French Medieval Armies 1000-1300

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MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

FRE CH MEDIEVAL ARMIES 1000-1300

DAVID NICOlLE ANGUS McBRIDE

231

EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW

cmm MIUTAAY

MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

231

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FRENCH MEDIEVAL ARMIES

INTRODUCTION The ',Ipetian kings ho ruled Fran from 0987 to 132 , a\ their counn', take tJle lead in almo t ever' aspect of estern civiJi ation while 10, douce Frauce became, for the militar ari'tocra ) th hub ofrheir uni erse, De 'pitc a . 10\ tart when com par d with neighbours like England the Kingdom of France had by th (3th entur ,al ori en to become the most pOI erful state in \ estern Europe. uring lhe lale 11th amI 12th centurie the militar' clites of regions north of th Ri er Loire were the true 'for neh' of the cla" I hil tho e who lived to the outh rem:lined basicall separate, \ ith a distinct Janguage- citan. In the opinion of mo·t "\ e terner the e 1"1' 'neh had greater prOlvess (military skill, courage and I h sical strength) than an other miJitar) group, and could only b ri aUed by the much-admir d 'Turk" \ ho howe er, \ ere infidel " The Church was still struggling to control the \ arlike ncrgies of Pren 'h nohlemen, and onl, relu tantl accepted the glorification of the hl'i tian knight in lhe later 12th enUlr . 'hivalry, a. an id 'a1 combining courage with humility, promess with gentlene s and respect for ladies, had to await the 13th centur . outhern France played a different role in th military hi ·tor) of medi val Fran e-mo. tly in th dev lopmcnt of the chivalric ideal. I-Jere the troubadoul'S, singing in the ccitan tongue, had been influenc d by lhe p tr of rab-Islamic pain, and the in turn taught the Irouveres of the north. hile southern troubadours did eel brate heroi'm and war, lh y also e 'toll >d Courtl Love a: the con-ect wa for a knjght to treat his (and other' ) ladies, hi new ideal was encoura ed by th laclie and t y h Church, \. ho . al it a anoth I' wa of curbing the homicidallendcncics of the militar elite. Tn fa t/ill t/lllour or Romantic T 0 I a a medie al invention rooted in rab-Islamic idea" distinct fr 01 th 'godsent madne 'of the ncient reeks or th pleasant apperit· of the Roman '. outhern ourtJ Love and

·,Iision o(f-(abukuk', Bible de l. Vaast, north French, cart)' 11 ch cencurJ'. J nec I he 0 era rm SpC:U.5, huge

round hields, and the {acI I hlJl.';ome men tack [JodI' :trmOllr. (Ms..115, llib. . iHwtic., rms)

north rn pron ess c entually united in the onccpt of .. nightly hiv,t1ry, which became th aristocratic idealofth later Middle gcs.

Th rootS fFrench military might The late loth ccntur) S'l\\' the end of the great inva. ion of \ e. tern Europ b ikings, 1 lagyar and orth Friean usJims. ow hristendom tarted to expand. The ikings and Hungarian: II' re convert d, whil the u.lim were ~ reed back in man parts of the 1 diten-anean. BUl this did not bring p ac to France. B thc J I th century the king had I t 'ontrol of border regions, \ hile local warfare ha I gro\ n ;t1armingl ' frequcnt. In facl the energie. 3

•

Royol Oo",oln In 1032

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\'.• Frueh Irontl.. 1032 \.- - - \.- - -

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1180

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1328

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111 ttta;: , m.J" I'm • JI'1; b :!"IIJ L{ ".'I'IU"trAJ' ~I;. fhift. Cqmr."'r·

of the 'rench military elite were now focused 011 petty internal -qu'lbbl and xt rnal ad enture like the orman conquest of England. e erthc1css, th . population and e 'onomy both expanded, althou Th it wa. n t until the 12th century that the crown rebuiJt its pm er-base. I t ~ as against rhi . background that th Peace of God rna ement arQ e, traditionall eO'inning in D <.) 9 a harr ux and arbonnc in 'outhern France. L d by the hurch and largcl. manned by common folk, these peace mDV 01 nt. took over the crO\ n s pea e-keeping role graduall curbing th \ orst execs, es of knight and noble. arfare itself had not chang d much, largeJ remaining a matter of ieges and brief campaign. by small forces, with major battle' being a aided \ herer possible. Fe\ peopl were in oJ d and life for 010 t went on uninterrupted. The knight as an armoured ca aJryman, appeared to dominate the cene, although this \ a an 0 er. implification. Yet the knight would soon be. 0 'ially dominant, and was fast e DIving into the ideali ed hri tian warrior \J ho iolence was ',lI1cti ned b th hur 'hparticularly if directed against non-Christians. 'hialrou beha iour to one s foe mOl ha e been a popular ideal but in realir . eems to have been rare, at least in the 12th centur ,when avagery mutilation and the long impri 'onment of captive were common.

THE ARMIES OF NORTHERN FRANCE I

:

/

/

"

'Agitator', Burgundian manuscript are. rooo. Though he stiJJ carrie... {I round shield, tJ,j· warrior a1.«o has n mail 11Ilulu:.rk 4

.md an advanced fQrwardtilted form Qfsegmcnred helmet. (, s. 448, f68v, Bib. i\l/unic., Dijon)

o t of the arolingian nobilir disappeared in the chao. of the 9th and loth centurie , a1th ugh ome urvi ed to merge \J ith a ne~ elite. The miles or knight \Va not et a member of thi cia . The old Latin term miles fir. teems to)1a c been u. ed in it· new sense of a feudal \ arrior in the late loth celltur but, lik th· comparabl t I'm assus and fide/col, it anI indicated militar status. The lIIililes them cI es remained a lowl group of profes ional warriors, perhaps descended from arolingian retainers, who e Land holdings were often no greater than peasants. By the early 1 Ith century the mililes \ r

hetter off, and h 1100 man had becom major hcrcditar landowners. E en in mititar terms the fir. r miles wa . nor necessaril a ca airman, and in the carl ] 2th c ntur there were stilJ references to a few milites pedites (infantr knights'); et there was all' ad more to being a miles, who hould normally own armour, helm t,. hield, word and lane. or a while in 'th late IT th and earl 12th ccnturi th Church's efforts to tame the milites almost turn d them into a quasi-religious clas' f 'hoI warriors, hut thi failed and a drive for domination rook over from ideals of service. By th 12th century the reat nobles of France had abandoned cities for ca tIes; and while the Church no glorified the lIIiles the miles role in tmn gradually nnobled him in :1 \ orld fragmented into mall lordships grouped around local castle. The milites did not becom a fixed warrior caste until the late 12th centur ; but once the did, their sense of exclusi en made it difficult for kings or great lord to rai e new knight. The nobilit was alread di ided according to rank, though thi was not clear cut. t the top were the ba1l11ereIS, then the fiefholding knighr , tll niL red knights or chevaliers engage, and lastl the squires. Training The military elite weI' all trained in much the same wa their education tarting at the age of five. This wa. described, idealistically perhaps, a 'ri 'ing early from a bcd of fox-skins beneath a tatue of t. hristopher'. The bo served his father, learn d hess and riding and had religiou in truction. t the age of n h . hould b taken a\ a from the women to become a page, when he would continue to ride hunt and I arn to u a word, lance and oth r w'apon. tag hunting and falconr could b dangerous but also ga ve the boy his first lesson. in ficldcraft and tactics. t 12 he might be. nr t complete his education in the household of a not d lord where li~ could be tough. Two ears later he might tart looking after the dog and at 20 he could b a full trained huntsman. eanwhil th outh learned good manners, c1eanlines , singing and mu ic. To become a squire the oung man attended a church cremony when a prie t gave him a word, belt and scabbard. The new squire .~ as al 0 encOUl'aged to fight, n'a e1, and I am about the world.

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'David and Goliath, Bible of t. Etienne, 1109-1 I. The hclnlcl 811d long kice.o;hapcd shidd U!icd by Golinth are the snme RS those in the fhmous Ilnglo-

orm:lnlh eux Tapcstr . Only the long sleeve.5 /){the nmil haubcrk di!J·tinguish this R.o; la re J , tIl eencur cquipmc?r!c. (. 1.5. ,68, (sr Bib. '1unic., Dijon)

To be dubbed a knight ~ as a more olemn occasion. In it full dev loped T3th-centur form dubbing iov I cd thc pourSlliVa1l1 . quirc. dres 'cd in a plain \ hite shirt and drawer, enduring a lonel vigil in chur h beforc the SCI' ice. Ithough a few knights le:u-ned to I' ad in tlle J 2th cntur • the jeulIes' or young warrior's training I' main d militar , 'lnd wa carried out within a mall band r aTllis or companions \ ho formed a compagnie or maisnie. llamlling weapons and manoeuvring together in a 10 el packed unit of lane -arm d cavalr were ba ic skills. Teamwork as paramount, training dangerou , anu the knight's ubscqucnt care I' 'v 'n more hazardolls: in onc r cordcd group 15 {(lIIis thr e di d in battle and one ill a fall from a horse. reil[ emphasis \ as laid on keeping weapons in good on lition through con tant cI aning and oiling, the CIIlII1SIJ1lS de Cesle pouring scorn on tho e unable to dra\ rust blades from their scabbards. In the 12th ccntur , Ie. pite a fashion for flm ing locks, the Chansons also au i ed a warrior to have and cut hi hair before battle not anI to make hi h Imet fit pI' perly but to shov proper respect for hi foc.

r

5

'Life of" 1.1 icho/lls'. canfed liml (rom norcllt:rn Frl1nce', f '50----;5. Thc :1.",. lI'a.... a con1111011 , zrh

(.'en/llry illl'lIltry IVcapon.

equipment remain 'el ba icall the same until the later 13th enrur,' E en a earl. a the mid-12th c 'ntury, howeY r, complete arms had hecome too expen: i e for nonnoble warriors prolcssional sergelill/s heing equipp d by the nobl s who maintain d th m. There wa al:o plenty of variation in the qualir. and quantit. of weaponr and horse among the knights, \ hich b ·'tra. ed rank a well as wealth. T\ elfth-cenrury tatus ran from rhe humble /IIi/lies rl/slld, 1II1/I/es gregarli and lIIi/iles plebel ro the leading pl'lllIi 1II1/I/es or s/renulllli/i/es. 'enrur. Inter such dill' 'rences were st m from the quires and n hrined in a rigid clas young bache/en through the chevalier d'/II/ UII, ro the leading bl/I/I/ere/s. Each rank was exp ctetl to ha c a specified minimum of equipment, pili a certain number of horse and follen ers. encrally peaking a 13th-centur. kni ht . hould have two companions and three horses-a good destricr or \ ar-hor e and t\ 0 ordinal' ritling hor-es-\ hilc a bl/I/I/ere/ houltl have at least fi c follo\ ers an I two des/riers. n thi. rime warfare wa not particularl' d,mgerou for a fully armourd knight; and it was normally consid red foolish to kill a man of one sown rank-thi' not only lost a ransom, but invited a bluod feud ~ ith th ictim's ':lmil . Even \ ar-horses were ton aluabl to kill carel ssl ..

(Winchester athedral; author's plwlOgm"h)

F udal

Theml/es' cquipm ntal 0 be am more e. p n ivc. horse <.:oull cost Ii e timc~ a, much a a bull, a warhor e rising from four times th alu of an ordinal' hoI' e in tbe 8th century to 'even lime in the Jat 13th. late tTth- ntur mail hauberk might be worth no les than t n bull" and while not vel" fIIl/es o ned his own hoI' e and haub rk, boor remained it.ll to rhe rising knight. Tho. who lost their hor in battle would still be considered knighr but were expecred to r -equip themsel es rapidl. eforc the battle a full equipped 12rh- entllry ml/es \ uld firsr I ut on hi leg defences, rhen the padding WOI'l1 beneath hi mail hauberk. e't came the hauberk it If hi s\ ord-belt and h ·Im 't. Th . knight \ auld rake his hi Id and hmc' after mounting hi hor . Details of hape and wight changed, but such 6

icc

Forr day W,l the normal annual period of feud,t1 rvice, and before an expansion of trade brought more mone into circulation in the 12th century such militar. obljo-ation ga e great I 0\ er to the early ml/I'8s. th imporran e of inJantr. and unarmOUl'ed cavalr declined, rh' remained th most effective \ arriors a aih1ble co ,1n ambitiou nobleman. ~ach French lord, includin a king who was still Jittl mOl' than first among equals, had W I' ,Ion troops from hjs own territor ,The king had the Royal omain centr d upon Pari. from which to ummon hi immediat as al knight " plus infantr rat d b the to\ n and official' in each privott or militar region. Only if Prance \Va in adell bra f reign arm coul I th king rei ' on direct help from hi. great nobles. a'. al could be summoned for various kinds of militar 'ser icc such as rhe die< al/chie LO defend a lord' . own territor ,or the osl outside uch territor . Thirdl there \ as rhe IfsLtI/;f!;1f or 'ummons to arrison

S

Equipment and nlnk

SCI'

the entre of his c1ultel/enie. But a mon 'f10\ d mol' fr ely the p W r of militar as 31 ov I' their lords declined, since the richer nobilit ould no\ nJist mercenarie . 'our kind' of knight also emerged: th n bl , ho were pow rful nou.,.h to rai e foUo\ er and fi Tht in their 0\ n inter t· th landed a sal \ ho fought for th ir lord a a feudal obligation; ministerial knight who la k d fie~ but lived at a lord court:t. hi I' tainer . and m rl;enar knight ,ho fought for pa. . man ould, of cour e, pIa mol' than one role during hi life. B the 13th century man fi f.. holder no longer fought for their lord but paid taxe ,ith which he hired mer enaries. The in re:tsing 'ealth of the cro' n aJ 0 made royal eing knight. m re like mercenaries, their 10 e I' plaeed b. a paymaster who al 0 encoura Ted them to serve for more than the normal 40 da s. B the fir t year of the I th centur the French king could maintain:t irlual tanding arm on hi frontier with EngU h-ruled ormand. In [202- this included 257 kni rhts 267 mounr d rg ant, 0 mounted TO. bO\ men, I 3 infantr cr sbo\ m n, 2 000 other infantr. and 300 peciEicaIJ' mercenar 'troop. Th growing importanc of non-noble but prof!. i nal sergeallts r fI t d th. hang. any seem to have be n recruited from familie' which could no longer affi rd the tatu of milites though often r taining maJI fid. Their role remained basi ally the arne a that ofknight \ ith comparable quipment being uppli d b their mpl er. During the 13th c ntur. the proportion ofknighrs further d dined in fa our of quire, man of hom could imilarl nor aff I'd t b dubb d knights. B! the ad 14th c nrur quir outnumbered knights b no less than tcn to one in orne French armie.. The knights, whether feudal a salol' paid m rc 'nari 5, n ed d th upport of squires, horsehrceder. armourer and oth 1". The qujrc him elf had mi ·d rigin. Back in the 11 th cenrur a miles would gcn rail. be foil \ ed b I a ScI' ant or aTlIliger who look d after hi quipmenl. hough mounted 'Guard p/;lJ'in ... fI viof', Atlantic Dible, 'oUlh rcncb. lar' 11111 century. The lnost inrcrc!;ril1g picee o(arm/Jur i /hL man: round-copp 'd one-piece helnl r; tb,·sc wcre cen i/l

thi rJrlllIg'r' a nOI armoured .. rmigeri \ ere still I' 'orded in the 13th centur \ hen they wcre , ellpaid, full equipp d warrior. though 10\ I' in rank than knighr., and were often Trouped \ ith the quir . norher confu. ing I nh and [2th ccntur t I'm i' bachela. orne ha een him sa. oung , arri I' not et knighted, I' a an arl)' quire' however, it e m. thar rhe \ ord IlIIcheler impl dc. rib d the _outhful nthu ia m of a .'oung 'her ' and nor hi· taw . quir a 'wall emerged in th' carl 12th c nrury a' non-noble \ arriors, fighting along'ide sergeal/ts in siege., foraging ~ I' upplie and pillaging

tiw Jedi ternl1lClln I:wds, amI prolmbly r I1cercd B 7.a nr inc or I hlmic inlJuence.0....1s. 'dilj /26-6, f./24\', Bib. Luurcnziana., Florcnce) 7

the dead. The 12th CCnlur northern French squire \vasatta'hed roaknightand , ould r Ct his tent lo>k 3ft r hi hor collect firewo d and water; he would ride behiml, carr ing the knight s pear and 'hi Id and I ading his deslricr. In hattie the 'quire , ould take his masr r'. P()/fre)l or riding h r'c and mule, then ithdra' under th command of a gUII/lIl1onier. rich knight might ha c a second quire \ ho rode into b, trle behind him, leading a spare, ar-hor ·c. nl in emcrg ncie ,ere squir gi en full equipmenr and. nt into bartle. H· the 13th eentur the care of hors. r mained a quire's primar) ta. k, although he often po e cd basil: arms and, as also xpc'ted to fight. Difr renec b tween ariou rank of squire, such a s(/{lf(eri, servielllt's, (/rllligeri and vaJclli, huge I di appeared b , the mid-13th centur

