FOREIGNERS AT ROME C I T I Z E N S AND S T R A N G E R S
David Noy
Duckworth with
The Classical Press of Wales
First published in 2 0 0 0 by Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. 61 Frith Street, London W1V 5 T A Distributor in the United States o f America: T h e David Brown Book Co. PO B o x 5 1 1 , Oakville, C T 0 6 7 7 9 Tel: (860) 9 4 5 - 9 3 2 9 Fax: ( 8 6 0 ) 9 4 5 - 9 4 6 8 Originated and prepared for press at T h e Classical Press o f Wales 15 Rosehill T e r r a c e , Swansea SA1 6JN Tel: 0 1 7 9 2 4 5 8 3 9 7 Fax: 0 1 7 9 2 4 1 9 0 5 6 © 2000 All rights reserved. No part o f this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the
prior
permission o f the publisher. ISBN 0 7156 29522 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Typeset by Ernest Buckley, Clunton, Shropshire Printed and bound in the UK by Antony Rowe Ltd., Chippenham, Wiltshire
T o the memory o f Jean Norris Midgley 1914-1996
CONTENTS Page Introduction
'
ix
S e c t i o n I. E v i d e n c e a n d a n c i e n t a t t i t u d e s 1. T h e e v i d e n c e a n d t h e p r o b l e m s i. L a t i n t e r m i n o l o g y
1 1
ii. T e m p o r a r y a n d p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n c e at R o m e
3
iii. S t a t u s
4
iv. T h e limitations o f t h e e v i d e n c e v. I n t e g r a t i o n a n d s e p a r a t i o n
4 10
2. T h e d e m o g r a p h i c a n d legal b a c k g r o u n d
15
i. T h e size of R o m e ' s w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n
15
ii. N a t u r a l d e m o g r a p h i c d e c r e a s e
18
iii. T h e military p o p u l a t i o n
19
iv. F l u c t u a t i o n s in i m m i g r a t i o n
22
v. C i t i z e n s h i p a m o n g f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e 3. Attitudes to f o r e i g n e r s
23 31
i. Positive s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e 3 1 ii. N e u t r a l s t a t e m e n t s
33
iii. N e g a t i v e s t a t e m e n t s
34
iv. F o r e i g n slaves
37
v. E x p u l s i o n s o f f o r e i g n e r s from R o m e
37
vi. E x p u l s i o n s o f specific g r o u p s
41
vii. E n c o u r a g e m e n t o f i m m i g r a t i o n
47
S e c t i o n I I . M o v i n g to R o m e 4 . W h o m o v e d to R o m e ?
53
i. P a t t e r n s o f m i g r a t i o n
53
ii. S o c i o - e c o n o m i c b a c k g r o u n d o f m i g r a n t s
56
iii. W h e r e did i m m i g r a n t s c o m e f r o m ?
57
iv. T h e g e n d e r o f i m m i g r a n t s
60
v. T h e a g e s o f i m m i g r a n t s
63
vi. T h e i m m i g r a t i o n o f individuals a n d family g r o u p s
67
vii. L e g a l status o f i m m i g r a n t s
75
5. W h y did p e o p l e m o v e to R o m e ? i. E v i d e n c e
85 85
vii
ii. Push a n d pull factors iii. T y p e s o f motivation s u g g e s t e d by S e n e c a iv. E d u c a t i o n v. G o v e r n m e n t a n d politics vi. Provision o f g o o d s a n d services vii. F a m i l y a n d religion 6. T h e practicalities o f m o v i n g to R o m e i. H o w to g e t to R o m e ii. F i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s o f R o m e iii. W h e r e to g o w h e n you r e a c h e d R o m e iv. W h e r e to stay v. F i n d i n g w o r k vi. L o c a t i o n o f h o u s i n g S e c t i o n I I I . L i v i n g at R o m e 7. Aspects o f f o r e i g n e r s ' lives at R o m e i. G r o u p identity - a n d lack o f it ii.
Stallones
iii. C o n t a c t with t h e h o m e l a n d iv. H o m e s i c k n e s s v. L a n g u a g e vi. N a m e s vii. C u l t s viii. B u r i a l p r a c t i c e s 8. F o r e i g n g r o u p s at R o m e i. G a u l a n d H i s p a n i a ii. C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e iii. G r e e c e iv. Asia M i n o r v. S y r i a vi. E g y p t vii. N o r t h Africa viii. J e w s Conclusion A p p e n d i x : A list o f individual i m m i g r a n t s r e c o r d e d inscriptions Glossary Abbreviations Bibliography Index
viii
INTRODUCTION
Leaving behind Nicaea in Bithynia while I was still a youth, I went to the glorious city and the land o f the Ausonians. In hallowed Rome I taught accounts and measures. I, Basileus, obtained the tomb, the work o f my mind. I G U R 1176 In the second year o f the dictatorship o f C. Caesar, with M. Antonius as magister equitum [47 B C E ] , the site o f the tomb was bought from Q. Modius L.f. Qui. 24 feet wide, 24 feet deep. C. Numitorius C.l. Nicanor, by birth a Theban, eye doctor. Numitoria C.l. Philumina, by birth a Phrygian. C. Numitorius C.l. Stabilio, by birth a native slave. P. Opitreius C.l. Butas, by birth a Smyrnan. They built the foundation. In their tomb is buried: Numitoria C.l. Erotis, by birth a Carthaginian. Q. Numitorius C.l. Isio is buried there. AE (1972) 14 Papiria Rhome made this (monument) for herself while alive, and for Papiria Cladilla aged 19, and for P. Papirius Proculus aged 13(?), her children. Here the wretched(?) mother held two funerals, and she buried their bones with rites which are not just. For at Rome a falling roof-tile carried off Proculus. T h e deceased Cladilla lay on her funeral pyre at Sipontum. Your parental wishes did you harm. T h e cruel gods gave more good things so they could take more away. Also for P. Papirius Cladus her husband and for P. Papirius Celerio and Papiria Hispanilla her ex-slaves. C I L iii 2 0 8 3 (Salona) Flavia Valeria placed this inscription for her well-deserving daughter Flavia Viventia, who lived 18 years. She had her burial on 3 1 July. This girl came from the province o f Pannonia. She (lived) with her husband one year 8 months. In peace. I C U R 13155 s t
B e o f good cheer Serenus, child, untimely dead, aged 4 years 8 months 19 days. Fuscinus the emperor's provocator his father and T a o n his mother, Egyptians, made this (tomb), being left behind. IGUR 939 = ICUR 4032
IX
Introduction Sacred to the Di Manes. Aurelia Marcia, by birth a Thracian from the Promesian city, who lived 36 years 5 months 8 days. Aurelia Zenodora her sister and Aurelius Herodes her husband, beneficiarius o f the 10th praetorian cohort, made this tomb for the well-deserving woman. C I L vi 2734 T h e p e o p l e c o m m e m o r a t e d in t h e s e e p i t a p h s a r e a few e x a m p l e s o f t h e c o u n t l e s s n u m b e r o f f o r e i g n e r s w h o m a d e t h e i r way to t h e city o f R o m e . M a l e a n d f e m a l e , slave a n d free, s o l d i e r a n d civilian, following t h e i r families o r b r i n g i n g t h e i r own m a r k e t a b l e skills - t h o u s a n d s o f n e w c o m e r s arrived in R o m e e a c h year. S o m e b e c a m e so well i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e city t h a t they left n o t r a c e o f t h e i r o r i g i n s . S o m e stayed at R o m e for t h e rest o f t h e i r lives but, like t h e p e o p l e a b o v e , left e p i t a p h s r e c o r d i n g w h e r e they h a d c o m e f r o m . S o m e did n o t die at R o m e b u t r e t u r n e d h o m e first. T h e p u r p o s e o f this b o o k is to e x p l o r e t h e reality b e h i n d t h e e p i t a p h s : how a n d why f o r e i g n e r s c a m e to R o m e , h o w they w e r e t r e a t e d w h e n they w e r e t h e r e , how they a d a p t e d to life in t h e city, how far they w e r e able to o r wished to retain a distinct 'foreign' identity. R o m a n social h i s t o r i a n s a g r e e that a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a tion o f R o m e c o n s i s t e d o f i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s . M o s t immigration happened
i n v o l u n t a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e slave t r a d e ,
but
a substantial p a r t was o f a v o l u n t a r y n a t u r e , p r i m a r i l y for e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s . T h e fact t h a t R o m e m u s t h a v e d e p e n d e d o n i m m i g r a n t s for its p o p u l a t i o n g r o w t h a n d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f its h u g e size has b e e n widely a c k n o w l e d g e d (see, e.g., P l e k e t 1 9 9 3 , M o r l e y 1 9 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , m a n y i m p o r t a n t studies o f life in t h e city pay very little a t t e n t i o n to t h e r o l e p l a y e d by f o r e i g n e r s , e.g. t h r e e p a g e s in S t a m b a u g h ( 1 9 8 8 , 9 3 - 5 ) ; n o specific discussion at all in R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e only e x i s t i n g l e n g t h y w o r k o n t h e s u b j e c t is a l o n g b u t n o w s o m e w h a t o u t d a t e d article: L a P i a n a ( 1 9 2 7 ) ; this was n o t i n t e n d e d to b e a c o m p r e h e n s i v e survey, s i n c e it was a i m e d specifically at e x p l a i n i n g t h e s p r e a d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y , a n d m u c h o f it has n o w b e e n s u p e r s e d e d by r e c e n t e p i g r a p h i c discoveries. Cecilia Ricci has s u r v e y e d t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for i m m i g r a t i o n from s o m e o f t h e p r o v i n c e s very t h o r o u g h l y in a series o f articles o n G a u l ( 1 9 9 2 a ) , S p a i n ( 1 9 9 2 b ) , E g y p t ( 1 9 9 3 a ) , t h e B a l k a n s ( 1 9 9 3 b ) , G e r m a n y ( 1 9 9 3 c ) , a n d Africa ( 1 9 9 4 b ) . My d e b t to t h e s e in w h a t follows will b e o b v i o u s . T h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for C h r i s t i a n i m m i g r a t i o n is s u m m a r i z e d by A v r a m e a ( 1 9 9 5 ) . My i n t e r e s t in t h e t o p i c a r o s e from s t u d y i n g t h e J e w s o f R o m e , p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d b e g i n n i n g to w o n d e r h o w far t h e i r - e x p e r i e n c e s a n d self-identity w e r e c o m p a r a b l e to t h o s e o f o t h e r p e o p l e w h o w e r e in s o m e s e n s e ' f o r e i g n ' , as visitors o r i m m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s , o r as t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f i m m i g r a n t s w h o r e t a i n e d s o m e x
Introduction link to t h e i r a n c e s t r a l t r a d i t i o n s . I g r a d u a l l y realized t h a t t h e r e was a vast a m o u n t o f e v i d e n c e available, frustrating in what it d o e s n o t say b u t still potentially r e w a r d i n g in what it c a n reveal. T h e b u l k of t h e m a t e r i a l is e p i g r a p h i c : • i n s c r i p t i o n s (mainly e p i t a p h s ) w h e r e s o m e o n e ' s p l a c e o f o r i g i n is explicitly stated, o r a n ' e t h n i c ' label is used; t h e s e m a y p r o v i d e infor mation about both foreigners themselves and their descendants. • i n s c r i p t i o n s in G r e e k ( a n d o t h e r n o n - L a t i n l a n g u a g e s ) ; n o t n e c e s sarily c o n n e c t e d to f o r e i g n e r s , b u t likely to b e so. • i n s c r i p t i o n s which use f o r m u l a e o r n a m e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f places other than R o m e . • e p i t a p h s from b u r i a l a r e a s u s e d by i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e i r d e s c e n d ants, e.g. t h e Jewish c a t a c o m b s . • e p i t a p h s from t h e p r o v i n c e s r e c o r d i n g t h a t s o m e o n e d i e d at R o m e . • i n s c r i p t i o n s r e c o r d i n g t h e cults o r o t h e r institutions o f f o r e i g n e r s at Rome. T h e r e is also m u c h literary e v i d e n c e , from p a g a n , C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h writers: • complaints about the prevalence o f immigration and
'un-Roman-
ness' in t h e city; t h e s e a r e largely o f a r h e t o r i c a l n a t u r e a n d limited historical value, b u t m a y c o n t a i n s o m e useful
have
information,
particularly o n m o t i v a t i o n . • r e f e r e n c e s to t h e p e r i o d i c e x p u l s i o n s o f f o r e i g n e r s . • n e u t r a l o r positive r e f e r e n c e s to t h e p r e s e n c e o f f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e . • a n e c d o t e s a b o u t individual f o r e i g n e r s . • t h e w o r d s o f writers w h o w e r e t h e m s e l v e s i m m i g r a n t s to t h e city, s u c h as M a r t i a l , G a l e n a n d A u g u s t i n e . W h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e , I h a v e also m a d e use o f c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l , d r a w i n g o n studies o f E u r o p e a n cities in t h e m e d i e v a l a n d
early
m o d e r n p e r i o d , a n d o f R i o d e J a n e i r o in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e only city w h o s e slave p o p u l a t i o n is likely to b e c o m m e n s u r a t e with R o m e ' s . T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y helpful in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e , a n d in a t t e m p t i n g to estimate the n u m b e r s involved at R o m e . T h e definition o f a ' f o r e i g n e r ' for t h e p u r p o s e s o f this w o r k is p r i m a r i l y : s o m e o n e w h o was b o r n o u t s i d e Italy a n d m o v e d to R o m e , b u t c o n t i n u e d to h a v e a ' h o m e ' (in t h e i r own t h i n k i n g o r in o t h e r p e o p l e ' s ) e l s e w h e r e . M o s t f o r e i g n e r s w e r e i m m i g r a n t s , b u t since s o m e w e r e at R o m e for t e m p o r a r y r e a s o n s r a t h e r t h a n with t h e i n t e n t i o n o f settling p e r m a n e n t l y (see p. 3 ) , it is t h e i r status as ' f o r e i g n ' r a t h e r t h a n as ' i m m i g r a n t ' w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e i r i n c l u s i o n h e r e , given impracticability o f separating temporary m i g r a n t s in m o s t o f t h e e v i d e n c e . XI
visitors f r o m
the
permanent
Introduction P e o p l e w h o w e r e b o r n at R o m e c o u l d still b e c o n s i d e r e d ' f o r e i g n ' , by t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s , i f t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t to a n o t h e r p l a c e ( t h e b i r t h place o f their ancestors, or the centre o f their religion) seemed greater t h a n t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t to t h e city o f R o m e . T h e s e p e o p l e will b e discussed in S e c t i o n 3 , w h e r e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f f o r e i g n c o m m u n i t i e s at R o m e is i n v e s t i g a t e d , b u t they a r e n o t i n c l u d e d in S e c t i o n 2 , w h i c h focuses o n those who actually moved to R o m e d u r i n g their own lifetimes. T h e definition which I a m u s i n g d o e s n o t take i n t o a c c o u n t s o m e o n e ' s a n c e s t r y . A p e r s o n d e f i n e d as S p a n i s h h e r e c o u l d equally well b e d e s c e n d e d from, say, native S p a n i a r d s o r from R o m a n colonists w h o h a d c o m e to S p a i n two o r t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s e a r l i e r . E x c e p t in a very few cases, it is i m p o s s i b l e to m a k e this distinction o n t h e basis o f t h e available e v i d e n c e : a p a r t from ' f o r e i g n ' e m p e r o r s ( a n d n o t always e v e n for t h e m ) t h e r e is simply n o r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e u l t i m a t e a n c e s t r y o f a n y individual. T h i s is u n f o r t u n a t e , b e c a u s e p e o p l e w h o w e r e ( o r b e l i e v e d t h e m s e l v e s to b e ) d e s c e n d e d e x c l u s i v e l y f r o m R o m a n colonists w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e h a d a very different c o n c e p t o f ' h o m e ' f r o m p e o p l e d e s c e n d e d from S p a n i s h tribes. T h e w o r k c o n c e n t r a t e s o n t h e p r e s e n c e at R o m e o f f o r e i g n e r s w h o w e r e free, civilian, a n d b e l o w e q u e s t r i a n r a n k . R e f e r e n c e will, h o w e v e r , b e m a d e to f o r e i g n slaves, soldiers a n d t h e a r i s t o c r a c y w h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e . Italians a r e e x c l u d e d from t h e definition o f f o r e i g n e r u s e d h e r e . T h i s is p r i m a r i l y a d e c i s i o n b a s e d o n practicalities, since t h e e v i d e n c e for p r o v i n c i a l a n d o v e r s e a s m i g r a t i o n is very substantial by itself, a n d I h o p e to look at i m m i g r a n t s from within Italy in t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d s e p a r a t e l y ; d i s p l a c e d I t a l i a n p e a s a n t s in t h e late R e p u b l i c h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n well s t u d i e d . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a t e a c h e r o f r h e t o r i c from T a r e n t u m a n d o n e from D y r r a c h i u m m a y h a v e b e e n m i n i m a l , b u t o n t h e w h o l e it s e e m s likely t h a t t h e situation o f n o n - I t a l i a n s at R o m e would h a v e differed substantially f r o m t h a t o f I t a l i a n s . A p a r t from t h e q u e s t i o n s o f l a n g u a g e a n d p r o x i m i t y , p e o p l e from N u m i d i a o r P a n n o n i a may h a v e b e e n m o r e likely to feel solidarity with e a c h o t h e r , o r at least a specific identity t h r o u g h s h a r e d g e o g r a p h i c a l o r i g i n s , t h a n p e o p l e from Italy w e r e (even i f s o m e ' e t h n i c ' l a b e l s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y i m p o s e d by t h e R o m a n s , as s u g g e s t e d
by
M a t t h e w s 1 9 9 9 , 1 6 ) . Life at R o m e w o u l d h a v e b e e n different
for
s o m e o n e w h o s e h o m e was twenty days' sea v o y a g e away, as c o m p a r e d to s o m e o n e w h o c o u l d walk to t h e i r b i r t h p l a c e in a day, a n d
the
b o u n d a r y o f Italy s e e m s t h e m o s t p r a c t i c a b l e c u t - o f f p o i n t to s e p a r a t e short-range
and
l o n g - r a n g e m i g r a n t s . T h e u s e o f provincial^
as
o p p o s e d to Italian shows t h a t t h e R o m a n s t h e m s e l v e s s o m e t i m e s m a d e t h e distinction. xn
Introduction F o r t h e p u r p o s e s of this work, ' R o m e ' i n c l u d e s O s t i a a n d P o r t u s , since r e s i d e n c e in t h e p o r t s was often a p r e l i m i n a r y to m o v i n g to ( o r leaving) R o m e , a n d since a n u m b e r of individuals k n o w n from i n s c r i p tions, such as M. A n t o n i u s G a i o n a s (see p. 2 4 0 ) , w e r e active b o t h at R o m e a n d at t h e p o r t s . T h e b o o k is divided i n t o t h r e e sections. S e c t i o n 1 looks at t h e b a c k g r o u n d : t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e , t h e d e m o g r a p h y of t h e city o f R o m e , a n d t h e attitudes to f o r e i g n e r s t a k e n by writers a n d by t h e state. S e c t i o n 2 deals with t h e individuals w h o c a m e to R o m e , u s i n g t h e vast n u m b e r o f f r a g m e n t a r y case-histories from i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d l i t e r a t u r e to try to build up a p i c t u r e o f what sort o f p e o p l e c a m e to R o m e , why they c a m e a n d how t h e y dealt with t h e practicalities o f m i g r a t i n g to t h e city. S e c t i o n 3 e x a m i n e s f o r e i g n e r s living at R o m e : t h e ways in which they u s e d (or did n o t u s e ) tools such as l a n g u a g e , r e l i g i o n a n d n a m e s to p r e s e r v e a s e p a r a t e identity. T h e s e c o n d p a r t o f this section consists o f a r e g i o n - b y - r e g i o n s u r v e y of f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e , s u m m a r i z i n g t h e n a t u r e o f m i g r a t i o n from e a c h r e g i o n a n d t h e different ways in which different g r o u p s r e a c t e d to b e i n g at R o m e . T h e A p p e n d i x has a c o m p l e t e list o f all t h e e p i g r a p h i c f o r e i g n e r s ( a c c o r d i n g to t h e definition given at p. 6 ) used in t h e study: while it will n o d o u b t b e possible to point out omissions, and there may be disagreement about
some
i n c l u s i o n s , t h e total n u m b e r o f individuals ( 1 , 2 8 4 ) is l a r g e e n o u g h for t h e s e to b e unlikely to affect t h e c o n c l u s i o n s which I h a v e d r a w n (mainly in c h . 4 ) from this b o d y o f e v i d e n c e . Parts o f t h e b o o k h a v e b e e n u s e d as s e m i n a r p a p e r s , at L a m p e t e r a n d at t h e c o n f e r e n c e o n Race,
Religion
and Culture
in Late Antiquity
at
S w a n s e a . I a m grateful to t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s for t h e i r n u m e r o u s c o m m e n t s , a n d to c o l l e a g u e s at L a m p e t e r for p r o v i d i n g f r e q u e n t advice a n d h e l p . T h e last stage o f t h e w o r k was a l m o s t c o m p l e t e d d u r i n g a t e r m ' s study leave in e a r l y 1 9 9 9 . I a m also very m u c h i n d e b t e d to t h e p e o p l e w h o h a v e r e a d t h r o u g h p a r t o r all o f t h e draft w o r k a n d m a d e m a n y s u g g e s t i o n s for its i m p r o v e m e n t : D a n i e l l e d e L a b o r i e , S t u a r t d e Laborie, Andrew Erskine, Val Hope, G r e g Horsley, Stephen Mitchell, Neville M o r l e y , M a r g a r e t W i l l i a m s , a n d two a n o n y m o u s r e a d e r s o f a n early v e r s i o n ; also to A n t o n Powell for t a k i n g o n t h e b o o k for t h e Classical Press o f W a l e s a n d for giving m u c h helpful advice. Additional thanks to Susan S o r e k for suggesting the title ('citizens a n d s t r a n g e r s ' c o m e s from a J e w i s h e p i t a p h from E g y p t , J I G R E 3 6 ) , a n d to t h e m e m b e r s of t h e Ipswich T o w n M a i l i n g List for p r o v i d i n g interruptions.
Xlll
frequent
Chapter 1
T H E EVIDENCE AND T H E PROBLEMS
T h i s c h a p t e r a t t e m p t s to d e f i n e t h e f o r e i g n e r s w h o a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e b o o k , a n d to c o n s i d e r h o w far t h e R o m a n s t h e m s e l v e s
had
a s e p a r a t e c a t e g o r y o f ' f o r e i g n e r s ' . I t investigates t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e a n d t h e p r o b l e m s which it p r e s e n t s , t h e socio-legal status of f o r e i g n e r s in t h e city, a n d t h e n e a r invisibility o f t h o s e w h o w a n t e d to i n t e g r a t e fully into R o m a n society - issues which a r e essential to u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d later in t h e b o o k .
i. Latin terminology T h e p e o p l e w h o a r e s t u d i e d h e r e w e r e n e v e r neatly c a t e g o r i z e d by t h e R o m a n s . L a t i n d o e s n o t h a v e a t e r m to m a t c h t h e full r a n g e o f t h e E n g l i s h ' f o r e i g n e r ' . Peregrinus,
d e f i n e d by Lewis & S h o r t as 'a for
e i g n e r , s t r a n g e r ' was p r i m a r i l y a legal t e r m for s o m e o n e w h o was free 1
b u t n o t a R o m a n citizen. It was s o m e t i m e s u s e d in c o n j u n c t i o n with advena,
a more general term meaning 'newcomer' or
A peregrinus/peregrina
'stranger'.
2
m i g h t e v e n c o m e from a family which h a d lived
in R o m e for g e n e r a t i o n s , s p e a k only L a t i n , a n d h a v e n o k n o w n kin o u t s i d e R o m e , b u t t h e lack o f R o m a n citizenship was t h e c r u c i a l fea t u r e o f his o r h e r status. C o n v e r s e l y , a civis Romanus/Romana
might
k n o w n o L a t i n , n e v e r visit R o m e a n d h a v e n o d e a l i n g s with a n y o n e w h o did, b u t was d e f i n e d by a status which was i n h e r i t e d ( o r b o u g h t , o r a c q u i r e d by m a n u m i s s i o n ) . H o w e v e r , w h e n R o m a n citizenship b e c a m e a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l a m o n g t h e free p o p u l a t i o n after 2 1 2 , t h e m e a n i n g o f peregrinus
c h a n g e d , a n d in t h e fourth c e n t u r y it was t h e label
u s e d for t h e ' f o r e i g n e r s ' w h o w e r e p e r i o d i c a l l y e x p e l l e d from R o m e . C h r i s t i a n i t y g a v e it t h e a d d i t i o n a l s e n s e o f ' p i l g r i m ' , so it a g a i n acquired connotations which were different
from
those o f the
English word. Provincialis
c o u l d b e u s e d for t h e i n h a b i t a n t o f a p r o v i n c e as o p p o s e d
to an i n h a b i t a n t o f Italy, as w h e n T a c i t u s was a s k e d w h e t h e r h e was an 3
Italian o r a p r o v i n c i a l , b u t it did n o t a p p l y to f o r e i g n e r s from o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e E m p i r e . Transmarinus
( ' o v e r s e a s ' ) was m a i n l y
a p p l i e d to i n a n i m a t e t h i n g s a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l t e r m s , especially in t h e
1
Evidence
and ancient
altitudes
p h r a s e ' o v e r s e a s p r o v i n c e s ' ; it is only very occasionally u s e d for p e o pl e , a l t h o u g h a c h a r a c t e r in Plautus i n t r o d u c e s himself: ' I a m a visitor from o v e r s e a s ' .
4
Alienigenus/alienigena
is a m o r e inclusive t e r m for s o m e o n e
'born
e l s e w h e r e ' , b u t was used frequently by only a few writers. C i c e r o a n d Livy r e g u l a r l y gave it n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s , associating it with a n d barbarus,
a n d o p p o s i n g it to positive d e s c r i p t i o n s such as
( s o m e o n e c o n n e c t e d with h o m e ) a n d noster
externus domesticus
( ' o u r ' ) ; only V a l e r i u s 5
M a x i m u s s e e m s to h a v e u s e d it in a n e u t r a l s e n s e . A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s is d e s c r i b e d as hominem
Syrum el alienigenam
('a S y r i a n m a n a n d b o r n
e l s e w h e r e ' ) in an e x p r e s s i o n o f s u r p r i s e that s o m e o n e o f such a b a c k ground should alienigenus
make a good emperor.
6
T h e V u l g a t e , which
f r e q u e n t l y , often associates it with empticius
c o n t e x t o f slaves. T a c i t u s refers to ex Italia
uses
('saleable') in t h e
aut provinciis
alienigenae
('those b o r n e l s e w h e r e from Italy o r t h e p r o v i n c e s ' ) , s h o w i n g that it 7
c o u l d a p p l y to a n y o n e b o r n o u t s i d e a specific p l a c e . T h u s it d o e s n o t e x a c t l y m a t c h t h e r a n g e o f ' f o r e i g n ' ; its s e m a n t i c force was p e r h a p s c l o s e r to ' a l i e n ' . Externus
has t h e basic m e a n i n g o f ' f o r e i g n ' o r ' e x t e r n a l ' . It is a p p l i e d
to t h i n g s (particularly wars) m o r e often t h a n p e o p l e . W h e n a p p l i e d to p e o p l e , it m o s t often g o e s with ' e n e m y ' a s s o c i a t e d with alienigena,
advena
8
9
o r ' k i n g s ' . I t is s o m e t i m e s 10
o r barbarus.
b e u s e d as t h e e q u i v a l e n t of peregrinus
V e r y occasionally it c a n 11
or the exact opposite o f
civis.
A c c o r d i n g to C i c e r o , it is o n e o f t h e g o o d t h i n g s a b o u t R o m e that homines
externos
r e c e i v e hospitality in t h e h o u s e s o f g r e a t m e n .
E l d e r Pliny c o m p l a i n s a b o u t t h e lurba externa
1 2
The
o f foreign slaves which
fills t h e h o u s e s o f his day, with a c c o m p a n y i n g social p r o b l e m s .
13
A c c o r d i n g to D a u g e ( 1 9 8 1 , 3 9 6 - 4 0 2 ) , t h e s e t e r m s w e r e a m o n g t h e m a n y for ' o t h e r ' which, a l t h o u g h
often p e j o r a t i v e , c o u l d in s o m e
c o n t e x t s b e n e u t r a l o r e v e n f a v o u r a b le ; only barbarus
always h a d n e g a
tive c o n n o t a t i o n s . Y e t all t h e w o r d s t e n d to h a v e d e r o g a t o r y i m p l i c a tions m o r e often t h a n not; only peregrinus,
provincialis
and
transmarinus
s e e m n o r m a l l y to h a v e b e e n value-free. A f o r e i g n e r implicitly h a d a ' h o m e ' s o m e w h e r e o t h e r t h a n at R o m e : a p l a c e o f b i r t h , o r o f religious o r c u l t u r a l loyalty. T h e r e is insufficient e v i d e n c e to discuss what ' h o m e ' actually m e a n t to f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e , b u t individual cases s u c h as M a r tia l a n d A u g u s t i n e show that it c o u l d r e t a i n g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e . R a p p o r t a n d D a w s o n ( 1 9 9 8 , 6 - 1 2 ) discuss s o m e of t h e ways in which m o d e r n
migrants conceptualize home.
T h e y s u g g e s t (p. 9 ) that ' t h e r e is also t h e p a r a d o x t h a t it is p e r h a p s only by way o f t r a n s i e n c e a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t that o n e a c h i e v e s an
2
The evidence
and the
problems
u l t i m a t e s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g . ' H o m e ' s g r e a t e s t significance c a n b e for p e o p l e w h o d o n o t live t h e r e .
ii. Temporary and permanent residence at Rome L a t i n is e v e n f u r t h e r r e m o v e d from h a v i n g a w o r d for ' i m m i g r a n t ' t h a n it is for h a v i n g a w o r d for ' f o r e i g n e r ' .
11
I n fact, t h e fullest discus
sion by a n y R o m a n w r i t e r o f t h e r e a s o n s for p e o p l e m o v i n g to R o m e , by S e n e c a (see p. 9 0 ) , i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y m i x e s r e a s o n s for t e m p o r a r y visits a n d p e r m a n e n t m i g r a t i o n , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e R o m a n s t h e m selves did n o t c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e d i f f e r e n c e . S o m e p e o p l e c a m e to R o m e for a specific, t i m e - l i m i t e d p u r p o s e (e.g. legal p r o c e e d i n g s , e d u c a t i o n , military s e r v i c e , e m b a s s i e s ) . S o m e c a m e with t h e e x p e c t a tion o f staying t h e r e for t h e rest o f t h e i r lives, w h e t h e r this was by t h e i r own c h o i c e (free m i g r a n t s c o m i n g to find w o r k ) o r n o t (slaves sold to residents o f R o m e ) . In
t h e s u r v i v i n g e v i d e n c e , it is r a r e l y p o s s i b l e to
between temporary
and
permanent
differentiate
residents. Literary anecdotes
show t h a t s o m e o n e lived at R o m e at a p a r t i c u l a r stage o f h i s / h e r life, b u t d o n o t usually i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r this was i n t e n d e d to b e p e r m a n e n t . E p i t a p h s r e c o r d f o r e i g n e r s w h o died at R o m e , b u t r a r e l y show w h e t h e r t h e d e c e a s e d h a d i n t e n d e d to die t h e r e . A m b a s s a d o r s w e r e n o r m a l l y t h e r e only for a limited p e r i o d , d u r i n g which a significant n u m b e r s e e m to h a v e d i e d . S o l d i e r s usually r e t u r n e d h o m e on dis c h a r g e , b u t s o m e stayed in R o m e ; t h e e p i t a p h s o f t h o s e w h o d i e d while s e r v i n g at R o m e d o n o t i n d i c a t e t h e i r u l t i m a t e i n t e n t i o n s . T e a c h e r s , c r a f t s p e o p l e a n d s h o p k e e p e r s may h a v e i n t e n d e d to live o u t t h e i r lives at R o m e , b u t s o m e m a y h a v e wished to e a r n e n o u g h m o n e y to b e able to afford to r e t u r n h o m e in t h e i r old a g e . S o m e p e o p l e m o v e d from o n e c a t e g o r y to t h e o t h e r : e.g. a s t u d e n t w h o d e c i d e d to r e m a i n at R o m e as a t e a c h e r , o r a s c u l p t o r w h o failed to find w o r k a n d r e t u r n e d h o m e . T h i s possibility is illustrated by s o m e literary s o u r c e s . C r a t e s o f Mallos, s e n t to R o m e as a n a m b a s s a d o r by K i n g Attalus in c. 1 6 9 B C , b r o k e his leg by falling i n t o t h e o p e n i n g o f a s e w e r o n t h e P a l a t i n e , a n d while c o n v a l e s c i n g , gave i n s t r u c t i o n in grammar;
1 5
h e t h u s c r e a t e d for h i m s e l f t h e e c o n o m i c possibility o f
b e c o m i n g a p e r m a n e n t i m m i g r a n t . M a r t i a l in t h e e a r l y s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d A u g u s t i n e in t h e late f o u r t h b o t h , for very different r e a s o n s , r e t u r n e d h o m e after a p e r i o d o f living a n d w o r k i n g at R o m e (in A u g u s t i n e ' s c a s e , p a r t of a m o r e c o m p l e x m i g r a t i o n p r o c e s s ) , b u t i f t h e y h a d d i e d at R o m e , t h e i r e p i t a p h s w o u l d n o t h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t they w e r e n o t p e r m a n e n t i m m i g r a n t s .
3
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
It t h e r e f o r e s e e m s u n r e a l i s t i c to try to differentiate b e t w e e n t e m p o r a r y a n d p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t s (visitors a n d i m m i g r a n t s ) for m o s t o f this s t u d y .
16
T h e two g r o u p s c a n b e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y in t h e discussion
o f t h e i r m o t i v a t i o n , a n d d i f f e r e n c e s a r e also likely to e m e r g e in o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r , b u t in t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e , a n d in m u c h o f t h e literary m a t e r i a l , they a r e largely i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e .
iii. Status F o r e i g n e r s at R o m e c a n b e d i v i d e d
into three broad socio-legal
categories: a) Slaves. T h e s e w e r e n e a r l y all r e s i d e n t at R o m e t h r o u g h n o c h o i c e o f t h e i r own. S o m e w e r e e v e n t u a l l y m a n u m i t t e d , after which they p r o b ably t e n d e d to r e m a i n at R o m e ; t h e r e is little e v i d e n c e of ex-slaves r e t u r n i n g to t h e i r o r i g i n a l h o m e s . b) S o l d i e r s . T h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d a n d t h e various o t h e r military units f o r m e d a substantial p r o p o r t i o n o f R o m e ' s p o p u l a t i o n , a n d from t h e t i m e o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s they w e r e virtually all r e c r u i t e d
outside
Italy. M o s t r e t u r n e d h o m e after d i s c h a r g e in t h e i r late 3 0 s o r 4 0 s , b u t s o m e r e m a i n e d at R o m e .
1 7
S o l d i e r s c o u l d b e a c c o m p a n i e d by, o r
j o i n e d by, civilian relatives. c) Civilians. Civilians o f all classes c a m e to R o m e , from s e n a t o r s to t h e u n s k i l l e d p o o r . L e g a l l y , b e f o r e t h e e x t e n s i o n o f citizenship in AD 2 1 2 , t h e y w e r e e i t h e r R o m a n citizens o r peregrini,
a n d t h e i r status c o u l d
h a v e c o n s i d e r a b l e r e l e v a n c e to how they fared at R o m e .
Peregrini
m i g h t still b e citizens o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l cities, s o m e t h i n g which c o u l d b e c o m m e m o r a t e d o n t h e i r e p i t a p h s b u t was p r o b a b l y o f little practical value while they w e r e at R o m e . T h e s e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s a r e clearly s e p a r a t e in t h e o r y , b u t in p r a c t i c e t h e r e w e r e p e r m e a b l e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n t h e m . Slaves o n
manu
mission a n d soldiers o n d i s c h a r g e c o u l d m a k e a c o n s c i o u s d e c i s i o n to stay at R o m e a n d effectively join t h e n u m b e r s o f t h e civilian f o r e i g n e r s . T h e r e a r e also i n d i c a t i o n s that p e o p l e s o m e t i m e s c h a n g e d status in ways w h i c h t h e law did not, in p r i n c i p l e , allow, p r i m a r i l y by u s i n g slavery as a r o u t e to a c q u i r e R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p t h r o u g h m a n u m i s s i o n . S o m e cases w h e r e this may have h a p p e n e d will b e discussed below (p. 2 5 ) .
iv. The limitations of the evidence A l o n g with t h e n u m e r o u s g e n e r a l c o m m e n t s o n i m m i g r a n t s in R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e , t h e r e a r e m a n y literary r e f e r e n c e s to individuals w h o c a m e to live at R o m e . T h e s e a r e usually in t h e c o n t e x t o f b r i e f b i o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n , o r as t h e b a c k g r o u n d to a n e c d o t e s . O c c a s i o n a l l y , t h e y g o
4
The evidence
and the
problems
b e y o n d t h e basic ("act o f m o v i n g to R o m e to say why s o m e o n e did it, o r to show that t h e i r m i g r a t i o n history was m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n simply m o v i n g from t h e i r b i r t h p l a c e to R o m e . O n e such c a s e is p r o v i d e d by Prisc(ill)a a n d Aquila, m e n t i o n e d in Acts a n d Paul's letters, w h o m o v e d from P o n t u s to R o m e to C o r i n t h to E p h e s u s a n d b a c k to R o m e (see p. 2 5 9 ) . T h e i r b u s i n e s s as t e n t - m a k e r s may e x p l a i n why they c a m e to R o m e , b u t this is n o w h e r e m a d e explicit. It is typical o f t h e literary e v i d e n c e for o n e a s p e c t o f s o m e o n e ' s life to b e m e n t i o n e d while m o s t o f t h e r e l e v a n t details a r e c o m p l e t e l y o m i t t e d . M o s t o f R o m e ' s l e a d i n g writers w e r e n o t natives o f t h e city, b u t they h a v e left few d i r e c t discussions o f t h e i r position a n d e x p e r i e n c e s . F r o n t o , w h o c a m e from Africa a n d a c h i e v e d g r e a t e m i n e n c e at R o m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, was a p p a r e n t l y r e f l e c t i n g o n his own e x p e r i ences when he wrote:
18
...for there is nothing o f which my whole life through I have seen less at Rome than a man unfeignedly affectionate (^i^oaxopyot;). T h e reason why there is not even a word for this virtue in our language must, I imagine, be that in reality no one at Rome has any warm affection. B u t h e gives n o o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t c o m i n g to R o m e . T h e most d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s is by A u g u s t i n e , w h o c a m e to R o m e from Africa in s p r i n g (or l a t e r ) 3 8 3 .
1 9
He provides some information
a b o u t d e c i d i n g to m o v e , m a k i n g t h e j o u r n e y , b e i n g r e c e i v e d at R o m e by a M a n i c h a e a n c o n t a c t , b e i n g followed t h e r e two years l a t e r by his m o t h e r , a n d e v e n t u a l l y c h o o s i n g to leave for M i l a n . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n h e gives is i n v a l u a b l e , b u t h e was n o t i n t e r e s t e d in leaving a full a c c o u n t , a n d t h e r e a r e m a n y m i s s i n g details; m o s t n o t a b l y , w h e t h e r his c o n c u b i n e c a m e with h i m . Q u a n t i t a t i v e l y , it is t h e e v i d e n c e o f i n s c r i p t i o n s which is m o s t i m p o r t a n t for t h e study o f f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e . A m o n g t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s , e p i t a p h s vastly o u t n u m b e r o t h e r r e l e v a n t m a t e r i a l , such as d e d i c a t i o n s to g o d s , h o n o r i f i c i n s c r i p t i o n s for i m p o r t a n t p e o p l e a n d r e c o r d s o f victories at t h e C a p i t o l i n e G a m e s . R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t an
inscription
m e n t i o n s a f o r e i g n e r d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n f o r e i g n e r s b e i n g clearly identified as such by t h e m s e l v e s o r t h e i r c o m m e m o r a t o r s . T h i s is 20
usually d o n e with a f o r m u l a such as natus/natione /ex/domo
followed by
t h e n a m e o f t h e b i r t h p l a c e , o r simply by t h e b i r t h p l a c e itself given in t h e ablative case, o r by t h e use o f an ' e t h n i c ' such as Pannonicus Graeca.
or
T h e e x a c t m e a n i n g o f such d e s i g n a t i o n s to t h e p e o p l e w h o
u s e d t h e m is n o t always c l e a r (see f u r t h e r discussion in c h . 8 ) : s o m e o n e w h o s e b i r t h p l a c e was New C a r t h a g e m i g h t b e d e s c e n d e d from Italian settlers, P u n i c settlers, S p a n i a r d s , o r a n y c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e .
5
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
T h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o m e o n e asAfricanus
m i g h t m e a n only t h a t h e c a m e
from t h e p r o v i n c e o f Africa, n o t t h a t h e felt m o r e 'African' t h a n ' R o m a n ' . P e o p l e ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i r own e t h n i c i t y c a n n o t b e dis c u s s e d p r o p e r l y , at least at this stage o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n s c r i p tions, a l t h o u g h it is occasionally m a d e c l e a r , as in t h e e p i t a p h o f a w o m a n which r e a d s ' G r e e k by r a c e ("EXkr\v u.ev TO y£vo<;), my h o m e l a n d was A p a m e a ' .
21
T h e i r own d e s i g n a t i o n of t h e p r o v i n c e o r a r e a
from which they c a m e would n o t necessarily c o i n c i d e with t h e official R o m a n d e s i g n a t i o n : for e x a m p l e , R i c c i ( 1 9 9 3 b , Dardanus
1 4 3 ) shows
that
m i g h t b e u s e d for s o m e o n e w h o c o n s i d e r e d h i m s e l f to b e
' D a r d a n i a n ' ( o r was so c o n s i d e r e d by his family), e v e n i f h e did n o t c o m e from t h e a r e a which t h e R o m a n s officially l a b e l l e d D a r d a n i a . In this b o o k , p e o p l e with a single n a m e (e.g. S y r u s ) o r a c o g n o m e n (e.g. Publilius S y r u s ) which c o u l d also b e an e t h n i c h a v e n o t b e e n classed as f o r e i g n e r s unless t h e r e is a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e .
22
T h e habit o f
giving slaves an e t h n i c n a m e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n fairly c o m m o n , b u t s o m e s u c h n a m e s a c q u i r e d w i d e r p o p u l a r i t y , e.g. G a l l u s was t h e c o g n o m e n o f m a n y p e o p l e w h o c e r t a i n l y h a d n o c o n n e c t i o n with G a u l . N a m e s i m p o s e d by o w n e r s m i g h t in a d d i t i o n n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e defini tion which t h e b e a r e r s o f t h e n a m e m i g h t give to t h e m s e l v e s , e.g. t h e d a u g h t e r o f a S y r i a n slave m i g h t still b e called S y r a a l t h o u g h s h e was n o t h e r s e l f a n i m m i g r a n t a n d did n o t r e g a r d h e r s e l f as S y r i a n . P e o p l e with n a m e s with a c l e a r local o r i g i n , such as A c h i b a from S y r i a P a l e s t i n e o r S a r a p i o n from E g y p t , h a v e also n o t b e e n c o u n t e d as f o r e i g n e r s w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e , since it m a y b e t h e c a s e (to b e c o n s i d e r e d in c h . 7.vi) t h a t t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f i m m i g r a n t s , n o t j u s t i m m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s , r e t a i n e d t h e use of n a m e s from t h e i r o r i g i n a l homelands.
2 3
T h e s a m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n applies to t h e use o f f o r m s o f
e x p r e s s i o n which a r e usually a s s o c i a t e d with a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a ; e.g. i f t h e d a t e o f d e a t h is given a c c o r d i n g to t h e E g y p t i a n c a l e n d a r , t h e d e c e a s e d clearly h a d c o n n e c t i o n s with E g y p t , b u t was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y an i m m i g r a n t . T h i s will b e discussed in c h . 8.v. F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f identifying i m m i g r a n t s in i n s c r i p t i o n s from R o m e , I h a v e largely followed t h e c r i t e r i a u s e d by Ricci ( 1 9 9 3 b , 1 4 3 ) to identify p e o p l e from t h e B a l k a n s . T h e s e a r e : • an e x p l i c i t e t h n i c o r b i r t h p l a c e .
24
• b e i n g t h e (ex-)slave o f a local dynasty. • c o n n e c t i o n to s o m e o n e o f explicitly f o r e i g n o r i g i n by a n e x p r e s s i o n like corregionarius
(only f o u n d in military i n s c r i p t i o n s ) .
S h e also i n c l u d e s t h e e p i t a p h s o f p e o p l e w h o w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e b u t h a d d o n e s o m e t h i n g which r e q u i r e d b e i n g at R o m e , s u c h
6
The evidence
and the
problems
as s e r v i n g in t h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d . I h a v e n o t u s e d i n s c r i p t i o n s o f this sort in my totals a n d c a l c u l a t i o n s , as my focus is p r i m a r i l y o n civilians a n d they would distort t h e e v i d e n c e e v e n m o r e heavily t o w a r d s t h e military.
25
Military e p i t a p h s from R o m e p o t e n t i a l l y p r o v i d e
some
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s o l d i e r s ' d o m e s t i c c i r c u m s t a n c e s while living at R o m e , while e p i t a p h s from t h e i r places o f o r i g i n d o not, n o r
do
d i s c h a r g e i n s c r i p t i o n s o r d e d i c a t i o n s by soldiers while at R o m e . I h a v e , however, included people who: • a r e siblings, c o u s i n s o r p a r e n t s (but n o t s p o u s e s o r c h i l d r e n ) o f e x p l i c i t i m m i g r a n t s , i f they a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n at R o m e with t h e m . • use a l a n g u a g e o t h e r t h a n L a t i n o r G r e e k . T h e possible association with i m m i g r a t i o n of t h e use o f G r e e k , o r o f p a r t i c u l a r spellings o r t e r m i n o l o g y , will b e c o n s i d e r e d l a t e r (p. 1 7 1 ) . The
h a b i t of s t a t i n g t h e b i r t h p l a c e in a n e p i t a p h
was
much
c o m m o n e r in s o m e g r o u p s t h a n o t h e r s . It was very c o m m o n
for
soldiers b a s e d at R o m e , b u t n o t for civilians. I n fact, t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f h a v i n g an e p i t a p h at all would b e affected by s o m e o n e ' s o r i g i n : sol diers s e e m to h a v e a c q u i r e d t h e ' e p i g r a p h i c h a b i t ' , b u t civilian i m m i g r a n t s from a relatively u n r o m a n i z e d
a r e a m i g h t have m u c h less
i n t e r e s t in e r e c t i n g a n i n s c r i p t i o n , especially i f they w e r e illiterate a n d / o r t h e i r first l a n g u a g e was n o t G r e e k o r L a t i n . presence o f immigrants from
26
Ricci suggests t h a t t h e
the Balkans, especially T h r a c i a n s ,
i n c r e a s e d significantly b e t w e e n t h e mid-first c e n t u r y a n d t h e first h a l f o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , a n d t h e n d e c l i n e d - s h e f o u n d only twelve in i n s c r i p t i o n s d a t a b l e after t h e e n d o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y .
27
Impressions
like this m a y , h o w e v e r , b e m i s l e a d i n g . S o m e i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s m a y h a v e b e e n slow to get t h e ' e p i g r a p h i c h a b i t ' a n d t h e r e f o r e fail to t u r n u p in t h e e v i d e n c e , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s r e c o r d i n g p l a c e of o r i g i n a p p e a r s to u n d e r g o a g e n e r a l d e c l i n e in t h e f o u r t h
century
(directly l i n k e d to t h e t r e n d t o w a r d s s i m p l e r e p i t a p h s in t h e cata c o m b s ) . If t h e J e w s o f R o m e w e r e only k n o w n from t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s , it w o u l d a p p e a r that they did n o t a r r i v e in a n y n u m b e r s until t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, w h e r e a s literary e v i d e n c e shows t h a t t h e r e was a l r e a d y a big J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in t h e late R e p u b l i c . Social status c o u l d also affect t h e c h a n c e s o f h a v i n g an e p i t a p h : ex-slaves a r e m u c h b e t t e r a t t e s t e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s from R o m e t h a n a r e t h e f r e e b o r n p o o r . A m o n g civilians, t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f b e i n g c o m m e m o r a t e d as an i m m i g r a n t , r a t h e r t h a n j u s t as a n o r d i n a r y i n h a b i t a n t o f R o m e , m i g h t b e closely c o r r e l a t e d with h o w r e c e n t t h e i m m i g r a t i o n was. P e o p l e w h o h a d a r r i v e d very r e c e n t l y o r w h o did n o t i n t e n d to stay p e r m a n e n t l y w e r e p r o b a b l y m o r e likely to h a v e t h e i r o r i g i n s m e n t i o n e d t h a n t h o s e
7
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
w h o h a d b e e n in R o m e for forty years. P r e s u m a b l y , c o m m e m o r a t o r s w h o w e r e also i m m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e m o r e likely to m e n t i o n t h e fact t h a n t h o s e b o r n in R o m e w h o w e r e c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e i r i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s (discussed f u r t h e r b e l o w ) . A p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m o f t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e is that, like t h e literary m a t e r i a l , it d o e s n o t usually i n d i c a t e i f t h e d e c e a s e d was in R o m e t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y . V o t i v e i n s c r i p t i o n s (e.g. I G U R 9 4 2 1 4 ) c o u l d b e p u t up by p e o p l e only in R o m e very b r i e f l y ,
28
and I have
t h e r e f o r e n o t i n c l u d e d t h e m unless t h e r e is r e a s o n to link t h e m to a l e n g t h y stay. S o m e e p i t a p h s m u s t b e l o n g to p e o p l e w h o d i e d o n a s h o r t visit to R o m e (e.g. I G U R 8 1 5 ) , b u t it s e e m s safe to a s s u m e t h a t m o s t p e o p l e c o m m e m o r a t e d at R o m e h a d actually settled t h e r e ,
2 9
even
if they did n o t all i n t e n d to r e m a i n t h e r e p e r m a n e n t l y . I h a v e also i n c l u d e d t h e small n u m b e r o f e p i t a p h s o f p e o p l e w h o a r e said to have died at R o m e b u t w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d in t h e i r h o m e lands. R e t u r n i n g t h e r e m a i n s for burial n e v e r s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a c o m m o n p r a c t i c e , o r at least n o t a r e g u l a r l y d o c u m e n t e d o n e (see p. 1 9 1 ) . O c c a s i o n a l l y , relatives may h a v e c o m e to R o m e from
the
p r o v i n c e s specially to a r r a n g e t h e b u r i a l o f s o m e o n e w h o died t h e r e , o r they m a y e v e n n e v e r h a v e c o m e at all b u t a r r a n g e d it all from l o n g d i s t a n c e ; this a p p e a r s
to b e v e r y u n u s u a l , h o w e v e r .
3 0
Relatives
(siblings, p a r e n t s , c o u s i n s ) r e c o r d e d as c o m m e m o r a t o r s at R o m e a r e c o u n t e d h e r e as f o r e i g n r e s i d e n t s t h e m s e l v e s , o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t usually b o t h c o m m e m o r a t o r s a n d c o m m e m o r a t e d w e r e living at R o m e . T h e fact t h a t c o m m e m o r a t i o n by p a r e n t s is very c o m m o n for soldiers b u r i e d at h o m e a n d very r a r e for soldiers b u r i e d at R o m e is a n o t h e r a r g u m e n t t h a t c o m m e m o r a t o r s w e r e actually at R o m e with the people they c o m m e m o r a t e d . T h e n a t u r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e , b o t h literary a n d e p i g r a p h i c , m e a n s t h a t s o m e types o f p e o p l e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y likely to get i n t o it a n d s o m e a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y likely to b e e x c l u d e d from it. A m o n g t h o s e o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e a r e p o e t s , p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d o r a t o r s , t h e sort o f p e o p l e w h o m o s t often r e c e i v e individual b i o g r a p h i e s o r at least b i o g r a p h i c a l details. I n i n s c r i p t i o n s , p e o p l e w h o w e n t to R o m e o n e m b a s s i e s a r e o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d , since they w e r e m e m b e r s o f t h e local elite with t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e i r own c o m m u n i t y a n d t h e i r fellowa m b a s s a d o r s , a n d t h e r e f o r e particularly likely to b e given an e p i t a p h i f they h a p p e n e d
t o d i e at R o m e .
representation o f serving soldiers. a n d evocali
32
3 1
M o r e s i g n i f i c a n t is t h e
over-
T h e lack o f e p i t a p h s for v e t e r a n s
in c o m p a r i s o n suggests t h a t soldiers usually w e n t h o m e
after d i s c h a r g e ,
33
b u t i f they d i e d at R o m e b e f o r e b e i n g d i s c h a r g e d ,
8
The evidence
and the
problems
t h e y w e r e m o r e likely t h a n a n y o n e else to b e c o m m e m o r a t e d with an e p i t a p h , often u n d e r t h e t e r m s o f t h e i r own wills. T h e institutional n a t u r e o f military life a n d t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l h a z a r d of d e a t h o n active service clearly e n c o u r a g e d s e r v i n g soldiers to m a k e a r r a n g e m e n t s for their own c o m m e m o r a t i o n a n d to c o m m e m o r a t e their friends; r e c o r d i n g the place of origin b e c a m e a c o m m o n feature o f their epitaphs (see p. 6 0 ) . T h e p o o r a n d illiterate a r e c e r t a i n to b e u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e e v i d e n c e , a l t h o u g h it h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d in studies of m o d e r n m i g r a tion t h a t ' t h e p o o r e s t p e o p l e a r e n o r m a l l y u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d migrants' anyway.
34
among
W o m e n m i g r a t i n g a l o n e m i g h t b e particularly
likely to b e p o o r t o o , a n d so d o u b l y liable to
under-representation.
T h e r e is also a distinct lack of e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for f o r e i g n slaves, e v e n t h o u g h it is c l e a r t h a t vast n u m b e r s of slaves at R o m e m u s t have b e e n i m m i g r a n t s r a t h e r t h a n h o m e - b o r n vernae.
T h e possibility o f
identifying a f o r e i g n e r in an i n s c r i p t i o n a c c o r d i n g to t h e c r i t e r i a used h e r e d e p e n d s o n a c o n s c i o u s d e c i s i o n by t h a t p e r s o n o r ( m o r e p r o b ably) t h e c o m m e m o r a t o r to leave an a p p r o p r i a t e ' c l u e ' . T h e obvious c o r o l l a r y o f this is t h a t t h e c l u e c o u l d b e o m i t t e d in o r d e r to i n d i c a t e a h i g h d e g r e e o f assimilation. It s e e m s p a r t i c u l a r l y likely t h a t w h e r e a child b o r n at R o m e c o m m e m o r a t e d a p a r e n t w h o h a d
migrated,
t h e r e w o u l d b e a t e n d e n c y n o t to m e n t i o n t h e fact. It is also likely t h a t t h e r e w o u l d b e a substantial n u m b e r o f m e n w h o w o r k e d away from R o m e (e.g. in military o r civil service) a n d w h o m a r r i e d w o m e n in t h e p r o v i n c e s b u t l a t e r r e t u r n e d to R o m e with t h e i r families; such w o m e n s h o u l d b e visible in t h e e v i d e n c e , b u t very r a r e l y a r e , p r e s u m a b l y b e c a u s e o f t h e d e s i r e to show assimilation in this c a s e t o o . It s h o u l d t h u s b e c l e a r t h a t t h e e p i g r a p h i c ( a n d literary) p o p u l a t i o n o f f o r e i g n e r s is far from b e i n g an a c c u r a t e s a m p l e o f t h e real p o p u l a tion o f f o r e i g n e r s . H o w e v e r , since it is now g e n e r a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e e p i g r a p h i c p o p u l a t i o n o f R o m e as a w h o l e d o e s n o t a c c u r a t e l y reflect t h e real p o p u l a t i o n , t h a t is n o t an i n s u p e r a b l e b a r r i e r to u s i n g i n s c r i p t i o n s as t h e p r i n c i p a l f o r m o f e v i d e n c e in m o s t o f this study. T h e r e is s o m e c o m p a r a b i l i t y with a n o t h e r a r e a o f R o m e ' s social history which has recently b e e n studied using similar evidence. T h e total n u m b e r of f o r e i g n e r s r e c o r d e d epigraphically at R o m e (listed in full in t h e A p p e n d i x ) is quite close to t h e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e with r e c o r d e d o c c u p a tions collected by J o s h e l ( 1 9 9 2 , 1 6 ) : 1,262 m e n a n d 2 0 8 w o m e n (Chris tian inscriptions e x c l u d e d ) .
