorly. The maxillary barbel extends to about the middle of the pectoral spine. Its length is about equal to head length, proportionately 1.01-1.06. The external lip barbel extends to the pectoral fin root, the inner barbel to the gill opening. The upper side of the head is filled with numerous, longish, irregular skin warts. The dorsal fin is somewhat less high than the greatest body depth and its spine is smooth. The adipose fin is very long, its basal length being greater than the distance from its origin to the end of the dorsal fin base. The pectoral fin possesses a strong, flattened spine supplied with about 17-18 thorns on its posterior margin. Colour. Colour in alcohol is bluish-grey on top, below a dirty, flesh colour, the head above whitish with dark cloudy spots. The interorbital space is white, just as is the space in front of the first dorsal fin. In the bluish to lead-grey shade of the back, numerous dark (or obscure) spots are present. The fins are supplied with blackish dark dots in the larger

Species Accounts 215

specimen (18.9 cm TL) and in the other specimen (15.0 cm TL) with whitish dots. The caudal fin root has a very indistinct, blackish transverse band. Size. Attains 18.9 cm total length. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates basin at Mosul. Literature records of a Glyptothorax species at Baghdad may be this species. Habitat. Unknown. Biology. Unknown. Economic importance. This species is not of any direct economic importance. Conservation. This species is poorly known in Iraq and may be rare enough to warrant conservation efforts should it prove to be a valid taxon. The area at and around Mosul needs to be sampled extensively for sisorid catfishes so that comparisons can be made with other taxa in this family in the Middle East in an effort to determine the validity of this species. Collected material should also have tissue samples taken for DNA analyses as morphology in these fishes is not always a clear indicator of species distinction.

FAMILY SILURIDAE The sheatfishes are found in Europe and Asia. There are about 11 genera and about 97 species with 1 reported from Iraq. This family is characterised by a scaleless and elongate body, a moderately compressed head, a non-protractile mouth, teeth on the jaws and palate, 1-4 pairs of barbels (nasal barbels usually absent; maxillary barbels 1-2 pairs, sometimes vestigial or absent), nostrils separate, anterior ones tubular, gill openings very wide, dorsal fin short and spineless (usually fewer than 7 rays and sometimes absent), anal fin very long (41 or more rays) and may be confluent with the caudal fin, adipose fin absent, pectoral fin with a spine, often serrated, and pelvic fins small to absent.

Genus Silurus Linnaeus, 1758 These catfishes comprise about 5 species found from Europe to China and India. Only one species is found in Iraq although some specimens appear anomalous and resemble S. glanis Linnaeus, 1758 of European and the Black-Caspian seas basins; these require further study to determine their identity. Authors have considered that there were the two species in the Dukan and Derbendikhan dams and rare specimens from southern Iraq appear different from S. triostegus (observations of N. A. Hussain, 2005). This genus is characterised by an elongate body, rounded anteriorly but compressed posteriorly, a depressed head, 2-3 pairs of barbels, the maxillary barbels well-developed and often as long as, or longer than, the head, a large and terminal or superior mouth, teeth in bands on the jaws and roof of the mouth, nostrils well separated, eyes small

216 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

and not visible from the underside of the head, a very short and spineless dorsal fin, no adipose fin, anal fin very long and united to the rounded caudal fin, and the pectoral fin with a strong serrated spine Isolated microsatellite loci in both S. glanis and S. triostegus show that the species diverged less than 20MYA and/or have high levels of genomic conservation. Silurus triostegus Heckel, 1843 Common names. Jirri; djirri; girri; yerri. [Mesopotamian catfish]. Systematics. Silurus chantrei Sauvage, 1882, a species with 4 barbels, was described from the “Fleuve Koura à Tiflis (= Kura River at Tbilisi, Georgia) but was possibly based on material from the Tigris-Euphrates basin and may well be a synonym of this species Various authors considered that S. triostegus may not be distinct from S. glanis but recent morphological studies detail differences and this conclusion is supported by mitochondrial DNA analyses. The type locality of Silurus triostegus is the “Tigris bei Mossul”. Key characters. This species differs from the more widely distributed S. glanis by having robust and longer teeth (snaggly, catching on flesh), the upper and lower jaws meet at a dorsal and superior position (antero-dorsal in S. glanis), a distinctly and coarsely serrate pectoral fin spine posteriorly, and a lighter colour. Maxillary barbel length is about equal to head length while in S. glanis it is much longer on average, although there is some overlap. Anterior mandibular barbels (when present) are always shorter than posterior mandibular barbels while in Silurus glanis the anterior mandibular barbels are always longer. Morphology. Bears 4 barbels in some specimens as opposed to the usual 6 in S. glanis but there is evidence that the four-barbelled Silurus (sometimes placed in a distinct genus Parasilurus Bleeker, 1862, now synonymised with Silurus) have 6 barbels when young and one pair of mandibular barbels is reabsorbed. Specimens with one pair and with two pairs of mandibular barbels have been reported. One report recorded 4 mandibular barbels (2 pairs) in 3 specimens, 3 barbels in 1 specimen and 1 pair in another specimen for Turkish Euphrates fish. All S. glanis in one study had 4 mandibular barbels (2 pairs) while in S. triostegus 11 fish had 4 mandibular barbels and 12 fish lacked the posterior mandibular pair. There was no apparent trend in barbel loss associated with increase in body size. The pectoral fin spine is strongly serrated on its inner surface and smooth on its outer surface. Vomerine teeth are in two patches, not one as in Silurus glanis, although some specimens of S. triostegus have only one patch. The maxillary barbel is said to reach only to the end of the head, not much longer as in S. glanis. However, maxillary barbels

Species Accounts 217

Silurus triostegus

syntype specimen, Naturhistorisches Museum Wien

are also reported longer than the head; it is probable that barbel length varies individually. The lower jaw is longer than the upper jaw. Teeth in both jaws are recurved, the band of teeth is wider than in S. glanis, and the teeth are stronger and longer. The eye is larger than in S. glanis. Dorsal fin branched rays 3-4 (counts of 3 rays are more common than in S. glanis), pectoral fin branched rays 11-14 with 1 spine, pelvic fin branched rays 8-13 after 1 unbranched ray, anal fin rays 77-94, vertebrae 16-17 + 52-53 = 69-70, and total gill rakers 12-17, reaching the one below when appressed. The stomach is large, and apparently more elongate than in S. glanis although this may be distortion due to food content. The intestine has about 3 loops.

218 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Colour. The upper body is mottled pale yellow-brown and black. Overall colour may appear dark or light and yellowish. Generally, much lighter than Silurus glanis. The belly and lower head are white with the belly having black spots. Maxillary barbels and margin of the lower jaw very dark brown. Size. Reaches 1.5 m in the Syrian Euphrates and perhaps to more than 2 m in Syria. A maximum weight of 5 kg for Iraqi lakes was given in one study and fish in the southern marshes attained 5.6 kg and 92 cm total length. Distribution. This species is found throughout the Tigris-Euphrates basin. In Iraq it is found in the southern marshes, large rivers such as the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, Tigris, Euphrates and Diyala, lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar, and Razzazah, and reservoirs such as Dukan and Derbendikhan. Habitat. This species is found in open and vegetated lakes and marshes and in rivers in Iraq. The larger fish are mostly confined to rivers, entering marshes and lakes only on floods. The young have a greater tolerance of high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen. Dam construction has limited distribution in the upper reaches of rivers. It was one of the most abundant species in the southern Iraqi marshes in the 1980’s. The artificial changes imposed on the marshes of southern Iraq resulted in this predatory fish increasing in numbers; the food pyramid was reversed with the smaller carp species low in numbers. Biology. Age groups 2 to 7 years were found for fish from a marsh area north of Basrah in 6 weight groups from 300 to 3900 g. Examination of 600 specimens from the Hammar Marsh north of Basrah using vertebrae and eye lens diameter for ageing found 6 age groups. Eleven age groups were found in Atatürk Dam Lake, Turkey. Mean condition factors for females and males were 0.99 and 0.96 with highest factors in April and the lowest in December. Males matured at age 3, at a mean standard length of 326 mm and a mean weight of 760.4 g and females at age 4, 332.8 mm and 420.4 g. Fish are the most important food. The diet at Al-Fuhoud in the Hammar Marsh was 70.7% fish by volume and aquatic insects were also taken. Another study of feeding relationships among fishes in the Hammar Marsh found this species to be a carnivore, 73.7% of the diet being fish and 20.2% crustaceans. A third study in Lake Hammar showed too that food was predominately fish (Liza abu, Aphanius spp., Aspius vorax, Thryssa spp., Acanthobrama marmid, Silurus triostegus (young less than 16 cm were eaten by adults longer than 35 cm), Barbus sharpeyi, Heteropneustes fossilis and Cyprinus carpio) followed by shrimps (mainly Metapenaeus affinis), frogs (Rana esculenta) and crabs (mainly Sesarma boulengeri) with relative importance indices of 70.8, 16.3, 6.4 and 4.9 respectively. Liza abu was the most important fish through most of the year (except July and August when absent) (relative importance index 42.0, followed by C. carpio at 11.5), in numerical abundance and total weight. During July the prey was B. sharpeyi and C. carpio and in August prey was restricted to C. carpio, presumably opportunistic feeding. Other fish species were mostly young of the year and of minor importance. In another study of the recovering  Hammar Marsh, diet was 60.6% fish and 35.2% shrimps, in the Hawizah Marsh 79.2% fish and 20.8% shrimps, and in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish)

Species Accounts 219

Marsh 80.6% fish and 15.0% shrimps with plants, insects and snails at less than 10% each. This species is an important predator in the marshes where their biomass is high although they are relatively few in numbers. Spawning females do not feed. A study of diet in the southern Hammar Marsh found fish to be the most important prey year round while shrimps (Metapenaeus affinis) and molluscs were important  in certain months (mostly absent April-August). The disappearance of shrimps probably relates to their migratory pattern. Aquatic insects were found mostly in the spring. There is a reverse relationship between the presence of fish and shrimps. Fish and shrimps increased in the diet with increase in size while aquatic insects, molluscs and small crustaceans decreased with size. Fish species eaten were Liza abu, Barbus luteus, Alburnus sp., Cyprinus carpio, Thryssa hamiltoni, Heteropneustes fossilis, Aphanius sp., Gambusia holbrooki and Silurus triostegus. Frogs, detritus and aquatic plants were also found in the gut contents. Feeding occurred more at night and with another peak in late afternoon. The index of fullness values increased in April-September when water temperatures and metabolic rate rose. Spawning takes place in March-May in Iraq, to May and June in Turkey. Fecundity in the Hammar Marsh ranged from 5327 to 333,390 eggs for fish 32.5-92.0 cm total length, 395-5595 g weight and 1-7 years of age. This study showed that fish migrated to shallowly inundated areas for spawning among aquatic plants, namely the coast clubrush with sparse bulrush and common reed. Water depth was 0.25-0.75 m, the substrate was clay or sandy clay, the water was not flowing, temperatures were 17-21ºC, dissolved oxygen 6-11 p.p.m., alkalinity 170-203 (as calcium carbonate p.p.m.), pH 8.4-9.0 and salinity 5.0-5.3‰. The fish migrated in small schools, sometimes in association with Barbus sharpeyi, and arrived on the spawning grounds in the first week of March. Spawning took place at dawn and during the last light after sunset. The male, sometimes two males, rushed towards the female, chasing her and the rotating around her such that their bodies came into contact and a strong jerk was elicited from the female. Eggs were scattered on the bottom and not guarded. Males and females separate and retreat to deeper water. The eggs are adhesive, transparent and range in size from 3.0-3.2 mm. Peak spawning is in March with minor spawning in April and May. Larvae were first seen on 2 March, eggs hatching in 48-60 hours at 18-22ºC. Economic importance. This species forms 8.5% of the total catch in Iraq, the total catch in 1976 being 691 t, but it is not a popular food. As a scaleless fish, it is not eaten by Shi’a Muslims. A catch of 40-50 t was exported to Lebanon annually. It was found to have potential for use as a protein concentrate and as food since it has high protein content. The fishing season for this species is January-April (peaking in March) and September-November (peaking in October) in rivers, and July-November (peaking AugustSeptember) for lakes and marshes. It has been caught on rod and line by foreign soldiers fishing for sport in Iraq at Camp Liberty, Baghdad. Some soldiers used plastic worms as bait. Conservation. Studies on the numbers of this species when fished commercially are not available. As a predator, it would be easily susceptible to overfishing and stocks should be monitored closely.

220 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

FAMILY HETEROPNEUSTIDAE The stinging or airsac catfishes comprise a single genus with three species found naturally from Pakistan through India to Thailand. The family is characterised by an elongate and compressed body with a flattened head, the mouth is small and transverse with fleshy, papillated lips, villiform teeth on the jaws and vomer, 4 pairs of barbels are present (nasal, maxillary and 2 mandibular), the anterior nostril is tubular and the posterior nostril a slit, gill openings wide and gill membranes free from the isthmus, air sacs are present and extend back from the gill chamber, swimbladder very small, the dorsal fin is short and spineless, no evident adipose fin, very long anal fin confluent with the caudal or separated from it by a notch, pectoral fin with a strong and venomous spine, and the skin scaleless. These fishes can live in stagnant water by breathing air. They are dangerous to man since the pectoral spine harbours a strong venom. Stinging catfishes nonetheless are an important food in the native range.

Genus Heteropneustes Müller, 1840 The only genus in the family, its characters are given above. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch, 1794) Common names. Samaka; dood; abu-al hakim; abu al-hakam; abu-al-hukum; samma; djirri lasseye; jamhoori (at Baghdad in reference to the then new republic or jamhooria); samak al-za’em (named after a former president who had this species introduced for mosquito control). [Indian stinging catfish]. Systematics. This species was described from Tranquebar, Tamil Nadu, India. There has probably been no natural, large-scale migration from Pakistan as envisaged by some authors. Some Sumerian names may refer to this species but this is by no means certain. Key characters. The 4 pairs of barbels, short and spineless dorsal fin, absence of an adipose fin, and the long anal fin are distinctive. The head is small and very flattened and tapers both dorsally and ventrally to a terminal mouth. Morphology. There are two, tubular air sacs extending from the gill cavity almost to the caudal peduncle, enabling this catfish to breathe air. On capture, air from these sacs may escape and cause a peculiar squawking sound.