\ hile 'quir a' a whole ro e in pre ti reo The knights , re no\ an 'lite minority while Ie er military duti such a. 011 cting and guarding pri oners, protecting the baggage, carr. ing a knight's Ian e and forming a rearguard Ci II to the quire.. Th knight'. domination or the b'lttleticld, though exaggenlted, \ a secure until n \\ , capon and tactic ev ntuall un e.lted him. Even thc failur of e tcrn hea )' ca aIr. in rhe ru 'ade. and the de c!opment of cro sbm took sev ral ccnturi to und rmine he knight's prestig . Yet the threat po d 0) hoI'. e-archcr and th ero. 'bo' reinforced a prejudic against all form. of missile weapon in T2th and J _ th c ntury cst rn Europe. This extended to ja elin • stone. and ·iegc'lrtillcry. egle·t ofan.:h I' was not a quirk of the French fcudal mcntalit bur an efforl' to suppress weapon: thaL challenged the xisting military ord r. Such arritudcs \ ere enhrined in the C!t(/l/s/JI1S de Ceslc which reflected and trength 'ned the knightl. ide.I!'. aint laurice had already b· n adopt d as th . patron sainl of knight, and the hurch al 0 lcm it weight to prejudices again t an thing ex cpt 'losc ·ombar. In 1139 rhe cond Lateran uncil att mpted to ban th . U not onl) ofcro bO\ but even uf ordinar. hand bow in warfare- xcept again. t infillc!s'. nightl

ideals

ean\\ hile the qualiti exp cted or knights I y the hurch
c cr. south-In:st -rench, lozhz. Tile hO~'1:5 have ':lddfes which :Ire (JI;:twccn thc orit!inflf 11mb-Islamic

8

form :wel the full) de eloped rZlh cenrury

European jousting saddle. ~ J

I. Lar. 87. (109r, 8ih. at., Pari)

the moral problems faced by a knight \ ere inherent in his role as a lighting man, in hi' duty to hi lord and his 10. alt)' to hjs felJows. This \ a clearly recognised hy hurchmen lik the 12th centur h rmit tephcn of lur'l who wrote: 'Ir sho\ s admirable knov ledge and i ver pleasing to od, \Vh n a man who i in olv'd in an evil entcrprise re trains himself from evil. It can b done like thi . 1f a knight i etting out on .'tn expedition for the. ake of hi 'secular lord, to whom hc cannoL refuse obedicn 'C, ifhe wi 'hes to be faithful to od let him first speak thus in his heart: Lord od, r \ ill go on this xpeditiun but I promi:e that I shall be your knight there, w'lIlting nothing in it xcept to be obedient to you, to eliminate e il and to seek after whaL i' good on ever occasion as much a 1 C'Ln.'" i[can\\ hile hurch-Ied Peac' ofGud mo cmcnts spread across 'rancc' and Ihe knightl mili/es submitted \() Ihis new discipline \ ith remarkable C:l. e, probably because ir offered Church r cognition of their n w tatus. Greatcr wealth also enabled rhe knight. to d vclop their own cod of 'chi aIr ' and to patroni 'C tr(j/lven:s and troubadours. The 12th centur is somelime' still seen as lhe golden ag of chi airy \ hcn th Church \Va able 1'0 cont rol the n \\ pow r of the knights, hut it was rare!. ecn this \Va. at the time.

The ca.o;Lle o/'S"iss:rc rlcur

b"i/t in the J.1UJ ccnwr .

C:rrt':lsorlrlC is:l typicHI

(II tit/lOr s photrJ[!raph)

,"rlmll. OUI hern castle,

ar could be appallingl savage, e en against fellow Christians, and ing Louis l' 'ccution of rh dehltlers of Crccy- ur- 'crr in J I I;; was merel one example of terror tacti ·S. or wcre 12th cenrur kniO'ht 'Iadie su 'h deli 'ate flO\ ers, for therc were plenty of examples fi rcc c!1l1/dailles lefending castles while their husbands were a\ a. or until the I th centur did thc three forces 'ccking to influenc the knight. 'onscience-feudal alu " religion, and women-lead to that 'chi airy still regardcd as requirement to please t pical of m dic"al Europ. th Iadie had bcen added late in the 12th ccnrur ,\nd a the cult of ourtly L()\'c spread 'amorousness became anothcr chi alric viHuc. Onl the increased :avag ry and the in\"ol ment of mor noncombatants \ hich Chal'il teriscd q.th and .[ 5th century \ arElI'e at Ia't mad' rhis noble set of ideals irr I vant.

or

crcenane

'~nd

infant!·

1ere naries fought in French armics in the latci oth , ntur) and b. the 1lth th· term silldeier or paid \' arrior \ a common. he use of such troops within 9

MlJllld For Ihe • 'cnlor IlllymlJnd de Mondnllwn', 12th ccnnJry. J Icre ,) knighl /I'om ,I,e R l/llllt" 1",11 ',. i... ...hown in rCI'erse, ",e~ring " mni/ IWIIIJerk wilh mnjl 'hnuSl 'S on his legs. /-lis

he/mel is ura lyP(' pmb:lhJ.\ deve/oped {rom

the, rtll cenllln {ortn ...c n in 11J(' t1"nti' Bihlc. (8il,. , TIl.

Cllb. dc....lfednillcs,

PTlris)

the Royal Domain steadily in rea ed a the 1'0\ n acceptcd money inswad of militar cr i c. The olde. t urvi ing Royal ccOunt for 1_0_- ho\ that a to\ n paid thr (' liues (pound .) in lieu of a full equipped warrior while a m rcenary knight him elf earned even SOliS per da. nly along th bord I' of hi omain did the kin in j l on maintainin effeetiv miJitias. Fortunare! the ile de ranee the heart of the Royal Domain, \ a one of th riche t ar as in . ran and could pay for the king's \ ar a he ex ended hi aurhorit . Ro 'II mercenaries became, in t;lCt, a readily a ailablc and ruthle" army which in 'Iuded man . killed spe 'ialist. tJo·t seem to ha come from outside the kin dum from Imperial Brabant, ]-Iainaulr the western pan of errnanyand from 'avarr in rh .ourh. Oth I' cam fr m the ount. orr-lander which, though within the 'rench kingdom, \ a culturally 10. to Brabant and f ainaulL (the. c three counti arc now \ t rn- entral Belgium). ueh forc's enabled the king to mount longer. iege than \ ould b' po ible \ ith the 40 day er\'i e I' a f, udal ho ting. rnerea ing peciaJi arion \ a a feature of French 10

armies in the early 1 th centur paid mercenari n \ includjng annour d knight, mounted ercant, mount d archer. (~ho \ ould aClually have fought on foot) and variou other infantr, orne -nli t d und I' long c ntra t. nlik 0 h I' mer enarie , the paid knight normally bou ht their 0\ n equipment and \ ar-hor e. \ id social gulf al 0 d I ped b twe n knights \ ho held land and th . mcrccnar' kni ht who did nolo yerrhclc s a uece ful mercenar. I Older could ri e to prominence und I' the kjng s protection, ome becoming (lISie/fllllS fro alea tic orbl/il/isofro aJ pro ince . Bail/is played a pani ularl important role under ing PhiJip II ugu tu (11 0-1223) .ome ha ing been poor knight. while oth 'rS were merchant' ons and other town folk. M rcenar sergeanls, bodl ea all' and infantr., \ r naturaU ch aper Lhan mercenar knight though m unted sergeallis \ ith three or four suus pCI' da stm got four time a much as th . l/I{trI:smllus eq/lorulfl hoI' e-ma ·ter in -harge of the quire. rnfantr sergeants recei ed nine delliers per da , .lightI more than a (ollsiable in charge ( r a militia uniL The mountcd sergell7/ls al 0 pro idcd King Philip ugu ow ith hi rna -armed cavalr bod guard at th batde ofBouvim: . Jn 123' a ea all" sergea7l1 ,as xpected to ha e three hoI' e (a deslrier war-hoI' e a p{llfrey for riding and a baggage animal) a' did a knight. By the late '3th and earl 14th centurie sergecmls both ca all' and infantr formed the bulk of French ro./alarmi \ hil e en rhe troop' of leading baron included man.. ueh pI' fe ional. Thou h corned b the aristocratic elite and ~ ith their mo t effecti e \ capons oft n condemned b both knights and hurch, the u. cfulnes of uch infantr waS recognised b aU. There wa e en some profe. sional re pect b t\ een mercenar knights and infantry but nor, of caul' e, ,111 0 'ial contact. mong the earliest mercenar infantr \ ere the rabanc;on ,mo t of whom ame from the ount of Bra ant in mod rn B 19ium. Th . earn d a con iderable reputation from the mid-12th to earl 13d1 c nturie in iege operation for their peed f mar hin and th ir fer i agains ci ilian. ost fought \ ith long pear or pikes and formed a defensi e rather than offensi e force in op n battle. om had h Imet and majl hauberk but th majorir wore 'lath I' armour' -probably quilted

I ather gtlll/beso/ls- but th Bra an~ n d clin d in favour of crossbo\ -armed infantr in th [th c nnlr. ther name giv n to 1_ he ntur' infantry mcrcenarie wer collaeflllX or t"Oterelli, perhap referring LO th ir hort tunic and Irioverdilli " ho e m aning remain un lear. ina Ri hard I of . ngland was aid t have inrrodu cd th era' bow to Fran in I I 5 but thi was ohviou. I) untrue and probably reflected hi mol' effi eLi\' u'e of, uch \ capon.. no from lral)' and a OrtS from the panish-influcneed outhwe t of . ran w I' among the arli t pI' fi sional cro:-;sho\\ men, while cms -bo" I' maincd m rc common in southern Europe than rhe norrh throuuh ut Ihe I uh ccnnu' . anwhil 1' •• bowmen \ ere rclati ely \ ell paid in the armi s of ing Philip ugustu : rh few mounted rossl 0\ men recei ed five .IIII/S per da ,the inlilOtry crossbowm n eighteen (/tolliers. Clunted em 'sbowm n beeam in r a ingl) importal1l to the French king' durin rr the 13th century \ hil ' mounted archers, hugh sriLl I' corded in [205, soon died out. Both operated a mounted infantry actual! r fighting on foor. B the eill'l)' L4th 'enrury il \ a Italian ero. sbowmen \ ho werth most highly prized. Thc fir, t ila tcr of ero bowmen in th •rench king s n'ice who e nam '\ kno\\ \Va: Thibaud de ontlcard, who wa arre'ted in 1230, By 1295 a Fr 11 h ro. bowman wa, 'uppo edly prot 'eted by a mail coif, a III/seinel helm t and quilt d runjc. I Ie carried his bolts (arrow') in a qui er slung from i\ baldric and also had a word, the total co r f su h cquipment being thre livres IIJ/lfllt/is-a consid 1'aile sum, I not and ran am mighl have ecured th funlre thos' mere narics who sur i cd rh ir hazardous trad " I ut many must have ended up a' poor as th y sIan d, P rhap it wa fr m the rank f the Ie ' sUC' , ful that the 'champion. \ ho fought on behalf th 'I'. in trial by hart! ~ ere dra\ n, ueh men x cr regarded as de pcrado on a Ie\' J with pro. tilute" but the r mained part of [he legal 'cen for c nwric', The di. tinction ben cen m rcenar and fi udal infant!') \Va. oor alwa. leal', From th loth to 12th cenrlll'ie. mo t fi ot 'oldi I' " I' untrained ru ti levic.;;, but among rhe mol' Ife riv w I' javcJinthrowers and archers. In op n battle II th eentlLl' ,

or

or

( 1) R e 'on. truct ion of,} ...n mll 11th CL'nlUn humillf! ero' bol\' fnulld "., • Qlleticre in the Dauphine. The • we),' and boll' tIre 110th abuut jocm IlIng, The rrigg 'ri ' on the top and the tring is rclca...cd b)' tIll' upwards motion 01':1 "TIlt/II peg, (8) eedon through the. imple nut and lrilflfer 'rem U cd in IZlh dentury cro.....,bol1's. ( ,J