35
S h e e n c o u n t e r s a similar p r o b l e m a b o u t
how far h e r e p i g r a p h i c p o p u l a t i o n reflects t h e real p o p u l a t i o n (p. 4 8 ) : T h e large percentage o f slaves and freedmen among those with occupa tional titles does not mean that freedmen and slaves dominated commerce
9
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
and artisanry; they simply dominated the use of occupational titles among those who received named burial. 36
I n t h e s a m e way, s o m e o f t h e features o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s which a r e discussed in c h . 4 m a y n o t a c c u r a t e l y reflect t h e w h o l e
immigrant
p o p u l a t i o n . H o w e v e r , I believe that w h e n t h e r e a r e p a t t e r n s in t h e f o r e i g n e r s ' e p i t a p h s which a r e substantially different from p a t t e r n s in R o m a n e p i t a p h s as a w h o l e , t h o s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e likely to reflect real underlying differences between the structure or behaviour o f the i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n a n d o f t h e u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n as a w h o l e ( o r at least b e t w e e n t h e e p i g r a p h i c a l l y active parts o f t h o s e p o p u l a t i o n s ) a n d t h e r e f o r e to r e q u i r e investigation a n d e x p l a n a t i o n .
v. Integration and separation F o r e i g n e r s at R o m e w e r e faced with various possible c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n . At o n e e x t r e m e , they c o u l d s p e n d as m u c h t i m e as possible in t h e c o m p a n y o f o t h e r p e o p l e from t h e s a m e p l a c e , c o n t i n u e to s p e a k t h e i r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e a n d w o r s h i p t h e i r native g o d s , a n d m a k e few c o n c e s sions to t h e i r R o m a n e n v i r o n m e n t . At t h e o t h e r e x t r e m e , t h e y c o u l d associate with p e o p l e o f all b a c k g r o u n d s , l e a r n L a t i n , t a k e p a r t in t h e cults o f t h e city, a n d e m p h a s i z e t h e i r status as R o m a n citizens i f t h e y h a d it. T h e s e two e x t r e m e s a r e e x e m p l i f i e d in s t o n e : o n t h e o n e h a n d , c a r v i n g s o f S y r i a n g o d s with d e d i c a t i o n s in S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s ; o n t h e o t h e r , t o m b s t o n e s d e p i c t i n g a m a n in a t o g a m a k i n g t h e iunctio
dextrarum
with his wife, with a L a t i n e p i t a p h setting o u t t h e i r full R o m a n
n a m e s u n d e r n e a t h . H o w e v e r , t h e ways in which p e o p l e w e r e r e p r e s e n t e d in e p i g r a p h y d o n o t necessarily show t h e ways in w h i c h t h e y w o u l d h a v e s e e n t h e m s e l v e s in all c i r c u m s t a n c e s d u r i n g t h e i r lifetimes: m o d e r n studies o f i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n show t h a t p e o p l e c a n h a v e different 'situational identities' a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r they a r e in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e i r own g r o u p o r that o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r e ,
37
and
b u r i a l , given t h e g e n e r a l a b s e n c e o f special b u r i a l a r e a s for n a t i o n a l o r r e l i g i o u s g r o u p s (see p. 1 8 7 ) , would usually h a v e b e e n s e e n as a c o n t e x t w h e r e t h e i n d i g e n o u s c u l t u r e p r e d o m i n a t e d - to t h e e x t e n t t h a t people who were not themselves indigenous could be the
most
e n t h u s i a s t i c p r o m o t e r s o f its p r a c t i c e s . P e o p l e w h o p u r s u e d t h e strategy o f i n t e g r a t i o n a r e t h u s very diffi cult to identify in t h e surviving e v i d e n c e , especially t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d t h e y a r e c e r t a i n to b e grossly u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d in this study, as a l r e a d y n o t e d . I f t h e y w a n t e d to a p p e a r R o m a n in t h e i r e p i t a p h s , o r t h e i r c o m m e m o r a t o r s w a n t e d t h e m to a p p e a r so, t h e n t h e r e was n o n e e d to m e n t i o n t h e i r p l a c e o f o r i g i n . T h e m o s t difficult t h i n g for
10
The evidence
and the
problems
t h e m to c h a n g e was t h e i r n a m e s : s o m e o n e with a R o m a n p r a e n o m e n a n d n o m e n m i g h t still h a v e a very u n - R o m a n - s o u n d i n g c o g n o m e n . P e o p l e c e r t a i n l y did c h a n g e t h e i r n a m e s unofficially from ' n a t i v e ' to r o m a n i z e d o n e s , particularly w h e n they enlisted in t h e a r m y (see p. 1 8 1 ) , b u t this was p r o b a b l y n o t n o r m a l p r a c t i c e in t h e world o f slaves a n d ex-slaves. T h e r e a r e m a n y cases w h e r e p e o p l e ' s foreign o r i g i n s a r e s u g g e s t e d by a n o n - R o m a n n a m e in an e p i t a p h o f o t h e r w i s e c o m pletely R o m a n a p p e a r a n c e ; s o m e o f these will b e discussed in Section 3. M a n u m i s s i o n c o u l d n o r m a l l y , at least in t h e e y e s of m o s t R o m a n writers, b e e x p e c t e d for a slave with talent o r ability. F o r slaves b o r n a b r o a d , w h e t h e r o r n o t they w e r e e v e n t u a l l y m a n u m i t t e d , t h e i r lives c o u l d b e g o v e r n e d m o r e by w h o o w n e d t h e m t h a n by w h e r e they c a m e from, since t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n i n t e g r a t i o n a n d s e p a r a t i o n
would
largely b e t a k e n away from t h e m . An inevitable c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e fact t h a t l a r g e h o u s e h o l d s in R o m e got t h e i r slaves t h r o u g h t h e m a r k e t as well as t h r o u g h b r e e d i n g was that p e o p l e of very different g e o g r a p h i cal o r i g i n s c a m e to live a n d work u n d e r t h e s a m e roof. R e l a t i o n s h i p s m u s t h a v e f o r m e d a c r o s s b o u n d a r i e s in ways which w e r e unlikely to o c c u r a m o n g free i m m i g r a n t s . H e n c e t h e n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s c o m m e m o r a t i n g a g r o u p o f slaves o r ex-slaves of which t h e m e m b e r s a r e clearly stated to have c o m e from different p l a c e s .
38
O n e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e high r a t e of m a n u m i s s i o n a n d o f t h e e t h n i c m i x i n g e n c o u r a g e d by t h e u r b a n slave system is t h a t a l a r g e p r o p o r tion o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
of R o m e m u s t h a v e h a d i m m i g r a n t slaves
a m o n g t h e i r a n c e s t o r s . K o l b ( 1 9 9 5 , 4 6 1 ) cites F r a n k ' s view t h a t 9 0 % o f t h e plebs w e r e d e s c e n d e d from slaves from t h e ' G r e e k O r i e n t ' a n d Huttunen's that 6 0 % o f the inhabitants o f R o m e were freeborn, and shows t h a t t h e two a r e n o t necessarily c o n t r a d i c t o r y , since m o s t freeb o r n citizens c o u l d still h a v e slave a n c e s t o r s . T h i s t o o m u s t have b e e n a force for assimilation. T h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f free i m m i g r a n t s (including soldiers) a r e m u c h m o r e likely to have m a i n t a i n e d s o m e sort o f s e p a r a t e c o m m u n a l identity t h a n a r e t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f i m m i g r a n t slaves. U r b a n slavery was t h e r e f o r e likely to b e an i n t e g r a t i n g force, a n d this is p r o b a b l y t h e r e a s o n for t h e small n u m b e r o f identifiable f o r e i g n slaves in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s (see p. 7 8 ) . H o w e v e r , w h e r e slaves a n d e x slaves d o h a v e t h e i r p l a c e o f o r i g i n r e c o r d e d , a s u r p r i s i n g
number
h a v e t h e i r h o m e city, r a t h e r t h a n j u s t t h e i r h o m e a r e a , m e n t i o n e d . A l t h o u g h s o m e may h a v e b e e n b o r n free a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y b e e n e n slaved, m o s t w e r e p r e s u m a b l y b o r n o r r e a r e d as slaves in t h o s e cities b u t felt as a t t a c h e d to t h e i r h o m e s as free citizens w o u l d h a v e d o n e . T h e route o f slavery did not lead e v e r y o n e o n a path o f full identification
11
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
with t h e city of R o m e . H o w e v e r , u r b a n slaves, t h r o u g h t h e i r e n f o r c e d c o n t a c t s with p e o p l e o f o t h e r b a c k g r o u n d s a n d t h r o u g h t h e g r e a t e r accessibility of R o m a n citizenship to t h e m via m a n u m i s s i o n ,
were
g e n e r a l l y m o r e likely to m o v e t o w a r d s i n t e g r a t i o n t h a n free
non-
citizen f o r e i g n e r s w e r e . T h e e x t e n t to which a p e r s o n ' s specific b a c k g r o u n d , e.g. from G a u l o r S y r i a , affected t h e l i k e l i h o o d of i n t e g r a t i o n will b e discussed in c h . 8. T h e v a r i o u s limitations o f t h e e v i d e n c e discussed a b o v e s h o u l d b e k e p t in m i n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o o k . S t a t u s , b a c k g r o u n d a n d n a t i o n a l ity, as well as individual c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d wishes, a r e all l i n k e d to t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a p a r t i c u l a r f o r e i g n e r b e i n g identifiable in t h e l i t e r a t u r e o r i n s c r i p t i o n s , in ways which a r e now u n q u a n t i f i a b l e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , as will b e seen, t h e e v i d e n c e is plentiful even i f it is n o t fully r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
Notes 1
Andre and Baslez (1993, 85) note the use o f various words based on the adverb peregre to signify both 'Romain expatrie et etranger immigre' ('Roman expatriate and foreign immigrant'). Peregre itself seems usually to be used as the opposite o f domi or domum. Cicero, de Lege Ag. 2.94; de Or. 1.250; Plautus, Poen. 1031; Tacitus, Dial. 7.4. Advena is a term usually applied to people rather than things, and it can be the opposite of 'native' (e.g. Tacitus, Hist. 2.2; Plautus, Aul. 4 0 6 ) or o f 'neighbouring' (Livy 22.14.5). When used in the context o f the city o f Rome, it often means a recent arrival, e.g. Apuleius, Met. 1.1; Suetonius, D.J. 39. Pliny, Ep.9.23.2. Plautus, Most. 4 9 7 ; cf. Livy 26.24.4 ('overseas peoples'), 39.46.6 and 40.2.6 ('overseas embassies'). Information from the PHI Latin CD-ROM. Information from the PHI Latin CD-ROM. Urso (1994) discusses Livy's use o f the term, in contrast to terra Italia, in the context o f the events o f 205 BC. SUA, Alex.Sev. 6 5 . 1 . Tacitus, Hist. 4 . 6 5 . e.g. Cicero, Cat. 2.29; Hirtius, B.C. 8.37.1; Livy 34.60.4. Pliny, H.N. 3 6 . 9 1 ; Seneca, Q.N. 3.pr.5. CurtiusRufus 5 . 8 . 1 1 , 5 . 1 1 . 6 ; Aulus Gellius 12.1.17; Pliny, H.N. 28.6; Livy 30.12.15. Livy 28.25.12; Pliny, H.N. 33.37; Quintilian 8.1.2; Seneca, Ben. 4 . 3 5 ; Cicero, Off 3.28. Cicero, Off. 2.64. Pliny, H.N. 33.27. Doblhofer (1987, 53) suggests that exilium voluntarium may be an equiva lent to the term 'emigration', which Latin does not have. However, when not given a specific legal sense, the term seems to be restricted almost entirely to the voluntary exile o f particularly important people, e.g. Aulus Gellius 1.17.21 (Solon), Velleius 1.2.100 (Scribonia the mother o f the elder Julia). 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
11
1 2
1 3
1 4
12
The evidence , 0
and the
problems
Suetonius, Gramm. 2. Purcell (1994, 6 4 9 - 5 0 ) notes the impossibility o f separating lifelong resi dents o f Rome from temporary visitors. Ricci (1994a, 23) notes a third possibility: that they might leave Rome to go to the home areas o f their wives. Fronto, ad Verum Imp. 2.7.6 = Loeb vol. 2, pp. 1 5 4 - 5 (tr. C.R. Haines). Discussed by Perler 1969, 1 3 4 - 6 . Natio, the noun derived from the verb 'to be born', sometimes corre sponds to its English derivatives 'nation' or 'nationality', but in inscriptions it more often has the significance of'birthplace' or just 'birth'. I have translated it differently according to context. I G U R 1287. For discussion o f the factors contributing to the formation of ethnicity in the ancient world, see Hall (1997, passim); Laurence (1998, 9 5 100). Cf. Solin 1977b, 2 1 0 - 1 1 . However, there is discussion o f the usage o f some specific foreign names in ch. 8. This excludes the various terms meaning 'Jew', since they were religious indicators rather than statements about where someone was born; see p. 2 5 5 . Admittedly, however, the praetorians who died at Rome while enlisted (and therefore are included here) were not qualitatively different from those who lived until their discharge and then returned home, just unluckier. Cf. Kaimio 1979, 2 3 . Ricci 1993b, 1 6 1 - 2 . Kajanto 1980, 88. Kajanto 1980, 88. Ambassadors who died at Rome are, when commemorated, invariably commemorated at Rome by their fellow-ambassadors or at home by their relatives; the relatives did not come to Rome to arrange their funerals. In C I L vi 3 4 5 6 , a soldier whose name is lost, probably an eques singularis, was com memorated by his brother and heir, and by a veteran who is described as corporis curator; this may mean that the brother was unable to make arrange ments for the body and the other man held the funeral. Cf. Moretti 1989, 13. Panciera (1993, 2 6 3 ) has a total o f 1,328 inscriptions relevant to soldiers serving at Rome, although these do not all give place o f origin. They are mainly funerary. 5 8 6 refer to the Praetorian Guard; the equites singulares are particularly well represented and the vigiles particularly badly. Ricci 1993b, 2 0 5 ; Moretti 1990, 2 0 8 . Malmberg 1997, 3 8 . Only 17.5% o f her sample recorded an age at death (p. 18), a much smaller proportion than among the foreigners (see p. 6 3 ) . Huttunen (1974, 4 8 ) , studying the occupations o f the deceased in inscrip tions, notes that only 9 . 5 % o f deceased and 4 . 4 % o f dedicators have their occupations stated. Some people no doubt made a living by more than one occupation, but many o f the people recorded must have had recognizable occupations which were simply not recorded. T h u s , if geographical origin was 1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
3 o
3 6
13
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
omitted as regularly as occupation, the people taken as immigrants in this study might be less than 10% o f the real number o f immigrants in the inscriptions. Kelly 1989, 8 5 . For example AE (1972) 14 (see p. i), which includes ex-slaves described as Theban, Phrygian, Smyrnan and Carthaginian, as well as a verna; C I L vi 9 6 7 5 : a Paphlagonian and a Cilician freedman. 3 7
3 8
14
Chapter 2
T H E DEMOGRAPHIC AND LEGAL BACKGROUND
T h i s c h a p t e r a i m s to show that t h e city o f R o m e , like all big p r e industrial cities, d e p e n d e d o n a substantial r a t e o f n e t i m m i g r a t i o n to m a i n t a i n its p o p u l a t i o n level, a n d t h a t f o r e i g n e r s w e r e a d e m o g r a p h i cally essential e l e m e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . It c o n s i d e r s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f civilian a n d military i m m i g r a t i o n , a n d m a k e s s o m e very tentative a t t e m p t s to e s t i m a t e t h e n u m b e r s o f p e o p l e involved. T h e e x t e n t to which f o r e i g n e r s h e l d R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p , a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f b e i n g a citizen, will also b e discussed.
i. The size of Rome's whole population T h e r e a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e difficulties in e s t i m a t i n g how m a n y p e o p l e lived at R o m e at a n y p a r t i c u l a r t i m e . T h e e v i d e n c e i n c l u d e s totals for r e c i p i e n t s o f t h e c o r n d o l e a n d o t h e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s by r u l e r s (mainly from t h e t i m e o f J u l i u s C a e s a r a n d A u g u s t u s ) , s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e a m o u n t o f food i m p o r t e d i n t o R o m e , totals o f t h e n u m b e r o f r e s i d e n tial b u i l d i n g s in t h e fourth c e n t u r y AD, a n d t h e e x t e n t o f t h e built-up a r e a within t h e A u r e l i a n i c Walls. S u c h d e b a t a b l e factors as t h e p r o p o r tion o f w o m e n , c h i l d r e n a n d
slaves in t h e p o p u l a t i o n ,
requirements o f an average resident o f R o m e , and the
the
food
population
density limit t h e value o f all t h e s e s o u r c e s . T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e city e x p a n d e d rapidly in t h e R e p u b l i c . M o r l e y ( 1 9 9 6 , 3 8 ) t h i n k s t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n r o s e from a b o u t 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 in t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C to 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 in 1 3 0 B C . E s t i m a t e s for t h e late R e p u b l i c a n d early E m p i r e vary b e t w e e n 4 4 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , with m o s t p e o p l e g o i n g n e a r e r to t h e h i g h e r figure a l t h o u g h t h e m o s t r e c e n t study p r e f e r s t h e l o w e r o n e .
1
M o r l e y e s t i m a t e s a total o f 8 7 0 -
9 7 0 , 0 0 0 for t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s : 7 5 0 , 0 0 0 free plebs
urbana,
100-
2
2 0 0 , 0 0 0 slaves, a n d 2 0 , 0 0 0 soldiers, s e n a t o r s a n d e q u i t e s . K o l b ( 1 9 9 5 , 4 5 1 - 3 ) s u p p o s e s 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 citizens, at least 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 slaves, a n d 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 peregrini?
L o C a s c i o ( 1 9 9 7 , 2 4 ) a r r i v e s at a similar figure for t h e citizen
p o p u l a t i o n in t h e t i m e o f C a e s a r , n o t i n g that a d u l t m a l e s would h a v e b e e n substantially o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d in it; h e d o e s n o t e s t i m a t e t h e size
15
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
of t h e o t h e r parts, a n d h e suggests (p. 3 0 ) a d e c r e a s e to a b o u t 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 in t h e plebs
urbana
by t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s , d u e to t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n
projects and the capping o f the n u m b e r who could receive the corn 4
d o l e . T h e e x t r e m e l y high p o p u l a t i o n density which a total o f up to 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 would s u g g e s t c a n b e m a d e m o r e plausible i f it is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e city's p o p u l a t i o n was n o t e n t i r e l y within t h e a r e a s u b s e q u e n t l y m a r k e d by t h e A u r e l i a n i c Walls, b u t also s p r e a d o u t i n t o t h e s u r r o u n d 5
i n g ' c o u n t r y s i d e ' , especially a l o n g t h e m a i n r o a d s . F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f w h a t follows, I shall a c c e p t 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 as a c o n v e n i e n t a n d plausible total, b u t since t h e e s t i m a t e s below largely c o n c e r n p r o p o r t i o n r a t h e r t h a n specific n u m b e r s , t h e g e n e r a l a r g u m e n t s would n o t b e affected i f t h e actual figure was s o m e w h a t lower. T h e size of t h e p o p u l a t i o n was p r o b a b l y r o u g h l y stable from t h e t i m e of A u g u s t u s until t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , b u t t h e r e a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n a d e c l i n e by t h e S e v e r a n p e r i o d , p r o b a b l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to t h e o u t b r e a k s of p l a g u e , to s o m e t h i n g in t h e r a n g e o f 6 5 0 , 0 0 0 - 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 .
6
T h e size o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h e n s e e m s at least to h a v e m a i n t a i n e d its level until u n d e r g o i n g a substantial fall at t h e t i m e o f t h e S a c k o f R o m e 7
in 4 1 0 , p e r h a p s to 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 o r b e l o w . T h e r e m a y have b e e n s o m e t h i n g o f a r e c o v e r y after that, as t h e n u m b e r of pigs r e q u i r e d for t h e p o r k d o l e i n c r e a s e d by n e a r l y 2 0 % b e t w e e n 4 1 9 a n d 4 5 2 , a n d t h e e m p e r o r s r e g u l a r l y r e s i d e d at R o m e in t h e p e r i o d c. 4 4 0 - 4 7 6 .
8
W h i l e t h e r e is s o m e a n c i e n t e v i d e n c e for t h e n u m b e r o f a d u l t m a l e citizens a n d for t h e total p o p u l a t i o n , t h e r e is virtually n o n e for t h e n u m b e r o f slaves o r t h e p r o p o r t i o n
o f the population
which they
f o r m e d . M a c M u l l e n ( 1 9 9 0 , 3 2 7 n. 3 ) suggests that in a p o p u l a t i o n of 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 , 4 % would own 1 7 5 , 0 0 0 slaves, while t h e rest would b e free; i.e. slaves w o u l d form 3 5 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . M o r l e y , as s h o w n a b o v e , has a c o n s i d e r a b l y lower e s t i m a t e , 1 0 - 2 0 % , a n d K o l b ' s is l o w e r still. T h e fact t h a t such widely d i v e r g e n t o p i n i o n s c a n arise suggests t h e impossibility o f assessing t h e n u m b e r o f slaves at R o m e . It is likely t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n would h a v e b e e n h i g h e s t in t h e first c e n t u r i e s B C a n d AD, at t h e t i m e w h e n wars w e r e still b r i n g i n g slaves i n t o R o m e in l a r g e n u m b e r s , a n d that it would have d e c l i n e d after that. T h e difficulty o f assessing t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f f o r e i g n e r s in R o m e ' s p o p u l a t i o n is as g r e a t as, o r e v e n g r e a t e r t h a n , that of assessing t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f slaves. S o m e p e o p l e would of c o u r s e c o m e i n t o b o t h c a t e g o r i e s , as t h e l a r g e majority o f slaves w o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n b o r n at R o m e . E p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for i m m i g r a n t slaves is e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d ,
9
b u t this is p r o b a b l y a t t r i b u t a b l e to t h e self-image o f t h e slaves w h o left epitaphs
( s e e p. 9 ) . B e l o c h e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e
16
60-70,000
The demographic 10
r e s i d e n t peregrini,
and legal
background
and Friedlander suggested 6 0 , 0 0 0 , " but Kajanto
t h i n k s t h e e v i d e n c e i m p l i e s t h a t f o r e i g n e r s in R o m e w e r e n o t very numerous.
1 2
K o l b ' s s u g g e s t i o n o f 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 peregrini
(see a b o v e ) s e e m s
fairly a r b i t r a r y . An a t t e m p t to e s t i m a t e a m i n i m u m p e r c e n t a g e b a s e d on s o m e m o r e specific c r i t e r i a is m a d e at t h e e n d o f this c h a p t e r . O n e possible a p p r o a c h is to l o o k at o t h e r cities with b e t t e r r e c o r d s , w h i c h m a y at l e a s t i n d i c a t e t h e s o r t s o f f i g u r e s f o r
immigrant
p o p u l a t i o n s w h i c h a r e plausible. I n rapidly e x p a n d i n g e a r l y - m o d e r n L o n d o n , life e x p e c t a n c y would h a v e b e e n c o m p a r a b l e to a n c i e n t R o m e , a l t h o u g h f e m a l e a g e at m a r r i a g e was p r o b a b l y l a t e r (affecting r e p r o d u c t i v i t y ) a n d t h e r e was n o e q u i v a l e n t to slavery. I n Finley's survey o f various social g r o u p s at L o n d o n , t h o s e w h o w e r e b o r n o u t s i d e E n g l a n d ( p e r h a p s r o u g h l y c o m p a r a b l e to p e o p l e at R o m e c o m i n g from o u t s i d e Italy) v a r i e d from 2 . 5 - 9 . 4 % .
1 3
T h e total 'alien'
p o p u l a t i o n o f L o n d o n was c o u n t e d as 5 . 3 % in 1 5 7 3 , b u t only 1.0% in 1 6 3 5 .
14
A r a t h e r c l o s e r parallel is p r o v i d e d by n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y R i o d e J a n e i r o , t h e o n e m o d e r n city with a slave p o p u l a t i o n w h i c h may b e c o m p a r a b l e to R o m e ' s a n d with i m m i g r a n t s c o m i n g a l m o s t e n t i r e l y from o v e r s e a s . T h e r e a r e still s o m e substantial d i f f e r e n c e s , n o t a b l y t h e official abolition o f t h e slave t r a d e in 1 8 3 0 a n d its effective abolition in 1850.
1 5
T h e city's p o p u l a t i o n was e x p a n d i n g rapidly, a n d d e p e n d e d
o n b o t h slave a n d free i m m i g r a t i o n to m a i n t a i n t h e g r o w t h . Slaves s e e m o n t h e w h o l e to h a v e f o r m e d s o m e t h i n g a p p r o a c h i n g 4 0 % o f t h e population.
16
N e a r l y 8 0 , 0 0 0 slaves w e r e r e c o r d e d in t h e 1 8 4 9 c e n s u s
( 3 8 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ) , a total w h i c h was n e v e r r e a c h e d again al t h o u g h t h e city g r e w l a r g e r .
17
O f t h o s e slaves, 7 2 % of t h e m a l e s a n d
5 7 % of t h e females w e r e b o r n o v e r s e a s . I n t h e s a m e c e n s u s , free o v e r s e a s - b o r n r e s i d e n t s a m o u n t e d to 2 4 % o f t h e m a l e p o p u l a t i o n a n d 9 % o f t h e f e m a l e ( 1 8 % o f t h e total); this a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y e x c e e d s t h e o v e r s e a s - b o r n p o p u l a t i o n o f R o m e , since i m m i g r a t i o n from t h e rest o f Italy to R o m e would have b e e n substantially m o r e significant t h a n i m m i g r a t i o n from t h e rest o f B r a z i l to R i o . C o m p a r i s o n with L o n d o n a n d R i o thus suggests t h a t it is g e n e r a l l y plausible to e n v i s a g e free o v e r s e a s i m m i g r a n t s as f o r m i n g s o m e t h i n g in t h e r a n g e of 5 % o r m o r e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f R o m e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d w h e n t h e city was still g r o w i n g (cf. p. 1 9 ) . At R i o in 1 8 4 9 , only 2 0 % o f those born overseas were female, and there may have been a similar g e n d e r i m b a l a n c e in t h e f o r e i g n p o p u l a t i o n o f R o m e (see p. 6 0 ) .
17
Evidence
and ancient attitudes
ii. Natural demographic decrease I t is g e n e r a l l y a g r e e d t h a t mortality was p r o b a b l y h i g h e r in R o m e t h a n e l s e w h e r e in t h e R o m a n world, b e c a u s e o f i n s a n i t a r y living c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e risk o f c o n t a g i o u s diseases; diseases such as t u b e r c u l o s i s m a y 1 8
have been e n d e m i c .
N e w c o m e r s to L o n d o n w e r e m o r e s u s c e p t i b l e to
p l a g u e t h a n natives w e r e ,
19
a n d t h e s a m e p o i n t has b e e n m a d e a b o u t
t h e g r e a t e r susceptibility o f R o m e ' s i m m i g r a n t s to Plasmodium malaria.
20
falciparum
T u b e r c u l o s i s m i g h t b e particularly d a n g e r o u s to t h e y o u n g
adults who probably formed
most o f the immigrant
population.
A m m i a n u s c o m m e n t e d that ' t h e i n h a b i t a n t s a r e p e c u l i a r l y s u b j e c t to s e v e r e e p i d e m i c s o f a k i n d which t h e w h o l e m e d i c a l profession is p o w e r l e s s to c u r e ' .
21
T h e b a d effect o f t h e c l i m a t e (intemperies caeli) o f
R o m e o n t h e h e a l t h o f soldiers newly a r r i v e d t h e r e in AD 6 9 is m e n t i o n e d by T a c i t u s ,
2 2
a n d it is e v e n possible t h a t t h e h i g h n u m b e r o f
y o u n g a g e s at d e a t h r e c o r d e d for t h e G e r m a n b o d y g u a r d s o f t h e J u l i o C l a u d i a n e m p e r o r s is c o n n e c t e d with n e w c o m e r s ' lack o f r e s i s t a n c e to disease at R o m e .
2 3
Slaves a r e likely to h a v e suffered from
higher
m o r t a l i t y t h a n t h e free p o p u l a t i o n , a n d i m m i g r a n t slaves w o u l d h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y v u l n e r a b l e to diseases w h i c h w e r e n o t p r e v a l e n t in their homelands.
24
It is also likely t h a t t h e b i r t h r a t e would h a v e b e e n l o w e r at R o m e t h a n e l s e w h e r e . M a n y m i g r a n t s c o m i n g to t h e city would a l r e a d y h a v e s p e n t s o m e o f t h e i r fertile years e l s e w h e r e , a n d t h e slave p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n would h a v e b e e n less fertile t h a n t h e r e s t .
25
Free male
citizen i m m i g r a n t s m a y h a v e p o s t p o n e d m a r r i a g e until t h e y h a d access to t h e c o r n d o l e , which from t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s was only available to a restricted n u m b e r o f recipients.
26
I n L o n d o n , for similar r e a s o n s , t h e
natives w e r e c l o s e r to r e p r o d u c i n g t h e m s e l v e s t h a n m i g r a n t s w e r e ,
27
a n d t h e s a m e would a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y h a v e b e e n t r u e for R o m e . Statistics for L o n d o n in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h - e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s r e v e a l s o m e t r e n d s in t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f a l a r g e p r e - i n d u s t r i a l city. I n t h e seventeenth century, a population o f 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 required an annual net i m m i g r a t i o n r a t e o f 2 , 5 0 0 j u s t to r e m a i n stable, a n d in fact t h e actual i m m i g r a t i o n r a t e m u s t h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e , since t h e p o p u l a tion was g r o w i n g .
28
L o n d o n ' s pull o n t h e rest o f E n g l a n d was so g r e a t
t h a t in t h e p e r i o d 1 6 5 0 - 1 7 5 0 t h e survivors o f o n e - s i x t h o f all E n g l i s h births b e c a m e Londoners. In the eighteenth century, a greater popu lation (still less t h a n t h a t o f a n c i e n t R o m e ) n e e d e d a m i g r a t i o n r a t e o f at least 6 , 0 0 0 p . a .
29
M a r i t a l fertility was p r o b a b l y h i g h e r in L o n d o n
t h a n e l s e w h e r e in B r i t a i n , b u t p e o p l e m a r r i e d l a t e r a n d so w e r e fertile for a s h o r t e r p e r i o d .
3 0
E v e n i f natives a n d p e r m a n e n t settlers w e r e
18
The demographic
and legal
background
a b l e to r e p r o d u c e t h e m s e l v e s , they f o r m e d too small a p r o p o r t i o n of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s to m a i n t a i n t h e city's level of p o p u l a t i o n without addi tional i m m i g r a t i o n . " M o r l e y ( 1 9 9 6 , 3 9 ) e s t i m a t e s a n e t a n n u a l g r o w t h in R o m e ' s p o p u l a tion o f 4 , 0 0 0 a y e a r in t h e s e c o n d a n d first c e n t u r i e s B C , p r o b a b l y disguising periods o f accelerated and
decelerated growth
as at
L o n d o n . H e suggests t h a t this would r e q u i r e an i m m i g r a t i o n r a t e of 7 , 0 0 0 a y e a r a m o n g t h e free p o p u l a t i o n , in a d d i t i o n to t h e i m m i g r a 3
tion o f slaves. - A city o f 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e would n e e d 1 0 , 0 0 0 i m m i g r a n t s a y e a r to m a i n t a i n its n u m b e r s (p. 4 4 ) . T h e s e a r e figures for net m i g r a t i o n ; since s o m e p e o p l e left R o m e ( s o m e t i m e s in l a r g e n u m b e r s , w h e n new c o l o n i e s w e r e f o u n d e d ) , t h e actual n u m b e r o f p e o p l e m o v i n g in would h a v e to b e g r e a t e r . H e believes (p. 4 6 ) that m o s t o f t h e free i m m i g r a n t s would h a v e c o m e from Italy, at least in t h e s e c o n d first c e n t u r i e s B C , c a u s i n g a d e c l i n e in t h e free p o p u l a t i o n o f Italy (p. 5 0 ) .
3 3
T h e survivors o f o n e - t e n t h of births in Italy would m o v e to
R o m e (p. 5 3 ) . M o r l e y ' s figures d o n o t allow for i m m i g r a n t s c o m i n g from o u t s i d e Italy. In t h e late R e p u b l i c , while R o m e was still g r o w i n g a n d
the
Italian c o u n t r y s i d e was c h a n g i n g , t h e r e c a n b e n o d o u b t that t h e vast m a j o r i t y o f i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e c a m e from Italy. H o w e v e r , in t h e first-third
centuries AD, when
Rome's population
was
probably
r o u g h l y stable, t h e s a m e ' p u s h ' factors n o l o n g e r a p p l i e d in Italy, as t h e p r o c e s s of c r e a t i n g g r e a t estates a n d d i s p l a c i n g p e a s a n t s
had
largely s t o p p e d , a n d in s o m e cases p e r h a p s e v e n r e v e r s e d . T h e l a r g e s p a s m o d i c influxes o f slaves t h r o u g h wars o f c o n q u e s t also c e a s e d after the time o f T r a j a n . Since the rate o f immigration must have remained r o u g h l y c o n s t a n t while t h e p o p u l a t i o n r e m a i n e d at t h e s a m e level, it s e e m s intrinsically likely that free i m m i g r a n t s from t h e
provinces
f o r m e d a m o r e substantial p a r t o f t h e total n u m b e r o f i m m i g r a n t s in t h e E m p i r e t h a n they h a d d o n e in t h e R e p u b l i c . T h i s p o i n t is n o t e d briefly by P l e k e t ( 1 9 9 3 , 1 6 ) : In republican times Rome owed its demographic growth to a politically induced exodus of peasants; in the imperial period it continued to depend on immigration, from the provinces and to a lesser extent from the Italian countryside. If 1 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e a y e a r w e r e still c o m i n g to R o m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, t h e majority o f t h e m would h a v e b e e n free provincials.
iii. The military population W h i l e t h e size o f t h e slave a n d free f o r e i g n p o p u l a t i o n c a n n o t b e 19
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
e s t i m a t e d with a n y p r e c i s i o n at all, t h e military p o p u l a t i o n of R o m e , a n d t h e f o r e i g n e l e m e n t within it, can b e t r e a t e d m u c h m o r e a c c u rately. L e B o h e c ( 1 9 9 4 , 3 4 ) calculates t h e total military p r e s e n c e at R o m e in AD 2 3 as 1 0 , 0 0 0 . P a n c i e r a ( 1 9 9 3 , 2 6 2 ) states t h a t it varied b e t w e e n 1 1 , 0 0 0 a n d 2 7 - 3 0 , 0 0 0 in t h e f i r s t - t h i r d c e n t u r i e s AD. T h e g e n e r a l t r e n d was u p w a r d s , a n d t h e r e was a s h a r p i n c r e a s e in t h e t i m e o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s . As t h e r e was little military r e c r u i t m e n t in R o m e itself, t h e s e m e n would largely h a v e b e e n i m m i g r a n t s , a n d m a n y o f t h e m c a m e from o u t s i d e Italy. A c c o r d i n g to L a P i a n a :
34
T h e Castra Praetoria between Porta Nomentana and Porta Vimenalis, the Castra Equitum Singularium in the Campus Coelemontanus, the Castra Misenatium in Regio I I I , the Castra Ravennatium in the Trastevere, and the Castra Peregrina on the Coelian, were most of the time centres of foreign infiltration in Roman life. L i v i n g in b a r r a c k s a n d s o m e t i m e s p e r f o r m i n g
repressive
func
1
t i o n s ' c a n n o t have m a d e for g o o d relations b e t w e e n t h e troops a n d t h e rest of t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n d m o s t of t h e m a p p e a r to h a v e left R o m e w h e n they w e r e d i s c h a r g e d . P a n c i e r a , contra L a P i a n a , believes t h a t t h e city t r a n s f o r m e d t h e soldiers r a t h e r t h a n vice versa (as h a p p e n e d with p r o v i n c i a l g a r r i s o n s ) , a n d that soldiers in R o m e lived in c o n s i d e r a b l e ( a l t h o u g h d e c r e a s i n g o v e r t i m e ) isolation from t h e rest o f t h e p o p u l a tion.
36
However, t h e r e is evidence, which Panciera tends to minimize, that
s o m e b r o u g h t m e m b e r s o f their families to R o m e with t h e m (see p. 7 0 ) . A l t h o u g h soldiers r a r e l y c a m e from big cities, t h e places o f o r i g i n r e c o r d e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s suggest they usually c a m e from s m a l l e r cities a n d r o m a n i z e d a r e a s in t h e m o s t accessible a r e a s o f t h e c o u n t r y . " T h e possibility s h o u l d b e b o r n e in m i n d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e n a m e d city m a y h a v e b e e n w h e r e t h e s o l d i e r was living w h e n h e e n l i s t e d r a t h e r t h a n his o r i g i n a l h o m e , a n d t h a t m a n y soldiers really c a m e from very r u r a l backgrounds. T h e l a r g e s t military p r e s e n c e in R o m e was t h a t o f t h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d . N i n e c o h o r t s w e r e established by A u g u s t u s a n d billeted in a c a m p o n t h e E s q u i l i n e by T i b e r i u s ; e a c h c o h o r t n o m i n a l l y n u m b e r e d 9 6 0 in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d 1 4 4 0 in t h e t h i r d .
38
T h e y were
i n c r e a s e d to twelve c o h o r t s b e f o r e AD 4 7 , a n d to s i x t e e n in 6 9 , b u t V e s p a s i a n r e t u r n e d to n i n e a n d D o m i t i a n to ten. T h e y w e r e dissolved by C o n s t a n t i n e after t h e B a t t l e of t h e Milvian B r i d g e in 3 1 2 . T h e i r n o r m a l t e r m o f service was 1 6 - 1 7 y e a r s .
39
In the first-second centu
ries, t h e vast majority w e r e from Italy, b u t in t h e third c e n t u r y , r e c r u i t m e n t o u t s i d e Italy was t h e n o r m , d u e to a c h a n g e o f policy by Septimius Severus.
40
D o b o ' s study ( 1 9 7 5 ) o f t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s i n d i c a t e s
20
The demographic
and legal
background
t h a t t h e p l a c e o f o r i g i n o f a b o u t 6 3 % is u n k n o w n . O f t h e rest, 4 5 . 4 % c a m e from Italy, 1 5 % P a n n o n i a , 7 . 7 % T h r a c e , 6 % N o r i c u m , 3 . 8 % M o e s i a , 3 . 8 % H i s p a n i a , 3 . 3 % Dacia, 2 . 7 % M a c e d o n i a , 2 . 2 % Africa, 1.7% Gallia N a r b o n e n s i s , 1.7% G e r m a n y . Given t h a t l a r g e n u m b e r s o f individuals a r e involved, this is p r o b a b l y a r e a s o n a b l e reflection o f t h e overall g e o g r a p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e p r a e t o r i a n s . H o w e v e r , it ob s c u r e s a very substantial c h a n g e o v e r t i m e , as m o s t o f t h e Italians b e l o n g to t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y a n d m o s t o f t h e o t h e r s to t h e t h i r d . A c c o r d i n g to L e B o h e c ( 1 9 9 4 , 9 9 ) , r e l y i n g o n e a r l i e r work by Passerini, in t h e f i r s t - s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s p r a e t o r i a n r e c r u i t m e n t was 8 6 . 3 % Ital ians, 9 . 5 % w e s t e r n e r s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e B a l k a n s ) , 4 . 2 % e a s t e r n e r s ; in the third c e n t u r y it was 6 0 . 3 % w e s t e r n e r s a n d 3 9 . 7 % e a s t e r n e r s , with n o Italians. T h e c h a n g e o f r e c r u i t m e n t policy h a d a n o t i c e a b l e effect on t h e city of R o m e , a c c o r d i n g to D i o :
11
filling the city with a throng of motley soldiers most savage in appearance, most terrifying in speech, and most boorish in conversation. G e r m a n b o d y g u a r d s a r e r e c o r d e d for a n u m b e r o f m e m b e r s of t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n family, a n d for at least o n e private citizen t o o . A u g u s t u s used t h e m until t h e V a r u s disaster, a n d they w e r e r e - e s t a b l i s h e d by Tiberius.
4 2
B y t h e t i m e of C l a u d i u s a n d N e r o , t h e b o d y g u a r d s
f o r m e d a collegium 43
that o f peregrini.,
Germanorum.
b u t t h e y w e r e allowed to have h e i r s , m e n t i o n e d in
m a n y of t h e i r e p i t a p h s . T h e y w e r e a b o l i s h e d by G a l b a ,
44
and replaced
as i m p e r i a l b o d y g u a r d u n d e r t h e Flavians o r T r a j a n by t h e singulares.
had
T h e i r legal status was p r o b a b l y usually
equiles
T h e s e p r o b a b l y totaled 1 , 0 0 0 , a n d n e e d e d a b o u t 7 0 new
recruits a year.
43
T h e i r c a m p was first at a site b e t w e e n S. G i o v a n n i in
L a t e r a n o a n d t h e future A u r e l i a n i c Walls, b u t u n d e r S e v e r u s a new o n e was built b e t w e e n t h e p r e s e n t - d a y V i a T o r q u a t o T a s s o a n d V i a E m a n u e l c F i l i b e r t o , still n e a r t h e L a t e r a n .
4 6
T h e y h a d a burial a r e a
a b o v e what b e c a m e t h e S S . P i e t r o e M a r c e l l i n o c a t a c o m b , a n d t h e i r e p i t a p h s a r e p r e s e r v e d in l a r g e n u m b e r s ( a l t h o u g h they a r e often very f r a g m e n t a r y t h r o u g h r e u s e ) . T h e y w e r e always r e c r u i t e d in t h e p r o v inces, a n d i f n o t a l r e a d y citizens they r e c e i v e d L a t i n rights o n e n r o l m e n t a n d citizenship o n d i s c h a r g e .
47
M a t e e s c u suggests that they w e r e
originally T h r a c i a n s , b u t they s o o n c a m e to b e r e c r u i t e d from m u c h t h e s a m e places as t h e p r a e t o r i a n s . T h e o r i g i n s of a b o u t a q u a r t e r a r e r e c o r d e d : b e f o r e 1 9 3 , 5 6 % w e r e from G e r m a n y / B r i t a i n / G a u l / R a e t i a / N o r i c u m ; after 1 9 3 , 7 0 % w e r e from P a n n o n i a / D a c i a / M o e s i a / T h r a c e / Macedonia.
18
Germans dominated
before Septimius Severus, and
p e o p l e from t h e B a l k a n s afterwards. A few o f t h e m c a m e from foreign royal f a m i l i e s , i n c l u d i n g a P a r t h i a n 21
and
(probably) Italicus who
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
became king o f the Cherusci. AD 1 3 8 , 2 5 years a f t e r w a r d s .
19
They n o r m a l l y s e r v e d 2 7 - 2 9 years until
50
T h e fleets b a s e d at M i s e n u m a n d R a v e n n a h a d b a r r a c k s at R o m e , used especially in t h e winter. T h e m a i n duty o f sailors at R o m e was to raise a n d l o w e r t h e a w n i n g at t h e C o l o s s e u m , a l t h o u g h they p r o b a b l y h a d o t h e r functions t o o .
51
T h e fleets r e c r u i t e d heavily o v e r s e a s , e s p e
cially in a r e a s which did n o t c o n t r i b u t e to t h e o t h e r military p r e s e n c e s at R o m e , e.g. E g y p t . Sailors awaiting allocation to t h e i r units a p p a r ently waited at R o m e ,
5 2
a n d civilian sailors from t h e A l e x a n d r i a n g r a i n
fleet also a p p e a r to h a v e stayed at R o m e while waiting for t h e i r ships to make the return journey.
5 3
Sailors would
a similar l e n g t h of t i m e to t h e equites singulares,
normally have
served
but the Pannonian L.
Licinius C a p i t o , a h e l m s m a n in t h e M i s e n u m fleet, died a g e d 6 3 after 4 5 years' service;
54
other examples o f over 3 0 years' service are
reasonably c o m m o n . T h e U r b a n C o h o r t s f o r m e d a r e g u l a r p r e s e n c e on t h e streets. T h e y c o n t a i n e d a m u c h s m a l l e r p r o p o r t i o n of o v e r s e a s soldiers t h a n t h e o t h e r military units in R o m e . O f t h o s e with a k n o w n o r i g i n , 8 5 % ( 2 3 5 / 2 7 7 ) a r e Italian; t h e b i g g e s t provincial g r o u p is M a c e d o n i a n s ( 6 % ) .
5 5
T h e r e w e r e also soldiers from various l e g i o n s s t a t i o n e d at t h e C a s t r a P e r e g r i n a o n t h e C a e l i a n while o n duty in R o m e , would
5 0
some o f whom
have been non-Italians, but they were probably not
very
significant n u m e r i c a l l y . It is thus possible to f o r m a r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e o f t h e n u m b e r of p r o v i n c i a l soldiers in R o m e at any p a r t i c u l a r t i m e : at least 1 5 , 0 0 0 in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . W i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f family m e m b e r s (see p. 7 0 ) , s o m e t h i n g o v e r 2 % o f t h e city's total p o p u l a t i o n in t h a t p e r i o d would have b e e n p e o p l e w h o h a d c o m e to R o m e from o u t s i d e Italy for military service. Many died there and
left e p i t a p h s . O t h e r s
are
r e c o r d e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s e r e c t e d w h e n they w e r e d i s c h a r g e d , usually j u s t b e f o r e they r e t u r n e d h o m e . V e r y few a p p e a r to h a v e r e m a i n e d in R o m e as v e t e r a n s a n d b e e n c o m m e m o r a t e d as h a v i n g c o m e from t h e p r o v i n c e s ; i f they stayed in R o m e , e i t h e r t h e i r military status o r t h e i r i m m i g r a n t o r i g i n was n o t r e c o r d e d w h e n they d i e d .
57
iv. Fluctuations in immigration It was s u g g e s t e d a b o v e t h a t free i m m i g r a t i o n from o u t s i d e Italy is likely to h a v e i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g t h e f i r s t - s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s AD as slave a n d Italian i m m i g r a t i o n d e c l i n e d , a n d to h a v e b e e n at its h i g h e s t in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y in view of t h e c h a n g e s in military r e c r u i t m e n t
then.
T h e r e would h a v e b e e n fluctuations from y e a r to y e a r c a u s e d by
22
The demographic
and legal
background
e v e n t s b o t h in t h e p r o v i n c e s (e.g. b a d harvests) a n d at R o m e (e.g. e m p l o y m e n t p r o v i d e d by l a r g e - s c a l e b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t s ) , b u t t h e s e a r e now i r r e c o v e r a b l e . If t h e p o p u l a t i o n of R o m e r e m a i n e d r o u g h l y stable in t h e fourth c e n t u r y , as p r o p o s e d a b o v e , t h e n e t i m m i g r a t i o n r a t e m u s t h a v e b e e n m a i n t a i n e d t h e n t o o , as t h e c o n d i t i o n s of n a t u r a l d e m o g r a p h i c d e c r e a s e (see a b o v e ) would h a v e c o n t i n u e d to apply to the 'native' population. R o m e may h a v e lost s o m e o f its a p p e a l to i m m i g r a n t s in late antiq uity. E c o n o m i c , c u l t u r a l a n d political d e c l i n e s h o u l d h a v e r e d u c e d t h e n u m b e r s of i m m i g r a n t s a c r o s s a w h o l e social s p e c t r u m from slaves to p r o f e s s o r s to m e r c h a n t s .
5 8
T h e foundation o f Constantinople provided
an a l t e r n a t i v e d e s t i n a t i o n which m u s t h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y attractive to p e o p l e w h o s e first l a n g u a g e was G r e e k . A c c o r d i n g to t h e b i o g r a p h i e s o f t h e p o p e s in t h e L i b e r Pontificalis, of t h e first twenty, t h r e e w e r e b o r n in Italy o u t s i d e R o m e , a n d n i n e w e r e b o r n o v e r s e a s (six in G r e e c e ) . O f t h e n e x t twenty, o n e was b o r n in Italy o u t s i d e R o m e , a n d five o v e r s e a s ( i n c l u d i n g P o p e D a m a s u s from S p a i n , t h e first from west ofltaly/Africa).
59
A close e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e (see c h . 4 ) d o e s n o t a l t o g e t h e r b e a r o u t t h e e x p e c t e d p i c t u r e of d e c l i n i n g i m m i g r a t i o n , a n d i n s t e a d suggests t h a t it r e m a i n e d significant at least from c e r t a i n a r e a s , e v e n w h e n t h e total p o p u l a t i o n o f R o m e a p p e a r s to have b e e n declining.
60
T h e e x p u l s i o n s o f f o r e i g n e r s at t h e e n d o f t h e
fourth
c e n t u r y (see p. 4 0 ) show t h a t t h e y w e r e still s e e n to b e n u m e r i c a l l y significant. P e o p l e c o n t i n u e d to c o m e from Asia M i n o r a n d Syria (see ch. 5.iv a n d v) in t h e fifth c e n t u r y . T h e e p i t a p h s o f i m m i g r a n t soldiers, which d a t e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y from t h e first-third c e n t u r i e s AD, slightly o u t n u m b e r t h o s e o f p a g a n civilians which m u s t b e largely from t h e s a m e p e r i o d ( 5 6 8 : 5 2 1 ; see p. 5 7 ) . S o l d i e r s w e r e , h o w e v e r , m u c h m o r e likely to g e t a n e p i t a p h r e c o r d i n g t h e i r p r o v i n c i a l o r i g i n t h a n civilians w e r e , so this d o e s n o t i n d i c a t e t h a t i m m i g r a n t soldiers really o u t n u m b e r e d civilians. If soldiers a n d t h e i r families f o r m e d s o m e t h i n g like 2 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y (see a b o v e ) , it is p r o b a b l y r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e t h a t military a n d civilian p r o v i n c i a l i m m i g r a n t s t o g e t h e r m a d e up at least 5 % o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n by t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , which is c o n s i s t e n t with t h e figures from L o n d o n a n d R i o d e J a n e i r o q u o t e d a b o v e . T h e reality c o u l d o f c o u r s e b e very m u c h g r e a t e r .
v. Citizenship among foreigners at Rome A R o m a n citizen h a d , in t h e o r y , t h e r i g h t to settle in R o m e a n d to
23
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
e n j o y t h e benefits o f c i t i z e n s h i p , s o m e o f which w e r e only available to m e n : t h e vote, eligibility for (not necessarily actual r e c e i p t of) t h e c o r n 1
1
dole. ' U n d e r R o m a n law, a citizen c o u l d only b e e j e c t e d from t h e city as p a r t of t h e p u n i s h m e n t for b e i n g f o u n d guilty of a c r i m e ; e x c l u s i o n from R o m e o r Italy was a r e c o g n i z e d legal p e n a l t y .
62
T h e soldiers w h o
s e r v e d at R o m e h a d in m o s t cases to b e citizens, a l t h o u g h t h e r e is r e a s o n to t h i n k that s o m e may have b e e n given citizenship only at t h e moment o f enlistment.
63
T h e p r e s e n c e of slaves at R o m e was e n t i r e l y at t h e d i s c r e t i o n of t h e i r o w n e r s , a l t h o u g h t h e state m i g h t also i n t e r v e n e in e x t r e m e crises. Slaves h a d n o c h o i c e a b o u t c o m i n g to R o m e in t h e first p l a c e , a n d also n o c h o i c e a b o u t w h e t h e r they stayed t h e r e . A c c o r d i n g to a r e s c r i p t of A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s d a t e d to 2 2 5 ,
6 4
a slave w h o was sold away from his
city m u s t n o t stay in R o m e e i t h e r , a n d o n e who was sold away from his p r o v i n c e m u s t n o t stay in Italy e i t h e r . Slaves m i g h t , h o w e v e r , a c h i e v e m a n u m i s s i o n a n d (automatically, i f p r o p e r l y m a n u m i t t e d by a R o m a n citizen) citizenship while living at R o m e , a n d t h u s a c q u i r e security o f r e s i d e n c e a n d , in m o s t r e s p e c t s , e q u a l rights with o t h e r citizens. F o r t h e m o s t f o r t u n a t e , this c o u l d b e a 'fast-track' m e a n s of a c q u i r i n g citizenship i f they w e r e m a n u m i t t e d while fairly y o u n g . S o m e possible cases o f slave status b e i n g a d v a n t a g e o u s in this r e s p e c t a r e discussed below. Peregrini
w e r e , in s o m e r e s p e c t s , in a midway position
between
citizens a n d slaves. T h e i r c o m i n g to R o m e would n o r m a l l y b e a volun tary d e c i s i o n , b u t o n c e t h e r e they did n o t have security o f r e s i d e n c e , a n d c o u l d b e e x p e l l e d individually o r en masse. b e e n m u c h h a r d e r for a peregrinus t h e c h a n c e s o f a peregrinus
It also a p p e a r s to h a v e
t h a n for a slave to o b t a i n c i t i z e n s h i p ;
m a k i n g s o m e c o n t r i b u t i o n to society which
was felt to d e s e r v e c i t i z e n s h i p , o r o f b r i b i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e official (which was a p p a r e n t l y
t h e usual r o u t e )
c h a n c e s o f a slave b e i n g m a n u m i t t e d . a r e c o g n i z e d p r o b l e m of peregrini
6 5
w e r e m u c h less t h a n t h e
T h e r e s e e m s to h a v e
illegally p r e t e n d i n g to b e R o m a n
citizens, since C l a u d i u s i m p o s e d capital p u n i s h m e n t living at R o m e , peregrini
been
for i t .
66
While
w e r e n o t s u b j e c t to special t a x a t i o n , as metics
in s o m e G r e e k cities w e r e , b u t they m a y h a v e b e e n h i n d e r e d in busi ness d e a l i n g s by t h e i r lack o f legal p r o t e c t i o n . T h e y c a m e u n d e r t h e legal j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e praetor
peregrinus.
T h e y d o n o t s e e m to h a v e
b e e n s u b j e c t to reprisals w h e n t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s w e r e at war with R o m e ; for e x a m p l e , t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e of E g y p t i a n s at R o m e suffer i n g d u r i n g t h e war with C l e o p a t r a , o r J e w s d u r i n g t h e J e w i s h R e v o l t s . Peregrini
living at R o m e w e r e n o t necessarily i m m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s ,
24
The demographic
and legal
background
b u t c o u l d b e t h e d e s c e n d a n t s of i m m i g r a n t s several g e n e r a t i o n s back. T h e y m i g h t b e citizens o f a n o t h e r city; i n s c r i p t i o n s s u g g e s t that m a n y i m m i g r a n t s from Asia a n d A l e x a n d r i a h a d civic rights t h e r e , a n d a few h a d e v e n h e l d office at h o m e . T h e C o n s t i t u t i o A n t o n i n i a n a o f AD 2 1 2 gave R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p to n e a r l y all peregrini,
a n d after that only
p e o p l e from o u t s i d e t h e E m p i r e would h a v e c o m e i n t o t h e c a t e g o r y . H o w e v e r , t h e fact that e x p u l s i o n o f ' f o r e i g n e r s ' (still labelled
peregrini
in L a t i n ) was still possible in t h e fourth c e n t u r y AD suggests that, by t h a t d a t e , citizen i m m i g r a n t s h a d peregrini
n o m o r e legal p r o t e c t i o n
than
had had before.
I n s c r i p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e h i g h l i g h t several cases w h e r e t h e e x a c t status o f t h e p e o p l e involved is a n o m a l o u s a n d may reflect t h e r e d u c t i o n of a f r e e b o r n p e r s o n to slavery. F o r e x a m p l e , a b i l i n g u a l ( G r e e k a n d L a t i n ) e p i t a p h c o m m e m o r a t e s a w o m a n called ' I u l i a , also called N a n a , E u m e n e i a n ' , d a u g h t e r o f a E u m e n e i a n n a m e d D e m a d e s , wife of A l e x a n d e r , a n d m o t h e r o f L. P o m p e i u s I t h a r u s , an imperial freedman.
67
It is difficult to see how a w o m a n from a family
with citizenship o f an Asian city c o u l d b e t h e m o t h e r o f an i m p e r i a l freedman
whose n o m e n ,
P o m p e i u s , is n o t t h a t o f a n y
emperor.
I t h a r u s , as a f r e e d m a n , a c q u i r e d t h e R o m a n citizenship which his 68
p a r e n t s did n o t p o s s e s s . Similarly, an eques singularis
n a m e d M. Ulpius
V i a t o r was c o m m e m o r a t e d at R o m e by his b r o t h e r M. U l p i u s D o r u s , an i m p e r i a l f r e e d m a n .
69
S i n c e V i a t o r , in o r d e r to b e c o m e a soldier,
would h a v e b e e n of f r e e b o r n status, his b r o t h e r s h o u l d n o t have b e e n a slave, a n d S p e i d c l a s s u m e s that ' b r o t h e r ' is n o t to b e t a k e n l i t e r a l l y .
70
H o w e v e r , since ' b r o t h e r ' r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t a k e n literally in all o t h e r equites singulares
i n s c r i p t i o n s by S p e i d e l , it s e e m s m o r e satisfactory to
s u p p o s e that V i a t o r a n d D o r u s really w e r e b r o t h e r s , a n d that they followed two different p a t h s to R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p , a l t h o u g h it c a n n o t be said w h e t h e r D o r u s ' was v o l u n t a r y o r not. A n o t h e r p r o b l e m of status is p r e s e n t e d by a m a n m e n t i o n e d in a private l e t t e r from O x y r h y n c h u s : ' K n o w , t h e n , t h a t H e r m i n o s went off to R o m e a n d b e c a m e a f r e e d m a n appointments.'
71
o f C a e s a r in o r d e r to take
H e r m i n o s m a y originally h a v e b e e n an
slave in E g y p t w h o s o m e h o w s e c u r e d his t r a n s f e r
imperial
to Italy
and
m a n u m i s s i o n . Alternatively, W e a v e r ( 1 9 7 2 , 3 6 ) m e n t i o n s several cases o f n o n - i m p e r i a l f r e e d m e n trying to b e c o m e i m p e r i a l f r e e d m e n , a n d H e r m i n o s could be o n e o f t h o s e .
72
A n o t h e r possibility, which s e e m s
m o r e likely in view o f t h e cases h i g h l i g h t e d a b o v e to which it may also a p p l y , is t h a t h e was a free m a n
who followed s o m e
otherwise
u n k n o w n p r o c e d u r e o f e n s l a v e m e n t a n d m a n u m i s s i o n ( p e r h a p s in
25
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
o n e t r a n s a c t i o n , a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h b r i b e r y ) in o r d e r to get R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p a n d access to a civil service p o s t .
73
In p r i n c i p l e , possession of R o m a n citizenship s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a factor which e n c o u r a g e d f o r e i g n e r s to c o m e to R o m e up to 2 1 2 . I n p r a c t i c e , it may h a v e b e e n t h e d e s i r e to o b t a i n citizenship which m o t i v a t e d s o m e individuals. T h e legal status o f t h e f o r e i g n e r s r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s will b e discussed below (p. 7 5 ) ; it s e e m s to h a v e v a r i e d s o m e w h a t a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r p l a c e o f o r i g i n . I r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r legal status, free i m m i g r a n t s w e r e d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y for R o m e , especially after t h e mass influxes o f slaves e n d e d . T h e t h i r d c e n t u r y AD was p r o b a b l y t h e p e r i o d w h e n they f o r m e d t h e m o s t sub stantial p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , p e r h a p s , as s u g g e s t e d a b o v e , s o m e t h i n g in t h e o r d e r o f 5 % .