Species Accounts 221

Heteropneustes fossilis

Dorsal fin with 6-8 rays, anal fin rays 60-79, pectoral fin branched rays 7-8 after a strong spine serrated on its inner margin, and pelvic fin branched rays 5. Fin rays are difficult to count without dissection or x-rays because of the fleshy and heavily pigmented nature of the fins. Spine serrations are more notch-like than toothed. Asymmetry for Iraqi fishes in pectoral fin ray and total gill raker counts increases with fish length. Environmental stress was advocated as the cause, including pollutants. Gill rakers are elongate, reaching adjacent raker 5-7 when appressed and number about 25. Barbels are elongate, the snout barbel being the shortest at about head length, the inner mandibular barbel being head length or longer, and the mouth corner and outer mandibular barbel being much longer than the head. The gut is elongate with several posterior coils. Colour. Yellow or leaden to dark green, grey-brown, rust-brown or even black, occasionally with two yellowish stripes. The flanks may also be spotted. The barbels are darker than the adjacent body. The eye is yellow. Young specimens are reddish and have a pale belly with numerous melanophores. Size. Males reach 24.2 cm, females 34.4 cm in India. Fish up to 25 cm are recorded from the recovering southern Iraqi marshes (2005-2006 studies). Distribution. First recorded from Iraq in 1960 when a strange fish was reported to have inflicted a “painful bite” on several victims. The species spread northward and also eastward into Iran from southern Iraq. One collection from Dezful, Iran is dated February 1960 so the spread into Iran must have been very rapid or the original Iraqi introduction some years earlier than documented. Found from Iraq eastward, but not continuously through South Asia, to Laos. In Iraq it is reported from the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the Tigris, Euphrates and Diyala rivers, lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, and reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah on the Euphrates, as well a smaller water bodies such as palace ponds in Baghdad and canals. An Iraqi biologist maintained that this species was originally introduced to Iraq for mosquito control (sic) by local authorities although no one would later admit to it. A

222 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

more reasonable assumption is that it was introduced to eat the snail Bulinus truncatus, a vector for the human parasite causing schistosomiasis. It was ineffective in this regard. Habitat. It is common in rivers, marshes, ponds and canals and is found in both fresh and slightly brackish waters. This species suffered a 25% mortality over 72 hours at 10.25‰ sea water. It was most abundant in polluted and stagnant areas in the lower Diyala River where it dominated catches or was the only fish present. It is common in swamps and can survive temperatures up to 39.8°C. It air breathes every 3-5 minutes but the frequency varies with time of day and weather conditions. Specimens can survive 3-6 hours in air. On hot and calm days, it visits the surface more frequently than during a heavy shower. S. Cowton (pers. comm., 23 August 2005) has observed schools of this species gaping at the surface in the artificial lake or pond around Al Faw Palace in Baghdad, presumably in response to high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen. Individuals were also seen rapidly swimming straight up to the surface, gulping and diving straight back down again. On especially sultry days, it may float or swim near the surface. In the dry season of India, it can live in semi-liquid mud or at the bottom of fissures where the mud has cracked. It makes nest holes in the sides of ponds about one foot below the water surface in the form of anastomosing tubes with several exits. Up to 364 fish can be found in one complex of holes. Its aquarium preferences and habits are 22-25°C, pH 7.58.5, alkaline water, predator, not too bright lighting, bottom dwelling with stones, roots and crevices preferred and cave brooding reproduction. Aquarium specimens producing audible squeaks when excited and preferred the darker side of an aquarium. The numbers of this species in Iraq appear to be in decline. Numbers around Baghdad 30 years ago were so high that “you couldn’t swim without being stung by one. Rather painful” (F. Kedairy, in litt., 21 December 2005). Biology. A pond population in Iraq did not grow as well as a natural one. Life span was up to 4 years at Qarmat Ali using ocular lens diameter and vertebral rings for ageing. Diel feeding of this species was studied in the Ashar Canal, Basrah. Two feeding peaks were observed - at 0500 hours and 1700 hours, dawn and dusk, but stomachs examined around the clock had food in them. Aquatic plants and detritus are the bulk of the diet, followed by entomostracans and aquatic insect larvae. Also present are fish parts, molluscs and non-aquatic organisms. Cannibalism is reported in India for young fish. In the Diyala River, young fish take chironomids and worms while larger ones ate fish. However all sizes take aquatic insects in spring, and rotifers, cladocerans, copepods, ostracods, protozoans and digested material were common. There is some competition with Barbus sharpeyi, a commercial species. In a study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 47.2% insects, 22.1% shrimps and 20.8% fish, in the Hawizah Marsh 33.9% shrimps, 25.8% fish, 20.8% insects and 19.2% snails and in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 51.2% shrimps, 26.4% fish, 12.0% insects and 10.4% snails. Chili macaroni, corned beef casserole, mixed vegetables and salad are dietary items at Camp Liberty, a former palace in Baghdad, where American soldiers feed leftovers from a distinguished visitors dining hall to catfishes, apparently this species

Species Accounts 223

Sexual maturity in India is reached when fish are about 1 year old, at 8.5 cm for males and 12.0 cm for females. Eggs are laid in a shallow depression excavated by both the male and female in mud or sand. Eggs are light green. They hatch in about 2 days in Sri Lanka. The parents guard the eggs and young until the young fish are about a month old and able to look after themselves. Spawning behaviour in aquaria was studied in India after hypophysation using pituitary glands of Indian major carps. A pair of males circled each other in a figure 8 pattern until one established dominance. The dominant male chased the female, swimming underneath her or obstructing her path, and touching barbels. The male tried to bite the female in the chases and shivered its whole body while making lateral passes. The male nudges the genital region of the female with his head, occasionally shaking it from side to side. Eventually the female is aroused and nudges the male genital region. This female action was necessary for mating to occur. The male arcs its body into a u-shape, the female touches the male’s genital papilla and the pair remain motionless for 2-5 seconds. The female jerks and separates from the male releasing the eggs that settle to the bottom. The pair rest before mating again. About 40-200 eggs are released after each mating. Mating acts number 20-100, at 2-3 minute and then later 5-10 minutes or longer intervals, and always occur near the surface of the aquarium. Spawning is more complete and egg fertilisation is better when there is one female and two males, the other male acting as a stimulator, with the spawning male quarreling with the non-spawning male between mating with the female. If more than one male is present, mating only occurs after one establishes dominance. Males may eat eggs. Spawners mate in the water column or near the surface. Economic importance. An important food fish in India and Sri Lanka, where its flesh is reported to have invigorating qualities. Some fish are exported from Sri Lanka for the aquarium trade. V. D. Vladykov reported (in litt., 22 July 1963) that he had seen this species in pet shops in Tehran, on sale at about $2.00 each. The pectoral spine can cause a serious wound because of the toxin content of the epidermal cells covering the spine. The toxin was found to have both neurotoxic and haemolytic effects. The toxin is fatal to frogs (within 15-20 minutes of subcutaneous injection of glycerinated venom) and to other fishes. Inquiries by laymen, as well as a physician at a Baghdad hospital, were made about a strange fish that had inflicted a painful bite (sic). A diminutive black fish found in the Shatt al Arab River appeared in newspaper reports and reputedly killed 28 people with a venomous bite (sic). Death was said to be swift. This was presumably a garbled report on this species. Severe swelling involving the whole arm resulted from a hand sting in Iraq. The swelling and pain recede after about a day but the puncture wound can take about two weeks to heal and some pain can be felt when applying pressure to the wound site up to six weeks later. Verbal and newspaper reports from Tehran (V. D. Vladykov, in litt., 26 August 1961) maintain that this species could cause death to cattle and humans although Vladykov (in

224 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

litt., 30 September 1963) considered fatal cases “not well proved”. B. W. Coad was stung in the thumb by this fish in Iran with no effect (although he did devote considerable time and effort into squeezing and sucking blood from the puncture site!). Freshly caught or netted fish swing the head from side to side and thus are active envenomators (despite knowing this Coad was still stung). Treatment is symptomatic and some relief can be obtained by immersing the sting site in water as hot as can be withstood and applying a meat tenderiser. These treatments serve to coagulate the protein toxin. The wound should be cleaned to avoid secondary infections such as tetanus. R. Beck (pers. comm., 2000) reports that this fish is now present in the Syrian Euphrates, its tributaries, and in irrigation canals. Incredible numbers occur near town sewage outlets and in weed beds. It is known to consume eggs of Barbus grypus, eradicating them along one stretch of the Tigris River, and there is some competition with Barbus sharpeyi, both these species being commercially important. Conservation. This is an exotic species and requires no conservation.

FAMILY ARIIDAE Netuma bilineatus (Valenciennes in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1840) and/or Plicofollis layardi (Günther, 1866) The species found on mudflats and shallow waters in the Gulf and, presumably, the ones entering estuarine and fresh waters, have usually been identified as Arius thalassinus (Rüppell, 1837). Specimens found in fresh and brackish waters of Iraq need careful identification and may be either, or both, of the species listed above. Recorded from the Shatt al Arab River and Hammar Marsh.

FAMILY BAGRIDAE The bagrid catfishes are found in fresh waters of Africa and Asia. Some species attain 2 m in length. There are about 18 genera and about 170 species. Only one species is known from Iraq. This family is characterised by a scaleless body, a depressed head and rounded to compressed elongate body, short dorsal fin with a strong, often serrated spine, a strong, serrated spine in the pectoral fin, a short to long adipose fin, anal fin short to long, caudal fin forked or deeply emarginate, a free margin to the gill membranes over the isthmus, the anterior and posterior nostrils are well separated, anterior nostrils tubular, mouth ventral and transverse

Species Accounts 225

or arched, 4 pairs of barbels with the nostril barbel on the posterior nostril, maxillary barbels can be very long, other barbels are mandibular and mental (chin), teeth on the prevomer, premaxillaries and mandible, and eyes often covered by skin. Maximum size is about 2 m. These catfishes are generally nocturnal. Certain species are important food fishes and others are kept as pets in aquaria.

Genus Mystus Scopoli, 1777 This is a catchall genus comprising numerous species in Asia. The genus is restricted to 8 closely related species with only 1 species known from Southwest Asia including Iraq. This genus is characterised by an elongate body, rounded anteriorly and compressed posteriorly, a short and moderately depressed head, head smooth or rugose, an elongate cranial fontanelle extending posteriorly to the base of the occipital process and divided into anterior and posterior portions of nearly equal length by an epiphyseal bar, small to moderate eyes set high and not visible from the ventral surface of the head, a free circular eyelid, a wide transverse, usually subterminal mouth, maxillary barbels very long, jaw teeth are in villiform patches, on the lower jaw as a curved or angular band interrupted at the mid-point, continuous and curved slightly in the upper jaw, total gill rakers 11-30, gill openings very wide and free from the isthmus, adipose fin high and very long, caudal fin deeply forked, upper caudal lobe often much larger than lower, and 37-46 vertebrae about equally divided between abdominal and caudal ones. Mystus pelusius (Solander in Russell, 1794) Common names. Abu-zummair; abouz-zoumeir; abu-al-zamir; abu’l-zoumeir; jahudi in Mosul and zugzug in Aleppo (= Halab, Syria) according to Johann Jakob Heckel. Systematics. The type locality is the Kowick River, Aleppo (= Quwayq River, Halab, Syria). Synonyms are Bagrus halepensis Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1840 from the “Couiac, qui est la rivière d’Alep” (= Quwayq River at Halab, Syria), Macrones aleppensis Günther, 1864, Macrones colvillii Günther, 1874 from “Bagdad”, and Mystus misrai Anuradha, 1986 described from “Lake Antioche, Syria”. Hypselobagrus Aleppensis is a new combination. More material should be examined to compare fish with short barbels, weakly serrate dorsal spine, short adipose fin and a highland distribution (= pelusius) while the contrasting fish would be colvillii. Key characters. The 4 pairs of barbels, a strong spine in both the dorsal and pectoral fins, and an elongate and strong adipose fin are distinctive. The head tapers but is not as flattened as in Heteropneustes fossilis, and the mouth is subterminal.

226 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Mystus pelusius

Morphology. The maxillary barbel extends back to the pectoral fin origin or, rarely, as far as beyond the anal fin. The dorsal fin spine is smooth on most of the outer edge and rough on the inner edge. Serrae can be weakly developed or absent, or may be well developed. The dorsal fin spine has 1-4 serrae or notches at the anterior tip and 5-9 along the rear margin, apparently not related to fish size. The pectoral spine is stronger than the dorsal spine and is serrated with 14-23 antrorse teeth on the inner margin, the number increasing with size. Dorsal fin with 1-2 spines and 7-8, usually 7, branched rays, anal fin with 6-10 branched rays, pectoral fin with 1 spine and 7-9 branched rays and the pelvic fin with 5-6, usually 5, branched rays. Total gill rakers 10-18 , reaching the second raker or further when appressed. One specimen, with only 7 gill rakers, was possibly abnormal. Total vertebrae 42-46. The gut has a large stomach followed by an intestine with about 4 loops. Asymmetry has been demonstrated in pectoral ray and gill raker counts in samples of this species from the Shatt al Arab River, Iraq, possibly due to environmental stress. Colour. Pale brown to olivaceous overall with fins and belly lighter, on a predominant dark silver. Some fish may be silvery-grey overall when fresh. A dark shoulder spot is present. There may be a black spot at the base of the dorsal fin. The dorsal and anal fins have melanophores on the rays and membranes and so are darker than the other fins. The margin of the adipose fin is narrowly black. The caudal fin has a black margin. There may be 3 (sometimes 2), narrow, white stripes on the flank, one along and one each above and below the lateral line. Barbels are whitish, somewhat darker dorsally. Peritoneum silvery to light brown. An albino specimen is reported from Baghdad. Size. Reaches 171.2 mm standard length or 22.9 cm total length. Distribution. Found in the Orontes (= Asi), Quwayq, and Tigris-Euphrates basins. In Iraq it is reported from the southern marshes, large rivers such as the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, Tigris, Euphrates, Little Zab, Diyala and Saddam (Main Outfall Drain), lakes such as Habbaniyah and Tharthar, and reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah on the Euphrates.

Species Accounts 227

Habitat. This species has been observed in rivers, marshes and brackish waters in Iraq although summer kill resulted from very low water levels and increased salinity. Biology. This species has been aged using eye lenses and vertebrae for a population from the Qarmat Ali River north of Basrah, Iraq. Fish up to 20 cm total length were examined and three age groups were determined, with considerable overlap of lengths for each group. Another study found 7 age groups (0+-6+) for the same river using vertebrae to age fish 54-223 mm total length. The highest growth was found in the first year and no significant differences were found between males and females in growth rate. Eggs have been found in the branchial chamber and stomach apparently identical with those from the ovary. Other stomach items were fish fin pieces and cyprinid fish scales. Aquatic insects, crustaceans, oligochaetes, zooplankton, phytoplankton, detritus and plant remains are also found in stomach contents of fish from Iran. Shrimp and insects form 47% by volume of the diet of this fish at Al-Fuhoud, Hammar Marsh. In the Qarmat Ali River mean feeding activity and intensity was higher in spring and summer, declining in autumn and winter. This fish was carnivorous, taking mainly crustaceans (the isopod Sphaeroma annandalei, amphipods, the decapod Elamenopsis kempi, and the prawns Metapenaeus affinis and Atyaephyra desmaresti), but also insects, fishes (Alburnus sp. and Aphanius dispar), molluscs and aquatic plants. The Qarmat Ali River fish attained maturity in the first year of life with the smallest mature male 92 mm long and the smallest female 72 mm. Eggs were laid in May and June with a fecundity range of 1156-25,833 eggs for fish 105-180 mm total length and 11.88-49.29 g in weight. Relative fecundity was 97.3-524.1 eggs/g. Herons are the definitive host of the cestode parasite Valipora campylancristrota found in this fish and presumably are predators on the fish. Economic importance. This species is of no economic importance. Anglers may catch it on hook and line in Khuzestan, Iran but, being scaleless, it is not eaten. Conservation. This species appears to be relatively common, although not often caught in large numbers, and its conservation status has not been assessed.

FAMILY MUGILIDAE The mullets or grey mullets are found worldwide in temperate to tropical coastal waters readily entering estuaries and even resident in freshwaters. There are about 17 genera with about 72 species but only one species is native to Iraq as a true freshwater fish. There are also marine species that penetrate varying distances into fresh waters and spend varying amounts of time there. Maximum size is about 0.9 m. This family is characterised by a compressed to subcylindrical body with a somewhat flattened head, moderate sized scales which may be cycloid but are ctenoid in most adults and extend onto the top and sides of the head, faint or no lateral line along the flank but pits or grooves on scales contain the sense organs, the eye may have an adipose or fatty

228 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

eyelid forming a vertical, slit-like opening, vertebrae usually 24, rarely as high as 26, wide gill openings, gill rakers long and slender and increasing in number with growth, upper elements of the gill arch are specialised as a pharyngobranchial organ, a spiny and short first dorsal fin (4 spines), the second dorsal with 1 unbranched ray or spine and 5-10, usually 8, branched rays, anal fin with 2-3 spines and 5-12 branched rays, an abdominal pelvic fin with 1 spine and 5 soft rays, pelvic bones connected to the postcleithrum by a ligament, the mouth is transverse and small, teeth on jaws short, weak and flexible, the lower jaw may be toothless, the stomach wall is strongly muscled (gizzard-like), and the gut is very long and coiled. Mullets are schooling fish that feed on microscopic algae and the minute animals associated with the algae. They grub, gulp or suck (hence “mugil”) bottom deposits, spitting out some of the debris and extracting nutrient from the remainder. The long gill rakers filter the food, the strong gizzard-like stomach crushes it and the long intestine (about 7 times body length) aids in digestion. Their bottom feeding leaves long patches of disturbed sediment readily visible from a distance. Eggs, larvae and young mullet are pelagic. Adults are found in large schools in coastal waters or on tidal flats. These fishes are very important economically as food eaten fresh, smoked or canned, as bait, and as cultured fish in ponds. The flesh is oily and rich but has few bones. Small mullets were introduced to Lake Razzazah from the Shatt al Basrah Canal, Zubayr Inlet and Abdullah Inlet from 1992 to 1996. About 117,000 fish were released and in August 1993 were 16 cm long and after two years 27 cm, showing better growth than in other Iraqi waters. Catches of L. subviridis and L. carinata (sic, probably L. klunzingeri) during 19901994 ranged from 33 t to 1701 t with the intertidal zones of Abdullah Inlet and Shatt al Arab River being the main fishing areas. The catch peaks in June-October and is taken by drift gill nets.

Genus Liza Jordan and Swain, 1884 This genus is characterised by thin to moderately thick, terminal upper lip without papillae, the lower lip is directed forwards and is thin-edged, teeth are setiform, ciliiform or absent in the upper lip, ciliiform or absent in the lower lip, there is a symphysial knob to the lower jaw and the lower jaws meet at a 90º angle or more, the maxilla is bent down over the premaxilla and is either uniformly curved or is s-shaped, the maxilla end is visible when the mouth is closed, the anteroventral edge of the preorbital bone is serrate, weakly concave or kinked and ventrally it is broad and squarish, an adipose eyelid is present sometimes but is not well-developed being a narrow rim around the eye at all ages, pharyngobranchial organ with two valves, pyloric caeca number 2-14, predorsal scales are unicaniculate, and the pectoral axillary scale is weak or absent.