Prone, s(;(:(ional and re:.Ir I·iews ora typic.1 12£1,-13,11 CL'ntury

em sboll' rc!L'{Ise nUl. (0) larlfe I-Ith century erO. silO \I' perlm p, t /) h ' re tecl on 11 castle, all. with the bOl string remo cd. E en at thi;; Llnre the !J'tring i;; still rele-'Rscd by the Upl ards ITlOVClTlenl or" 'mall p 'If. (Lunde mu ., Zuri h)

infantr) U' d hand bO\ , spears and long pike whil the trained serri/'I/les, pI' 'dccessor, of the sergefl1lls, could till hold a defensive I osition again. t ca alr , rn facr unarmour d ca airy laded from th rnilitar ccn a ar her \ ere increasingl brought into pia . By h early 12th cnruJ'. ranks of armour d infantr pI' nccted th' ar 'her while ranks of foot soldier, stiffened b) dismounted knights, could us th ir ·pear. a pikes. The mo. [ common 12th cenrur, infimtT) formation s 'ems to ha\'c heen in ,traight rank, preferably b hind a protecti e ditch wirh pik I calthr p catt red ahcad, et uch faeties remained ulnerabl 0 flank at ack and did little to und·rmin the knight domjnari n. The ri. c f 1'0 ow: \cd t th virtual di appearane of imple bow as war \\' apom. in rance II

and no hand bows are recordeu in surviving castle in cnrorics from 12:\0 LO the mid-l.j.th century. On the other hand these listed an increasing number of arious crossoow., one oow LO 50 qU,lrr I , bolt or arrows being a typical proportion. th r sp 'ciali cd in(;lI1try ~ capons from the mid-I th century onwards 'vere jilll.uafts (perhaps carly jitl·ltions), larg' axe and maces. t the ame time trained infantry were steadiJy gr lwing in importance, phI ing a major militar role b the lafc !Jth cenrur. 'w types of foot soldier' were 011. 0 emercring, incluuing rhe Prench bidtJllls light 'kirmishers of 1302. Th f~lme of the 'I ming' in siege warfare had b en known for enturi _, but they \ ere also tlevcloping eRective tactics in open battlc. Flcmi.'h pikemen supporreo 0 m n wielding gocdl!/ldtlgs, mas ivc wooden mace: c rrainl came inro their m n in the carl 14th' ntur by 0 erthrm ing Ihe pride ofFr m:h chivalry at the bartl of ourtrai. Th J;lJl:ttl!f1t1ag, though mostl. associateu \ ithFlcmish cities like llruggc and ent was also u ed in northern france.

il i tias lot is known about the rc ruitmcnr and organi ation of militia inf~lL1tr . The old arolingian concept that all fre landholding men could be called upon to fight had not died out, but the obligations of the common folk had declined con iderahly h the 12th century. Duties excluded os! an I cheu/ltdw:, th peasantr. being regarded. 'rear a. a1 onl to b· called out under a generalarrierc btlll. enerallev)' of 1124 against a German invasion in luued man p a 'ant pet/iles infantr men, but in l:ase of war between a nobleman and the king, commoners v ere e 'eu ed ii'om following th ir lord. Oth I' obligations f ordinary people invol eo th building and repair of fortifications. I 0 seriou effort seem to ha e been maoe to limit th carrying of w apons until the s cond half of the 12th centur , though anI in the to\ ns \ ould some men ha e be n wealth enough to po proper ann.. Th v aggon. that the countr side could upplyoften eern to ha e been more important than th "arrior; but in 1284 the abbot of t. illlr-des• Iwrlcm'lgne's troop' sleeping', e. IUS. Here the kite-shaped shields ..., re ora shorrer I;/(e 12th centw' form. n imeresting . leature i. the rigid r:,eemasks on rhe hclmec.~·. (RohlmJ \ indo\ in situ Chartres GIIJlccfra/; llUtJwr's phorogmph)

12

Fo scs \Va abl to ulllmon a respectable force from the bbey estates: the 12 men v ho a ned 60 pounds or m re appeared with a mail hauberk, cllOpel-de-/er helm rand w rd or couleall da g r; 53 men 0\ ning 30 pounds or more came with variou' t p . of quilted gtllllleson, chapel-dc-fer and sword or dagger; tho e with ten poun I or more cam onl with a hopel-de-Jer and sword or dagger, while those having J s than ten pound turned up \ ith a bow, arrow' and a clagg r. erchants had ah a s rra died hea iJ armed hut, a. trad expanded in the 13th century, mo. t settled down to run their affair from office. rban militias were rarel mentioned in northern France befi)l' rhe middl of the rzth centur , th ugh the ma have exi red. The need for the ri ing urban (QIIIIJI/I11eS to ha e lroop as v ell a adequate finance and political elf-control to protect th m dve' again l urrounding feudal force wa ob iou. a t em erg d in the mid-12th cennu' , v hen rhe pIa ed a ital role again r for ign in as ion and the became c en more prominent under King Philip II ugu tus. The seal. f mo t urban communes \V I' V arlike and showed rowers, an ,lI'mour d man or group of \ arriors. The military obligations of communes were now 'lear their charters laying down preci Iy what dutie were and were not owed to the local lord or his representative lhe senecllfll. The al 0 Sl cificd wher the militia 'hollld ser e and for how long. uch charter listed the numbers of sergeanls and waggon a [Own must suppl , though these ~ ere increasingl replaced hy n10ne pa ment. . ven so, many I_th and 13lh centur French town men spent a lor of time oldiering. wide-ranging list of cir , to\ n and abbe obligation under Philip II ugu. tus totall d 7,6 5 sergeants and r38 carts, plu 11,6 3 livres pfU'isis (Parisian pound) from those \ ho paid instead. 1\t the. ame tim it wa getting more difficult (II) TauI' de on tanee, the e;lr!ie.../ p"r/ or/he derence.'! n(.ilif(uc ·-J\larres. IwiIt i/l '2-1'-':;0. The upper b:IL/lemcnls lI'erc rclJU.iI/ in /11 ' 17rh c(:nwry. (8) Rif(hLImnk rOll'cr 011 eh • fortificd Pont ;l/elltrc fit ahors, started in 1308. (C) Porte • 'ainl-)eJ1I1 "I Pro "ins. 13rh

eenlllry. (D) Isolated to 11'('1'

for rhe king to rai. e fi udal levies through hi grear nd r Louis L , for example, the barons assals. often refu ed to le y [1'0 p' from th ir o~ n people, arri ing at h mu tel' with the smallest possibl follo\ ing and returning home immediatel their 40 da w r up. nder su h ir umstance rhe crown turned to

Iwil/:It illencu\'c-sur}'nnne by King Philip U"WiIUS, e:lrl. Ijeh century. The upper pare is nO\lllo!;t. (/~) Castle orlhe Count.' ofFhlnder. , Gent; I,clow line 'b' built before t 180; abovc line 'b th . don jon orc.1(80;:lI1O elin ':1' t9lh century restoration. 13

vlil/lh', La .hl1ritc P alccr, Loire region. larc 121h een/LII)', Golialh ",cars Ihe oldIilshiuned equipmelll ufren f!ivCll /I) 'infjdc1... • in meclicl':l1 ml/nu:;cripls, 'Ol/vidand

I hough !wch ,'iIW/"lIJcm/ned, sIWrl-''ilccvcd mailllllu'> 'rlls would a/.ow 11Il ve l}ccn issued to

serg'l1nts. (i\il ,HarJ. :z89.;, f,:; I I'. /3ril. Lil,.. london)

the to\ ns for troop . Jn 12 -3 nme toWD of the a sif entral r gion provided er 3 000 serrcanls. Half a c ntury later rno t\ althy citizens pared to be exempt d cr ie thi money being u ed to hire profe i nal \ ho were probabl m re u fuI. During a mililar emergenc fI30 -4 th crov n tried t rum paym nt for e 'emption into ::t r gular tax from both noble and c mmon I' only erC: bing x mpt d, but this cau 'ed \ id pr ad r ntrnem 14

and was cane lied ten years later.. ev r hele.. ther \ as a horough r [gani a ion und r r in Philip in 1 17 with th Id'r ar va ai' being dr:l\ n back into the y t m. Ea h town or pro inc \\'a again r pan ible for pro iding men equipm 111 and Icau r', all to b pia d und r r gionaJ command I' appro cd by he king. The mo l detailed informalion about the rani ation of ,u<.:h militia. com. from Flanders and i[ neighbour. Here late 13th century militia. \ ere g n rally organi ed amun 1 Tafl guild., :leh providing con tabularie. ' of both fighting men and rvant. led by thcir own ommand rand cquipp d at the guild's exp nse. Th riche t 'ilizcn. fought a 'avalry but the majority, of 'our e ·till SCI' ed on foot. Earl militias, while nfon.:ing the I I th 'enrury Peae of od acteu in the King's name though often being led b' local abbots. The growing wealth of om I _lh entur town. enabled their militia' ro be \ ell quipped, but citizen .oldiers remained parttim r. with little training \ ho gen rally nc -de I the . upport of kni hts or merccnarie , Y I their morale \Va often good. In fin the pea'ant of the Lion relTion ro e again t a bi hop who \ a lh ir I( rd. hey ummoned the militia fl" pi, aili and ther commune. to th ir aid, \ hile the bi h p 'ummoncd th. of Laon town, oi soru and the Abb ') of l. cdard together \ ith hi feudal force'. briefbattl rook place ncar the little River ilctte but the pea ant militia had rak n up a po irion on a gra.. plain with their flank open to 'avalry atta k and a. a r' 'ult were quickl beaten. e"erthelcss militia. \ r probahl' more cffi c i than th aristocratic chronic! '1" would ha e u auld they defend fortified wnll belie e. at onl but <11 the battle of Bouvine. in 12J..l. they were alTa ed under their own banner direcLl in front of the king, forming a d fen i block around \ hieh the 'avalry coulu mano uvt·c. e a1 0 know that the oppo ing Imperial infano'y, including 'Iemings and Bran<,:ones had pike' longer than Fr nch cavalry Ian 'C ,while th I' had h k d. P ~tr to pull PI' nch 0 t operation outh rscm n from their addles. ·id their own \ all s em, hower, to havc b en 'poli duri, In 1-33 l { cummune. su 'ce sfully put down a rebellion in the Bcauvais ar a. The "Iemi h upri ing in he early 14th c n ury \ a. larg Iy ba ed up n militia fi I' C, and th ir 'tagg ring

vi ·tor ' 0 er "' ren h knighthood at ourtr'ai was not their onl u c in op n battle. Flcmi h militia \ on two ofthc four main cla h s (Courtrai, 1302, and Arques, 1303) whilc losing the other ( on'- nP'v'l ,t304,andCas e.I, 1328). The equipment available to militiamcn varied according to th wcalth of th commune, cit. or region. cncrally sp aking urhan militias w re bctter oR-than rural ones. Bod armour wa vel' rare in the 12th century, though wealth. citizens might erve as armoured cavalry. ail haub rks became more common in the 13th century, but the majorit still fought in quilted 'old an I blackened gOlllbesolls. mall rnund buckler shields appear in late 13th and earl 14th century ource., but ome e pert· suggest that sword-and-buckl I' fighting wa more of a port than a ~ ar skiLl. ur iving documents from Frenehspeaking Liege, be ond the . reneh frontier, specif rhe arms poss s cd b certain itizen. For example, in [28] imon tourmis 0\ ned a full mail hauberk' while in 13 [] a clerk named Jean Fabri had a smaller mail/wllbergeol1, a perhapi'i metal-plated leather cuirie and a basl"inel helmet with mail oven/ail. tany if not most )f the guild-ba d militia. of French Flander are also known to ha worn som kind of uniform in the 13th and 14th centuries, probabl simple surcOatS of asp cifi d colour.

£nginee.'s and cOITlmissariat Although some cities were famou for the siege skill of their miners and appel's, professional engineers could also be ounted among the rank of m rcenari ,coming [0 particular prominence under Kin Philip I I ugustus. Those operating Simon de Momforr' mao si c ·tone-th rO\ ing IrebllL"hels a few year later arncd 21 livres pcr day-a hug sum e en if it was di ided among se eral men. Under Philip ugusru, milladi \ ho u ed picks to undermine 'ncm wall' gOt. deniers p r day, anti pion r, ma, on. and labourers 15 delliers. 'ueh auxiliary ervices were generally regarded a part of an army'. commi sariat which, b the late EfTi8J' orRaoulll de lle:Hlmonl, c. 12ZU. This i.t; one oflhe carli 'Sf nlilifary cl1igic,.. in Europe and it portrays Lhe \lieomtc fully /nailed bU/ ll'iUlOlIC a

sureo:H. His helmeL is of 111e lal1 domed Iypc \ ich tJ rim band lmd a ub l:mtial nasal. (Musec tlreheolo"iqllc, Le Mans, Cliche Jltfu ees du J\1:ms) IS

1.2th . ntury, W,IS highly organi d. Philip 1J of "ran 'e's militar hureau rats listed the equipment in each royal caslle. In ormand', for e. ample Pac lII'-Eure had _6 'tirrup ro. b w , 38 of th 'two foot' kind and five larger crOS'bow ad lon1ll1l/ II mail hauberks 2 'doubled' helmets (either with a mail wif or including a close-fitting cerve/iere), and 23 ordinary helmet. Little IIliers L'.· que only ha I two stirrup crossbows. rsenals in fortified towns were equall aried. hinan had four crossbow. ad lOri/mil, three 'tWO foot' ro sbow, 13 'stirrup' crossbow and 22 other in the hand of Pierre de Saint-Giles' (later record d a. go ernor of ne~lrb Langeais); 2,000 quarrels for the rossbo\ ad lomum 10000 for the 'two fOOL' type, 33,000 for the , tirru\' ero bo\ .; 20 ' harp blade' and three 'cro . es (m aning unclear); large hield. and 0 smaller shield. ; 400 cord' for pelraria tone-throwing maehine, I I large siege ngin's of variou kind. including onc pelraria lurf/flesia (an al'l form of esprillwil); si' large waggon and 26 smaller t pes, stores of food and wine; plus four doubled helmet 26 mail coifs and len co/erias (protection for th n ck

°

and hould r), t the other end of the scale \ as yons-Ie-For't WitJl only five mail hauberk, four smaller mail shirr and nine helmets. h· pro i ion of carts \ a a ital part of the commi . ariat, one bein n led for e ry 40 or so sergealIlS under Philip ugu tu', Tents were aJso important. The nam _ giv n t) v'lriotl r pes suggest . trong rab-Islami influ nee, either throu Th pain or via the ru ade , and tJl wa they wcr made .. uld support ueh an idea. lorsc noth r ar a in \ hi h Fran e, lik' tJle rest of vet rn Europ , gained mu -h from contact with the lot of uslim world was that of hal'. e-bre ding. nons n urrounds the medieval knight' ,ar-horse or deslrier in [act hor e' need ph sica! weight to pull weight not to carr it for \ hi h th y merel need strength. The medi '\1,11 European war-hors wa not a cold-blood d 'heav hors', but \ hat \ ould be con idered a ob, a rare breed that now ur ives most ob iously in the uffolk ob and the Pun h. nl towards th later Middle ges and Renaissance, with the adoption of massi e plate armour might, arhorse ha mk non .ome orth chara·t ...istics ofth modern Percheron and rdcnnes brccd . Deslriers had been kno\ n ince the late lOth centur. ' Information from a few centuries later indicates that th were trained to \ alk but not trot which would have been painful for an armoured rider in th mcdieval 'peaked' saddle, and olll at th la t moment would the increase speed, charging at a slm canter rather than a gallop. While these des/riel'S \ ere then, and wouJd now be regard d as 'cold blooded', the whole question of 'hot' and 'cold' blood is. till \ id Iy mi under tood. There is no genetic ba·j for the distill ,tion, which reflects temperament and the regions in \ hlch variou bre d rigina ted. ob-like hoI' c \ er abundant throughout m dieval Europe in area' of good grass and clo cr. [n earlier time Roman ca all' hor cs had morc in ommon with tho e of the nomadic c thian people of south rn Russia, these Ivory chess knight. !;outh French 12th c,:ntul'j'. oce the Frameel helmet ~Iric." II ""ubsca1nial rin7, perlwp intended to sholl' an early