Notes 1
Plekct 1993, 14; Storey 1997. Storey's calculation, extrapolating the popu lation density he works out for Ostia, overlooks the likelihood of Rome having much taller and more closely-packed high-rise accommodation than Ostia did (cf. Carcopino 1 9 4 1 , 3 6 - 7 ) . He does not directly explain the figure o f 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 + adult male citizen recipients o f the corn dole, which is too great for a total population o f 4 4 0 , 0 0 0 , although he implies (p. 9 7 6 ) that many would have come from the 'hinterland' rather than Rome itself. He estimates a freeborn male population o f about 2 6 0 , 0 0 0 from the corn dole figures (assuming recipients were aged 10) with perhaps an equivalent number o f females; 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 ex-slaves on the basis o f the 120,000 freedmen excluded from the corn dole by Augustus; something like 6 0 , 0 0 0 resident foreigners, as suggested by Friedlander (see below). He takes the figures for distributions by Augustus o f 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 and 3 2 0 , 0 0 0 as referring respectively to adult male citizens and their sons aged 10 or more, and to male citizens and their younger sons. I f there were 70,000 sons aged 0 10, there must be 4 0 - 5 0 , 0 0 0 aged 1 0 - 1 6 , therefore 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 adult male citi zens, i.e. the number to which Augustus limited the corn dole; therefore c. 100,000 girls o f 0 - 1 6 , and he adds 150,000 women. Kolb (1995, 4 5 2 ) thinks that there was an increase o f population between the time o f Caesar and Augustus, which is one o f the reasons for the maxi mum number o f recipients o f the corn dole being 150,000 under Julius Caesar and 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 under Augustus. First suggested by Quilici 1974. Lo Cascio (1997, 4 5 ) , arguing for 6 5 0 , 0 0 0 - 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 against Beloch's esti mate o f 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 . However, K o l b ( 1 9 9 5 , 4 5 4 ) thinks 1,000,000 is still plausible for the time o f Septimius Severus; he notes the big increase in the military population then. Lo Cascio (1997, 6 5 - 6 ) and Cracco Ruggini (1997, 159), contra, e.g. Robinson (1992, 9; cf. p. 23), who suggests that the population in the time o f 2
3
4
5
6
7
26
The demographic
and legal
background
Constantine and Constantius was less than 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 . Lo Cascio's picture is certainly consistent with the impression from the inscriptions that immigra tion continued to remain very significant in late antiquity. Barnish 1987, 160, 162. Ricci 1993b, 166. This is discussed further at p. 7 8 . Beloch (1886, 4 0 3 ) , apparently on the basis o f the proportion o f Greek to Latin epitaphs. Friedlander ( 1 9 0 7 - 1 3 , vol. 4 , 18), on the basis that this was twice the foreign population o f Paris under Napoleon. Morley (1996, 38) comments that this argument 'is hardly overwhelming, but the evidence does not exist on which to base a better estimate'. Kajanto 1980, 8 8 . Freemen 1 5 5 1 - 3 : 5 . 1 % ; Apprentices 1 5 7 0 - 1 6 4 0 : 3.8%; Inns o f Court members 1 5 9 0 - 1 6 3 9 : 9.4%; Apprentices 1 6 7 4 - 9 0 : 2.5%; Freemen 1690: 3.0% (figures from Finlay 1981, 6 4 tab.3.5). Norwich in 1583, however, had 4,679 aliens out o f a population o f c. 13,000: Finlay 1981, 6 7 - 8 . Karasch 1987, xxii. Karasch 1987, 6 1 - 6 . Karasch 1987, xxi. Scobie 1986; Morley 1 9 9 6 , 4 1 . Finlay 1 9 8 1 , 129. Scheidel 1994, 1 6 2 - 3 . Cf. Morley 1 9 9 6 , 4 4 - 5 . Ammianus 14.6.23. Tacitus, Hist. 2 . 9 3 - 4 : he describes the Germans and Gauls as 'susceptible to diseases'. Scheidel (1996, 129), emphasizing that the sample is too small to be relied on. Cf. Karasch (1987, 109, 1 4 6 - 7 ) on slaves at Rio de J a n e i r o . Kajanto 1980, 9 3 . Morley 1996, 4 4 . Finlay 1 9 8 1 , 10. Finlay 1981, 9. McNeill 1978, 6. Wriglcy (1967) suggests 8,000 p.a. Finlay 1981, 5. Sharlin 1978; cf. the debate by Sharlin and Finlay in P&P 92 (1981), 1 6 9 80. Whether or not Sharlin's claim that there was no demographic decrease among natives and permanent settlers is true, the requirement for a high rate of net immigration remains. The slave population would need replacing at a faster rate because mortality among slaves would have been higher than among free migrants; slaves would probably have been more susceptible to disease, and would have come to Rome at more vulnerable ages (young and old) than free migrants. Any estimate o f the actual numbers involved in slave immigration depends on assumptions about the proportion o f the population formed by slaves. Hopkins (1978, 7) estimates that 1,500,000 people were displaced in the Italian countryside in the period 8 0 - 8 BC, although only a small proportion o f these would have ended up at Rome. 8
9
1 0
11
1 2
1 3
1 4
15
1 6
17
1 8
1 9
2()
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2(3
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
3 3
27
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
3 4
La Piana 1927, 2 2 3 . Panciera 1993, 2 7 4 - 5 . Panciera 1993, 2 6 2 , 2 7 2 - 3 . Ricci 1993b, 207. Scheidel 1996, 126, contra Le Bohec 1994, 2 1 . T h e effective strength of" a unit would have been lower: Scheidel estimates 9 0 - 9 5 % . Kennedy (1978, 301) suggests that the size may have been increased by Commodus, rather than by Septimius Severus as is usually thought. Le Bohec 1994, 6 4 ; Scheidel 1996, 126. Dio 75.2.4; Ricci 1993b, 2 0 6 ; Le Bohec 1994, 9 9 . Dio 75.2.6 (tr. E. Gary). Le Bohec 1994, 2 3 . Ricci 1993c, 220. Some appear to have started as slaves, since T i . Claudius Aug.lib. Ductus was described as 'decurion o f the Germans' in his epitaph (CIL vi 8811). Speidel (1994a, 25) also thinks that the Greek names o f some suggest slave status. Under Nero, they acquired citizenship (Speidel 1994a, 29). Speidel (1994a, 30) notes that banishment from Rome was a normal punishment for soldiers discharged in shame (in this case, allegedly betraying Nero). Le Bohec 1994, 2 3 ; Speidel 1994a, 22. See the plan in Speidel 1994a, fig. 10. Mateescu 1923, 184; Le Bohec 1994, 100. Speidel 1994a, 8 3 . Speidel 1994a, 27. Le Bohec 1994, 64, 100. SHA, Comm. 15.6; La Piana 1927, 2 2 1 ; Ricci 1993b, 2 0 5 . T h o s e from Misenum were barracked on the Via Labicana according to the Eorma Urbis and C I L vi 1 0 9 1 , those from Ravenna probably in Trastevere (Giorgetti 1977). I owe some o f these references to Domenico Carro and the Ostia e-mail Discussion Group. P.Mich, viii 4 9 1 . • Loeb Select Papyri i 113. C I L xiv 2 3 8 . Pagnoni 1942, 32. Richardson 1992, 7 8 . • Epitaphs in which soldiers who served at Rome were commemorated at home, presumably usually because they had returned there to live, are sur veyed by Ricci (1994a). She notes (p. 4 7 ) the rarity o f epitaphs from anywhere recording people explicitly as veterans from the military units o f the city. Kajanto 1980, 97. ° This might suggest that immigration had declined but could be explained by the growth o f Rome's Christian community, meaning simply that there were more Christians born in Rome in the 3rd-4th centuries than there had been previously and therefore less likelihood o f a pope (or any other indi vidual Christian) being an immigrant. Cracco Ruggini (1997, 188) suggests that the legislation by Gratian against beggars in Rome reflects the prevalence of immigration of the very 3 5
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 5
4 6
4 7
4 8
4 9
5 0
5 1
5 2
)3
5 4
5 5
5 6
)7
5 8
9
0 0
28
The demographic
and legal
background
poor into the city in the late 4th century, although she envisages this as being mainly from the surrounding countryside. However, since one o f the conditions o f eligibility was residence at Rome, newly arrived immigrants would not qualify; they would have to wait until the records were updated. See the discussion by Lo Cascio (1997, esp. 11, 4 7 ) . In practice, there was probably much less security from the whim o f an emperor or magistrate than legal theory would suggest. T h e r e are many cases where brothers have a different nomen, or a son's nomen is different from his father's. They could all be explained by second marriages, illegitimacy, etc., but granting o f citizenship on enlistment is a more satisfactory general explanation. Cod.Just. 4.55.5. In Acts 2 2 . 2 6 - 8 , a soldier who has 'bought' his citizenship is surprised to find that Paul is a citizen by birth. Cf. Balsdon 1979, 89. Suetonius, Clau. 25. IGUR 9 0 2 . In discussing some other cases o f imperial freedmen with non-imperial nomina, Weaver (1972, 3 6 - 7 ) suggests that the explanation may be the opera tion o f the S.C. Claudianum, under which the child o f an imperial slave father and a free mother would be an imperial slave. It is possible that Alexander was an imperial slave, but that would not explain where the name Pompeius came from, as it was not Iulia Nana's name. C I L vi 3 3 0 9 and 32787; Speidel 1994c, 347. Cf. discussion o f the term 'brother' at p. 7 0 . P.Oxy xlvi 3 3 1 2 = N D I E C 3 . 1 . T h e word used is opikia = officia. As suggested by Ilorsley in NDIEC. A fictional case o f someone selling himself into slavery so that he would be manumitted and become a Roman citizen is mentioned in Petronius, Sal. 57; cf. Gardner 1993, 3 8 . 0 1
0 2
6 4
(,;>
W )
6 7
()8
0 9
/()
7 2
/ 3
29
Chapter 3
A T T I T U D E S T O FOREIGNERS T h i s c h a p t e r surveys t h e a t t i t u d e s to
foreigners
at R o m e
found
in
l i t e r a t u r e , v a r y i n g from t h e very positive to t h e very hostile a n d s o m e t i m e s i n f l u e n c e d by p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t slaves. I t also c o n s i d e r s
the
n u m e r o u s a t t e m p t s o v e r a p e r i o d o f five c e n t u r i e s to e x p e l s o m e o r all o f t h e f o r e i g n e r s from t h e city, a n d t h e ways in which t h e state o c c a sionally e n c o u r a g e d
specific t a r g e t - g r o u p s
to c o m e to R o m e . T h i s
c o m p l e t e s t h e survey of t h e social, legal a n d d e m o g r a p h i c b a c k g r o u n d against which
the e x p e r i e n c e s o f individual
f o r e i g n e r s at
Rome
w e r e set.
i. Positive statements about the presence of foreigners at Rome The
p r e s e n c e o f a l a r g e a n d c o n s p i c u o u s n u m b e r o f f o r e i g n e r s at
R o m e (slave, freed a n d f r e e b o r n ) is s o m e t h i n g which is t a k e n
for
g r a n t e d by m a n y a n c i e n t writers w h o d e s c r i b e t h e city a n d its living c o n d i t i o n s , b u t t h e i r a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s it vary c o n s i d e r a b l y . N o - o n e a c k n o w l e d g e s directly t h a t i m m i g r a t i o n was a d e m o g r a p h i c necessity for R o m e . H o w e v e r , t h e c o n c e p t o f R o m e as t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e w o r l d , a city to w h i c h p e o p l e f l o c k e d from
everywhere, could make
the
foreign p r e s e n c e into s o m e t h i n g positive. T h i s view is t a k e n by s o m e a n c i e n t writers, b u t n o t very m a n y . S u c h positive s t a t e m e n t s a r c n o t only r a r e b u t a r c all written by p e o p l e w h o w e r e n e i t h e r natives o f n o r p e r m a n e n t i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e . 1
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t e n t h u s i a s t i c is A t h c n a e u s . H e d e s c r i b e s t h e city as the 'epitome o f the world'
(£7UTOUTIV Tfj<;
2
otKO\)|ievric;), in which all o t h e r
cities h a v e s e t t l e d , i n c l u d i n g A l e x a n d r i a , A n t i o c h , N i c o m e d i a
and
A t h e n s . T h e cities within R o m e a r e m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n t h e days o f t h e y e a r , a n d w h o l e n a t i o n s a r e settled t h e r e , i n c l u d i n g C a p p a d o c i a n s , Scythians and Pontians. T h e i d e a o f an e n t i r e n a t i o n o r city t a k i n g u p r e s i d e n c e in R o m e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t o o h y p e r b o l i c for o t h e r writers, b u t M a r t i a l refers to 'all t h e n a t i o n s (genles)
3
which R o m e h o l d s ' . Aelius Aristides, s p e a k
i n g at R o m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD a n d in a c o n t e x t which shows t h a t t h e i m a g e is m e a n t to b c very flattering, c o n s i d e r s R o m e t h e city
31
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
(polis) to which all t h e E m p i r e is t h e h i n t e r l a n d (chora),
a n d t h e n says
that p e o p l e flow into R o m e like rivers flowing into t h e sea, t h e city p r e s e r v i n g an u n c h a n g i n g a p p e a r a n c e a l t h o u g h t h e p o p u l a t i o n , like 4
t h e water, is in c o n s t a n t f l u x . T h e t h e m e s w e r e still b e i n g r e p e a t e d 3
m u c h later. A c c o r d i n g to A m m i a n u s , w h e n C o n s t a n t i u s visited R o m e in AD 3 5 7 h e was a m a z e d by t h e ' n u m b e r s of p e o p l e of every r a c e ' w h o m h e e n c o u n t e r e d t h e r e ; p e r h a p s a r e f e r e n c e to t h e i m p r e s s i o n which R o m e m a d e on A m m i a n u s h i m s e l f r a t h e r t h a n on C o n s t a n t i u s . S i d o n i u s in t h e fifth c e n t u r y , p r a i s i n g R o m e as t h e capital o f t h e w h o l e world (unica totius orbis civitate), foreigners there.
says that only b a r b a r i a n s a n d slaves a r e
()
A n o t h e r a p p r o a c h t a k e n by s o m e a n c i e n t writers is to c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e a t t r a c t i o n of R o m e for t h e elite. A c c o r d i n g to S t r a b o , it was full 7
o f l e a r n e d T a r s i a n s a n d A l e x a n d r i a n s . O n this view, it was t h e quality r a t h e r t h a n t h e quantity of f o r e i g n e r s in t h e city which was significant. S u c h a view was t h e r e f o r e n o t necessarily
i n c o n s i s t e n t with t h e hostility
to f o r e i g n e r s in g e n e r a l which is e x p r e s s e d by s o m e o f t h e writers discussed below. It may have b e e n e n c o u r a g e d by t h e g r a d u a l a p p e a r a n c e at R o m e o f s e n a t o r s with p r o v i n c i a l o r i g i n s (from t h e
first
c e n t u r y AD) a n d o f o v e r s e a s - b o r n e m p e r o r s (from t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y ) . Provincials from t h e W e s t a p p e a r e d in t h e S e n a t e in small n u m b e r s u n d e r J u l i u s C a e s a r , A u g u s t u s a n d t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n s ; s e n a t o r s from the
East only arrived
in s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r s
from
t h e t i m e of
V e s p a s i a n , p e r h a p s simply b e c a u s e o f t h e slower a p p e a r a n c e of suit 8
a b l e c a n d i d a t e s . F r o m that t i m e o n , provincials f o r m e d a significant if unquantifiable proportion o f the Senate.
9
H o w e v e r , t h e s o u r c e s suggest that e m p e r o r s ' f o r e i g n o r i g i n s usually tended
to b e e m p h a s i z e d by t h e i r e n e m i e s , as for e x a m p l e ,U)
A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s was called 'a S y r i a n archisynagogus
when
a n d to b e
glossed o v e r by t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s . T h e first s e n a t o r s from a r e g i o n also s e e m invariably to have a t t r a c t e d a hostile r e a c t i o n from t h e e s t a b l i s h e d a r i s t o c r a c y , " a l t h o u g h they a r e likely to h a v e b e c o m e m o r e a c c e p t a b l e o v e r t i m e , especially as t h e a r e a which p r o d u c e d s e n a t o r s c o n t i n u e d to e x p a n d so t h a t t h o s e w h o h a d originally s e e m e d to c o m e from t h e frontiers later a p p e a r e d to b e from very r o m a n i z e d a r e a s . W h e n C l a u d i a n in 4 0 4 r e j o i c e d t h a t t h e c o n s u l s h i p was n o t g o i n g to 'a f o r e i g n {peregrina)
i m a g e o f p r e t e n d e d r i g h t s ' b u t to
a t r u e R o m a n (i.e. t h e E m p e r o r H o n o r i u s ) , his definition of ' f o r e i g n ' was very different from what s o m e o n e t h r e e c e n t u r i e s e a r l i e r would h a v e m e a n t , b u t h e still u s e d t h e w o r d p e j o r a t i v e l y .
12
S e n a t o r s t o o w e r e likely to play d o w n t h e i r p r o v i n c i a l o r i g i n s , as
32
Attitudes to when
S t a t i u s p r a i s e s his c o n t e m p o r a r y
Lepcis:
foreigners
Septimius Severus
from
l;i
Your speech is not Punic, nor your dress. Your mind is not foreign - Italian, Italian. T h e obvious i m p l i c a t i o n is that Italian is ' g o o d ' , P u n i c ' b a d ' . E v e n F r o n t o , w h o s e l f - d e p r e c a t i n g l y d e s c r i b e s himself as L i b y a n a n d pri vately p r a y e d to traditional African g o d s ,
14
would p r o b a b l y n o t have
b e e n p l e a s e d i f o t h e r s h a d u s e d t h e label for h i m . T a l b c r t ( 1 9 8 4 , 3 7 ) comments: Links with native culture had to be severed. Instead, all senators, whatever their geographical origin, were versed in a single heritage.
ii. Neutral statements A m o r e c o m m o n a t t i t u d e , a n d o n e t a k e n by a n u m b e r o f writers w h o s p e n t m o s t of t h e i r lives at R o m e ( a l t h o u g h n o n e w h o w e r e natives o f t h e city), is to a c c e p t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a l a r g e n u m b e r o f f o r e i g n e r s without t r e a t i n g it e i t h e r as p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d o r p a r t i c u l a r l y b a d . T h e earliest work w h e r e this p e r s p e c t i v e is f o u n d s e e m s to b e t h e ' G u i d e to E l e c t i o n e e r i n g ' a t t r i b u t e d to Q . C i c e r o , w h e r e R o m e is d e s c r i b e d as 'a city m a d e from a g a t h e r i n g o f n a t i o n s ' ( c i v i l a s ex nationum conslituta).^
conventu
It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d that t h e r e f e r e n c e is to Italian tribes
rather than overseas i m m i g r a n t s ,
16
b u t a l r e a d y in t h e first c e n t u r y B C
o v e r s e a s i m m i g r a t i o n was substantial a n d nationes
would
naturally
r e f e r to m o r e t h a n Italians. T h e p a s s a g e g o e s on to d e s c r i b e t h e deceit a n d vice which fill R o m e , b u t d o e s n o t specifically a t t r i b u t e t h e m to t h e city's c o s m o p o l i t a n c h a r a c t e r . T h e c l e a r e s t a n d b e s t - k n o w n n e u t r a l s t a t e m e n t is p r o b a b l y S e n e c a ' s , p a r t o f an e x p l a n a t i o n p r o m p t e d by his own e x i l e o f how b e i n g sepa r a t e d from y o u r h o m e l a n d is n o t necessarily a d i s a s t e r .
17
' T o be deprived o f one's country (patria) is intolerable', you say. But come now, behold this concourse of men, for whom the houses o f huge Rome scarcely suffice; most o f this throng are now deprived o f their country. From their towns and colonies, from the whole world in fact, they have flocked here. Every class o f person has swarmed into the city that offers high prizes for both virtues and vices. Have all o f them summoned by name and ask o f each: 'Where do you come from?' You will find that there are more than half who have left their homes (relictis sedibus suis), and come to this city, which is truly a very great and a very beautiful one, but not their own. S e n e c a a p p e a r s to have in m i n d v o l u n t a r y m i g r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n (or as
33
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
well as) t h e forced m i g r a t i o n of slavery, which would n o t suit his a r g u m e n t so well. It is h a r d l y plausible t h a t o v e r 5 0 % of t h e p o p u l a tion really w e r e i m m i g r a n t s , b u t this may h a v e b e e n t h e i m p r e s s i o n which s o m e o n e like h i m g e n u i n e l y h a d , j u s t as t h e a m o u n t o f i m m i g r a t i o n is r e g u l a r l y o v e r e s t i m a t e d by m o s t p e o p l e in t h e West.
modern
18
Neutral
s t a t e m e n t s c o n t i n u e to o c c u r in t h e s e c o n d
A s p e a k e r in T a c i t u s ' Dialogus Asia a n d G a u l .
1 9
century.
refers to p e o p l e c o m i n g from S p a i n ,
In t h e r e c o r d of t h e a r r e s t o f J u s t i n M a r t y r , t h e 'saints'
in R o m e a r e all said to h a v e h a d different native cities, which they refused to n a m e to t h e a u t h o r i t i e s .
20
M a n y i m p o r t a n t figures in early
R o m a n C h r i s t i a n i t y a r e said in passing to have b e e n i m m i g r a n t s , s o m e of w h o m l a t e r left t h e c i t y .
21
iii. Negative statements N e g a t i v e c o m m e n t s a b o u t t h e n u m b e r of f o r e i g n e r s s e e m to b e m o r e n u m e r o u s in R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e , a n d a r e c e r t a i n l y b e t t e r k n o w n . T h e s t a t e m e n t p u t by J u v e n a l into t h e m o u t h o f his c h a r a c t e r U m b r i c i u s is the most notorious:
22
...I cannot bear, Romans, the city being Greek. But what proportion of the scum is really Greek? For a long time now the Syrian Orontes has poured into the T i b e r . . . One is from high Sicyon, another has left Amydon, one is from Andros, another from Samos, Tralles or Alabandae. They make for the Esquiline and Viminal, to become the life and soul of great houses, and their masters. U m b r i c i u s c o m p l a i n s that t h e rich d o not s h a r e his p r e j u d i c e s a g a i n s t G r e e k i m m i g r a n t s , for w h o m h e uses t h e p a t r o n i z i n g Graeculus
diminutive
('little G r e e k ' ) , a n d J u v e n a l m a y in a n y c a s e b e s e e k i n g to
m o c k U m b r i c i u s r a t h e r t h a n to e n d o r s e his views. J o s h e l ( 1 9 9 2 , 4 ) n o t e s t h a t ' t h e little G r e e k , w h o m a y h a v e h a d s o m e actual c o u n t e r p a r t in R o m a n society, b e c o m e s a literary v e h i c l e ' . H o w e v e r , o t h e r writers show c o m p a r a b l e hostility t o w a r d s f o r e i g n e r s , so U m b r i c i u s is p r o b ably r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a real-life school o f t h o u g h t , e v e n i f it is n o t necessarily J u v e n a l ' s own. L u c a n , h i m s e l f an i m m i g r a n t from S p a i n , c o m p l a i n s in an a u t h o r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n in t h e Pharsalia
b o t h a b o u t t h e fields o f Italy b e i n g full o f
c h a i n e d slaves (a s o u r c e of l a m e n t a t i o n since the late s e c o n d c e n t u r y B C ) a n d a b o u t R o m e itself b e i n g 'aglut with t h e s c u m of h u m a n i t y ' .
23
He,
a n d a n u m b e r o f o t h e r writers, use t h e i m a g e o f R o m e as a s e w e r i n t o which d e t r i t u s flows from all o v e r t h e world. H e r e h e p e r h a p s has slaves in m i n d , as T a c i t u s c e r t a i n l y d o e s in a s p e e c h h e a t t r i b u t e s to
34
Altitudes
lo
foreigners
C. Cassius L o n g i n u s , w h o c o m p l a i n s that t h e r e a r e w h o l e n a t i o n s in s l a v e - h o u s e h o l d s (nationes gious p r a c t i c e s .
24
in jamiliis),
b r i n g i n g with t h e m alien reli
A c c o r d i n g to G e l l i u s , F a v o r i n u s was o p p o s e d to wet-
n u r s i n g b e c a u s e m o s t wet-nurses ( p r e s u m a b l y at R o m e ) w e r e slaves o r o f servile o r i g i n a n d ' o f f o r e i g n a n d b a r b a r o u s b i r t h ' (externae barbarae
2:>
nationis).
Lucian, echoing Juvenal, complains about
el the
i m p o r t a n c e o f S y r i a n , L i b y a n a n d A l e x a n d r i a n slaves, a n d also i m a g ines d i n n e r - g u e s t s l a m e n t i n g t h a t they a r c u p s t a g e d by G r e e k s w h o have j u s t c o m e into the h o u s e h o l d .
26
A p p i a n , p r e s u m a b l y q u o t i n g a r e p u b l i c a n s o u r c e , says t h a t t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e o f R o m e a r e racially m i x e d , a n d d e p l o r e s t h e e q u a l rights o f f r e e d m e n a n d t h e difficulty o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g slaves from t h e free; t h e c o n t e x t t h u s m a k e s t h e first p o i n t a p p e a r d e r o g a t o r y t o o .
2 7
Immi
g r a n t s c o u l d also b e d e s c r i b e d in t h e political d e b a t e o f t h e R e p u b l i c as ' t h o s e to w h o m
Italy is only a s t e p m o t h e r ' .
28
A c c o r d i n g to Sallust,
l a m e n t i n g t h e s u p p o s e d m o r a l d e c l i n e of t h e city, all c r i m i n a l s w h o w e r e d r i v e n from t h e i r h o m e s e v e n t u a l l y m a d e t h e i r way to R o m e .
2 9
T h e c o m m o n f e a t u r e o f m o s t o f t h e s e passages is t h a t they a r e c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t t h e i n f l u e n c e o r n u m e r i c a l significance of slaves a n d ex-slaves. T h u s , x e n o p h o b i a is c o m b i n e d with class p r e j u d i c e . Few of them
s e e m to b e w o r r i e d
about free immigrants.
However,
A m m i a n u s shows that in times o f crisis x e n o p h o b i a could easily surface without a p p a r e n t class antagonism; if this h a p p e n e d in the fourth century AD, it may well have o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e first c e n t u r i e s BC a n d AD t o o :
50
Now to turn to the vulgarity o f the stage. T h e players are hissed off unless the favour of the mob has been purchased by a bribe. I f there is no demonstration o f this sort, they follow the example o f the savages of the Chersonese, and clamour for the expulsion o f foreigners from the city, though they have always been dependent on the help of these same foreigners for their livelihood. A m m i a n u s is very u n u s u a l in d i s a p p r o v i n g o f s u c h an attitude, as h e also d o c s w h e n it is e x h i b i t e d by t h e e l i t e . " H e h a d a vested i n t e r e s t , as h e would h a v e b e e n c o u n t e d a m o n g t h e f o r e i g n e r s himself. I n fact, g o v e r n m e n t policy in t h e first c e n t u r y AD a n d in his own t i m e s e e m s s o m e t i m e s to h a v e b e e n b a s e d o n t h e x e n o p h o b i c p r e j u d i c e which h e finds o b j e c t i o n a b l e (see b e l o w ) . A m m i a n u s is t h e o n l y w r i t e r w h o d e s c r i b e s a s p o n t a n e o u s o u t b r e a k of mass x e n o p h o b i a . O t h e r w i s e , t h e e v i d e n c e o n l y shows hostility to f o r e i g n e r s within t h e very limited c i r c l e o f t h e writers w h o p r o d u c e d t h e l i t e r a t u r e . H o w e v e r , o n e e p i g r a p h i c c a s e at least shows that it o c c u r r e d in a specific real-life c o n t e x t . O n the second-century t o m b s t o n e
35
Evidence
and ancient
of an eques singularis
attitudes from A r a b i a , s o m e o n e a p p e a r s to h a v e written in 3 2
G r e e k : ' d e a t h to t h e A r a b s ' ( 0 . "Apcmai). ' T h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s sur r o u n d i n g this a r e of c o u r s e i r r e c o v e r a b l e . T h e use of G r e e k may i n d i c a t e that t h e writer was also a f o r e i g n e r , p e r h a p s b r i n g i n g to R o m e prejudices which originated further east, o r p u r s u i n g a personal g r u d g e . T h e J e w s w e r e clearly r e g a r d e d by o u t s i d e r s as a s e p a r a t e
and
distinctive section o f R o m a n society. W r i t e r s such as C i c e r o , H o r a c e a n d S u e t o n i u s r e f e r to collective a c t i o n by t h e m , evidently m a k i n g t h e m into a r e c o g n i z e d p r e s s u r e g r o u p in politics l o n g b e f o r e t h e t i m e 33
o f t h e mass influxes o f J e w i s h s l a v e s . T h e y c o u l d b e d e r i d e d for t h e i r poverty and their eccentric behaviour.
31
T h e y t e n d to b e t r e a t e d sepa
rately from o t h e r m i n o r i t y g r o u p s in t h e s o u r c e s : t h e s a m e p e r s o n m i g h t display b o t h j u d e o p h o b i a a n d x e n o p h o b i a , b u t o n e c o u l d ( a n d usually did, in t e r m s of surviving writings) also o c c u r without
the
o t h e r . T h e position o f t h e J e w s at R o m e will b e discussed in c h . 8.viii; t h e e x p u l s i o n s o f J e w s a r e e x a m i n e d below. T h e law, at least until t h e e n d o f t h e fourth c e n t u r y AD, did n o t specifically d i s c r i m i n a t e against f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e , a l t h o u g h
they
clearly suffered n u m e r o u s d i s a d v a n t a g e s i f they w e r e n o t R o m a n citi zens (see p. 2 4 ) . H o w e v e r , o n e a s p e c t o f legal life in R o m e which m a y h a v e p e n a l i z e d f o r e i g n e r s , even if it was n o t i n t e n d e d to d o so, was t h e use o f L a t i n for all official p u r p o s e s , i n c l u d i n g p r o c e e d i n g s in t h e 3 5
c o u r t s a n d official a n n o u n c e m e n t s . t h e S e n a t e in t h e first c e n t u r y A D ,
3(>
G r e e k was occasionally used in
a n d may h a v e b e e n p e r m i t t e d in
37
c o u r t s at R o m e o n a few o c c a s i o n s , b u t n o c o n c e s s i o n s at all w e r e e v e r m a d e to o t h e r l a n g u a g e s . T h e a s s u m p t i o n
was t h a t all t h e city's
i n h a b i t a n t s would (or s h o u l d ) b e able to use L a t i n . l
I n 3 9 7 , legislation f o r b a d e usum within t h e city o f R o m e .
3 8
Bracae
izangarum
adque
(sic)
bracarum'
a r e d e f i n e d in Lewis & S h o r t as
'trowsers (sic), b r e e c h e s ; orig. w o r n only by b a r b a r i a n s ' . Tzangae d e f i n e d by S o u t e r ' s Glossary of Later Latin
o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t they a r e t h e s a m e as t h e zancae m e n t i o n e d in a list o f e x o t i c c l o t h i n g in S H A , Claud. o f P a r t h i a n zancae'.
are
as 'a k i n d o f P a r t h i a n s h o e ' , or
sangae
1 7 . 6 : ' t h r e e pairs
T h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f s u c h a p p a r e l in t h e city m a y
h a v e b e e n a r e a c t i o n to its b e c o m i n g f a s h i o n a b l e a m o n g
native
R o m a n s , b u t c o u l d alternatively b e s e e n as a d e l i b e r a t e r e s t r i c t i o n o n b a r b a r i a n s o f civilian o r military b a c k g r o u n d .
3 9
I f t h e latter i n t e r p r e t a
tion is c o r r e c t , it is t h e first a n d only e x a m p l e of t h e state i n t e r v e n i n g in this a s p e c t o f f o r e i g n e r s ' lives.'
10
Previously, t h e law m i g h t b e c o n
c e r n e d with w h e t h e r f o r e i g n e r s w e r e allowed to live at R o m e at all (see b e l o w ) , b u t n o t with i m p o s i n g disabilities on t h o s e w h o did live t h e r e .
36
Attitudes to
foreigners
iv. Foreign slaves A slave's p e r c e i v e d racial b a c k g r o u n d was s o m e t i m e s an
important
c o n s i d e r a t i o n for a p o t e n t i a l b u y e r , a n d t h e r e was clearly substantial p r e j u d i c e for a n d a g a i n s t slaves from c e r t a i n p l a c e s . m o s t clearly in a legal t e x t :
11
T h i s is set o u t
12
Those who sell slaves must announce the nationality (natio) o f each one at the sale. For often a slave's nationality either encourages or deters a buyer; therefore it is in our interests to know the nationality. Tor it is presumed that some slaves are good because they are not o f a discredited nationality, but some seem bad because they are o f a nationality which is more notorious. In a Martial p o e m , the s p e a k e r wants his slave to b e 'a rosy youth o f the M y t i l e n e a n slave-dealer', i.e., p r e s u m a b l y , from Asia M i n o r , a n d not a Geta o r s o m e o n e from the Hister ( T o w e r D a n u b e ) , i.e. a T h r a c i a n .
4:5
E l s e w h e r e , Martial refers to slaves from E g y p t , C a p p a d o c i a , Syria, Spain, Greece, Arabia and Ethiopia.
14
Attitudes to slaves from various
r e g i o n s a r e discussed in s o m e o f t h e sections o f c h . 8. A slave's k n o w l e d g e o f Latin was a p p a r e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d less i m p o r 4
tant t h a n w h e r e s/he c a m e f r o m . ' I n s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h a v i n g G r e e k as a first l a n g u a g e would b e seen as an a d v a n t a g e r a t h e r t h a n a d i s a d v a n t a g e , a l t h o u g h slaves with o t h e r first l a n g u a g e s w e r e p r e s u m a b l y e x p e c t e d to l e a r n Latin. N o t u n d e r s t a n d i n g Latin was no d o u b t o n e o f t h e m a n y factors which would i n c r e a s e t h e alienation o f slaves a r r i v i n g at R o m e .
4 0
v. Expulsions of foreigners from Rome N o g e n e r a l legal m e a s u r e s e v e r s e e m to h a v e b e e n taken to p r e v e n t m i g r a t i o n to R o m e , u n l i k e J u s t i n i a n i c C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , w h e r e special officers w e r e a p p o i n t e d
to vet i m m i g r a n t s .
47
In e x t r e m e
s t a n c e s , h o w e v e r , t h e R o m a n state m i g h t t a k e c o e r c i v e
circum measures
against f o r e i g n e r s w h o w e r e a l r e a d y in t h e city, o r g r o u p s which i n c l u d e d f o r e i g n e r s . Usually, t h e r e was only o n e such m e a s u r e avail able: e x p u l s i o n . It s e e m s that mass e x p u l s i o n was only e v e r
used
against g r o u p s c o m p o s e d partly o r wholly o f f o r e i g n e r s . T h e usual form which it took was t h e e x c l u s i o n of w h i c h e v e r m e m b e r s of t h e t a r g e t g r o u p h a p p e n e d to b e in R o m e at t h e t i m e , b u t n o t a p e r m a n e n t b a n on t h e g r o u p living t h e r e . T h u s it would usually h a v e b e e n possible for t h e e x p e l l e d to r e t u r n later. Latins a n d Italians w e r e e x p e l l e d o n a n u m b e r of o c c a s i o n s in t h e p e r i o d 1 8 7 - 1 7 2 BC;, b u t at t h e r e q u e s t o f Latin cities which w e r e b e i n g d e p o p u l a t e d by t h e n u m b e r o f t h e i r citizens m o v i n g to R o m e .
37
4 8
Later
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
m e a s u r e s w e r e a i m e d at i m m i g r a n t s from o v e r s e a s as well as, o r i n s t e a d of, Italians. T h e wholesale e x p u l s i o n o f all peregrini Cicero
1 9
is said by
to h a v e b e e n e n a c t e d by ' P e n n u s ' , p r o b a b l y in 1 2 6 BC w h e n
M . J u n i u s P e n n u s was t r i b u n e ,
5 0
a n d by Papius in 6 5 B C ,
C i c e r o ' s disgust: 'to p r o h i b i t peregrini
5 1
m u c h to
from t h e use o f t h e city is clearly
i n h u m a n ' . It was t h e o p e r a t i o n o f this law from which C i c e r o tried to d e f e n d t h e p o e t A r c h i a s by p r o v i n g that h e was a citizen. T h e L e x P a p i a is also m e n t i o n e d by D i o :
52
Meanwhile all those who were resident (aliens) in Rome, except inhabit ants of what is now Italy, were banished on the motion o f one C. Papius, a tribune, because they were becoming too numerous and were not thought fit persons to dwell with the citizens. C i c e r o m e n t i o n s a m a n b e i n g e x e m p t e d from ' t h e law by w h i c h peregrini
w e r e e x p e l l e d from
Rome', presumably
the same o n e .
5 3
B a l s d o n ( 1 9 7 9 , 1 0 0 ) links t h e e x p u l s i o n s with a t t e m p t s to e x t e n d t h e c i t i z e n s h i p , a n d suggests that they w e r e t e m p o r a r y m e a s u r e s to p r e v e n t n o n - c i t i z e n s from trying to vote at such t i m e s . L i n t o t t ( 1 9 9 4 , 7 6 ) likewise believes t h a t P e n n u s ' law was passed: either because there was a threat to public order from Italians gathering in the city to support Flaccus at the elections, or because it was suspected that Roman citizenship was being usurped. Purcell, in t h e s a m e v o l u m e , sees t h e L e x P a p i a , which a c c o r d i n g to Dio did n o t apply to Italians, r a t h e r differently ( 1 9 9 4 , 6 5 2 - 3 ) : T h e unmistakable xenophobia of the measure puts it in the company of those various expulsions of ideologically suspect groups which long char acterized Roman policy and reflect a lasting insecurity about the tenacity of the Roman character; but also, concerned with far more than the maintenance o f electoral propriety, the Lex Papia is eloquent evidence for the scale o f non-Italian presence at Rome. H o w e v e r , t h e m o t i v a t i o n d e s c r i b e d by Dio h a r d l y s e e m s plausible, a n d is c e r t a i n l y i n c o n s i s t e n t with t h e usual laissez-faire
a p p r o a c h t a k e n by
t h e state. O n l y two e x p u l s i o n s of 'ideologically s u s p e c t g r o u p s ' a r e known before 6 5
BC,
5 4
SO
t h e r e was not as m u c h p r e c e d e n t as P u r c e l l
suggests. T h e r e w e r e p e r h a p s o t h e r r e a s o n s which a r e n o t r e c o r d e d (such as actual o r p o t e n t i a l food s h o r t a g e ; see b e l o w ) ; t h e r e
must
c e r t a i n l y h a v e b e e n p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s which t r i g g e r e d t h e legis lation, e v e n i f t h e attitudes b e h i n d it always e x i s t e d . N e i t h e r o f t h e laws can h a v e b e e n in f o r c e for very l o n g . B a l s d o n ( 1 9 7 9 , 1 0 0 ) e v e n c o m m e n t s that ' t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e that they r e s u l t e d in any e x p u l s i o n at all o f aliens from t h e city o f R o m e ' . H o w e v e r , C i c e r o refers to t h e
38
Altitudes
to
foreigners
c o n d e m n a t i o n o f a painter, a freedman o f the painter Sopolis, u n d e r t h e L e x P a p i a , by which h e p r e s u m a b l y m e a n s t h e law o f 6 5 A form o f e x p u l s i o n was r e c o m m e n d e d
BC.
5 5
by Dionysius o f H a l i c -
a r n a s s u s , writing in t h e A u g u s t a n p e r i o d , as a way o f p r e s e r v i n g the m o r a l q u a l i t i e s o f t h e city's p o p u l a t i o n .
He complains about
the
n u m b e r o f u n d e s e r v i n g slaves w h o a c h i e v e m a n u m i s s i o n , a n d r e c o m mends that the censors should manumitted:
make enquiries about the
newly
5 6
After which they should enrol in the tribes such o f them as they find worthy to be citizens, and allow them to remain in the city, but should expel from the city the foul and corrupt herd under the specious pretence o f sending them out as a colony. His w o r r y a b o u t t h e effects o f t h e ex-slaves on t h e p o p u l a t i o n
is
o s t e n s i b l y m o r e m o r a l i s t i c ( t h e i m m o r a l m e a n s u s e d to a c h i e v e m a n u m i s s i o n ) t h a n racialist, which is hardly s u r p r i s i n g as h e was h i m s e l f an i m m i g r a n t . H e evidently t h o u g h t that a g e n e r a l e x p u l s i o n of u n d e s i r a b l e ex-slaves would b e u n a c c e p t a b l e , a n d h e n c e felt t h e n e e d to justify it by m a k i n g it into t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a c o l o n y . H o w e v e r , this p r o p o s a l s e e m s to h a v e little in c o m m o n with a n y m e a s u r e s which w e r e actually t a k e n . F o o d s h o r t a g e s c e r t a i n l y led to t h e t e m p o r a r y e x p u l s i o n of ' s u r p l u s ' g r o u p s in t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s a n d later, which is t h e r e a s o n for s u s p e c t i n g t h a t they m a y also h a v e b e e n b e h i n d t h e e a r l i e r e x p u l s i o n s . In AD 6 , g l a d i a t o r s a n d slaves for sale w e r e b a n i s h e d to 1 0 0 miles from R o m e a c c o r d i n g to D i o ; S u e t o n i u s says t h a t all f o r e i g n e r s e x c e p t doctors and teachers were r e m o v e d .
5 7
T h i s was p a r t o f a s t r i n g of
e m e r g e n c y m e a s u r e s to r e d u c e t h e p r e s s u r e o n t h e food
supply;
A u g u s t u s a n d o t h e r s d i s m i s s e d m o s t of t h e i r r e t i n u e s , a n d s e n a t o r s w e r e e n c o u r a g e d to leave, p r e s u m a b l y t a k i n g t h e i r slaves with t h e m . The
5 8
only o t h e r r e c o r d e d g e n e r a l e x p u l s i o n s a r e o v e r 3 0 0 years
later. I n t h e i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d , specific g r o u p s w e r e f r e q u e n t l y tar g e t e d , b u t f o r e i g n e r s en masse w e r e not, as far as t h e surviving e v i d e n c e g o e s . I f t h e h u g e c h r o n o l o g i c a l g a p b e t w e e n t h e g e n e r a l e x p u l s i o n s is n o t j u s t a c o n s e q u e n c e o f i n a d e q u a t e s o u r c e s , it m a y b e r e l a t e d to the p a r t i c u l a r l y h i g h p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e in t h e first-third c e n t u r i e s AD. It was p e r h a p s felt t h a t a mass e x p u l s i o n of all f o r e i g n e r s was n o t feasible in t h a t p e r i o d , a n d that c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n s m a l l e r g r o u p s was m o r e p r a c t i c a b l e . T h i s c o u l d e x p l a i n t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e tween Dio a n d S u e t o n i u s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e v e n t s o f AD 6 which was n o t e d above; Augustus may originally have w a n t e d a g e n e r a l e x p u l s i o n b u t d e c i d e d to settle for a m o r e limited o n e , o r a g e n e r a l e x p u l s i o n
39
Evidence
and ancient
altitudes
which was feasible in A u g u s t u s ' t i m e n o l o n g e r s e e m e d plausible to Dio. If t h e p r o p o r t i o n of" p e o p l e p e r c e i v e d as ' f o r e i g n ' h a d fallen by the mid-fourth
c e n t u r y , t h e n t h e A u g u s t a n p r e c e d e n t would
have
m a d e mass e x p u l s i o n a viable o p t i o n again in a crisis. A m m i a n u s , in a digression within t h e c o n t e x t o f e v e n t s of AD 3 5 4 d e s c r i b e s a mass e x p u l s i o n which was clearly m o t i v a t e d by fear o f famine:"'
9
Lastly, the ultimate disgrace, not long ago, when foreigners were banished in headlong haste from the city because a famine was expected, no respite whatever was granted to professors o f the liberal arts, though very few in number, while at the same time the hangers-on o f actresses and those who posed as such for the occasion, together with 3,000 dancers with their choruses and the same number o f dancing instructors, were allowed to remain without even being questioned. By this t i m e t h e legal distinction b e t w e e n peregrini
a n d citizens n o
l o n g e r a p p l i e d , so p r e s u m a b l y t h e definition of a f o r e i g n e r was s o m e o n e n o t b o r n in R o m e o r only living at R o m e for a c e r t a i n l e n g t h o f 1
0
time. ' T h i s e x p u l s i o n c o u l d b e t h e o n e also a l l u d e d to by L i b a n i u s in a s p e e c h d e l i v e r e d in 3 6 0 :
6 1
(Rome) converts a dearth of provisions into abundance by expelling foreigners whenever such an emergency arises. After this, t h e e x p u l s i o n o f f o r e i g n e r s by t h e U r b a n Prefect s e e m s to h a v e b e c o m e a fairly c o m m o n m e a s u r e as a r e s p o n s e to x e n o p h o b i c feeling at times o f food c r i s i s .
02
popular
T h e r e is an i m p l i c a t i o n
t h a t t h e P r e f e c t may h a v e k e p t r e c o r d s e n a b l i n g ' f o r e i g n e r s ' ( h o w e v e r d e f i n e d ) to b e identified. Aradius R u f i n u s in 3 7 6 a v o i d e d such an e x p u l s i o n by o b l i g i n g ' t h e h o n o u r e d a n d r i c h e r m e n ' to h e l p b u y c o r n o n t h e o p e n m a r k e t to deal with t h e i m m e d i a t e c r i s i s .
63
In 3 8 2 , a b l e -
b o d i e d b e g g a r s of free status w e r e o r d e r e d to b e r e m o v e d from R o m e a n d settled as p e r p e t u a l coloni,
b u t t h e q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r they w e r e
immigrants does not appear
to h a v e a r i s e n .
61
H o w e v e r , t h e r e is
a r e f e r e n c e in t h e life o f A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s to t h e possibility o f h a v i n g individual
b e g g a r s at R o m e m a i n t a i n e d
by individual
6
cities '-
p r e s u m a b l y this implies that a city would m a i n t a i n b e g g a r s w h o origi n a t e d from that city, p e o p l e w h o a r e likely to h a v e g o n e to R o m e for o t h e r r e a s o n s a n d later e n d e d up as b e g g a r s . T h e a g e n d a b e h i n d this may well b e a f o u r t h - c e n t u r y o n e r a t h e r t h a n o n e which g e n u i n e l y b e l o n g s to A l e x a n d e r ' s r e i g n , since it fits well with t h e e v e n t s m e n t i o n e d by A m m i a n u s a n d A m b r o s e , a n d it suggests that a l t e r n a t i v e s to expulsion were being considered. Ammianus clearly thinks
40
that
Altitudes
lo
foreigners
a t a r g e t e d e x p u l s i o n o f ' n o n - p r o d u c t i v e ' r e s i d e n t s would have b e e n p r e f e r a b l e to t h e mass e x p u l s i o n which h e d e s c r i b e s , a n d his c o m m e n t o n t h e lack of e x e m p t i o n for professors may show a w a r e n e s s o f t h e Augustan precedent. In
3 8 4 , a delay in t h e arrival of grain i m p o r t s c a u s e d
expulsion.
f>0
Flavianus:
another
T h i s is l a m e n t e d by S y m m a c h u s in a l e t t e r to N i c o m a c h u s
67
We fear a shortage of corn, despite the expulsion o f all those whom Rome had taken to the full breast she offered... With how much hatred from the provinces is our security achieved?... I f only our city can recall as soon as possible those whom she unwillingly sent away! A c c o r d i n g to t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f P a l a n q u e ( 1 9 3 1 , 3 5 0 - 1 ) , S y m m a c h u s was himself r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e e x p u l s i o n , while h e was U r b a n Prefect. T h e m i s t i u s , in a s p e e c h m a d e at C o n s t a n t i n o p l e in 3 8 4 / 5 , is p r o b a b l y a l l u d i n g to t h e s a m e e v e n t w h e n h e c o n g r a t u l a t e s C o n s t a n t i n o p l e o n n o t h a v i n g to t a k e similar measures:*'
8
We no longer need to continue to send away foreigners, as recently happened in the capital, a remedy worse than the disease. A m b r o s e c o m p l a i n s , also p r o b a b l y in t h e c o n t e x t o f this e x p u l s i o n , that ' t h o s e w h o h a d a l r e a d y s p e n t a substantial t i m e
(plurimam...aelatem)
t h e r e w e n t away with t h e i r c h i l d r e n w e e p i n g ' , with t h e i r p e r s o n a l ties (necessiludines,
affinilales)
torn away.
69
T h e r e may o f c o u r s e b e an
e l e m e n t o f r h e t o r i c a l e x a g g e r a t i o n in this, b u t t h e u n d e r l y i n g p i c t u r e a p p e a r s to b e real.
vi. Expulsions of specific groups P r o b l e m s with t h e food supply m o t i v a t e d m o s t o f t h e e x p u l s i o n s discussed a b o v e . Usually, h o w e v e r , e x p u l s i o n was r e s t r i c t e d to a lim ited g r o u p , d e f i n e d by r e l i g i o n , nationality o r o c c u p a t i o n . S u c h e x p u l sions w e r e m o t i v a t e d by t h e a l l e g e d actual o r p o t e n t i a l m i s d e e d s o f t h e t a r g e t g r o u p . At least until t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, t h e t a r g e t g r o u p was o f non-citizen status a n d t h e r e f o r e liable to s u m m a r y t r e a t m e n t by t h e authorities.
70
O n e o f t h e earliest such cases h a p p e n e d in 1 3 9 B C , b u t t h e e x a c t details a r e u n c e r t a i n b e c a u s e t h e s o u r c e , V a l e r i u s M a x i m u s , is only p r e s e r v e d in e p i t o m e s a n d with different t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n s .
71
Those
e x p e l l e d w e r e a s t r o l o g e r s , J e w s a n d / o r w o r s h i p p e r s o f t h e Asian g o d Sabazius. T h e action was t a k e n by t h e praetor
peregrinus,
Cn. Cornelius
Hispalus. V a l e r i u s M a x i m u s d e s c r i b e s t h e e v e n t in t h e c o n t e x t o f various religious s u p p r e s s i o n s which h e r e g a r d s as j u s t i f i e d , p e r h a p s ,
41
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
as S l i n g e r l a n d ( 1 9 9 7 , 4 3 - 4 ) suggests, with t h e i n t e n t i o n o f v i n d i c a t i n g similar m e a s u r e s in his own t i m e t a k e n by T i b e r i u s . T h e m o t i v a t i o n is stated clearly to b e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f o b j e c t i o n a b l e r e l i g i o u s p r a c tices, a l t h o u g h
how they w e r e o b j e c t i o n a b l e is n o t specified. T h e
s o u r c e m a t e r i a l d o e s n o t allow a reliable r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f what a c t u ally h a p p e n e d , a n d o f w h e t h e r t h e r e w e r e really s e p a r a t e e x p u l s i o n s o f J e w s a n d S a b a z i u s - w o r s h i p p e r s (as a r g u e d by L a n e ) o r j u s t c o n f u s i o n in t h e s o u r c e . J e w s at this d a t e a r e likely to have b e e n fairly r e c e n t i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e a n d t h e r e f o r e readily identifiable as ' f o r e i g n ' , a n d S a b a z i u s - w o r s h i p p e r s w e r e p r o b a b l y Asian i m m i g r a n t s . A p r e c e d e n t may have b e e n set for similar a c t i o n s in t h e future
against
g r o u p s p e r c e i v e d as b o t h foreign a n d religiously suspect. T h e J e w s w e r e t h e t a r g e t o f e x p u l s i o n s o n at least two l a t e r o c c a sions, m e n t i o n e d by r a t h e r m o r e reliable s o u r c e s . In AD 1 9 , 4 , 0 0 0 J e w s d e s c e n d e d from f r e e d m e n ( a n d t h e r e f o r e p r e s u m a b l y citizens b u t n o t themselves immigrants) were conscripted
72
a n d s e n t to S a r d i n i a , while
o t h e r s w h o p r a c t i s e d J e w i s h a n d E g y p t i a n rites w e r e e x p e l l e d from Italy unless they gave t h e m u p .
73
T h e c a u s e given by J o s e p h u s , t h e
e m b e z z l e m e n t o f m o n e y from an a r i s t o c r a t i c p r o s e l y t e called Fulvia, s e e m s o u t o f all p r o p o r t i o n to t h e severity o f t h e m e a s u r e s , a n d t h e real m o t i v a t i o n has b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f m u c h d e b a t e : o v e r - z e a l o u s proselytizing, p a r t i c i p a t i o n in d i s t u r b a n c e s , a n d state hostility to t h e J e w i s h religion h a v e all b e e n p r o p o s e d .
74
C l a u d i u s also t o o k action a g a i n s t t h e J e w s o f R o m e , p r o h i b i t i n g t h e i r a s s e m b l i e s a n d p e r h a p s e x c l u d i n g t h e m from t h e c o r n d o l e in AD 4 1 , a n d e x p e l l i n g t h e m from t h e city a few years later ( p r o b a b l y in 4 9 ) .
7 5
A c c o r d i n g to S u e t o n i u s , t h e J e w s w e r e e x p e l l e d b e c a u s e they w e r e ' c o n s t a n t l y m a k i n g t r o u b l e , with C h r e s t u s as i n s t i g a t o r ' Chresto assidue tumultuantes),
(impulsore
s o m e t h i n g which has g e n e r a l l y b e e n t a k e n 7
as a slightly g a r b l e d r e f e r e n c e to t h e arrival o f C h r i s t i a n i t y at Rome. *' However, Slingerland (1997,
159-68)
has recently a r g u e d
that
C h r e s t u s was t h e n a m e o f t h e instigator o f t h e e x p u l s i o n r a t h e r t h a n o f t h e t r o u b l e - m a k i n g . T h i s s u g g e s t i o n is u n c o n v i n c i n g as a way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e L a t i n , b u t his thesis of p e r s i s t e n t official J u l i o C l a u d i a n hostility to t h e p r a c t i c e o f J u d a i s m at R o m e is a p e r s u a s i v e one. B o t e r m a n n ( 1 9 9 6 , 114, 1 3 7 ) , on the other hand, thinks that C l a u d i u s g r a d u a l l y b e c a m e m o r e hostile to t h e J e w s o f R o m e b e c a u s e o f t r o u b l e a m o n g t h e m which may have r e s u l t e d from t h e p r e a c h i n g o f Peter. W h e t h e r Claudius expelled the J e w s because o f general hostility o r s o m e specific a l l e g e d m i s d e m e a n o u r
is, h o w e v e r , less
r e l e v a n t h e r e t h a n t h e fact that e x p u l s i o n was in itself s e e n as a n
42
Attitudes lo
foreigners
a p p r o p r i a t e m e a s u r e to use against t h e m - they w e r e still p e r c e i v e d as ' f o r e i g n ' at this d a t e a l t h o u g h t h e majority h a d p r o b a b l y b e e n b o r n at R o m e (see p. 2 5 7 ) . T h e e x p u l s i o n again s e e m s n o t to h a v e b e e n a very long-lasting o n e , since t h e C h r i s t i a n s Prisc(ill)a a n d Aquila w h o left R o m e at t h e t i m e w e r e b a c k t h e r e within a few years (see p. 2 5 9 ) . T h e T i b e r i a n e x p u l s i o n h a d an explicitly religious o r i e n t a t i o n , since p e o p l e c o u l d avoid it by giving up t h e p r a c t i c e o f J u d a i s m . T h e s a m e d o e s n o t s e e m to have b e e n t r u e for t h e C l a u d i a n e x p u l s i o n , a l t h o u g h it c o u l d apply to C l a u d i u s ' e a r l i e r m e a s u r e s . It a p p e a r s that J e w s were, as a p p r o p r i a t e , d e f i n e d as a religious o r a n a t i o n a l g r o u p ; S u e t o n i u s i l l u s t r a t e s t h e i n t c r c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f t h e c o n c e p t s by s a y i n g
that
'Tiberius e x p e l l e d ' t h e o t h e r s o f t h e s a m e r a c e ' (reliquos gentis eiusdem) i f they did n o t o b e y h i m by a b a n d o n i n g t h e i r rites. A n o t h e r r e l i g i o u s g r o u p which r e p e a t e d l y fell foul o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s was t h e 'followers o f E g y p t i a n rites'. M e a s u r e s a g a i n s t t h e m a r e r e p e a t edly p r e s e n t e d in t h e s o u r c e s as parallel to m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t t h e J e w s , b u t t h e r e w e r e in fact f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s . S u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e cult o f Isis a n d S e r a p i s is m e n t i o n e d by V a l e r i u s M a x i m u s i m m e d i a t e l y after his d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e a n t i - J e w i s h m e a s u r e s o f 1 3 9 B C , a l t h o u g h it a p p e a r s n o t to h a v e h a p p e n e d until t h e 5 0 s B C , with f u r t h e r s u p p r e s sion u n d e r A u g u s t u s ,
77
w h o at this t i m e revived ( o r i n v e n t e d ) t h e
p r i n c i p l e that f o r e i g n g o d s s h o u l d n o t b e w o r s h i p p e d pomerium.
7 8
within
the
I s i s - w o r s h i p p e r s a g a i n fell foul o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s in AD 19,
d u e to a s c a n d a l involving an a r i s t o c r a t i c w o m a n . T h e p r e s u m a b l y i m m i g r a n t priests w e r e c r u c i f i e d , a n d t h e i r s h r i n e was d e s t r o y e d , b u t t h e only e x p u l s i o n m e n t i o n e d is t h e exile o f a R o m a n a r i s t o c r a t n a m e d D e c i u s M u n d u s . T h e e v e n t is associated with t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e w s in AD 19 by J o s e p h u s , T a c i t u s a n d S u e t o n i u s .
79
Tacitus and Suetonius
t r e a t t h e two m e a s u r e s as parallel, b u t J o s e p h u s tries to show that t h e E g y p t i a n cult d e s e r v e d r e p r e s s i o n while J u d a i s m did not. T h e differ e n t t r e a t m e n t given to I s i s - w o r s h i p p e r s as o p p o s e d to J e w s can b e a t t r i b u t e d to t h e fact t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t s e e n as a p a r t i c u l a r l y ' f o r e i g n ' g r o u p for w h o m e x p u l s i o n was c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e , b u t as estab lished i n h a b i t a n t s of R o m e whose religious b e h a v i o u r r a t h e r t h e i r r i g h t o f r e s i d e n c e was t h e p o i n t at i s s u e .
80
than
Isis-worship was
quickly r e h a b i l i t a t e d at R o m e , to t h e e x t e n t t h a t it r e c e i v e d i m p e r i a l s p o n s o r s h i p from C a l i g u l a . T h e r e a s o n s for t h e p r e v i o u s d e p t h o f hostility to it a r e n o t c e r t a i n : D i n a n d ( 1 9 8 0 , 1 0 5 , 1 1 5 ) a t t r i b u t e s it to an association with s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e populares
in t h e political conflict o f
t h e late R e p u b l i c , a n d to a n t i - E g y p t i a n p r o p a g a n d a at t h e start of t h e p r i n c i p a t e . B e a r d , N o r t h a n d P r i c e ( 1 9 9 8 , vol. 1, 1 6 1 , 2 9 9 ) s u g g e s t
43
Evidence
and ancient
altitudes
t h a t t h e cult was potentially subversive to R o m a n family a n d political values. T h e Asian w o r s h i p p e r s o f S a b a z i u s may h a v e b e e n e x p e l l e d in 1 3 9 B C , a n d a n o t h e r religious e x p u l s i o n o f an Asian h a p p e n e d in t h e late R e p u b l i c : C i c e r o says that t h e priest of M a g n a M a t e r , a m a n from Pessinus, was e x p e l l e d by a t r i b u n i c i a n law o f C l o d i u s .
81
T h i s was
d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t t h e state h a d a r r a n g e d for t h e priests o f M a g n a M a t e r to b e b r o u g h t from t h e r e in t h e first p l a c e .
82
H o w e v e r , only o n e
individual was involved o n this o c c a s i o n . The e x p u l s i o n o f specific n a t i o n a l g r o u p s w i t h o u t religious c o n n e c tions is m e n t i o n e d only twice, at times of g r e a t n a t i o n a l i n s e c u r i t y for t h e R o m a n state. In 171 B C , w h e n R o m e d e c l a r e d war o n M a c e d o n , a d e l e g a t i o n from K i n g P e r s e u s was o r d e r e d to leave t h e city i m m e d i ately a n d Italy within thirty days, a n d o t h e r M a c e d o n i a n r e s i d e n t s o f R o m e w e r e e x p e l l e d with t h e m .