Species Accounts 229

Liza abu (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Khishni; hishni; hosoon or hashsoun; maid; abu-khraiza; abu sukkanejn in allusion to the toothed suborbital bone according to Johann Jakob Heckel. [abu mullet, freshwater mullet]. Systematics. The type locality is the “Tigris bei Mossul”. Mugil pseudotelestes Pietschmann, 1912, described from the “Schatt el Arab bei Basra (Aschar)” is probably a synonym based on the original description. Mugil hishni Misra in Hora and Misra, 1943 described from “Rivers and Hors, Iraq” (hors or hawrs are marshes) is also a synonym. Mugil abu zarudnyi Berg, 1949 was described from “Ser-i-pul, 30 km from Malamir, between Deh-i-dez and Malamir, region of the Bakhtiars and Lurs, upper course of the Karun R., south-western Iran” and this subspecies is considered to be of doubtful validity given the variability of this species. Different stocks exist in the Tigris, Euphrates and Orontes (= Asi) rivers as evidenced by morphology. This species is sometimes placed in the genus Chelon Rose, 1793. Key characters. The high lateral scale count, long pectoral fins reaching almost level with the first dorsal fin origin when folded back (note fin tips often frayed, especially in preserved material, so not as apparent), short pectoral axillary scale, thin lips, 3 anal fin spines and 8 branched rays, relatively strong spines in the first dorsal and anal fins, and peg-like or setiform teeth (not tricuspid) in the upper jaw only, distinguish this species from other species in the genus Liza and from other mullets.

Liza abu

230 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Morphology. The eye has fatty tissue covering as far as part of the iris. Lips are thin and the lower lip has a pronounced knob. Peg-like teeth are obviously present only on the upper lip, the lower lip having scattered ciliate teeth. The end of the maxilla has an s-shaped bend and its tip is exposed. The anterior edge of the denticulate preorbital is angular, bending down at the corner of the mouth. Occasional anterodorsal scales have double canals. Pectoral fin length is 75-78% of head length. First dorsal fin spines 3-4, usually 4, second dorsal fin soft rays 5-10, usually 8 after 1-2 spines, anal fin spines 3 followed by 5-10, usually 8 soft rays, pectoral fin branched rays 13-17 and pelvic fin branched rays 5-6, usually 5. Vertebrae 21-25. Lateral scales 39-53, usually 44-50. Scales are strongly ctenoid on the exposed part and the fish feels rough to touch when rubbed from tail to head. The embedded part of the scale has fine circuli. The focus is very posterior. Scale shape is rectangular with the anterior margin vertical or somewhat wavy. The anterior upper and lower corners are square or even pointed. The dorsal and ventral scale margins are straight and the posterior margin is rounded. There are a few radii (as few as 4) from the focus to the anterior margin and, where these intersect the margin, it may be slightly indented to form a wavy edge. There are 4 pyloric caeca and the gut is elongate and coiled. Gill rakers are shorter than the gill filaments and number 44-55. They bear teeth on the internal edge. The chromosome number is 2n = 50. Differences in counts of vertebrae and dorsal fin rays were noted between fish from Basrah in Iraq and the Karkheh River in Iran. Differences in morphometric data were noted for stocks from the Orontes (= Asi), Tigris and Euphrates rivers of Turkey, attributed to phenotypic adaptation as the stocks were genetically homogenous. This is the most variable species in the family. Asymmetry in this species from the Shatt al Arab River at Basrah was reported and it was suggested pollution could be a cause. Colour. The back is a light brown or greyish or olive-green with the flanks and belly silvery or yellowish-silver. There may be an indistinct silvery stripe or 2 grey stripes along the flank. Generally, the upper flank is dark, the lower flank pale, and the two clearly demarcated. The upper part of the lower flank may bear alternating light and dark stripes but these are sometimes poorly expressed. The second dorsal and caudal fins are dusky to brownish and lower fins are yellowish-white to hyaline. Scale margins are covered in small black spots. The top of the eye is lime-green and reddish-brown just below but still silvery around the pupil generally. Young fish have a reddish colour at the base of the pelvic, anal and caudal fins and have an evident mid-lateral stripe against a pale body. Size. Attains 26 cm total length and 0.15 kg. Distribution. Found in the Tigris-Euphrates and Orontes (= Asi) river basins, in some inland waters of southwestern Iran, and in Pakistan. In Iraq, it is reported from the southern marshes, large rivers such as the Shatt al Arab River, Tigris, Euphrates, Little Zab and Diyala as well as small rivers, in lakes such as Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, and in reservoirs such as Al Qadisiyah on the Euphrates. Also recorded from marine waters of the Zubayr Inlet in the northern Arabian Gulf.

Species Accounts 231

Habitat. This mullet is a freshwater species found in rivers, streams, channels, canals and drains, lakes, reservoirs and ponds, on fish farms by invasion, occasionally entering estuaries. This was the dominant species of fish in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah, comprising 72% of all fish collected and this was one of the most abundant species in the recovering marshes of southern Iraq in 2005-2006 (at almost 36% of 16,199 fishes collected) and in the marshes in the 1980s. Along with Cyprinus carpio, it was the predominant fish species in Al Qadisiyah Dam Lake. It is reported from the Zubayr Inlet in a marine environment, probably a consequence of human-induced environmental changes. Iraqi studies found this mullet in the surface waters and submerged vegetation of lakes and marshes, preferably where there is a gentle water flow. In December-January, it enters rivers and deeper waters, especially in very cold winters. This species can withstand abrupt increases of temperature up to 30°C and salinity up to 10‰ for 24 hours under experimental conditions. Mortality in water at 15‰ is low. Salinities up to 30‰ and temperatures up to 35°C are tolerated, presumably if increases are gradual. It prefers salinities not exceeding 2‰ (a later study gave 5.6‰) but can survive abrupt transfer to 15‰ It usually occurs in schools. S. Cowton (pers. comm., 23 August 2005) has observed schools of this species gaping at the surface in the artificial lake or pond around Al Faw Palace in Baghdad, presumably in response to high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen. It is often the dominant species left in small pools when marshes dry up, as in the Shadegan Marshes of Iran (personal observations, B. W. Coad). Biology. Age and growth of this species from commercial catches was studied in the Shatt al Arab River. Specimens were aged by examining the otoliths and three age groups determined with 0+ fish being 8.9-10.9 cm, 1+ fish being 9.9-14.8 cm and 2+ fish being 13.6-18.2 cm total length. A population of this species in the Al-Daoodi Drain, Baghdad found an age span up to 7 years using scales to age fish. Older age groups (5 and 6) grew more slowly than Diyala River fish, perhaps because of higher salinity in the Drain and the enriched conditions in the Diyala River due to sewage. A population in the Diyala River, which was polluted with sewage from the Al Rustamiyah treatment plant, was studied. Khishni was the second dominant species from December to March after Chondrostoma regium and in August the dominant species in catches. Fish were heavier and in better condition in the more polluted areas, but probably not as good for human consumption! Growth declined after age group 5 with few fish in age group 6. A population of khishni in Mehaijeran Creek, a side branch of the Shatt al Arab River south of Basrah, had only 3 age groups (0+ to 2+) since the creek water level is affected by the tide and older fish tend to move into the deeper waters of the adjacent Shatt al Arab River. Growth is faster in the creek than in other Iraqi locations. Six age groups are reported for fish from Babylon Fish Farm west of Hilla. Fish were in good condition as they were taking food meant for cultured carp. The relative condition factor was 0.98-1.04, similar to values obtained by other authors. The oldest age groups were 4+ in lakes Habbaniyah and Razzazah and 5+ in Lake Tharthar. The mean condition factor was 0.97, 1.05 and 1.09 in lakes Habbaniyah, Tharthar and Razzazah respectively. This species grew fastest

232 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

in Lake Tharthar. A decrease in length growth was noted in the second year of life and a decrease in body mass in the last years of life. The feeding ecology of this species was studied in the Shatt al Arab River. Aquatic plant parts and phytoplankton are food items but the vast bulk of material is sand grains and organic detritus, the former presumably ingested while searching for detrital food (but see below). Phytoplankton is made up of diatoms (50%), green algae (36%) and blue-green algae (14%), with diatoms the most abundant numerically. Plant parts are fragments of Vallisneria leaves and rarely leaves and stems of Potamogeton and Polygonum. Seasonal patterns of feeding in Rashdiyah Reservoir, Baghdad were examined. However, it should be noted that only 10 fish were examined for each month. Aquatic plant parts, organic debris and phytoplankton were dominant foods followed by zooplankton and aquatic insects. The diet was diverse, 48 species of Chlorophyceae, 60 species of Bacillariophyceae, 9 species of Myxophyceae and 3 of Euglenophyceae. Heavy feeding occurs in late winter, spring and fall with peaks in April and November. Empty stomachs were more common in summer. Diel feeding patterns in the same reservoir showed peaks at 0600 and 2100 hours. The feeding periodicity of this species in the Hammar Marsh evidenced the main food to be algae, mixed with incidental sand grains. There is a single feeding peak each day at 1730 hours and feeding stops at 0200 hours. This species is principally a day feeder. In another study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 76.49% algae and 20.3% diatoms with amounts of crustaceans and plants being less than 10% each, in the Hawizah Marsh 74.3% algae and 22.5% diatoms, with amounts of plants and crustaceans being less than 10% each, and in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh 75.8% algae and 20.0% diatoms with plants and crustaceans at less than 10% each. Young fish near Basrah were examined and organic detritus was found to be an important food followed by phytoplankton. The smallest fish were consuming eggs in large quantities. Feeding in the Hammar Marsh during the flood period showed small quantities of adult insects, chironomid larvae, trichopteran larvae, other insect larvae, molluscs and worms, while copepods, cladocerans, and rotifers are important foods. This variation from the diet studies reported above may be due to the flood not allowing diatoms and algae to settle out and become available as food. Typical foods and gut contents such as organic detritus, algae, diatoms, plant tissues and sand grains are also present. Sand grains may help in trituration of food and therefore are not an accidental inclusion. Fish from the Tigris River at Za’faraniyah had phytoplankton ranked first in the diet followed by detritus. Debris comprised more than 37% of stomach contents on the points method. Detritus was the main food in three Iraqi lakes. Detritus was 83.7% of the diet in Lake Tharthar, mineral parts (presumably sand) 12.7% and plants 3.6%. In Lake Habbaniyah, detritus was 73.0%, mineral parts 16.5% and plants 8.4%. In Lake Razzazah, detritus was 84.4%, mineral parts 14.7% and plants 0.9%. Detritus was the principal food year round with no seasonal variations. Feeding relationships among fishes in the Hammar Marsh found this species to be an herbivore, 39.6% of the diet being plants and algae, with 18% detritus.

Species Accounts 233

The spawning season generally in Iraq in the 1950s was the end of February to midMarch. In the Al-Daoodi Drain at Baghdad and the Hammar Marsh of southern Iraq spawning starts in March and continued through May. Mean number of eggs reaches 59,793, increasing with size and weight. In a study on the polluted Diyala River, all age group 1 fish were mature and females outnumbered males in age groups 2 to 6 although this may be due to sampling bias. Maturity at age 1 is reported in the Turkish Tigris River based on gonad development, with no spawning in the period August to February. A population of khishni in Mehaijeran Creek had fish ripe from January to March and females partly spent in April and spent in May. The fish spawned once. All males and females were mature at 16 cm in the Creek while females mature at 13 cm in the Hammar Marsh. Some males matured at 10.5 cm and some females at 10.6 cm in the Creek. Reproduction in the Hammar Marsh showed a prolonged breeding period from November to April during which two batches of eggs could be shed. Maturity is attained at the end of the first year of life for both sexes when they are about 10 cm total length, with all males mature at 16 cm and all females at 13 cm. Egg diameter is up to 0.75 mm. A study of reproductive biology in fish from the Tigris River at Al-Khadhmia north of Baghdad showed a sex ratio of 1:1.45 (male:female), significantly different from 1:1, a breeding season from December to March, sexual maturity in all fish longer than 10 cm total length, smallest mature male 10.4 cm, smallest mature female 10.6 cm, absolute fecundity 12,033-63,836 eggs and relative fecundity 1237 eggs/g. A relative fecundity of 359,873 to 756,118 eggs was recorded for fish of age groups 1+ to 3+ from lakes Habbaniyah, Razzazah and Tharthar in central Iraq. Mature eggs were found from January to May in one lake and from November to March in another, maturity being two months earlier in saltier water. For reproduction in lakes Tharthar and Habbaniyah both sexes achieved maturity in the first year of life at 14.2 cm. Spawning occurred in May and fecundity was 652-791 thousand eggs/kg body mass. Eggs are shed on, and adhere to, vegetation. Studies of this fish from the Qarmat Ali canal showed no significant change in the gonadosomatic index from October to December but an increase from 3.03 in December to 9.43 in January and 16.4 in February, decreasing subsequently suggesting a gradual spawning took place in March and into April. It is likely that this species spawns twice each year in the Zohreh River draining to the northern Arabian Gulf from Iran. This species has been well studied in Iraq for its parasite fauna as it is both a food fish and plays an important role in infecting farmed fishes in ponds. Along with Barbus luteus, it had the highest recorded number of parasite species in Iraq. This species is a favoured food of fish-eating birds as it is often found schooling in surface waters and it is very abundant. Economic importance. An important food fish in southern Iraq with 212,850 kg marketed at Basrah from October 1975 to June 1977. It forms about 29% of the total annual catches of freshwater fishes in southern Iraq and about 7.4% of the total annual catch for the whole country despite its small individual size. This species is recorded jumping into boats in Iraq when attracted by lights. It is important on fish farms in Iraq

234 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

where it competes for food with cultured carp. It could be farmed successfully because of its high growth rate. In the 1950s, the fishing season for this species was December-January (peaking in January) in rivers, and December-March (January) for lakes and marshes. This species is more sensitive to pollution than other Iraqi species tested, namely Barbus luteus, Cyprinus carpio, Carassius carassius (sic, probably C. auratus) and Gambusia affinis (sic, probably G. holbrooki). L. abu was also more sensitive to arsenic than these species and more sensitive than Barbus sharpeyi, B. xanthopterus, B. grypus and Ctenopharyngodon idella. This mullet has also been used to assess the impact of gas oil from oil spills in the Shatt al Arab River on ionic regulation, on the chloride cells and on the gills. It was found to be sensitive to this form of pollution and suitable as an indicator species. Conservation. A ban on fishing from mid-January to mid-May has been recommended during the spawning season and an increase in fishing net mesh size to 23.2 mm. Liza klunzingeri (Day, 1888) Common names. Maid; biah; biah zahbee; beyah zhabee. [Klunzinger’s mullet (keeled mullet and back keeled mullet as L. carinata)]. Systematics. Originally described from Bombay, India. Sometimes placed in the genus Chelon Rose, 1793. Arabian Gulf material was previously identified as Liza carinata (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1836). Key characters. The back has a keel formed from thickened and ridged predorsal scales. Morphology. First dorsal fin with 4 spines, second dorsal fin with 1 unbranched and 9 branched rays, anal fin with 3 spines and 9 branched rays, and pectoral fin with 15-17 branched rays and lacking, or having only, a rudimentary axillary scale. Lateral series scales 32-40. Scales are ctenoid with weak ctenii on the posterior margin. Mucous canals on the scales moderately long, double canals on some dorsal and a few flank scales. Adipose tissue extends over almost the whole iris. Mouth corner at a vertical from posterior nostril, tip of upper jaw extending back level with anterior eye rim or slightly behind this. Pyloric caeca 5. Gill rakers 46-62. Colour. Grey to greenish-grey on back, sides and belly silvery, cheeks and top of head golden, and numerous fine black spots on head. End of maxilla black. Dorsal, caudal and pectoral fins with fine black spots on the proximal halves. Upper pectoral fin rays and caudal fin margin blackish grey. Size. Attains 20.0 cm total length. Distribution. Found from the Red Sea to India, including the Arabian Gulf. Recorded from the Hammar Marsh and Shatt al Arab River as Liza carinata. Habitat. Found in coastal waters. This species (identified as L. carinata) showed a high degree of euryhalinity and osmoregulation and a high homeostasis ability, compared