16

lorm of brimmed l:h~lpcl­ dc-fer. (BargeI/o J\{u.... , Florence; Ilulhor'... pJltJlogr"ph)

ha\ ing rhe appcarane of a larger fi rm of abian horse. l\lCllnwhil the, 11 ient riding hor e of th yl idcJl ' ~:a:t . 'ems to ha \' be n the ane 'tor of th . modern Barb. he quality on es ern Europe:m warhorses dead} declined following the r,llJ (the ROnhln Empire, and mo t hoI'S s availabl t har!magn and his :ucce sor weI' not very impres. iv I~lilillg against th' invadin'T Magyar' on their tough steppe [loni ':. ev -nh less the old breeds SUI' iv d in the south \ here, in the carl medic al period, the. seem to h;1\r b n imilar lO tho. e of the 'ab on the S lIthern side o(the - lcditerrallcan. ntil the Ijth or qth cenrurie the 'ddle Eastern Or rab-J lamil: riding tnlditioll (3. distinct from Tun;o--Tslamic ntral 'ian tradition) was ha 'ically the, am a. hat of the Romans, though with th addition or. tirrur and mor d ,'eloped addle', Like the mcdi val knights whom the} influ 'ne d, rab warriors only mountcu I h 'ir war-horses imIII diat I h fore a battlc, Lh rwisc trav lIing on

Cill' "";lIJS uf arcas, onne. The,,, . were: bu iIt ,o;/wrt/\· after the, IIhi/(cn.'1i'lTI rusadc.• 'orc thc outer

mO'II, doubled circuit \I'~lfI.

and T. IJh(llf-rounded (1 uT/lOr' . pJ1Ulo[!mpll) IlJ lI'er!l.

mules uonkey. or 'am -Is as th' medieval knight travell d on hi' pafFt:)'. Tn fact the medieyal estern riding tradition dc\'c1o\ cd OUI r bOLh rhe ancient R man anu lhe more I' cent \rab-Islamic f~l 'hions, Th 'stern \\',11'-, addl " though it '\'cntually differed from the lighter \' rsion of'the liddlc East, a1 0 d '\' lop'd from a padded, wood-framed saddle . upporrcd n fell paJ \\ hich had b 'en brought 0 Europe by the :\n1b. during the e;lrly MicJdle gcs. The sam wa rue of elahomtc forms of curh hit which th u ~h kn )wn to the Roman. , had di d ou in most of Europe, Where th bre ding ofwar-hor' wa. 'onccrncd the medic al 'rcnch had almost everything to learn from th' lu,lims and here the rail' contributed a new.11Litud insrcad ofrcvi\'ing om thing III t ,inc 17

itadcl orCflr'·:II,.~OIIf1C. Tllllugh II/rgel.\' rcbuilt in the: IJth ccntury, thcse dcrencc.~· iflclJrpomtc carlicr structure."., ()/C the

recon.~tructcdwooden

hOflrdings on two sections of \I'll /I'1I1d one orth . tOIl'CI'S. (.lul1lOr's phoLUgraph)

Roman time. nlik' their predece. !>ors the rabs had, sin 'c prc-Lslamic times, bred for qualit rather than quantit . Th first recorded rab veterinary manual (hned from D 785 while the artificial in. emination of m;He: was known by at I a t 12 6. rabian horse: \ ere imported ia pain a early a the 9th ccntur rand perhap. iI. a r suIt of the fir t rusadc., ll10re Po\\ erful hoI'S of n zanrine or Persi;\I1 Ilpe reapp .Ired during the J2th century. This, course, was a time when the Iargcl French 'I'll aders w I' uppo edl 'bo\ ling over the araccn on their smaller ponie . rab influence can also be {i)und in th terminolog of medieval French horse breeding, \ her th word !Iardol (the mi. e I

or

18

offi pring of a stallion and 'h -ass) deri "cd from the rahi . birt/ha/lltl meaning draught or pack horse. 1 he most immediate source of influence upon French horse hI' 'eding wa. Mu.lim 'pain where a famous ·l.ud had been established at Cordoba a. early a th· th cenlllr . It was in outhern pain that the famous ndalusian breed was d v lop -d. llasicall) descended fr Jm the orth frican] arb, which wa' a1. 0 a foundation train for the Arabian horse, thc ndalusian \ a. th first 'oriental' br cd to b appreciated in 'stern Europe. \ illiam of 01'manJy had two at the battlc ofHastjngs and slich 0eallecl 'hot-blood c.J' hoI'S WI" imported in large numb TS frum th - late .11 th century. Inc itabl th had an impacl not onIon the character of thc finest Frcn -h \ ar-horses but also, it 'cerns, on the 1 lac . where dcs/riers weI' l'3ised. The P rche region of southern ormandy later ga ' its name to the P r heron breed, hut during I h fir thai f of he I zth

century ~ount Rotrou III of Pcrchc fought in the . panish Reconquista, taking I an in th captur of . anlgo sa and ~ ud la. ould ount Rotrou ha"e brought back the horse: which made Perche an imr>ortant breeding centre and which ultimately sired the Pen:heron ? By the lale r2th century, when a hallslln tie Ce.l"fe called rh CUllrtJllllemellf tiL' LOllis, as 'rinen the ill 'al knight had quite a train of animal' in to, . '\ccording 10 the CuurUllllelllellf these con ·jsted of his des/riel' a rtJlIl'in p,lck hor:e, a pal}i"ey riding horse, a mule anti llno[her heast of burden. The des/ria' a naturally I he mo t aluable, but the pll(fi'ey mlS al. 0 a ,peciall) trained .Inimal: ir was a 'pac 1", a r;p' of horse now mo.'tI) . cen at dres. age event·. It. gait of 'pa ·jng' was much more comfortabl f(lr irs rider lh.ln trolling, p,lI'ti 'ularl)' ov I' long Ii rances, bur it wa. unn;ltul'al and had to be taught. 'Sic~e orCllrellSSOtlne IJ."

'imon de lontlorr\' Crusmh'r ". ('ur/J 13,h CC1}(l/IT I'cliel'eilr"ing. The dcfetldcr.<; Iw I'C u ern..<;11111l'

lind mil n-pol\icred mangoncl while m"ny llfll1ckcrs WCllr llul-LOpped 'great hclm. '. (in situ I'Iwcdral. C:1rc:lssonnc)

THE ARMIES OF SOUTHER FRANCE Th hi tor of rhe . rench sourh or I lidi diffcrcd from rh:ll of rhe north. During th roth c lltuJ' the 'ounts of1 oulotl c haJ risen in lower and there had h en a con. iderabl miliraris:nion ofthc arca; rhen l in th' J ah 'entury, th . e gr ',11 nohles rartcd to lose control, many of th ir reace-keeping funcijons fulling to the hurch. Mcanwhile th n w militar cia s of ",iliffs was emerging. The. w rc srill of Jowly status in the lare rorh century, SCI' ing as full- or partrime \ arriors to the IOl:aljideles lord. B tbe middle of he I rrh 'elltury, howe cr, the lIIilile.~ had become a I cal po\'.'er though their relationship with rhe greater ari r cracy was le s 'fcuda I' rhan in northern Prance. uril around I IHo the southern lIIili/es and more senior (((11II/!arios remained little more than pro-

19

fessional warrior, th ir I-alu re ting on their fighting . kills alone. Yet uuring the I_th centur ' th '. were also Irawn inro th 'ounl W~l' ofLife '0 vividly reflected in the song of th sOllthern troubadollrs. While in lh ' north lbere were foul' kinds 0 knighl, in the sOlIl-h the l1Iini,l'lerillks ~ ho liv u in a lord court hllrdJy ex'sled. There wcre, of coursc grcllt knight or lords a. well as vassal knight who fought lor th ' great ,IS part of their (cudal duties, hUI what et the . outh arl
variety of term', many being 0\ ned as freehold pro\ crt . There had always been mol' lraue in the south and in the Tuh century lhi· expanded further, much of it centred upon Toulouse. NOl all cities ben fited equally and .-ollle \\ere more warljke than others: ~arca sonne, for 'xample, had bc n a major militar entr for centuries. To\ n-ba 'cd knights were another tcatur , often dominating the itics along wirh rich I' merchant at a time v h 'n ~uch towns were winning morc indcl nuence. 'I'( m the mid-r2th ccnrur) f udal Ii ~ without castle al'o '\PI arcd in the deep south, \ hilc fcudal rights over markels or wll coulu be more important than tho'e ov I' land, a lhe' brought in morc mon y. . cn in th 11th 'cntury il had been common for people to be given land in return for rcnts rather than militar scrviee. uch e tat' \ ere often not hercditary, returning to thc original lord on rhe denlh of the holder. In fact f udal duti sand ca ·tles did not lorm the h3 i' of tllC .outhem ociaJ onlcr, as in the north, but resulted from an administrati c sy.tem trongl. rooted in the Roman past. ne result of the outhern way of doing thing wa that a large part of the population could claim 'noble' stalus by the 1 th ccntur 1 c en if the held linle or no land. In 1259 in lhe small region arounu gen, li>r e ample, lhere \ er 150 t!ollliulli the lowest ranking membcrs of the knightly das , in addition to hiO'her ranking /IIilitl!s ~lIld ba rolli'S. Rela. arion and r alism ot only \ ere outh rn warrior organised in a different way, but there was a different attitude to warfar and the military wa. of life. rban knight. happil , took part in mone. -making commcrc while U ing in torrified to\ 11 houses and holding cstagel' fie~ within th \ all . The chevalier {/ coite may ha e bcen a Ic militari ed urban res reI' mighl imply ha e becn another form of ser icc owcd b urban knights. more common method oforgani arion ~ as the maisfwt!e \ hich e In. to have consisted ofa lord' kjnfolk, though e en so ueh I/laist/arfe force' \ ere often reinforced b mercenaries. Ther' \ a. UttLc 'Knight orrllc lcnlCnf {.1mily receiving UlC sacred Frcnch b,mncr (rom L. Deni '. This warrior has typical 13th ecnllll: arms

20

and ,lrmQUr including a long sIVord-o{:wflr. (Stained-glass window, in situ harrre' ;/thcdm/; aul1lOr's photograph)

idealisation of knight!. 'glory' in southern rance, whi'h remained u piciou of what were seen a. harbaric northern Fren -h idea. , The chivalric ideals ofthc north \ erc rarely r fleeted in the :outh, nor did lOurnament. become popular. F en the term fll/llber to 'duh' a knight, 'ontinued ro me<w equip with proper military ge3 r a it had don 111 rhe I rrh centur , rather than ref rring to som my tical ceremony. J n'tead the south ev lived its m n more peac ful ideals of ounly Love which, strongly influenced by ivtuslim and ,hristian 51 ain, then, pread northward to 'tame' the (Crocious warriors across the Loire. teanwhil rhe better-educated knighrly cia' ofthc south, along with the :imilarly litcnlte merchants, were more op n to ne\ ideas. nfortunatcl. for the distincti e civilisation ofrhe j Lidi, these includ d rcligiou: h rC'ics . u 'h as that of the Cathar. which took roOI in the south, It was supported b) noble, a' well a' knight. and would lead to a futi-scale north rn french Crusade in the 13th century. The militar equipment of the south diff red only in d tail from that of northern France, a i maut Guilhem de . hO\ n in a description written b htrsan in the' 170s: I lave ,I good horse and J wiJt tell you what kind, One that is s\ ill: running ,tnel apr for £11'111. ,Tak thi, nnc :It oncc and [hcn )'1 til' armour, lance, sword and hauberk wirh its 'urenat. Let the horse be well tested and nor ') poor one, and put on ir a good a Idle and a bridle and a really fine peitral I brca H;trap or front pal'! ora horsc armour!.o th,lt nothing i. un 'uirnble, ,lml havc lhc addlc-c1oth made with the amc em blcTll as the ,addlc and the same colour as i paintcd on th shield, and the pcnnon on the lance in [he, am' \\"a) , r lave a pack-hor'c read to clI'r_ our doubled hauberk and your armament held high so that they appear morc fine, and always h,l e th squires close b.. The statu' orthc sourhern squire also differed. [n the l_th ccntury the eSfllriias remain d n n-noblc militar TV'lntS. Th 'y looked after their ma'tcr ' horses, s,1ddl Ty and armour, led hi' deSI,.ier, rook messages, mn errands and foraged on campaign. quire might al 0 have guardcd th bagga e train, while tho.c of 'light!. higher rank ser cd at table. The tTm est/If/ier could ov rlap \ ith that of sirvell antl dOllze/, i"-'('/l$ W rc num I' u in the fortin d

fingers astle, buill around 1228, Illeks a central keep. lnslcad il consists o[a curtain 11':111 \ ilh numerou. c1o.<;cspaced tower . The stript'(1

deCONuioll was probllb(I' in pired hy 'yrhlll architecture seent, fh:m:h Crusadcrs, . (lluthor's phoLOgraph)

towns and may have been comparable to the northern sergeI/illS, while dOllze/s, rhough ofren of noble birth, al'o acted a attendants or servants for the (I/<'(Tlers knights. Thirteenth ccntury references to the dOIl:::.t:ls de crib them fighting in full knighrl armour or s rving at table, helping th -ir knight to wash ,md put on his ,1rmOllr rather than looking ,Iftel' his horses, e erth Ie s it i. unclear whether th dUII:::.e/ wa: an aspiring knight like the northernjw'l'lIe, or wa . from a poor knightl famil that had slipped down the oeiaL .'cale, Dllrin lT th . lat' I_lh century rhe 'tatus of the esmdien was £11 () ch. ngin " and h I he eml of the 13th the \ ere e "peeted t'O fighr, though remaining lightl. armed. The till had linle hope of becoming knights, but \ ere ad\'ised to be 'dean and neat even if th Y could nor afford the latest bshionii. I lI1g in a knighr' hou. ehold, u'h squires weI' also dependent on him for pa.. 21

lack ofcohesi In on rhe pari ofsourhcrn military clites has often been biamcu for rheir defeat during the lhigcn i.ln :nl ade, amI this <.\j<.\ pla_ a major role in the colbp. c of the southern military syst m. n the mher hanu southern forces oft n t()Ught sucl:c:sfull), ;lnu lhc) conrinued ro do so afrer rhe lidi under norrhlbigcnsian Crusade brought th ern control. lcanwhile southern France was divided bet ween prO\';nl:cs rulc<.\ by 1he French crown and those \\ hich rcmainetlunder the En "Iish as a theoretical vas '011 of Ihe I'rench. lIen: the defen'e of ascony against rhe invading armies of Philip the Pair in 1294-8 largely fell to local 'ascon knights, mercenaries anu sergeallts wirh only a few English h'oops taking part. B;\)'onnc remained a centre of proEnglish feeling, and the aScon nobility certainly did not deser\'e Ihc rcput.llion for unreliability later gi en th m. Dc, pite the importance of paid sUlldl/diers in 'outhern France, the <.Ii. tinction between m rcenarie' and vas. al. remained blurred. Le . prestigious 'l1crod'.'i!!Ut,rds', outh French rclicrcnrt'ifl/J, c:,rl.l '3"J ccnlllry. The mailed warrior,' wear sc,:p"ra,c mil i I coir:'i while lhe qui/lo/l.'i nf,be won/.'i

22

appear CO be .'iligbtly eurt·cd. (In SilU fiJcl/de or CllurcII vI' t. Trnphim<.; ·Irlcs; autllor' p 110 t/}!!rol ph)

merccnaries in Iuded bar Iy i iii d mountain men from both. ides of th Pyrence:. Gascons, anrr e and Basque. remained in demand a. infantr from the 12h to qth centuries, and their most haracteristic \ capons were a pail' of hell\' • javelins or dards which thev u, d 'in the manner of thc \"ilJ [rish'. Others fought as <\rch rs bur it \ as thc t!arrliers who most. uccessfully harried and ambu. hcd columns of invading north rn • rench h'nops dlll'ing the 1bigensian Cru ad '. Aragone'e from the eastern end of the panish p) I' necs also fought as mere 'naries rom th late 12th cenlur). ome were knight. or Ii rht cavalry but the 1110't feared VI re alllllJglfl'crs ( rabic allllllghamir, 'raiders) armed with 'pears or crossbows. L 's se ms to be known about military engineer in southern france, despite the advanced nature of siege warfare in rhe Midi. ne Gascon lIIagister illgell iIJrll111 , however, was so respect d that he \ a knight d in 125-4- and" cnt on to enc rhe 'OUllt of 'a 0 ..