8:5
T h e r e is a d e s c r i p t i o n by A p p i a n of
t h e M a c e d o n i a n s ' r e a c t i o n - it p r e s u m a b l y owes m o r e to i m a g i n a t i o n o r to m u c h l a t e r e v e n t s t h a n to any actual r e c o r d s , b u t it at least tries to give t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e e x p e l l e d :
84
Consternation mingled with anger followed this action o f the Senate, because, on a few hours' notice, so many people were compelled to depart together, who were not even able to find animals in so short a time, nor yet to carry all their goods themselves. Some, in their haste, could not reach a lodging-place, but passed the night in the middle o f the roads. Others threw themselves on the ground at the city gates with their wives and children. In AD 9, after t h e V a r u s disaster, G e r m a n s a n d G a u l s w e r e r e m o v e d from R o m e , again p r e s u m a b l y n o t for what they h a d d o n e b u t for what it was f e a r e d they m i g h t d o . T h o s e s e r v i n g in t h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d (who w e r e by definition citizens) w e r e t r a n s f e r r e d to v a r i o u s islands, a n d t h o s e living in R o m e for o t h e r r e a s o n s peregrini
r a t h e r t h a n slaves) w e r e o r d e r e d to l e a v e .
85
(presumably
Such measures
s e e m to h a v e b e e n c o m p l e t e l y e x c e p t i o n a l , a n d m u s t h a v e b e e n very difficult to e n f o r c e : while t h e a u t h o r i t i e s h a d s o m e h o p e o f identifying m e m b e r s of a g r o u p which s h a r e d religious p r a c t i c e s , it w o u l d h a v e b e e n m u c h h a r d e r for t h e m to identify p e o p l e p u r e l y by nationality. A p a r t from
religion and
n a t i o n a l i t y , o c c u p a t i o n c o u l d also b e
a c o m m o n f e a t u r e o f p e o p l e t a r g e t e d for e x p u l s i o n . S o m e professions which t e n d e d to b e p r a c t i s e d by f o r e i g n e r s c a m e u n d e r official suspi c i o n . It was p r o b a b l y t h e association o f a p a r t i c u l a r j o b with f o r e i g n e r s which m a d e e x p u l s i o n a p p e a r a suitable form o f r e p r e s s i o n . P h i l o s o p h e r s , w h o would n o r m a l l y have b e e n p e r c e i v e d as ' G r e e k ' , w e r e
44
Attitudes r e p e a t e d l y e x p e l l e d en masse, with r h e t o r s ) ,
by N e r o ,
foreigners
usually at times w h e n t h e i r potential
political o r m o r a l i n f l u e n c e was s e e n as t h r e a t e n i n g : 8 7
to
8 8
by V i t e l l i u s ,
D o m i t i a n p r o b a b l y in AD 8 9 .
9 1
89
86
in 161 B C ( a l o n g
by V e s p a s i a n ,
9 0
and
by
E p i c t c t u s left R o m e for Nicopolis as
a result o f t h e last e x p u l s i o n , while A r t e m i d o r u s evidently did not g o far, as t h e Y o u n g e r Pliny (who was p r a e t o r at t h e t i m e ) c o u l d still visit h i m . T h e r e w e r e also individual e x p u l s i o n s , such as t h a t o f two E p i c u r e a n s , A l c a e u s a n d Philiscus, in 1 7 3 o r 1 5 5 BC; b e c a u s e o f t h e i r alleg edly c o r r u p t i n g i n f l u e n c e .
92
T h e m e a s u r e s t a k e n a g a i n s t t h e m reflect
t h e fact that p h i l o s o p h e r s w e r e not usually R o m a n citizens. A s t r o l o g e r s w e r e also t a r g e t e d o n several o c c a s i o n s from t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC o n w a r d s , a n d w e r e s o m e t i m e s liable to e x e c u t i o n i f they did n o t c o m p l y . T h e fact that they a r e s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d to in Latin by t h e p s e u d o - e t h n i c t e r m Chaldaei foreign.
93
shows that they w e r e p e r c e i v e d as
Robinson (1992, 2 0 1 ) comments:
They might be connected with foreign cults, their beliefs might bc of foreign origin, and this was clearly an important argument against them: they were not Roman, they had ideas - and might be expected to spread them. T h e i r first e x p u l s i o n is m e n t i o n e d a l o n g with that o f t h e J e w s in 139BC.
9 4
F u r t h e r e x p u l s i o n s a r e r e c o r d e d by A g r i p p a in 3 3 B C ,
AD 16 a l o n g with m a g i c i a n s , Vespasian,
99
96
in AD 5 2 ,
9 7
by Vitellius in AD 6 9 ,
D o m i t i a n (with t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s ) ,
100
9 5
9 8
in by
a n d again in AD 4 0 9
'unless they b u r n t h e i r c o d i c e s a n d e m b r a c e t h e c a t h o l i c f a i t h ' .
101
From
t h e s e c o n d - f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s , they r e m a i n e d liable to p u n i s h m e n t as individuals but a p p e a r (like f o r e i g n e r s as a w h o l e d u r i n g t h e s a m e p e r i o d ) n o t to have b e e n dealt with en masse. T h e T i b e r i a n legislation t h r e a t e n e d t h o s e w h o c o n t i n u e d to p r a c t i s e with e x i l e i f they w e r e citizens o r d e a t h if they w e r e not. N e v e r t h e l e s s , Ricci ( 1 9 9 3 a ) lists seven a s t r o l o g e r s from E g y p t w h o lived at R o m e . L i k e o t h e r e x p e l l e d g r o u p s , they invariably s e e m to have b e e n able to r e t u r n very quickly in t h e a b s e n c e o f legislation b e i n g e n f o r c e d which p e r m a n e n t l y for b a d e t h e i r p r a c t i c e s at R o m e . O t h e r o c c u p a t i o n a l g r o u p s c o u l d also b e t a r g e t e d . A c t o r s , usually o f servile a n d / o r foreign b a c k g r o u n d , a r e m e n t i o n e d t h r e e times. A late s o u r c e says t h a t t h e r e was an e x p u l s i o n in 1 1 5 BC of ' t h e t h e a t r i c a l art' (artem ludicram), hislriones
e x c e p t for Latin f l u t e - p l a y e r s .
a n d N e r o t h e pantomimi
102
T i b e r i u s e x p e l l e d the
from Italy for t h e p u r p o s e o f k e e p i n g
o r d e r , since r i o t i n g b e t w e e n t h e i r s u p p o r t e r s h a d b e c o m e a serious p r o b l e m , as well as p r o t e c t i n g public m o r a l i t y .
103
It was p r o b a b l y only
t h e most p r o m i n e n t a c t o r s w h o w e r e affected, a n d o n b o t h o c c a s i o n s they w e r e s o o n able to r e t u r n . A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s allegedly e x p e l l e d 45
Evidence
and ancient
male prostitutes.
104
attitudes G r e e k ' g e n e r a l d e a l e r s ' (pantapolae)
from R o m e in t h e early fifth c e n t u r y , a p p a r e n t l y e x c e e d i n g statutory p r i c e s , a n d r e c a l l e d in 4 4 0 :
were expelled on a charge o f
1 0 5
T h e Greek dealers whom they call pantapolae, among whom it is clear that there is a great number and great diligence in buying and selling goods, we no longer permit to be excluded from residence in the holy city, although dissension and the great hatred o f shopkeepers rather than the interests o f the venerable city o f Rome have removed them from business. The o r i g i n a l e x p u l s i o n s e e m s to h a v e b e e n a r e a c t i o n to
popular
p r e s s u r e , as o t h e r e x p u l s i o n s w e r e in t h e late fourth c e n t u r y , r a t h e r t h a n a d e l i b e r a t e policy. T h e recall s h o u l d p e r h a p s b e seen in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e n e e d to o p e n u p t h e m a r k e t at R o m e after t h e V a n d a l conquest o f Africa.
106
I n t h e C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d , e i t h e r state o r papal a u t h o r i t y s o m e t i m e s e j e c t e d individuals o r g r o u p s w h o h a d a r r i v e d r e c e n t l y a n d
were
s u s p e c t o n religious g r o u n d s . I n 4 1 9 , H o n o r i u s a n d T h e o d o s i u s e x p e l l e d P e l a g i u s (who h a d c o m e from B r i t a i n ) a n d C e l e s t i u s 'as pesti lent c o r r u p t o r s of t h e C a t h o l i c t r u t h ' .
107
P o p e Gelasius ( 4 9 2 - 6 ) e x
p e l l e d t h e M a n i c h a e a n s (who would have i n c l u d e d b o t h i m m i g r a n t s a n d natives), a n d b u r n t t h e i r b o o k s in front of t h e d o o r s o f S a n t a Maria Maggiore.
1 0 8
T h e c o m m o n f e a t u r e o f all t h e e x p u l s i o n s is t h a t t h e t a r g e t s w e r e p e r c e i v e d as f o r e i g n . O t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s c o u l d vary, t h e m o t i v a t i o n c o u l d b e actual m i s d e e d s , p o t e n t i a l m i s d e e d s o r food s h o r t a g e , a n d t h e initiative c o u l d c o m e from t h e top o r t h e b o t t o m . M a n y o f t h e e x p e l l e d J e w s m a y well h a v e b e e n b o r n at R o m e , b u t it was t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n with s o m e w h e r e o u t s i d e R o m e which m a d e e x p u l s i o n s e e m an a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d to use against t h e m . The
p r a c t i c a l i t i e s of t h e e x p u l s i o n s a r e n e v e r s p e c i f i e d in
the
s o u r c e s . A day by which e v e r y o n e m u s t leave was p r o b a b l y a n n o u n c e d , which c o u l d b e t h e n e x t day ( M a c e d o n i a n s ) o r s o m e way in t h e future ( a s t r o l o g e r s u n d e r D o m i t i a n ) . W h e n small n u m b e r s o f p r o m i n e n t individuals such as p h i l o s o p h e r s w e r e involved, t h e r e would b e n o difficulty in u s i n g t h e U r b a n C o h o r t s o r P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d to pick t h e m u p . H o w e v e r , w h e n l a r g e r g r o u p s such as J e w s w e r e i n v o l v e d , a n d e v e n m o r e w h e n all f o r e i g n e r s w e r e t h e t a r g e t , t h e difficulties would h a v e b e e n m u c h g r e a t e r . As m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e r e a r e hints t h a t t h e state k e p t s o m e r e c o r d s in t h e fourth c e n t u r y , a n d t h e r e was c e r t a i n l y c e n t r a l r e g i s t r a t i o n o f s t u d e n t s from o v e r s e a s by t h e n (see p . 9 3 ) . J e w s l i a b l e to p a y t h e J e w i s h T a x m u s t also h a v e r e g i s t e r e d , b u t t h a t was only a p p l i c a b l e after
46
been
the recorded expulsions
Attitudes
to
foreigners
of" Jews. Purcell ( 1 9 9 4 , 6 5 4 - 5 ) suggests that t h e r e was a system o f r e g i s t r a t i o n which m a d e e x p u l s i o n s possible in t h e R e p u b l i c , b u t t h e r e is n o o t h e r e v i d e n c e for that, a n d e n f o r c e m e n t was p r o b a b l y m u c h m o r e h a p h a z a r d . I n fact, t h e r e is n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e of t h e state k e e p i n g g e n e r a l r e c o r d s o f f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e b e f o r e t h e c e n t u r y , a l t h o u g h in the Acts of Justin
and Companions
fourth
(see a b o v e , n. 2 0 ) ,
suspects a r e all a s k e d for t h e i r h o m e cities. T h i s d o e s n o t necessarily m e a n that they w e r e n o t kept, since t h e r e w e r e c e r t a i n l y r e c o r d s of p e o p l e ' s e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d s in s o m e p r o v i n c e s , b u t o n t h e w h o l e t h e i r e x i s t e n c e s e e m s unlikely, particularly as t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to think t h a t a n y o n e in a u t h o r i t y k n e w t h e total p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e city. It s e e m s likely t h a t e x p u l s i o n s would h a v e involved a m i x t u r e of" d e l i b e r a t e t a r g e t i n g o f figures a l r e a d y well-known to t h e a u t h o r i t i e s like J u s t i n ' s c o m p a n i o n s (which w o u l d e x p l a i n why Prisc(ill)a a n d Aquila w e r e e x p e l l e d , i f they h a d b e e n involved in t r o u b l e s within t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y which led to official i n t e r v e n t i o n
109
) a n d d e n u n c i a t i o n of
individuals by t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s a n d c u s t o m e r s . It is unlikely that they c o u l d e v e r have b e e n very t h o r o u g h , a n d t h e r e m u s t in a n y case have b e e n difficulty in d e c i d i n g e x a c t l y w h o was a ' M a c e d o n i a n ' o r ' G e r m a n ' . H o w e v e r , t h e available e v i d e n c e is e n o u g h to i n d i c a t e
that
expulsions were normally m o r e than symbolic gestures.
vii. Encouragement of immigration O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , two g r o u p s o f non-citizen f o r e i g n e r s w e r e r e p e a t edly e n c o u r a g e d to c o m e to R o m e by t h e state b e c a u s e they h a d skills which w e r e n o t felt to b e sufficiently available in t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u lation: d o c t o r s a n d , to a lesser e x t e n t , t e a c h e r s . A c c o r d i n g to t h e E l d e r Pliny,
110
t h e first d o c t o r at R o m e was A r c h a g a t h u s son of Lysanias from
t h e P e l o p o n n e s c , w h o a r r i v e d in 2 1 9 B C a n d was given R o m a n citizen ship a n d a taberna
at public e x p e n s e . N u t t o n ( 1 9 8 6 , 3 8 ) a n d o t h e r s
h a v e s u g g e s t e d that h e was specifically invited by t h e S e n a t e in t h e way that t h e c o u n c i l s o f G r e e k cities s o m e t i m e s invited d o c t o r s to take up r e s i d e n c e . Despite Pliny's j i b e s a b o u t A r c h a g a t h u s ' loss o f p o p u l a r i t y , 1
d o c t o r s c o n t i n u e d to r e c e i v e r e w a r d s . S u e t o n i u s says t h a t : " Caesar also granted the citizenship to all medical practitioners and professors o f liberal arts resident in Rome, thus inducing them to remain and tempting others to follow suit. T h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t given to t h e i m m i g r a t i o n o f d o c t o r s a n d t e a c h e r s was c o n t i n u e d by Augustus' e x e m p t i o n o f t h e m from a g e n e r a l expulsion of f o r e i g n e r s (see a b o v e ) . T h i s i m p l i e s that c i t i z e n s h i p was n o l o n g e r b e i n g g r a n t e d to all o f t h e m by his time, since citizens would p r e s u m a b l y 47
Evidence
and ancient
altitudes
n o t have b e e n affected by t h e e x p u l s i o n . A l t h o u g h d o c t o r s a n d t e a c h ers c o n t i n u e d
to m o v e to R o m e in c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s
after
A u g u s t u s ' t i m e (see p p . 9 1 , 1 1 0 ) , t h e state s e e m s n o l o n g e r to h a v e offered specific e n c o u r a g e m e n t . With t h e s e e x c e p t i o n s , t h e state did not d e l i b e r a t e l y e n c o u r a g e i m m i g r a n t s , a n d clearly did n o t n e e d to, since i m m i g r a t i o n was d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y a d e q u a t e without specific e n c o u r a g e m e n t . H o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g to hostile s o u r c e s , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e free c o r n d o l e in t h e late R e p u b l i c was an u n i n t e n t i o n a l i n c e n t i v e for citizens to c o m e to live at R o m e (as well as for o w n e r s to free t h e i r m a l e s l a v e s ) . "
2
Once
t h e n u m b e r of r e c i p i e n t s was fixed by C a e s a r a n d A u g u s t u s , t h e i n c e n tive m u s t largely h a v e d i s a p p e a r e d , since a m a l e citizen w h o a r r i v e d in R o m e c o u l d t h e n p r e s u m a b l y d o n o m o r e t h a n g o o n a waiting list. L o C a s c i o ( 1 9 9 7 , 2 5 ) a r g u e s that m a n y i m m i g r a n t s would have left w h e n C a e s a r first r e d u c e d t h e n u m b e r o f r e c i p i e n t s . H o w e v e r , p o t e n t i a l i m m i g r a n t s did n o t necessarily k n o w what t h e actual a r r a n g e m e n t s w e r e , as a p i e c e of gross m i s i n f o r m a t i o n a t t r i b u t e d in t h e T a l m u d to a t h i r d / f o u r t h - c e n t u r y rabbi may i n d i c a t e :
115
Ulla said...'Everyone who resides in the city, even if he was not born there, receives a regular portion o f food from the king's household, and so does everyone who was born there, even if he does not reside there'. P e o p l e a r r i v i n g at R o m e with this sort o f idea would have h a d a nasty s u r p r i s e w h e n they f o u n d o u t that t h e c o r n d o l e was n o t so readily available as they had been led to believe. T h e possibility of misinformation e n c o u r a g i n g p e o p l e to move to R o m e will b e discussed further below (p. 8 9 ) .
Notes 1
Athenaeus 1.20b-c. T h e same phrase is attributed by Galen (18a.347) to the rhetor Polemo. Martial 8.61.5. Aelius Aristides 2 6 . 6 1 . Ammianus 16.10.6. Sidonius, Ep. 1.6.2. Strabo 14.5.15. Talbert 1984, 3 1 - 2 . Many provincial senators, and probably most o f the early ones, are likely to have been the descendants o f Italian settlers, whatever hostile propaganda said about their barbarian backgrounds. Talbert 1984, 3 3 . SHA, Alex.Sex). 2 8 . This probably did not take place in Rome. Balsdon (1979, 25) on senators from Gaul. 2
3
4
0
0
7
8
9
1 0
11
48
Attitudes 1 2
to
foreigners
Claudian 28.7. Statius, Silv. 4 . 5 . 4 5 - 6 . Fronto, ad M.Caes. 1.10.5 says 'I am a Libyan o f the nomadic Libyans' (eyeb Se Aipu<; xcov Aip/uwv xwv vo|j.d8(ov, in contrast with a Scythian); Ver.lmp. 2.1.6 ( I l a m m o luppiter). ' (Q. Cicero), Comm.Pet. 54. Kajanto 1980, 84. ' Seneca, ad Helviam 6 . 2 - 3 . T h e next part of the passage is discussed at p. 9 0 . In early 19th-century Rio de Janeiro, where slaves never formed more than half the population, travellers consistently estimated that 2/3 of the people were black (Karasch 1987, 6 2 ) . Tacitus, Dial. 10.2. Acts of Justin Companions rec.C. 1 (ed. Musurillo). e.g. Eusebius, H.E. 4.11 gives the following cases from the mid-2nd century: Valentinus (quoting Irenaeus, Ref.Her. 3) came to Rome in the time of Hyginus and remained until Anicetus was pope (c. 1 4 0 - 1 6 0 ) ; Cerdo (quot ing Irenaeus, Ref.Her. 1) came in the time of Hyginus; Ilegesippus came in the time of Anicetus, and stayed until Eleutherus' papacy {<:. 1 6 0 - 1 8 0 ) . Juvenal 3 . 5 8 - 6 0 , 6 8 - 7 1 . Picket (1993, 17) describes this statement as 'a literary formulation o f the iron law that the population of large preindustrial megalopolises was incapable of reproducing itself sufficiently'. Lucan, Phars. 7 . 4 0 0 - 6 (tr. D. Little); cf. 7 . 5 3 5 - 4 3 . Tacitus, Ann. 14.44. Aulus Gellius 12.1.17. Lucian, On Salaried Posts (De Mercede) 10, 17, 27. Appian, B.C. 2.120. Valerius Maximus 6.2.3, quoting P. Scipio Africanus. Sallust, Cat. 37. Ammianus 28.4.32 (tr. W. Hamilton). Ammianus 14.6.22. Speidel 1994c, 2 6 5 . Cicero, pro Flacco 6 6 ; Horace, Sat. 1.4.138-43; Suetonius, D.J. 84; Schafer 1997, 108. e.g. Seneca, fr. 5 9 3 ; Petronius, fr. 37; Juvenal 3 . 1 0 - 1 8 , 3 . 2 9 0 - 6 , 6 . 5 4 2 - 7 . Kaimio 1979, 6 3 . Kaimio 1979, 107-9. Kaimio 1979, 1 4 3 - 6 . C.Theo. 14.10.2 (repeated in 3 9 9 : ibid. 14.10.3). 1 owe this reference to Geoffrey Greatrex. The first version specifies the punishment as perpetual exile; the second one only threatens expulsion from the city. Cf. the discussion by Chauvot (1998, 3 2 6 - 9 ) . T h e r e was also legislation which could have been similarly motivated against, the wearing o f skins (indumenta pellium) and long hair (maiores nines) in the city in 4 1 6 (ibid. 14.10.4). Chauvot 1998, 3 2 6 - 7 . Speidel (1994a, 130) thinks that 'barbarian' soldiers in units at Rome probably abandoned their native dress and hairstyles for ones more acceptable at Rome. 1 3
14
I:
1 0
1
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
3 5
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
4 0
49
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
4 1
Roman stereotypes about various nationalities are summarized by Balsdon (1979, ch. 4). Digest 21.1.31.21 Ulpian. T h e last sentence is probably an interpolation. Martial 7.80. Bradley 1994, 4 3 . Digest 21.1.65.2 Venuleius. Bradley 1994, 4 6 - 7 . Feissel 1995, 3 6 6 . Balsdon 1979, 9 9 - 1 0 0 . Cicero, de Off 3.11.47; cf. La Piana 1927, 2 2 3 . C. Gracchus is said to have written on 'the law of Pennus and peregrini (Feslus p. 362 s.v. respublica). Balsdon (1979, 100) also mentions expulsion laws in 122 and 95 BC, but these were more probably aimed against falsely claiming citizenship. The punishment for doing this in the late Republic was apparently only to be forbidden to live at Rome (ibid., 101), although it later became a capital offence. Dio 3 7 . 9 (tr. E. Gary). ° Cicero, de, Lege Ag. 1.13. ° Macedonians in 171 and several groups in 139; see below. Cicero, All. 4.18.4. Dion.Hal., Anl.Rom. 4.24.8 (tr. E. Gary). Dio 55.26; Suetonius,/lug. 4 2 ; Garnsey 1988, 2 2 0 - 1 ; Robinson 1992, 141. Garnsey 1988, 2 2 9 . Ammianus 14.6.19 (tr. W. Hamilton). Cf. Cracco Ruggini (1997, 165), who says that the crucial distinction was between cives domo Roma and others. T h e r e is no evidence for how long someone had to live at Rome at this time before being considered to be domo Roma. Libanius, Or. 11.174, tr. Pack (1953, 187). T h e speech contrasts Rome with Antioch, where Libanius claims such a thing would never happen. The dating to 3 6 0 is followed by, e.g., PLRE i 5 0 6 . Ambrose, de Off. 3.46; Ammianus 28.4.32. A m b r o s e , ^ Off 3.46-9; Palanque 1931, 3 4 8 - 9 ; Cracco Ruggini 1997, 189. C.Theo. 14.18.1. Cracco Ruggini 1997, 190; SUA, Alex.Sev. 34. Pack ( 1 9 5 3 , 188) thinks that this is the expulsion referred to by Ammianus, and that Ammianus was among the expelled. Symmachus, Ep. 2.7.3. Themistius, Or. 18.222A. Ambrose, de Off 3.49; Palanque 1931, 3 5 0 - 1 . Cf. Rutgers 1998, 9 8 . Valerius Maximus 1.3.3; Lane 1979; Slingerland 1997, 4 0 - 5 . The use of conscription as well as expulsion suggests that, at this date, some respect was paid to the different rights o f citizens and non-citizens; Jews who were Roman citizens and o f the wrong gender or age to be conscripted were presumably exempt from any aspect of Tiberius' measures, although the 4 2
4 3
4 4
4 6
4 7
1 8
4 9
)()
;>1
5 2
3
4
5 5
r,B
5 7
5 8
5 9
()()
0 1
6 2
6 3
6 4
6 5
()/
6 8
0 9
7 0
7 1
/ 2
50
Attitudes to
foreigners
sources do not mention this. ' Tacitus, Ann. 2.85; Suetonius, Tib. 36; Josephus, Ant. 1 8 . 6 5 - 8 4 ; Seneca, Ep. 108.22; Dio 57.18.5a. Views about the exact dating are summarized by Slingerland (1997, 50). The figure of 4,000 comes from Tacitus, who may imply that Isis-worshippers as well as Jews were conscripted, but Suetonius mentions only Jews as conscripts. Smallwood 1981, 2 0 3 - 7 (following Dio); Williams 1989 and Rutgers 1998; Slingerland 1997, ch. 2. Suetonius, Clau. 25; Dio 6 0 . 6 . 6 - 7 ; Acts 18.2; Schol. in J u v . 4.117; Orosius 7 . 6 . 1 5 - 1 6 (claiming to quote Josephus). It is likely although not universally agreed that there were two separate anti-Jewish measures: Botermann 1996, 114; Slingerland 1997, ch. 4. The reference to the corn dole is the interpreta tion of Philo, Leg. 1 5 5 - 8 by Slingerland (1997, 6 6 n. 3). It should be noted, however, that if this is correct, it would only have affected Roman citizens, while the later expulsion would only have affected non-citizens. If this is correct, the expulsion may only have been aimed at Jewish followers o f Christ, not at all Jews (Botermann 1996, 5 0 ; Briindle and Stegemann 1998, 126). However, Acts says that all the Jews were affected. Walters (1998, 178) argues that the expulsion had the effect o f driving a wedge between the Christians and the non-Christian Jews. Valerius Maximus 1.3.4; Dio 53.2.4, 54.6.6; Dunand 1980, 1 0 3 - 5 , 1 1 4 17; Slingerland 1997, 4 3 . Beard, North and Price (1998, vol. 1,161) think that Isis shrines were probably destroyed in 59, 58, 5 3 , 50 and 4 8 iu:. It is possible {contra Slingerland) that Valerius Maximus refers to different, earlier meas ures from those mentioned by Dio. Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 1, 180. Josephus, Ant. 1 8 . 6 5 - 8 0 ; Tacitus, Ann. 2.85; Suetonius, Tib. 36; Slinger land 1997, 5 0 - 5 , 6 7 - 7 0 . Dunand (1980, 77) calculates that 4 3 % o f cult members in Italy (as indicated by names in inscriptions) were foreigners, but from a variety o f backgrounds: Syrians, Asians, perhaps even Ethiopians, as well as Egyptians. However, the basis of the calculation (the use o f Greek names) renders it very suspect (see p. 179). Cicero, pro Sest. 56. Dion.IIal.,/ln/./*ojM. 2 . 1 9 . 3 - 4 . Balsdon 1979, 99. T h e ambassadors are in Polybius 2 7 . 6 and Tivy 4 2 . 4 8 . 1 - 4 ; the expulsion o f the other Macedonians is only mentioned by Appian, Mac. 11.9. Appian, Mac. 11.9 (tr. H. White). Dio 56.23; Suetonius, Aug. 4 9 . According to Speidel (1994a, 19), 'the guardsmen Augustus banished thus were merely the few left in Rome after much of the unit had gone to the Illyrian war of AD 6 - 9 ' , but this rather understates the significance o f the expulsion as it is presented by Dio. T h e German bodyguard was re-assembled by Tiberius. The philosophers who were dependents o f aristocratic patrons (Balsdon 1979, 42) could easily evade the expulsions by moving to their patrons' houses outside Rome. :!
7 4
7r>
I b
7 7
7 8
7 9
lS<)
8 1
8 2
8 3
8 4
8 5
8<)
51
Evidence
and ancient
attitudes
8 7
Suetonius, Gramm. 2 5 . 1 ; Aulus Gellius 1 5 . l l . p r - l . Philostratus./fyT. 4.47; Robinson 1992, 2 0 2 . Dio 65(64). 1.4; Suetonius, Vii. 14; Robinson 1992, 2 0 2 . Dio 66(65). 13; Robinson 1992, 2 0 2 . Musonius Rufus was given a special exemption (Jones 1978, 13). Suetonius, Dom. 10; Dio 67(66).13; Philostratus, Ap.T. 7.4; Aulus Gellius 1 5 . 1 1 . 1 - 5 ; Tacitus, Ag. 2 (who calls them sapientiae professoribus); Pliny, Ep. 3.11; J e r o m e , Chron. s.a. 91 (PL 2 7 . 6 0 1 - 2 ) ; Suda, s.v. Aonexiavog Robinson 1992, 2 0 2 . Athenaeus 12.547a; Plutarch, Cato Mai. 22; Cato's objection was that young men might prefer eloquence to warfare. Andre and Baslez 1993, 2 4 3 : "Lous les astrologues ne sont pas chaldeens d'origine, mais tous les Chaldeens se distinguent assez mal des thaumaturges orientaux venus chercher fortune.' ('All the astrologers are not originally Chaldaeans, but all the Chaldacans are not very clearly distinguished from the oriental miracle-workers who came to make their fortune.') Valerius Maximus 1.3.3; see above. Dio 4 9 . 4 3 . 5 . Robinson suggests that they were under suspicion at the time because o f Antony's Eastern associations. Suetonius, Tib. 36; Tacitus, Ann. 2.32; Dio 5 7 . 1 5 . 8 - 9 ; Collatio 15.2 Ulpian. Tacitus, Ann. 12.52; he says the expulsion was ineffective. According to Beard, North and Price (1998, vol. 1, 2 3 1 ) , the ban was repeated seven times in the 1st century AD. Tacitus, Hist. 2.62; Suetonius, Vii. 14. According to Suetonius, the as trologers correctly predicted that Vitellius would be dead by the date on which they were told to leave. Dio 66(65).9.2. J e r o m e , Chron. s.a. 91 (PL 2 7 . 6 0 1 - 2 ) ; Suda, s.v. Aoiiexiavoq. Cod.Just. 1.4.10. Cassiodorus, Chron. s.a. 115 m: (MGH, Aucl.Ant. 1 1 . 1 3 1 - 2 ) . McGinn (1998, 4 1 ) suggests that it may have been a ban on performance rather than an expulsion. Suetonius, Tib. 37, Nero 16; 'Tacitus, Ann. AAA, 13.25; Dio 57.21.3. SHA, Alex.Sev. 34.4. Nov.Val.III no. 5; J o n e s 1964, 8 6 5 ; Ricci 1997a, 190. Brown 1982, 134. Augustine, Ep. 2 0 1 . Lib.Pont., Gelasius. Cf. Botermann 1996, 134. Pliny, H.N. 29.12. Suet, D.J. 42 (tr. R. Graves). Sallust, Cal.37.7; Dion.Hal., Ant.Rom. 4 . 2 4 . 5 ; Appian, B.C. 2 . 1 2 0 . Appian, presumably quoting an earlier writer, complains that it is the unem ployed and beggars who are drawn to Rome from all over Italy; cf. Purcell 1994, 6 5 2 . b. Meg. 6b (tr. M. Simon), quoted at greater length at p. 145. 8 8
8 9
9 0
9 1
9 2
9 3
9 4
9 )
9()
9 7
9 8
9 9
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3
1(M
1 0 6
1 0 7
1 0 8
1 0 9
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 , 2
1 1 3
52
Chapter 4
WHO MOVED T O ROME? T h i s c h a p t e r uses c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l to h i g h l i g h t s o m e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s of m o d e r n m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n s which a r e r e l e v a n t to R o m e . T h e e v i d e n c e of i n s c r i p t i o n s is used to a d d r e s s s o m e funda m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t m i g r a t i o n to R o m e which h a v e n o t previously b e e n a p p r o a c h e d from this p e r s p e c t i v e . A l t h o u g h o n l y limited a n s w e r s to these questions a r e possible, the use m a d e h e r e o f e p i g r a p h i c material h e l p s to c o n f i r m o r d e n y s o m e o f t h e a s s u m p t i o n s which h a v e previ ously d e p e n d e d o n m o r e i m p r e s s i o n i s t i c s o u r c e s , a n d also illustrates aspects o f m i g r a t i o n which h a v e h i t h e r t o g o n e u n n o t i c e d , in t e r m s o f t h e g e n d e r , a g e a n d family situation of p e o p l e m o v i n g to R o m e .
i. Patterns of migration S t u d i e s o f m i g r a t i o n in r e c e n t history offer a t h e o r e t i c a l f r a m e w o r k which m a y h e l p to u n d e r s t a n d s o m e o f t h e e v i d e n c e for f o r e i g n e r s m o v i n g to R o m e . T i l l y ( 1 9 7 8 , 5 1 - 4 ) identifies f o u r types o f m i g r a t i o n : a) L o c a l , w h e r e p e o p l e m o v e to a g e o g r a p h i c a l l y c o n t i g u o u s m a r k e t in l a b o u r , l a n d o r m a r r i a g e . This would a p p l y to m u c h o f t h e m i g r a t i o n to R o m e from Italy. b) C i r c u l a r , w h e r e p e o p l e r e t u r n to t h e i r p l a c e o f o r i g i n after a welldefined
i n t e r v a l for a s p e c i f i c s o r t o f w o r k
(e.g. harvest
work,
t r a n s h u m a n c e , d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e ) o r after a c c u m u l a t i n g c a p i t a l . I t t e n d s to b c , a c c o r d i n g to c i r c u m s t a n c e s , n e a r l y a l l - m a l e o r all-female (p. 5 5 ) . C i r c u l a r m i g r a t i o n m a y b e e n c o u r a g e d by t h e ' h o s t ' c o m m u nity (p. 6 2 ) , which n e v e r t h e l e s s often m a k e s it difficult for m i g r a n t s to o b t a i n full c i t i z e n s h i p r i g h t s (see p. 2 4 ) . T h e e x t e n t to which i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e w e r e a b l e to ( o r wished to) r e t u r n h o m e is c o m p l e t e l y u n q u a n t i f i a b l e , e x c e p t for soldiers, a m o n g w h o m it a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n t h e n o r m r a t h e r t h a n t h e e x c e p t i o n . S u r p r i s i n g l y h i g h rates o f r e t u r n , b e t w e e n 2 5 % a n d 6 0 % , h a v e b e e n r e c o r d e d for
European
i m m i g r a n t s to t h e U . S . A in t h e late n i n e t e e n t h a n d early twentieth centuries,
1
so it c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d that f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e w e r e
necessarily d e t e r r e d by an e x p e n s i v e a n d difficult j o u r n e y , o r by t h e p e r c e i v e d p o v e r t y of t h e i r h o m e s c o m p a r e d to R o m e . I m m i g r a n t s w h o
Moving
lo Rome
died at R o m e did n o t necessarily i n t e n d to die t h e r e ; s o m e may have wished to r e t u r n h o m e first. T h e r e is i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t p e o p l e w h o s p e n t a limited t i m e at R o m e for e d u c a t i o n , a n d t h e n r e t u r n e d h o m e (see p. 9 2 ) , b u t t h o s e w h o w o r k e d at R o m e for a substantial p e r i o d a n d t h e n left will only b e visible i f they h a p p e n to have left an e p i t a p h in t h e i r h o m e r e f e r r i n g to t h e i r stay at R o m e , o r i f they a r e m e n t i o n e d in l i t e r a t u r e . T h e p o e t Martial, w h o r e t u r n e d to Bilbilis in S p a i n with financial h e l p from his rich friends after living in R o m e for 3 5 years, is a w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d e x a m p l e o f an e v e n t u a l r e t u r n e e ,
2
b u t t h e r e is n o
r e a s o n to t h i n k that r e t u r n i n g h o m e was a lifelong i n t e n t i o n o f his. R e t u r n was also possible for p e o p l e o f s e n a t o r i a l r a n k w h o h a d b e e n o b l i g e d to live in R o m e while h o l d i n g office, like G a l e n ' s c o n s u l a r friend Flavius B o e t h u s w h o went h o m e to P t o l e m a i s , a n d Cassius Dio w h o r e t u r n e d to B i t h y n i a after his s e c o n d c o n s u l s h i p in 2 2 9 . factor in t h e m o d e r n world which e n c o u r a g e s r e t u r n , t h e
3
One
sending
1
h o m e o f r e m i t t a n c e s by t h e p e r s o n w h o has left, would n o t have b e e n available to R o m a n m i g r a n t s . M i g r a t i o n in t h e a n c i e n t world was n o t a way for o n e family m e m b e r to subsidize directly t h o s e w h o r e m a i n e d at h o m e , since t h e facilities for t r a n s f e r r i n g funds from o n e a r e a to a n o t h e r without m a k i n g a p e r s o n a l visit w e r e only available to t h e very r i c h . c) C h a i n , w h e r e p e o p l e at t h e d e s t i n a t i o n p r o v i d e h e l p a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t for new m i g r a n t s from t h e s a m e p l a c e o f o r i g i n . T h i s may involve a substantial a m o u n t o f e x p e r i m e n t a l m o v e s a n d 'backflow', a n d its i m p o r t a n c e is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e d i s t a n c e a n d cost of t h e m o v e . It c a n lead to m i g r a n t s f o r m i n g ' u r b a n villages' o r m o n o p o l i z i n g p a r t i c u l a r t r a d e s . M i g r a t i o n from D e n m a r k to t h e U . S . A . t e n d e d to follow this p a t t e r n , p r i m a r i l y from e c o n o m i c a l l y s t a g n a n t towns full o f u n d e r - e m p l o y e d p e o p l e w h o h a d previously m i g r a t e d from t h e c o u n 5
t r y s i d e . Italians from c e r t a i n towns m o v e d to S o u t h W a l e s in t h e early twentieth c e n t u r y by a similar p r o c e s s . It can also b e o r g a n i z e d by m i g r a n t e n t r e p r e n e u r s who b r i n g e m p l o y e e s from t h e i r h o m e a r e a , o r 0
by o t h e r types of official o r unofficial ' b r o k e r s ' . T h e e x i s t e n c e at t h e d e s t i n a t i o n o f a l a r g e c o m m u n i t y of m i g r a n t s from t h e s a m e p l a c e c a n in itself b e an a d d i t i o n a l r e a s o n for m o r e p e o p l e to follow t h e s a m e 7
r o u t e . R e s e a r c h o n m o d e r n m i g r a t i o n e m p h a s i z e s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of 'migrant networks' linking place o f origin and destination.
8
Chain
m i g r a t i o n h e l p s t h e c r e a t i o n o f n e t w o r k s within i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i 9
ties t o o , assisting individuals to adjust to t h e i r new lives. T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t this sort of m i g r a t i o n m u s t h a v e b e e n very significant at R o m e . D i r e c t e v i d e n c e for p e o p l e b e i n g e n c o u r a g e d to m i g r a t e to
54
Who moved to Rome? R o m e by c o m p a t r i o t s a l r e a d y t h e r e is h a r d to find, b u t t h a t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g in view o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l .
10
It can b e
a s s u m e d in a few cases: L a Piana ( 1 9 2 7 , 2 3 0 ) suggests that t h e future P o p e V i c t o r c a m e to R o m e from Africa specifically to m i n i s t e r to t h e Africans a l r e a d y t h e r e . E v i d e n c e for t h e e x i s t e n c e o f i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t i e s at R o m e will b e c o n s i d e r e d in c h . 8. D i a s p o r a g r o u p s s u c h as J e w s ( a n c i e n t a n d m o d e r n ) m a y h a v e flows o f m i g r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i r various c o m m u n i t i e s , a n d t h a t will b e c o n s i d e r e d in c h . 8.viii. It m a y be significant t h a t Paul was able to s e n d g r e e t i n g s to 2 6 p e o p l e at R o m e b e f o r e h e h a d visited t h e c i t y . " d) C a r e e r , w h e r e p e o p l e m i g r a t e in o r d e r to b e n e f i t from t h e j o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s of t h e d e s t i n a t i o n . P e o p l e living in t h e R o m a n E m p i r e c o u l d t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e political unity a n d (usually) t h e Romana
Pax
to m o v e to R o m e from c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s t a n c e s . C e r t a i n types o f
e m p l o y m e n t r e q u i r e d s o m e o n e to b e at R o m e : s o m e aspects o f gov e r n m e n t s e r v i c e ; t h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d . O t h e r types, such as t e a c h i n g a n d m e d i c i n e , p r o b a b l y offered g r e a t e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s at R o m e t h a n a n y w h e r e else (see c h . 5 . i v - v i ) . Tilly's c a t e g o r i e s a r e t h u s potentially i l l u m i n a t i n g in h e l p i n g to i n t e r p r e t t h e reality b e h i n d individual cases from R o m e . S t u d i e s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y m i g r a t i o n also show clearly that m a n y m i g r a n t s d o n o t j u s t m a k e a single m o v e in a lifetime, b u t m o v e in several stages, 'step wise': r u r a l p e o p l e often m o v e to a small town, t h e n a l a r g e town, t h e n a m e t r o p o l i s , r a t h e r t h a n directly from c o u n t r y s i d e to m e t r o p o l i s . M i g r a t i o n is n o t j u s t a o n c c - i n - a - l i f e t i m e d e c i s i o n .
12
S u c h b e h a v i o u r is
virtually invisible in e p i t a p h s , which n a m e only t h e h o m e p r o v i n c e o r c o m m u n i t y . An e x c e p t i o n is t h e bilingual e p i t a p h of an i m p e r i a l freed m a n of t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y , M . U l p i u s C h a r i t o n , w h o d i e d at R o m e a g e d 3 5 a n d was c o m m e m o r a t e d (in t h e Latin p a r t ) by his sister a n d a m a l e relative w h o was also an i m p e r i a l f r e e d m a n (but n a m e d P. Aelius); t h e G r e e k p a r t gives a m i n i - b i o g r a p h y in verse, s h o w i n g t h a t h e h a d b e e n b o r n in S a r d i n i a a n d w o r k e d at T a r s u s .
1 3
Z e n o of
A p h r o d i s i a s , a s c u l p t o r , d e s c r i b e s h i m s e l f o n t h e t o m b h e built for h i m s e l f a n d his wife a n d son ( p r o b a b l y m i d - l a t e s e c o n d c e n t u r y ) as 'passing t h r o u g h m a n y cities, faithful in my c r a f t s ' .
14
M a n y similar
stories n o d o u b t lie b e h i n d i n s c r i p t i o n s which only r e c o r d t h e places o f birth and death. M i g r a t i o n ' c a r e e r s ' which e n d e d at R o m e a r e m e n t i o n e d several t i m e s in l i t e r a t u r e . F o r e x a m p l e , a c c o r d i n g to E u s e b i u s , P e t e r w e n t to P o n t u s , G a l a t i a , B i t h y n i a , C a p p a d o c i a a n d Asia b e f o r e Rome.
1 5
reaching
T h e c a r e e r of Plotinus is p a r t i c u l a r l y well d o c u m e n t e d .
55
1 6
His
Moving
to Rome
b i r t h p l a c e is u n k n o w n , b u t h e went to A l e x a n d r i a to study p h i l o s o p h y at t h e a g e o f 2 7 in 2 3 2 ; h e j o i n e d G o r d i a n ' s a r m y m a r c h i n g a g a i n s t Persia; t h e n r e t u r n e d to A n t i o c h ; t h e n w e n t to R o m e in 2 4 4 / 5 , w h e r e h e t a u g h t p h i l o s o p h y a n d lived for 2 6 years. T h e r e a r e also r e f e r e n c e s to p e o p l e w h o a r r i v e d at R o m e a n d t h e n m o v e d o n s o m e w h e r e else. A p o e m written as an e p i t a p h p r e s e r v e d as l i t e r a t u r e
17
although
c o m m e m o r a t e s a w o m a n t a k e n captive at
A t h e n s , t a k e n to R o m e , t h e n b u r i e d at Cyzicus. A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f s o m e o n e m o v i n g o n is t h e g r a m m a r i a n M . P o m p i l i u s A n d r o n i c u s ,
18
w h o m o v e d from Syria to R o m e to C u m a e . A s e c o n d - c e n t u r y C h r i s t i a n n a m e d A b e r k i o s stayed in P h r y g i a , R o m e , Syria a n d N i s i b i s . O t h e r p e o p l e r e t u r n e d to R o m e s e v e r a l t i m e s . T h e
19
craftsman
Flavius Z e u x i s w h o sailed 7 2 times from t h e East to Italy is an e x t r e m e example.
2 0
A p e r h a p s m o r e typical case is t h a t o f t h e very successful
d o c t o r G a l e n , a native o f P e r g a m u m w h o s t u d i e d at A l e x a n d r i a a n d e l s e w h e r e , a n d c a m e to R o m e for t h e first t i m e in 1 6 2 . H e c a m e to t h e a t t e n t i o n o f s o m e p r o m i n e n t m e n by d e m o n s t r a t i n g dissection, a n d o n e o f t h e m , Claudius S e v e r u s , r e c o m m e n d e d h i m to M a r c u s Aurelius. H e left R o m e at an o u t b r e a k o f p l a g u e , to s o m e e x t e n t d r i v e n away by t h e hostility o f o t h e r d o c t o r s , b u t r e t u r n e d in c. 1 6 6 at t h e r e q u e s t o f t h e e m p e r o r s in o r d e r to treat a f u r t h e r o u t b r e a k .
21
T h i s p a t t e r n is also
well d o c u m e n t e d for C h r i s t i a n s , p e o p l e s o m e w h a t less successful in R o m a n society t h a n G a l e n , so it was n o t e n t i r e l y r e s t r i c t e d to t h e m o s t prosperous.
22
ii. Socio-economic background of migrants T h e r e is r a r e l y any i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e o r i g i n a l b a c k g r o u n d in t h e i r h o m e c o m m u n i t i e s o f p e o p l e w h o m o v e d to R o m e . W h e n t h e r e is, it is a l m o s t invariably b i a s e d t o w a r d s t h e m o s t p r o s p e r o u s , w h o h a d t h e g r e a t e s t r e a s o n to advertise t h e i r o r i g i n s . It c a n b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h o s e m e n t i o n e d below a r e not typical o f t h e f o r e i g n p o p u l a t i o n as a w h o l e . I m m i g r a n t s w h o p r a c t i s e d o c c u p a t i o n s such as d o c t o r a n d c h a r i o t e e r at R o m e h a d p r e s u m a b l y b e e n t r a i n e d b e f o r e they a r r i v e d , w h e r e a s o t h e r s m a y h a v e t a k e n up new work o n r e a c h i n g R o m e . M a r c i o n , w h o b e c a m e l e a d e r o f a C h r i s t i a n sect, was t h e son of a b i s h o p , a n d a wealthy s h i p o w n e r in P o n t u s b e f o r e c o m i n g to R o m e in t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y .
23
S e v e r a l p r o m i n e n t p e o p l e from Asia a r e
r e c o r d e d in epitaphs at R o m e : L. A n t o n i u s H y a c i n t h u s , a strategos a n d asiarch from L a o d i c e a c o m m e m o r a t e d by his f r e e d m a n ;
24
Aurelia T a t i a 2
o f T h y a t e i r a , h i g h - p r i e s t e s s o f Asia, c o m m e m o r a t e d by h e r h u s b a n d ; ' a f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p t i o n m a y r e c o r d a h i g h - p r i e s t from L a o d i c e a .
56
2 6
Who moved to Rome? T h e y may not have intended
to r e m a i n at R o m e
permanently,
a l t h o u g h s o m e o n e w h o h a d e x h a u s t e d t h e available h o n o u r s at h o m e c o u l d m o v e to R o m e to s e e k e v e n h i g h e r o n e s . T h e r e a r e several d e d i c a t i o n s by A l e x a n d r i a n b o u l e u t a i , w h o may also have b e e n t e m p o rary v i s i t o r s .
27
A priestess o f t h e i m p e r i a l cult w h o d i e d at R o m e a g e d
2 5 h a d h e r r e m a i n s t a k e n b a c k to L y o n by h e r two s i s t e r s . p r o v i n c i a l priests a r e m e n t i o n e d at R o m e , e.g. a sacerdos from G a u l .
28
Other
auguslalis
2 9
M o v i n g to R o m e was s o m e t h i n g which in c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s c o u l d b e d o n e by t h e u p p e r e c h e l o n s o f p r o v i n c i a l society, i n c l u d i n g p e o p l e o f s e n a t o r i a l class as well as t h o s e m e n t i o n e d a b o v e . It was also d o n e by t h o s e c o n s i d e r a b l y f u r t h e r d o w n t h e social h i e r a r c h y , as s o m e o f t h e motives discussed in c h . 5 will suggest, b u t v o l u n t a r y m i g r a t i o n to R o m e (as o p p o s e d to t h e e n f o r c e d m i g r a t i o n o f t h e e n s l a v e d ) was p r o b a b l y n o t a viable o p t i o n for t h e really destitute.
iii. Where did immigrants come from? E p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e , i f u s e d with c a u t i o n , e n a b l e s an i m p r e s s i o n to b e f o r m e d o f t h e h o m e l a n d s o f f o r e i g n e r s w h o died at R o m e .
3 0
It d o e s n o t
justify a n y c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t a b s o l u t e n u m b e r s o f i m m i g r a n t s , b u t it d o e s show fairly clearly t h a t t h e parts o f t h e R o m a n E m p i r e (and b e y o n d ) divide i n t o t h r e e types as s o u r c e s o f m i g r a n t s , as illustrated below with t h e table a n d m a p .
31
It also s e e m s to c o n f i r m s o m e t h i n g
which has b e e n o b s e r v e d a b o u t m o d e r n m i g r a t i o n , t h a t d i s t a n c e is not the most important consideration.
32
I n o r d e r to illustrate possible
c h a n g e s o v e r t i m e , I h a v e s e p a r a t e d p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s from C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h o n e s . T h e p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e usually f i r s t - t h i r d c e n tury, t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h o n e s third-fifth c e n t u r y AD, SO differ e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e two c a t e g o r i e s may reflect c h a n g e s o v e r t i m e . T h i s is clearly a s o m e w h a t c r u d e m e t h o d o f dividing t h e m , b u t s e e m s t h e m o s t practical o n e . I a m only a i m i n g to show g e n e r a l t r e n d s , n o t to p r o d u c e a n y e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n s . It s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d , h o w e v e r , that t h e l a r g e n u m b e r s of C h r i s t i a n i m m i g r a n t s from c e r t a i n a r e a s m a y b e d u e to t h e fact t h a t t h o s e a r e a s p r o d u c e d m o r e C h r i s t i a n s r a t h e r t h a n m o r e i m m i g r a n t s ; i.e. a f o u r t h - c e n t u r y i m m i g r a n t from Asia M i n o r would p r o b a b l y b e a C h r i s t i a n , b u t o n e from G a u l would probably be a pagan. T y p e A c o n t a i n s t h e a r e a s from which t h e m i g r a n t s a p p e a r to have c o m e to R o m e m a i n l y as a result o f e n l i s t m e n t in t h e a r m y . T h i s c o v e r s a c o n t i n u o u s g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a from B r i t a i n via G e r m a n y to T h r a c e . T h e r e m o v a l o f t h e military units from t h e city in t h e fourth c e n t u r y
57
MAP. H o m e areas o f foreigners.
Who moved to Rome ? m e a n t t h a t t h e s e a r e a s largely c e a s e d to b c i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s o f immigrants. Type B c o n t a i n s t h e a r e a s from which civilian i m m i g r a n t s o u t n u m b e r soldiers in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d p a g a n i m m i g r a n t s heavily out n u m b e r C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h o n e s . Asia, G a u l a n d H i s p a n i a p r o v i d e t h e bulk o f e v i d e n c e o f this type. In T y p e C, civilians a r c still p r e d o m i n a n t , b u t C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h e v i d e n c e is a substantial p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e total, a n d in s o m e cases m o r e plentiful t h a n p a g a n e v i d e n c e . T h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a involved h e r e consists o f t h e s o u t h e r n a n d e a s t e r n s h o r e s o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a n d p a r t o f Asia M i n o r . O v e r a l l t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h e v i d e n c e is :
s c a n t i e r t h a n t h e p a g a n , " b u t t h e r e is e n o u g h o f it to illustrate that R o m e r e m a i n e d an attractive d e s t i n a t i o n even w h e n its political a n d e c o n o m i c a p p e a l was d e c l i n i n g . T h i s is c o n f i r m e d by t h e m a n y refer e n c e s in writers like J e r o m e a n d A u s o n i u s to highly e d u c a t e d p e o p l e w h o m i g r a t e d to o r t h r o u g h R o m e . A m m i a n u s ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f how C o n s t a n t i u s was s t r u c k by t h e m i x e d p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e city (see p. 3 2 ) c e r t a i n l y a p p e a r s to reflect t h e real situation.
TABLE
1. Home areas o f foreigners.
Type A: Mainly military Britain Corsica and Sardinia Dacia Dalmatia Germany Macedonia Moesia Noricum Pannonia Ractia Thrace
Pagan mil. 3 9 30 11 112 14 15 47 109 27 72
Pagan civ. 0 3 8 7 24 3 9 9 23 2 27
Chr./Jcwish 0 0 1 2 1 2 1 0 10 1 3
Total 3 12 39 20 137 19 25 56 142 30 102
11 0
36 22
14 4
61 26
3 4 1 3 14
66 24 11 9 23
11 9 4 1 10
80 37 16 13 47
Type B : Mainly pagan civilian Africa and Numidia Armenia, Bosporan Kingdom and Parthia Asia Bithynia Cappadocia Cilicia Kgypt
59
Moving
to Rome Pagan mil. 22 19 0 8
(cont.) Gaul Hispania Lycia Mauretania
Pagan civ. 43 60 7 10
Chr./Jewish 10 12 2 3
Total 75 91 9 21
Type C: Mainly civilian; substan tial (25% + ) Christian/Jewish Crete, Gyrene and Cyprus Galatia Greece Sicily Syria and Palestine
2 3 3 0 22
4 12 18 5 48
7 21 8 9 45
13 36 29 14 115
4
8
4
16
568
521
195
1284
Unknown Total
T h e a b o v e figures say n o t h i n g a b o u t absolute
n u m b e r s o f p e o p l e from
a n y o f t h e a r e a s , b u t give s o m e i m p r e s s i o n o f relative
numbers. T h e
places o f o r i g i n for t h e soldiers, for w h o m it was c o m m o n to give t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , a r e likely to b e an a p p r o x i m a t e reflection o f t h e actual f r e q u e n c y with which they w e r e r e c r u i t e d in t h o s e a r e a s . F o r t h e civilians, for w h o m t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t o r i g i n was given m u c h less often, t h e p o t e n t i a l for distortion is m u c h g r e a t e r (for e x a m p l e , s o m e places o f o r i g i n may h a v e b e e n m o r e p r e s t i g i o u s t h a n o t h e r s a n d t h e r e f o r e m o r e likely to b e r e c o r d e d ) , b u t t h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n civilian a n d military figures, a n d b e t w e e n p a g a n a n d C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h , at least suggests s o m e plausible p a t t e r n s : s o m e places p r o v i d e d few civilian i m m i g r a n t s at a n y p e r i o d , s o m e p r o v i d e d substantial n u m b e r s in late antiquity.
iv. The gender of immigrants M o d e r n studies show t h a t m i g r a t i o n is usually very g e n d e r - s e l e c t i v e , b u t t h a t t h e r e is g r e a t variability in w h e t h e r m a l e s o r females p r e d o m i n a t e , d e p e n d i n g particularly o n t h e type o f work available at t h e destination.
34
At R o m e , e v e n i f military i m m i g r a n t s a r e e x c l u d e d ,
t h e r e is a very heavy bias t o w a r d s m a l e s in t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e s e e m to b e a l m o s t n o cases o f a f r e e b o r n f e m a l e i m m i g r a n t at R o m e b e i n g said to c a r r y o n a n y sort of work i n d e p e n d e n t o f h e r family o r h o u s e h o l d , e.g. as a midwife, t r a d e r o r craftsw o m a n in h e r own r i g h t .
35
T h i s , a n d t h e g e n e r a l l y m a l e o r i e n t a t i o n of
t h e r e a s o n s for m o v i n g to R o m e discussed in c h . 5, s e e m to c o n f i r m t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y male m i g r a t i o n found in t h e inscriptions. 60
Who moved to Rome ? In t h e p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s , t h e g e n d e r c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d for 5 0 9 o u t o f 5 2 1 individual i m m i g r a n t s (in t h e o t h e r cases, t h e b r o k e n state o f the inscriptions or anonymity
m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e to
determine
g e n d e r ) . T h e totals a r e :
TABLE
2. Gender of civilians (pagan).
Africa and Numidia Armenia, Bosporan Kingdom and Parthia Asia Bithynia Gappadocia Cilicia Corsica and Sardinia Crete, Gyrene and Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Egypt Galatia Gaul Germany Greece Hispania Lycia Macedonia Mauretania Moesia Noricum Pannonia Raetia Sicily Syria and Palestine Thrace Unknown
Male 29 20
Female 7 2
52 21 10 7 2 3 4 5 17 9 33 22 11 42 6 3 8 8 8 13 2 4 34 19
14 3 1 2 1 1 3 2 6 2 9 1 7 17 1
Uncertain
Total 36 22
2 1 1 9
1
1 12 5
2 3
66 24 11 9 3 4 8 7 23 12 43 24 18 60 7 3 10 9 9 23 2 5 48 27
1
8 521
7
1
1 1 1 1
Total
399
110
12
%
76.7
21.0
2.3
In the Christian a n d J e w i s h inscriptions, t h e g e n d e r c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d
61
Moving
to Rome
for 1 7 2 o u t o f 1 9 5 individuals. T h e totals h e r e a r e :
TABLE
3: Gender of civilians (Christian/Jewish).
Africa and Numidia Armenia, Bosporan Kingdom and Parthia Asia Bithynia Cappadocia Cilicia Crete, Gyrene and Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Egypt Galatia Gaul Germany Greece Hispania Lycia Macedonia Mauretania Moesia Pannonia Raetia Sicily Syria and Palestine Thrace Unknown Total %
Male 9 3
Female 1
Uncertain 4 1
Total 14 4
8 6 3 1 5 1 1 9 15 4 1 5 10 1 1 2
2 2
1 1 1
11 9 4 1 7 1 2 10 21 10 1 8 12 2 2 3 1 10 1 9 45 3
2 1 1 2 5
4 1 2 1
5 1 7 33 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 7 1
1 5
2
1
1
4
135
37
23
195
69.2
19.0
11.8
S o m e s o l d i e r s m a y h a v e c r e p t i n t o t h e civilian c a t e g o r y . I h a v e c o u n t e d as 'military' only t h o s e explicitly identified as s u c h , a n d it is likely t h a t s o m e p e o p l e (especially soldiers' m a l e c o m m e m o r a t o r s ) w e r e t h e m s e l v e s soldiers a l t h o u g h t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s d o n o t say so. H o w e v e r , this is unlikely to c r e a t e a big d i s t o r t i o n , a n d t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f m a l e s is e v e n g r e a t e r in t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s , w h e r e soldiers a r e very r a r e .