Species Accounts 235

to the freshwater Liza abu, during its movements from marine waters at 35.8‰ to brackish waters at 4.5‰ Experiments show it can survive a range of 1.5-50.0‰ but dies at 60.0‰. Eggs of this species (as L. carinata) and L. subviridis were most abundant in the inner part of the Shatt al Arab River estuary in February with larvae most abundant in February and April. The temperature range for several sites was 12.5-22ºC and salinity 32-38‰. Temperature is the most important factor influencing spawning. Juveniles are found in the Shatt al Arab at Basrah, a nursery area, but are absent from January to April having returned to the sea for breeding. Temperatures in Kuwait Bay during spawning are 14-18ºC during the winter months, a situation mirrored by Acanthopagrus latus but not other species that begin to spawn in April. Biology. Unknown for fresh waters in detail. This species (as L. carinata) formed 9.5% of the Iraqi catch in the northwest Arabian Gulf. Catch rate range was 0.28-13.34 kg/h. The highest specific growth rate and best food conversion efficiency was found at a salinity of 15‰ under experimental conditions. This occurred when the energetic cost of osmoregulation was lowest in an isosmotic medium. The smallest mature male was 120 mm long and the smallest female 125 mm in fish from the northwest Arabian (= Persian) Gulf. The sex ratio usually favoured females. This species has been studied in Kuwait Bay from 1982 to 1999. The length-weight relationship was isometric for February-March and September-November. Seven age classes were recorded. Maximum condition factor was found in February-March and June-September, rarely extending to November. Females outnumbered males by 3 to 1, later by 2 to 1 in 1998-1999. The maximum gonadosomatic index (GSI) was observed from November to February for both sexes and changes in GSI could be predicted from transparency and dissolved oxygen concentration in combination with other physical parameters or individually from salinity or pH. Males reach maximum reproductive capacity at 13.1-17.0 cm and females at 14.1-18.0 cm. A logistic selection model showed

Liza klunzingeri

236 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

that 25% of fish 3.5 cm total length, 50% of fish 4.8 cm and 75% of all fish of 6.1 cm encountering the fishing gear (traps) were retained. All fish above 13 cm were retained. Two recruitment peaks were detected, one in May (13.5%) and one in September (17.5%) but after accounting for gear selection the recruitment strength was confined to September (37.8%). The exploitation rate was above the optimum. Growth was judged to be poor in these waters and was attributed to harsh and unstable estuarine conditions. In a study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 65.0% algae and 28.5% diatoms with plants and crustaceans at less than 10% each. Food items in juveniles at Basrah were organic detritus (58.1%) followed by phytoplankton (12.6%). Spawning of fish identified as L. carinata in captivity in Kuwait occurred between December and February and spawning occurred in the offshore areas near the mouth of the Zubayr Inlet and Shatt al Arab River estuaries at this time.  A peak gonadosomatic index was found in March for the northwest Arabian (= Persian) Gulf and one major spawning period from February to April. Large numbers of fry appear in Kuwait Bay from March onwards following February-March spawning, a later study emending this to a prolonged spawning season from November to March but with a single, total spawning. The spawning peak has shifted a month earlier than in previous studies. The mean fertilised egg diameter was 0.8 mm. Hatching took 36 hours at 23ºC. Transformation from larvae to juveniles began at 30 days and by 51 days after hatching all were transformed. Juveniles became young adults at day 88. Fecundity in Kuwait Bay reached 185,929 eggs. In marine waters of Khuzestan, Iran, the highest gonadosomatic index was found in December, the maximum absolute and relative fecundities being 183,045 and 2232 eggs respectively Economic importance. Caught by beach seines, gill nets and stake traps (hadra) in the northwest Arabian Gulf. The population in Kuwait Bay is overexploited. Conservation. This species needs to be carefully monitored, as it is part of a fishery. There is evidence that its spawning peak has shifted with consequent fishery management concerns and thus the stocks need to be re-examined regularly to set fishing limits. Traps used in the fishery in Kuwait Bay apparently have an adverse effect on recruitment and could be the cause of a depression in the stocks. Recruitment overfishing is occurring as the 50% selection length is only 4.8 cm TL for a species that reaches 20 cm. Short-lived species like this mullet usually breed before they reach half their life length but the catch is significant at a much smaller length. Liza oligolepis (Bleeker, 1859) Reported from Qurna on the Tigris and the Shatt al Arab River and Hammar Marsh. Presumably, a mis-identification since this species is regarded as a synonym of Liza parmata (Cantor, 1850) which has a west Pacific Ocean distribution. Fish identified in the

Species Accounts 237

literature as L. oligolepis were introduced to Lake Razzazah, a high salinity natural lake in Iraq from the Arabian Gulf in an attempt to establish a fishery. This material was a mix of L. subviridis and L. klunzingeri. Liza subviridis (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1836) Common names. Biah; maid; meid; biah akhter; beyah akhter. [greenback mullet, greenback grey mullet, silver mullet]. Systematics. Originally described from Malabar, India. Synonyms are Mugil dussumieri Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1836 and Mugil jerdoni Day, 1876. Sometimes placed in the genus Chelon Rose, 1793. Key characters. The preorbital bone does not occupy the whole space between the eye and upper lip as in all other mullets. Morphology. The head is wide and flattened with head length 23-27% of standard length. There is a well-developed adipose eyelid, covering about half of the iris, but this is absent in young fish. The lower lip has a weak to marked symphysial knob (authors differ) and both lips are thin. The upper jaw extends back on a level with the anterior nostril to the anterior eye rim. Upper jaw teeth are in several rows and ciliiform lower jaw teeth in one row. The preorbital bone is strongly notched anteriorly and only occupies three-quarters of the space between the eye and upper lip. Scales are regularly arranged and are dense on the second dorsal and anal fins. The second dorsal fin origin lies over the anterior half of the anal fin base. The pectoral axillary scale is rudimentary or absent. The pectoral fin does not reach back on a level with the first dorsal fin origin and is 7476% of head length.

Liza subviridis

238 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

The first dorsal fin has 4 spines, the second dorsal fin has 1 spine and 8-9, usually 8, soft rays and the anal fin has 3 spines and 8-9, usually 9, soft rays. Scales in lateral series 27-32. Transverse scales 10-11, usually 11. Gill rakers 41-62. Pyloric caeca 4-5. Colour. The back is dark to light green or greyish-green, the flanks silvery to white, and the belly white. There may be 3-7 blackish stripes along the flank but these may not always be obvious. The caudal fin is bluish and has a black margin, other fins are hyaline. Size. Attains 39.5 cm total length and 270 g. Distribution. Found in the Arabian Gulf and eastwards to India, China, northern Australia and Polynesia. Reported from the Shatt al Arab River and the Hammar Marsh. Found in a recent survey in the Main Outfall Drain at Suq ash Shuyukh. Records of Liza dussumieri from the Tigris River at Amara and Baghdad, the Euphrates River and the Shatt al Arab River, if correctly identified, are referred to this species. Habitat. This species lives in the sea, particularly in coastal waters, lagoons and estuaries, but regularly enters fresh water, being found in marshes, rivers and canals. This species is recorded as moving from fresh water to brackish regions to reproduce. It was found in oligohaline habitats such as Garma Creek and Saddam River from December to early March and adults migrated to the Zubayr Inlet in March and April to spawn. At a freshwater station on the Shatt al Basrah Canal with salinities up to 3.5‰, this species was found to be dominant, comprising 59.6% by number and 40.0% by weight. Eggs of this species and L. klunzingeri were most abundant in the inner part of the Shatt al Arab River estuary in February with larvae most abundant in February and April. The temperature range for several sites was 12.5-22ºC and salinity 32-38‰. Temperature is the most important factor influencing spawning. This was one of the more abundant species in the recovering Hammar Marsh of southern Iraq in 2005-2006 and in the marshes in the 1980’s. Biology. In the Shatt al Basrah Canal of southern Iraq, populations of this species are comprised of age groups 1 to 6 but most fish are in age groups 1 and 2. Age 2 dominates from February to April and age 1 from June to January. Females are slightly longer in each age group and have a longer life span than males. The oldest females are age 6 and 303 mm and the oldest males age 4 and 251 mm. Males are less numerous than females with a sex ratio 1.0:1.4. Maturity is attained at age 1 and the smallest mature male is 137 mm and the smallest mature female is 142 mm. The stock of this species in the Abdullah Inlet was slightly exploited during September 1989-August 1990. Annual growth of this species varied between studies in Iraq and this variation was attributed to differing Food items are algae, diatoms and detritus extracted from ingested mud and sand. Higher plants and copepods are also part of the diet in Iraqi waters. It is characterised as a detritivore in the northwest Arabian Gulf. In the Hammar Marsh, it is characterised as an herbivore, 75.2% of the diet being plants and algae. In another study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 80.84% algae and 15.66% diatoms with amounts of crustaceans and plants being less than 10% each.

Species Accounts 239

In Malaysian estuaries and coastal areas, this species was found to feed only on zooplankton when less than 12 mm standard length, becoming bottom feeding at 16-20 mm on zooplankton, diatoms and detritus and by 24 mm zooplankton was absent but filamentous algae was added where available. The proportion of the various food items varied with the locality. An Iraqi study was unable to locate eggs and larvae in fresh waters and adults probably leave the Shatt al Basrah Canal to spawn in the sea. However, other studies gave a reproductive season of February through April in the Shatt al Arab River, March to June in the offshore area near the mouth of the Zubayr Inlet and Shatt al Arab River, and April-June, with mature ova released in May, in the Zubayr Inlet. Male and female gonads are best developed in February to March and spawning is deduced to have occurred from March to May, possibly offshore in the Arabian Gulf. In Iraq, fry 27-40 mm in length are captured from April to June in fresh water. The adult mullet return to fresh water after spawning. Fecundity was 133,224-295,065 eggs for fish 182-243 mm total length and 56,400-323,000 for fish 171-261 mm total length. A maximum fecundity of 549,278 eggs with egg diameter up to 0.65 mm is recorded for Shatt al Arab River fish and 580-590,000 eggs for a large specimen from Hammar Marsh. Fecundity is somewhat lower than in other mullets but may be attributed to yearround spawning at some localities. Economic importance. This species forms part of coastal fisheries in shallow waters and is caught with a variety of nets, particularly seines, stationary traps, gill nets and cast nets. It forms a substantial part of brackish water fisheries in southern Iraq, being the most abundant species in estuaries, and economically the most important mullet. A catch of 35 t is reported in Abdullah Inlet, almost 6% of the marine catch. A value of 3.4% of the commercial catch is cited for this species with catch rates in the northwest Arabian Gulf of 0.15 kg/h in June to 0.75 kg/h in October. This species is potentially important in fish culture as it is herbivorous. Consequently, ponds can be fertilised inexpensively and plant food supplements such as rice bran and peanut meal can be given. Fish for stocking should be at least 30 mm standard length as their bottom feeding habit is then most suitable for pond culture. This species is characterised as a fatty fish in Iraq according to a lipid content 9-14% by wet weight of muscle in autumn. Conservation. Population numbers and trends are unknown so conservation requirements cannot be ascertained. As a food fish, it is liable to overexploitation and should be managed carefully.

240 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

FAMILY HEMIRAMPHIDAE Genus Hemiramphus Cuvier, 1816 and

Genus Hyporhamphus Gill, 1859 Hemiramphus and Hyporhamphus spp. Two records for Hemiramphus (sic) species were Hemiramphus gaimardi Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847 (a synonym of Hyporhamphus quoyi (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847 recorded from Al Fuhood Island in the Hammar Marsh and Hemiramphus xanthopterus Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847 (now placed in the genus Hyporhamphus) recorded from the Shatt al Arab River. These records may have referred to Hemiramphus marginatus (Forrskål, 1775) since the two species are not known from the Arabian Gulf. Records of H. xanthopterus may be Hyporhamphus limbatus (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847) or Hyporhamphus sindensis (Regan, 1905), both of which are known to enter fresh water; H. xanthopterus is known only from Vembanad Lake in Kerala, southwest India.

Genus Rhynchorhamphus Fowler, 1928 Rhynchorhamphus georgii (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847) Recorded in the literature from the Shatt al Arab River and Hammar Marsh, and in the latter as recently as 2006.

Species Accounts 241

FAMILY BELONIDAE Genus Strongylura van Hasselt, 1824 Strongylura strongylurus (van Hasselt, 1823) Recorded from the Shatt al Arab River and Hammar Marsh, but no records in recent surveys (2005-2006).

FAMILY CYPRINODONTIDAE The tooth-carps, killifishes or pupfishes are small fishes found in fresh, brackish and sea water. There are about 9 genera with about 105 species found in tropical to warm temperate climates almost worldwide. This family is characterised by a moderately elongate and compressed body, rather cyprinid-like but with jaw teeth (hence the common and scientific names), body and head covered with scales, no spines in the fins, no barbels, the mouth is very protractile and armed with comb-like teeth, the lower jaw is strong and robust as the dentary is expanded medially, gill membranes free from the isthmus, lateral line absent or reduced to points, caudal fin rounded or truncate, pectoral fins set low on the body (in contrast to Poeciliidae), dorsal and anal fins short, no adipose fin, no pyloric caeca, and no gonopodium (cyprinodonts are egg layers in contrast to the livebearer subfamily in the Poeciliidae). These fish can be maintained in aquaria, are very popular with aquarists, and can be kept in outdoor ponds in milder climates. Specific requirements where known are given under each species. Moderate to hard fresh water is used and for water with a total hardness less than 10dGH, sea salt can be added (about one teaspoon per 10 litres). Summer temperatures of 20-25°C are good and although higher temperatures make the fish more active, they also age the fish more rapidly. Winter temperatures below 20°C imitate nature and are recommended. Weekly partial water changes are suggested and live and frozen fish foods and even flake foods are eaten. Breeding occurs throughout the year in aquaria kept above 15°C, eggs are deposited on fine-leaved plants (thread algae, Java moss or yarn mops) or even on aquarium filter sponges and gravel. Egg development takes 8-20 days; fry take about 2 days to absorb their yolk sac and will then consume baby brine shrimp.

242 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Genus Aphanius Nardo, 1827 These tooth-carps are found around the shores of the Mediterranean, in Southwest Asia and as far as northeastern India and Somalia. There are about 11 known species. The genus Aphanius Nardo, 1827 has been used for these tooth-carps for many years. However, Lebias fasciata Valenciennes, 1821 was designated as the type species for Lebias Goldfuss, 1820, making Lebias a subjective senior synonym of Aphanius. On this basis, Lebias must be used rather than Aphanius but the type species designation is invalid. Since the designator could have chosen another species as type species, the change involves a large number of species and these species are threatened and listed in various legislations, a petition was put before the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature to suppress this use of Lebias and Aphanius is conserved. Literature on these Mediterranean and Southwest Asian fishes may appear under either of these generic names or under Cyprinodon Lacepède, 1803, the latter now restricted to American species. This genus is characterised by a thick oval body, large to moderate cycloid scales, the head flattened on top, a small, superior mouth with tricuspid teeth, the upper jaw bordered by the premaxillaries only, lateral line system present only on the head, dorsal fin positioned somewhat posteriorly with1-2 unbranched rays and 7-14 branched rays, anal fin rays 1-2 unbranched and 7-14 branched, dorsal and anal fins larger in males than in females, dorsal fin inserted opposite the anal fin origin (in contrast to Gambusia), and colouration of males and females distinct. Aphanius is the only genus in the family currently recognised in Iraq. However, derived members of the genus Aphanius have been recognised as `Aphanius’ without formally describing a new genus. One of the distinguishing features of `Aphanius’ is the reduction of cephalic sensory pores to neuromasts, a character found in A. mento in Iraq. A study of the phylogeny of Eurasian tooth-carps using mtDNA found a western Tethys Sea clade (all species except those listed below) with a middle Oligocene divergence into Iberian Peninsula and Atlas Mountains, and Turkey and Iran sections. Late Miocene orogenic events were correlated with a large amount of genetic differentiation in Turkey (and presumably Iran in isolated basins). An eastern Tethys Sea clade (dispar, ginaonis, mento, sirhani) had an Oligocene divergence into a freshwater clade inhabiting the Arabian Peninsula and neighbouring areas and a euhaline clade inhabiting coastal areas from Pakistan to Somalia. Speciation is predominately vicariant-based but ecological factors played a significant role. The mosquitofish (Gambusia) is a niche competitor and may well eliminate these tooth-carps. Generally, Aphanius prefers springs, lakes, marshes, sea shores and hot springs. Flowing water is usually avoided but they can be found near the source of springs flowing into salt lakes, constrained by hypersaline waters downstream. However, they are tolerant

Species Accounts 243

Aphanius sp.

of high salinities. They occur in schools but males are aggressive to other males. Males are brightly coloured, often striped, while females are more subdued. A related Mediterranean species is reputed to be ichthyootoxic but this has not been demonstrated for Iraqi species. These small fishes are used in the aquarium trade as they tolerate a wide range of temperatures and salinities and are particularly colourful. Reports of Aphanius sophiae (Heckel, 1849) from Iraq are erroneous as this species is restricted to an internal basin of Iran (the Kor River basin in Fars province). It is possible that an undescribed Aphanius species is to be found in southern Iraq and Iran but this requires further work to elucidate. Aphanius dispar (Rüppell, 1829) Common names. Harsun; batrikh; batrikh motakayer. [high-finned pupfish, Arabian killifish, mother of pearl fish]. Systematics. The type locality is the Red Sea. A new genus was proposed for this species, Aphaniops Hoedeman, 1951, based on the absence of a dermal sheath or genital pouch around the anterior anal fin rays, only 8-9 dorsal fin rays in contrast to 10-14 rays in Aphanius and 7-8 pelvic fin rays in contrast 5-7 rays. It has not found general acceptance. The type subspecies is found in Iraq. Although Aphanius dispar richardsoni (Boulenger, 1907) is reported from the Tigris River basin, it is limited to the Dead Sea valley of Israel and western Jordan (type locality a brine spring near Usdum, Dead Sea). Hybrids of A. dispar and A. mento have been obtained artificially in aquaria. An ancestor of A. dispar was present in the middle Miocene Transgression connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Indian Ocean. The mesohaline conditions, which developed in the Mesopotamian basin, were a good prerequisite for the development of A. dispar since, apart from some euryhaline species, there would be no competitors. A.