Militias ilitias also play d a major role in , outhern \ arfare. rban force recruited from the blJr:::.eis burgh 'rs may even ha e been mol' important than they wcre in the

o"e IW(';;C'1I11II, tl,,' 'In' 0(" norlh, defending lheir fortified towns Wilh hand 'f)L'U':1f fJ(I"(I:I"if~~<;Ill' funl ,~oldicr, Ihe'loi/ted 18rm:lifel>"', i\·tacicjnws'ki bows, axes, gll;SIII"IIII'J and I;trge rocks during the 12t h Billlc, gamhcSlllls w;th lII'I.o;.<;;n' 1'"r;.H:.l:l:;/J. IJ(J/Il euJl,lrI>' 0(/11"0 ;1lr:.lnlrJ'm~·1l century. On campaign they were described by Ull- l>'idcl>' Ilr~' sim;1:I~h' "rllle,1 ami two ,lil1i:n:nt t.I'p~·S u( though grelll Ild';I,<;un' syrn pal heT ic I mlliwi/O/irs as cstol'l ing supply wilggons chapel-de-fcr. (I~i",p'lIlt u"/I' 11")01 /11' tilt· /sr"eI;"·.... armed WiTh bows .Ind carrying horns or pipes, while No;,' fIle IIS~' nf" t./i'/!,:cr ".. :\lor,:,'" Lib.. N~'II' }'ork) on raids Ihey poisoned the enemy's wells. Ifcaptured, a IlIIr:;'/';J or sirt'f'li militiaman might ha\'c tI hand or marauding Brabanl,:olls al E:1Sler [H)2. The difficulty fOOl ClllOlf, while a captured knighllosl only an ear or or detlling wiTh nanditry led III Inc.1l systems of law enforcemelll, which in Turn led w the growth of nose! A bl'ei.kt!own of bw :md order in the mid-12th democratic local asscmblies where citizens had LO be cenl my leu In a revival of the peace Ilw\,cmelll in Ihe consulted un all mililary malleI'S, MOSI such asCounty of Toulouse, and onee again the Church semblies were swepl away hy the Albigensian played a ICilding role, organising 'episcopal mililias' Crusade, whell The Papal Lcg:lle also look over or rOJ/mll/llill under local bishops. tvle
The Pont f1/entrc, built in II is protected bJ' three wll 1.1(18, is the 1ll0,~1 {;, 111 IJII. » toIl'CI'.... (.tlmhol"s fortified bridge in Frnnee. pllOcograph)

militias almost cvcr yc,lr aftcr war broke out in r29~. Su<:h armies would be summoned in late pring and ordered to m et at ,n agreed spot in . umm r' they then mar hed a far north a. Rheim and rra or to the elo er frontier with English ascony. Even when militias ser ed within their own town. th)'\ reliabl fora 'omplcxarrayofdifferenr duties. Jn their he da. uch duti s induded gach or gag (equivalent to the northern Kllet), meaning guarding the ramparts; and rcyregfICh or estifllgflch (the north rn flrrierc-gllct), meaning policing the trects checking the guard upon the walls and conti 'cating th \ capon of thos found a. leep. Both goch and reyrega II weI' normally performed at night, whilegllrrle or gMde des porles was da time dUll at the city gates. In Bayonne in J 315 each married man had to app ar in person once a \ 'ek on pain f pri' n or a fine. itizcns were normally organi cd on a rota ba is, being summon 'd at nighl'fal! b. a bell or trumpet. There ere two \ atch per night each under wpitnns who wcr general! outsiders 0 er \ hom the urban lead I' had lierl ontroL In a strategic 0\ n like fla onne even th 1'01 of rna or was primarily military. orne important citi s had royal garri on' while others recruit d m rcenari' , parti ularl :'It harvcst time though mo t r Ii d on th ir 0\ n inhabitants. . ach famil normally possessed a num24

bel' of weapons, and was liable for a fine if they fail u in their d u tic . If a town wa~ attacked th n all ahle-bodi d ci izens from the ages of I to 60, including women, w r mobiked. Th womcn carried weapons, f()od and drink to the men and w'rc evcn help'd by ch.ildren, pric t and JIlO ' if the situation got serious. ani beggar and foreigners were excused on s curit)' ground. Nobl men resident \\ ithin the town seem to have avoided ga(II and garde, p rhaps because they served in the r/!Yl'e[!.'tlrlJ as a mounted I' ser e to reinforce a threatened section or wall. uch a reser e could also make. orties outside the walls, Th del' nee of the gates remained however the mo t important clement in the defence. and \\ as often under a fuJI-time gatekeeper who cit her led a band of th 1110 t rehabl itizen or hea led a unit of m rcenan s. n alarm \ auld be mis d by hells, banners trumper. or b aeon and the t I'm cjfci de 'crib d th . citizen. ' full mobili ation in time of imminent" tlanger.N.lilitia would then be di ided into smalJ , quads, ti e forming a compan) or about 50 men. I f the lown was attack d militiamen lined the ,,'ails, .ometimes supported by their familie , while ar 'hers and crossbowm n manned loop-hole low I' down the \\':111. Craftsmen were called up to repair damaged weapon., whil br/{Ills or lookouts were posted on slll'rounding hilJ; at njght the ' lookouts \II re replaced b scolttS \ ho Ijstencd for u picious noi es. eanwhile the ten n leader' sent J/JesslIl,l!,I!S (m 'ssengel's) and espias (spies) to keep them 'el v s infc)rm ·d of developmen ts further :lficld. If militias were. ummoned to 'ervc in the army o[ the king or I cal lord their unit. sc m to ha e been small, and these \ ere pl'Obably selected on the basis of militar . kill. The hulk of militiamen ho ScI' d out ide their citie seem to have been poorer artisans \ ho were paid for their ser ices hut the \ ere generall led h a prominent citiz n consul or wpit((J1 while mar hing behind th tOwn banner and trumpeter. nee they joined the main arm militia unit w I' pI' babl eli id d inr mall I' unit ami di per . I. The equipm nt a ailable t uth rn mjlitia wa as aried as that. een in the north. The mail hauberk demanded of richer ailol's in arly J 3th centur a onne, 'md the quilted jerkin and ir n hat expe ted T

e 11th century : Fren b miles w 2: rn Fn:ncb mile 3: Southern Frencb peasant I

First halfUth century 1: King Loui VI the fat

2: Seigneur ofa castle 3: French militiaman,

3 I

Second balf12th century 1: Spanish mercenary knight in service ofEnglish Gascony, c 1187--88 2: Southern French infantryman 3: avarrese mercenary infantryman

3

Thc arm of Philip ugustus earl 13th ccntury 1: Th irc de ontfort, c 1115 2: rabancon knight being armed, 1125 3: French quire

D

The last Albigen ian rising, mid-13th ntury I: outhern r nch sergeant fr m untry ofFoix 2: .rench royal knight 3: uthem French CTossbowman from igonc

E

3

Battle ofCourtrai, 1302 1: Fren h knight 2: enior Flemi h militiaman ~;;~j~ 3: Flemish urban militia CTO bowman 2

Knightl dubbing c r mon , c 132 1: ren h baron 2: rench quire 3: r nch knight

3

H

of the re t, probabl mirror d the armour u ed b a anne'. militia. Information from the lat J3th centur ust m of Le tourc ncar g n indicates that citizens equipped themscl e , every h u ebold po ses ing a I II t a sword, lance, . hield and pudd d coif; \ h thcr thi reflected reality or was an ideal remain unclear, a. wcapons \ ere exp nsi e. In time of peacc citizen' al 0 tended to ell th ir quipment, sin e th carr ing ofarm' in public \ as often banned, whil in time of cri is armament might be eized b the lown bailiffs to equip profe. i nal troop. richer town could, on the other hand buy arm in bulk ifdang I' threatened and then cli. tribute them to it most reliabl citizen. outhern to\ ns generally had stores of wcaponr but like those in thc north, the e could be mall. e erthelc s an Ordnance of ).3 '7 insi,ted that aJi ar. enal' be guarded b royal officer.

ERigyofjeJcln d' lluI' ' from bbe. of lart~­ Dieu TOll;aine, mid-13th century. The knigllt's relatively light slVord i. in

a cabbard atrachcd to the sword-belt in an unusu'll manner. ( 10ist~· Mus., elV J'ork' author s photograph)

STRATEGY AND TACTICS trategy and tactic were not as high.!y developed in We t rn Europe a th w re in B zantin and u lim armies but the till howed planning on the part of military commanders. In France broad strateg wa p rhap more important than battlefield tactic, but this reflected limitation of ommunication and control rath I' than an short-sightedness on th part of commander. From th I) th 0 13th centuri s militar leader' tend d to a oid major battles, ~ hose risks usuall out\ eighed the ad antage . In tead warfare in 'rance, \ here the art of fortification wa quit ad vane d, mo.'tl consisted of raid ro inflict economic damage, defence again t raids, ieges, and the holdjng of territor thus won. u h a pect of medie al warfar have too often been neglected b hi. tor-jans \ ho look for battles a turning point' in hisror. onsciou I or therwi e mo t medie al commanders follo\ ed the ad ice of the late Roman theoretician egetius on the fighting of battle -namely, don't! For th invader good lines of communication were essential, as weI' the horde of camp folio\' ers wh kept his troop upplied. The great st fear would b di a e within the ranks and cnem effort to cur communication. I\.eanwhile the defenders wouLd block road, d moli h bridge, attack th raider a th di persed e er \ ider in search of food, and tr to cut their I' treat. Both side needed information about the 10 alt of the enemy s citie . The • rench, for example re a are of di sen ion \ ithin the ngevin (Engli h) empire in France, and u. cd this in various stlcces ful conque. ts. The strategic importance of the lower ein River, wh.ich ran from Pari through English-held ormand, a ugu tus, who put full und r rood by Philip enormous effort into recovering it for th French cro\ n. quotation from the ad 13th centur Ch{UISOI1S des Lormills d cribed a march thr ugh enem territor : 'The march begin. ut in front ar til cout and inc ndiarie. Ft I' them come the foragers who' job is to collect the poils and carry th m in the great baggage train. oon aU is in tumult. The pea ants, 33

having just come outofth ir fi lu., turn back uttering IOllu ric,. The hepherd. gather their flock and uri e hem toward. the n ighoollring wood in hope of. a\'ing them. The incendiarie.. t the villa re on lire and the forager' vi. it and .ack I hem, The lerrified inhahitant 3rc cith r hurneu or led awa) with their hands tied to he held for ran:om,' vel', \ here hell ring th alarm, a . urge of car weep, o\'er the oumrysidc. Wh r vel' you 10 k you can s helm t glistening in the sun, pennon \\'a ing in th br ez , he whole plain covered with horsemen. lon y, cartle, mul . and heep are all s iz d. The m ke billows und spr ~,lds, flame. crackle. Pea ants and . heph rd. . catter in all direction. (rran. E. B, Kr hbiel). (A) MOire: &- IJl1ile,\ t:lI!ule nt I:)er '.", built (oJ' RobeN lJ dc Ilel/erne in IQ9Q-11U1) as II del'ence aguinst che ounts Ol'i\tllillC, plus n .'icc';onl1l vicll'. (11) ireu/Jlr donjon 1/ f/oUUI/n,

t:Omph'fccl in "37. (e) lI'indoll/es. donjon ;/1 llou....'mc. one ul'fhe earlie."f !;ffIflC: ensU,·s ill Berry. (D) .n.w I ' 111'1,;/ III I, 'howing thC circulnr I2tb ct:nrury

B

Thi , then, \ a th realit) of war in th ' g f hi aIry, and there \Va little role here for the hea ily armoured knigh ',In cad uch campaign' dep nd d n common oldieI' who fought for plumIer and profit. Th grO\ ing • trength of medieval fortifications meant that, throughout the 13th anJ carl l.fth nruri s, warfare larg I) r main d a matter of raill. b relativcly mall force lacking ie e equipm nt. crear in a major battle couJd al'O pen up wholc provin e to encm raid. Thi. happ n d to thc fo'rench after ourrrai when the ict riou. 'I ming ravagcd rtoi cizing almo t ungarrisolled ca'tle. and tr)'in r to de\'a tate the countl', . ide. nl towns wilh professional troops, like Thcrouanne \ ith it. mall garrison orItalian mercenaries 'ould I' sisto fOwcr lind mllt;r lortifi ;/tions added in fhe 13th eCllrurJ'. (E) Cm;f/e l'ilhll1draul, builf in n nell' [lillian sryle in '.1Q6-7. (l.J Forucs... ol'Foix UII II .... reep rfI ,,) nurcrop. silowillI! the

or

r"Cfllflf!u/l/r dun jon ami 11:11/ ol'tlll..· 12th cCllfUrv. n rnl/....~·i c: circular f""'e'" nncl adt:lifionll/ll'all' (rom til" I,;fll cmury. IIl1d (JUWl" dc:l'enccs from Ilarerdllte,

c

a

o

34

o

fen 'iv tratcgy wa al 0 carcfull r thought ou . \ hile the bigge. t medic al ca tl were mo tl it d a' ba e' for a grc' i n, oth I' fortification en'ed a. refuge for a beat n or and a ba. from whi h to :ll.tack an im'ader's . UPI I) line', The t3th cenrury 'a\\ a great multiplicllion of ca tl. in • rance, panicularl) in • ngli h-rulcd Ga con), whi h felt lhreatened hy (he 'ren -h king. Edward 1 of England al 0 Tea t'd a cn or n w 1m s/ ides I' fortifi d mntier to\\ n _ n the oth I' hand . rcnch armies had g-rown larger by the tart or th I-+th c ntur) when Philip he pair tat.: d \\ar on t\\( fron " dealing \\ ith ;\ maj I' upri 'ing in Plandcr and maintaining garri on alonO' th' a. con fr mi r. Philip': for ,may have I' ached JO,OOO m n though a field army would onl. ha\" rang-cd fn m 5,000 to 10,000. Pcacet ime garrison coulu bc nominal, u h a thc four hoI' men and [our infantrymen who 'dcfenued' the ity of Lille; while during a crisi that of Bard aux 1'0 e to four 1/lIlIlIere/s, 23 knight., l27 .quir and 192 sergeants, not counting the local militia, a\"alr) could be ummonetl more 4uickl) than infantry but foot oldieI'
'Mjghl muunling hi' hor ·c'. ,\lbum ol'Villard de Iionne oun, French midIJlh cc:nlllr.I, Tire m:IJJ~" milil nins c.hrnll'n bllck re\,{~
linen nifll'QrlJ