62
Who moved to Rome ? It may also b e t h e c a s e that t h e r e was a t e n d e n c y to
mention
a w o m a n ' s b i r t h p l a c e less often t h a n a m a n ' s . If so, this would also c r e a t e a distortion, but t h e r e is n o obvious r e a s o n why it s h o u l d b e t r u e in t h e civilian world. T h e g e n d e r bias shown h e r e in t h e i m m i g r a n t e p i g r a p h i c p o p u l a t i o n is c o m p a r a b l e to that f o u n d at R o m a n military sites. T h e m o s t likely e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e i m m i g r a n t s , as for t h e mili tary sites, s e e m s to b c that it reflects (while p e r h a p s reality: m a l e i m m i g r a n t s
really w e r e m u c h
exaggerating)
more numerous
than
f e m a l e o n e s , at least a m o n g t h o s e who w e r e likely to get e p i t a p h s . T h i s is c o n s i s t e n t with t h e b a l a n c e of free foreign i m m i g r a n t s in R i o d e J a n e i r o in t h e early n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( 8 5 % w e r e m a l e in t h e 1 8 3 4 c e n s u s a n d 8 0 % in 1 8 4 9 ) ;
3 6
m a l e s f o r m e d a b o u t 7 5 % of Italian i m m i
g r a n t s to t h e U.S.A. in t h e early twentieth c e n t u r y .
37
v. The ages of immigrants Age at d e a t h is given m o s t c o m m o n l y w h e n t h e d e c e a s e d is a soldier. O u t of 5 0 3
3 8
d e c e a s e d military p e r s o n n e l in this s a m p l e , ages a r c
r e c o r d e d for 3 6 0 ( 7 1 . 6 % ) . R e c o r d i n g a g e , b i r t h p l a c e a n d l e n g t h o f service w e r e all s t a n d a r d features o f military e p i t a p h s , clearly e n c o u r a g e d by t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e d e c e a s e d a n d t h e c o m m e m o r a t o r s , who w e r e usually fellow-soldiers ( s e c b e l o w ) . T h e d e m o g r a p h i c profile of t h e p r a e t o r i a n s , equites
singulares
and
other
military p e r s o n n e l at R o m e is fairly c l e a r . Most e n l i s t e d at t h e a g e of 17-20,
3 9
served for up to 2 9 years (see p. 2 2 ; p r a e t o r i a n s served for
m u c h s h o r t e r p e r i o d s ) , a n d t h e n r e t i r e d away from R o m e . A few m e n a r e specifically said to h a v e s e r v e d in a l e g i o n b e f o r e c o m i n g to R o m e , b u t m o s t give n o such i n d i c a t i o n in t h e i r e p i t a p h s . M o d e l life tables suggest that t h e r e m i g h t b e 3 9 - 4 4 % mortality b e t w e e n t h e ages o f 2 0 and 4 5 ,
4 ( )
with a slightly i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f d e a t h s in e a c h a s c e n d i n g
a g e c o h o r t ; in o t h e r words, if t h e ages given below r e f l e c t e d t h e reality of t h e a g e s at which soldiers actually d i e d , t h e n u m b e r o f d e a t h s in e a c h a g e c o h o r t would i n c r e a s e slightly up to 3 5 - 3 9 , t h e a g e g r o u p in which p r a e t o r i a n s would b e g i n to b e d i s c h a r g e d .
TAIH.H:
Age <19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39
4. Ages o f soldiers. Number 2 27 56 89 82
% 0.6 7.5 15.6 24.7 22.8 63
% [ 2 0 - 2 9 ] 23.1 [ 3 0 - 3 9 ] 47.5
Moving (cont.) 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60+ Total
lo Rome Number 48 33 10 6 7
% 13.3 9.2 2.8 1.7 1.9
% 140-49] 22.5 [ 5 0 - 5 9 ] 4.5
360
T h e p a t t e r n shown is fairly c o n s i s t e n t with what would b e e x p e c t e d , b u t t h e r e is a n u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f m e n in t h e i r early twenties.
T h i s p r o b a b l y indicates that it was c o m m o n e r to serve in t h e l e g i o n s for a few y e a r s b e f o r e c o m i n g to R o m e t h a n t h e c a r e e r r e c o r d e d in t h e inscriptions i m p l y .
41
patterns
In fact, r e c r u i t m e n t a m o n g serv
i n g l e g i o n a r i e s s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t h e n o r m a l way o f r e c r u i t i n g p r a e t o r i a n s from t h e t i m e o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s .
42
T h e a n o m a l y in t h e
table c o u l d alternatively b e e x p l a i n e d by t h e t i m e it would take to establish sufficient links a m o n g fellow-soldiers to e n s u r e c o m m e m o r a tion, since it was o t h e r soldiers r a t h e r t h a n relatives w h o w e r e t h e usual c o m m e m o r a t o r s .
4 3
T h e d e c l i n e o f t h e n u m b e r s from a g e 3 5
o n w a r d s is t h e result o f r e t i r e m e n t from t h e a r m y , a n d is n o t c o n n e c t e d to life e x p e c t a n c y .
44
T h e small n u m b e r o f v e t e r a n s , i.e. m o s t o f
t h o s e w h o d i e d a g e d o v e r 4 5 , c o n f i r m s t h e i m p r e s s i o n that
most
soldiers s e r v i n g in R o m e left t h e city o n d i s c h a r g e . It is also likely to b e t h e case, h o w e v e r , that t h e c h a n c e o f c o m m e m o r a t i o n would d e c r e a s e substantially o n c e daily c o n t a c t with t h e usual pot ent i al
commem
o r a t o r s (i.e. fellow-soldiers) was lost. B e s i d e s , i f c o m m e m o r a t i o n was d o n e by relatives, a m a n ' s military status m i g h t b e less s u r e to b e r e c o r d e d t h a n i f o t h e r military p e r s o n n e l c o m m e m o r a t e d h i m . Ages at d e a t h a r e r e c o r d e d m u c h less f r e q u e n t l y for civilians; in fact t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f a g e a n d b i r t h p l a c e in an e p i t a p h c o u l d b e s e e n as a typically military f o r m o f c o m m e m o r a t i o n at R o m e , a n d it may b e t h e case that s o m e o f t h e p e o p l e i n c l u d e d below a r e in fact military. 3 7 0 civilians ( 7 1 . 0 % ) in t h e p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e d e c e a s e d a n d t h e r e fore m i g h t have ages r e c o r d e d . O f those 3 7 0 , ages a r e actually r e c o r d e d for 111 o u t o f 2 7 5 males ( 4 0 . 4 % ) a n d 4 3 o u t o f 8 7 females ( 4 9 . 4 % ) .
TABLE
0-9 10-19 20-29
4 5
5. Ages of civilians (pagan). Male 3 23 38
Female 1 11 16 64
% 3 22 35
Who moved to Rome? 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70+
23 10
10 3
4 5
0
Total
111
43
21 8 4 3 3
In t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h civilian e p i t a p h s , ages a r e r a t h e r less c o m m o n l y given. 1 7 3 of t h e individuals r e c o r d e d ( 8 8 . 7 % ) a r e d e c e a s e d . O f t h o s e , t h e r e a r e ages for 4 7 males ( 3 5 % ) , 17 females ( 4 6 % ) a n d 7 p e o p l e of u n c e r t a i n g e n d e r ( 3 0 % ) .
TABLE
6. Ages of civilians (Christian/Jewish).
Age 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70+ Total
Male 3 3 15 6 8 2 4 6
Female 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 1
Uncertain
47
17
7
% 7 8 31 14 15 7 7 10
1 4 1 1
Males w h o d i e d in t h e i r twenties f o r m by far t h e l a r g e s t a g e g r o u p a m o n g t h e civilians, b o t h p a g a n a n d C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h , in c o n t r a s t to t h e soldiers w h e r e they a r e o u t n u m b e r e d by t h o s e w h o d i e d in t h e i r thirties. T h e o l d e r a g e g r o u p s may b e u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e r e d u c e d c h a n c e o f i m m i g r a t i o n b e i n g r e c o r d e d as s o m e o n e g o t o l d e r . T h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e a g e g r o u p s a r e m u c h t h e s a m e for m a l e s a n d for females in t h e p a g a n g r o u p , b u t t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f females in t h e i r twenties has d i s a p p e a r e d in t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h g r o u p ; this m a y b e n o m o r e t h a n
c h a n c e , given the small n u m b e r
of
i n s c r i p t i o n s involved. Age at d e a t h d o c s not, o f c o u r s e , in itself show a n y t h i n g a b o u t t h e a g e at which t h e d e c e a s e d p e r s o n c a m e to R o m e ( e x c e p t a terminus quern non).
T h e epitaph
of a f r e e d w o m a n
named
specifically says that s h e a r r i v e d at R o m e at t h e a g e o f 1 2 . d i e d a g e d 1 4 , five years after leaving h o m e .
65
4 7
post
V a l e r i a Lycisca 4 6
Eutactus
B a s i l e u s left N i c a e a to
Mewing lo Rome c o m e to R o m e while 'still a y o u n g m a n ' .
4 8
L i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e shows that
Martial was in his early twenties w h e n h e c a m e to R o m e , a n d
that
G a l e n a p p a r e n t l y a r r i v e d a g e d 3 2 o r 3 3 , a l t h o u g h h e actually left his h o m e at P e r g a m u m for S m y r n a a n d o t h e r d e s t i n a t i o n s at a b o u t 2 ( ) .
49
R e c o r d i n g this i n f o r m a t i o n is e x t r e m e l y u n u s u a l , h o w e v e r , e i t h e r in literature or epigraphy. T h u s , t h e only way o f assessing typical ages o f arrival at R o m e o n a l a r g e scale is by t r y i n g to e x t r a p o l a t e t h e m from t h e e p i g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a g e at d e a t h . At least 2 3 % o f t h e soldiers w h o s e ages a r e r e c o r d e d in t h e e p i t a p h s h a d r e a c h e d R o m e by t h e t i m e they w e r e 3 0 , a n d at least 7 2 % by t h e t i m e they w e r e 4 0 , as they h a d died by t h o s e a g e s . I n c o n t r a s t , at least 6 0 % o f t h e p a g a n civilians w h o s e ages a r e r e c o r d e d h a d a r r i v e d b e f o r e they w e r e 3 0 , a n d at least 8 1 % b e f o r e they were 4 0 .
3 0
C a r e e r r e c o r d s i n d i c a t e that in reality soldiers w e r e typically
a r r i v i n g in t h e i r e a r l y - m i d twenties. T h e implication o f t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e is t h e r e f o r e that civilians t e n d e d to c o m e to R o m e at a r a t h e r e a r l i e r a g e t h a n that, p r o b a b l y in t h e i r late t e e n s a n d early twenties. M o d e r n m i g r a t i o n p e a k s b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f 1 7 - 3 0 , which is consist 1
e n t with t h e R o m a n e v i d e n c e . ' T h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for R o m a n civilians t h u s s u p p o r t s t h e thesis that m a l e s in t h e i r late t e e n s a n d early twenties p r e d o m i n a t e d a m o n g new arrivals. T h e lack o f e v i d e n c e for c h i l d r e n a m o n g t h e f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e is a s t r o n g c o n t r a s t to what is n o r m a l l y f o u n d in civilian e p i g r a p h i c populations.
52
O n e e x p l a n a t i o n c o u l d b e t h a t it was less usual
to
c o m m e m o r a t e t h e b i r t h p l a c e o f a child t h a n o f an adult. H o w e v e r , this would b e very s u r p r i s i n g , since t h e adults w h o c o m m e m o r a t e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n would t h e m s e l v e s b e fairly r e c e n t arrivals in R o m e a n d thus, o n e would e x p e c t , a m o n g t h e m o s t likely to r e c o r d t h e fact o f i m m i g r a tion.
The o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n is t h a t t h e r e simply was a s h o r t a g e o f
overseas-born children a m o n g the foreign population, suggesting that p e o p l e t e n d e d to c o m e to R o m e b e f o r e they h a d s t a r t e d to h a v e families. T h i s would b e c o n s i s t e n t with t h e typical a g e o f i m m i g r a t i o n s u g g e s t e d a b o v e , a n d also with s o m e of t h e c o m m e m o r a t i o n p a t t e r n s discussed b e l o w . It is clearly n o t a universal r u l e , since s o m e e p i t a p h s show t h e p r e s e n c e o f y o u n g i m m i g r a n t c h i l d r e n , a n d e x a m p l e s a r e also k n o w n from l i t e r a t u r e : t h e future p o e t L u c a n was e i g h t m o n t h s old w h e n b r o u g h t to R o m e from S p a i n . The
5 3
ages in t h e e p i t a p h s show t h a t for t h e i m m i g r a n t s , as for
R o m a n s in g e n e r a l , a g e r o u n d i n g was a w i d e s p r e a d p h e n o m e n o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a m o n g p e o p l e from Syria, 8 / 1 2 soldiers, 4 / 1 0 p a g a n civilians a n d 9 / 1 0 in C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s h a v e ages e n d i n g in 0 o r 5.
66
Who moved to Rome ? F o r p e o p l e from H i s p a n i a , t h e figures a r e 8/11 soldiers, 5 / 2 0 p a g a n civilians, 3 / 4 in C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s . F o r p e o p l e from G a u l : 8/ 17 soldiers, 5/11 p a g a n civilians, 3/5 in C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s . H o w e v e r , w h e n c o m p a r e d to t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s of D u n c a n J o n e s ( 1 9 9 0 , 8 3 - 5 ) , t h e r e is n o significant d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a g e - r o u n d i n g
for
i m m i g r a n t s a n d for t h e g e n e r a l slave/freed p o p u l a t i o n o f R o m e which h e studies. T h e ' r o u n d i n g i n d e x ' for t h e f o r e i g n e r s ' i n s c r i p t i o n s at R o m e is 4 4 . 7 , very slightly lower t h a n t h o s e h e c a l c u l a t e d : '
4
freedmen
4 7 . 4 , f r c c d w o m e n 5 2 . 9 , m a l e civilians a n d incerti 4 8 . 4 , f e m a l e civilians a n d incerlae
4 8 . 9 . T h e n u m b e r s involved for t h e f o r e i g n e r s a r e r a t h e r
s m a l l e r , b u t it s e e m s safe to c o n c l u d e that they fall i n t o t h e s a m e g e n e r a l r a n g e as t h e slaves a n d ex-slaves, a n d d o n o t show t h e g r e a t e r a g e - a w a r e n e s s which D u n c a n - J o n e s associates with h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l standards.
vi. The immigration of individuals and family groups T h e i m m i g r a t i o n o f m a r r i e d c o u p l e s a n d n u c l e a r families is n o t well a t t e s t e d in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s . O n l y in six cases a r e a h u s b a n d a n d wife b o t h clearly said to b e i m m i g r a n t s : an E g y p t i a n c o u p l e ( t h e h u s b a n d is a g l a d i a t o r ) c o m m e m o r a t e t h e i r s o n , w h o died a g e d 4 a n d m a y o r m a y 5
n o t h a v e b e e n b o r n in R o m e ; ' a h u s b a n d a n d wife from G a u l e r e c t an h o n o r i f i c i n s c r i p t i o n for a friend;-'*' two h o s t a g e s from P a r t h i a build a t o m b for t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n ;
5 7
a wife w h o died at 19 is
c o m m e m o r a t e d by h e r h u s b a n d , b o t h from S p a i n ;
58
a man c o m m e m o
rates both his b r o t h e r a n d his wife, and all seem to b e labelled P h r y g i a n s ; a n d a c o u p l e from Syria w e r e a p p a r e n t l y m a r r i e d for 5 0 y e a r s .
59
60
O n the other hand, there are some instances where a man appears to h a v e c o m e to R o m e while his wife r e m a i n e d at h o m e . T h e r e a r e two cases w h e r e a m a n c o m m e m o r a t e d at R o m e is said to have a wife in Spain.
61
In a f r a g m e n t a r y e p i t a p h , a 2 2 - y e a r - o l d m a n w h o d i e d at
R o m e s e e m s to b e c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e in D a l m a t i a by his w i f e .
62
T h e r e is also a case w h e r e an i m m i g r a n t ' s y o u n g child is i m p l i e d to h a v e b e e n b o r n at R o m e , a l t h o u g h t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is n o t e n t i r e l y clear:
63
Aged nineteen months I lie in the tomb which my father Proclus made, from Syrian land. My name is Procla. The earth is my fatherland in which I lie (yaia...7taTpi(;...fi 7iapotK£i(j.ai).
T h e p h r a s e 'from S y r i a n l a n d ' c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d as a p p l y i n g to d a u g h t e r o r father, b u t t h e last s e n t e n c e s e e m s to b c a c l e a r s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e child was n o t an i m m i g r a n t herself. T h e r e is n o indication of w h e t h e r P r o c l u s c a m e to R o m e with his wife o r g o t m a r r i e d t h e r e . An 67
Moving
lo Rome
even y o u n g e r immigrant (although she could have been born R o m e ) was t h e
1 1 - m o n t h - o l d S a l o m e , w h o s e 'still y o u n g
p r o m i s e d to s e n d h e r r e m a i n s b a c k to h e r a n c e s t o r s .
64
at
mother'
W h e r e a young
child is r e c o r d e d as an i m m i g r a n t without details o f a n y family, s/he is p r e s u m a b l y still likely to have c o m e in a family g r o u p , b u t this m a y n o t always b e t h e case: K o r n o u t i o n from S i n o p e , w h o died a g e d 1 0 , was c o m m e m o r a t e d by his nutrilor,
a l t h o u g h his p a r e n t s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y
still alive - p e r h a p s they h a d r e m a i n e d in S i n o p e .
6 5
I n s c r i p t i o n s r e c o r d i n g w h o l e n u c l e a r families w h e r e all m e m b e r s a r e s h o w n to b e i m m i g r a n t s a r e also r a r e . with two c h i l d r e n ,
67
6 6
T h e r e a r e two for c o u p l e s
a n d t h r e e s h o w i n g c o u p l e s with a son - in o n e of
t h e s e cases t h e m o t h e r is free a n d t h e f a t h e r a p p e a r s to b e a s l a v e . T h e r e is also a C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n in which t h e u n n a m e d
68
parents
c o m m e m o r a t e t h e i r son V i c t o r w h o lived 8 0 days a n d ' c r o s s e d t h e seas' (it is n o t stated from w h e r e ) .
6 9
It is c o m m o n e r to find j u s t o n e p a r e n t a n d a child identified as i m m i g r a n t s , n e a r l y always w h e r e t h e p a r e n t c o m m e m o r a t e s t h e c h i l d ; t h e o t h e r p a r e n t is n o t m e n t i o n e d in t h e s e e p i t a p h s . F a t h e r a n d son: e i g h t e x a m p l e s , with t h e s o n ' s a g e , w h e r e stated, r a n g i n g from 9 to 2 4 . singularis;
7 0
I n o n e case t h e son is said to b e an
eques
in a n o t h e r h e was a B o s p o r a n a m b a s s a d o r to R o m e b u t
a p p a r e n t l y a c c o m p a n i e d by his father. F a t h e r a n d d a u g h t e r : o n e e x a m p l e , a girl a g e d 12 from A s i a .
71
M o t h e r a n d son: two e x a m p l e s w h e r e t h e r e a r e two sons; in o n e c a s e t h e sons a r e a p r a e t o r i a n a n d an urbanicianus
from G a u l ,
7 2
a n d in t h e
o t h e r t h e m o t h e r is free b u t at least o n e son is an i m p e r i a l slave from Africa.
73
T h e r e a r e six e x a m p l e s o f m o t h e r a n d o n e son: in t h r e e cases
t h e son is a soldier, a n d in o n e a d e a c o n . an eques singularis grandmother. Mother and
74
T h e r e is also o n e c a s e w h e r e
from D a c i a s e e m s to b e c o m m e m o r a t e d by his
7 5
d a u g h t e r : t h r e e e x a m p l e s , i n c l u d i n g two
families from P a n n o n i a .
Christian
76
P r e s u m a b l y in m o s t cases t h e s e r e p r e s e n t t h e surviving m e m b e r s o f n u c l e a r families w h o h a d all m i g r a t e d t o g e t h e r . H o w e v e r , w h e r e t h e son is a soldier, t h e p r o c e d u r e m u s t h a v e b e e n different: h e would h a v e b e e n a c c o m p a n i e d to R o m e , o r followed later, by his m o t h e r , e i t h e r for his c o n v e n i e n c e o r h e r s .
77
P r e s u m a b l y this would b e m o s t
likely i f s h e was a widow. T h e b a n o n soldiers' m a r r i a g e which was in force until t h e t i m e o f S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s did n o t a p p l y to soldiers b r i n g i n g t h e i r m o t h e r s with t h e m , a l t h o u g h they c o u l d h a r d l y h a v e lived t o g e t h e r i f t h e son was b a r r a c k e d in t h e P r a e t o r i a n C a m p . O n e e x p l a n a t i o n o f how t h e i n c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f p r a e t o r i a n s w e r e a b l e to 68
Who moved to Rome? fit into t h e C a m p in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y is that t h o s e w h o m a r r i e d w e r e allowed to live o u t ,
78
a n d p e r h a p s this a p p l i e d to o t h e r s w h o h a d
relatives at R o m e too. T h e e p i t a p h s show t h a t f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d by t h e i r siblings surprisingly often, a n d by t h e i r s p o u s e s a n d c h i l d r e n s u r p r i s i n g l y r a r e l y . T h i s i m p r e s s i o n may b e d u e to s o m e e x t e n t just to t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e : a f o r e i g n e r ' s b r o t h e r o r sister (or p a r e n t ) can b e a s s u m e d to b e a n i m m i g r a n t t o o i f a p p a r e n t l y p r e s e n t at R o m e , w h e r e a s t h e s a m e a s s u m p t i o n c a n n o t b e m a d e for a s p o u s e o r c h i l d . The
basis o f t h e i m p r e s s i o n c a n b e tested by l o o k i n g at w h o
the
c o m m e m o r a t o r s o f foreigners are, even when the c o m m e m o r a t o r s are n o t said o r i m p l i e d to b e f o r e i g n e r s t h e m s e l v e s . A l t h o u g h this d o e s not necessarily give a cross-section o f t h e w h o l e f o r e i g n p o p u l a t i o n , it d o e s e n a b l e c o m p a r i s o n s to b e m a d e with t h e e p i t a p h s o f R o m e in g e n e r a l ; if f o r e i g n e r s ' e p i t a p h s show different c o m m e m o r a t i o n p a t t e r n s from ' o r d i n a r y ' e p i t a p h s , t h e n t h e r e may b e u n d e r l y i n g d i f f e r e n c e s in family s t r u c t u r e . T h e following tables c o n s i d e r t h e c o m m e m o r a t i o n o f sol diers a n d civilians s e p a r a t e l y , since t h e family a r r a n g e m e n t s of t h e two g r o u p s w e r e clearly likely to b e very different.
TABLE
7: Commemorators o f soldiers. No.
Ascendants Parent Grandparent Nuclear family Wife Wife and children Children Extended family Brother(s) Sister Nephew Cousin/relative Non-kin Municeps Heir/amicus/soldier Freedman Ereedwoman Self/by will
%
Total 7
1.9
42
11.5
58
15.9
237
65.1
20
5.5
6 1 28 4 10 48 5 1 4 14 211 10 2 20
8 0
364
Total
69
Moving The
lo Rome t o t a l s in t h e t a b l e c a n b e c o m p a r e d
to R i c c i ' s s t u d y o f
c o m m e m o r a t i o n s o u t s i d e R o m e o f soldiers w h o s e r v e d at R o m e , w h e r e 3 3 % w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d by p a r e n t s , 2 7 % by soldiers, friends o r h e i r s , a n d f 6 % by b r o t h e r s .
81
In c o m p a r i s o n , in t h e p r e s e n t s a m p l e ,
t h e lack of c o m m e m o r a t i o n by a s c e n d a n t s , t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e of c o m m e m o r a t i o n s by n o n - k i n , a n d t h e e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e of b r o t h e r s a r e all significant. The lack of c o m m e m o r a t i o n by a s c e n d a n t s is readily e x p l a i n e d by t h e fact that t h e soldiers died away from h o m e .
8 2
T h e predominance of
c o m m e m o r a t i o n by fellow-soldiers is n o r m a l for a military p o p u l a t i o n w h e r e m o s t p e o p l e w e r e far r e m o v e d from t h e i r f a m i l i e s .
83
Many more
'fellow soldiers' w e r e p r o b a b l y from t h e s a m e h o m e c o m m u n i t y as t h e d e c e a s e d t h a n a r e specifically i n d i c a t e d by t e r m s like municeps.
Men
d e s c r i b e d as friends a n d heirs a r e often n o t m e m b e r s o f t h e s a m e u n i t as t h e d e c e a s e d . I n that case, t h e f r i e n d s h i p s e e m s likely to h a v e b e e n f o r m e d b e f o r e arrival at R o m e , e i t h e r i m m e d i a t e l y o n
enlistment,
t h r o u g h service t o g e t h e r in t h e s a m e u n i t initially, o r b e f o r e enlist m e n t , t h r o u g h c o m i n g from t h e s a m e p l a c e .
84
S c h e i d e l n o t e s that t h e
possibility o f b e i n g c o m m e m o r a t e d by s o m e o n e o t h e r t h a n a fellows o l d i e r was m u c h g r e a t e r for a p r a e t o r i a n who d i e d in t h e s e c o n d t en years o f service than for o n e w h o died in t h e first ten years; t h e d i f f e r e n c e is d u e to t h e g r e a t e r n u m b e r o f c o m m e m o r a t i o n s by wives for t h e f o r m e r g r o u p .
85
Relatively new recruits would have few contacts
in R o m e outside their military unit, unless they w er e contacts which h a d b e e n f o r m e d b e f o r e c o m i n g to R o m e , a n d that would affect who c o m m e m o r a t e d t h e m as well as w h e t h e r they were c o m m e m o r a t e d at all. B r o t h e r s f o r m an i m p o r t a n t
g r o u p o f soldiers' c o m m e m o r a t o r s .
T h e t e r m a p p e a r s to b e used to i n d i c a t e a real r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
86
rather
t h a n j u s t as a t e r m of e n d e a r m e n t (in which case it s h o u l d b e m u c h c o m m o n e r ) . M o s t b r o t h e r s s h a r e a n o m e n , b u t a few d o not. In t h o s e cases they m u s t e i t h e r have b e e n h a l f - b r o t h e r s , full b r o t h e r s of w h o m o n e was l e g i t i m a t e a n d t h e o t h e r was not, o r p e o p l e w h o w e r e only g r a n t e d citizenship w h e n they e n l i s t e d .
87
M e m b e r s o f t h e last c a t e g o r y
a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y likely to b e t h e illegitimate c h i l d r e n o f o t h e r soldiers by non-citizen w o m e n . A l t h o u g h most b r o t h e r - c o m m e m o r a t o r s w e r e also soldiers t h e m s e l v e s , s o m e a r e n o t said to b e so, a n d occasionally they a r e explicitly civilian: for e x a m p l e , o n e of the c o m m e m o r a t o r s o f t h e P a n n o n i a n eques singularis
T . Aelius Rufus was his b r o t h e r a n d h e i r
T i t i u s M a r c e l l u s , who is d e s c r i b e d aspaganus,
apparently 'civilian'.
88
T h e o c c u r r e n c e o f five sisters as soldiers' c o m m e m o r a t o r s is also n o t e w o r t h y . A few soldiers a p p a r e n t l y b r o u g h t t h e i r sisters to R o m e
70
Who moved to Rome ? with t h e m , as o t h e r s b r o u g h t t h e i r m o t h e r s ( o n e p r a e t o r i a n may have j o i n e d with his f a t h e r to e r e c t a d e d i c a t i o n in G r e e k to his s i s t e r ) .
89
H o w e v e r , t h e p r e s e n c e o f a sister in R o m e m i g h t b e d u e n o t to h e r a c c o m p a n y i n g h e r b r o t h e r b u t to h e r b e i n g m a r r i e d to a n o t h e r s o l d i e r s t a t i o n e d t h e r e . T h i s is n e v e r m a d e e x p l i c i t in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s b u t s e e m s plausible, as s o l d i e r s ' families would p r o b a b l y have t e n d e d to b e o f similar status to e a c h o t h e r at h o m e a n d t h e r e f o r e liable to inter marry.
90
O n e m a n w h o was c o m m e m o r a t e d by b o t h his wife a n d sister
p r e s u m a b l y did n o t h a v e t h e m b o t h in R o m e to act as h o u s e k e e p e r s for h i m .
91
A substantial n u m b e r of i m m i g r a n t soldiers w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d by t h e i r wives. M o s t of t h e s e a r e likely to b e from after S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s ' legalization o f s o l d i e r s ' m a r r i a g e s , b u t s o m e c o u l d b e e a r l i e r , using t h e l a n g u a g e o f m a r r i a g e for a r e l a t i o n s h i p which was n o t legally r e c o g nized as s u c h . T h e r e is virtually n o d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n o n w h e t h e r soldiers' wives m e t a n d m a r r i e d t h e soldiers at R o m e , a c c o m p a n i e d t h e soldiers from h o m e w h e n t h e y first c a m e to R o m e , o r c a m e from h o m e to j o i n t h e m w h e n they w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d at R o m e . As soldiers n o r m a l l y e n l i s t e d b e f o r e t h e usual a g e for m a l e m a r r i a g e in
the
R o m a n E m p i r e , t h e s e c o n d possibility is t h e least likely. It is e x c l u d e d a l t o g e t h e r in t h e cases of I u l i a C a r n u n t i l a from P a n n o n i a a n d A u r e l i a G o r s i l a from A q u i n c u m , w h o died at 1 9 a n d 2 4 respectively, a n d w e r e b u r i e d by t h e i r h u s b a n d s , b o t h a l r e a d y v e t e r a n s w h o m u s t t h e r e f o r e have been
in R o m e for a m i n i m u m
p r a e t o r i a n s ) , a n d possibly m u c h l o n g e r .
o f 16 years (if they 92
were
It was t h e p r a c t i c e in mili
tary e p i t a p h s only to give t h e p l a c e o f o r i g i n o f t h e d e c e a s e d , n o t of t h e c o m m e m o r a t o r , so t h e r e a r e n o cases w h e r e t h e h o m e s o f b o t h hus b a n d a n d wife a r e k n o w n . H o w e v e r , it m a y b e significant t h a t t h e h o m e s o f t h e wives, w h e r e they a r c t h e o n e s c o m m e m o r a t e d a n d t h e i r p l a c e of o r i g i n is stated, a r e always a r e a s w h e r e soldiers w e r e r e c r u i t e d , a n d that several soldiers from t h e B a l k a n s h a v e wives with distinctively T h r a c i a n n a m e s .
9 3
In o n e case where the backgrounds
s e e m to b e different, a G e r m a n w o m a n n a m e d P a t c r n a was c o m m e m o r a t e d by h e r h u s b a n d M. A u r e l i u s D i a s c e n t u s , w h o may h a v e b e e n a Thracian.
9 1
P a n c i e r a ( 1 9 9 3 , 2 7 0 - 1 ) n o t e s t h e f r e q u e n c y with w h i c h G r e e k c o g n o m i n a o c c u r a m o n g t h e wives o f p r a e t o r i a n s ( a b o u t o n e - t h i r d of t h e cases in his s a m p l e ) , a n d suggests from this t h a t p r a e t o r i a n s ' wives w e r e often f r c e d w o m e n o r of servile a n c e s t r y ; h e d o e s n o t c o n s i d e r t h e possibility t h a t s o m e of t h e w o m e n h a d G r e e k n a m e s b e c a u s e they w e r e i m m i g r a n t s . G i v e n t h a t soldiers a p p e a r often to have
71
taken
Moving
lo Rome
latinized ( o r g r a e c i z e d ) n a m e s to r e p l a c e o r i g i n a l ' b a r b a r i a n ' o n e s (see p. 1 8 1 ) , it m a y b e t h e case that t h e i r wives t e n d e d to d o so as well. It m a y also b e r e l e v a n t t h a t wives c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e i r s o l d i e r - h u s b a n d s s o m e t i m e s give t h e n a m e o f t h e h u s b a n d ' s h o m e village (see p. 2 1 9 ) , s o m e t h i n g which would b e c o n s i s t e n t with t h e i r c o m i n g from t h e s a m e p l a c e , since t h e n a m e o f t h e village c a n h a v e m e a n t little to o u t s i d e r s . A l t h o u g h it c a n n o t b e p r o v e d that t h e soldiers w h o m a r r i e d at R o m e (evidently only a small p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e total o f s e r v i n g soldiers) usually m a r r i e d w o m e n from t h e i r h o m e a r e a s , t h e epi g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e is at least c o n s i s t e n t with s u c h a p r o p o s i t i o n . T h e fact t h a t s o m e soldiers h a d family m e m b e r s with t h e m is rel e v a n t to a c h a n g e in m i g r a t i o n
patterns
over time. Since
most
p r a e t o r i a n s from o u t s i d e Italy w e r e r e c r u i t e d in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , t h e r e m a y , if substantial n u m b e r s o f soldiers b r o u g h t civilian relatives with t h e m , b e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e in civilian i m m i g r a t i o n from t h e s a m e a r e a s at t h e s a m e t i m e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , since few o f t h e p a g a n e p i t a p h s c a n b e d a t e d precisely e n o u g h to distinguish s e c o n d - c e n t u r y ones from third-century with any great reliability, this c a n n o t b e tested in t h e inscriptions. H o w e v e r , it will b e suggested below that, at least in t h e case o f P a n n o n i a , civilian i m m i g r a t i o n i n c r e a s e d in the third c e n t u r y .
TAB IF. 8. Commemorators of civilians (pagan).
Ascendants Parent(s) Foster/step-parent Nuclear family Spouse Spouse and children Children Foster-child Grandchildren Extended family Brother(s) Sister Nephew Cousin/relative Non-kin Municeps/colleague/ sodales/conservus Amicus/heir Patron 9s
Male dec.
Fern. dec.
23 5
2
15 1 10 2 1
24 5 10
28 3 1 2
1 3
8 7 3
72
Total 30
% 15.2
68
34.5
38
19.3
44
22.3
Who moved to Rome ? Master Client Freedman Freedwoman Slaves/workmen Pupils
7 12 3 2
Self/by will Total
14
3
17
147
50
197
8.6
T h e r e a r e s o m e n o t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s from t h e military p a t t e r n . T h e g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e o f p a r e n t s as c o m m e m o r a t o r s a m o n g t h e civilians is to b c e x p e c t e d , since s o m e civilians would have a r r i v e d as part of n u c l e a r families w h e r e a s soldiers would very r a r e l y h a v e d o n e so. C o m m e m o r a t i o n by s p o u s e s a n d c h i l d r e n is m o r e i m p o r t a n t
for
civilians, b u t only for civilian w o m e n - for m e n , t h e p r o p o r t i o n is c o m p a r a b l e to t h a t for soldiers. N o n - k i n a r e , naturally, m u c h less significant for civilians, b u t still f o r m a substantial p r o p o r t i o n of c o m m e m o r a t o r s for m a l e s . T h e s e points a r c a g a i n c o n s i s t e n t with t h e proposition that males in their late teens a n d early twenties p r e d o m i n a t e d a m o n g new civilian i m m i g r a n t s . T h e r e is o n e p e r h a p s s u r p r i s i n g similarity b e t w e e n t h e military a n d civilian samples: the p r o p o r t i o n of e x t e n d e d family as c o m m e m o r a t o r s . T h i s is largely b r o t h e r s c o m m e m o r a t i n g b r o t h e r s , a n d is far m o r e significant h e r e than a m o n g a n y of t h e civilian s a m p l e s studied by Sailer and S h a w .
9 6
It i n c l u d e s pairs w h e r e o n e a p p e a r s to b e a soldier
a n d t h e o t h e r a civilian, as well as pairs ( o r trios) w h e r e b o t h a r e civilians. T h e p r e s e n c e o f two b r o t h e r s t o g e t h e r w o u l d n o t necessarily m e a n that t h e y a r r i v e d at t h e s a m e t i m e , a l t h o u g h t h a t is possible. A n o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n w o u l d b e t h a t o n e a r r i v e d first, p e r h a p s
as
a s o l d i e r o r in t h e i m p e r i a l service, a n d t h e o t h e r b r o t h e r j o i n e d h i m later, c o m i n g to R o m e for s o m e o t h e r sort of work a n d m a k i n g use o f t h e first b r o t h e r ' s p r e s e n c e t h e r e . I n t h e case o f a P h r y g i a n family, Aelius Papias ( p e r h a p s an i m p e r i a l f r e e d m a n ) c o m m e m o r a t e d peregrinus aged
b r o t h e r A p o l l o n i u s son of I s o n o m u s .
9 7
his
Eutactus, who died
1 4 , h a d 'lived a b r o a d with' his b r o t h e r for 5 years, a n d
the
w o r d i n g may s u g g e s t t h a t h e h a d c o m e to R o m e to j o i n a b r o t h e r w h o was a l r e a d y t h e r e . modern
9 8
F a m i l y r e u n i o n r e m a i n s an i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n for
migration even when the e c o n o m i c attractiveness o f the
d e s t i n a t i o n has r e d u c e d since t h e first family m e m b e r m o v e d t h e r e .
9 9
At R o m e , t h e p r e s e n c e of a b r o t h e r w h o was financially s e c u r e m u s t
73
Moving
lo Rome
have b e e n a s t r o n g 'pull' factor (see p. 8 6 ) for a n o t h e r b r o t h e r w h o h a d o r i g i n a l l y b e e n left at h o m e . T h e r e a r e s o m e striking differences b e t w e e n t h e c o m m e m o r a t i o n p a t t e r n s for m a l e a n d female civilian d e c e a s e d . M a l e s a r e often c o m m e m o r a t e d by p a r e n t s ; females virtually n e v e r . W o m e n a r e c o m m e m o r a t e d by spouses m u c h m o r e often t h a n m e n a r e . T h i s may b e c o n n e c t e d with t h e lack o f y o u n g ages n o t e d a b o v e . It suggests that, by t h e t i m e they r e a c h e d t h e a g e at which they w e r e likely to b e c o m m e m o r a t e d , w o m e n w e r e m a r r i e d a n d m e n w e r e not. A r t e m o from L a c o n i a was a l r e a d y m a r r i e d w h e n s h e died at 1 4 .
1 0 0
T h e implication
may b e that, while n u c l e a r families with y o u n g c h i l d r e n w e r e unlikely to c o m e to R o m e , families w h o a r r i v e d with r a t h e r o l d e r c h i l d r e n w e r e more common.
1 0 1
A n o t h e r possibility is t h a t females w e r e c o m i n g to
R o m e specifically in o r d e r to m a r r y m i g r a n t s from t h e i r h o m e c o m m u n i t i e s w h o h a d p r e c e d e d t h e m t h e r e , as s u g g e s t e d a b o v e in t h e c a s e o f soldiers. S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s ' first wife Paccia M a r c i a n a was p r o b a b l y a native o f L e p c i s , b u t unless h e m a r r i e d r e m a r k a b l y y o u n g , it is unlikely t h a t they w e r e m a r r i e d b e f o r e h e w e n t to R o m e at t h e a g e o f 17.
1 0 2
T h e r e c o u l d also b e a s u g g e s t i o n o f this in t h e u n u s u a l w o r d i n g
of t h e following C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h :
103
Flavia Valeria placed this epitaph for her well-deserving daughter Flavia V i < v e n t > i a , who lived 18 years. She had her burial on 31st July. This girl came from the province o f Pannonia. She lived with her husband for f year 8 months. In peace. B u t it is n o t explicitly said that t h e h u s b a n d was an i m m i g r a n t o r t h a t V i v e n t i a only c a m e to R o m e to get m a r r i e d . It is very u n u s u a l for a n i m m i g r a n t to b e m a r r i e d to a n o t h e r i m m i g r a n t from s o m e w h e r e dif f e r e n t unless they w e r e o r h a d b e e n f e l l o w - s l a v e s .
104
It is also n o t e w o r t h y that, while m a l e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y c o m m e m o r a t e d by n o n - k i n , females a l m o s t n e v e r a r e . T h i s would b e c o n s i s t e n t with a large n u m b e r of male i m m i g r a n t s lacking family c o m m e m o r a t o r s b e c a u s e they h a d c o m e to R o m e a l o n e , o r at least without relatives. S o m e e x a m p l e s show that m a l e i m m i g r a n t s m i g h t h a v e left t h e i r rela tives at h o m e . A m a n w h o d i e d at O s t i a a g e d 5 0 was c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e in G a u l by his s o n s .
105
A 1 7 - y e a r - o l d notarius
named Praetorianus
w h o d i e d at R o m e in AD 2 2 5 was c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e at Sitifis in M a u r e t a n i a , t o g e t h e r with his sister w h o died t h e r e t h e n e x t y e a r a g e d 8, by t h e i r father; P r a e t o r i a n u s h a d clearly n o t g o n e to R o m e as p a r t o f a family g r o u p .
1 0 6
In t h e s e cases, t h e ties they r e t a i n e d with t h e i r
h o m e s w e r e s t r o n g e n o u g h to e n s u r e t h e i r c o m m e m o r a t i o n t h e r e . Most p e o p l e in a similar situation would either have b e e n c o m m e m o r a t e d
74
Who moved to Rome ? at R o m e by n o n - k i n o r n o t c o m m e m o r a t e d at all. T h e p r a c t i c e a m o n g i m m i g r a n t s from s o m e a r e a s o f n a m i n g t h e h o m e village (to b e dis cussed in c h . 8 ) may also reflect a d e s i r e to show ties a m o n g c o m p a t r i ots at R o m e e v e n when they w e r e not kin. I n t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s , t h e p r a c t i c e of n a m i n g t h e c o m m e m o r a t o r at all was u n u s u a l . T h e n u m b e r s below a r c t h e r e f o r e very small:
TABLE
9. Commemorators of civf lians (Christian/Jewish).
Male d ec. Ascendants Parcnt(s) 5 Foster-parent 1 Nuclear family Spouse 5 Spouse and children 1 Extended family 5 Brothcr(s) 1 Relative Non-kin Friend 1 Self 5 Total
Fern. dec.
Gender unc.
1
%
Total 9
26
11
31
8
22
2
6
5
14
2
4 1 2
1
24
9
2
35
T h e s e show s o m e o f t h e s a m e p a t t e r n s as t h e p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s : t h e g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e o f c o m m e m o r a t i o n by p a r e n t s for m a l e s t h a n for females; t h e significance o f b r o t h e r s . T h e lack o f c o m m e m o r a t i o n by c h i l d r e n is a g a i n n o t i c e a b l e . It is likely that c h i l d r e n c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e i r p a r e n t s , at w h a t e v e r d a t e , would b e less likely to r e c o r d
that
they w e r e i m m i g r a n t s , especially i f t h e c h i l d r e n t h e m s e l v e s w e r e b o r n at R o m e .
vii. Legal status of immigrants S o l d i e r s s e r v i n g at R o m e w e r e R o m a n citizens, b u t civilians c o u l d b c o f any legal status (sec p. 2 4 ) . T h e status of t h e p a g a n civilian i m m i g r a n t s in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s is set o u t below, as i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r n a m e s . Status is s h o w n t o o r a r e l y in t h e C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h civilian inscriptions for t h e s a m e t r e a t m e n t to b e w o r t h w h i l e for t h e m .
1 0 7
T h e c a t e g o r i e s a r e as
follows: 1. Slave. S o m e o n e clearly shown to b c a slave, e i t h e r by t h e use o f
75
Moving
lo Rome
servus o r a similar w o r d , o r by an o w n e r ' s n a m e in t h e g e n i t i v e . 2. E x - s l a v e . S o m e o n e clearly shown to b e a liber lus/liber la, e i t h e r by use o f t h e w o r d , by a d e s i g n a t i o n such as C.l. o r P.lib. in t h e n a m e (i.e. t h e a b b r e v i a t e d f o r m o f t h e p a t r o n ' s p r a e n o m e n , followed by an a b b r e v i a tion for liberlus/-a),
o r by calling s o m e o n e else t h e i r p a t r o n .
3. F r e e b o r n . A citizen with a n o m e n
and
cognomen
(sometimes
a p r a e n o m e n t o o , i f m a l e ) , s h o w n to b e f r e e b o r n e i t h e r by a filiation in t h e n a m e (e.g. C f ) , b e i n g t h e sibling o f s o m e o n e else f r e e b o r n , o r h o l d i n g a r a n k for which free birth was a qualification, such as city councillor. 4 . Peregrinus/peregrina.
S o m e o n e w h o was free b u t n o t a R o m a n citi
zen, i n d i c a t e d by a single n a m e followed by father's n a m e in t h e g e n i t i v e , o r a single n a m e with indication o f citizenship o f a city o t h e r than R o m e .
1 0 8
5. S i n g l e n a m e . S o m e o n e r e c o r d e d with a single n a m e is m o s t likely to be a slave, b u t c o u l d b e a peregrinus/-a,
o r occasionally a citizen w h o s e
n o m e n was o m i t t e d (e.g. in a m e t r i c a l o r G r e e k e p i t a p h ) . M. A n t o n i u s G a i o n a s , a m a n active in various S y r i a n cults in t h e late s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD (see p. 2 4 0 ) , is r e f e r r e d to in m o s t i n s c r i p t i o n s only as G a i o n a s , simply b e c a u s e t h e c o n t e x t did n o t r e q u i r e his full n a m e . 6. D u o / t r i a n o m i n a . S o m e o n e w h o s e n a m e shows that s/he was a citizen by using a n o m e n a n d c o g n o m e n , b u t n o t w h e t h e r s/he was f r e e b o r n o r freed, e.g. T i . C l a u d i u s S e v e r u s , Flavia E u t y c h e .
1 0 9
7. U n k n o w n . T h o s e w h o c a n n o t b e p l a c e d in any o f t h e a b o v e c a t e g o ries, t h r o u g h d a m a g e
to t h e s t o n e (usually) o r a n o n y m i t y in
the
inscription.
TABLE
10. Legal status of foreigners in pagan civilian inscriptions. Slave
Africa and 13 Numidia Armenia, Bosporan 3 Kingdom and Parthia Asia t Bithynia 1 Cappadocia 2 Cilicia 1 Corsica and Sardinia Crete, Cyrene and Cyprus
Ex-
Free
Pereg-
Single
2/3
slave
born
rinus/a
name
nomina
1
9
3
10
1
3
9
6 2 2 1 2
6 1
18 5
1
3
19 6 3 2
3
1
Un Total known
36
5
1
22
12 8 4 1
4 1
66 24 11 9 3 4
1
76
Who moved to Dacia Dalmatia Kgypt Galatia Gaul Germany Greece Hispania Lycia Macedonia Mauretania Moesia Noricum Pannonia Raetia Sicily Syria and Palestine Thrace
1
3 2 13 4 4 1
2
1
2
4
14 2 1 13
1 1
1 3 4 2 1
2
1
1
1
1 3 2 1
1 8 2
5 2
1 5 3
1
Unknown Total %
1 8 3 2 2 5 12 1 1 2 2 1
3 11 2
Rome?
1 1 2 2
4 5 9 1 17 5 5 26 4 1 2 6 4 19 1 1 12 13
6 5
8 7 23 12 43 24 18 60 7 3 10 9 9 23 2 5 48 27
4
8 521
2 4
1 3
4 59
35
60
60
94
175
38
11.3
6.7
11.6
11.6
18.0
33.6
7.2
T w o c h a n g e s o v e r t i m e a r e likely to distort t h e s e figures. T h e p r a c t i c e o f i n d i c a t i n g filiation o r l i b e r t i n e status was n o r m a l in t h e c e n t u r y AD b u t s e e m s to h a v e d e c l i n e d fairly rapidly a f t e r w a r d s . c a t e g o r y o f peregrinus/peregrina
110
first The
virtually d i s a p p e a r e d after AD 2 1 2 , when
t h e C o n s t i t u t i o A n t o n i n i a n a g a v e R o m a n citizenship to n e a r l y all free inhabitants o f the E m p i r e . T h i s may partly e x p l a i n t h e big variations b e t w e e n r e g i o n s . F o r Asia, 1 8 / 6 6 individuals w e r e peregrini.
T h i s p r o b a b l y reflects t h e relative
slowness o f citizenship in s p r e a d i n g in t h e e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s , a n d also an a t t a c h m e n t to t h e G r e e k cities o n t h e p a r t o f p e o p l e w h o c a m e from t h e m . It also suggests t h a t Asia was an i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f i m m i g r a n t s b e f o r e 2 1 2 ; t h o s e classified as peregrini
from Asia m u s t have c o m e to
R o m e b e f o r e t h e n . G a u l a n d H i s p a n i a show similar p a t t e r n s to e a c h o t h e r (cf. p. 5 9 a b o v e ) : for G a u l , 14 w e r e f r e e b o r n a n d 17 h a d duo/tria n o m i n a o u t o f a total o f 4 3 ; for H i s p a n i a , 13 w e r e f r e e b o r n a n d 2 6 h a d d u o / t r i a n o m i n a o u t o f a total o f 6 0 . F o r P a n n o n i a , 1 9 / 2 3 h a d d u o / t r i a n o m i n a . T h i s f o r m of g i v i n g t h e n a m e was n o r m a l in t h e century, when
P a n n o n i a was t h e m a i n r e c r u i t m e n t a r e a for
77
third the
Moving
lo Rome
P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d , so this p r o b a b l y shows that civilian i m m i g r a t i o n was b o o s t e d at t h e s a m e t i m e , as s u g g e s t e d a b o v e . T h e h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n o f c e r t a i n ex-slaves is for Syria ( 8 / 4 8 ) , al t h o u g h m a n y o f t h o s e in t h e duo/tria n o m i n a c a t e g o r y m a y also b e e x slaves. T h e n u m b e r o f i m m i g r a n t s w h o h a d clearly c o m e to R o m e as slaves is r e m a r k a b l y small. D e s p i t e t h e c o m m e n t s in t h e
literary
s o u r c e s on t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f E g y p t i a n slaves, t h e r e a r e n o E g y p t i a n slaves in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d only two definite ex-slaves. It is possible that s o m e places o f o r i g i n w e r e felt to c a r r y g r e a t e r s t i g m a t h a n o t h e r s a n d w e r e t h e r e f o r e less likely to b e r e c o r d e d . It m a y b e significant t h a t n e a r l y all t h e E g y p t i a n s r e c o r d e d in t h e p a g a n civilian e p i t a p h s a r e c o n n e c t e d to A l e x a n d r i a , not to E g y p t (see p. 2 4 7 ) . In t h e study o f e p i t a p h s for p e o p l e with o c c u p a t i o n a l d e s i g n a t i o n s by J o s h e l ( 1 9 9 2 ) , o v e r 6 0 % w e r e slaves o r ex-slaves (pp. 2 3 , 1 8 4 ) . 4 2 % used a formal status i n d i c a t i o n ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e ex-slave a n d f r e e b o r n c a t e g o r i e s a b o v e ) ( p p . 3 8 - 9 ) ; 2 7 . 6 % h a d a single n a m e ( s h e calls t h e m ' u n c e r t a i n slaves'), a n d 3 0 . 4 % h a d a n o m e n w i t h o u t status i n d i c a t i o n ( ' u n c e r t a i n f r e e b o r n ' ; t h e s a m e as d u o / t r i a n o m i n a a b o v e ) . S h e a r g u e s t h a t w o r k was o n e f o r m o f identity readily available to slaves (p. 2 4 ) , a n d t h a t t h e r e f o r e slaves a n d ex-slaves w e r e m o r e likely to h a v e t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n s c o m m e m o r a t e d t h a n t h e f r e e b o r n w e r e . I n c o n t r a s t , it a p p e a r s t h a t place o f o r i g i n was o n t h e w h o l e less i m p o r t a n t in slaves' self-identity t h a n o c c u p a t i o n was. O n l y 15 p e o p l e in h e r study u s e d a nalio
('place o f b i r t h ' ) d e s i g n a t i o n , which s h e e x p l a i n s as
follows (p. 4 1 ) : Because o f the equation o f outsider with slave, foreign origin was closely associated with a servile past. Neither freeborn citizens nor freedmen who wished to hide their ethnicity would have used nalio on their tomb stones if it indicated a non-Italian place. W h i l e t h e s e c o n d s e n t e n c e is clearly t r u e , t h e first is c e r t a i n l y not, in e p i g r a p h i c t e r m s . It was soldiers, n o t slaves, w h o w e r e m o s t likely to r e c o r d t h e i r ' e t h n i c i t y ' in i n s c r i p t i o n s , as shown a b o v e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e d o e s s e e m to b e e v i d e n c e in
TABLE
10 for slaves a n d ex-slaves b e i n g less
likely t h a n free i m m i g r a n t s ( w h o m they m u s t h a v e o u t n u m b e r e d very substantially, at least until t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD) to have t h e i r p l a c e o f o r i g i n r e c o r d e d , s o m e t h i n g which m a y b e r e l a t e d to t h e wellknown enthusiasm
for r o m a n i z a t i o n o f t h e ex-slaves w h o p u t
up
f u n e r a r y m o n u m e n t s : p e o p l e w h o w e r e d e p i c t e d w e a r i n g togas a n d with s e v e r e a n d d e l i b e r a t e l y R o m a n e x p r e s s i o n s w e r e unlikely to 1
r e c o r d t h a t they h a d b e e n b o r n in P a p h l a g o n i a . "
78
Who moved to Rome ?