244 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Aphanius dispar

dispar spread from Mesopotamia through the Arabian Gulf to India and the Red Sea. During the Pleistocene, it colonised inland waters. Key characters. The colour pattern is distinctive. Morphology. Scales along the flank 24-35. Scales are squarish with an almost vertical anterior margin and protruding anterior corners, parallel dorsal and ventral margins and a rounded posterior margin with tiny teeth. The anterior margin has a small central protuberance with shallow indentations above and below or almost straight margins to each anterior corner. The exposed part of the scale has dimples rather than circuli. Circuli are few. The focus is subcentral posterior. There is no pelvic axillary scale. Total dorsal fin rays 7-11, usually 9-10, total anal fin rays 8-12, usually 10-11 (the number of unbranched rays in the dorsal and anal fins varies from 1-3), total pectoral rays 12-18 and total pelvic rays 6-8, usually 7. Vertebrae 24-29. Teeth are tricuspid with the central cusp concave at its tip and only slightly longer than the lateral cusps, although in some fish the tip is rounded. There are 12-20 teeth per jaw. Gill rakers 11-20, modally 1316, reaching the second adjacent raker when appressed. Some gill raker counts are difficult to make accurately as those at the anterior arch end are minute and those at the dorsal end are partially concealed in flesh. The gut is coiled. Chromosomes number 2n = 48. Males have longer fins than females and are more brightly coloured. The dorsal fin is twice as long in the male and reaches the caudal fin when appressed. When expanded it is widely flared and distinctive, as is the enlarged anal fin. Colour. Breeding males are brown-grey, grey or black-brown with iridescent bluewhite flank spots and white and brown to light orange or light blue, irregular, narrow bars. The head has blue and orange tinges and in particular, there is an orange spot on the operculum postero-dorsally. Lips are blue-white. The flank over the pectoral fin has electric blue spots. The anterior belly becomes blue with pearl spots. Scales have a dark margin. The dorsal fin is spotted light blue on a bright orange background and is barred. Barring may be irregular and in overall view in breeding males appears as speckling. Pectoral, anal and

Species Accounts 245

pelvic fins are lemon-yellow. The anal fin has barring on the posterior 4 rays in breeding males. The caudal fin has 2-3 dark and light blue alternating bars, the last bar being yellow. The bars are crescent-shaped, with concave side posterior. Males outside the breeding season are less brightly coloured with silvery on the flanks with a grey or black-brown back and irregular flank bars. Young have pale brown flank bars on the caudal peduncle. Females are brown-grey to silvery with 8-20 narrow flank bars and a dark-brown back. The flank bars are dark brown and may have a tinge of orange, the interspaces silvery. Flank bars may number as few as 7. Females also have the orange operculum spot and the blue spots over the pectoral fin. Female fins are hyaline. The peritoneum is brown to black. Size. Reaches 8.0 cm, but this may be an error. Fish from Ain Al Adhari, Bahrein reach 7.3 cm total length. Generally, fish in fresh water are smaller than marine specimens. Distribution. Found from Egypt, eastern Sudan and Ethiopia, and in the Red Sea through southern Southwest Asia and east to Rajasthan. Also in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. In Iraq recorded from the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the Hammar Marsh, Fallujah on the Euphrates, Lake Razzazah, and Badrah on the Iran border east of Baghdad. It may be more widely distributed in smaller water bodies, especially those with saline content than collections indicate but it does seem to be concentrated in the southern part of Iraq. Habitat. Highly tolerant of salinity, this species is found from the sea to fresh water habitats, including landlocked basins. Slightly saline waters in aquaria seem to discourage parasites. Salinities as high as 145‰ are tolerated and this fish can be moved abruptly from fresh to hypersaline water. Adaptation to high salinity waters involves a reduced osmotic permeability of the gills and an increase in transportation of sodium chloride by the intestine. Salinities above ~250% seawater seem to decrease swimming capabilities and routine activity rate, and a decrease in resting metabolic rate indicated stress. This species has been reported to survive in waters at 38.4°C in Oman and only began to die at 45.1-46.0°C. Fish survived up to 40°C in aquaria without acclimation. Fish are tolerant of a wide range of environmental variables in Israel as measured against the gonadosomatic index (GSI) and ovary maturation stages. The GSI was not affected by temperature over a range of 18 to 37°C while maturation increased from 18 to 27°C but remained the same between 27 and 37°C. For salinities between 0‰ and 56‰, differences were only found in mean GSIs at the two extremes and at 0‰, ovaries contained only primordial germ cells. GSIs and maturation stages only differed in feeding experiments when fish were deprived of food or fed at equal or greater than 1% of body weight per day. A decrease in photoperiod from 14L:10D (14 hours light, 10 hours dark) to 10L:14D caused a decrease in oocyte maturation stages and ovaries were no longer suitable for spawning. In aquaria, a pH of 7.5-8.5, temperatures above 27°C and water hardness greater than 200 p.p.m. and the addition 4 heaped tablespoons of kosher salt per ten gallons of water (38 litres) favoured reproduction. In Saudi Arabia 50% mortality was observed in 96 hours when fish were exposed to pH levels of 3.5-3.9.

246 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Aphanius dispar occurs in shallow water and among vegetation over sand, rock or soft detritus bottoms. Populations can survive in isolated sections of streams with little food because of histological changes in the stomach. In the United Arab Emirates, fish are reported to “hover” in the water column with the tail slightly curved to one side. Males and females from Iraq maintained in aquaria swam in separate schools. Biology. Sexual maturity in ideal conditions may be attained as early as 7 months but full size takes a year. For a given length, group males are heavier than females and condition factors are higher for males. This species has been characterised as an omnivorous surface feeder but does take bottom organisms. Food in southern Iraq was predominately filamentous algae and diatoms, with some copepods, rotifers and, in one instance, a small winged insect. In contrast, another report found a diet of beetles, ephemeropteran nymphs, rotifers, filamentous algae and plants in southern Iraq. Shatt al Arab River fish fed on amphipods and copepods (29.9%), organic detritus (11.6%), and algae and diatoms (7.1%). In aquaria, this species preferred animal foods in contrast to Aphanius mento that preferred plant foods. At Al-Khurj, Saudi Arabia, certain species of filamentous algae are selected over others, e.g. the blue-green alga Oscillatoria, the green algae Ulothrix, Spirogyra and Crucigenia, the desmid Cosmarium, and the diatoms Cocconeis, Diatoma, Navicula and Rhoicosphania, and algal spores and zygotes. This species was observed in Oman to pick at rocks and other substrates, take items at the surface, chasing small fish and eating insect larvae. Gut contents were mainly desmids and diatoms, some filamentous algae and rarely insect larvae and one snail. A female in spawning condition approached a male and appeared to feed on a plant or plant-encrusted rock in fish studied in Oman. Fluttering of the tail is recorded for the male fish. The male places his chin on her nape and 2-3 eggs are spawned rapidly. The female presses her vent against the plant or rock vertical surface, the male arches his back into an s-shape and presses his body and anal fin against hers, and clasps her with his dorsal fin. Eggs are released singly with a quiver. The time elapsed from chin on nape to egg release is as short as 1-2 seconds. Reproduction occurs throughout the day and throughout the year in Oman with 69% of females having ripe eggs (up to 41) in April-June. Spawning areas have some water flow and vertical surfaces of plants or algaeencrusted rocks. Males defend a territory about 30 cm wide against other males and will display with erect fins if approached. Parallel swimming, head to head confrontations, rapid circling, and flank bites were observed in Oman. Two males will swim and chase each other in circles until one swims away with fins depressed. Males will change their territory after one day defending it. Peak spawning in southern Iraq is April to July when only a small proportion of eggs in the single ovary are fully developed eggs. Up to 73 mature eggs are found in southern Iraq specimens with a diameter of 220 microns. In Saudi Arabia, mature and developing

Species Accounts 247

oocytes are observed in fish during the whole year. The egg cycle may be more than one year with spawning in March and April. On the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, spawning occurs from March to September with a peak in July and August. Maximum egg diameter is 2.2 mm and size at maturity for females is 30 mm total length. Iranian specimens have large eggs (2.0 mm) on 16 March but young fish (8.9 mm standard length) were caught on 26 November suggesting reproduction is almost year round. This fish will spawn in a few months of birth in aquaria. Three pairs of fish yielded about 40 eggs per day in aquaria and these eggs hatched in two weeks at 27°C. Economic importance. This species has been suggested as a control agent for filamentous algae. A 1920-1921 report thought that tooth-carps in southern Mesopotamia were a significant factor in lowering the malaria rate, presumably mostly this species. The efficiency of this tooth-carp was compared with the mosquitofish for mosquito control under experimental conditions. The tooth-carp is more efficient when males and females were together than mosquitofish since males of the latter expend time and energy defending territory. Mosquitofish are more active in pursuit of mosquito larvae than the tooth-carp when filamentous algae was present. Cloudy conditions and lower temperatures slow consumption, and both species prefer pupae to larvae of mosquitoes, with females taking more pupae than males. The tooth-carp could consume nearly twice the amount of mosquitoes than the mosquitofish over a given period. Overall, the tooth-carp compares favourably with the mosquitofish as a destroyer of the malaria-carrying mosquito. Under laboratory conditions, it was found that Aphanius dispar is more successful than the mosquitofish in preying on the third and fourth instars and on pupal stages of mosquitoes while the mosquitofish, with a smaller relative mouth size, is more successful on the first two instars. Small fish of both species eat first instars exclusively. However Aphanius dispar eats more second instar larvae under a vegetation cover since the larger Aphanius are more capable of penetrating shallow water than mosquitofish. Aphanius dispar occurs in shallower water and among more vegetation than the open water mosquitofish. The two species can be used to complement each other in control of mosquitoes. This species eats mosquito larvae in water storage tanks in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Fifteen fish consumed all larvae at a mean density of 5/100 sq cm water surface area in a tank 3 by 2 m in a day. One fish, 5.2 cm long, ate 61 mosquito larvae. In Oman, fish were fed mosquito larvae in the presence of abundant algae as an alternative food. An average of 96 larvae were eaten each day. Conservation. Gambusia affinis has a wider range of temperature tolerance than this species and is better suited for a desert habitat, e.g. in Saudi Arabia, and presumably for some habitats in Iraq. The exotic Gambusia is therefore a threat to A. dispar. The utility of this species in mosquito control in smaller water bodies of Iraq, where it also occurs naturally, could be explored. This species in aquaria ate mosquito larvae “eagerly” compared to “very eagerly” for Gambusia holbrooki and “not eaten” for Aphanius mento.

248 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Aphanius mento (Heckel, 1843) Common names. Batrikh qabras. [Persian pupfish, Persian minnow, Black Persian minnow, Persian killie]. Systematics. Lebias Cypris Heckel, 1843 is a synonym. The type locality for both Lebias mento and Lebias cypris is “Mossul”, presumably in the Tigris River This species has been placed in the genus ‘Aphanius’, i.e. distinct from true Aphanius without a naming a new genus. Based on an mtDNA study, this species diverged from the ancestor of the A. dispar clade at an early date, 26.87±1.31 MYA. The ancestor of mento probably invaded the northern perimeter of the Arabian plate as it was abutting Laurasia some time after the separation of their eastern and western clades of Aphanius (see above), before the closing of the Tethys Sea. It later spread through the present-day Tigris-Euphrates and into the Levant and southern Turkey. Hybrids of this species and A. dispar were obtained artificially in aquaria. Key characters. The adult colour pattern is distinctive and dorsal fin ray counts are usually higher than in A. dispar. Morphology. Scales along side of body 23-28, total dorsal fin rays 9-14, usually 12-14, total anal fin rays 9-13, pectoral rays 12-16, and pelvic rays 4-6, usually 5. Flank scales are squarish to a vertical oval. The former shape has a vertical anterior margin that may be wavy or slightly convex, upper and lower anterior corners rounded but squarecut, dorsal and ventral margins parallel, and the posterior margin rounded. The oval scales have all margins rounded. The focus is central to subcentral posterior, circuli are fine although coarser on the posterior field, and radii are restricted to the anterior field

Aphanius mento

Species Accounts 249

and are almost horizontal and parallel. There is no pelvic axillary scale. Total gill rakers 11-15, rakers being spinulose and reaching beyond the adjacent raker when appressed. Vertebrae 25. Teeth are tricuspid with a long and pointed central cusp. There are 1416 teeth on the lower and 10-12 on the upper jaw. The gut is s-shaped. Chromosome number 2n = 44 or 48. Colour. Adult, breeding males are a dark blue-black to dark brown or almost black with iridescent blue-white to silvery spots regularly-arranged on the fins as curved lines, and irregularly on the body (sometimes as irregular vertical bars and sometimes the spots are vertically elongate). The edges of the gill cover are orange-red. Male colour fades in low light conditions and in winter males have silvery flanks with a dark brown back. Spots are silvery-blue on the upper flank and are not as numerous as in the spawning male. Females are grey-brown or grey-white to silvery with large golden blotches or silvery to blue spots and dark dots. Scales along the mid-flank usually have a dark border. Fins in females are hyaline. Body colour is reportedly heightened in brackish water. The peritoneum is silvery with dense but fine melanophores. Size. Reaches 6.0 cm. Distribution. Found in the Orontes (= Asi) and Tigris-Euphrates basins, the Levant in coastal and Dead Sea basins, western Jordan, and in southern Turkey in Mediterranean basins as well as in central Turkey. Tigris-Euphrates records are relatively rare. The species was described from Mosul in northern Iraq and there are records from Baghdad, the region around Basrah, the Shatt al Arab River, in the Hammar Marsh, west of Karbala, the Hawizah Marsh and possibly Lake Razzazah. Habitat. This species has been reported to survive in waters up to 38°C and as low as 0°C. pH at 7.0-8.5 has been reported as ideal for aquaria maintenance. Aquarists report it as a robust species favouring hard and alkaline water with some salt added. It is considered to be quarrelsome in aquaria like other Aphanius and males are very aggressive. It inhabits fresh or slightly brackish water of springs, streams and lakes, usually near shore where males establish territories in vegetation. It generally prefers habitats dense in vegetation. Biology. Life span is about 3 years with maturity in aquaria at 4-6 months. The condition factor increases with increase in length in females and decreases in males. Filamentous algae and diatoms were the most important foods in southern Iraq in one study while, in contrast, another study in the same area reported a diet of beetles, ephemeropteran nymphs and algae. Aquarium specimens prefer meaty foods such as brine shrimps to flake foods but flake food is taken. Curiously, a study of southern Iraqi fish in aquaria found this species to prefer plant food. Males approached food items individually and prevented other fish from taking the food. Females were also solitary though less aggressive than the males. However, Gambusia holbrooki out-competed male A. mento for food, on one occasion even snatching a Gambusia embryo from the mouth of an A. mento. Spawning in aquaria has been studied. A dominant male is more deeply and richly coloured than other males. The dominant male defends a spawning territory, fighting other males. Males will attack tadpoles and beetles up to three times their own body

250 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

weight. Males will defend separate spawning mops if these are made available in aquaria. The dominant male will pursue a female and places his larger dorsal fin over her back. Several spawnings will follow and females will spawn with more than one male. Spawning can occur near the surface. Peak spawning in southern Iraq is April to June when only a small proportion of eggs in the single ovary contained fully developed eggs. However, another study stated that it breeds in southern Iraq in May-July so there may be repeated spawnings. There are up to 71, highly-adhesive eggs of 170 microns diameter. Aquarium spawned eggs hatch in 7-14 days, depending on temperature, 10 days at 25°, 3 days in the 80s°F, or 6-7 days in the low 70s°F (accounts vary). Egg production was found to be higher in aquaria when the equivalent of seven tablespoons of salt was added per gallon at a water temperature of 25°C. A minimum of 20 eggs per day were produced. Economic importance. This species is an aquarium fish with breeding details given in the popular literature. The species is hardy and fry are easily raised, given large enough tanks and an easily defensible area for the male to guard eggs. This species will prey on mosquito larvae in a laboratory situation and has potential in control of this vector of malaria, at least in vegetated habitats. Conservation. Distribution, population numbers and biology need to be worked out, such that its conservation status can be assessed.