1IC:1IC.h. I lis h:llIhcrk inc:ludes mnil millens but hi.... chalL'l··· arc in d/(: aid ,'1,1 I' c.·,pusing lhe re;:rr uf rhe legs. (Bil). .V:u.. \I', r, 19,09.1. Pari.} "

\\ere not full-time oldicrs, lhe) spenl a gr at deal of tim on militar . matt r. ompar d with the onstable and ilarshals the 13 'tel' ofCra bO\ men \Va <11 () a le'S political ofn,. In war, po 'itions of 'ommand abo e the e offi 'ers \ ent to prine' ' III' the blood, \ hile in the _oUlh the noble seneschals or pro in ial gO\' mol' al 0 command d rcO'ional armie. ow I' in rank \\Cre Ie er nob I , who en'cd as a matter I' honour but rar I) LOok part in more than thre campajgn. in' avail" and inf;}n ry for gcn rally had parate ehain' of command, pre.'umabl retle -tin T th· much high I' pre tige of horsemen, pmbl m' of co-ordinating the mo ment. of hoI' c and foot weI' :l common fealure in mo. r barrie. Th typical raiding and iege \ adare of the r 1 th 3S

Church ofRoyat, e:JJ'ly TJth eenlury. Though considerably restored. Ihi,5 hurch sl'i// has rlw

crenellalions typie:'1l ofmc fortified c:/wrclle.5 of eCl/tral France. ( tIll!or's photograph)

mnssive ",n//s fmd

to earl 14th centuries alse demanJ d miJjtar experts or specialist from garrison troop to engineers, ras 'bowmen incendiaries and forag r . ost w re infantr , the role of ca aJr I remaining reconnaissance, patrolling, e corting an arm on the march ilnd prot cring foragers a the pread a ro enemy territOr . E en though infantr had c1earl declined in importance and kill b the beginning of this period, all- avaJr battle remained rare. From the late J \th c ntur on\ ards it wa n rmal fi I' infantr to protect the hor emen, either b taking up po irion ahead or b forming a 'box' around them. In battle uch infantr \ ere probably organi ed into e eral irtuall autonomou formations. The old iew that medi al c mmander had little ractical s nse and that medi val warfare depended on th courag of indi iduals i almost certainl estern Europ an commander wrong. ucce ful weI' well aware of their limited abiJity to ommunjcare orders once a battle had begun. If a major battl· \ a risked they th refore to k car to choose a [fong position, arra ing their troops to rh ir best ad antag 36

and deciding upon point of att,lck or the action' of pecific units before he fighting began. By the 13th century a wid pr ad in ere t in getiu wa a1. 0 'een in France, new translation bing mad in which archaic Roman term and concepts \ ere replaced b 'modern one. mong the earliest detaiJed descriptions of a rench .ura is that of an arm dra wn up before King oui VI in 1114. I r the echelles or 'quadron ~ rmed larger unit tllC fir t uppo 'edly of 60 000 men (a clearly inflated figure) from Rh im and halons, th second of m n from Laon and oi son , the third from the Orl' annai , 'tampe Pari and the bbe of t. Denis, the fourth being follo\ ers of Thjbaud d Chartre and Hughe d Tro s. Ten year later oui managed to gather a huge of feudal ann to face the Emperor Hem Germany near Rheim . Thi, force, which a daunted Hem that he retired \ ithout a fight, con i ted of an ad ance guard under the uke of Burgundy and the aunt of ever, a right \ ing under the Qunt of ermandoi and a left can isting of m n from Ponrhieu the miens area and Beauvai . Th defeni e c· ntr \ as largel formed of militia infantr from Rheim - haloDs-Laon- oissons Orlean -[tampe Pari' and hartre -Blois-Brie-Troye - hampagne, \ ith a fourth ection from Fland rs- quitajneBrittan - njou as a rearguard. The batde fBouvine, at which Philip ugu tus d feated th combin d armje of ngland and German. in 1214, is ometimes regarded a. a 'typical' medieval head-to-head confrontation, \ ith ea hide hurling tJl m elve int the fra with an equal lack of tactical thought. In realit both Phjlip and hi foe put a 1 t of care into their initiaJ dispo iti n. he bartl of ur t, when imon d M ntfort' north rn French Ibigen ian ru aders deli ated a largel Aragone e army from north ro pain, wa one of those rare e ent an alJ-cavalr clash-the foot -oldier of both ide were involved elsewhere or were too far a\ a to take parr. e erth Ie Pet r II of ragan still attempted to u e local features such as small stream , dr guile and perhaps a marsh to protect hi po ition. In fact th e fail d 0 top tluee charges by De Montfort thre cavalry di i ions which drove the front rank of Aragone e knight back illt dl ir econd lin of squires and eventually cattered Peter s men ho w re un upported b

infantry. De on~ rt's fo t oldi r then treamed out of a nearb town, wh r the had been besieged by he militiamen of Toulou e, to fini h off the rag nese \ Ollnded, \ hile the northern French cavalr returned to slaughter the Toulousain militia. final element in this battle the troops of Count Raymond ofToulou"e, had remain d ncamped on a nearby hilt sinc their leader correct! regard d King Pet r' tacti a faulty. The armoured hor eman wa ., in many \ ay , th main projectile in the more open kind of Western European \ arfal·e. hock cavallo tactics of the rIth to 14th centuries were, h \ ever, essentially the sam' a those een in aU cenrurie . The p ychological impact of massed ca all'y upon infantry was at lea t a important a' actual phy ical c nta t while the nmk of h rsem n, ad ancing in ver close formation though at no great peed, attempted to break through the nemy' line. R er ewer ital to uch tactics, taking ad antage of break to pas through and attack him from the rear. Flank attack b cavalry, particularly again t tatic infantr , were attempted when possible, while horsemen were al 0 uppo ed to prOtect their wn foot oldieI' [rom ueh attack. The larg ·t tactical unit in France was the 'Seal ofjolm de lontlort. , 48. The l70rscm~ln llppCi1I'

If)

Iw I'C an early

form ofgreac helm while his 110l'!,e has II chamfron tel pro ecce il . hel/d, 11 • well

(ull caparison. (Doller d' rcq. no. D 7'], Archi t:s I IHionales, P:lris)

115 a

balttilLe. This was made up of conrQis which normall consisted of 1\ 0 or tluee cr cia e-pa k d ranks of h r emen (ideally 20 to 24 mcn), the rider' stirrups supposedly touching those of th ir neighb ur . In general the front rank ofa T2th or I th century collrois on i ted f knights, the others of sergeal/Is, while the till largel non-combatant qui.' brought up th rear. The mallest unit. \ ere called echielle but it i. unclear \ hethe!' the acted as tactical fOI'l11'ltions or were aclmini trativ unit.. orc ophi ticatcd concr arrO\ - haped ca aIr formations \ ere known in th loth centur iddle East and y~antium and in 14th centur Spain, but \ r notre 'orded in'rane . SpecificalJ light ca aIr units \ ere similar! almo t unkno\ n although in the ea.rl 13th cenrur the light hor emen of atalonia had prov d \ elJ able to cope \ ith the hea knigh s of an in ading French arm . Fr nch infantry were also organised into balililles by th earl 14th centur . Encampment \ ere imiJarl carefully organis d. In the late J I th centur the e were often referred to a 1U:1'1w-ge from the Old German term heribugl/. The name [or the night emincl \ ho guarded such amps, escalguailc, al 0 carnc from 011 erman, as did CIlgulIl'tle outpo t, cOl/rois and eschiellc-aU inLead pilgrim b;ulgc (rom the ri cr Seine, law 13th or t'llr'. J.I[h c:etlCur . It probHbly represent· r. George. (City Museum. Rouen; ;/utllOr'.<; phOlogmph)

37

, t,}:1 mes of Compow'clJa " IJth ccnwry statue, 171C

pmron, aint' of pain t'>/ rrics l/ sill:'" Ilt:d sword wieh a new form ufbucklccl

.<;lI'ord-bcll "'/'lIpped ;lround it. (In siru mien. C:1tllcdm/; ;llIthor's phutogrl1ph)

dicating ,I 'ontinuing link with th 'arolingian p riod when German word had dominated mUl:h militar termiJloloTy, hilc infantr I ron; s tried to anchor their flank on obstacles such as \ nods, river or hjgh ground in open terrain where this was impossible they tended to adopt a 'crown' formation: its exae sh,lp remain unknown, but the image ug t. that it \ a spiky' aLI round, Ilore is known about 12th to 14th centur 'lcmi h infantr , who formed up in a .olid I' ctangular phalanx but adopted a cir ular formation jf ulTound d. B zantine traditions, \ hich dominated We t I'll warfar unril the r I th centur ,used infantry arch'rs as skirmishers b 'fore a battle, 0 I' th arm. \ hile it deplo ed and to protect it, fianks, The \ ere rar Iy form .<.1 into rank. , where javelin-armed infantry provided th main 'mi 'sile' clement. In fact 38

it se m that cro sbO\ men, once the, appeared in large number, inherited the tactical role of ja vclineer rather than hand-bm ar hers, By he late 12th centur such ero bowm n oft n D ught behind rank of pikemen, being supported b loaders \ ho . pann <.I their cro sbo\ s and thus enabled them 0 maintain a respectable . hooting rat, Meanwhile lilTht inrann')' found a role in the 12th La 14th centurie when, armed with small shields and swords rhea ier falchions they formed up behind men with pike axes and other long-hafted \ capons, heir task \ <1' toattackenem cavalr if they threatened to break through or to pur u them jf they 10 t their l:ohe. ion. B. the late 13th ccnrury casualties seem to ha e been much greater when fighting in northern Franl:c perhaps because of the gr ater Ii' ipline or 'lcmj h infantry militias, than in southern France wher campaign. f n took on the character of guerrilla warfare. ledie al French flag. and banners may not have been a d veloped as tho in B zanlium ,mel the Ilu lim countries, yet they played a role in battlefield identification and control. They also cr ed as rallying point and indicat d the direction of attack, often being stationed in or slightl ah 'ad ofth front rank. norher We tern feature was the (tllI/ador, singer and speech maker, who \ entah ad ofan army to maintain it martial ardour, p>rhaps \ ith e'tracts from favourite Chanso/ls de es/e. Nlu ical instruments such as th hllisille trumpet, ,'01'/( horn and nl!lfl1l/ i or horn, had also played a role ince at least th 11th centur' and the 'leming brought their use in battlefield control to a high degr e b. the earl 14th century. M.ilitar drum \ ere much les important in France, th se that were mentioned oft n having name d ri ed from rabic (for exampl lahor and

nakerys), The olution of the t pical ·rench medic al armour d hoI' eman, with his couch d lance, peaked saddle and ·traight-legged ri ling po ition, depended up n an earlier adoption of hoI' eshoe and brea land crupper straps, rno t of \ hi h cam from ntt',ll sia. tirrup were also important, though perhap overempha i d and the again originated in A. ia, Stirrup were, in fact, e ential when using a spear in the 'couched lance manner locked between the che t and upper arm, but not for the effective 1I e of \ ord, mac r hoI' eman' axe,

The full dev lop d c 'tern 'ur pean 'jousting ' was known by the earl 12th century though the term areems, referring to e tensions to the rear of a addle, had been l' corded at lea t a generation earlier. In the full developed peaked or jousting saddlc these t/I'WW wrapped around a rider'. butrock, making it er difficult to un 'eat him. On he other hand it \Va qually difficult for a rider to remount. uch a addlc if unhorsed. The curb it, which ga c n rid I' mor imm· diatc control a er hi hors spread throughout 'uropc b th 14th century, having been rcintroduced from the I lamic land., but spurs had ne cr EIIJen out of use sine Romnn time. In fact the remained unchanged iddl g, only adopting a throughout rh carl .lightly cur cd outlin in the late J 2th c ntur . The rowel spur \ ith a . pinning 'piked ~ heel wa fir t recorded in 13th centur. Rus, ia and B zantium, and did not become popular in France until the 14th. Th true couched lance appeared in the \ est in the mid-l!th century, having been knO\ n in B zantium for at least a hundr d year and the throwing of 'pears from hor.eback wa probably abandoned in france b thc lat I rth centur . During the 12th and 1 th centuries the de ign of s'~ddl

lance, hields and mail hauberk.1 shcl\ ed in Teasing concern for the p netrating power of lances which had incr a ed with the couched technique. C ntrar to a \ idespread misapprch n. ion, th wings beneath the blades of 1 tth century ca aIry peal' were not uit d t the couched lance t chnique and \ ere not de igned to pre ent excc si e penetration of a victim s bod . rather they were a hango er fr m
meta / pill les ro prUlect kn 'cs '/Ild C/l)(III'S. (til si I U Tour Pcrn/lldc, PCl"nc '-leo5Fonwilleo5; I1IlI-hor'... phUIIIgr:rph)

39

much the am· a that e n in ar lingian tim ; namely riding fencing, throwing jav lin and u ing the spear or lance again t a fjllill/ttillC target. While the ja velin faded out f use, the qU;lllail1e 1'0 e in importance from th 12th c ntur onwar '. Early tournament also had a trai.lljng role a participants normally rook part in cfJnrois units rather than a individual, Training in the usc of the. word from horseback wa' of cour e also vital a an unskiUed man would th r be likely t hit hi, own h r or fI ot. On th hand continued u e ofa baldric (shoulder belt) rather than a waist belr to carr a sword suggests that thi we,tpon wa of ondary importanc to avalr until more massi e ' word of war' the 12th centur.

B

.

o

,.