Notes 1
Faist 1997, 2 0 5 ; cf. Boyle, Halfacrcc and Robinson 1998, 9. Pliny, Ep. 3.20; Martial 12.18, 12.31, 12.68. Galen, another returnee whose movements are recorded in his own writings, left Rome more because of hostility from other doctors and fear o f the plague there than from anxiety to return to Pergamum (Nutton 1973; Jackson 1988, 6 1 ; P1R G24), and was later obliged by Marcus Aurelius to return to Rome. Another example, whose return was not necessarily caused by the same feelings, is T i . Claudius Tyrannus, an imperial freedman and doctor, who returned to Magnesia on the Maeandcr, where he set up a scries o f ergasleria (probably manufacturing workshops) in a nearby village (Nutton 1986, 35; I.K. Magnesia 1 13). Galen 2.215 - but according to P I R F229, he left Rome to become legate of Palestine; Balsdon 1979, 2 1 1 . Cf. Symmachus, Ep. 6.38 (written before 4 0 1 ) : 'our friend Severus, freed from the pressure of public business, will return to the leisure o f his homeland'. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 77, 8 8 - 9 . Tilly 1978, 59. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 97; Faist 1997, 2 0 6 . Malmberg 1997, 3 3 - 4 . Faist 1997, 193, 2 0 9 . McCormack 1984, 3 5 8 . Feissel (1995, 368) suggests a similar phenomenon in Constantinople. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 156; Lampe 1991, 2 1 9 . Malmberg 1997, 2 3 ; Filly 1978, 56; Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 115. C I L vi 2 9 1 5 2 . I G U R 1222. Eusebius, H.K. 3.1. Porphyry, V.Plot. 1-11. Gk. Anth. 7.368 (Erucius, c. 5 0 - 2 5 B C ) . Suetonius, Gramm.8. Lampe 1991, 2 2 0 . C I G 3 9 2 0 ; Lampe 1991, 2 1 9 ; Picket 1993, 30. See above (n. 2). Justin Martyr, originally from Flavia Neapolis (the former Samaria) came to Rome twice (Acts of Justin & Companions 3). Irenaeus, from Smyrna, was in Rome both in 155 and c. 177, and may have had other periods there as well: in 155 according to the appendix to the Moscow ms of Letter lo the Smyrnaeans, cited by Lightfoot, ( 1 8 8 9 - 9 0 , vol. 2, 4 2 2 ) . l i e writes: 'there is no reason for supposing that these two occasions exhausted his residence at Rome'. Irenaeus was there in c. 177 according to Eusebius H.E. 5.4. Blackman 1948, 1-3. IGUR 352. IGUR 4 3 3 . I G U R 1063. I.Porto 16, 2 1 , 23. They perhaps put up dedications at Portus when about to sail home. 2
2
3
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
11
1 2
1 3
14
h>
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
79
Moving
lo Rome
2 8
C I L xiii 2 1 8 1 . BCAR (1949/50), 31 no. 1 = AE (1953) 5 6 . See the discussion at p. 8 of the nature o f the epigraphic evidence. The regions into which I have divided the empire for the purposes o f the following tables and map are basically the provinces o f the lst-2nd centuries AD. Adjacent provinces which produced few immigrants have sometimes been combined, and the areas outside the empire which produced immigrants (Armenia, Parthia and the Bosporan Kingdom) have also been combined. There is an element o f uncertainty built into the attribution o f individuals to specific regions: if someone's home city is stated, the region is clear, but if s/he is described simply as 'Thracian' or 'Greek', s/he did not necessarily come from the province o f that name, since some ethnic labels undoubtedly transcended provincial b o u n d a r i e s - a 'Thracian' may have lived in the province of Moesia, or a 'Greek' in the province o f Asia. However, the distortion created is unlikely to be very significant. Malmberg 1997, 3 3 : ' T h e development o f international networks, com munication links and interpersonal contacts has been o f greater importance to international migration than physical distance.' This is partly attributable to the tendency o f Christian epitaphs to bc simpler than pagan ones, conveying less information of any kind. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 2 2 - 3 . One exception is a woman who sold oil from Baetica (AE (1973) 7 1 ) . Otherwise, female immigrants with jobs mentioned in epitaphs all seem to be slaves or ex-slaves. Karasch 1987, 6 1 , 6 6 . In the Brazilian-born free population, females slightly outnumbered males in 1849. Namias 1978, 3 1 . This is the number o f deceased immigrant soldiers, not the total number of immigrant soldiers (which includes commemorators too); hence the differ ence from the total in T A B L E 1. Scheidel 1996, 1 1 1 - 1 6 . Model West level 4 males table quoted in Bagnall and Frier (1994, 100); Frier's life table quoted in Parkin (1992, Fable 6). O f 1000 people alive at 2 0 , the former gives 6 0 6 alive at 45 and the latter 5 6 1 . This assumes that there would only be 'natural' mortality; it is unlikely that many soldiers serving at Rome died violently, except during civil wars, and their epitaphs never indicate that they died in action. Scheidel (1996, 126) comes to the same conclusion by a different route: 'Tentatively adding 4 years to a mean recruitment age of 20 o f the average legionary selected for transfer, this soldier [i.e. a typical praetorian] will have begun to serve in the capital at the age o f 24.' Dio 7 5 . 2 . 4 - 5 ; Kennedy 1978, 2 8 9 . Scheidel 1996, 129: 'Irrespective of the actual development of mortality, we should probably anticipate a gradual increase o f the frequency o f com memoration as soldiers grew older, simply because o f their increasing chance o f receiving a tombstone inscription.' T h e anomaly could also be explained simply by soldiers being fitter than the rest of the population due to being 2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
3:)
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
80
Who moved to Rome ? medically tested on enlistment, and therefore less likely to die soon after they enlisted than a normal population of the same age (I owe this suggestion to Howard Toney). Scheidel (1996, 129) detects an over-representation in his sample of praetorians who died after 6 - 9 years o f service, and suggests that the length o f service may be given more accurately than the age o f death. For the purpose of this study I have accepted the ages at death given in the epitaphs at face value, despite the doubt which he casts on them; small discrepancies would not seriously affect the picture. ' The remaining eight are people o f uncertain gender, for whom no ages survive. C I L vi 2 8 2 2 8 . Atimetus from Rhegium also came to Rome at 12 to study or perhaps to compete in the Capitoline Games: I G U R 1165. I G U R 367. I G U R 1176: exi Koupoc;. Nutton 1973, 1 6 0 - 2 . °° I f the pagan and Christian/Jewish samples are combined, the proportions become 5 6 % and 7 5 % respectively. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 111; Clark 1979, 7 1 . There is also a lesser peak in early childhood. Sailer and Shaw 1984, 130. Huttunen (1974, 2 8 ) , commenting on the prevalence of children's epitaphs at Rome, writes that 'the City had the custom of dedicating an epitaph to children and indicating their age much more often than in other cases'. ' P I R A 6 1 1 . Cf. the two-year-old Cantabrian boy commemorated by his parents in C I L vi 2 7 4 4 1 . Barnes (1967, 87), thinks that Septimius Severus the friend o f Statius was brought to Rome while extremely young by his father, who had bought an estate at Veii. ° The method is: for each of the four age cohorts 2 3 - 3 2 , 3 3 - 4 2 , 4 3 - 5 2 , 5 3 62, the percentage o f ages divisible by 5 is calculated; 20 is deducted; each figure is multiplied by 1.25; the mean o f the four figures is calculated. This avoids distortion caused by greater rounding of higher ages. IGUR 939 = ICUR 4032. C I L vi 1625a. AT (1979) 78. Although hostages would normally come into the category of temporary residents, these people presumably expected to die at Rome. C I L vi 2 1 5 6 9 . ° C I L vi 3 4 4 6 6 ; it is possible that the abbreviated ethnic was not meant to apply to the wife. ICUR 4004. I C U R 18762, 18995. C I L iii 9 7 1 3 . I G U R 1317. I G U R 1323. The name implies that they were from Syria-Palestine, but the inscription does not specify their home. I G U R 1255. I have assumed that, where parents commemorate a child in Rome and 4 4
4
A b
4 7
4 8
4 9
5 1
5 2
;
3
2
4
5 5
5 6
y 7
5 8
9
6 0
6 1
6 2
6 3
1)4
6 5
W )
81
Moving
to Rome
the child is said to be an immigrant, the parents are also immigrants even if not explicitly labelled as such. Nuclear families in which one o f the parents is an immigrant but nothing is said about the birthplace of the children are much commoner, and in those cases no assumptions can be made about where the children were born. I C U R 19659 from Africa, Ah (1992) 154 from Spain. AE (1992) 155, C I L vi 2 4 1 6 2 , C I L vi 27441 (all from Spain). I C U R 13226. C I L vi 3 3 0 3 (Thrace), C I L vi 2 0 0 1 2 (Dalmatia), C I L vi 20121/2 (Gaul), C I L vi 29694 (Bosporus), C I L vi 36324 (Germany), I G U R 508 (Crete), I G U R 326 (Asia), BCAR 43 (1915) p. 305 (Germany). IGUR 8 4 3 . C I L vi 2 7 1 4 . C I L vi 13328. C I L vi 2 9 5 4 (Thrace; the son's wife also has a Thracian name), C I L vi 3171 (Africa), I C U R 5337 (Mauretania; the son is a deacon), ICUR 5 5 6 8 (Gaul), I G U R 6 1 0 (Egypt), AE (1983) 50 (Bithynia). C I L vi 3 2 3 6 . I C U R 13155, 13355; IGUR 1323 probably from Syria. " In the 4th century, taking their widowed mothers to Rome with them was an issue for Augustine and Nebridius; see p. 124. Kennedy 1978, 287. ' I f more than one different relationship occurs, they are all counted, e.g. if someone was commemorated by both his wife and his brother, it is counted in both sections, but if he was commemorated by his two sons, it is only counted once. 'Heirs' are not counted if other relationships are present (e.g. if some one is commemorated by his wife and his heir). Named commemorators with no stated relationship are excluded. T h e 'by will' category includes only epitaphs where the formula t(estamento) p(oni) i(ussil) or ex testamento is used and another comrnemorator is not named. Includes one case where the gender of the ex-slave is unclear. Ricci 1994a, 29. She states that the soldiers commemorated by heirs were always buried away from their place of origin. Panciera 1993, 2 6 6 - 7 counts 4 4 inscriptions where the parents o f soldiers who served at Rome are mentioned (most of the soldiers are not said to be immigrants, and are therefore not included in my sample). Tew of the parents are explicitly freeborn. One is a peregrinus ( C I L vi 2422, Hierax Apolloni f.). Most of the parents in lst-2nd century inscriptions have Greek cognomina and are likely to be ex-slaves or their close descendants. In contrast, only two out of 86 brothers and sisters of praetorians and urbaniciani have Greek cognomina. Sailer and Shaw 1984, 133. Panciera (1993, 2 6 5 ) takes previous service in the same unit as the usual explanation for the relationship. Scheidel 1996, 131. Since most praetorians only served 1 6 - 1 7 years, the 'second 10 years' must include discharged soldiers. ' T h e same view is taken by Ricci (1994a, 30). Some doubt is expressed by 0 7
, w
m
7 0
7 1
7 2
7:5
/ 1
7 5
7 6
7 8
9
8 0
8 1
8 2
8 3
8 4
8:)
8(
82
Who moved to Rome? Panciera (1993, 2 6 6 ) . l i e notes that 11 out o f 63 brothers o f praetorians did not share the same nomen, but the explanations proposed below seem more likely to cover these cases than the non-literal use o f the term 'brother'. Frater can also be used in Latin to signify 'cousin', as pointed out to me by Tony Brothers. C I L vi 3 1 8 3 ; Vulpe 1925, 190. Despite the different nomina here, the use of the term 'brother' obviously cannot be an expression o f affection between fellow-soldiers. I G U R 134; the name o f the deceased is lost, however, and the relation ship with the commemorators is not certain. On the tendency of soldiers to marry the daughters o f other soldiers in North Africa, rather than to intermarry with the indigenous population, cf. Cherry (1998, 133). Wells (1997, 5 7 4 ) makes a similar suggestion for all frontier regions. C I L vi 2482. C I L vi 3 7 2 7 1 , 3454. C I L vi 2 7 6 0 , 2954, 3202. In EE ix 6 5 8 from the Ager Albanus, a soldier of Legio II Parthica Severa named M. Aurelius Diza is commemorated by his wife Brais, both Thracian names (Mateescu 1923, 2 0 0 ) . C I L vi 3452; Speidel 1994b, 157. Speidel suggests that they met. while Diascentus was serving in Germany and that Paterna then accompanied him to Rome, but it is also possible that they met at Rome. -' Including foster-relationships. Sailer and Shaw 1984, 136. C I L vi 3 4 4 6 6 . See p. 25 on the anomaly of the different statuses o f the two brothers. I G U R 367; see discussion at p. 195 o f where they came from. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 2 8 , 3 6 . I G U R 1161. Among British emigrants to Canada, families with children old enough to be wage-earners were particularly encouraged (McCormack 1984, 3 5 9 ) . SUA, Sev. 1. I C U R 13155. T h e only civilian example where they were not certainly fellow-slaves before manumission is I G U R 1293, where a man from Ceraunus in Caria is married to a woman from Athens; it is possible that even in this case they had been slaves together, as part o f the inscription is lost. C I L xii 2 2 1 1 . C I L viii 8 5 0 1 . Cf. Kajanto 1963a. This category may have been slightly inflated by the tendency in some Greek inscriptions for Roman citizens not to give their full names; cf. Kajanto (1963b, 4 ) . He concludes, however, that the much greater frequency of single names in Greek than in Latin epitaphs (64% against 15-16%;) shows that 'a considerable part o f the persons bearing only a single name must have been immigrants'. Junian Latins would have the same forms of names, but are unlikely to 8 /
8 8
8 9
9 0
9 1
9 2
9 3
9 4
9
9,5
9 /
9 8
9 9
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3
1 0 4
1 0 5
1 0 6
1 0 7
1 0 8
1 0 9
83
Moving
to Rome
have been of any numerical significance in this context. Kajanto 1963a, 5 - 9 . Cf". Walker 1985, 4 5 - 6 . T h e rarity of ethnics for slaves is also noted Solin (1977b, 2 0 8 ) . 1 1 0
1 1 1
84
Chapter 5
WHY DID PEOPLE MOVE T O ROME?
This c h a p t e r is based largely on literary e v i d e n c e for t h e very extensive r a n g e o f r e a s o n s why p e o p l e m o v e d to R o m e , s o m e t i m e s r e i n f o r c e d from i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d with c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l h e l p i n g to put t h e n u m e r o u s a n e c d o t e s i n t o c o n t e x t . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n is paid to S e n e c a , t h e o n e a n c i e n t w r i t e r w h o specifically a d d r e s s e s t h e q u e s t i o n . T h e motives have b e e n divided into s o m e b r o a d categories in o r d e r to illus trate t h e m a i n r e c u r r e n t t h e m e s : R o m e ' s a t t r a c t i o n s as a n e d u c a t i o n a l a n d political c e n t r e a n d as t h e largest m a r k e t for g o o d s a n d services.
i. Evidence W h i l e i n s c r i p t i o n s e n a b l e s o m e s u g g e s t i o n s to b e m a d e a b o u t t h e ages a n d family situations o f p e o p l e c o m i n g to R o m e , t h e y a r e largely 1
u n i n f o r m a t i v e a b o u t why they c a m e . F o r t h e two g r o u p s which w e r e p r o b a b l y t h e most n u m e r o u s , soldiers a n d slaves, t h e m o t i v a t i o n is obvious. S o l d i e r s c a m e w h e n it was p a r t o f t h e i r j o b , a l t h o u g h it is not c l e a r w h e t h e r it was e n t i r e l y p e r s o n a l c h o i c e which a s s i g n e d a r e c r u i t to t h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d r a t h e r t h a n to a l e g i o n , o r which m o v e d h i m from a legion to R o m e . Slaves c a m e to R o m e t h r o u g h t h e slave-trading system, usually with n o e l e m e n t o f c h o i c e . F o r o t h e r s , t h e r e m a y b e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e , b u t e v e n i f p e o p l e a r e r e c o r d e d as h a v i n g d o n e a p a r t i c u l a r type o f w o r k at R o m e , they did n o t necessarily c o m e to R o m e intending
to d o t h a t type o f work (unless it was s o m e t h i n g they
h a d a l r e a d y b e e n specifically t r a i n e d f o r ) . An e x t r e m e e x a m p l e is T i m a g e n c s from A l e x a n d r i a , w h o c a m e to R o m e as a slave in 5 5 BC a n d w o r k e d as a c o o k a n d l i t t e r - b e a r e r , b u t after his m a n u m i s s i o n b e c a m e a teacher o f rhetoric.
2
T w o o t h e r possible s o u r c e s o f insight into i m m i g r a n t s ' m o t i v a t i o n a r e a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e a n d c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l o n m i g r a t i o n in later history. T h e l i t e r a t u r e consists m a i n l y o f a n e c d o t a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t individuals, a n d t h e r e f o r e t e n d s to b e m u c h m o r e i n f o r m a t i v e a b o u t s o m e sorts (particularly t h e w e l l - e d u c a t e d a n d u l t i m a t e l y influential) t h a n o t h e r s , b u t t h e r e is a l e n g t h y discussion by S e n e c a o f why p e o p l e c a m e to R o m e (see p. 9 0 b e l o w ) .
85
Moving
to Rome
R a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e gives a little insight into s o m e of t h e
thought
p r o c e s s e s o f individual Jewish m i g r a n t s , e v e n i f they a r e usually p r e s e n t e d for p a r t i c u l a r t e n d e n t i o u s r e a s o n s (mainly to e m p h a s i z e t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f leaving t h e land o f l s r a e l ) . B e i n g f o r c e d i n t o e m i g r a tion by food b e i n g too d e a r o r s c a r c e is c o n s i d e r e d ( a n d d i s c o u r a g e d ) :
3
A person should not go abroad unless wheat sells at the price o f two seahs for a seta. R. Simon said: Under what circumstances? Only in a case when he cannot find any to buy (even at that price). But if he finds some to buy, even if one seah sells for a seta - he may not go abroad. For thus would R. Simon teach: Elimelech was one o f the great men of his generation and a leader of the community, and because he went abroad (Ruth f . l ) he died there with his sons in famine, while all o f Israel survived in their land, as it is written: '[And when they came to Bethlehem] all the city was stirred because of them' (Ruth f .19); this teaches that all o f the town had survived, but he and his sons died in the famine. Also c o n s i d e r e d is t h e possibility t h a t t h e success o f o n e e m i g r a n t would e n c o u r a g e others:
4
It once happened that a disciple of R. Simon b. Yohai went abroad and returned wealthy; and all the disciples saw him and wished also to go abroad; R. Simon was aware and removed them to the valley near his town o f Miron. T h e r e he prayed before God: ' ( ) valley, fill up with golden dinars!' and it filled up with golden dinars. He told them: Whoever wishes to take - let him come and take, but know you that whoever takes now makes a withdrawal against his reward in the next world. D e s p i t e t h e obviously i m a g i n a t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e s e texts, they illustrate s o m e of t h e p u s h a n d pull factors at w o r k in m i g r a t i o n d e c i s i o n s , w h e t h e r t h e d e s t i n a t i o n was R o m e o r e l s e w h e r e .
ii. Push and pull factors The
a c t u a l p r o c e s s o f m a k i n g t h e d e c i s i o n to m o v e to R o m e is
e x t r e m e l y badly d o c u m e n t e d . T h e fact t h a t it was n a t u r a l for a p r o v i n cial to c o n s i d e r t h e possibility of the m o v e is suggested by A r t e m i d o r u s ' r e f e r e n c e to a y o u n g m a n o f B i t h y n i a w h o d r e a m e d of m o v i n g to R o m e a n d t h e n d i e d ; A r t e m i d o r u s ' i n t e r e s t is in t h e significance of t h e d r e a m , b u t it m u s t c o m e from an e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e m o v i n g to R o m e 5
was a real possibility. T h e only case in which t h e p r o c e s s is d e s c r i b e d in a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e is t h a t o f A u g u s t i n e , for w h o m it was very m u c h a n individual
d e c i s i o n , i n f l u e n c e d by t h e a d v i c e of f r i e n d s b u t
also
p r o m p t e d by his dissatisfaction with his life at h o m e as well as t h e 0
a t t r a c t i o n s o f w o r k i n g at R o m e . A u g u s t i n e was p r o s p e r o u s e n o u g h at t h e t i m e of his m o v e to b e able to afford it without u n d u e difficulty;
86
Why did people
move lo Rome ?
o t h e r p e o p l e m u s t h a v e h a d to assess t h e financial a r g u m e n t s m u c h m o r e carefully. F a m i l y c i r c u m s t a n c e s would also h a v e i n f l u e n c e d m o s t p o t e n t i a l m i g r a n t s m o r e t h a n they did A u g u s t i n e . I f as a r g u e d in c h . 4 . i v - v i , m o s t m i g r a n t s w e r e y o u n g m a l e s , t h e i r d e c i s i o n to m o v e to R o m e is likely to h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d by t h e w h o l e family r a t h e r t h a n t a k e n e n t i r e l y individually. A decision to m i g r a t e will b e i n f l u e n c e d by p u s h a n d pull factors, b o t h o f which w e r e at w o r k in t h e c a s e o f A u g u s t i n e , a n d n o d o u b t for m o s t o t h e r s w h o d e c i d e d , rightly o r not, that R o m e was a b e t t e r o p t i o n t h a n staying at h o m e .
7
Push factors e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e to leave t h e i r
homes. T h e y include: economic decline o f the h o m e area, poor em p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s at h o m e , cultural a l i e n a t i o n , a n d n a t u r a l o r h u m a n l y - c r e a t e d c a t a s t r o p h e (war, f a m i n e , e t c . ) . S o m e a r e p e r s o n a l , s o m e c o u l d a p p l y to w h o l e sections o f a c o m m u n i t y . Pull factors e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e to c h o o s e a p a r t i c u l a r d e s t i n a t i o n , in p r e f e r e n c e to t h e i r h o m e a r e a o r to o t h e r possible d e s t i n a t i o n s . T h e y i n c l u d e : g r e a t e r o r m o r e lucrative e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s ,
opportunities
for specialized t r a i n i n g o r e d u c a t i o n , a n d t h e p e r c e i v e d a t t r a c t i o n of t h e new e n v i r o n m e n t - in p a r t i c u l a r , t h e a p p e a l o f city life to r u r a l p e o p l e . R o m e c o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e s e e n as attractive for m o r e t h a n e c o n o m i c r e a s o n s : t h e idea o f t h e city as t h e c e n t r e o f libertas was still 8
c u r r e n t in late a n t i q u i t y , a n d M a r t i a l shows s o m e o f t h e ways in which life t h e r e c o u l d b e t h o u g h t p r e f e r a b l e to living in a small t o w n .
9
Pull
factors c a n also arise from family c i r c u m s t a n c e s : s o m e p e o p l e may b e p u l l e d i n t o ' m o v e m e n t as a result o f d e p e n d e n c y o n s o m e o n e else w h o has m o v e d , such as a s p o u s e ' .
10
In some contexts, the spread o f the
idea o f e m i g r a t i o n as c u r e for all ills has b e e n n o t e d , " which m a y also b e r e l e v a n t to s o m e of t h e p e o p l e c o m i n g to R o m e b u t is now completely untraceable. T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f p u s h a n d pull factors will h a v e different effects in different individual cases, a c c o r d i n g to p e r s o n a l i t y , family c i r c u m stances, t h e b e h a v i o u r o f o t h e r s , e t c .
1 2
T h e a t t r a c t i o n s o f R o m e a r e well
d o c u m e n t e d in t h e a n c i e n t l i t e r a t u r e , as is t h e fact t h a t they c e a s e d to b e p e r c e i v e d as a t t r a c t i o n s by s o m e p e o p l e w h o w e r e living t h e r e .
1 3
Push factors i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d e c i s i o n to leave h o m e a r e m u c h h a r d e r to d e t e c t . L o n g - d i s t a n c e m i g r a t i o n to R o m e m a y h a v e b e e n t h e a n s w e r which s o m e p e o p l e f o u n d to p r o b l e m s in t h e i r h o m e c o m m u n i t i e s . T h i s is certainly attested by the sources for Italians m o v i n g to R o m e , particularly those who had lost their land in the second-first centuries BC; f r e q u e n t a t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e to force t h e m to r e t u r n h o m e .
1 4
It is,
h o w e v e r , very difficult to m a k e a specific link b e t w e e n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
87
Moving
to Rome
p r o b l e m s in a n y a r e a o u t s i d e Italy a n d m i g r a t i o n to R o m e . A v r a m e a (1995,
1 7 ) n o t e s t h e p r o m i n e n c e o f p e o p l e from
Northern
Syria
a m o n g i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e in late antiquity. S h e links this with demographic
e x p a n s i o n in t h e N o r t h
S y r i a n c o u n t r y s i d e in
the
f o u r t h - s i x t h c e n t u r i e s , when previously uncultivated land was b r o u g h t u n d e r cultivation, a n d asks: Peut-on supposer que ces agriculteurs enrichis ont investi leurs revenus agricoles en d'autres metiers, devenant des citadins loin de la patrie? > 1:
S u r e l y a m u c h m o r e likely link is t h a t p e o p l e w e r e f o r c e d to leave Syria at this p e r i o d b e c a u s e o f lack o f l a n d a n d work, a n d eventually f o u n d t h e i r way to R o m e , directly o r i n d i r e c t l y .
16
However, clear evidence o f
a d i r e c t link would r e q u i r e p r e c i s e d a t i n g b o t h o f individual m i g r a tions a n d o f e v e n t s at h o m e which may h a v e c a u s e d t h e m , a n d t h a t is very rarely possible, a l t h o u g h s o m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a p p l i c a b l e to p e o ple from a p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n will b e s u g g e s t e d in c h . 8. Push factors which e n c o u r a g e d p e o p l e to leave h o m e would n o t necessarily e n c o u r a g e t h e m to m o v e to R o m e r a t h e r t h a n to s o m e w h e r e else; t h e r e a s o n s why R o m e was felt to b e a p r e f e r a b l e d e s t i n a t i o n to a n y o f t h e a l t e r n a tives a r e now very h a r d to d e t e c t e x c e p t in t h e case o f individuals p u r s u i n g a c a r e e r which c o u l d best b e a d v a n c e d at R o m e , b u t s o m e will e m e r g e b e l o w . It m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t in o n e i m p o r t a n t way R o m e was m u c h less attractive as a d e s t i n a t i o n for free m i g r a n t s t h a n big cities in t h e m e d i e v a l a n d m o d e r n worlds. T h e p r e s e n c e in R o m e o f substantial n u m b e r s o f slaves m e a n t that e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s for t h e free, especially t h e unskilled a n d capital-less free, w e r e fewer t h a n in cities d e p e n d e n t o n free l a b o u r .
17
T h e c o r n d o l e (as well as t h e c o m p e t i t i o n
from slave l a b o u r ) may have c o n t r i b u t e d to k e e p i n g d o w n wages for free w o r k e r s .
18
T h e r e c e r t a i n l y was w o r k available for t h e u n s k i l l e d o r
relatively u n s k i l l e d , for e x a m p l e o n b u i l d i n g s i t e s
19
a n d at t h e q u a y s ,
20
b u t s o m e a r e a s o f e m p l o y m e n t which h a v e a b s o r b e d l a r g e n u m b e r s o f i m m i g r a n t s e l s e w h e r e (particularly d o m e s t i c service) w e r e , at R o m e , m a i n l y t h e p r o v i n c e o f slaves. L a r g e - s c a l e m a n u f a c t u r i n g s e e m s to h a v e b e e n very l i m i t e d , a l t h o u g h t h e r e was s o m e p r o d u c t i o n o f l a m p s , b r i c k s a n d tiles for e x p o r t .
21
T h e c o m p e n s a t i o n s such as t h e c o r n d o l e
a n d free e n t e r t a i n m e n t would n o t b e e n o u g h to m a i n t a i n a family w i t h o u t p a i d work, a l t h o u g h an individual m a l e m i g h t m a n a g e , at least i f h e was a R o m a n citizen. T h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n a similar effect to that n o t e d by K a r a s c h ( 1 9 8 7 , 7 0 ) for i m m i g r a n t s to R i o d e J a n e i r o : Because o f the monopoly o f low status occupations by slaves and free
88
Why did people
move to Rome f
people of color, the Portuguese had to use their common ancestry and regional ties in Portugal to help each other enter middle-status occupa tions and work as clerks, commercial agents, shopkeepers, retailers, tavern owners, slave traders and merchants. T h e i m p o r t a n c e in p r e s e n t - d a y m i g r a t i o n p a t t e r n s o f 'skilled t r a n sients' w h o a r e willing to c h a n g e c o u n t r i e s r e g u l a r l y
22
m a y e c h o what
h a p p e n e d in t h e R o m a n E m p i r e , w h e r e p e o p l e such as t e a c h e r s a n d s c u l p t o r s c o u l d clearly b e very m o b i l e , for w h o m R o m e m i g h t b e a p a r t i c u l a r l y r e w a r d i n g d e s t i n a t i o n (see p p . 9 4 , 1 1 3 b e l o w ) . T h e rich w h o r e q u i r e d ' l u x u r i e s ' , in t e r m s o f g o o d s a n d services, c o u l d well afford t h e m , w h e t h e r it involved h i r i n g free l a b o u r o r b u y i n g slaves. H i g h l y skilled l a b o u r a n d l u x u r y i m p o r t e d g o o d s w e r e readily avail a b l e . T h e m a r k e t for l u x u r y g o o d s would c e r t a i n l y have c r e a t e d e m p l o y m e n t , but, in a r e a s w h e r e capital was r e q u i r e d , it is likely that it would h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d by t h e rich a n d used by t h e i r e x - s l a v e s ,
2:5
a g a i n r e d u c i n g t h e o p e n i n g s for free i m m i g r a n t s . T h e ' t r i c k l e - d o w n ' effect o f t h e s p e n d i n g o f t h e very wealthy would t h e r e f o r e have h a d less effect o n e m p l o y m e n t t h a n in later cities w h e r e all l a b o u r was f r e e .
24
M i g r a n t s d o not, o f c o u r s e , n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e all t h e r e l e v a n t i n f o r m a tion when they set o u t . E v e n i f they d o , t h e i r b e h a v i o u r d o e s n o t always a p p e a r to an o u t s i d e r to b e totally r a t i o n a l .
25
F o r s o m e o n e in
G a u l o r E g y p t , t h e streets o f R o m e m i g h t b e i m a g i n e d to b e p a v e d with g o l d , e v e n i f t h e reality t u r n e d o u t to b e very d i f f e r e n t .
26
A passage
from t h e T a l m u d suggests that R o m e may also h a v e h a d this i m a g e in Palestine:
27
T e n kabs o f wisdom descended to the world: nine were and one by the rest o f the world. T e n kabs o f beauty world: nine were taken by Jerusalem and one by the T e n kabs o f wealth descended to the world: nine were Romans and one by the rest o f the world.
taken by Palestine descended to the rest o f the world. taken by the early
Martial's p o e m a b o u t a m a n from S p a i n w h o t u r n s b a c k at t h e Milvian B r i d g e when h e finds o u t t h a t cash h a n d o u t s from t h e rich to t h e i r clients h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d by food p a r c e l s is clearly m e a n t as a j o k e , b u t is o n e o f t h e few p i e c e s o f l i t e r a t u r e to a c k n o w l e d g e that immigrants might c h a n g e their minds.
28
It was c e r t a i n l y possible for
s o m e p e o p l e to r e t u r n h o m e i f they f o u n d they h a d m a d e a m i s t a k e , b u t p r e s u m a b l y n o t for t h e very p o o r w h o would h a v e used all t h e i r available r e s o u r c e s to m a k e t h e o n e - w a y j o u r n e y . A m o d e r n e x a m p l e of m i g r a t i o n b a s e d o n m i s i n f o r m a t i o n which m a y h a v e a n c i e n t paral lels, is that o f middle-class y o u n g m e n from S e n e g a l to Italy; h a v i n g f o u n d t h a t t h e j o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s they e x p e c t e d w e r e n o t available,
89
Moving
to Rome
t h e y t e n d e d to r e m a i n in Italy r a t h e r t h a n r e t u r n h o m e ,
making
a living as best they c o u l d , a n d n o t to i n f o r m o t h e r p e o p l e at h o m e o f what h a d h a p p e n e d , b e c a u s e o f t h e loss o f face it would e n t a i l .
29
People
w h o m o v e d to R o m e may have b e e n similarly m o t i v a t e d to stay t h e r e by feelings o f p r i d e . I n t h e S e n e g a l e s e c a s e , t h e r e l u c t a n c e o f t h e first m i g r a n t s to c o r r e c t t h e o r i g i n a l m i s i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t r i b u t e d to a f o r m o f c h a i n m i g r a t i o n ; p e o p l e w h o s p r e a d ideas like t h o s e in t h e t a l m u d i c passages m a y h a v e d o n e t h e s a m e for R o m e .
iii. Types of motivation suggested by Seneca, ad Helviam 6.2-3 As an i m m i g r a n t himself, w h o c a m e to R o m e while y o u n g as p a r t o f a family m i g r a t i o n , S e n e c a was p r o b a b l y m o r e i n t e r e s t e d in t h e p r o c ess t h a n m o s t R o m a n w r i t e r s .
30
H e is c e r t a i n l y t h e only o n e w h o gives
a l e n g t h y list o f t h e r e a s o n s why p e o p l e c o m e to R o m e . T h e list is n o t c o m p r e h e n s i v e , a n d it also shows t h a t h e ( a n d p r o b a b l y R o m a n s in g e n e r a l ) did n o t differentiate b e t w e e n c o m i n g for a visit a n d c o m i n g to settle. H e wants to e x p l a i n why so m a n y p e o p l e in t h e c r o w d s a r e n o t natives o f R o m e , a n d so it is n o t really r e l e v a n t for h i m to s e p a r a t e t h o s e w h o h a v e c o m e t e m p o r a r i l y from t h o s e w h o a r e t h e r e p e r m a n e n t l y . From their municipia and coloniae, from the whole world they have con gregated here. Ambition has brought some; the requirement o f public office (necessitas officii publici) has brought others. For some, it was an embassy imposed on them; for others, it was luxury, seeking a convenient and wealthy setting for its vices. Eagerness for liberal studies (liberalium studiorum cupiditas) brought some; the shows (speclacula) brought others. Some were led by friendship, others by industry taking the ample oppor tunity for showing virtue. Some have brought beauty for sale, some have brought eloquence for sale. Every race o f humans has flowed together into the city which offers great rewards for both virtues and vices. T h e p a s s a g e c o n t a i n s a m i x t u r e o f m o r a l i z i n g a n d r e p o r t i n g . As s u g g e s t e d at p. 3 3 , S e n e c a ' s a t t i t u d e to i m m i g r a t i o n is o n t h e w h o l e fairly n e u t r a l . H e r e g a r d s it as n e i t h e r intrinsically g o o d n o r b a d , although the context o f the passage makes him emphasize that people w h o h a v e left t h e i r h o m e s a r e n o t necessarily u n h a p p y . H e is a w a r e t h a t p e o p l e c o m e to R o m e for a wide variety o f r e a s o n s , o f which h e a p p r o v e s o f s o m e a n d n o t o t h e r s . T h e list is heavily w e i g h t e d t o w a r d s t h e wealthy, a n d m a k e s n o m e n t i o n at all o f t h e m o s t
numerous
g r o u p s o f i m m i g r a n t s : soldiers a n d slaves. T h e latter would h a r d l y fit t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t p e o p l e d o n o t m i n d l e a v i n g h o m e . T h e r e is n o r e f e r e n c e to p u s h factors, which also would n o t suit t h e a r g u m e n t ; for S e n e c a , pull factors a r e entirely responsible for people c o m i n g to R o m e . T h e r e f e r e n c e to f r i e n d s h i p p e r h a p s shows a w a r e n e s s o f t h e possibility 90
Why did people
move to Rome?
o f c h a i n m i g r a t i o n , a l t h o u g h h e p r o b a b l y has in m i n d wealthy p e o p l e from S p a i n r a t h e r t h a n S y r i a n s living in t e n e m e n t s in T r a s t e v e r e . M o s t o f S e n e c a ' s c a t e g o r i e s fit well with m o t i v a t i o n k n o w n
31
from
o t h e r s o u r c e s , a n d will b e discussed b e l o w . T h e c o m m e n t o n l u x u r y , a variation o n t h e topos of R o m e as t h e world c e n t r e o f d e b a u c h e r y , s e e m s r a t h e r o u t of p l a c e in t h e list. It is n o t c l e a r e x a c t l y w h o m S e n e c a has in m i n d : t h e profligate r i c h ? P e o p l e w h o m a k e a living from t h e profligate rich (such as sellers of l u x u r y g o o d s ) ? His d e s c r i p t i o n c o u l d b e a p p l i e d to a n y o n e w h o p r e f e r r e d
t h e city to c o u n t r y life. T h e
p h r a s e a b o u t ' i n d u s t r y ' is also r a t h e r e n i g m a t i c . S i n c e S e n e c a n o w h e r e else m e n t i o n s t h e t r a d e r s a n d c r a f t s p e o p l e w h o s e s o m e t i m e s i m m i g r a n t o r i g i n s h e m u s t h a v e b e e n a w a r e of, it s e e m s m o s t likely that t h e ' i n d u s t r y ' h e has in m i n d is t h a t s h o w n by small-scale artisans w h o s e p r o d u c t s did n o t offend a g a i n s t his dislike o f l u x u r y . Seneca's somewhat disorganized
and
i n c o m p l e t e list d o e s
not
p r o v i d e a very satisfactory basis for an analysis of t h e g r e a t variety of r e a s o n s attested in o t h e r s o u r c e s for p e o p l e to c o m e to R o m e . I n what follows, I h a v e divided t h e m o t i v a t i o n i n t o four very b r o a d c a t e g o r i e s : e d u c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g p r o v i d e r s a n d r e c i p i e n t s ; g o v e r n m e n t a n d poli tics; t h e p r o v i s i o n of g o o d s a n d services; family a n d r e l i g i o n . C o m i n g to R o m e as a c a r e e r m o v e , o r in o r d e r to m a k e m o n e y , c o u l d fall i n t o a n y o f t h o s e c a t e g o r i e s , a c c o r d i n g to what sort of c a r e e r o r what f o r m o f m o n e y - m a k i n g was in view. I n s o m e cases p u s h factors (e.g. e x p u l sion from h o m e ) c o u l d b e m o s t i m p o r t a n t , b u t it is largely pull factors which p r e d o m i n a t e in t h e e v i d e n c e . I n s o m e fields, such as e d u c a t i o n a n d m e d i c i n e , t h e p r o v i s i o n of effective services at R o m e virtually d e p e n d e d o n a c o n t i n u o u s s t r e a m of qualified i m m i g r a n t s - h e n c e t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f f e r e d by t h e state (see p. 4 7 ) . I n s o m e , p r e s e n c e at R o m e was essential to p e r f o r m a political o r g o v e r n m e n t a l function. B u t m o s t p e o p l e w h o c a m e to R o m e c a m e for r e a s o n s which c o u l d equally well h a v e t a k e n t h e m to a s m a l l e r city. It was R o m e ' s o t h e r a t t r a c t i o n s , a n d t h e g r e a t e r s c o p e offered for e c o n o m i c o r c a r e e r success, which b r o u g h t t h e m t h e r e r a t h e r than to any o f t h e alternatives.
iv. Education ' E a g e r n e s s for liberal studies' is o n e of t h e m o t i v e s given by S e n e c a , a p p l i c a b l e to s t u d e n t s , t e a c h e r s a n d o t h e r s ; t h e L a t i n adjective
liberalis
c a n b e t a k e n to i n c l u d e all aspects o f e d u c a t i o n for p e o p l e of free status. R o m e is naturally well d o c u m e n t e d as a c e n t r e for e d u c a t i o n , attractive to t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s from all o v e r t h e e m p i r e , s p e a k e r s of G r e e k as well as of L a t i n .
32
P r o m i n e n t R o m a n s in t h e R e p u b l i c often
91
Moving
to Rome
b r o u g h t e d u c a t e d G r e e k s b a c k to R o m e with t h e m , e i t h e r as family t u t o r s o r as p e r s o n a l a d v i s e r s ; t h e s e w o u l d n o r m a l l y b e m e n o f peregrinus
o r slave/freed s t a t u s .
53
S t u d e n t s w o u l d n o r m a l l y c o m e to
R o m e t e m p o r a r i l y , unless they w e r e b e i n g t r a i n e d for a c a r e e r which r e q u i r e d t h e m to r e m a i n in t h e city. T e a c h e r s p r o b a b l y g r a v i t a t e d to R o m e in t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f staying t h e r e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e signs o f a t e n d e n c y for R o m e to b e j u s t o n e stop in a c a r e e r which t o o k t h e m o s t successful a r o u n d a series o f m a j o r cities. P h i l o s t r a t u s ' Lives of the Sophists
give details o f m a n y such c a r e e r s , a n d l a t e r writers such as
A u s o n i u s attest m o r e . L i t e r a t u r e r e c o r d s m a n y m a l e s (mainly t e e n a g e r s o r in t h e i r very early twenties) c o m i n g to R o m e to study. T h e possibility o f a
filiusfamilias
h a v i n g g o n e to R o m e 'for t h e sake o f his studies' is m e n t i o n e d in a n u m b e r o f legal t e x t s :
3 4
c o m p l i c a t i o n s which m i g h t arise i n c l u d e
p a y i n g h i m an a l l o w a n c e a n d g e t t i n g h i m to d e l i v e r a l e t t e r to t h e e m p e r o r . S t u d e n t s m i g h t c o m e from very p r i v i l e g e d p r o v i n c i a l o r foreign b a c k g r o u n d s : H e r o d t h e G r e a t ' s sons A r i s t o b u l u s a n d A l e x a n d e r s t u d i e d in R o m e for a b o u t five years from c. 2 2 BC, living with Asinius P o l l i o .
35
S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , t h e future e m p e r o r , c a m e to R o m e
a g e d 17 from L e p c i s 'to p u r s u e his studies', a n d to o b t a i n t h e clavus
with t h e h e l p o f a c o n s u l a r r e l a t i v e .
36
latus
I n f o r m a t i o n is s c a r c e r
a b o u t less a d v a n t a g e d s t u d e n t s , unless they h a p p e n e d to b e C h r i s t i a n s ( J u s t i n M a r t y r ' s pupils i n c l u d e d T a t i a n from Nisibis a n d
Irenaeus
3 7
from S m y r n a ) o r w e r e r e c o r d e d in e p i t a p h s . O n e of t h e latter is A l e x a n d e r from D a c i a , w h o d i e d while in R o m e to study, a g e d 2 0 , in t h e t h i r d o r fourth c e n t u r y .
38
I n t h e s a m e p e r i o d P r i n c i p i u s d i e d while
' e n j o y i n g his studies at R o m e ' , a p p a r e n t l y a g e d n e a r l y 2 2 , a n d was c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e ( S c a r d o n a in D a l m a t i a ) by his f a t h e r .
39
In an
e p i t a p h from L y o n , A. Vitellius V a l e r i u s was c o m m e m o r a t e d by his parents;
40
(annorum
h e a p p e a r s to have d i e d while studying at R o m e a g e d 10 X), b u t p e r h a p s t h e t e x t m e a n s that h e was studying t h e r e for
10 y e a r s . W h e n t h e s u b j e c t o f study is specified, it is m o s t likely to b e l i t e r a t u r e o r o r a t o r y , as t a u g h t by grammatici
a n d rhetores.
I n t h e fourth c e n t u r y ,
J e r o m e w e n t to R o m e from D a l m a t i a at 12 to study u n d e r t h e top grammatici;
h e m o v e d o n to T r e v e s w h e n h e was 2 0 . B o n o s u s , w h o
g r e w up with h i m , s t u d i e d with h i m at R o m e .
4 1
S i d o n i u s r e f e r s to his
friend B u r g u n d i o b e i n g in R o m e to m a k e a r e p u t a t i o n for o r a t o r y a n d to m e e t t h e ' s e n a t o r i a l y o u t h ' .
42
T h e possibility o f m a k i n g i m p o r t a n t
c o n t a c t s t h r o u g h fellow-students m i g h t b e as i m p o r t a n t in a family's decision to s e n d their son to study t h e r e as t h e s t a n d a r d o f t h e e d u c a t i o n
92
Why did people
move to Rome?
was. It was always sons; t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e for d a u g h t e r s b e i n g s e n t to R o m e to b e e d u c a t e d . In late antiquity, s o m e o n e w h o left h o m e to study was liable to c o m e u n d e r suspicion o f t r y i n g to avoid t h e financial b u r d e n s to which h e was liable at h o m e , s i n c e m o s t s t u d e n t s m u s t h a v e c o m e from local office-holding families. In 3 6 0 , t h e state i n t e r v e n e d in t h e w h o l e p r o c e d u r e . T h e e m p e r o r s w r o t e to t h e U r b a n P r e f e c t in a way which illustrates s o m e o f t h e realities o f s t u d e n t life as well as t h e limitations which w e r e to b e p l a c e d on i t :
43
Those who come to the city out o f eagerness to learn should, in the first instance, take to the Magister Census letters from provincial judges, by whom the opportunity to come is given, stating their towns, birth and merits. This is also so that on their first entry they should state immedi ately what studies in particular they propose to devote themselves to. And, thirdly, so that the Officium Censualium should know precisely their lodgings. Thereby they can make arrangements for the thing which they claim they were seeking. The Censuales should threaten the same thing, so that they each behave themselves in gatherings as they should. They should wish to avoid shameful and base reputation and company, which we think is next to criminality. They should not attend the games too frequently, or seek out unseasonable public parties. Furthermore, we confer power so that, if any o f them do not behave themselves in the city in the way which the dignity o f liberal studies demands, they can be publicly beaten, and immediately put on a ship, thrown out o f the city and sent home. Those who work diligently at their studies are permitted to remain at Rome up to their twentieth year. After that time, someone who failed to return spontaneously would return to his homeland all the more shamefully for having worried the Prefect's Office. So that these things are not enforced only perfunctorily, Your Excellency should warn the Officium Censuale that each month notes should be taken of who these people are, where they come from and in what length o f time they are to return to Africa or other provinces. Those people are exempted who are subject to the burdens o f corporators. Similar notes should be sent to the scrinia mansuetudinis nostrae each year, by which we may judge through the merits o f individuals and by their educational activities being found out (inslitutionibus conpertis) whether and when they are useful to us. 44
It was n o t t h e quality of e d u c a t i o n which t h e e m p e r o r s w e r e i n t e r e s t e d in at this t i m e , b u t t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e s t u d e n t s , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r t h e possibility t h a t they w o u l d stay away from h o m e l o n g e r t h a n n e c e s s a r y . R o m e was also a c e n t r e for legal t r a i n i n g . P h i l o s t r a t u s refers to a boy from M e s s e n e in A r c a d i a w h o was s e n t to R o m e by his f a t h e r to study legal s c i e n c e ; after resisting D o m i t i a n ' s a d v a n c e s , h e r e t u r n e d h o m e .
4 5
T h e r e is an e p i t a p h for a C a p p a d o c i a n y o u t h w h o was p r o b a b l y study 4 6
i n g law w h e n h e died at R o m e . A u g u s t i n e ' s friend Alypius, a m e m b e r 93
Moving
to Rome
o f t h e c u r i a l class at T h a g a s t e in Africa, w e n t to R o m e to study law after h a v i n g s t u d i e d at T h a g a s t e a n d C a r t h a g e ; h e m o v e d on to M i l a n , b u t e v e n t u a l l y r e t u r n e d to his h o m e town as b i s h o p ( 3 9 4 - 4 1 9 ) .
4 7
The
e x i s t e n c e o f r e c o g n i z e d law s c h o o l s , r a t h e r t h a n j u s t classes g a t h e r e d a r o u n d an individual t e a c h e r , is s u g g e s t e d by Aulus G e l l i u s ' r e f e r e n c e s to p l a c e s which h e calls stationes
w h e r e law was t a u g h t at R o m e .
4 8
M a n y m a l e i m m i g r a n t s a r e attested as w o r k i n g in 'liberal studies' at R o m e , usually m a k i n g a living as a t e a c h e r a l t h o u g h t h e i r r e p u t a t i o n m i g h t b e m o r e as a writer o r p h i l o s o p h e r ; a few a c h i e v e d e n o u g h financial p a t r o n a g e n o t to n e e d to e a r n an i n c o m e . T h e Y o u n g e r Pliny c o m m e n t s o n R o m e as a ' c e n t r e for liberal studies' in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r E u p h r a t e s , w h o m h e h a d m e t while d o i n g military service in S y r i a 1 5 - 2 0 years e a r l i e r ; h e now k n e w h i m as a t e a c h e r a n d m o r a l i s t at R o m e .
4 9
F o r t e a c h e r s of r h e t o r i c , t h e c h a i r s o f G r e e k o r
L a t i n r h e t o r i c at R o m e with a salary o f H S 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 p.a. w e r e t h e p i n n a c l e of t h e i r c a r e e r f r o m Vespasian.
50
the time o f their foundation
by
T h e G r e e k c h a i r at R o m e was r e g a r d e d as a p r o m o t i o n
o v e r t h e c h a i r at A t h e n s , since several h o l d e r s o f t h e post at A t h e n s m o v e d o n to R o m e : e.g. P h i l a g r u s o f C i l i c i a , d i e d at R o m e a g e d a b o u t 8 0 in c. AD 1 9 0 , in C a p p a d o c i a .
53
5 2
51
Hadrian o f T y r e who
and Pausanias o f Caesarea
T h e duties w e r e n o t r e s t r i c t e d to t e a c h i n g , since
E u o d i a n u s of S m y r n a , w h e n h e h e l d t h e c h a i r , was also e x p e c t e d 'to 54
s u p e r v i s e t h e artisans a r o u n d D i o n y s u s ' (i.e. a c t o r s ) . T h e L a t i n c h a i r was h e l d first by Q u i n t i l i a n , an i m m i g r a n t from S p a i n a l t h o u g h h e was a l r e a d y living at R o m e .
5 5
W e l l - k n o w n t e a c h e r s at R o m e in t h e late R e p u b l i c a n d early E m p i r e , b e f o r e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e - s p o n s o r e d c h a i r s , also a p p e a r n e a r l y all to h a v e b e e n i m m i g r a n t s from o u t s i d e Italy. M o s t o f t h o s e k n o w n c a m e from G r e e c e o r t h e p r o v i n c e o f Asia; p e o p l e from G a u l a n d S y r i a a r e also m e n t i o n e d . S u c h i m m i g r a n t s w e r e n o t always wholly w e l c o m e : two E p i c u r e a n s w e r e e x p e l l e d in 1 7 3 o r 1 5 5 BC (see p. 4 5 ) ; t h e t e a c h ing o f r h e t o r i c was s u p p r e s s e d by t h e c e n s o r s in 9 2 BC; a n d D e m e t r i u s t h e C y n i c w h o c a m e to R o m e from C o r i n t h was r e m o v e d by T i g e l l i n u s .
56
S o m e t e a c h e r s w e r e o f relatively h i g h social status b e f o r e t h e y c a m e to R o m e , a l t h o u g h often n o t R o m a n citizens unless they t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f J u l i u s C a e s a r ' s offer o f citizenship (see p. 4 7 ) . F r e e d m e n a n d slaves a r e also m e n t i o n e d , such as M. A n t o n i u s G n i p h o , b o r n free in G a u l b u t brought
u p as a slave, w h o t a u g h t C i c e r o a n d J u l i u s C a e s a r ;
5 7
P. V a l e r i u s C a t o , a successful t e a c h e r in t h e t i m e o f Sulla, w h o c l a i m e d to b e f r e e b o r n b u t was said by s o m e to b e a f r e e d m a n from G a u l ; L . A t e i u s P h i l o l o g u s a n d C n . P o m p e i u s L e n a e u s , from t h e
94
5 8
same
Why did people p e r i o d , w h o w e r e f r e e d m e n from A t h e n s .
59
move to Rome?
E r o s , t h e t e a c h e r of B r u t u s
a n d Cassius, c a m e o n a slave-ship from A n t i o c h .
60
S o m e teachers
achieved substantial wealth: E p a p h r o d i t u s o f C h a e r o n e a , a Graecus
grammaticus
in t h e first c e n t u r y AD, o w n e d two city h o u s e s a n d an e x t e n s i v e
library; a p o r t r a i t statue survives with a Latin i n s c r i p t i o n by his freed man.
61
H o w e v e r , successful t e a c h e r s c o u l d still die p o o r , a n d t h e suc
cess o f a w e l l - d o c u m e n t e d few is p r o b a b l y n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e mass o f p e o p l e w h o c a m e to R o m e to t e a c h .
62
S o m e t e a c h e r s a r r i v e d at R o m e as t h e result o f a specific invitation. A r i s t o d e m u s o f Nysa h a d schools at Nysa ( w h e r e S t r a b o s t u d i e d ) a n d R h o d e s ; h e c a m e to R o m e to t e a c h t h e c h i l d r e n
of
Pompey.
6 3
A p o l l o n i u s of Chalcis c a m e to R o m e at A n t o n i n u s Pius' r e q u e s t to b e c o m e tutor o f Marcus Aurclius.
6/1
O t h e r s c a m e of t h e i r own a c c o r d
after b u i l d i n g u p e x p e r i e n c e a n d r e p u t a t i o n e l s e w h e r e . A n o t h e r of S t r a b o ' s t e a c h e r s , X e n a r c h u s o f S c l c u c e i a , a P e r i p a t e t i c , t a u g h t at A l e x a n d r i a a n d A t h e n s b e f o r e c o m i n g to R o m e , w h e r e h e b e c a m e a friend o f A u g u s t u s .
6 5
I s a e u s , a s o p h i s t from Assyria, c a m e to R o m e
c. AD 9 7 at t h e a g e of 6 0 , p r e c e d e d by his r e p u t a t i o n a c c o r d i n g to Pliny; h e evidently m a d e his living as a t e a c h e r but gave p u b l i c p e r f o r m a n c e s of his own r h e t o r i c .
66
T h e r e are a number o f epitaphs commemorating
i m m i g r a n t s from this sort of b a c k g r o u n d , p e o p l e w h o p r o b a b l y m a d e t h e i r living from t e a c h i n g a l t h o u g h t h e i r e p i t a p h s give t h e m o t h e r d e s i g n a t i o n s , e.g. P a p i r i u s Lycaonia;
67
Hcraclitus, a sophist o f Laranda
A l e x a n d e r , a p h i l o s o p h e r from T a r s u s .
in
6 8
T e a c h e r s at R o m e w e r e n o r m a l l y s e l f - e m p l o y e d . M o s t n e w c o m e r s p r e s u m a b l y a r r i v e d with t h e i n t e n t i o n of setting up a s c h o o l b u t without a n y g u a r a n t e e o f its success; t h e o n e s w h o a r e m e n t i o n e d in t h e s o u r c e s a r e invariably t h o s e w h o s u c c e e d e d . B a s i l e u s of N i c a e a is d e s c r i b e d in his e p i t a p h as c o m i n g to R o m e while still a y o u n g m a n and teaching mathematics and geometry there,
6 9
but most teaching
c a r e e r s p r o b a b l y b e g a n at h o m e . T h e early a c q u i s i t i o n of influential pupils o r p a t r o n s at R o m e would h e l p a new arrival to b e c o m e estab lished. C o r n u t u s , a p h i l o s o p h e r from Lucan;
7 0
L c p c i s , t a u g h t Persius
and
h e u s e d L a t i n for writing a b o u t g r a m m a r , G r e e k for p h i l o s o
phy. S e x t u s , a B o e o t i a n p h i l o s o p h e r , h a d a u d i e n c e at R o m e .
7 1
M a r c u s A u r e l i u s in his
J u l i u s P o l l u x o f N a u c r a t i s t a u g h t r h e t o r i c to
C o m m o d u s , to w h o m h e d e d i c a t e d his Onomasticon, with t h e c h a i r at A t h e n s .
a n d was r e w a r d e d
72
T h e r e is very little e v i d e n c e t h a t t e a c h e r s a n d sophists t e n d e d to b r i n g family o r friends to R o m e with t h e m , a l t h o u g h it is unlikely t h a t t h e w e a l t h i e r o n e s would h a v e travelled without a r e t i n u e of slaves.
95
Moving
to Rome
P. Aelius S a m i u s I s o c r a t e s , a sophist w h o was a citizen o f N i c o m e d i a a n d E p h e s u s , was c o m m e m o r a t e d as ' p a t r o n a n d foster-father' by s o m e o n e called Aratus, a mousikos ( p r e s u m a b l y in this c o n t e x t a s c h o l a r ) , w h o p e r h a p s c o m b i n e d t h e functions of s e r v a n t a n d s t u d e n t .
73
T h e m o t i v a t i o n for m o v i n g to R o m e for s o m e o n e w h o was a l r e a d y an e s t a b l i s h e d t e a c h e r at h o m e s e e m s to b e discussed specifically only by A u g u s t i n e . H e was e n c o u r a g e d by his friends to g o to R o m e for ' g r e a t e r e a r n i n g s a n d h i g h e r dignity', p r e s u m a b l y t h e usual a t t r a c tions, b u t actually went ( h e says) b e c a u s e h e e x p e c t e d t h e s t u d e n t s to be better disciplined.
74
A n o t h e r a t t r a c t i o n m i g h t b e t h e facilities which
R o m e offered for r e s e a r c h . S t r a b o says that t h e g r a m m a r i a n T y r a n n i o n a c q u i r e d A p e l l i c o n ' s library which Sulla h a d b r o u g h t b a c k to R o m e from A t h e n s ,
75
a n d the o t h e r library facilities provided by various e m p e r
ors would h a v e b e e n i m p o r t a n t to s c h o l a r s ; S t r a b o also m e n t i o n s Alexandrian scholars at R o m e .
7 6
Diodorus Siculus m a d e use o f the re
search materials available at R o m e to write his Universal
History,
although
h e d o e s n o t actually say that was why h e went t h e r e in t h e first p l a c e .
77
T h e t e n d e n c y o f ' p r o f e s s i o n a l m e n ' to m i g r a t e o v e r g r e a t e r distances t h a n a n y o n e else has b e e n n o t e d in early m o d e r n
England.
7 8
The
g e o g r a p h i c a l mobility o f R o m a n t e a c h e r s , p h i l o s o p h e r s a n d sophists is illustrated by t h e t e a c h e r a n d p h i l o s o p h e r F a v o r i n u s . H e was b o r n at Aries, w e n t via R o m e to Asia M i n o r , was successful at A t h e n s , t h e n d i e d at R o m e in t h e r e i g n o f A n t o n i n u s P i u s . from
79
E p i c t e t u s t h e Stoic c a m e
H i e r a p o l i s in P h r y g i a ; h e was a slave o f N e r o ' s
freedman
E p a p h r o d i t u s , b u t was p r e s u m a b l y free by t h e t i m e D o m i t i a n e x p e l l e d t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s from R o m e (see p. 4 5 ) , when h e m o v e d to N i c o p o l i s .
80
T h e r e was still g r e a t mobility in late antiquity: A u s o n i u s k n e w m a n y p e o p l e w h o t a u g h t in various places, for e x a m p l e T i . V i c t o r M i n e r v i u s , a r h e t o r from B o r d e a u x w h o t a u g h t at B o r d e a u x , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e a n d R o m e . A u s o n i u s claims s o m e w h a t h y p e r b o l i c a l l y that a t h o u s a n d o f his pupils w e n t i n t o t h e c o u r t s a n d two t h o u s a n d i n t o t h e S e n a t e .
81
T h e s a m e p e r s o n m i g h t c o m e to R o m e first as a s t u d e n t a n d t h e n again as a t e a c h e r . Q u i n t i l i a n , from C a l a g u r r i in S p a i n , m u s t h a v e c o m e to R o m e as a s t u d e n t
since he studied
under
Remmius
P a l a e m o n , a n d c a m e b a c k a g a i n as an a d u l t in AD 6 8 in t h e r e t i n u e o f G a l b a , g o i n g o n to establish h i m s e l f as t h e first h o l d e r o f t h e L a t i n chair.
82
T a t i a n , from Assyria, s e e m s b o t h to h a v e studied u n d e r J u s t i n
M a r t y r a n d to have t a u g h t at R o m e b e f o r e r e t u r n i n g to t h e East after an ecclesiastical d i s p u t e in 1 5 0 o r 1 7 2 .
8 3
P o r p h y r y , b o r n in 2 3 3 , was
b r o u g h t u p at T y r e , s t u d i e d at A t h e n s , a n d c a m e to R o m e to b e c o m e a disciple o f Plotinus in 2 6 3 (i.e. w h e n h e was substantially o l d e r t h a n
96
Why did people
move to Rome ?
m o s t s t u d e n t s ) . H e s p e n t six years at R o m e b e f o r e m o v i n g to Sicily, b u t r e t u r n e d to R o m e after P l o t i n u s ' d e a t h . H e m a r r i e d his friend's widow Marcella a n d b e c a m e h e a d o f the N e o - P l a t o n i c school t h e r e . A c c o r d i n g to E u n a p i u s :
84
After Porphyry's early education had thus been carried on and he was looked up to by all, he longed to see Rome, the mistress o f the world (TTJV lieyiaxriv Pcoianv), so that he might enchain the city by his wisdom. It was occasionally possible for i m m i g r a n t s w h o s e r e p u t a t i o n
was
b a s e d o n o r a t o r y o r t e a c h i n g to a c q u i r e political i n f l u e n c e as well. F r o n t o , originally from Africa is o n e such e x a m p l e ; t h r o u g h his asso ciation with t h e A n t o n i n e e m p e r o r s h e a c h i e v e d h i g h office a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e p o w e r s o f p a t r o n a g e . A less well k n o w n o n e is E u t y c h i u s P r o c u l u s , a grammaticus promoted
Latinus
from Sicca V e n e r i a in Africa w h o was
to t h e p r o c o n s u l a t e by M a r c u s A u r e l i u s .
8 5
Alexander,
a sophist o f S e l c u c i a in Cilicia s e n t to R o m e by his father, b e c a m e s e c r e t a r y ab epistulis graecis
to M a r c u s A u r e l i u s .
86
Palladius, a native o f
A t h e n s , t a u g h t r h e t o r i c at R o m e a n d b e c a m e f a m o u s as a Latin r h e t o r ; h e was s u m m o n e d to c o u r t in 3 7 9 a n d s e r v e d as Magister East in 3 8 2 - 4 .
Officiis
in t h e
8 7
S o m e p e o p l e a r e attested o n l y as p h i l o s o p h e r s o r l i t t e r a t e u r s , with n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t they did a n y t h i n g to e a r n a living. I n such cases, it is usually i m p o s s i b l e to say w h e t h e r they w e r e able to live o f f t h e i r own r e s o u r c e s , w e r e s u p p o r t e d by wealthy p a t r o n s , o r did actually m a k e m o n e y by t e a c h i n g . S t a t i u s ' friend S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s (from t h e s a m e family as t h e l a t e r e m p e r o r , a n d p r e s u m a b l y an a s c e n d a n t o f t h e e x c o n s u l w h o h e l p e d h i m ) c a m e from L e p c i s a n d j o i n e d a literary c i r c l e at R o m e .
8 8
S o m e p e o p l e w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d j u s t as p h i l o s o p h e r s ,
such as C n . A r t o r i u s A p o l l o , ' S t o i c p h i l o s o p h e r from P e r g e ' , w h e t h e r o r n o t they m a d e t h e i r living by o t h e r m e a n s .
8 9
Aelius Aristides c o u l d
a p p a r e n t l y afford to c o m e to R o m e to show o f f his e l o q u e n c e without n e e d i n g financial r e c o m p e n s e ; backgrounds.
91
9 0
m o s t sophists c a m e from very well-off
A n o t h e r way to e k e o u t a living is s u g g e s t e d
Serapio o f Alexandria, a m e m b e r o f Plotinus' circle:
for
92
who began as a rhetorician and afterwards took to the study o f philosophy as well, but was unable to free himself from the degradation o f finance and money-lending.
v. Government and politics Public
office
W h e n S e n e c a p u t a m b i t i o n at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f his list o f r e a s o n s for
97
Moving
lo Rome
c o m i n g to R o m e , h e p r o b a b l y h a d in m i n d d e s i r e for success in p u b l i c life t h r o u g h s t a n d i n g for office o r s e e k i n g favour with t h e e m p e r o r o r those around h i m .