FAMILY POECILIIDAE Poeciliids, including the livebearers, are found in fresh and brackish waters from the eastern United States south through the Caribbean to northeastern Argentina, and in Africa. There are about 37 genera with about 304 species and one species of livebearer has been widely introduced around the world as a control agent for malaria and is found in Iraq. This family is characterised by an anteriorly rounded and posteriorly compressed body and a depressed head, large cycloid scales on the head and body, supraorbital pores with neuromasts in fleshy grooves, a small, terminal mouth with the lower jaw projecting, teeth incisor-like or villiform on the jaws, gill membranes free from the isthmus, no spiny fin rays, a small dorsal fin, pectoral fins set high on the side (in contrast to Cyprinodontidae), anterior pelvic fins, no adipose fin, and the anal fin in males is developed into a copulatory organ with rays 3-5 modified while females have a rounded anal fin (in livebearers only, the species found in Iraq, in contrast to Cyprinodontidae). The gonopodium is used for transferring sperm packets into the female. It is moveable to the side or forward to allow copulation to occur. The sperm packets release sperm when placed in the female and some can be stored for future use. Details of gonopodium anatomy are important in identifying and classifying species. The gonopodium is composed primarily of the third, fourth and fifth anal rays with various hooks, serrae and spines. Young are born alive, a condition known as ovoviviparity where the eggs develop and hatch in the mother. Livebearers are found in habitats from mountain streams to

Species Accounts 251

brackish coastal marshes and river mouths. Food is mostly encrusting algae and the associated, small invertebrates. Males tend to be smaller than females and more brightly coloured. These colours are best seen during the courtship display. Some species are important in the aquarium business, such as the guppy and swordtail, while the mosquitofish has been used worldwide as a predator on aquatic mosquito larvae, the adult fly being a carrier of malaria. They have also been used extensively in genetics research, research on tumours and in immunology. Some livebearers are all-female species and egg development is stimulated by spermatozoa from another species, without any genetic contribution. Young are then genetically identical to the mother. This unusual form of reproduction is called gynogenesis. Others have superfetation where eggs are at different developmental stages within the mother and are born over a period of several days rather than all at once.

Genus Gambusia Poey, 1854 This genus is characterised by large scales, short dorsal and anal fins, the anal fin in males anteriorly placed and modified into a long intromittent organ (or gonopodium), dorsal fin inserted behind the anal fin origin (in contrast to Aphanius), and dorsal and caudal fins are spotted. Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard, 1853) Gambusia holbrooki was once considered to be a subspecies of this species. It is possible that some populations in Iraq consist of true G. affinis, however this remains to be determined and identification of these taxa may be confused. Gambusia holbrooki Girard, 1859 Common names. Gambuzi; zoory; zurry. [mosquitofish; eastern mosquitofish (for holbrooki, western mosquitofish for affinis); plague minnow in reference to its ecological impact]. Systematics. Gambusia holbrooki was originally described from eastern Florida and South Carolina, U.S.A. Eastern and western mosquitofish are distinguished in the U.S.A. based on morphology, biochemistry and distribution. However, extensive hybridization occurs in the native habitat and the composition of all the introduced Iraqi populations

252 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Gambusia holbrooki

has not been studied. Introduced populations worldwide are generally referred to the taxon holbrooki. Key characters. The related sailfin mollie has more dorsal fin rays (10-18). Males are easily recognised by the anal fin rays 3-5 being specially modified into an elongate gonopodium for intromittent fertilisation. G. holbrooki has 8 dorsal and 11 anal total fin rays while G. affinis has 7 dorsal and 10 anal total fin rays. Morphology. Dorsal fin with 5-9 rays, usually 7 (with the last two counted as one), anal fin with 7-11 rays, usually 10, and pectoral fin with 11-14 rays. Lateral scale rows number 26-33. In males, the posterior edge of the joints of the first elongate anal fin ray is serrated (smooth in affinis), the cusps of the posterior branch of the second elongate ray are short and almost straight (long and curved in affinis), and the apical hook of the posterior branch of this ray is short with 2-3 joints (very long with 4-6 joints). Vertebrae 28-34. The karyotype is 2n = 48. Differences have been found in the characters vertebrae and pectoral fin rays between fish from Baghdad and Basrah but whether this was environmentally or genetically caused could not be ascertained. Males reach a smaller adult size than females (see below). Males have the end of the anal fin base well ahead of the beginning of the dorsal fin. Females lack a gonopodium and the end of the anal fin is under the beginning of the dorsal fin. In addition, various morphometric characters differ widely. Colour. Males are translucent grey to light olive with a blue, green or purplish sheen on the sides and opercle. The back is olive-brown to yellowish-brown and the belly silvery or yellowish. A dark bar passes through the eye. The iris has a purple sheen. The flanks may appear spotted as pigment margins the scales to form a diamond pattern on the body. Dorsal and caudal fins are spotted and a dusky, light tan but other fins are clear. Adult females have a large, triangular, bluish-purple blotch on the lower flank behind the pectoral fin (called the gravid spot). The black peritoneum can be seen through the body wall.

Species Accounts 253

Size. Reaches 63.0 mm in females and 45.4 mm in males, perhaps to 8 cm in the largest females. Distribution. The natural distribution is from New Jersey southward to northern Mexico but it has been introduced to all continents except Antarctica. This species is an exotic, originating in eastern and southern North America and is introduced in Iraq for control of the aquatic larvae of malaria-carrying mosquitoes. The source of the stocks is unknown. It is recorded from the southern marshes, the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, the Shatt al Basrah Canal, the Tigris and Diyala rivers, Al-Khawsar River passing through Mosul, and Lake Razzazah. It is probably more widely distributed in suitable habitats but not always recorded. Habitat. Mosquitofish are normally inhabitants of clear and weedy streams and ditches, weedy margins of large rivers and lakes, marshes and brackish coastal lagoons, usually over mud or sand bottoms. In Iraq, they are found in rivers, streams, lakes, canals and on fish farms. They prefer more open waters with less vegetation than Aphanius dispar, for example. Males and females in aquaria swam together in a mixed school in contrast to the sexually segregated schools of Aphanius dispar. In the Anzali Mordab of northern Iran, dense schools are found in surface waters of areas covered by submerged and floating vegetation while deeper water is fishless. One study of G. affinis, but probably this species, found it to have a complete tolerance of 10.25‰ sea water and 90% of fish survived 20.5‰ for 24 hours and even as high as 58‰. This species has been reported to survive in waters up to 42°C and as low as 0.5°C. Summer air temperatures of 45°C and winter temperatures several degrees below zero are survived as long as the water is deep enough. Upper and lower thermal tolerance increases with body size in acclimated fish. At temperatures below 15-18°C, mosquitofish grow but do not mature or breed. They prefer a temperature of 31°C. In Lake Razzazah, this species dominated the ichthyofauna, constituting 39.3% of all fish caught. Muddy and polluted conditions, acid to alkaline water, and dissolved oxygen less than 1 mg/l are survived by this species. pH range survived is 4.46-10.2 and dissolved oxygen levels as low as 0.2-0.4 mg/l as long as water surface access is available. They can take advantage of the oxygen rich surface layer as they position their bodies with flattened head and back immediately adjacent to the air-water interface. Their success in Iraq and other waters worldwide is attributed to the following factors:- 1) abundant in original range, 2) polyphagous, 3) short generation time, 4) a single female can colonise since livebearer, 5) broad physiological tolerances, 6) closely associated with man, 7) high genetic variability, 8) specialized reproduction with moderate numbers of advanced young several times a year, and 9) high aggression levels. Biology. The condition factor in Iraq slowly decreases as length increases in the male and vice versa for females. Numbers of each sex in a population vary between localities, and mostly females predominate over males. Males are more sensitive to temperature extremes, starving and overcrowding and this will affect such things as size and age at maturity. Males do not grow much after sexual maturity is attained but females have indeterminate growth,

254 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

although growth slows as energy is put into egg production. In the laboratory under ideal conditions, sexual maturity can be attained in 3 weeks. Life span seldom exceeds 15 months, although the range is 6-24+ months depending on when in the spawning season the fish was born. Fish born late in the year may not mature until the following year. Growth to maturity can be so rapid that a 50-fold increase in numbers can occur over a 10-week period. Densities may reach over half a million fish per hectare. Under ideal conditions, it is theoretically possible for 10 pregnant females to produce 5 million fish in 6 months. Generally, this species is regarded as an opportunistic omnivore, sometimes as an aggressive predator and, for southern Iraqi fish, a carnivore, feeding on aquatic and terrestrial insects. In aquaria, it fed in schools. Females are cannibals. Food includes diatoms, algae, worms, crustaceans including zooplankton, insects, snails, other fishes and amphibian larvae. The mosquitofish is dependent on sight to detect and attack prey. Selection of zooplankton can lead to an increase in phytoplankton numbers (and thus affect water quality) and to changes in size frequencies of zooplankton populations. Food is taken at or near the surface and by grazing on plants and rocks. The diet of this species in southern Iraq was found to be aquatic and terrestrial insects including spiders, ants, beetles and mites, and filamentous algae. Diet in Iran was molluscs, aquatic insects and various forms of mosquito larvae. Up to 94 pupae or 104 mosquito fourthstage larvae were eaten per day by this fish and resulted in effective clearance of springs and marshes. Large-sized mosquitofish took more than 500 second instar mosquito larvae per day and medium- and large-sized mosquitofish consumed 22-64 fourth instar larvae per day in an Iraqi study under laboratory conditions. Predatory behaviour on the young of other species of fish has been recorded and females attack other fishes, shredding fins and sometimes causing mortality. G. affinis (presumably G. holbrooki) is reported to have a brood size up to 48 from Baghdad specimens and 51 from the Basrah area. The smallest reproductive female was 1.7 cm total length. Weight is the most accurate predictor of brood size. In Iran, females mature and reproduce within 2 months at temperatures above 15°C. In less favourable conditions, this may take 8-10 months. A minimum photoperiod of 12.5-13 hours is necessary to stimulate reproduction although year-round temperatures above 20°C can offset this light requirement. About 17 days after fertilisation, the female gives birth to as many as 428 live fish over a period of about 1 month after 3-8 weeks gestation. Eggs are up to 1.8 mm in diameter when mature and embryos are about 6-8 mm at birth. Each fertilisation can give 2-3 broods and each female can produce up to 9 broods during her life, although 2-5 is more usual. The breeding season extends from April to November in favourable conditions, May to September in more temperate conditions. Several months pass between successive spawnings. The young are protected within the female and are independent when born, with resulting low mortality. Environmental breeding requirements are simple and with low mortality results in the successful spread of this exotic.

Species Accounts 255

The small male approaches the female from behind and with a rapid motion inserts his gonopodium tip into the female. The gravid spot is a releasing stimulus. It indicates a receptive female and is a target for the male gonopodium. Sperm are transferred in a spermatophore. During mating, the gonopodium is angled forward at 140-150°. Most males copulate without courtship. When courtship occurs, it involves the male assuming an s-shaped position with its body and vibrating in front of, or at the side of, the female. Males are aggressive and dominate smaller males to restrict access to females. Females may be inseminated by several males and sperm can be stored to be used up to 10 months later. A single transplanted female can therefore populate a new habitat. Economic importance. Introduced widely to combat malaria by consuming the aquatic larvae and pupae of the carrier mosquito. However to be effective, this fish must have aquatic plants cleared from its habitat. The mosquitofish is also a predator on the eggs and young of other, native fishes, a competitor for food, and it alters ecosystems by greatly reducing rotifer, crustacean and insect populations allowing phytoplankton to increase dramatically. Native species might well be more effective predators on mosquito larvae. A study of the control of this species as larvae on Iraqi fish farms found potassium permanganate, copper sulphate, acriflavine and malachite green to be effective. Gambusia may favour schistosomiasis, a human parasite, by altering the ecology of fresh waters, perhaps by reducing the numbers of natural predators on vectors of this parasite. It is considered a pest by fish farmers. Also used as a research species and sometimes seen in aquaria. In Iraq, it has been used to study the toxicity of the agricultural insecticide Ekatin 25 to fish and tolerance to mosquito larvicides. Conservation. One of the most widespread fish in Iraq and, as an exotic, not in need of any protection. However, this distribution undoubtedly affects the conservation status of native species. It tends to oust native tooth-carps.

Genus Poecilia Bloch & Schneider 1801 This genus is characterised by large scales, long dorsal and short anal fins, the anal fin in males anteriorly placed and modified into a long intromittent organ (or gonopodium with details of spines and hooks diagnostic), dorsal fin inserted behind the anal fin origin (in contrast to Aphanius), and various osteological characters. It is found from the southeastern United States south to Rio de la Plata in South America. There are about 25 species. The species established in Iraq is tentatively identified as the sailfin mollie. The black mollie, Poecilia sphenops Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1846, and the guppy, Poecilia reticulata Peters, 1859, were also bred on the fish farms at Abu Al Kasib south of Basrah and may become established.

256 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Poecilia latipinna (Lesueur, 1821) Common names. None. [sailfin mollie] Systematics. Formerly in the genus Mollienesia Lesueur, 1821. Key characters. The related mosquitofish has fewer dorsal fin rays (7-8). Morphology. The head is small and flattened with an upturned mouth. The caudal peduncle is deep and the tail fin is rounded. Dorsal fin rays 12-18 in males, 10-12 in females. Anal fin with 7-9 rays, modified into a gonopodium in males. Pectoral rays 1113 and pelvic rays 6-7. Lateral scale rows 23-30. Adult males develop a sail-like dorsal fin; mature females have a slightly enlarged dorsal fin. Breeding males may take on a greenish-blue colour. The male dorsal fin is dotted black on blue with an orange-red to yellowish margin. A reddish orange spot is centered on the upper half of the caudal fin in males. Colour. Some of the fish caught in June and July 2006 in Iraq were black (presumably ornamental black mollies) while others were greyish to silvery with a light green tinge. Naturally, coloured fish are light grey to pearly on the flank scales over a brownish to bluish background with an olive-brown to dark green back. Up to 9 flank stripes are made up of fine red, blue or green dots. The rear part of the flank has 6-7 dark bands. The caudal fin may be margined with black. Melanistic and speckled forms are known in the wild. Young fish have the scales outlined by pigment giving a cross-hatched effect. Size. Males attain 10.0 cm and females 15.0 cm. Distribution. The natural distribution is from North Carolina to the Yucatan, Mexico but this species has been widely bred for aquaria and introduced accidentally

Poecilia latipinna

Species Accounts 257

worldwide. Mollies, believed to be this species, are recorded from the east Hammar Marsh (N. A. Hussain, in litt., 31 July and 8 December 2006) and the Shatt al Arab River from Abu Al Kasib to Qurna as escapees from aquarium culture ponds south of Basrah at Abu Al Kasib. The fish were bred in small rivers and irrigation ditches, separated from tidal flow by a wire mesh barrier. Tidal flow was used for water exchange. In about 2001, a flood breached the ditches and swept these species into the Shatt al Arab. They were bred for the local market and export to Jordan and possibly Syria. Habitat. This species prefers warmer temperatures than the mosquitofish. It is euryhaline and will breed in brackish water and live in sea water. The dorsal mouth enables it to take advantage of the oxygenated surface film where water bodies are depleted in oxygen. It is found in coastal waters, ditches, canals, ponds, streams and marshes. It may lie under floating vegetation or near structures in order to minimise the chance of being observed by predators. Biology. Adult females grow 2-3 times faster than males although some males grow as fast as females. The greater the population number, the smaller the males. Most males live less than one year. Adult females are more numerous in a population than males, even though the sex ratio at birth is 1:1. Males are presumable more likely to be spotted by predators because of their brighter colouration and enlarged dorsal fin and their hyperactive breeding may reduce their resistance to environmental variations. Males can die young without adversely affecting the species survival because females can store sperm for months. Food is algae, small crustaceans and aquatic insects. Large fish eat more plant material. Reproduction can occur in peaks such as May-June and August-September in Florida. Up to 160 young are born, usually after 8-10 weeks gestation. A single female may give birth on multiple occasions throughout the year. Higher temperatures shorten the interval between brood production, to as little as 21 days, so potentially population numbers can increase rapidly (as was seen between June and July 2006 in Iraq). Males are sexually hyperactive and can inseminate a large number of females in a short period of time - called suicidal reproduction. Females respond to male courtship displays only as virgins or shortly after parturition. Males can recognise that females are not virgins by gonopore nibbling, sensing by chemical means. Economic importance. An important species in the aquarium trade worldwide, and also in Iraq, with various colour varieties such as chequered, leucistic, albino, speckled, marbled black, jet black and golden ones. In their natural habitat this species may help to control mosquito larvae and pupae and hence malaria. Conservation. None required as this species is an exotic. A single pregnant female can easily colonise new areas as she carries sperm and gives birth to live young. The spread of this species in Iraq should be documented and its interactions with native species. 