E ~

o N

-= G

40

came into u e in ranee from around [280, Thi was not of course, a two-hand d \ eapon but \ a a longer sword designed for avaJry use in which h blade wa 'om 90 t 100cm long with a 15 to 20 m hilt. The arli t kno\ n medi val European fi ncing manual was \ ritten in Milan onl a fe\ ears later, although this emingl cone ntrated on th new 'o-call d 'Italian gI'ip' which permitted a more flexible cutand-thl'ust fencing t Ie using lighter \ ords. uch a fencing fashion originated in the 'iddlc East and reached France in the earl years of the 14th centur . eanwhilc the dagger which had been de I ised in France, also rose in importan 'e. Infantr warfare \ as divided between du combat and mi ile weapons, The mo·t important defen ive \ eapon \ a the pear through lit the lIth to J3th cenrurie . Long-hafted war-a'c \ ere a1. 0 prominent from the late 12th centur and, a these grew in prestige, longer cdged but lighter blades appear d. The bill popular in both Francc and Ital. , wa probably descended [rom tbe erman bet'/ \ araxe but de lin d a h a ier armour wa intI' duced. The g/aive i aid by ome to ha c becn de 'cended from th war c the'-a fanning implement convert d into a capon-and was u cd by p a ant infantr ' or mjjjtias in France, Ital and south rn German . The great length of uch g/rli es \ as often noted as was the fact that the had a point which could b tMu t into a fo as well a' an a. e-likc cutting edg . Th guisarme \ a another long-bladed, long-hafted war-a e uscd in th 13th entlLl' \ hile th more ob. cure 13th centllr French vouge rna, a1 0 have been a form of long-hafted ae. ingcd or flanged ma e of ob ious icldlc Ea tern derivation appeared in the hand of non-noble •rench ca aIr and infantr in the 13th centur . \ hil the late 13th-14th centur goetlenda primaril a FI mi h infantr. weapon, had a spiked head ct in a massi c wooden (II) Helmet aid to date from l]rh or 14th centur)', perhap a f"ke (, tu.... de I'lIrmee, Paris), (B) Late l]th centur. greal helm (Mus. d'lIrl, Paris). ( ) 11th eenlury axe /;'0111 CoJleriere, probablJf a work cool mdlcr th..m a weapon. (D) Mid-14th ccnWr)' word \Vim rcliqtmry set into the pommel (Mu . de I' rmee,

Pari...). (E) Ilch (:cntury spcar trom Col/crierc. (F) rreh ccnwl'J' jklllclin (rom ol/coerc. (G) Sword c.JfSD-75, with inlaid dceomrion on the blade (pri ace col/., Pari ). (/-I) r rdl ccnfl.lry dagger or knifc from Col/er';t:re. (I) Early one-piece form of Burgundian basilard dagger (Bois. ona." Col/., Genel'il).

Earl (olth ccncury French mUDuscripe. The horsCIncn em the right 1m c the Int' ( rorm orconictll gre:1C helm ',perhflps with hin 'cd ITi or., while on Ims pIa ted gren" on hi Ie ,The crossbowman on UIl' rar left 113 ,1 perbap. fiwcirul calc cuirns over his mail hauberk. Both ero ·..~bol\!mcn hn lie panning hook on their belrs. ( 1 . ()245. lZ5¥, Bib. Royale, Bru scls)

'Hisroirc du . on Roj Icxandrc I French c.1300. Iterc l/Ie Iwrsem 'T/ \Ve:v conical went helms wiul moveable visors, while rhe leadin" figure also h'L" gr a" r;. (/\1s. (10-/-0, 1:;6 , Bib. Royale. Bru ~,.cls)

.

-~

..

,

eJiterran an after th falJ of the Roman . mpire. b w ma hay he n u ed in d ~ n of enli in 47, and there were aIm t certainJ cro bo\m n with iUiam th on u 1'01' I'm. at Ha rings in r06 unted cra bO\ men formcd a highl mobile eljtc in arious earl r 1 h c n ur Frcnch annie, and b the early 14th c ntury th y w I' a, important in open warfare a. th had long be n in i 'g . th I' bulki r i engin ould al 0 bc used in the open again. t a static fo a thc' rench did again t immobile lemi h infantr. at th batt! of on. -en-P v' I in I304. Th tcrrif' ng csprillgal, \ hieh hot a ma si bolt or arrO' • was also used b th Fr 'n h aboard M u ri cr-eraft that samc ear. 1'0'

Further reading shafi, perhap de i ned t injure hoI' e' a much as th ir rid rs. lL wa. learly v I' available LO an one' tho e made in nt in r304 co t 0111' onc- enth of a shield, whj h \ a. it elf among th eh ap lim of ·quipmenl. mong missile weapons, variou form of javelin • uch ;1. th ogier weI' rill recordcd in th lar Jl th l.:cnrury. \ hil he. imple hand 110\ was ne er abandon d. f far reater importan wa the era' bow. Thi. had ur ida a hunting w p n in man. 'om I' of 'Ne t m Europe, particularly ar und the

udouin, Essai Sill' L'Armee ROj/tlle (I/( Temps de I/guste (19 r3)· T. I. Hi son, lv1etLiel'flI Fral/cc anrl her Pyrenea/l eighbollrJ (H 9). M. Bloch (trans. L. A. ran on), Feudal ociety (19 6r ). P. ontamin (tran. 1. Jones) ~ IIr ill Ihe idrlle ges (I 4) . . Dub Hommes el true/ures dll Jlifoym Age: Reel/cit d'lIrlides (I 73), 'unck-fireman , FtfodfJliteet hevrJlcrie(r 46).

Philippe

41

La Gila,,' ella Pllix, Frolllii:res 1:1 Violellces (III .I11~)lell • Ke (Acles till 10le ongrh tt/lollal des uciiiis 'uvalll':Lil/eI 976)(1 7) E. M. J lallam, apeliall Frallce 9 '7-/J2 (I( o). :. Harp r-BiH . R. Hal' e . (edit '), The Meals nlld Prtll'l ice o/MetlievlIl Knighllwod ( Pa persfrulI/lhe firsl alld secolld Irambc"']1 Hill ol((aellres) (I( 6). A. R. Lc\ i., 'Lc ~. odalite dans Ie Toulou ain et la France m'ridionalc ( 50-1050)', Allllllie till tltidi L.XX 1'1/2 ( H)O.j.). 1\. Luchaire, L.es 01l11111111l!S Frnll tlise f; I'eplilfut! ties Capetlells Dire£'l. (190)' \: . M. ewman, Le DOII/tlim' R/~)lal SfJ/f.( les Premiers CllptftiellS (9 7- 1180 ) (1937)· . Paint r Frellrh hll·tlhy: Chil'f",ir ltIt'lIS alltl Praoices ill JHetliet'fll Frallce (19+°). D. J. , Ros. 'L' riginalilc tI Turoltlus: I maniemCn[ tI la lance" ,alliers de h.0izalirl/ls 11Mihllk n (1l)6.). J. R. 'tra) er The Rei 'II u/Phillp Ihe Fall' (1 0), J, F. V rhruggcn, The .11'1 fd' II'lIrj(lre /1/ lI'estt'rII 1;'lIrtlpe dllrillg the \lidtlle .4g"s (1977).

The

h:;lcau de: I'ul,

fypical early '-Ilh

II

·~'nrur."

French ciI!;tle buill in '.12in fhe :luver;rne f'c;rioll. ,\

dwrch is inc rpurn I cd infO the OUI ,',. ,/er~'nce, (til/aWl''!; pIWfIIJ!f' ,ph)

Atlal/II Bible outh I' nch tHhc nt.J\t.. Edili 126, Bib.l auI'. Florcn

)

. J: ouchern Frcn h pea ant I \'y

THE PLATES : Th JJ th cnwry: J: orth rn Fr'n h mile. warrior

0'

There was a lUI or unirormil) in thc arm tern Eun pe.1n (,'l\alr) in the 11th century. hi man ha an carl. rorm or mail hallberA' -lit at the ide. Th venlail to prot 'ct hi. face i - -hown unla cd while hj word i thrll'\ through a slit in the Iwuber/.' into a cabbard and belt, orn ben ath. I Ii.. hield i-or th large. o-called' om1an' type. (Main ources: spear rrom '011 auphine; "ortitude . tatu· lat l!th ent. Paris)

'U .,

ouch rn 'rench mile. hi· warrior ha' a nc-pi c helmet on which th metal ·trip. arc m rely d corativ , but la k b dy arm ur. lot the carl) form of 'h raJdic de ign on hi shi Id, and hi hor-e'. carl) but complictlt d curb bit. ( hin ource: car d cilpital. late T 1th cent. in ,(il/lchurhor t .1'0), 'onqu , 'loiter of bbey of t. Pierre, loi ole, ' church of t. lectaire; 42

I [ere a ollthern pea ant wat h hi' n 'pan an carly form of hunting 1'0•. bow in a wa 'hown in the carlie·t i11u ·trations. I i at. 0 arm d \\ ith a massivc war-ax . (Main . lIr : cro . 0\\ rrom olleticre, Dauphine, 11th cent.; arvcd capital, c.1096, 11/ sil/l athedral Toul u )

B: First hall'JZch century: BJ:KinuLoui I TbeFac I n the fir. t half of the r _th nrury arm' tlnd armour differed onl r in d tail from rho. c seen earlier. Th I v s r mail hauberks re\ long 1'," hile a forwardcur cd one-pi ee helmet became \ ide prcad; irs hape probabl indicated thar rh front wa thicker than the ide and rear. ar-saddle. w r now or the ru11. d eloped peaked t. pe. ( lain 'our e': 'word, PI' neh mid-I_th c nt. pri\'at coIl. Ely' enam 11 d tomb -lab of c Ifr ) of njou, ad) '2th ·cnt. I' ha 01. u. Le ~lan ; car cd tympanum C.I12~, 11/ itu ath dral ngoulem)

82: cigneur ofa cast} The main feature. di. tingui hing thi knight are hi large I' ctangular hield for infantr) c mbat, a impI I' helmet with a large na aJ fa tened to it. braw-

band and the word-bell being worn out ide hi h d vi e on his, hi Id i that tra litionally given t h lord. of halo. (I lain oun.:c: painted chest, mid-12th ccnt. athcdral Trea ury anne' car cd tympanum ll2 JO, ill silll hurch ftc. Fo Conque; namell d b x fr m imog ,French 11 .50-1200, Brit. u _, Londun)

hauberk.

,

'Warrior on cop ofnn

the Ollter warriors appear

~ll1cgoricnl cOII'(,·r'.

wemr helnlcls with brim' or pClIk.5 only;lt the frone. The man on the left nlst) hn n rna. 'i c hinged bevur L'O protect hi neck.

Spcculum Thcologiae, French ("arlx 14ch century. 'he c 'nrmlligur ha' a norronl chapel-de-fer h ·Imet. Tho c next co him have plain mail coit:<; and

rt)

(Ms. j

rs. 1037, r.j, Bib.

at., Pari)

J

B.1-' Fr nch militiaman, early I_ch c nlurJ' This man has vcry imple equipment except for hi framed iron helmet. He has a knife and bu 'kl I' hi Id for close combat but carries a ub tamial taff- ling, p 'rhaps to hurl rocks at the defender of a ca tIc. (Main ource: carved capital., late II th 'arJy 12th cent'. ill silu church, t. el:t:lire; ivor. he piece, outhern . rench I uh cent. Barg L10 l\ilus. I'lorence)

c:

econd half12th centur. : panjt,h merccnary knight 1n ... cr ICC of English G~l 'CODy C,n87-88 This knight has an xtraordinary h 1m t s en fi I' a few cars in 'a til' and antabria. It appear to be made or an ordinary I' rward-tilte I helmet, plu a rigid vi 'or and an additional ne k pI'( teti n a th 1:

back. (lain uurce.: cary d capitals & relief, mid-Iatc 12lh cenl. ill Silll chur h at Reb II do d lIa Torre, anm laria la Real at anguc'"a athedral c\oist 1'5, Tu lela; Bible 0/ King al/cho 0/ avarre IJ7M.108,Bib. 1uni. min)

: ouch rn French infantryman Thi' man ha a n \V f I'm of low-d m d helmet ~ ithout a nasal; hi. long-bladed weap n i hown in

vari u illu tnltion, 'wd m3 ' b the .f{l/mart of th \ ri ten (Jure s. (Main ource: c;lfved friezes, mid-12th cent. ill silu we t front of church, iles du ard; oliath' in Lli Illirile Psaller 'rench late 12th cent. M . lIarJ. _8 5, Brit. ib.; 'Plight into Eg. pc carved capital 1 J 20-30 ill silll athedral, utun' Reliql/orjllJI ',. fj(/delin, 1150-75, Tr asur of hurch of . 1\ artin, \ i .)

J:. ra arr em rccmlry inHl11Lryman Thi. man" costume I etray the Islamic influenc fll c en in the far north of pain, as doe the construction of his leather hield. I li. dal'd jay lin was the charac eri tic \ capon 0 the P rcnean mountaine I' . ( ain. ources: dagger from upper city of iroria 12th ent. Ia a Regional l l . itoria' Bible (I/King allcho 0/ Qvarre, (197, M·. TO ,Bib. . UIllC. mi n')

D: The rmy of Philip U"U ·w , centur : Dr: 11 ir de if ntfort, c.r2/j The. oun lord. e ntfurt ha b en gi up-to-date knil>'htly arms and armour, padded wi/worn in iet hi. m
CHrly

IJth

n th mo t including a de. igned to k. His mail 43

In ide (he upper tor of one ofthe rowers of the lJateau de VIII. The 'e cramped paces {armed a vital part ofche Cllselc's defcnces. ( uthor's photograph)

hauberk al a include mitten" and i \ orn beneath a paniaBy padded surcoat while hi legs are full protected b mail chrrllSses. The ca.parison of De Montfort' destrier includes a prate ti e quilted head piece. ( ain ow"ces: wall painting, late 12th arIy 13th cent. in situ Templar hurch res ac; tainedgla windows, late 12th-carl 13th cent. il1 situ Cathedral Chartres)

D2: Brabanfon knight being armed, C.I225 Here we can. ce the quilted gambesol1 worn beneath a mail hauberk and th linen C()~r whi h includ a padded ring to uppon an early t pe of 'great helm'; over hi knees the knight also wears quilted misses. (Main source: 10 t funerar lab of icola III de Rumign , late 12th-earl 13th cent. after an Dun Berg & R land; aquamanile in form f a knight, French or erman 120 50, Bargello us. Florence; Chest of bbi antelme, L225, rea ur bbe of t. aurice, witzerland)

D3: French squire The only militar equipmcnt w rn b thi noncombatan quir would b 'a cia e-fitting iron cervelliere helmet and a dagger in a tooled leather sheath tied to hi b It. (Main urce: MaciejQT1Jski BilJle, 'rench C.1250, Pierpont Morgan Lib. e\ York;

Roman de TOllte Chevo/erie French 1 th ent. Fr. 23464 Bib.

s.

at. Paris)

E: The: last lbigensian rising, mid-c3dJ century: EI: outhern FreDell erge;lDt from Count of Foix Thi oldieI' wear an iron helmet \ ith a trengthening ridge down the centre. cale cuira e appear in ariou 13th centur French ources and one such armour sur i cs in neighbouring Spain. Otherwise he ha an old-fa, hioned kite-. haped hield no, only used by foot oldier. (Main ource: l1aciej(J/pski Bib/e, French C.1250, Pierpont Morgan Lib. e, ork; car ed r lief: & apital, early I th cent. il1 situ hurch of t. Trophime rle)

£2: French royal knight In hot climate

\ e tern knights often wore the

chapel-de-fer h Imet normally a ociated with SCI'geallts. This man s shield i now much mall r, while a buckled sword-belt ha r pia d the kn tted t pe. On his righ hould ria ingle thin wooden oJ/ctte showing the arm adopted b the ures d euill'ur- am after the ~ourth Crusade. ( ain sources: tomb lab of Georg d ivcrlee C.1262, in sill/. church, i erlee; Albul/I of illard de H0111lCCOurf

French mid-l th ccnt. Pari)

OUfhern Bigorre EJ:

Frenc11

. Fr. 19.093 Bib.

cro bOl man

at.

from

Laa.tlc cuticle. fir· t crected in the 12th century" an outer prot crion ror the city or en( but exten ively rebuilt in thc

17th emur)'. Like rno ( rortificaoon in the lowlying WCS( ofF/andcr •

Lanne 11Ils a water-filled moolt. ( uthor's pIJotograph)

Q!Jiltcd soft-armour weI' oft n \ am b infantrmen \ ithout mail h wberks. Thi. cro sbo\ man, with hi typical T_ th century 'stirrup 1'0 bO\, and doubled. panning hook hung from his bit, aloha an early lorm uf bllsilarr/ dagger. (Main Olll'ces: 1aciejomsJ.:i HiMe, Fren h .1250 Pierpont Morgan Lib. ew ark; relief car ing ) 3th en. in silll \ e't front of athedral Amicns)

ho\ v I' ha b en a the hauberk \ hieh n1
F: Th French in a ion of Aragon late

F2: Fr nch miJitary en in er

13tl1

centur. FJ: French infantry s rgeant from Toulou e Full. arm ur d foot soldi I' probabl I' mained a min rit.• bur thi man has a full mail hauberk 0 er a padded gll1l1lJCJOII apparent! fa ned to th n ck of

he helmet worn by thi' man i of one-piece can truction with a ,er narrow brim. et it might till e call I a chapel-de-fer. In addition he ha a hauberk beneath hi uperltluic and carri s a fine of Jean p:mi h \ ord. ( ain our cs: ffig 45

w d ' Uu ,French miu-13th c nl. loister 1us. ork; pncfllypsc (II /. Johll, French late I th cent. Bril. Lib.)