9 3
T h e p a t t e r n o f m e m b e r s o f p r o v i n c i a l elites c o m
ing to t a k e up r e s i d e n c e at R o m e in o r d e r to p u r s u e p o w e r was well e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e t e n d e n c y is d e r i d e d by P l u t a r c h :
94
Yet there are others, Chians, Galatians or Bithynians, who are not content with whatever share o f reputation or power among their own countrymen has fallen to them, but rather weep because they do not wear the shoes o f a patrician; yet if they do wear them, they weep because they are not yet Roman praetors; if they are praetors, because they are not yet consuls; and if consuls, because they were proclaimed not first but later. I f they wished to h o l d office at m o r e t h a n local level, they h a d n o c h o i c e a b o u t m o v i n g to R o m e , a l t h o u g h they c o u l d still m a i n t a i n s t r o n g ties with t h e i r h o m e l a n d s (see p. 1 6 6 ) , a n d s o m e t i m e s r e t u r n e d to t h e m l a t e r (see p. 5 4 ) . S o m e o f t h e m o s t successful, such as H a d r i a n a n d S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , w e r e d e s c e n d e d from Italian colonists, b u t p e o p l e w i t h o u t p r e d o m i n a n t l y Italian a n c e s t r y w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y able to a c h i e v e s e n a t o r i a l r a n k . S o m e o f t h e l e a d i n g figures o f s e c o n d c e n t u r y politics, such as H e r o d e s Atticus from G r e e c e a n d t h e Servilii P u d e n t e s from Africa built s u b u r b a n palaces r a t h e r t h a n t a k i n g u p r e s i d e n c e in c e n t r a l R o m e . m a i n r e s i d e n c e s to Italy.
9 5
T r a j a n e n c o u r a g e d t h e m to t r a n s f e r t h e i r
9 0
T h i s r e a s o n for g o i n g to R o m e still a p p l i e d as t h e city's political importance declined, although Constantinople b e c a m e an alternative d e s t i n a t i o n . I n t h e fourth c e n t u r y A n a t o l i u s , s u r n a m e d A z u t r i o n , from B e r y t u s , s t u d i e d law at h o m e .
9 7
Then he sailed to Rome where, since his wisdom and eloquence were elevated and weighty, he made his way to court. T h e r e he soon obtained the highest rank, and after holding every high office and winning a great reputation in many official positions...he finally attained the rank o f Praetorian Prefect... In his c a s e , it is n o t c l e a r i f it was a m b i t i o n for p u b l i c office which b r o u g h t h i m to R o m e in t h e first p l a c e , b u t i f h e did h a v e such a m b i t i o n s , h e h a d to g o to R o m e to fulfil t h e m . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f R o m e as t h e p l a c e to which you m u s t g o for public success was still b e i n g t r u m p e t e d by S i d o n i u s Apollinaris to his friend E u t r o p i u s in t h e fifth c e n t u r y .
98
' T h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f public office' c o m e s s e c o n d o n S e n e c a ' s list. If this is a different c a t e g o r y from ' a m b i t i o n ' , it m u s t imply t h e duties o f t h o s e w h o a l r e a d y h e l d office, r a t h e r t h a n t h e d e s i r e to o b t a i n office. T h i s w o u l d n o t b e r e s t r i c t e d to p e o p l e o f h i g h s t a n d i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , 98
Why did people
move lo Rome ?
soldiers w e r e f r e q u e n t l y sent to R o m e to g u a r d p r i s o n e r s : t h e r e a r e e x a m p l e s of this in t h e soldiers w h o g u a r d e d Paul o n his voyage from C a c s a r e a in Palestine to R o m e , " a n d t h e ten ' l e o p a r d s ' w h o travelled with I g n a t i u s from S m y r n a .
1 0 0
S o l d i e r s would p r e s u m a b l y d i s c h a r g e t h e i r duties a n d t h e n leave, b u t i m p e r i a l slaves m i g h t b e s e n t to R o m e p e r m a n e n t l y . A c c o r d i n g to L a P i a n a ( 1 9 2 7 , 2 9 6 ) , slaves from t h e i m p e r i a l estates in P h r y g i a a n d Asia w e r e sent to w o r k at R o m e , a n d w e r e p r o b a b l y influential in g e t t i n g t h e privileges of t h e M a g n a M a t e r cult e x t e n d e d by C l a u d i u s . O n e specific e x a m p l e from an e p i t a p h is " T r o p h i m u s , i m p e r i a l freed m a n , a boy, o n c e a P h r y g i a n s h e p h e r d ' , a p p a r e n t l y s e n t to R o m e at an early a g e .
1 0 1
T h i s suggests an u n u s u a l a m o u n t o f b o t h g e o g r a p h i c a l
a n d social mobility. T h e i n f l u e n c e o f a few i m p e r i a l f r e e d m e n
was
n o t o r i o u s in the J u l i o - C l a u d i a n p e r i o d , b u t t h e p r e s e n c e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s was always essential to t h e r u n n i n g o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d s o m e o f t h e s e m u s t have b e e n i m m i g r a n t s . I n late antiquity, e m p e r o r s w h o w e r e s e l d o m o r n e v e r at R o m e t h e m s e l v e s s e n t t h e i r m i n i s t e r s t h e r e i n s t e a d . C o n s t a n s , while r u l i n g G a u l , s e n t P r o a e r e s i u s to R o m e ' b e c a u s e h e was a m b i t i o u s to show t h e m t h e r e what g r e a t m e n h e r u l e d o v e r ' . R o m e o n e o f his own p u p i l s :
1 0 2
P r o a e r e s i u s also s e n t to
103
Eusebius, who was a native o f Alexandria. He seemed to be peculiarly suited to Rome, because he knew how to flatter and fawn on the great; while in Athens he was regarded as a seditious person. M a x i m i n u s , a p p o i n t e d vicarius a c l e r k of C a r p i a n
1 0 4
urbis by V a l e n t i n i a n I, was t h e son o f
stock from t h e g o v e r n o r ' s office in S o p i a n a e in
V a l e r i a ; h e h a d a superficial e d u c a t i o n a n d u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d c a r e e r at t h e b a r ; t h e n b e c a m e g o v e r n o r of C o r s i c a , S a r d i n i a , T u s c a n y ; t h e n h e was p u t in c h a r g e o f t h e c o r n supply o f R o m e b e f o r e b e i n g p r o m o t e d again.
105
H e was assisted in his p u r g e o f senators by a n o t h e r P a n n o n i a n
w h o h a d w o r k e d his way up t h e civil service:
1<)f)
Leo was then a notary and later master o f the offices, a grave-robbing brigand from Pannonia, slavering like a wild beast in search o f prey and as thirsty for human blood as Maximinus. The law T h e law b r o u g h t litigants a n d t h e a c c u s e d to R o m e w h e n e v e r civil o r c r i m i n a l cases a r o s e which c o u l d not b e d e a l t with at p r o v i n c i a l level. As l o n g as R o m e was t h e c e n t r e of t h e legal p r o c e s s , s o m e o n e w h o w a n t e d to m a k e a living from s p e a k i n g in c o u r t (as o p p o s e d to u s i n g it j u s t to s u p p l e m e n t a private i n c o m e ) would b e likely to m o v e t h e r e .
99
Moving
lo Rome
T h e o n e s w h o a r e m e n t i o n e d in t h e s o u r c e s a r e t h e m o s t successful, s u c h as C n . D o m i t i u s A f e r w h o c a m e to R o m e f r o m
Ntmes.
1 0 7
Q u i n t i l i a n , w h e n h e c a m e to R o m e in t h e r e t i n u e o f G a l b a , at first m a d e a living by p l e a d i n g cases as well as t e a c h i n g r h e t o r i c . an i n t e r e s t i n g p o e m by M a r t i a l
109
1 0 8
T h e r e is
in which t h e s p e a k e r asks a m a n
called S e x t u s why h e has c o m e to R o m e . ' Y o u say: " I shall p l e a d cases m o r e e l o q u e n t l y t h a n C i c e r o h i m s e l f '. T h e s p e a k e r r e p l i e s : 'Atestinus p l e a d e d cases, a n d Civis - you k n o w t h e m b o t h - b u t for n e i t h e r was it t h e i r w h o l e l i v e l i h o o d . ' T h e alternatives which S e x t u s c o n s i d e r s a r e writing p o e t r y o r 'cultivating g r e a t h o u s e s ' .
110
T h e implication seems
to b e t h a t it was very difficult to m a k e a l i v i n g j u s t by s p e a k i n g in c o u r t . It c o u l d , h o w e v e r , lead to g r e a t e r t h i n g s , as t h e verse e p i t a p h o f Eventius o f V i e n n e , dated 4 0 7 , suggests:
111
Here is buried a man who once, with a famous name, pleaded cases and deserved to be considered a senator. At no great age he spoke the law at Vienne. From there, (he made) the journey to Italy, to accumulate much honour, if Eventius had not died, leaving the sad city in grief, departing from life to associate deservedly with the saints. A p p i a n o f A l e x a n d r i a , t h e s e c o n d - c e n t u r y h i s t o r i a n , h a v i n g h e l d office in his own city, c a m e to R o m e as an advocalus
xn
fisci.
T h i s was o n e way
o f b e g i n n i n g a c a r e e r as an a d v o c a t e at R o m e , e s t a b l i s h e d u n d e r Hadrian. A p a r t from t h o s e w h o s p o k e in c o u r t , several i m p o r t a n t j u r i s t s from the second-third
centuries are known
to h a v e b e e n
immigrants.
C e r v i d i u s S c a e v o l a was a G r e e k ; P a p i n i a n was p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d to Julia D o m n a a n d t h e r e f o r e a S y r i a n ; Paul o r i g i n a t e d s o m e w h e r e in t h e East.
113
U l p i a n , from T y r e , is first r e c o r d e d w o r k i n g at R o m e as 114
a p r a e t o r ' s assessor.
T h i s was an a l t e r n a t i v e way of u s i n g t h e law to
m a k e a living, b u t again m u s t h a v e b e e n available only to a very few. Embassies T h e p e o p l e discussed a b o v e c a m e to R o m e as a c a r e e r m o v e , b u t t h e city's r o l e as c e n t r e o f g o v e r n m e n t b r o u g h t o t h e r s t h e r e for m o r e t r a n s i e n t r e a s o n s . 'An e m b a s s y i m p o s e d (on t h e m ) ' o c c u r s in S e n e c a ' s list. T h i s is o n e o f t h e best-attested r e a s o n s in l i t e r a t u r e for p e o p l e to 5
c o m e to R o m e , " a n d is also m e n t i o n e d in m a n y i n s c r i p t i o n s . S o m e a m b a s s a d o r s d i e d t h e r e while p e r f o r m i n g t h e i r duties; they m i g h t b e r e c o r d e d at R o m e by f e l l o w - a m b a s s a d o r s lies.
117
110
o r at h o m e by t h e i r fami
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a m b a s s a d o r s from friendly states c o u l d b e
e n t i t l e d to a public funeral at R o m e , "
8
b u t t h e r e is n o e p i g r a p h i c
r e c o r d o f this. O t h e r s received honorific inscriptions at h o m e r e c o r d i n g
100
Why did people
move to Rome?
t h e success of t h e i r missions. In t h e o r y , an e m b a s s y s h o u l d
have
r e q u i r e d only a s h o r t stay in R o m e , b u t difficulties in p e r f o r m i n g it, o r p e r s o n a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s , s o m e t i m e s led to an e x t e n d e d visit. T h e r e a r e hints of s o m e o f t h e difficulties which m i g h t b c e n c o u n t e r e d in an i n s c r i p t i o n h o n o u r i n g two citizens o f A b d e r a w h o h a d p l e a d e d
at
R o m e on b e h a l f o f t h e city o f T e o s in a t e r r i t o r i a l d i s p u t e with K i n g Cotys o f T h r a c e in t h e 1 6 0 s B C :
1 1 9
As ambassadors on behalf o f the people they endured both mental and [physical] suffering. They met the [leaders] o f the Romans and won them over by daily [perseverance]. T h e y also persuaded the patrons of the [city] to come to the assistance o f our people. By explaining the state of affairs and by means o f the daily round of calls at the atria they made friends of [some of] those who looked after and championed our opponent. In less f r a u g h t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h o w e v e r , t a k i n g p a r t in an e m b a s s y m i g h t b e a p e r k r a t h e r t h a n an i m p o s i t i o n . A m b a s s a d o r s w e r e legally o b l i g e d to c o m p l e t e t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e i r e m b a s s y b e f o r e a c t i n g o n personal matters,
120
p r e s u m a b l y to p r e v e n t p e o p l e c o m i n g to R o m e at
t h e i r city's e x p e n s e in o r d e r to c a r r y o u t private b u s i n e s s . E m b a s s i e s s e e m to have b e e n so c o m m o n that in t h e late R e p u b l i c t h e L e x G a b i n i a c o u l d r e q u i r e t h e S e n a t e to sit daily in F e b r u a r y j u s t to deal with t h e m .
1 2 1
T h e r e is n o r e c o r d o f this in t h e p r i n c i p a t e , p e r h a p s
b e c a u s e a u t o c r a c y e n a b l e d e m b a s s i e s to b c dealt with m o r e swiftly, b u t t h e r e m u s t still have b e e n tens o r e v e n h u n d r e d s o f a m b a s s a d o r s in R o m e at a n y o n e t i m e w h e n t h e e m p e r o r was in r e s i d e n c e o r t h e S e n a t e was sitting. A c c o m m o d a t i o n was p r o v i d e d at state e x p e n s e in t h e Villa P u b l i c a ,
122
b u t p r e s u m a b l y o n l y for a limited n u m b e r o f
i m p o r t a n t a m b a s s a d o r s . S e v e r a l legal texts deal with t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s which c o u l d result from g o i n g to R o m e on an e m b a s s y , a n d it clearly b e c a m e a s e r i o u s issue for provincial e l i t e s .
123
In t h e t h i r d a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s BC, e m b a s s i e s usually c a m e from i n d e p e n d e n t o r client states s e e k i n g alliance o r p e a c e .
1 2 4
Book 7 of
P a u s a n i a s , for e x a m p l e , c o n t a i n s m a n y r e f e r e n c e s : e.g. t h e S p a r t a n s w e r e a l l o w e d to s e n d an e m b a s s y to R o m e a g a i n s t t h e A c h a e a n L e a g u e , c o n t r a r y to w h a t h a d b e e n a g r e e d , so t h e A c h a e a n s sent o n e too.
1 2 5
T h e n u m e r o u s e m b a s s i e s s e n t to R o m e by cities, l e a g u e s a n d
k i n g s in t h e a f t e r m a t h
o f the defeat o f Perseus o f Macedon
r e c o r d e d by Polybius a n d in i n s c r i p t i o n s .
126
are
Augustus allegedly received
e m b a s s i e s from m a n y different n a t i o n s ( n o t n e c e s s a r i l y always w h e n h e was at R o m e ) : I n d i a n s , S c y t h i a n s , P a r t h i a n s , S a r m a t i a n s , G a r a m a n t c s , Bactrians, Albanians, Iberians, M e d c s .
1 2 7
T a c f a r i n a s s e n t e n v o y s from
N o r t h Africa to T i b e r i u s d e m a n d i n g l a n d .
101
1 2 8
Parthian, Armenian and
Moving
lo Rome
G e r m a n envoys attended 1
t h e t h e a t r e at R o m e d u r i n g
9
r e i g n , - a n d h e also r e c e i v e d e n v o y s from Sri L a n k a .
1 3 0
Claudius'
Mithridates o f
t h e B o s p o r a n K i n g d o m s e n t his b r o t h e r Cotys with a m e s s a g e of f r i e n d s h i p to C l a u d i u s in AD 4 6 , b u t C l a u d i u s gave Cotys t h e k i n g s h i p instead.
131
S u c h a m b a s s a d o r s m i g h t well b r i n g t h e i r own staff with
t h e m ; as m e m b e r s o f t h e i r h o m e elites, they a r e unlikely to h a v e travelled alone. F o r e x a m p l e , an a m b a s s a d o r from B o s p o r a n P h a n a g o r i a is c o m m e m o r a t e d t o g e t h e r with a B o s p o r a n t r a n s l a t o r of S a r m a t i a n w h o must h a v e a c c o m p a n i e d h i m to R o m e .
1 3 2
E m b a s s i e s c o u l d disguise
o t h e r t h i n g s : D a m o c l e s , w h o c a m e to R o m e with a M a c e d o n i a n d e l e g a t i o n in 2 0 5 BC, is said by Polybius ( 1 3 . 5 . 7 ) to h a v e b e e n a spy. A k i n g m i g h t e v e n c o m e himself. T h e m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r e x a m p l e o f this was w h e n T i r i d a t e s o f A r m e n i a c a m e to R o m e in AD 6 3 to r e c e i v e his c r o w n from N e r o . H e b r o u g h t a h u g e e n t o u r a g e with h i m : his own sons, o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e royal family o f P a r t h i a a n d A r m e n i a , 3 , 0 0 0 Parthian cavalry a n d a large n u m b e r o f R o m a n s .
1 3 3
A less edifying specta
cle was A r c h e l a u s , son o f H e r o d t h e G r e a t , w h o went to R o m e in 4 BC to p l e a d for his father's t h r o n e , a c c o m p a n i e d by a family party i n c l u d ing his m o t h e r , a u n t a n d c o u s i n s (who w o r k e d a g a i n s t his i n t e r e s t s ) ; 13
his m o t h e r M a l t h a c e died at R o m e . '
1
An individual a m b a s s a d o r c o u l d b e c o m e a r e g u l a r visitor to R o m e . T h e p o e t C r i n a g o r a s o f M y t i l e n e , b o r n c. 7 0 BC, went o n e m b a s s i e s to J u l i u s C a e s a r at R o m e in 4 8 / 7 a n d 4 5 , a n d to Augustus in S p a i n in 2 6 / 5 . Fie a p p a r e n t l y s p e n t e n o u g h t i m e in Italy to b e c o m e familiar with R o m a n high s o c i e t y .
133
T h e sophist S c o p e l i a n p e r f o r m e d m a n y e m b a s
sies to t h e e m p e r o r for S m y r n a , a n d o n e to D o m i t i a n for all Asia a b o u t t h e vine edict; h e eventually r e t i r e d as an a m b a s s a d o r o n t h e g r o u n d s o f old a g e .
1 3 6
I n t h e E m p i r e , provincial cities ( a n d e v e n t u a l l y p r o v i n c i a l c o u n c i l s t o o , a n d s o m e semi-official b o d i e s within cities) s e n t n u m e r o u s e m b a s sies to R o m e offering c o n g r a t u l a t i o n s o r c o n d o l e n c e s to t h e e m p e r o r o r to o t h e r p r o m i n e n t individuals. An i n s c r i p t i o n from M e s s e n e refers to s e n d i n g an e m b a s s y to T i b e r i u s in AD 14 'to l a m e n t that t h e g o d [Augustus] is n o l o n g e r manifest a m o n g us', to c o n g r a t u l a t e t h e new 'world r u l e r ' , b u t also to ask h i m a b o u t s o m e local difficulties ' a n d to i m p l o r e h i m t h a t we may r e c e i v e s o m e c o n s o l a t i o n ' .
137
A T r o j a n del
e g a t i o n l a t e r offered T i b e r i u s b e l a t e d c o n d o l e n c e s o n t h e d e a t h o f Drusus.
138
T h e real m o t i v a t i o n o f such e m b a s s i e s c o u l d b e to ask for
i m m e d i a t e i m p e r i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n , as t h e M e s s e n i a n s did, o r to build u p goodwill a g a i n s t a future n e e d for it. In s o m e cases, it was n e c e s s a r y to decide whether the embassy should approach the e m p e r o r or the
102
Why did people
move to Rome?
S e n a t e ; M y t i l e n e c a m e up with an i n g e n i o u s solution, that t h e a m b a s s a d o r s s h o u l d t h a n k A u g u s t u s in front o f t h e S e n a t e a n d t h e S e n a t e in front o f A u g u s t u s .
139
Provincials h o n o u r e d
their non-imperial patrons and their ex-
g o v e r n o r s at R o m e t o o . C I L vi 1 5 0 8 is a partly L a t i n b u t m a i n l y G r e e k inscription h o n o u r i n g a proconsul o f Bithynia, n a m i n g the ambassa d o r s o f various cities w h o h a d c o m e as a j o i n t p r o v i n c i a l d e l e g a t i o n . In AD 1 5 3 , live D a c i a n s w e n t to R o m e for t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e c o n s u l 1
10
ship o f M. S e d a t i u s S e v e r i a n u s , f o r m e r legate o f D a c i a . ' In 1 5 8 , four e n v o y s from Uselis in S a r d i n i a c a m e to invest M. Aristius B a l b i n u s A t i a n u s as t h e i r p a t r o n .
141
T h e L y c i a n koinon
sent a n u m b e r o f embas
sies to R o m e c o n c e r n i n g t h e h o n o u r s which they wished to give O p r a m o a s in t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y .
1 4 2
T h e p r a c t i c e c o n t i n u e d in
late a n t i q u i t y . T h e cities o f Sicily h o n o u r e d , P e r p e t u u s signo
in G r e e k , V e t i t i u s
Arzygius, c o r r e c t o r o f Sicily 3 1 2 - 3 2 4 .
1 4 3
A series o f
L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s was e r e c t e d by cities o f A f r i c a in AD 3 2 1 - 2 , h o n o u r i n g Q . A r a d i u s R u f i n u s V a l e r i u s P r o c u l u s , praeses in 3 2 1 .
1 4 4
o f Byzacena
1 4 5
Provincials o r c l i e n t states also sent e m b a s s i e s to R o m e to c o m p l a i n , o r to ask for b e t t e r t r e a t m e n t , special rights o r t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f local disputes. I n 1 5 5 BC, A t h e n s s e n t t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s C a r n e a d e s o f the A c a d e m y , D i o g e n e s t h e S t o i c a n d C r i t o l a u s t h e P e r i p a t e t i c to p l e a d to t h e S e n a t e a g a i n s t a fine i m p o s e d for t h e sack o f O r o p u s ; t h e s e n a t o r C. Acilius a c t e d as i n t e r p r e t e r ,
as t h e y c o u l d n o t s p e a k L a t i n .
1 4 6
A J u l i o - C l a u d i a n i n s c r i p t i o n from M a n t i n e a h o n o u r s a m a n w h o w e n t o n two e m b a s s i e s to R o m e ' t a k i n g n o t a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t p r o c o n s u l s but praise', implying that accusations were c o m m o n .
1 4 7
A c c o r d i n g to
t h e E l d e r Pliny, every e m p e r o r was a p p r o a c h e d by p r o v i n c i a l d e l e g a tions c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t m o n o p o l i e s .
1 4 8
Pleas for h e l p after n a t u r a l
disasters s u c h as e a r t h q u a k e s w e r e also m a d e f r e q u e n t l y .
149
M u c h later, M. Servilius D r a c o A l b u c i a n u s o f G i g t h i s s e c u r e d t h e r i g h t o f Latium
mains
for his city o n his s e c o n d a t t e m p t in R o m e ;
1 5 0
a l t h o u g h only successful e m b a s s i e s a r e r e c o r d e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s , this m a n ' s e x p e r i e n c e shows that not all e m b a s s i e s actually w e r e successful. L i t e r a t u r e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f r e q u e n t l y r e c o r d s unsuccessful o r rival e m b a s s i e s . T h e r a n g e o f b u s i n e s s which c o u l d b e b r o u g h t is shown by t h e following selection from t h e m a n y e m b a s s i e s r e c e i v e d by T i b e r i u s a n d / o r t h e c o n s u l s a n d S e n a t e d u r i n g his r e i g n : a d e l e g a t i o n
from
H i s p a n i a U l t e r i o r a s k i n g p e r m i s s i o n to build a s h r i n e to T i b e r i u s a n d Livia in AD 2 5 ; a d i s p u t e b e t w e e n S p a r t a a n d M e s s e n e ; a r e q u e s t from S e g c s t a to r e b u i l d t h e t e m p l e of V e n u s o n M o u n t E r y x ; a r e q u e s t by
103
Moving
to Rome
M a r s e i l l e for c o n f i r m a t i o n o f a b e q u e s t to t h e city; a r e q u e s t by e l e v e n cities o f Asia to build a t e m p l e to T i b e r i u s .
1 5 1
E m b a s s i e s by J e w s living in J u d a e a a n d E g y p t a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y well d o c u m e n t e d t h a n k s to Philo a n d J o s e p h u s , a l t h o u g h they w e r e p r o b ably n o m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n t h o s e o f a n y o t h e r p r o v i n c i a l g r o u p ; p r e s u m a b l y similar c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r o s e with similar f r e q u e n c y in m o s t p a r t s o f t h e e m p i r e . J e w s a n d G r e e k s from A l e x a n d r i a s e n t rival d e l e g a t i o n s to C a l i g u l a to c o m p l a i n a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r ; t h e i r stay was p r o l o n g e d by t h e difficulty o f g e t t i n g access to h i m .
1 5 2
T h e Jews of
J e r u s a l e m s e n t a n e m b a s s y to C l a u d i u s o v e r t h e issue o f t h e H i g h Priest's v e s t m e n t s d u r i n g t h e p r o c u r a t o r s h i p o f C u s p i u s F a d u s (AD 4 4 4 6 ) , a n d r e c e i v e d s u p p o r t from A g r i p p a I I , w h o was in R o m e at t h e time.
1 5 3
T h e y s e n t a n o t h e r d e l e g a t i o n in AD 6 1 after a d i s p u t e with t h e
p r o c u r a t o r F e s t u s a n d A g r i p p a I I c o n c e r n i n g a new wall b l o c k i n g A g r i p p a ' s view o f t h e I n n e r C o u r t o f t h e T e m p l e .
1 5 4
Festus allowed
t h e m to s e n d a d e l e g a t i o n o f twelve, o f w h o m two, I s h m a e l b. Phiabi t h e H i g h Priest a n d H e l c h i a s t h e t r e a s u r e r , w e r e k e p t at R o m e by P o p p a e a . J o s e p h u s w e n t to R o m e in AD 6 4 as p a r t o f an e m b a s s y to s e c u r e t h e r e l e a s e o f s o m e a r r e s t e d priests; h e was p r o b a b l y t h e r e for about a year.
1 5 5
A m b a s s a d o r s w e r e usually, at least in t h e East, highly e d u c a t e d m e n from t h e i r cities' elites, often with r e p u t a t i o n s in p h i l o s o p h y o r r h e t o r i c . B o w e r s o c k ( 1 9 6 9 , 4 6 ) , writes: T h e sophists were in a unique position to gain the ear and sympathy o f the emperor, and it was in their power thereby to enhance the prestige, beauty, and affluence o f their chosen cities. A l t h o u g h a m b a s s a d o r s t e n d e d to b e wealthy m e n in t h e i r own r i g h t , s o m e f o u n d e m p l o y m e n t while in R o m e , s o m e t i m e s l e a d i n g to t h e i r staying t h e r e . T h e r e m i g h t b e a l o n g delay b e f o r e they c o u l d p u t t h e i r case o r r e c e i v e an a n s w e r , as with t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s . A m b a s s a d o r s from Plarasa a n d A p h r o d i s i a s w e r e officially a n d p e r m a n e n t l y p r o m ised t h e r i g h t o f a u d i e n c e in t h e S e n a t e a n d a r e p l y within ten days, which was p r e s u m a b l y u n u s u a l l y s w i f t .
156
C r a t e s o f M a l l o s , s e n t by
K i n g Attalus o f P e r g a m u m in c. 1 6 9 BC, fell d o w n a m a n h o l e a n d b r o k e his leg, as previously m e n t i o n e d (p. 3 ) ; while r e c o v e r i n g , h e g a v e lectures.
157
T h e p h i l o s o p h e r C a r n e a d e s c a m e as p a r t o f t h e d e l e g a t i o n
from A t h e n s in 1 5 5 BC a n d l e c t u r e d to ' l a r g e a n d a d m i r i n g a u d i e n c e s ' while h e was in R o m e .
1 5 8
C h a e r e m o n , a S t o i c p h i l o s o p h e r from A l e x
a n d r i a , c a m e to R o m e as p a r t o f t h e A l e x a n d r i a n d e l e g a t i o n in AD 4 1 , a n d p r e s u m a b l y u s e d c o n t a c t s h e m a d e t h e n to b e c o m e o n e o f N e r o ' s teachers.
1 5 9
Apollonius o f Athens, who held the Greek chair there, 104
Why did people move lo Rome ? w e n t on an e m b a s s y to S e v e r u s in 1 9 6 / 7 , a n d while in R o m e t o o k p a r t in a d e c l a m a t i o n c o m p e t i t i o n a g a i n s t t h e sophist H e r a c l e i d e s .
160
The
p h i l o s o p h e r Julius Africanus, originally from Aelia C a p i t o l i n a ( J e r u s a l e m ) , was s e n t to R o m e by t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f E m m a u s , a n d A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s p u t h i m in c h a r g e o f o r g a n i z i n g t h e P a n t h e o n l i b r a r y .
161
It was
t h u s n o t u n u s u a l for an a m b a s s a d o r to c h a n g e from b e i n g a t e m p o r a r y visitor to R o m e to b e i n g a p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t t h e r e . An a m b a s s a d o r c o u l d b c h a n d s o m e l y r e w a r d e d
at h o m e i f h e
a c h i e v e d s o m e t h i n g for his city. A r t e m i d o r u s o f E p h e s u s got s o m e d e c i s i o n s at R o m e in favour o f t h e city a n d t h e T e m p l e o f A r t e m i s , ' a n d in r e t u r n for this t h e city e r e c t e d in t h e t e m p l e a g o l d e n i m a g e o f him'.
1 6 2
T h e r e c o u l d also b e r e w a r d s available from t h e e m p e r o r o r his
family. J o s e p h u s r e c e i v e d ' m a n y p r e s e n t s ' from P o p p a e a b e f o r e h e left. In several cases, a m b a s s a d o r s a r e said to h a v e r e c e i v e d R o m a n citizenship from t h e e m p e r o r :
1 6 3
for e x a m p l e , two Frisians w h o im
p r e s s e d N e r o by t h e i r b e h a v i o u r w h e n they visited t h e
theatre.
164
A d e c r e e o f t h e S e n a t e p r o m i s e d seats a m o n g t h e s e n a t o r s at t h e g a m e s for a m b a s s a d o r s from Plarasa a n d A p h r o d i s i a s .
165
S o m e e m p e r o r s a p p a r e n t l y wished to d i s c o u r a g e e x c e s s i v e n u m b e r s of e m b a s s i e s , o r at least e x c e s s i v e e x p e n d i t u r e . T h e y m u s t have b e e n a w a r e of t h e gravy-train possibilities for civic l e a d e r s , w h o r e g u l a r l y s e e m to have s h o w n g r e a t e n t h u s i a s m for b e i n g s e n t to R o m e . T h e r e was a p r e c e d e n t in t h e late R e p u b l i c : a law which limited t h e a m o u n t a city c o u l d s p e n d on e m b a s s i e s b r i n g i n g votes of t h a n k s to r e t i r i n g governors.
1 6 6
I n AD 6 3 , p r o v i n c i a l c o u n c i l s w e r e f o r b i d d e n
to s e n d
1 6 7
this p r e
e m b a s s i e s to deliver votes o f t h a n k s to r e t i r i n g g o v e r n o r s ; sumably post-dates
the Bithynian delegation
V e s p a s i a n l i m i t e d e m b a s s i e s to t h r e e m e n .
1 6 8
mentioned
above.
T h e Y o u n g e r Pliny dis
c o v e r e d t h a t B y z a n t i u m s e n t a d e l e g a t e to R o m e a n n u a l l y with an a l l o w a n c e o f H S 1 2 , 0 0 0 to offer a loyal a d d r e s s to t h e e m p e r o r ; h e stopped the practice, and T r a j a n a p p r o v e d .
1 6 9
A n t o n i n u s Pius also
s e e m s to h a v e r e s t r i c t e d t h e s e n d i n g o f e m b a s s i e s , at least t h o s e on 'routine' business.
170
S o m e i m p e r i a l r e p l i e s to e m b a s s i e s say t h a t t h e
a m b a s s a d o r s s h o u l d b e paid t h e i r e x p e n s e s (unless t h e y h a d u n d e r t a k e n to g o at t h e i r own e x p e n s e ) ; t h e o m i s s i o n o f this s t a t e m e n t p r o b a b l y i m p l i e s that t h e e m p e r o r t h o u g h t t h e e m b a s s y h a d b e e n an unnecessary o n e .
1 7 1
T h e fact that s o m e o n e u n d e r t o o k an embassy at his
own e x p e n s e is often a c k n o w l e d g e d in honorific inscriptions, such a s : For Q. Caecilius Gal. Rufinus o f Saguntum, son of Q. Caecilius Valerianus, for an embassy which he performed at no charge (gratuita) to the great emperor Hadrian Augustus at Rome. T h e province of Hispania Citerior.
105
172
Moving
lo Rome
In s o m e cases, it was a s u m m o n s from
R o m e , e i t h e r from
e m p e r o r o r S e n a t e , which led to a d e l e g a t i o n b e i n g s e n t .
173
the
Ambassa
d o r s from H e r a c l e a a p p e a r e d b e f o r e t h e p r a e t o r Q . M e t e l l u s o v e r t h e case o f A r c h i a s ' c i t i z e n s h i p .
174
Tiberius s u m m o n e d the magistrates o f
R h o d e s to R o m e b e c a u s e they 'sent h i m a public r e p o r t without a d d i n g t h e usual c o m p l i m e n t a r y f o r m u l a ' ; h e t h e n s e n t t h e m again.
1 7 5
home
D e l e g a t e s from t h e cities o f Asia w e r e called to t h e S e n a t e to
discuss t h e i r rights o f asylum in AD 2 2 .
1 7 0
In AD 4 3 , a d e l e g a t i o n was
s u m m o n e d from Lycia d u r i n g an investigation by C l a u d i u s a n d t h e S e n a t e i n t o L y c i a n m i s c o n d u c t , a n d o n e a m b a s s a d o r was d e p r i v e d o f R o m a n citizenship for n o t k n o w i n g L a t i n .
177
Larger contingents must
also h a v e a r r i v e d , at least s o m e o n a m o r e p e r m a n e n t basis, o n t h e various o c c a s i o n s from M a g n a M a t e r in t h e late t h i r d c e n t u r y BC to E l a g a b a l in t h e early t h i r d c e n t u r y AD w h e n a f o r e i g n g o d was officially ' s u m m o n e d ' to R o m e . In t h e o r y , e m b a s s i e s w e r e m o t i v a t e d by local c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d c a u s e d only s h o r t - t e r m m o v e m e n t o f p e o p l e . I n p r a c t i c e , they m a y often h a v e p r o v i d e d a c o n v e n i e n t way for m e m b e r s of p r o v i n c i a l elites to visit R o m e for t h e i r own r e a s o n s ; they s o m e t i m e s led to e x t e n d e d stays at R o m e a n d e v e n to p e r m a n e n t m i g r a t i o n t h e r e . T h e y w e r e so numerous
t h a t they c r e a t e d a substantial ( p r o b a b l y a m o u n t i n g
to
h u n d r e d s ) a l t h o u g h c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g foreign p r e s e n c e in t h e city. Hostages
and prisoners
of war
O t h e r t e m p o r a r y foreign r e s i d e n t s o f R o m e w e r e t h e r e for political r e a s o n s b u t n o t by t h e i r own c h o i c e . T h e r e was a l o n g t r a d i t i o n o f t a k i n g h o s t a g e s from e n e m y states to live at R o m e . T h i s g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d i n t o m e m b e r s o f t h e r u l i n g families o f c l i e n t states b e i n g b r o u g h t up at R o m e a n d e v e n t u a l l y s e n t b a c k h o m e as (it was h o p e d ) p r o - R o m a n r u l e r s . T h e official r e a s o n for t h e s o n s a n d g r a n d s o n s of K i n g P h r a a t e s of P a r t h i a b e i n g s e n t to A u g u s t u s was t h a t P h r a a t e s was 'seeking our friendship
t h r o u g h t h e p l e d g i n g of his c h i l d r e n ' .
1 7 8
M a r o b o d u u s , w h o was b r o u g h t u p at R o m e in t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s , b e c a m e a very p r o - R o m a n r u l e r o f t h e M a r c o m a n n i .
1 7 9
Italicus, son o f
Flavus o f t h e C h e r u s c i (Arminius' b r o t h e r ) , a n d g r a n d s o n o f A c t u m e r u s of t h e C h a t t i , was b o r n a n d b r o u g h t u p at R o m e , a n d was s e n t by C l a u d i u s to r u l e t h e C h e r u s c i in AD 4 7 .
1 8 0
In 4 9 , a Parthian delegation
c a m e to ask for a m a n w h o h a d b e e n a h o s t a g e at R o m e as t h e i r n e w king.
181
T h i s 'civilizing' policy was still followed m u c h later: A u r e l i a n
t o o k t h e sons o f t h e V a n d a l l e a d e r s b a c k to Italy in 2 7 0 s .
1 8 2
T h e r e seem
to b e n o r e c o r d e d i n s t a n c e s o f reprisals e v e r b e i n g visited o n h o s t a g e s
106
Why did people move to Rome? by t h e state, a l t h o u g h A r i s t o b u l u s I I , f o r m e r r u l e r o f J u d a e a , was m u r d e r e d d u r i n g t h e civil war o f P o m p e y a n d C a e s a r .
1 8 3
Antiochus II
o f C o m m a g e n e was s u m m o n e d to R o m e a n d e x e c u t e d in 2 9 BC: for h a v i n g m u r d e r e d an a m b a s s a d o r ,
184
b u t that was a r a t h e r
different
case. M o s t h o s t a g e s s e e m to have b e e n k e p t in t h e m a n n e r to which t h e y w e r e a c c u s t o m e d : t h e first P a r t h i a n h o s t a g e s s e e n at R o m e sat two rows b e h i n d A u g u s t u s at t h e g a m e s ,
1 8 5
a n d D e m e t r i u s I (see b e l o w )
w e n t o n r e g u l a r wild-boar h u n t s with P o l y b i u s .
186
H o s t a g e s m i g h t c o m e in l a r g e n u m b e r s . 1 0 0 C a r t h a g i n i a n h o s t a g e s (males aged between
14 a n d
3 0 ) w e r e t a k e n in 2 0 2 BC.
1 8 7
1,000
A c h a e a n s w e r e taken to R o m e in 1 6 6 B C a n d d i s t r i b u t e d to Italian towns; t h e A c h a e a n e x i l e s in S p a r t a w e r e p e r s u a d e d to g o to R o m e to w o r k for t h e i r r e t u r n . 3 0 0 survivors i n c l u d i n g t h e historian Polybius w e r e r e l e a s e d in 1 5 1 .
1 8 8
D o m i t i u s C o r b u l o sent t h e c h i l d r e n of kings o f
c e n t r a l Asia M i n o r as h o s t a g e s after his c a m p a i g n s in t h e t i m e o f Nero.
1 8 9
F e m a l e Dacian h o s t a g e s b e i n g s e n t to R o m e a r e d e p i c t e d on
Trajan's Column.
1 9 0
T h e r e w e r e also m a n y i m p o r t a n t individual hos
tages. T h e future S c l e u c i d k i n g A n t i o c h u s I V E p i p h a n e s was a h o s t a g e at R o m e from 1 8 9 BC, w h e n still very y o u n g , to 1 7 5 w h e n h e r e t u r n e d h o m e to take t h e t h r o n e .
1 9 1
H e was r e p l a c e d as h o s t a g e by his 1 0 - y e a r -
old n e p h e w , t h e future D e m e t r i u s I S o t e r , w h o later e s c a p e d after failing to get his status as h o s t a g e a l t e r e d .
192
A g r i p p a I, t h e g r a n d s o n o f
H e r o d , was t h e o r e t i c a l l y a h o s t a g e w h e n h e lived at R o m e from his c h i l d h o o d until h e was in his thirties, b u t b e c a m e a g r e a t friend o f m e m b e r s of t h e i m p e r i a l family i n c l u d i n g C a l i g u l a a n d C l a u d i u s ; h e was given t h e status o f a c l i e n t k i n g with a g r o w i n g k i n g d o m , b u t c o n t i n u e d to visit R o m e . T h e last r e c o r d e d h o s t a g e likely to have b e e n k e p t at R o m e is H u n e r i c son o f G e i s e r i c in 4 4 2 .
1 9 3
T h e r e a r e m a n y e x a m p l e s o f such p e o p l e in l i t e r a t u r e , b u t a n u m b e r also left i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e s e w e r e usually e r e c t e d w h e n o n e of t h e h o s t a g e s h a p p e n e d to die at R o m e , a n d say n o t h i n g a b o u t w h e t h e r they e x p e c t e d to r e t u r n h o m e e v e n t u a l l y , b u t in at least o n e case h o s t a g e s built t h e i r own t o m b at R o m e while still alive, so p r e s u m a b l y e x p e c t e d n o t to leave. T w o T h r a c i a n h o s t a g e s , b r o t h e r a n d sister, w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d in t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s . two sons o f an Arsacid K i n g P h r a a t e s ,
195
194
T h e r e is a Latin e p i t a p h for
and another where a woman
n a m e d U l p i a A x s e , d e s c r i b e d as ' P a r t h i a n h o s t a g e ' , a n d ( p r e s u m a b l y ) h e r h u s b a n d w h o s e n a m e is lost, c o m m e m o r a t e t h e i r d a u g h t e r a n d grandchildren.
190
A dedication to J u p i t e r by ' K i n g A r i o b a r z a n e s ' a n d his
wife a n d sons probably refers to P o m p e y ' s client-king o f C a p p a d o c i a .
197
T h e fact t h a t t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s o f n e a r l y all t h e e a s t e r n h o s t a g e s a r e in
107
Moving
to Rome
L a t i n suggests that r o m a n i z a t i o n was q u i t e effective e v e n w h e n t h e p e o p l e involved w e r e n o t in R o m e voluntarily. H o w e v e r , t h e e p i t a p h o f a m a n n a m e d D i c a e n e t u s w h o p r o b a b l y c a m e from t h e s a m e milieu (he was ' r e a r e d at t h e h a n d s o f k i n g s ' a n d ' h a d n o b l e b l o o d ' ) , is in Greek.
1 9 8
S o m e f o r e i g n l e a d e r s w e r e b r o u g h t to R o m e as p r i s o n e r s o f war r a t h e r t h a n h o s t a g e s , a l t h o u g h t h e distinction s e e m s s o m e t i m e s to h a v e b e c o m e r a t h e r b l u r r e d . T h e y m i g h t b e displayed in a n d e x e c u t e d afterwards, b u t t h e fate o f m o s t is u n r e c o r d e d .
triumphs 1 9 9
Perseus
o f M a c e d o n was displayed with two sons, a d a u g h t e r a n d 2 5 0 officers in 1 6 7 BC; P e r s e u s was k e p t in c u s t o d y afterwards, b u t what h a p p e n e d to t h e o t h e r s is n o t m e n t i o n e d .
2 0 0
T h e Attalid r e b e l l e a d e r A r i s t o n i c u s
was c a p t u r e d by M. P e r p e r n a a n d s e n t to R o m e , w h e r e h e d i e d in prison
in
128 BC.
2 0 1
Caratacus, handed
o v e r to t h e R o m a n s by
C a r t i m a n d u a in AD 5 1 , was t a k e n to R o m e , b u t C l a u d i u s r e l e a s e d h i m with his wife a n d b r o t h e r s ; h e r e m a i n e d in Italy with his f a m i l y .
202
S i m o n b a r G i o r a s , o n e o f t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e J e w i s h R e v o l t displayed in t h e t r i u m p h o f V e s p a s i a n a n d T i t u s , was i m m e d i a t e l y e x e c u t e d ; 7 0 0 o t h e r p r i s o n e r s w e r e also s e n t for t h e t r i u m p h .
2 0 3
Z e n o b i a was c a p
t u r e d by A u r e l i a n a n d t a k e n b a c k to R o m e for his t r i u m p h in 2 7 2 , b u t was t h e n allowed to live in r e t i r e m e n t at T i v o l i . W o m e n w e r e n o t necessarily t r e a t e d m o r e mercifully t h a n m e n , h o w e v e r : in AD 7 9 b o t h J u l i u s S a b i n u s , r e b e l l e a d e r of t h e L i n g o n e s , a n d his wife E p p o n i n a were e x e c u t e d .
2 0 4
M o s t royal h o s t a g e s would n o t h a v e c o m e to R o m e a l o n e , h o w e v e r destitute they m a y s o u n d in t h e literary s o u r c e s . Polybius' d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e e s c a p e o f D e m e t r i u s I from R o m e shows t h a t h e was s u r r o u n d e d by a l a r g e e n t o u r a g e .
2 0 5
Inscriptions provide occasional reminders o f
t h e p r e s e n c e o f relatives a n d slaves; M a t t h e w s ( 1 9 8 9 , 3 9 ) e v e n suggests that they c o u l d have f o r m e d small f o r e i g n e n c l a v e s in t h e city. T h e r e is a n e p i t a p h for a f r e e d m a n o f K i n g S a m p s i c e r a m u s o f E m e s a , from t h e time o f J u l i u s Caesar or the Julio-Claudian p e r i o d .
2 0 6
Zia, D a c i a n wife
o f K i n g P i e p o r u s o f t h e C o s t o b o c e s i a n s , was c o m m e m o r a t e d at R o m e by h e r g r a n d c h i l d r e n c. AD 1 7 5 - 8 5 , i m p l y i n g that t h e w h o l e family h a d 2 0 7
T h e family of
A b g a r I X ( o r X ) o f O s r h o e n e , w h o was s u m m o n e d
to R o m e a n d
g o n e t h e r e after defeat by M a r c u s A u r e l i u s c. 1 7 0 .
d e p o s e d by C a r a c a l l a , evidently c a m e to R o m e with h i m , since o n e o f his sons c o m m e m o r a t e d a n o t h e r , a g e d 2 6 , t h e r e .
2 0 8
Abgar X (or X I )
P h r a a t e s , w h o was r e s t o r e d by G o r d i a n c. 2 4 2 - 4 , c o m m e m o r a t e d his wife at R o m e , p r e s u m a b l y while in e x i l e . Hostages and
prisoners
2 0 9
m u s t h a v e b e e n less n u m e r o u s
108
than
Why did people move to Rome? a m b a s s a d o r s , but. individuals stayed at R o m e for m u c h l o n g e r . T h e two g r o u p s a r e likely to h a v e m o v e d in similar social circles while at R o m e , a n d b e t w e e n t h e m would have f o r m e d a f o r e i g n
presence
which was q u i t e significant n u m e r i c a l l y a n d e v e n m o r e significant in t e r m s o f its c o n t a c t s a n d p u b l i c profile. Political
refugees
A study o f m o d e r n political refugees divides t h e m into t h r e e categories: activists (who o p p o s e t h e r u l i n g r e g i m e ) , targets (who b e l o n g to special g r o u p s s i n g l e d o u t for v i o l e n c e ) a n d victims ( c a u g h t up r a n d o m l y in violence).
210
R o m e was n o r m a l l y a p l a c e w h e r e p e o p l e w e r e e x i l e d from
r a t h e r t h a n o n e which exiles went lo. T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , r e c o r d s of a n u m b e r of e x i l e s c o m i n g to R o m e from o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e E m p i r e . T h e y b e l o n g to t h e ' t a r g e t s ' c a t e g o r y , a l t h o u g h t h e bestk n o w n o n e s w e r e d i s p l a c e d r u l e r s r a t h e r t h a n t h e victims o f e x i s t i n g r e g i m e s . T h e y a r e all from t h e s a m e b a c k g r o u n d as t h e h o s t a g e s discussed a b o v e . P t o l e m y V I P h i l o m e t o r o f E g y p t c a m e to R o m e in 1 6 4 / 3 BC after b e i n g d r i v e n o u t by his b r o t h e r .
2 1 1
P t o l e m y X I I Auletes
s p e n t s o m e t i m e at R o m e in t h e 5 0 s BC after b e i n g e j e c t e d by his subjects. W h e n t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s sent a d e l e g a t i o n o f o n e h u n d r e d to R o m e to c o m p l a i n a g a i n s t h i m , h e h a d m o s t o f t h e m m u r d e r e d en r o u t e o r in t h e city, a n d b r i b e d o r terrified t h e r e s t .
212
His e x i l e p r o v e d
to b e a fairly short-lived o n e , as h e was r e s t o r e d by G a b i n i u s in 5 5 BC. A u g u s t u s lists ' t h e kings w h o fled to m e as s u p p l i a n t s ' from P a r t h i a , Media, Britain and G e r m a n y .
2 1 3
O n e n o n - r u l e r in t h e s a m e c a t e g o r y is
A p e l l c s , w h o was a c c u s e d of p l o t t i n g a g a i n s t his f o r m e r friend Philip V of M a c e d o n , fled to Italy in 1 7 9 BC, b u t was p e r s u a d e d to r e t u r n h o m e by P e r s e u s a n d m u r d e r e d t h e r e .
2 1 4
S o m e e x i l e d royals n e v e r r e t u r n e d h o m e . A m a n n a m e d C. Iulius A r t a b a s d e s , son o f A r t a b a s d e s a n d g r a n d s o n o f K i n g A r i o b a r z a n e s , w h o died at R o m e a g e d 3 9 a n d was c o m m e m o r a t e d in G r e e k a n d Latin, was p r o b a b l y t h e son o f t h e k i n g o f A r m e n i a a n d M e d i a w h o was e x p e l l e d in AD 3
2 1 5
- a p p a r e n t l y t h e family w e n t i n t o e x i l e at R o m e a n d
stayed t h e r e . I n an i n s c r i p t i o n o n a s a r c o p h a g u s , A u r e l i u s P a c o r u s , ' K i n g o f G r e a t A r m e n i a ' , c o m m e m o r a t e d his b r o t h e r Aurelius M e r i t h a s , w h o h a d lived with him for 5 6 years. T h i s seems to b e a n o t h e r case o f an A r m e n i a n ruler b e i n g e x p e l l e d from his k i n g d o m (probably by V c r u s ) a n d t a k i n g r e f u g e at R o m e with his f a m i l y .
216
Amazaspus, c o m m e m o
r a t e d as ' t h e f a m o u s son o f a king, t h e relative o f K i n g M i t h r i d a t e s ' , b e l o n g e d to t h e royal family o f I b e r i a a n d was c o m m e m o r a t e d at R o m e after b e i n g killed fighting a g a i n s t t h e P a r t h i a n s n e a r N i s i b i s ;
109
217
Moving
lo Rome
h e was p r e s u m a b l y an e x i l e from his h o m e l a n d . R e f u g e e s o f this sort o f b a c k g r o u n d would n o d o u b t h a v e m o v e d in t h e s a m e social circles as hostages and ambassadors. M o s t o f t h e r e f u g e e s w h o c a m e to R o m e from a n o t h e r p a r t o f t h e E m p i r e also a p p e a r to have fallen into t h e ' t a r g e t s ' c a t e g o r y . H e r a c l i u s o f S y r a c u s e a n d E p i c r a t e s o f B i d i s c a m e to R o m e after h a v i n g b e e n ( C i c e r o says) e j e c t e d from t h e i r p r o p e r t y by V e r r e s . T h e y stayed t h e r e for two years b e f o r e leaving with L . M e t e l l u s for his p r o v i n c e .
218
It is
n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r they h a d p r e v i o u s c o n n e c t i o n s with t h e Metelli, b u t t h a t s e e m s likely. J o s e p h u s was in effect a r e f u g e e at R o m e , u n a b l e to r e t u r n to J u d a e a after t h e e n d o f t h e J u d a e a n revolt d e s p i t e b e i n g a l a n d o w n e r t h e r e . I n his case it was t h e p a t r o n a g e o f t h e Flavians which m a d e R o m e a suitable place o f e x i l e for h i m . I n late antiquity, p e o p l e w h o f o u n d t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e E m p i r e unsafe (i.e. t h e 'victims' c a t e g o r y ) m i g h t g o to R o m e , a l t h o u g h this was likely to b e an unwise m o v e in t h e fifth c e n t u r y . P e o p l e from S a v a r i a in P a n n o n i a fled to R o m e w h e n t h e b a r b a r i a n i n c u r s i o n s b e g a n , b r i n g i n g with t h e m t h e r e m a i n s o f St Q u i r i n u s .
2 1 9
F a b i o l a left J e r u s a l e m for R o m e w h e n t h e
H u n s w e r e t h o u g h t to b e a p p r o a c h i n g .
2 2 0
vi. Provision of goods and services Medicine F o r t h o s e with t h e n e c e s s a r y skills, R o m e p r o v i d e d a vast m a r k e t for g o o d s a n d services of all kinds. In s o m e fields, t h e city d e p e n d e d o n t h e f o r e i g n p r e s e n c e to p r o v i d e what it r e q u i r e d . M e d i c i n e , at least until t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, s e e m s to have b e e n o n e , w h e r e t h e r o l e of f o r e i g n e r s was m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h a t o f i n d i g e n o u s practi t i o n e r s . Ways in which t h e state e n c o u r a g e d d o c t o r s to c o m e to R o m e a n d stay t h e r e w e r e n o t e d at p. 4 7 . T h e city evidently a c q u i r e d s o m e t h i n g o f a r e p u t a t i o n as a c e n t r e for m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t , visited by p e o p l e like a s p e a k e r in o n e o f L u c i a n ' s d i a l o g u e s w h o w e n t t h e r e to see an o c u l i s t .
221
G a l e n c o m m e n t s on how it is possible for very special
ized d o c t o r s to p r o l i f e r a t e at R o m e ;
2 2 2
t h e s c o p e for specialization
would b e attractive to d o c t o r s as well as patients. D o c t o r s in t h e E a s t often t r a v e l l e d from city to city anyway, so m o v i n g to R o m e m i g h t s e e m only an e x t e n s i o n of e x i s t i n g p r a c t i c e .
223
T h e g r o w t h of R o m e ' s
p o p u l a t i o n m e a n t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f new diseases, a n d h e n c e a g r o w i n g d e m a n d for d o c t o r s .
224
M e d i c a l t r a i n i n g was available at R o m e , as
well as in t h e traditional c e n t r e s in t h e East such as C o s a n d A l e x a n dria.
2 2 5
T h e r e w e r e a l t e r n a t i v e s to o r t h o d o x m e d i c i n e t h e r e t o o :
m i r a c u l o u s c u r e s w e r e also a v a i l a b l e , at least to C h r i s t i a n s ,
110
and
Why did people
move to Rome ?
S i d o n i u s c l a i m e d to b e c u r e d o f m a l a r i a by g o i n g s t r a i g h t to t h e T o m b o f the Apostles.
226
Most o f t h e d o c t o r s at R o m e for w h o m a n y b i o g r a p h i c a l details a r e k n o w n w e r e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g i m m i g r a n t s from t h e East (mainly G r e e c e a n d Asia), a n d p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t d o c t o r s in t h e s o u r c e s thus o v e r l a p s with p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t G r e e k s .
2 2 7
S o m e w e r e slaves a n d f r e e d m e n , so
class p r e j u d i c e c a n also b c involved. T h e following a r e s o m e of t h o s e r e c o r d e d in literary s o u r c e s with specific places o f o r i g i n ; t h e list is n o t i n t e n d e d to b e e x h a u s t i v e , b u t to show t h e r a n g e of b a c k g r o u n d s . T h i s type o f e v i d e n c e inevitably c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e d o c t o r s w h o h a d t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t p a t i e n t s . A r c h a g a t h u s son o f Lysanias from t h e Pelop o n n e s e b e c a m e R o m e ' s first s t a t e - r e c o g n i z e d d o c t o r in 2 1 9 B C ,
2 2 8
but
t h e r e w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n slave d o c t o r s b r o u g h t b a c k as prison ers o f war b e f o r e t h e n . In t h e late R e p u b l i c , A s c l e p i a d e s o f B i t h y n i a was a c t i v e ,
229
b u t t h e lack o f k n o w n individuals from this p e r i o d m a y
reflect a real lack of d o c t o r s which C a e s a r a n d A u g u s t u s tried to c o u n t e r a c t (sec p. 4 7 ) . A t h c n a e u s o f Attalia w o r k e d t h e r e in t h e t i m e o f Claudius.
250
N e r o ' s chief d o c t o r was A n d r o m a c h u s o f C r e t e , w h o was
s u c c e e d e d by his h o m o n y m o u s s o n .
231
C h a r m i s o f M a r s e i l l e was work
i n g successfully at R o m e in t h e t i m e of t h e E l d e r P l i n y . T r a l l e s was also t h e r e in t h e Flavian p e r i o d .
2 3 3
232
Thessalus o f
Archigenes o f Apamea
was in R o m e in t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y ; Rufus o f E p h e s u s w o r k e d in R o m e a n d E g y p t slightly l a t e r . 138.
2 3 5
234
S o r a n u s o f E p h e s u s flourished c. 9 8 -
G a l e n , c o m i n g to R o m e from P e r g a m u m for t h e first t i m e in
1 6 2 , h a d a p a r t i c u l a r ' p u s h ' factor b e h i n d h i m : t h e envy a n d m a l i c e o f t h e o t h e r d o c t o r s at h o m e .
2 3 6
H e m e n t i o n s a d o c t o r from Sicily, a n d
also his own f e l l o w - c o u n t r y m a n Q u i n t u s .
2 3 7
P h i l o s t r a t u s says that t h e
d o c t o r s w h o a t t e n d e d Philiscus of M e l o s w e r e S e l e u c u s o f Cyzicus a n d S t r a t o c l e s o f S i d o n , a c c o m p a n i e d by o v e r thirty s t u d e n t s
238
- successful
d o c t o r s c o u l d e a r n m o n e y from t e a c h i n g as well as t r e a t m e n t ,
and
presumably
too,
some o f the students tended
to b c i m m i g r a n t s
a l t h o u g h t h e r e w e r e a l t e r n a t i v e c e n t r e s in t h e E a s t for m e d i c a l train ing. A d o c t o r n a m e d Z c t h u s , an A r a b i a n , was a friend o f Plotinus, a n d m a r r i e d t h e d a u g h t e r o f T h e o d o s i u s , a friend o f A m m o n i u s t h e E g y p tian p h i l o s o p h e r (a possible e x a m p l e o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n i m m i g r a n t s o f different b a c k g r o u n d s ) ; h e was successful e n o u g h to a c q u i r e a country property near Minturnac.
2 3 9
E g y p t was also an i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of d o c t o r s for R o m e .
2 4 0
The
E l d e r Pliny, a n o t o r i o u s h a t e r o f d o c t o r s , c o m m e n t s o n t h e i r c o m i n g from E g y p t to m a k e a profit by t r e a t i n g a new skin disease called mentagra
which h a d s p r e a d from A s i a ,
111
241
a n d m e n t i o n s a d o c t o r from
Moving
to Rome
E g y p t called to t r e a t N e r o ' s friend C o s s i n u s .
242
T h e Y o u n g e r Pliny was
t r e a t e d for a serious m e d i c a l c o n d i t i o n , p r e s u m a b l y at R o m e , by an E g y p t i a n ialralipta
(translated by Lewis & S h o r t as ' o i n t m e n t - d o c t o r '
a n d O L D as ' m a s s e u r ' ) n a m e d A r p o c r a s , for w h o m h e successfully a s k e d T r a j a n for R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p . a peregrina
243
T h i s m a n was t h e f r e e d m a n o f
n a m e d T h e r m u t h i s wife o f T h e o n , evidently an E g y p t i a n
herself. Plotinus was t r e a t e d until his d e a t h in 2 7 0 by an A l e x a n d r i a n doctor, Eustochius.