258 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

FAMILY MASTACEMBELIDAE The spiny eel family is found principally in fresh waters of tropical Africa and eastwards to Korea and Malaysia. There are about 5 genera and about 73 species. Maximum length is less than 1 m. The family is characterised by an very elongate, compressed or sub-cylindrical body, minute cycloid scales or body naked, a non-protractile mouth, gill opening a slit, an elongate snout with a sensitive tip flanked by tubular anterior nostrils, the posterior nostrils are hence far to the rear, long dorsal and anal soft fins (30-131 rays), dorsal soft fin preceded by usually numerous isolated spines (9-42), anal fin preceded by 2-3 spines, pectoral fin present with 12-27 rays but pelvic fin absent, caudal fin short and confluent with the dorsal and anal fins or only separated narrowly, 60-110 vertebrae, no pseudobranchiae, 2 pyloric caeca, and swimbladder present. Some species are food fishes and they regularly appear in the aquarium trade as they are brightly coloured with distinctive patterns. They may burrow in mud and even survive some drying in ponds through their air-breathing ability. Their eel-like shape is reflected in a wriggling behaviour when handled and some are known to move backwards to impale the handler. They are found at high altitudes as well as in lowlands, in both still and running waters, often in rocky crevices or in vegetation near banks, and they emerge particularly at night to feed on prey. The rostral appendage is used to detect the prey by touch and the prey is rapidly inhaled.

Genus Mastacembelus Scopoli, 1777 This spiny eel genus is found from the Levant to Southeast Asia. There is 1 species in Southwest Asia. The genus is characterised by a moderate to large size, an elongate and compressed body, inferior mouth with a narrow cleft, small eyes, the absence of eye spots on the soft dorsal fin, the absence of striations under the snout, preopercle spiny or not at its posteroventral corner, preorbital spine present, scales minute and cycloid, elongate swimbladder, lateral line present, minute jaw and palate teeth, and a rounded caudal fin. Mastacembelus mastacembelus (Banks and Solander in Russell, 1794) Common names. Salbouh abu-el-sian, salbu-al-sayan or saebouh abou siyan; abu salambah; marmaritch or marmarij at Mosul.

Species Accounts 259

[Mesopotamian spiny eel]. Systematics. The type locality is the Kowick River, Aleppo (= Quwayq River, Halab, Syria). Ophidium Simack Walbaum, 1792 (non-binomial), Rhynchobdella haleppensis Bloch and Schneider, 1801 and Mastacembelus syriacus Gronow in Gray, 1854 are synonyms. Mastacembelus aleppensis Günther, 1861 is an unjustified emendation of haleppensis. Key characters. The eel-like body with 30-35 short, sharp dorsal spines, long soft dorsal and anal fins and the unique flexible snout flanked by tubular nostrils distinguish this species from all other Iraqi fishes. Morphology. The mouth gape extends back as far as the anterior eye margin or somewhat forward of this point. The posterior nostril is slit-like. Soft dorsal rays 68-90, soft anal rays 70-90 after 3 spines, pectoral rays 19-24. The penultimate spine in the dorsal fin is the longest and the central anal spine is the longest. Total vertebrae 86-87. Scales minute but covering the whole body, under the eye, below the posterior nostril and between this nostril and the maxilla. Each scale has a central to anterior focus with radii on all fields and an oval shape. There is a strong preorbital spine under the eye, present in some fish but concealed under the skin or absent in others. Teeth form broad bands in both jaws with the outermost teeth the largest. There are no gill rakers but spinulose patches lying flat on the arch. The gut is an elongate s-shape. The structure of the elongated eye, typical of streamlined forms, has been described based on Iraqi specimens. The regular, mosaic pattern of the retina is associated with fishes that search for their food and the double cone structure may be associated with detection of moving prey.

Mastacembelus mastacembelus

snout and spines enlarged

260 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Colour. The body is blotched and barred, often forming a reticulate pattern, or a series of mid-flank blotches most evident posteriorly and sometimes running together as a stripe anteriorly. Flank blotches may form up to 17 bars running from the dorsal to the anal fin across the flank. The back is blackish to brown, olive, greyish or blue-grey, the lower flank is spotted yellow or is yellow overall and the belly is white to yellowish. A series of about 20-24 black to blackish-brown, oval spots ringed with a lighter brown follow a dark, broad but irregular stripe on the head and anterior back in the mid-line. Dorsal, anal and caudal fins are yellowish with the dorsal and caudal fins finely barred and the anal fin continuing the pattern on the adjacent body. The anal fin may be almost immaculate. The soft dorsal fin may have vermiculations rather than bars. The pectoral fins are yellowish and are finely barred. The peritoneum is brownish, with numerous fine melanophores. Small fish (about 7.7 cm total length) can be an almost uniform grey-brown to brown-green, with yellowish brown on the fins and the tail region, and fin spots are dark to absent. There is a thin bar extending vertically down or obliquely back from the eye. Size. Reaches 58.4 cm total length, probably larger to almost 1 m. A maximum weight of 1 kg is cited for Iraqi lakes and fish up to 55 cm are known from the recovering southern marshes (2005-2006 studies). Distribution. Found in the Quwayq, Orontes (= Asi) and Tigris-Euphrates basins. In Iraq recorded from the southern marshes, large rivers such as the Shatt al Arab River and its tributaries, Tigris, Euphrates, Little and Great Zabs and Diyala, in lakes such as Habbaniyah Tharthar and Razzazah, and in reservoirs such as the Dukan and Derbendikhan. Habitat. This species is found in both lotic and lentic environments and on fish farms. Mastacembelids usually lurk in rock crevices or among stumps of plants near the bank. They may be able to survive desiccation by burying themselves in mud. They are not commonly caught with nets and may be mostly nocturnal in habits. This species is very common in pollution-enriched water and in areas under human influence, such as the lower reaches of rivers and near cities. There it is more common than in higher, pristine waters. Biology. In waters of southern Iran life span was up to 6 years although most fish were 3 years or younger. Females grew rapidly to age 3, after which annual growth decreased. The flexible snout is used for sniffing out food but the eye structure suggests a visually feeding fish also. Food in the Hawizah Marsh in 2005-1006 was 55.0% shrimps and 45.0% fish and in the Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish) Marsh entirely fish. Food is also assumed to include other invertebrates. Other spiny eel species are known to eat fish eggs and fry. Reproduction is unknown but fish taken on 26 November in Iran had small but developing eggs, suggestive of spring spawning. Predators might find this species difficult to swallow. The row of dorsal spines is very sharp and can severely lacerate the hand when this fish is picked up carelessly. Economic importance. As early as 1794, Alexander Russell reported that this fish was “found in great abundance” and “esteemed a lighter and more delicate food” than the eel at Aleppo (= Halab, Syria), but it does not seem to be eaten in Iraq. Later, Johann

Species Accounts 261

Jakob Heckel in 1846 gave the common name “englisi” because it was highly prized by Europeans at Aleppo. Foreign soldiers have caught this species by angling at Baghdad. Conservation. No studies of numbers of this species in Iraq have been undertaken. It is not a regular food item and does not appear to be under threat.

FAMILY PLATYCEPHALIDAE Genus Platycephalus Bloch, 1795 Platycephalus indicus (Linnaeus, 1758) Reported from the Shatt al Arab River and the Hammar Marsh, but no recent records during surveys in 2005-2006.

FAMILY SILLAGINIDAE Genus Sillago Cuvier, 1816 Sillago sihama (Forsskål, 1775) Reported from the Shatt al Arab River and occasionally in the marshes. One specimen was found in a recent survey in the Main Outfall Drain at Suq ash Shuyukh.

FAMILY SPARIDAE The sea breams or porgies are found in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans and comprise about 33 genera with about 115 species. Some commonly enter estuaries and penetrate up rivers. Maximum length is about 1.2 m. This family is characterised by a groove in the distal end of the premaxilla which accommodates the maxilla, the body is oblong to ovate and is compressed, the head is large with a steep upper profile, the preopercle margin is smooth, scales are weakly ctenoid, moderate in size and extend on to the cheeks and operculum, teeth are conical to incisiform and molar teeth are found in some at the rear of the jaw, there are no teeth on the vomer, palatines or tongue, the dorsal fin is continuous with an anterior spiny por-

262 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

tion and a soft-rayed posterior portion about equal in size, with 10-13 spines and 10-15 soft rays respectively, spines fold into a groove, the anal fin has 3 spines (the second the largest) and 8-14 soft rays, and the lateral line is not continued onto the caudal fin but has enlarged scales near the head. Many species in this family are hermaphrodites with male and female sex organs developing simultaneously, changing sex from male to female (protandry), or from female to male (protogyny). These fishes are often important as food or sought by anglers. Young fish may very different in colour to adults, usually being more vivid with distinctive patterns.

Genus Acanthopagrus Peters, 1855 Members of this genus have a compressed and moderately deep body, 4-6 enlarged incisiform teeth at the front of the jaws followed by 3-4 rows of molars, the second anal fin spine is longer than the third, there is a scaly sheath at the base of the dorsal and anal soft fins, and moderate-sized scales. The combined catch for both species listed here, using trawl and drift gill nets in Iraqi marine waters was small and irregular in the 1990-1994 period. Acanthopagrus berda (Forsskål, 1775) Reported from southern Iraq fresh waters including the Tigris River at Baghdad, the Hammar Marsh and the Shatt al Arab River. Possibly confused with the following species. Acanthopagrus latus (Houttuyn, 1782) Common names. Shanak; shagoom; shaam; sha’m; shaem; sheim; sha-om. [yellow-finned porgy or seabream, yellow-finned black porgy, Japanese silver bream]. Systematics. This species was originally described from Japan. Differences in two meristic characters (pectoral and dorsal fin ray counts) have been found, but no differences in electrophoretic characters, between populations from the Shatt al Arab River and Zubayr Inlet areas of southern Iraq. There is only one stock of this species in southern Iraq as meristic variation may reflect environmental conditions. Key characters. Distinguished from its relative by the dorsal head profile steep and convex, bulging above the eyes, anal and pelvic fins whitish (or yellow tinged in young), and caudal fin grey with a black rear margin and lower lobe often yellow.

Species Accounts 263

Acanthopagrus latus

Morphology. The upper profile of head is steep and convex back to above the posterior eye margin. The head bulges over the eye. Dorsal fin spines 11-13, soft rays 9-13. Dorsal spines are alternating strong and weak (i.e. broad and narrow). The anal fin has 3 spines, the second much stronger and wider than the third, and 8-9 soft rays. Pectoral fin branched rays 10-16. There is a strong spine in the pelvic fin and a welldeveloped axillary scale. The first pelvic fin ray is elongated as a small filament. Lateral line scales 41-46, or 48-50, or up to 55, probably depending on differing counting methods among authors. The scales are vertical ovals with the anterior margin wavy where radii intersect. They have very fine circuli, moderate numbers of posterior radii, a subcentral posterior focus, and ctenii on the central part of the posterior margin extending inwards towards the focus. There are 4-5 series of preopercular scales. The dorsal and anal fin bases have 3-4 scale rows as a sheath. There are 4-6 compressed teeth in front of each jaw followed by 3-5 rows of molar teeth. The gut is an elongate s-shape. The chromosome number is 2n = 48. This species is a protandrous hermaphrodite, being male early in its life and then becoming female later. Catches will include males, females and hermaphrodites, e.g. in a study in Kuwait, there were 326 males, 343 females and 41 hermaphrodites. Colour. Overall colour a silvery-grey or silvery-white with the back darker and the belly yellowish. Scales each have a dark, brownish to golden spot at the base, which line up to form stripes along the flank, and silvery edges especially in scales above the

264 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

lateral line. There is a dark blotch at the upper corner of the gill opening, on both the body and gill cover. There is a dark band over the head between the eyes and the edge of the operculum is dark. Dorsal fin spines are white and the membranes are grey, with dark margins between the spine tips. The soft dorsal fin is dark grey with a light orange tinge. There is a small back spot at the pectoral fin base and the fin is mostly hyaline with a light orange tinge. The anal and pelvic fins are a light yellowish-brown or whitish tinged with yellow. The caudal fin is dark grey on the upper lobe and bright yellow on the lower with a black margin. The peritoneum is silvery brown in preserved fish with widely scattered melanophores. Size. Reaches over 50 cm total length. Distribution. Found from the Arabian Gulf to Japan and north Australia. Recorded from the Shatt al Arab River, Shatt al Basrah Canal, the Hammar Marsh and Hawizah Marsh in Iraq and known to penetrate far inland in fresh waters elsewhere, including Iran. Its northern extent in fresh waters in Iraq is uncertain and this species may have been confused with the preceding one. Present in Lake Razzazah, probably transported there from coastal waters in the early 1990s in an unsuccessful attempt to introduce grey mullets (N. R. Khamees, pers. comm., 29 September 2006). The Marine Science Centre, Basrah transplanted several thousand Liza fingerlings to Razzazah with a few small A. latus from the upper reaches of the Zubayr Inlet in 1993-1994 (N. A. Hussain, 7 October 2006). Literature reports mention transfers of mugilids from the Shatt al Basrah Canal, Zubayr Inlet and Abdullah Inlet from 1992 to 1996. Habitat. The usual habitat is over sand and rock bottoms in the sea down to about 50 m, but young fish may enter estuaries and may penetrate considerable distances inland, although some fish remain at sea permanently. Larger specimens are known to penetrate the Shatt al Arab River in October to December, and this water body is an important nursery for this species, found there year-round as young. Adults emigrate from January to March. At a freshwater station on the Shatt al Basrah Canal with salinities up to 3.5‰, this species was found to be the second most dominant after Liza subviridis, comprising 7.1% by number and 10.9% by weight. Young fish are found in the Shatt al Basrah Canal mostly from April to October. Cage-cultured fish are reared at 14-31°C in Kuwait. Temperatures in Kuwait Bay during spawning are 14-18ºC during the winter months, a situation mirrored by Liza klunzingeri but not other species that begin to spawn in April. Biology. This species is a fast growing and hardy fish. A study of fish in the Shatt al Basrah Canal, a man-made estuary of southern Iraq, was based mostly on small and immature fish (49-181 mm standard length) caught mostly in April-October. The dominant age group was 1+ fish, the maximum age was 3+ years, and fish grew to 95, 155 and 215 mm total length in their first three years of life. In an aquaculture experiment in Kuwait, fish more than doubled in weight over a 6 week period. Males mature at a smaller size (12.3-14.2 cm) than females (24.3-26.2 cm) in cage-culture in Kuwait Bay. However, fish in the Shatt al Arab River are usu-

Species Accounts 265

ally less than 20 cm long and most are immature, in age groups 0 and 1. The lowest condition factors were found in April and May, possibly because fish were spent after spawning or were in lower condition after the winter. In Kuwait, ages up to 14 years have been reported. It feeds on echinoderms, worms, crustaceans, insects, bivalve molluscs and plants in the sea and Shatt al Arab River. Bivalves were found in 91% of fish by number and weight in the Zubayr Inlet. Crabs and bivalves were found to be the most important items by percentage in the Shatt al Arab River. Fish, shrimps and aquatic insects were also taken and there was significant seasonal variation, with shrimps and aquatic insects more important in December and spring. Fish in the Shatt al Basrah Canal fed on, in order of occurrence, crustaceans (decapods, amphipods, isopods, mysids, cladocerans and cyclopoids), fishes (Liza spp., Barbus luteus, Thryssa purava (sic), eggs and scales), molluscs (Corbicula, Lymnaea, Tryonia and Sphaeriidae), algae (Oscillatoria, Syndera, Fragillaria and Cladophora), higher plants (Vallisneria, Ceratophyllum, seeds and roots) and aquatic insects (Corixidae, Hemiptera, Odonata and Coleoptera). Crustaceans were most important during July and November, molluscs in May and fishes during August. In a study of the recovering Hammar Marsh, diet was 60% shrimps and 40% insects (Hussain et al., 2006). Freshwater food habits are not known for Iraq in detail but one specimen examined from Iranian fresh water contained plant fragments and scales of a cyprinid. Cage-reared fish in Kuwait Bay have a prolonged spawning season from February to April. Fecundity there is up to 3,837,000 eggs. Spawning in the Shatt al Arab River estuary is reported for April. The population in the Shatt al Arab River consists of juveniles in age groups 0-3, appearing in the river from April to December. The spawning season for the northwestern Arabian Gulf is January to April with a peak in February and March. This species is a protandrous hermaphrodite with males dominating in smaller size groups (22.3-24.2 cm) while females dominate in larger groups (24.3-26.2 cm). Economic importance. A good food fish seen in bazaars along the Arabian Gulf coast and in the Shatt al Arab River. The population in Lake Razzazah is fished and sold in Basrah fish markets, the catch being many tons (N. R. Khamees, pers. comm., 29 September 2006). Hundreds these fish, 17-19 cm long, were being sold at Abu Al Kasib in late November 2006 (N. A. Hussain observations). It was selling at U.S.$3.5-5.5 per kg in Kuwait about 1980, with 213 tons landed in 1995 for a value of U.S.$1,769,407. Experiments there indicate that this species can be farmed It is caught by trawls, handlines, in hadra (fixed stake nets) and gargoor (fish pots) and in the sport fishery in the Arabian Gulf. Conservation. This marine species is fished commercially in the sea and populations there may be under some threat as a consequence. The status of freshwater populations is unclear as they appear quite rare and are presumably derived from marine populations at intervals.