F.1: Aragonesc li!l:/1t ca alryTnan of Cardona ra.mil. The light cavalry of ata(onia anu 1\ gon would e olve into the light horsemen ,i la jille/a characteri tic of later medieval pain. any hao full mail /Ulubcrks light helmet. and large round shield., but this man also seems to have a thickl, padded armour b neath hi•. ureoal. The pc 'uliar objc t b hind the saddle, shown on an ragone car ing, is h re interpreted as a seal for an inf.tntryman. ( am oun:e : relief carving from Pobl t Mona tery, late r3thcenL. eL. u. ework)

G: B~,ttlc ofCoul'trai, GJ: French knight

IJOZ:

In th qth century 'great helm \ auld be r legated to the rournam nt, but rhi. knight still wear a simple vcr ion built up of riveted sections. Beneath hi hauberk is a fabric-co red coat-of-plat while hi mail fhausses . hcm the outline of rigid grea e

b neath. Larg domed poley7ls prote I' hi knee. The man wields a heavy falchiun; and hi. horse i" prot ct d b a full mail bard with a quilted lining. ( ain ources: Hislmy vI Williolll III 1)11'1:, French carly q.th cent. ' . ' r. 352, Bib. Nat. Pari; Les Chrnniques de I. Dellis, French early qth cenl. Ro . 16. . 1 Brit. Lib. London; His/oire till BOil Roi ..Jle.rt/1/dre Prench '.1 ]00, s. I. ro""o, Bib. Royal , Bru . I )

Gz: enio,. Flemjsh militiam 'ln The metal-Lined coat-or-platcs worn b Ihis man was ,ccn in both Fran and German•. fhc rest of his eq uipmenr include. a cha pcl-de-ler \ orn o\'er a c1oscfining cc/"l..'elliere amI gauntlet- co red with whaLeb nc scales. 1 hc piked goer/cllr/ng 'mace' \ as closely as ociated with 'Iemi h infllntr . (Main ourcc.: Cour/wi Chesl Flemi h carl J 4th c 'nt. 01lege Oxford; 'Mas acre of thc lnno nts late I th ccnt. s. dd. 17,687, Brit. Lib.; of the Innocents' relief car ings r rh cent. i/7 S;/II hurch, onc' bra tomb-slab of ir Bro ardus de harpignie, French lat t3th cent. location unknown) 'Flemish miliullllt the bl/tlle of ourtrai', The ourtrai Chest. Flcmi!;h earlJI 14rh century. Oil' pro ed to date from shortly after tlle baulc of Courtnli, this Cllr ed ChC.·SL cc1ebrlltcs militia I'ictoric!< over Frcnch ROl'fll armies during Lile c.~lr/j· l.jth ccnlUry Flemi.yh upri ing. Here era sbowmen ShOOL behind a roll' o(long .~pellrs I hile men ,'rmed with hen v piked go dcndags stand bchi.nd chem. ( C\I' ollege Library, O,vford' Ilurllor's pllOcograph)

46

cgc.ndc de . l. Denis, Frcnch e.1 '7. Ithough the 'eared nlan on thc left , Co<Jr lilnciful sealc armour, th rest oFthe equipment uppl.:"r to bc genuine, including 'calcolfCTed gnuntle( '. j ote the quilled neck and lc defen C! nfthem:1O wi/h the Ilr cd fal hion tlnd /hesrnall round buckler hung on the e'lbb'lrd offl mIlO on /he fflr right. (ill . Fr. 09~2. f.,29r. Pari.s)

GJ: Flemish urban miJitia cro bownlan 10 r militi. men \ ould hay impler equipment like this man, \ ho i protected b) :l clo -fitting /"Cruel/iue and a basic mail Itauberk. His buckler hield ha a r inf'OI'ced ir n rim. Hi. cro sbow \ a spanned b ' a ne\ system of hook and pulle. ,al 0 hanging fr m his belt. (Main sources: shield from Amsterdam, 13th-14th t:cnt.; s'V ord, mid-13th ccnt. Land muscum, Zurich; Tlte Court,,,; Cltesl PI mi h earl 14th cnt. \ ollege,O ·ford; hr;lll! oj I. Odi/ia, painted che t 1-92 Tr . ur of 10naster of olenernie!)

H: Knighdy dubbing c remon . C.lJ28: l-lJ: 'I' ncll baron H rc a niOf' lord \ ars a complicated dlaperoll hat and a \ ide- I cv d gamnclte cloak 0 r hi tunic. ain ouree: canring of' [3-4 ill sil/l rmin ter bbe.', Lond n)

e

lb: French quire bein dubbed Th co tum of ounger men differed from that of their Id r primaril} in a pref< ren e for 'h ner tunics. This man also carries a thi ker-bladed . word de ign d to pcnctrat armour whil' hi. scabbard i attach d to the \ ord-belt in a 'impl r manner \ hich rna ha e entered France from aralonia. ( aln soun;e.: French "oro, 1300-50, rchaeo1. us. adrid; unnamed effig , earl 14th cent. ;1/ silu Poblct ona. ter , Tarragona) f-/J: French knighc Here a knight ha an carl. form of bascillel helmet and , massi e bet or t ) COy r his nc 'k and -hould r , plus iron gauntl t and ir n I g armour. Hi' large \ ord is a avalry w rd-of-\ ar and he i al'o armed" ith a ub mnrial dagger. ( ain ourc : ffi ofThibaud d Pomollain, .1330,;11 silu church, oulommicr; alahad' car d jv r. ox French arl 14th cent. et. ew ark) 47

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co~er

The Crlmu. 18S4-$6

'98 (3: 1854-81

(<4): 1882-1902 m Yoctorli, Enemie, SQut~ ..rn Af'ln (2 : Non~e,n AI,lc.. (I): lndl~ 2H (<4): A,i~ The lnd,.. n Muuny m F'enc~ A'my 1870-71 l11 The Zulu W,. Sud.. n C~mpillgl" 1881-98 130 USA,myIS9O=1'nO The Bo~er R..beillon

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THE WORLD WARS 80 T~ .. G... m~n Arm, 1914-18 81 T~e 8"m~ Arm, 1914-18 208 t .. w'enc....nd I~e Ar~b R.. ~olu '82 B"",sIl8~1I1.. lns'gnl~: P) 191<4-18 187 0-) 1939_4$ 74 Th .. Sp~n"h Ci~1I W~, 111 T~.. PolI\~ Army 1939-4$ '12 Brllish B>tlledr~s 1931-61 12S The Ro,~1 Air Fore.. 70 US Army 1941-<4$ 216 The Red Army 1941-<4$ 120 Th .. 5A 1921-45 2<4 Til .. P"nz.. r DI~,slon\ )4 The W"n.. n-55 129 tllftw~lf.. FJ.. ld D,~",onl 213 G.. rm"n MP Unlll 139 Germ"n Aorbo,n .. Troops 131 Germ"ny"s E. Front AIII ..s 103 Germ"ny". Sp"nlsh Yotun,~.. 1<41 Well, moen, For"'ln Voluntll'e'S '<42 P~nls"n w,.r",e 941-45 '69 R..,I""nc.. w".f",.. 19<40-4$ MODERN WARFARE

, 32 M"l" .. n C,mpillgn 1941l-60 114 T~.. Ko""n W.. r 19SQ-$1 116 T~.. Sp<'C,,1 AI. Serv,c.. 156 The Roy,1 M.... n..s 1956-84 133 B>lll.. fo, ,h.. F.. lkl'nd" p): t,nd Fo,c.., 11<4 (lj: N.~.l For(~ 13$ (1): Air FOHes '11 IsruIIA'myI948·7) 128 A",bA,m,..s 1948-13 19<4 A.. bA'mleq2); 1913-88 165 Arml ..s ,n t .. l»non 1'181-84 104 Y,etn.m W,. Armil'S 1962-15 143 V,etn~m W.r Arml ..s (2) 209 W,.ln C.. mbodJ. 1970-75 211 W,. In l..,\ 1960-n 183 Mod ..rn Alroun W~rs: (II: Rhod ..... 1965-80 202 (21: Angol.. & Moumblqu .. 159 Gren~d~ 1983 118 Ru"I~·' War on Algh.nill..n 221 C.. nl ..1Ame'K.n W~n GENERAL 65 Th.. Roy,,1 N~~y 107 Brol"h Inf"nlry Eqlllpt\. I') 10B British Inl"nlr, Equ'pts. (2) 138 8rotls~ C~~~lry Eqll'pu. 72 T~e Northwest Fronli.. r 214 US Inl.n"y EqUip". 205 US Army Comb>.\ Equ'pn. 23" G.. rm"n Comb" Equipts. 157 FI"k J.. ek..ll 123 Austr.. lI.n Arm11899-1915 16" C.noOdl.nArmy"W" 161 5p.a.nl\h Foreign Leg,on 197 Ro,.1 Un.d ..n Mounted Pollee

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MIUTARY

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MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES

MIUTARY

An unri alled

ur ofinfi rmati n nth history, organisation, appearan and equipm nt ofth world' fig.hring m n ofp t and present. The Men-at-Arms titl cover ubj di e as the ntral rican wars oftoday in its popular 4 "pag fi nnat inc1udin.g Imperial Roman arm and th me 40 photographs and diagrams and eight pag offull-eol ur artw rk.

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ELITE Detail d information on tb history and appearance ofthe world' farnou fighting men. Each 64-page book contain about 50 photograph and diagrams and U pages offull-colour artw til.

Key unit and weapons systems of20th

V. GUARD ntury warfare, with a strong emphasi on armoured ehid

CAMPAiG Concise, authoritative accounts ofthe great conflicts ofhistory. Each 96-page book contains more than 90 illustration including map ,charts and colour plate ,plu aeries oftbree-dimen ional battle map that mark th critical stag fth campaign. ANCIENT" MEDIEVAL PERIODS 118 Ancient Ch nese Armies 109 Ancient Mlddl Ean 137 The Scythian, 7()().300 B.C. 69 Greek & PersIan Wars S()().313 B.C. 148 Army of Alexander the Great 111 Canhaglnlan Wars 46 Roman Army: ) Caesar-Tnjan 93 2) Hadmn-Constantrne 119 ome', Enemies: Germanlcs & Daclans 158 2: Gallic & British Celu 175 3: Puthlans & Sa,unld, 180 (1: SpaIn 218-19 B.C. 154 Arthur Anglo-Saxon Wars 115 Armies ollslam, 7th-11th C 150 The Age of Charlemagne 89 Byuntlne Arm es 886-1118 85 Saxon, Viking & Norman 131 French Med eval Armies 1()()().1300 75 Armies of the Crund s 171 Saladin & the Saracens 155 Knight' of Christ 100 EI Cid & Reconqulsu 1050-1192 105 The Mongol, 221 The Age of Tamerlane 50 Medieval European Armies 151 SCOlS & Welsh Wan 1250-1100 94 Th Swiss 13()()'1500 136 Italian Armies 1l()()'1500 166 German Armies 13()().1500 195 Hungary & E. Europe 1()()().1568 140 Ouom
16TH AND 17TH CENTURIES 191 Henry VIII's Army 58 The LandsknechlS 101 The Conqulsudores 14 English Civil WJr Armies 110 NewModelArmy1615-60 103 Louis XIV's Army 97 Marlborough's Army 86 S
Pleose nOle lhot (or lPGce reosons obbre"oled lilies ore liven obove: when ordenn"" p/eo.." quole ,he lllie num~c e.g, 'MAA 109'(or ~nclenL Armies o(lhe Middle EoSl', ere.

Avec annotations en fran~als sur les pinches 'I coul ur. Mit Aufzelchnungen auf 0 utsch lib r d farbta~ In,

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152 149 191 161 171 185 189 84 114 119 116 130 104 167 206 126 96 77 78 115

18TH CENTURY 118 Jacoblt Rebellions 48 Wolfe's Army 118 Am rlan Woodland Indians 39 Brit, Army in N. America NAPOLEONIC PERIOD 79 Napoleon's EgyptlJn Campaign 87 Napoleon's Marshals 64 Nap's Cuirassiers & Carabiniers 55 NJp's Dragoons & Lancers 68 NJp's Line Chasseurs 76 Nap's Hussars 83 Nap's GUJrd CaV
Prusslan line Infantry Prusslan Light Infantry Prusslan Reserve & Irregulars Prusslan CaV
19TH CENTURY 132 Bolivar and San Martin 113 Alamo & Texan War 1835·6 56 Mexlcan·Amerlcan War 18<\6-8 63 Amerlcan-Ind an Wars 1860·90 170 Amerlc n CivIl War Armies: (11: Confederate 177 (2;Unon 119 13: Suff, SpecialistS, Maritime 190 <\: Sa.te Troops 107 5): Volunteer MIlitIa 37 Army of Northern Virginia 38 Army of the Potomac 163 American PI Ins IndIans 186 The Apaches 168 US Cavalry 1850-90 193 Bml5h Army on Campaign; (1): 1816-18S3

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------':ontlnued on lnsld b ck cover

ISBN 1-85532-127-0

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