266 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Genus Sparidentex Munro, 1948 Sparidentex hasta (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1830) Recorded by N. A. Hussain from Al Disam at the lower part of the Hawizah Marsh, 5 km from the border with Iran and from the eastern Hammar Marsh in 2005. Petrus belayewi Hora and Misra, 1943 described from “rivers and hors, Iraq” (hors being marshes) is possibly a synonym.

FAMILY SCIAENIDAE Genus Johnius Bloch, 1793 Johnius belangerii (Cuvier 1830) Reported from the Hammar Marsh but no recent record during recent field work in 2005-2006.

Genus Otolithes Oken, 1817 Otolithes ruber (Schneider in Bloch and Schneider, 1801) Reported from the Shatt al Arab River and the Hammar Marsh. Fishes identified as Otolithes argenteus Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1830 are this species. No recent record from the marshes in surveys during 2005-2006.

Species Accounts 267

FAMILY CICHLIDAE Genus Oreochromis Günther, 1889 Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) Introduced to the Tigris River basin in Iraq but did not apparently survive winterkill. 

Genus Tilapia Smith, 1840 Tilapia zilli (Gervais, 1848) Introduced for fish farming from Egypt but did not apparently survive. A specimen was caught in the Khabour River, Syria that enters the Euphrates just north of the Iraq border, presumably a fish farm escapee, and redbelly tilapias are now established in the Syrian Euphrates. A recent report by Bashar Abdul Hosein Ellewi Alsa’adi (in litt., 10 October 2006) of a cichlid at Al Musayyib on the Euphrates River in Iraq may well be this species as are fish taken in the Qarmat Ali River 10 km north of Basrah and found in local fish markets in October 2009 (N. R. Khamees, in litt.,19 October 2009). The United States Agency for International Development recommended tilapia farming in Iraq although the cost would have to be a 20% premium over grass carp. A cheaper system would involve ponds in the southern marshes but in either case, the dangers of tilapia becoming established in the wild were not analyzed.

FAMILY GOBIIDAE Genus Bathygobius Bleeker, 1878 Bathygobius fuscus (Rüppell, 1830) Recorded from the Hammar Marsh and Shatt al Arab River. It is considered as a seasonal species in the Hammar Marsh based on recent surveys (2005-2006).

268 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

FAMILY SCATOPHAGIDAE Genus Scatophagus Cuvier in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1831 Scatophagus argus (Bloch, 1788) Reported from the Shatt al Arab River, Hammar Marsh and the Euphrates River near Al Kaba’ish (= Chabaish).

FAMILY STROMATEIDAE Genus Pampus Bonaparte, 1837 Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788) Recorded from the Shatt al Arab River and the Hammar Marsh. No recent records from surveys in 2005-2006. Pampus chinensis (Euphrasen, 1788) Recorded in the literature from the Shatt al Arab River and the Hammar Marsh but these are considered doubtful records.

FAMILY SOLEIDAE Genus Brachirus Swainson, 1839 Brachirus orientalis (Schneider in Bloch and Schneider, 1801) Reported in the literature from the Shatt al Arab River and the Hammar Marsh. One specimen was captured in the lower reaches of the Hammar Marsh in summer 2006.

Species Accounts 269

CHECKLISTS The following list includes those species that are permanent residents of fresh water. Species marked by an asterisk (*) are exotics, introduced from another country. The fauna is comprised of 44 native and 9 exotic freshwater species. A further 8 species of marine origin are included in the “Species Accounts”.

FRESHWATER SPECIES Cyprinidae 1. Acanthobrama marmid Heckel, 1843 2. Alburnoides bipunctatus (Bloch, 1782) 3. Alburnus caeruleus Heckel, 1843 4. Alburnus mossulensis  Heckel, 1843 5. Aspius vorax Heckel, 1843 6. Barbus (Luciobarbus) barbulus (Heckel, 1849) 7. Barbus (Luciobarbus) esocinus Heckel, 1843 8. Barbus (Tor) grypus (Heckel, 1843) 9. Barbus (Luciobarbus) kersin Heckel, 1843 10. Barbus (Kosswigobarbus) kosswigi (Ladiges, 1960) 11. Barbus (Barbus) lacerta Heckel, 1843 12. Barbus (Carasobarbus) luteus (Heckel, 1843) 13. Barbus (Luciobarbus) pectoralis (Heckel, 1843) 14. Barbus (Mesopotamichthys) sharpeyi (Günther, 1874) 15. Barbus (Luciobarbus) subquincunciatus Günther, 1868 16. Barbus (Luciobarbus) xanthopterus Heckel, 1843 17. Barilius mesopotamicus Berg, 1932 18. Caecocypris basimi Banister and Bunni, 1980 19. Capoeta aculeata (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844) 20. Capoeta barroisi (Lortet in Barrois, 1894) 21. Capoeta damascina (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1842)

270 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

22. Capoeta trutta  (Heckel, 1843) 23. *Carassius auratus (Linnaeus, 1758) 24. Chondrostoma regium (Heckel, 1843) 25. *Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844) 26. Cyprinion kais Heckel, 1843 27. Cyprinion macrostomum Heckel, 1843 28. *Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758 29. Garra rufa (Heckel, 1843) 30. Garra variabilis (Heckel, 1843) 31. *Hemiculter leucisculus (Basilewsky, 1855) 32. Hemigrammocapoeta elegans (Günther, 1868) 33. *Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844) 34. *Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1844) 35. Squalius cephalus (Linnaeus, 1758) 36. Squalius lepidus Heckel, 1843 37. Typhlogarra widdowsoni Trewavas, 1955

Cobitidae 1. Cobitis taenia Linnaeus, 1758

Balitoridae 1. Barbatula argyrogramma (Hcekel, 1849) 2. Barbatula frenata (Heckel, 1843) 3. Paracobitis malapterura (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1846)

Sisoridae 1. Glyptothorax kurdistanicus (Berg, 1931) 2. Glyptothorax steindachneri (Pietschmann, 1913)

Siluridae 1. Silurus triostegus Heckel, 1843

Species Accounts 271

Heteropneustidae 1. *Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch, 1794)

Bagridae 1. Mystus pelusius (Solander in Russell, 1794)

Mugilidae 1. Liza abu (Heckel, 1843)

Cyprinodontidae 1. Aphanius dispar (Rüppell, 1829) 2. Aphanius mento (Heckel, 1843) 3. Aphanius sp.

Poeciliidae 1. *Gambusia holbrooki Girard, 1859 2. *Poecilia latipinna (Lesueur, 1821)

Mastacembelidae 1. Mastacembelus mastacembelus (Banks and Solander in Russell, 1794)

MARINE SPECIES The following list is of species that enter the Shatt al Arab River and as far inland as the Hammar Marsh. Some used to travel up the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to varying degrees but dams and water diversion schemes now prevent more extensive movements. Further details of these records, and others only from the tidally-influenced Shatt al Arab River, can be found at www.briancoad.com. Some of the records below may be mis-identifications

272 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

and are marked with an octothorpe (#). A total of 25 species are listed here of which 8 are given species accounts and marked by a tilde (~). These marine fishes can be identified with such works as Fischer, W. and Bianchi, G. (Eds.). 1984. FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes. Western Indian Ocean (Fishing Area 51). Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. 6 volumes; Murdy, E. O. 1989. A taxonomic revision and cladistic analysis of the Oxudercine gobies (Gobiidae: Oxudercinae). Records of the Australian Museum, Supplement 11:1-93; Thomson, J. M. 1997. The Mugilidae of the world. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, 41(3):457-562; Whitehead, P. J. P. 1985. FAO Species Catalogue. Volume 7. Clupeid Fishes of the World (Suborder Clupeoidei). An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of the Herrings, Sardines, Pilchards, Sprats, Shads, Anchovies and Wolf-herrings. Part 1 - Chirocentridae, Clupeidae and Pristigasteridae. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Fisheries Synopsis, 125, volume 7, part 1:x + 1-304; Whitehead, P. J. P., Nelson, G. J. and Wongratana, T. 1988. FAO Species Catalogue. Volume 7. Clupeid Fishes of the World (Suborder Clupeoidei). An Annotated and Illustrated Catalogue of the Herrings, Sardines, Pilchards, Sprats, Shads, Anchovies and Wolf-herrings. Part 2 - Engraulididae. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, Fisheries Synopsis, 125, volume 7, part 2:viii + 305-579; and others listed in the “Bibliography” at www.briancoad.com.

Carcharhinidae 1. ~Carcharhinus leucas (Valenciennes in Müller and Henle, 1839)

Engraulidae 1. ~Thryssa hamiltonii (Gray, 1835) 2. #Thryssa mystax (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) 3. ~Thryssa whiteheadi Wongratana, 1983

Clupeidae 1. ~#Nematalosa nasus (Bloch, 1795) 2. ~Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822)

Species Accounts 273

Ariidae 1. #Arius thalassinus (Rüppell, 1837) 2. Netuma bilineatus (Valenciennes in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1840) 3. Plicofollis layardi (Günther, 1866)

Mugilidae 1. ~Liza klunzingeri (Day, 1888) 2. #Liza oligolepis (Bleeker, 1859) 3. ~Liza subviridis (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1836)

Hemiramphidae 1. Hemiramphus marginatus (Forsskål, 1775) 2. Rhynchorhamphus georgii (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847)

Belonidae 1. Strongylura strongylurus (van Hasselt, 1823)

Platycephalidae 1. Platycephalus indicus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Sillaginidae 1. Sillago sihama (Forsskål, 1775)

Sparidae 1. Acanthopagrus berda (Forsskål, 1775) 2. ~Acanthopagrus latus (Houttuyn, 1782) 3. Sparidentex hasta (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1830)

274 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

Sciaenidae 1. Johnius belangerii (Cuvier 1830) 2. Otolithes ruber (Schneider in Bloch and Schneider, 1801)

Gobiidae 1. Bathygobius fuscus (Rüppell, 1830)

Scatophagidae 1. Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus, 1766)

Stromateidae 1. Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788) 2. Pampus chinensis (Euphrasen, 1788)

Soleidae 1. Brachirus orientalis (Schneider in Bloch and Schneider, 1801)

NOTES ADDED IN PROOF The Aphanius sp. noted on page 243 has been described and is now available on-line: Coad, Brian W. 2009. A new species of tooth-carp, Aphanius mesopotamicus, from Iran and Iraq (Actinopterygii, Cyprinodontidae), p. 149-163. In: Neubert, E., Amr, Z., Taiti, S. and Gümüs, B. (Eds.). Animal Biodiversity in the Middle East. Proceedings of the First Middle Eastern International Congress, Aqaba, Jordan, 20-23 October 2008, Aqaba, Jordan. ZooKeys, 31 (Special Issue): 252 pp. ISSN 1313-2970 (online), ISSN 1313-2989 (print). Pensoft Publishers, Sofia-Moscow (http://pensoftonline.net/zookeys/ index.php/journal/article/view/131/337). Exotic species continue to be reported from Iraq including, recently, an oriental pangasiid catfish (Thamie Katea Adday, pers. comm., 4 November 2009).

Freshwater Fishes of Iraq 275

BIBLIOGRAPHY The literature on Iraqi freshwater fishes and their environment is widely scattered and not generally available. Some libraries in Iraq have been destroyed, certain journals have no complete set outside Iraq, e.g. Marina Mesopotamica, and European and other literature is not readily accessible to Iraqi scientists. One purpose of this book was to bring this literature together, digest it, and present it in a summary format. The Bibliography is too extensive to list here at over 2000 entries and is given at www.briancoad.com. Statements appearing in this book will be documented in the text on the website.

276 Freshwater Fishes of Iraq

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COLOUR PLATES

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Plate 1

Satellite view of Iraq, 1 March 2003 (NASA)

Plate 2

Map of Iraq (Keith Holmes, Canada-Iraq Marshlands Initiative (CIMI))

Southern Iraq marshes, 1973 (Keith Holmes, CIMI)

Tigris and Euphrates River Basins: A Controlled Watershed (Keith Holmes, CIMI)

Southern Iraq marshes, August 2009 (Keith Holmes, CIMI)

Plate 3

Standard of Ur, Royal Graves at Ur, Sumeria, 2600 B.C., British Museum (Brian W. Coad)

Head of 1.25 m Carcharhinus leucas from the Tigris River at Karradah, near Baghdad in the Natural History Museum, London (BM(NH) 1924.10.1:1) (Brian W. Coad)

Assyrian fisherman, South-West Palace, Nineveh, 700-692 B.C., British Museum (Brian W. Coad)

Catch of Barbus sharpeyi (CIMI)

Plate 4

Thryssa hamiltonii (J. E. Randall)

Nematalosa nasus (J. E. Randall)

Aspius vorax (Preston Tifft)

Plate 5

Barbus grypus (S. Cowton)

Barbus luteus (Friedhelm Krupp)

Capoeta damascina (Brian W. Coad)

Plate 6

Capoeta trutta (Friedhelm Krupp)

Carassius auratus (Wikimedia Commons)

Chondrostoma regium (Brian W. Coad)

Plate 7

Ctenopharyngodon idella (US Fish and Wildlife Service and Geological Survey)

Cyprinion kais (Friedhelm Krupp)

Cyprinion macrostomum (Friedhelm Krupp)

Plate 8

Cyprinus carpio (Clayton Rubec, CIMI)

Garra rufa (Friedhelm Krupp)

Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Wikimedia Commons)

Plate 9

Squalius cephalus (Wikimedia Commons)

Silurus triostegus (Preston Tifft)

Silurus triostegus mouth views (S. M. A. Abdullah)

Plate 10

Mystus pelusius (Afshin Afzali)

Liza klunzingeri (J. E. Randall)

Liza subviridis (J. E. Randall)

Plate 11

Aphanius dispar male (J. E. Randall)

Aphanius dispar female (J. E. Randall)

Poecilia latipinna male (J. E. Randall)

Plate 12

Poecilia latipinna female (J. E. Randall)

Mastacembelus mastacembelus (Brian W. Coad)

Acanthopagrus latus (J. E. Randall)

Plate 13

Shatt al Arab, Basrah (Wikimedia Commons)

Tigris River at Baghdad (Wikimedia Commons)

Greater Zab River near Erbil (Wikimedia Commons)

Canyon near Howramanat, northeast Kurdistan (Wikimedia Commons)

Plate 14

Dohuk Dam (Wikimedia Commons)

Mosul Dam (US Army)

Lake Razzazah (NASA)

Lake Dukan (Wikimedia Commons)

Plate 15

Southern marshes in flood (US Army)

Southern marshes in flood (CIMI)

Al-Hammar Marsh near Nasiriyah, drought 2009 (US Army)

Al-Hammar Marsh near Nasiriyah, drought 2009 (US Army)

Plate 16

Fish farming on the Euphrates River (USAID)

Pollution, sewage outfall on Euphrates River, Nasiriyah (USAID)

Pollution, stagnant pool at Nasiriyah (USAID)