244
T h e r e is also e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for m a n y d o c t o r s w h o a r e clearly shown Tralles;
to b e i m m i g r a n t s , 2 4 5
Claudius
for e x a m p l e C. I u l i u s T h e m i s o n
Zosimus from
A s c l e p i a d e s from E p h e s u s , a g e d 4 0 ;
Ephesus; 2 4 7
2 4 6
from
L. Fonteius Fortis
N i c o m e d e s from
Q . Aelius A r c h e l a u s from N i c o m e d i a , w h o died at 2 2 ;
2 4 9
Smyrna;
2 4 8
the freedman
C. N u m i t o r i u s N i c a n o r from T h e b e s , an e y e - d o c t o r w h o j o i n e d in b u i l d i n g a t o m b in 4 7 B C ;
2 5 0
T . Flavius C o e l i u s S e v e r u s o f S i d e .
251
The
d o c t o r P a t r o n who h a d a very e l a b o r a t e t o m b o n t h e V i a A p p i a may have b e e n a n i m m i g r a n t from Lycia, b u t M o r e t t i t h i n k s h e was p r o b ably b o r n at R o m e (or c a m e t h e r e very y o u n g ) .
2 5 2
Immigrant doctors
a r e m u c h less e v i d e n t in late antiquity, b u t R a p e t i g a from S p a i n , w h o d i e d at 2 5 in AD 3 8 8 , shows that they w e r e still arriving; as h e was c o m m e m o r a t e d by his f a t h e r (not specifically said to b e a d o c t o r ) , they may have practised t o g e t h e r .
2 5 3
T h e availability o f citizenship to d o c
tors is s h o w n by t h e n a m e s o f nearly all t h e d o c t o r s in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s . D o c t o r s , like t e a c h e r s , w e r e s e l f - e m p l o y e d a n d would h a v e
de
p e n d e d o n r e p u t a t i o n to establish a viable business. S o m e m a y h a v e b r o u g h t a big r e p u t a t i o n with t h e m ( a n d e v e n b e e n specifically invited to R o m e , like A r c h a g a t h u s ) , p e r h a p s with testimonials from cities w h e r e they h a d w o r k e d ;
254
o t h e r s would have h a d to c r e a t e it. F l a v i n g
a f a m o u s p a t i e n t o r a c h i e v i n g a s p e c t a c u l a r success would h e l p . T h e b e s t - d o c u m e n t e d case is G a l e n , w h o m a d e his n a m e by c u r i n g s o m e important
p e o p l e a n d giving a n a t o m i c a l d e m o n s t r a t i o n s
to select
a u d i e n c e s . N o d o u b t m a n y d o c t o r s a n d t e a c h e r s failed to establish t h e m s e l v e s in R o m e a n d e i t h e r r e t u r n e d h o m e o r d i e d very p o o r . A c c o r d i n g to G a l e n ( 1 4 . 6 2 0 - 3 ) , n u m e r o u s d o c t o r s c a m e to R o m e from Asia b e c a u s e they h a d b e e n f o u n d to b e i n c o m p e t e n t at h o m e . T h e y m a y h a v e b e e n able to leave t h e i r pasts b e h i n d t h e m , b u t w h e n so m a n y d o c t o r s w e r e m o v i n g to R o m e , it is quite likely that an individual's r e p u t a t i o n w o u l d eventually have c a u g h t up with h i m . O n e i m m i g r a n t w h o may h a v e w o r k e d o n t h e fringes o f t h e m e d i c a l profession is t h e n o t o r i o u s p o i s o n e r L u c u s t a , allegedly p a t r o n i z e d by A g r i p p i n a a n d N e r o . S h e is said to h a v e c o m e to R o m e from G a u l .
112
2 5 5
Why did people
move to Rome ?
H e r 'official' profession was p e r h a p s as s o m e sort o f wise-woman providing herbal or magical remedies. Otherwise, although
women
w e r e clearly active in m e d i c i n e at R o m e , especially as midwives, t h e r e s e e m to b e n o r e c o r d s o f f o r e i g n w o m e n w o r k i n g in this a r e a . S o r a n u s does not c o m m e n t on the preferable background
o f midwives,
a l t h o u g h h e says that w e t - n u r s e s ( w h o m h e p r o b a b l y e x p e c t s to b e slaves) s h o u l d b e G r e e k . Craftspeople
and building
2 5 6
workers
S c u l p t o r s a n d o t h e r h i g h l y skilled c r a f t s p e o p l e a r e m e n t i o n e d
as
i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e several t i m e s in l i t e r a t u r e . A c c o r d i n g to t h e E l d e r Pliny, a H e l v e t i a n n a m e d (Jabrilem
ob artem),
H e l i c o , w o r k i n g at R o m e as a s c u l p t o r
t o o k h o m e with h i m d r i e d figs a n d g r a p e s which
e n c o u r a g e d t h e G a u l s to i n v a d e I t a l y .
257
After t h e d a t e o f this n o d o u b t
s p u r i o u s a n d a n a c h r o n i s t i c story, s c u l p t o r s s e e m to h a v e c o m e from t h e East. S o m e o f t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t in t h e t i m e o f J u l i u s C a e s a r a n d Augustus were A t h e n i a n s .
258
Z e n o d o r u s , w h o h a d m a d e a colossal
statue o f M e r c u r y for t h e A r v e r n e s , was b r o u g h t to R o m e by N e r o to m a k e his C o l o s s u s ;
259
his n a m e suggests h e was originally o f e a s t e r n
o r i g i n ( a l t h o u g h h e m i g h t b e a Massilian). T h e s c u l p t o r c a m e from E g y p t in t h e late first c e n t u r y A D .
260
Diodorus
In the mid-late second
c e n t u r y , Z e n o o f A p h r o d i s i a s , w h o h a d 'passed t h r o u g h m a n y cities', m a d e 'a t o m b a n d stele a n d statue I m y s e l f s c u l p t e d ' for his d e c e a s e d son, his wife a n d h i m s e l f now a g e d 7 0 .
2 0 1
E u t y c h e s t h e B i t h y n i a n was
t h e s c u l p t o r o f a work associated with a t h l e t i c s . e p i t a p h for a p a i n t e r (^coypd^oc;) from L a o d i c e a .
262
T h e r e is also an
2 6 3
C r a f t s p e o p l e p r o d u c i n g l u x u r y g o o d s with p r e c i o u s m e t a l s o r stones w e r e often ex-slaves, b u t occasionally free i m m i g r a n t s . O n e e x a m p l e from an i n s c r i p t i o n is t h e g o l d s m i t h E u b o u l u s from C o r i n t h .
2 6 4
Kolb
( 1 9 9 5 , 4 6 7 ) shows t h a t R o m e was a p r o d u c t i o n c e n t r e for gold a n d silver, a n d 1 3 8 o f 1 8 7 g o l d a n d silver w o r k e r s k n o w n from i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e from R o m e ; 8 0 o f t h e m w e r e i n d e p e n d e n t , r a t h e r t h a n slaves o r ex-slaves w o r k i n g for t h e i r o w n e r s / p a t r o n s . T h e r e was a h i g h d e g r e e o f specialization, a n d it is likely t h a t t h e size o f t h e m a r k e t at R o m e allowed p e o p l e to specialize in m a k i n g , for e x a m p l e ,
finger-rings
or
a r m - r i n g s , w h e r e a s e l s e w h e r e they would h a v e h a d to act as g e n e r a l g o l d - a n d s i l v e r s m i t h s (cf. t h e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f d o c t o r s
discussed
a b o v e ) . A u g u s t i n e c o m m e n t s o n t h e n u m b e r o f specialists in 'Silver s m i t h s ' S t r e e t ' (vicus Argentarius)
in R o m e w h o a r e r e q u i r e d to p r o d u c e
a single o b j e c t which c o u l d m o r e easily h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d by o n e craftsman.
265
113
Moving
to Rome lbb
P e o p l e d e s c r i b e d as marmorarii
w e r e involved in t h e m a r b l e t r a d e ,
which m u s t h a v e b e e n a very i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f e m p l o y m e n t , o r w o r k e d with m a r b l e . A p a r t from t h e use o f m a r b l e in b u i l d i n g , t h e fashion
for m a r b l e s a r c o p h a g i at R o m e f r o m
the early second
c e n t u r y AD also p r o v i d e d work. S o m e o f t h e m a r b l e for b u i l d i n g a n d for s a r c o p h a g i was i m p o r t e d from G r e e c e ( M o u n t P e n t e l i c u s ) , E g y p t , N u m i d i a a n d Asia ( D o c i m a e u m , nesus),
2 0 8
2 6 7
E p h e s u s , a n d especially P r o c o n -
a n d t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f Asian styles o f s a r c o p h a g u s at R o m e
suggests t h e p r e s e n c e o f Asian c r a f t s m e n t h e r e as well as t h e i m p o r t a tion o f c o m p l e t e s a r c o p h a g i . M o s t k n o w n
immigrants
connected
directly o r indirectly with t h e m a r b l e t r a d e c o m e from Asia M i n o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y from B i t h y n i a . A leukourgos
( w o r k e r in m a r b l e o r o t h e r 209
white s t o n e ) from N i c o m e d i a a g e d 5 4 is c o m m e m o r a t e d at P o r t u s . A n o t h e r B i t h y n i a n w h o h a d his own statio
(probably a workshop or
w a r e h o u s e in this c o n t e x t ) at the ' P e t r o n i a n W a r e h o u s e s ' was d e s c r i b e d o n his s a r c o p h a g u s as 'first o f lithemporoi
(i.e. s t o n e d e a l e r s ) .
270
Q . l u l i u s M i l e t u s , from T r i p o l i s in Asia, left a G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n o n a l a r g e m a r b l e altar r e c o r d i n g t h a t h e c a m e to R o m e to see t h e g a m e s in t h e t i m e of S e v e r u s , a n d t h a t h e e r e c t e d s o m e sort of b u i l d i n g at his own e x p e n s e while t h e r e . S i n c e h e also asks, ' S e r a p i s , save t h e r a c e o f marmarioi',
h e is likely to have b e e n a marmorarius
himself. A c i p p u s
with an i n s c r i p t i o n in G r e e k a n d Latin r e c o r d s his w o r k m e n a n d his alumnus
Q . l u l i u s F a e n t i u s h o n o u r i n g h i m , so his visit to R o m e a p
p e a r s to h a v e b e e n m o r e t h a n a s i g h t s e e i n g t r i p .
271
O t h e r b u i l d i n g - w o r k e r s travelled l o n g d i s t a n c e s to R o m e t o o . T i m o t h e u s , a structor,
2 7 2
c a m e from L a o d i c e a , a l t h o u g h h e was well
e n o u g h a c c u l t u r a t e d to h a v e a L a t i n e p i t a p h ,
273
u n l i k e m o s t first-
g e n e r a t i o n i m m i g r a n t s from t h a t a r e a . A n o t h e r B i t h y n i a n , M a x i m u s from N i c o m e d i a , a b u i l d e r - c a r p e n t e r a g e d 2 2 , has details o f his p a r e n t s in his e p i t a p h , a n d may h a v e c o m e as p a r t of a family g r o u p .
2 7 4
A r c h i t e c t s a r e a m o n g t h e G r e e k i m m i g r a n t s c o m p l a i n e d a b o u t by J u v e n a l ' s U m b r i c i u s , a n d k n o w n i m m i g r a n t architects in t h e real world 27
i n c l u d e A p o l l o d o r u s from D a m a s c u s w h o d e s i g n e d T r a j a n ' s F o r u m . " ' Trade/business G r a i n , wine a n d oil, as well as o t h e r foods a n d l u x u r y g o o d s , w e r e i m p o r t e d to R o m e from o v e r s e a s . T h e t r a d e in oil a n d wine s e e m s to h a v e c o m e to b e d o m i n a t e d by p e o p l e from S p a i n in t h e s e c o n d century AD. ily,
277
2 7 0
M o s t t r a d e r s would h a v e b e e n at R o m e only t e m p o r a r
like a P h r y g i a n c o m m e m o r a t e d at P o r t u s w h o d i e d o n his
travels,
278
the Nicomedians who h o n o u r e d Caracalla t h e r e ,
114
2 7 9
or a man
Why did people
move lo Rome ?
from E g y p t w h o travelled to R o m e via Syria, Asia a n d G r e e c e , a n d c o r r e s p o n d e d with p e o p l e at h o m e a b o u t c o t t o n a n d p u r p l e d y e .
2 8 0
T w o o t h e r p a p y r u s letters from t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD m a y also r e f e r to t r a d i n g voyages to R o m e . I n o n e , a c o r r e s p o n d e n t a s k s :
2 8 1
Find out whether Dioscorus has come from Rome, and give him hearty greetings in my name. Meet Ptolemaeus, the agent o f Dioscorus, and ask what he has done in regard to my letter which you delivered to him; and if he has finished the business which I set upon him, good luck to him! But if Dioscorus is not present, send Ptolemaeus so that from him Dioscorus...and when he comes, may give a personal promise...himself. D e c i a n u s , an o p p o n e n t o f C i c e r o a t t a c k e d in t h e Pro Flacco,
was in
b u s i n e s s at P e r g a m u m for 3 0 years b e f o r e c o m i n g to R o m e , p r e s u m ably n o t as a p e r m a n e n t settler, to sell T y r i a n p u r p l e . M i n u c i u s F e l i x in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y A D ,
2 8 3
2 8 2
A c c o r d i n g to
his f r i e n d
Octavius
I a n u a r i u s ' h a d m a d e his way to R o m e for t h e p u r p o s e o f b u s i n e s s a n d o f visiting m e . ' Particularly important
t r a d i n g g r o u p s e s t a b l i s h e d stationes
(see
p. 1 6 0 ) , which m u s t h a v e b e e n staffed by p e o p l e w h o stayed at R o m e o r Ostia for l o n g p e r i o d s i f n o t p e r m a n e n t l y . T h e y m i g h t b e financially d e p e n d e n t o n p r o s p e r o u s c o m p a t r i o t s : t h e statio
o f T r a l l e s in t h e
F o r u m R o m a n u m was built by a w o m a n n a m e d G a l e n e for her c. 2 1 1 - 2 1 7 , a n d t h e T y r i a n statio
h o m e city (see p. 1 6 1 ) . O s t i a also h a d its own corpus negotiantium
vinariorum
patris,
h a d close financial links with t h e inportantium
et
for p e o p l e in t h e wine t r a d e ; in p r a c t i c e i f n o t
in t h e o r y , this m a y h a v e b e e n an o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p e o p l e from S p a i n .
2 8 4
At O s t i a , s o m e individuals involved in t r a d e a p p e a r to h a v e t a k e n up p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n c e , such as L. C a e l i u s Aprilis V a l e r i a n u s , d e s c r i b e d as curator
o f t h e C a r t h a g i n i a n ships inavium
a t o m b for h i m s e l f a n d his wife t h e r e . S o m e o n e who wanted
Karthafg.J),
w h o built
2 8 5
to c a r r y o n a n i m p o r t / e x p o r t
business
e m b r a c i n g b o t h R o m e a n d t h e h o m e l a n d would n e e d an a g e n t b a s e d at o n e e n d . T h e m o s t likely p r o c e d u r e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n for t h e h e a d o f t h e firm to r e m a i n at h o m e while installing an a g e n t at R o m e . L e g a l texts c o n s i d e r cases w h e r e t h e m e r c h a n t uses his slave o r his son as agent there.
2 8 6
Similar scenarios can be imagined behind some o f the
t r a d e r s m e n t i o n e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e i r e x a c t situation is usually u n c l e a r . T h e f r e e d m a n
L. Numisius Agathemerus
H i s p a n i a C i t e r i o r was a t r a d e r at O s t i a a n d a sevir P. C l o d i u s A t h e n i o , a
negotians
salsarius
from 2
7
Augustalis. *
( d e a l e r in g a r u m )
from
M a l a g a , was an officer o f t h e C o r p o r a t i o n o f T r a d e r s o f M a l a g a , a n d is r e c o r d e d at h o m e a l t h o u g h h e d i e d at R o m e a n d was c o m m e m o r a t e d
115
Moving
to Rome
t h e r e by his w i f e .
288
C. S e n t i u s R e g u l i a n u s , an eques a n d a sevir at L y o n
b u t b u r i e d at R o m e , i m p o r t e d wine from L y o n a n d oil from B a e t i c a .
2 8 9
T h e Fadii at O s t i a m a y h a v e b e e n a g e n t s o f S e x . F a d i u s S e c u n d u s M u s a o f N a r b o n n e , w h o also t r a d e d in S p a n i s h o i l . involved in t h e s a m e t r a d e at Ostia as diffusores Astigi in B a e t i c a .
291
290
T h e D. Caecilii
h a d c o n n e c t i o n s with
Coelia Mascellina, the daughter o f a
negotiatrix
involved in t h e t r a d e from B a e t i c a , s e e m s to h a v e c o n t i n u e d in it herself.
292
F o r e i g n t r a d e r s did n o t only deal in food a n d wine. In a c o m b i n e d epitaph o f a Cilician freedman, his freedwoman wife a n d a Paphlagonian freedman,
t h e C i l i c i a n is d e s c r i b e d as negotiator
P a p h l a g o n i a n as mercator
293
sagarius.
and
the
B o t h d e a l t in m a n t l e s : t h e
sagarius
first
o n e w h o l e s a l e ( n o t necessarily j u s t at R o m e ) , a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e retail. M. L i c i n i u s M.l. L a e t u s was a vestiarius a n u m b e r o f o t h e r vestiarii
from N a r b o n n e ,
are recorded.
2 9 4
a city w h e r e
2 9 5
P e o p l e r e c o r d e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s at R o m e as selling p r o d u c e w h i c h m i g h t b e from t h e i r h o m e l a n d s m a y also r e p r e s e n t o n e e n d o f a n i m p o r t / e x p o r t business. L. Lutatius Paccius, an incense-dealer
(thurarius),
was originally a m e m b e r o f t h e h o u s e h o l d o f ' K i n g M i t h r i d a t e s ' , p r o b ably t h e o n e d e f e a t e d by P o m p e y , a n d h a d t h e r e f o r e c o m e from s o m e w h e r e in Asia, a likely s o u r c e o f t h e p r o d u c e h e s o l d . T e l e s p h o r u s was an unguenlarius was an olearius
from L y o n ;
from A i x - e n - P r o v e n c e .
c a m e from S y r i a .
2 9 9
sale several t i m e s ,
296
L. Faenius
L . l u l i u s M.f. F u s c u s
T h e wine-dealer Eusebius
Oil from B a e t i c a is specified as t h e c o m m o d i t y for
3 0 0
second century AD.
298
2 9 7
301
a n d its d e a l e r s h a d t h e i r own c o r p o r a t i o n in t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l businesses m a y also exist w h e r e a
d i r e c t link is n o t m a d e c l e a r ; for e x a m p l e , Ricci suggests a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n S p a i n , t h e m a i n p r o d u c e r o f minium, k n o w n at R o m e .
a n d t h e two
miniarii
3 0 2
I n o t h e r cases, t h e r e is n o a p p a r e n t link b e t w e e n h o m e l a n d a n d t h e n a t u r e o f t h e business c a r r i e d o n at R o m e . A u r e l i u s Diza from M o e s i a is d e s c r i b e d j u s t as negotians;
possibly a r e t i r e d s o l d i e r since h e was
c o m m e m o r a t e d by a soldier s e r v i n g in t h e U r b a n C o h o r t s ,
3 0 3
but, as h e
d i e d at 4 0 a n d t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t h e h a d b e e n in t h e a r m y h i m s e l f , m o r e likely a civilian with a military f r i e n d o r r e l a t i v e . T . A u r e l i u s P r i m u s , a librarius from N o r i c u m ;
304
(perhaps a bookseller or copyist), c a m e
M. Ulpius Castoras is d e s c r i b e d as librarius
M. Ulpius Chariton, an imperial freedman a b a n k e r , was from S a r d i n i a .
3 0 6
305
Arabicus.
who may have
been
T w o b a n k e r s w h o w e r e in p a r t n e r s h i p
in t h e R o m a n F o r u m w e r e respectively a P h r y g i a n a n d a S y r i a n from Antioch.
307
A nummularius
( m o n e y - l e n d e r o r - c h a n g e r ) w h o w o r k e d at
116
Why did people t h e Basilica I u l i a was a B e s s a n .
3 0 8
move to Rome?
In s o m e cases t h e s e p e o p l e may have
c o m e to R o m e with t h e i n t e n t i o n o f g o i n g i n t o a p a r t i c u l a r business, o r they m a y h a v e b e e n f r e e d m e n r e c e i v i n g financial b a c k i n g from t h e i r p a t r o n s , b u t they m a y also have h a d m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d e m p l o y m e n t histories in which they w o r k e d at various j o b s b e f o r e t h e o n e s they a r e c o m m e m o r a t e d with. Entertainment S e n e c a lists ' t h e shows' as a r e a s o n for c o m i n g to R o m e , a n d may h a v e b e e n t h i n k i n g o f s p e c t a t o r s r a t h e r t h a n p e r f o r m e r s . T h e g a m e s at R o m e w e r e allegedly an a t t r a c t i o n for visitors at an e a r l y p e r i o d in R o m a n history: a late s o u r c e says that H i e r o o f S y r a c u s e c a m e to watch t h e m after t h e P u n i c W a r , a n d m a d e a gift o f g r a i n to t h e R o m a n people.
3 0 9
L a r g e n u m b e r s w e r e c e r t a i n l y c o m i n g by t h e i m p e r i a l pe
r i o d . O v i d says t h a t 'a g r e a t world was in t h e city' for A u g u s t u s ' Naumachia.
310
Martial, n o d o u b t with s o m e e x a g g e r a t i o n , lists t h e places
from which p e o p l e h a d c o m e for t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e C o l o s s e u m :
311
What race is so secluded or so barbarous, Caesar, That there is not a spectator from it in your city? T h e Thracian farmer has come from Orphic Haemus, T h e Sarmatian has come, fed on what he has drunk from his horse, And those who drink the first waters o f the discovered Nile, And those whom the waves of furthest Tethys strike. T h e Arab hurried, the Sabacans hurried, And the Cilicians were drenched with their clouds here. T h e Sigambrians came, with their hair twisted into a knot, And the Ethiopians with their hair twisted in a different way. T h e partly p r e s e r v e d w o r k by F l o r u s , Vergilius
Orator an Poeta,
set in
t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y , b e g i n s with s o m e m e n from B a e t i c a w h o h a v e b e e n to R o m e for t h e g a m e s b e i n g blown o f f c o u r s e o n t h e journey home.
3 1 2
E n o u g h p e o p l e c a m e from Cadiz in t h e t h i r d - f o u r t h
c e n t u r i e s to h a v e t h e i r own d e s i g n a t e d seats at t h e C o l o s s e u m .
313
In
4 0 3 , t h e m o n k T e l e m a c h u s c a m e from t h e E a s t to try to stop t h e gladiatorial g a m e s at R o m e , a n d was l y n c h e d as a r e s u l t .
314
S p e c t a t o r s p r e s u m a b l y c a m e to R o m e for t h e g a m e s a n d
then
r e t u r n e d h o m e . H o w e v e r , e n t e r t a i n e r s at R o m e w e r e very often t e m porary or permanent
residents. F o r some, especially charioteers,
R o m e was p r o b a b l y t h e i r u l t i m a t e d e s t i n a t i o n . I f they w e r e not suc cessful, they c o u l d m o v e o n to s o m e w h e r e s m a l l e r , like t h e a c t o r T h e o c r i t u s w h o was given his c h a n c e o n stage at R o m e by C o m m o d u s ' c h a m b e r l a i n S a o t e r u s o f N i c o m e d i a , b u t was unsuccessful a n d w e n t to Lyon, 'where
he delighted
the people, since they were 117
rather
Moving
to Rome 5
countrified'. '
5
O t h e r e n t e r t a i n e r s , particularly a c t o r s a n d m u s i c i a n s ,
m a y h a v e b e l o n g e d to travelling t r o u p e s which m o v e d o n after p e r f o r m i n g at R o m e . M a n y o f t h e s e p e o p l e w e r e slaves w h o h a d c h o i c e . P h o e b e , an emboliaria
no
( i n t e r l u d e - p e r f o r m e r ) from V o c o n t i a in
G a u l , 'skilled in t h e art o f e v e r y t h i n g ' b u t d e a d at 1 2 , was p r o b a b l y a slave.
3 1 6
E c l o g a , w h o d i e d at 1 8 , was a m i m e - a c t r e s s o f K i n g J u b a ,
presumably
w h i l e h e was r e s i d e n t at R o m e .
3 1 7
Others
achieved
manumission, and freeborn entertainers are recorded too. A c t o r s a n d d a n c e r s o f various sorts often c a m e to R o m e from t h e East. A n t i p a t e r o f T h e s s a l o n i c a has a p o e m a b o u t t h e d a n c e r Pylades c o m i n g from T h e b e s to Italy to p e r f o r m as B a c c h u s , a very p o p u l a r pantomimus dria.
319
T h e comoedus
3 1 8
and Bathyllus,
in t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s , c a m e from A l e x a n
is o n e o f t h e u n d e s i r a b l e G r e e k i m m i g r a n t s listed 3
by J u v e n a l ' s c h a r a c t e r U m b r i c i u s , -
0
a n d t h e fact that a c t o r s w e r e
t e m p o r a r i l y e x p e l l e d o n several o c c a s i o n s also suggests t h e i r p e r c e i v e d i m m i g r a n t status (see p. 4 5 ) . V e r u s in p a r t i c u l a r was t h o u g h t to h a v e b r o u g h t a l a r g e n u m b e r o f s t a g e - p e r f o r m e r s to R o m e :
3 2 1
Verus also kept the actor Agrippus, with the cognomen Memfius, a man whom he had also brought out of Syria like a Parthian trophy, and he named him Apolaustus. He had brought with him also both fluteplayers and pipe-players, actors, jesters, mime-actors and conjurors, and all the sorts o f slaves which Syria and Alexandria take pleasure in, to such an extent that he seemed to have finished not a Parthian war but an actors' war. 322
F o r e i g n a c t o r s o c c u r in a n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e r e is an e p i t a p h by M . V o l c i u s ( c o g n o m e n lost), an a c t o r in L a t i n plays from B i t h y n i a , for his o n e - y e a r - o l d s o n .
3 2 3
M. A u r e l i u s Pylades, a pantomimus
w h o was
' a p p r o v e d ' by V a l e r i a n a n d G a l l i e n u s a n d w h o was a c i t y - c o u n c i l l o r o f Ascalon a n d D a m a s c u s , r e c e i v e d an h o n o r i f i c i n s c r i p t i o n at O s t i a , where he had presumably performed.
3 2 4
M o s t g l a d i a t o r s c a m e to R o m e in a n o n y m o u s masses o f p r i s o n e r s like t h e D a c i a n s a n d S u e b i a n s w h o f o u g h t a mass c o m b a t in 2 9 B C .
3 2 5
S o m e , h o w e v e r , a r e shown by t h e i r e p i t a p h s to h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d fami lies a n d to h a v e a c h i e v e d free status ( a l t h o u g h t h a t d o e s n o t necessarily m e a n t h a t they h a d c o m e to R o m e voluntarily in t h e first p l a c e ) . W i e d e m a n n ( 1 9 9 2 , 1 1 4 ) suggests that gladiators w e r e a g r o u p p a r t i c u larly k e e n 'to claim a distinct e t h n i c b a c k g r o u n d ' in t h e i r e p i t a p h s . F o r example, M. Antonius
E x o c h u s , an Alexandrian, fought
P a r t h i a n t r i u m p h h e l d after T r a j a n ' s d e a t h .
3 2 6
Fuscinus the
at
the
provocalor
a n d his wife T a o n , b o t h E g y p t i a n s , c o m m e m o r a t e d t h e i r 4 - y e a r - o l d son S e r e n u s .
3 2 7
A n o t h e r A l e x a n d r i a n , M a c e d o , a Thraex
118
tiro w h o d i e d
Why did people at 2 0 , was c o m m e m o r a t e d by his fellow ' T h r a c i a n s ' . E g y p t i a n v e t e r a n hastarius,
fought eight t i m e s .
3 2 9
move to Rome? 3 2 8
Pardus,
an
T h e predominance of
E g y p t i a n s c a n b e l i n k e d to an i n s c r i p t i o n , first r e c o r d e d at Puteoli, p u t u p by a m a n w h o s e e q u e s t r i a n c a r e e r i n c l u d e d b e i n g in c h a r g e o f t h e e m p e r o r ' s gladiatorial t r o u p e at A l e x a n d r i a ;
330
it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e
was an i m p e r i a l l y - c o n t r o l l e d system for b r i n g i n g E g y p t i a n g l a d i a t o r s to R o m e . O t h e r individuals a r e r e c o r d e d from t h e W e s t : for e x a m p l e , M . U l p i u s A r a c i n t h u s , a retiarius,
c a m e from
' S a m n i t e ' T h e l y p h u s was from T h r a c e .
Spain,
3 3 1
and
the
3 3 2
T h e g a m e s in t h e a m p h i t h e a t r e s also r e q u i r e d a n i m a l s to b e b r o u g h t from all p a r t s o f t h e e m p i r e , a n d from o u t s i d e it. T h e e x a c t details o f t h e p r o c e s s by which they r e a c h e d R o m e a r e little k n o w n ,
3 3 3
but
specialist k e e p e r s m u s t often h a v e c o m e with t h e m . S t r a b o r e c o r d s t h a t p e o p l e from D e n d e r a in E g y p t c a m e to R o m e with t h e c r o c o d i l e s s e n t from t h e r e .
3 3 4
S u c h p e o p l e would p r e s u m a b l y r e t u r n h o m e after t h e
a n i m a l s h a d b e e n killed, b u t it is likely t h a t s o m e w o u l d h a v e m a d e r e p e a t e d j o u r n e y s with n e w b a t c h e s o f a n i m a l s . P e r f o r m i n g e l e p h a n t s a p p e a r s o m e t i m e s to h a v e h a d h a n d l e r s with t h e m at R o m e w h o c a m e from t h e s a m e h o m e a r e a s as t h e a n i m a l s , such as E t h i o p i a . Charioteers tended
to c o m e from t h e W e s t in t h e
335
first-second
c e n t u r i e s AD. T h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s available to t h e m at R o m e w e r e clearly far g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e available a n y w h e r e else, a n d t h e city m u s t h a v e h a d an a t t r a c t i o n like t h a t o f S e r i e A for top-class E u r o p e a n footballers now. T h o s e w h o b e g a n t h e i r c a r e e r s as slaves w e r e p r e s u m a b l y s e n t to R o m e b e c a u s e o f t h e g r e a t e r s c o p e for m a k i n g a profit for t h e i r o w n e r s o r p a t r o n s t h e r e . C. A p p u l e i u s Diocles, w h o s e c a r e e r b e g a n in AD 1 2 2 a n d w h o m a d e his r e p u t a t i o n with t h e R e d s , c a m e from L u s i t a n i a ;
330
h e d i e d at 4 2 . C r e s c e n s , a n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y successful B l u e c h a r i o t e e r w h o d i e d at 2 2 in AD 1 2 4 after a 9 - y e a r c a r e e r , was from M a u r e t a n i a .
337
T h e G r e e n c h a r i o t e e r M. A u r e l i u s L i b e r r e c e i v e d a d e d i c a t i o n from his son o n a c c o u n t o f t h r e e victories; b o t h a r e said to b e A f r i c a n s .
338
The
R e d c h a r i o t e e r A u r e l i u s P o l y p h e m u s , said to b e ' C a e s a r e a n by r a c e ' , is t h e r e f o r e p r o b a b l y from C a e s a r e a in M a u r e t a n i a .
339
In 4 0 1 , Symmachus
was still h a v i n g c h a r i o t e e r s a n d a c t o r s s e n t to R o m e from S i c i l y .
340
T h e r e may, however, have been something o f a change over time, s i n c e l a t e r i n s c r i p t i o n s attest c h a r i o t e e r s from t h e East: o n e Cappadocia Orient.
342
3 4 1
from
a n d a n o t h e r from s o m e w h e r e in t h e D i o c e s e o f t h e
Elagabalus' favourite, the c h a r i o t e e r Hierocles, was a C a r i a n .
C h a r i o t e e r s w e r e p e r h a p s less likely to b e
first-generation
3 4 3
immigrants
t h a n o t h e r e n t e r t a i n e r s , since t h e r e was s o m e t h i n g o f a t e n d e n c y for t h e j o b to r u n in f a m i l i e s .
344
119
Moving
to Rome
C a l i g u l a h e l d c o n t e s t s at R o m e for t h e best b o x e r s o f Africa a n d C a m p a n i a , a n d various o t h e r o n e - o f f G r e e k - s t y l e g a m e s w e r e h e l d at R o m e in t h e late R e p u b l i c a n d early E m p i r e .
3 4 5
T h e f o u n d i n g of t h e
C a p i t o l i n e G a m e s by D o m i t i a n m a d e R o m e a m o r e attractive p l a c e for a t h l e t e s , as well as high-status m u s i c i a n s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e p o e t s .
346
A n u m b e r o f a n e c d o t e s r e c o r d e d by the d r e a m - i n t e r p r e t e r A r t e m i d o r u s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e g a m e s h a d c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e for p e o p l e in t h e East, for e x a m p l e :
3 4 7
T h e Syrian wrestler Leonas, when he was about to compete in the contest in Rome, dreamt that he had died and was being buried. M o s t w o u l d h a v e visited o n c e in four years, w h e n t h e g a m e s w e r e h e l d , p r o b a b l y c o m p e t i n g at N a p l e s a n d , from t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, Puteoli t o o .
3 4 8
I f they w e r e professionals, t h e y would have followed t h e
circuit o f g a m e s a r o u n d t h e e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n at o t h e r t i m e s . H o w e v e r , s o m e o f t h e p e o p l e m e n t i o n e d below a p p e a r to h a v e settled at R o m e , at least t e m p o r a r i l y , a n d s o m e r e t i r e d a t h l e t e s p r o b a b l y stayed o n at R o m e o r in I t a l y .
349
T . Flavius A r t e m i d o r u s , a p a n c r a t i a s t
w h o was a citizen o f A d a r a a n d A n t i o c h in S y r i a , won t h e C a p i t o l i n e c o n t e s t in 8 6 , a n d was p e r h a p s r e w a r d e d citizenship;
3 5 0
with
h e was also v i c t o r i o u s at t h e O l y m p i a n ,
first
Roman Pythian,
N e m e a n a n d Actian G a m e s , a m o n g m a n y o t h e r s , a n d was p r e s u m a b l y a p r o f e s s i o n a l in view of t h e l a r g e n u m b e r o f places at which h e c o m p e t e d . O t h e r cities r e w a r d e d victors with c i t i z e n s h i p , so it would fit t h e e t h o s o f t h e g a m e s i f R o m e did t h e s a m e . Caldelli ( 1 9 9 3 , 9 0 - 4 ) , p r o v i d e s t h e following list of o r i g i n s for k n o w n p a r t i c i p a n t s ( n e a r l y all victors):
TABLE
f f. Origins of competitors at Capitoline Games
Italy Gallia Narbonensis Greece Asia Mysia Lydia Caria Chios Cos Cyprus
6 1 1
Crete Bithynia et Pontus Galatia Lycia et Pamphylia Cilicia Syria Egypt Alexandria Egypt Africa
3 8 8 1 1 1
1 6 3 1 3 3 5 4 2
A t h l e t e s w e r e invariably geos;graphically m o b i l e , a n d t h e fact t h a t
120
Why did people a successful a t h l e t e was h o n o u r e d
at N a p l e s by a n
move to Rome ? Alexandrian
a t h l e t i c association m a y i n d i c a t e that t h e w h o l e g r o u p h a d c o m e to 351
Italy t o g e t h e r .
T h e p l a c e o f t h e C a p i t o l i n e G a m e s on t h e c i r c u i t is
shown by a n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s from N a p l e s h o n o u r i n g
people
w h o w e r e victorious at R o m e , N a p l e s a n d e l s e w h e r e ; for e x a m p l e P. Aelius A n t i g e n i d a s o f N i c o m e d i a in t h e m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD. H e h a d 'played t h e aula to t h e R o m a n p e o p l e for 2 0 y e a r s ' b e f o r e r e t i r i n g at t h e a g e o f 3 5 ( p e r h a p s to r e t u r n h o m e ) , a n d his successes i n c l u d e d o n e at t h e first E u s e b e i a at Puteoli, two at R o m e , a n d t h r e e at Naples, w h e r e h e r e c e i v e d local c i t i z e n s h i p .
352
M o r e t t i t h i n k s that A u r e l i u s H e r o d e s from P h i l a d e l p h i a in Lydia, c o m m e m o r a t e d in a R o m a n e p i t a p h as ' c h i e f - s e c r e t a r y o f t h e associa tion' (dp%iypa|Li.|!aT£i)<; ^voxov), was c h i e f s e c r e t a r y o f t h e xystos (associa tion) o f a t h l e t e s , synodos
xystike
353
since P h i l a d e l p h i a was a c e n t r e for a t h l e t e s . T h e
(association h e a d q u a r t e r s ) b u i l d i n g n e a r t h e B a t h s o f
T r a j a n was f o u n d e d by M. U l p i u s D o m e s t i c u s , a successful p a n c r a t i a s t from E p h e s u s .
3 5 4
H e p r o b a b l y got t h e p r o m i s e o f a site from H a d r i a n
a n d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e p r o m i s e from A n t o n i n u s P i u s .
355
b u i l d i n g d e s c r i b e d in a late f o u r t h - c e n t u r y i n s c r i p t i o n as adetarum
(sic)
curia,
A
with m e m b e r s called xystici, m u s t b e t h e s a m e o n e , so it was a
long-lived i n s t i t u t i o n .
356
It would have a c c o m m o d a t e d a t h l e t e s visiting
R o m e , a n d m a y h a v e b e e n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h e a d q u a r t e r s for a t h l e t i c clubs t o o .
3 5 7
A t h l e t e s c o u l d b e o f high status at h o m e : t h e w r e s t l e r M.
A u r e l i u s S a r a p i o n p u t up a d e d i c a t i o n at P o r t u s to his father, a n Alexandrian city-councillor.
358
T h e C a p i t o l i n e G a m e s w e r e also an a t t r a c t i o n for p o e t s , w h o m u s t b e a m o n g t h e p e o p l e S e n e c a d e s c r i b e s as c o m i n g to R o m e with 'elo q u e n c e for sale'. T h e p o e t P. A n n i u s F l o r u s c a m e from Africa to c o m p e t e as a boy, b u t was d e p r i v e d o f t h e c r o w n by D o m i t i a n ' n o t b e c a u s e h e b e g r u d g e d it to you as a boy, b u t so that t h e c r o w n o f g r e a t J u p i t e r would n o t fall to Africa', a n d left R o m e , e v e n t u a l l y settling at Tarragona.
3 5 9
Martial r e f e r s to t h e p o e t D i o d o r u s wishing to travel
from A l e x a n d r i a to R o m e for t h e G a m e s in 9 4 .
3 6 0
H o w e v e r , R o m e already attracted poets b e f o r e t h e t i m e o f D o m i t i a n . A number
o f writers
in t h e G r e e k A n t h o l o g y m e n t i o n
( a l t h o u g h n o t necessarily settling) t h e r e .
3 0 1
staying
A r c h i a s c a m e to R o m e from
A n t i o c h via Asia, G r e e c e a n d s o u t h e r n Italy, p r e c e d e d by his r e p u t a tion. I f C i c e r o c a n b e b e l i e v e d , h e was t a k e n in by t h e Luculli while still praetextatus,
i.e. a t e e n a g e r .
3 6 2
T h i s illustrates what a p o e t would n o r
mally h a v e to d o to m a k e a living w i t h o u t t e a c h i n g : find a rich p a t r o n . E v e n M a r t i a l was d e p e n d e n t o n t h e Y o u n g e r Pliny a n d o t h e r s to pay
121
Moving
lo Rome
for his r e t u r n to S p a i n (see p. 5 4 ) . T h e C r e t a n M e s o m e d e s , a lyric p o e t w h o was a f r e e d m a n o f H a d r i a n , o w e d his success to a p a n e g y r i c o f Antinous.
3 6 3
An i n s c r i p t i o n with t h e t e x t o f a p o e m d e d i c a t e d
to
C. C a e i o n i u s Rufius V o l u s i a n u s , U r b a n Prefect in 3 6 5 - 6 , by E u d e m o s o f L a o d i c e a (in P h r y g i a ) m a y i n d i c a t e t h e s a m e p r o c e s s o f p a t r o n a g e at w o r k in late a n t i q u i t y .
304
A n o t h e r f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p t i o n r e c o r d s an
o r a c l e given at R o m e to S e p t i m i u s N e s t o r , a p o e t f r o m p r o b a b l y in t h e first h a l f o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y .
Laranda,
3 6 5
M u s i c i a n s a r e r a r e l y m e n t i o n e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s (outside t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e C a p i t o l i n e G a m e s ) o r l i t e r a t u r e , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e i n c l u d e d in t h e list o f p e o p l e b r o u g h t to R o m e by V e r u s q u o t e d a b o v e . Livy m e n t i o n s lyre-girls a n d s a m b u c a - g i r l s (psaltriae
sambucistriaeque)
among
t h e l u x u r i e s which a r r i v e d in R o m e from Asia in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC.
3 6 6
T h e r e is a n e p i t a p h for Alcimas o f S m y r n a , a ibl
(tubocantius).'
trumpet-player
A flute-player w h o s e b y - n a m e was E u p h e m u s , 3bH
scribed as pylhaules
and chorus-accompanist
m a y h a v e b e e n from C y p r u s .
3 6 9
Flavius T e r p n u s from A l e x a n d r i a was
a cithara-player who died aged 2 0 .
3 7 0
M o s t m u s i c i a n s at R o m e w e r e
p r o b a b l y slaves, like t h e A l e x a n d r i a n tibicen in AD 6 2 to b e O c t a v i a ' s l o v e r .
371
de
(nvQavkf\c, K a t xopauA/nc;),
E u c a e r u s w h o was a l l e g e d
T h e r e a r e several r e f e r e n c e s to asso
c i a t i o n s o f m u s i c i a n s o r a c t o r s , a n d t h e i r m e m b e r s may h a v e t e n d e d to be
immigrants,
3 7 2
but they were trade associations rather
than
associations o f f o r e i g n e r s . Individuals who could b e c o m e peepshow
a t t r a c t i o n s m i g h t also
c o m e to R o m e , like a m a n from A r a b i a n a m e d G a b b a r a s , s e n t in t h e t i m e o f C l a u d i u s a n d , p r e s u m a b l y , e x h i b i t e d as t h e T a l l e s t M a n in t h e W o r l d ( 9 ' 9" in R o m a n m e a s u r e m e n t a c c o r d i n g to t h e E l d e r P l i n y
373
).
A J e w n a m e d E l e a z a r with similar qualifications ('seven cubits tall') was s e n t to T i b e r i u s by A r t a b a n u s I I I o f P a r t h i a in t h e r e t i n u e o f his son D a r i u s , w h o w e n t to R o m e as a h o s t a g e .
374
I t is u n n e c e s s a r y to
s u p p o s e t h a t G a b b a r a s a n d E l e a z a r w e r e really t h e s a m e m a n ;
3 7 5
the
a n e c d o t e s m o r e p r o b a b l y illustrate t h a t s u c h p e o p l e would n a t u r a l l y e n d u p at R o m e . C l a u d i u s was p r e s e n t e d with a h e r m a p h r o d i t e Antioch on the M e a n d e r , for
3 7 6
from
a n d P l u t a r c h r e f e r s to a m a r k e t at R o m e
p e o p l e with d e f o r m i t i e s ;
377
they were presumably
considered
d e s i r a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e profitable a t t r a c t i o n s . P r o s t i t u t i o n was a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f ' e n t e r t a i n m e n t ' by which i m m i g r a n t s c o u l d m a k e a living. W h e n S e n e c a writes ' s o m e h a v e b r o u g h t b e a u t y for sale', h e m u s t m e a n p r o s t i t u t i o n , a l t h o u g h h e m a y also h a v e in m i n d p e o p l e w h o h o p e d that t h e i r g o o d looks would h e l p t h e m in o t h e r ways. P r o s t i t u t i o n c o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e a s s o c i a t e d with i m m i g r a n t s ,
122
Why did people
move to
Rome?
b u t m o s t p r o s t i t u t e s w o u l d p r e s u m a b l y have b e e n slaves r a t h e r t h a n free m i g r a n t s . At t h e m o r e g l a m o r o u s e n d o f t h e s e x t r a d e w e r e p e o p l e like C y t h e r i s , t h e l o v e r o f ( a m o n g o t h e r s ) A n t o n y . H o w e v e r , t h e s e s e e m usually to have b e e n ex-slaves, a n d they t o o p r o b a b l y c a m e to R o m e as slaves r a t h e r t h a n after they w e r e f r e e d . E v a n s ( 1 9 9 2 , 1 4 0 - 1 ) a r g u e s t h a t p r o s t i t u t i o n was a way o f e a r n i n g a living l o r Italian w o m e n w h o h a d b e e n d i s p l a c e d from t h e c o u n t r y side a n d m o v e d to R o m e , s i n c e little o t h e r e m p l o y m e n t was available to t h e m . T h e s a m e m a y b e t r u e for p e o p l e from o u t s i d e Italy. I m m i g r a n t s w h o work as p r o s t i t u t e s in l a r g e cities a r e usually e i t h e r l u r e d t h e r e u n d e r false p r e t e n c e s , o r t u r n to p r o s t i t u t i o n w h e n t h e i r o r i g i n a l plans for e a r n i n g a living fail o r p r o v e too u n r e m u n e r a t i v e ; prostitution is likely to b e a way o f s u p p l e m e n t i n g i n c o m e m o r e often than t h e sole source o f i n c o m e .
5 7 8
A r e f e r e n c e to A l e x a n d e r S e v e r u s having the prosti
tutes a r r e s t e d a n d e x p e l l i n g t h e males a n d enslaving t h e females may indicate that they w e r e n o l o n g e r n o r m a l l y slaves by t h e third c e n t u r y .
379
vii. Family and religion T h e r e a s o n s for c o m i n g to R o m e discussed a b o v e a r e all l i n k e d to selfi m p r o v e m e n t o f o n e s o r t o r a n o t h e r . P e o p l e m i g h t also b e d r a w n to t h e city b e c a u s e o f p e r s o n a l loyalties which did n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o i n c i d e with a d v a n c i n g t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s , a l t h o u g h b o t h factors m i g h t o p e r ate at t h e s a m e t i m e . S e n e c a m e n t i o n s ' f r i e n d s h i p ' as a r e a s o n for g o i n g to R o m e . P e o p l e c o u l d g o briefly to visit t h e i r friends. A p o e m by C r i n a g o r a s has t h e s p e a k e r saying, 'I a m g e t t i n g r e a d y to sail to Italy, for I a m o n my way to m y friends from w h o m I h a v e b e e n a b s e n t for so long' -
s a i l i n g t h e r e via t h e C y c l a d e s a n d
Corcyra.
3 8 0
The
real
C r i n a g o r a s o f M y t i l e n e w e n t o n e m b a s s i e s to J u l i u s C a e s a r ( s e e p. 1 0 2 ) ; t h e c h a n c e to visit friends at p u b l i c e x p e n s e was p e r h a p s an a d d i t i o n a l r e a s o n for p e o p l e to try to g e t t h e m s e l v e s i n c l u d e d
in
e m b a s s i e s . In t h e c a s e o f O c t a v i u s I a n u a r i u s (see p. 1 1 5 ) , h e c o m b i n e d b u s i n e s s with a visit to his old friend M i n u c i u s F e l i x . T h e p r e s e n c e o f friends o r relatives at R o m e m i g h t b e a decisive factor in s o m e o n e ' s decision to travel t h e r e t e m p o r a r i l y o r p e r m a n e n t l y , e v e n i f o t h e r m o t i v e s w e r e also involved. P e o p l e m i g h t g o to R o m e in t h e footsteps o f a relative, especially i f a p a t t e r n o f c h a i n m i g r a t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d from a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a ; as i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s in t h e city g r e w l a r g e r , t h e city would a u t o m a t i c a l l y b e c o m e a m o r e attractive destination
because more people
had
c o n n e c t i o n s already living t h e r e . T h i s is rarely m e n t i o n e d in literature, a l t h o u g h s u g g e s t e d by a n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s (see p. 6 7 ) . S e p t i m i u s
123
Moving
to Rome
S e v e r u s a l r e a d y h a d a m a l e r e l a t i v e in R o m e ; w h e n
he became
e m p e r o r , h e was followed t h e r e by his sister, w h o m h e h u r r i e d l y s e n t b a c k to L e p c i s allegedly b e c a u s e o f h e r e m b a r r a s s i n g inability to s p e a k Latin.
381
W h e n A u g u s t i n e d e c i d e d to g o to R o m e , his m o t h e r M o n i c a
w a n t e d h i m to t a k e h e r with h i m ; h e did n o t d o so at t h e t i m e (for r e a s o n s which h e d o e s n o t e x p l a i n ) , b u t s h e followed h i m t h e r e l a t e r .
382
H e was a p p a r e n t l y a c c o m p a n i e d , o r followed later, by his c o n c u b i n e , w h o m h e fails to m e n t i o n in his d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d e p a r t u r e a n d arrival; it is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e i r son was b o r n at R o m e o r in A f r i c a .
383
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e m o t h e r o f his friend N e b r i d i u s refused to accompany her son.
3 8 4
T h e possibility o f w o m e n c o m i n g to R o m e to m a r r y was s u g g e s t e d at p. 7 1 , o n t h e basis o f e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e . T h e r e a r e two e p i t a p h s for w o m e n w h o c a m e to R o m e ' b e c a u s e o f t h e i r h u s b a n d s ' , b u t in b o t h cases it was p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e they m o v e d with t h e i r h u s b a n d s r a t h e r t h a n b e c a u s e they c a m e to R o m e to get m a r r i e d ;
3 8 5
t h e w o r d i n g would,
h o w e v e r , b e c o n s i s t e n t with following t h e m e n to R o m e in o r d e r to m a r r y t h e m . I h a v e only b e e n able to find o n e p i e c e o f l i t e r a t u r e to s u p p o r t t h e i d e a o f w o m e n c o m i n g to R o m e to m a r r y : a c c o r d i n g to a p o e m by t h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y
writer Palladas, p r o b a b l y n o t to b e
t a k e n seriously, a w o m a n w e n t from A l e x a n d r i a to A n t i o c h to Italy l o o k i n g for a h u s b a n d .
3 8 6
H o w e v e r , it is c l e a r t h a t m o s t o f t h e r e a s o n s
for c o m i n g to R o m e discussed in this c h a p t e r a n d c h . 4 a r e specific to m e n . T h e m i g r a t i o n o f w o m e n is e v e n m o r e u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e literary e v i d e n c e t h a n it is in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s . I f s o m e t h i n g like 2 0 2 5 % o f free m i g r a n t s w e r e w o m e n (see p. 6 3 ) as t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s sug gest, t h e n it s e e m s very likely t h a t m a n y o f t h e m c a m e e i t h e r with t h e i r families, like M o n i c a , o r in o r d e r to f o r m new families. M a n y m o d e r n i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s h a v e strongly e n d o g a m i c t e n d e n c i e s w h i c h , i f c o m b i n e d with virilocal m a r r i a g e , t e n d to result in b r i d e s b e i n g s e n t from t h e p l a c e o f o r i g i n to j o i n h u s b a n d s a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d at t h e d e s t i n a tion; this m a y e v e n result in girls b o r n at t h e d e s t i n a t i o n b e i n g s e n t b a c k to b e b r o u g h t u p in t h e p l a c e o f o r i g i n , b e c a u s e it is felt to m a k e t h e m m o r e attractive as w i v e s .
387
A f r e e d m a n c o u l d b e r e q u i r e d to g o to R o m e to p e r f o r m services (operae)
for his p a t r o n . T h e r e was a proviso: t h e p a t r o n m u s t 'live at
R o m e like a g o o d m a n a n d a d i l i g e n t paterfamilias';
if he just moved
a b o u t from p l a c e to p l a c e , h e c o u l d n o t r e q u i r e t h e f r e e d m a n to follow him.
3 8 8
W h a t t h e operae
m i g h t b e is n o t specified: t h e m o s t likely
situation w o u l d p e r h a p s b e i f t h e p a t r o n h a d b u s i n e s s interests b o t h at R o m e and overseas.
124
Why did people
move to Rome ?
R e l i g i o n c o u l d also d r a w p e o p l e to t h e city. F o r p a g a n s , R o m e h a d s o m e i m p o r t a n c e as a r e l i g i o u s c e n t r e , to which p e o p l e m i g h t c o m e to h o n o u r the gods or present vows.
389
C e r t a i n cults, such as that o f
C y b e l e , s e e m to have b r o u g h t at least s o m e o f t h e i r priests from t h e i r native a r e a s .
3 9 0
P e o p l e with less f o r m a l religious a t t a c h m e n t s c o u l d also
c o m e , such as t h e S y r i a n p r o p h e t e s s M a r t h a w h o advised M a r i u s .
391
P h i l o s o p h e r s e s t a b l i s h e d a t r a d i t i o n o f travelling to see t h e 'holy places' o f t h e i r sects for t h e m s e l v e s ,
392
a l t h o u g h t h a t would p r o b a b l y
n o t h a v e b r o u g h t t h e m to R o m e . T o u r i s t i c s i g h t s e e i n g at R o m e was, h o w e v e r , a possibility for t h o s e with available t i m e a n d m o n e y , like A n t o n i u s T h e o d o r u s , a P h o e n i c i a n w h o b e c a m e an i m p o r t a n t official in E g y p t , a n d w h o 'a citizen in s o v e r e i g n R o m e , s p e n t m u c h t i m e t h e r e a n d saw t h e w o n d e r s in t h a t p l a c e a n d t h e things t h e r e ' .
3 9 3
It was t h e a d v e n t o f Christianity which m a d e R o m e into an i m p o r t a n t centre o f pilgrimage, primarily through the presence o f the martyrs' relics, a n d d e s p i t e t h e i n c r e a s i n g difficulty o f travelling a r o u n d t h e Mediterranean world.
394
T h e e p i t a p h of B i s h o p A b e r c i u s o f H i e r o p o l i s
refers to t h e ' s o v e r e i g n majesty' o f R o m e , b u t R o m e as t h e 'seat o f P e t e r ' g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d R o m e as a city o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l m a r v e l s in t h e m i n d s of v i s i t o r s .
395
A m b r o s e refers to c r o w d s from t h e e n t i r e world
visiting t h e t o m b s o f P e t e r a n d P a u l ,
396
a n d t h e r e g r e t which P r u d e n t i u s
in S p a i n a n d J o h n C h r y s o s t o m in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e e x p r e s s at b e i n g u n a b l e to m a k e t h e j o u r n e y to R o m e shows how it was a n a t u r a l d e s i r e for C h r i s t i a n s in t h e late fourth c e n t u r y .
3 9 7
T h e a t t r a c t i o n for African
C h r i s t i a n s is well d o c u m e n t e d : for e x a m p l e , A u g u s t i n e c o r r e s p o n d e d with t h e b r o t h e r a n d sister P a u l i n u s a n d T h e r a s i a , w h o m a d e a n n u a l visit to R o m e .
3 9 8
an
T h e festivals o f P e t e r a n d Paul, H i p p o l y t u s
a n d L a u r e n c e w e r e particularly i m p o r t a n t p i l g r i m a g e d a y s ,
400
399
although
p r e s u m a b l y t h o s e c o m i n g from a l o n g d i s t a n c e would m a k e t h e i r visit c o v e r a n u m b e r o f festivals. P e o p l e d e s c r i b e d as peregrinus e p i t a p h s m a y b e p i l g r i m s w h o d i e d while at R o m e ;
4 0 1
in C h r i s t i a n
others recorded
t h e i r e t h n i c s w h e n they w r o t e graffiti n e a r t h e t o m b s they v i s i t e d . Pilgrims, like a m b a s s a d o r s , occasionally settled at R o m e .
402
4 0 3
C h u r c h c o n f e r e n c e s b e c a m e a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n for visiting R o m e , e v e n b e f o r e t h e legalization o f C h r i s t i a n i t y . E u s e b i u s r e c o r d s a c o u n c i l at R o m e in t h e t i m e o f P o p e V i c t o r (c. 1 9 0 - 1 9 8 ) to discuss t h e d a t e o f E a s t e r , a n d a n o t h e r to discuss t h e Novatianists which was a t t e n d e d by sixty b i s h o p s in t h e t i m e o f P o p e C o r n e l i u s ( 2 5 1 - 3 ) .
4 0 4
In
3 1 3 , C o n s t a n t i n e o r d e r e d a c h u r c h c o u n c i l to b e h e l d at R o m e to discuss t h e c a s e o f C a e c i l i a n a n d M a j o r i n u s , p r e s i d e d o v e r by P o p e Melchiades.
4 0 5
Paula met Epiphanius o f Salamis and
125
Paulinus o f
Moving
lo Rome
A n t i o c h w h e n they c a m e to R o m e for t h e c o u n c i l o f 3 8 2 .
4 0 6
R o m e as t h e e s t a b l i s h e d h e a d q u a r t e r s o f w e s t e r n C h r i s t i a n i t y g r a d u ally c a m e to h a v e similar a t t r a c t i o n s to t h o s e it h a d as t h e c e n t r e o f g o v e r n m e n t , b r i n g i n g p e o p l e to it o n c h u r c h b u s i n e s s o r s e e k i n g a d v a n c e m e n t within t h e c h u r c h . I r e n a e u s was s e n t from L y o n to R o m e while p r e s b y t e r to discuss 'ecclesiastical q u e s t i o n s ' .
407
Polycarp
w e n t to R o m e c. 1 5 4 to c o n s u l t P o p e A n i c e t u s a b o u t t h e d a t e o f E a s t e r , and apparently met Marcion there.
4 0 8
O r i g e n visited R o m e in t h e t i m e
o f P o p e Z e p h y r i n u s ( 1 9 9 - 2 1 7 ) , 'to s e e t h e a n c i e n t R o m a n c h u r c h ' , a n d r e t u r n e d to A l e x a n d r i a after a s h o r t stay. W h i l e t h e r e , h e
heard
a h o m i l y by H i p p o l y t u s a n d w e n t to a m e e t i n g o f P l o t i n u s ' s c h o o l .
4 0 9
D u r i n g a p e r i o d o f 2 5 y e a r s , O r i g e n also s t u d i e d at A n t i o c h , C a e s a r e a in P a l e s t i n e , A t h e n s , C a e s a r e a in C a p p a d o c i a , N i c o m e d i a , B o s t r a a n d Tyre.
4 1 0
B a r d y ( 1 9 4 9 , 2 2 8 ) lists m a n y b i s h o p s w h o c a m e to R o m e for
r e a s o n s o f c h u r c h politics in t h e late f o u r t h c e n t u r y . L e a d e r s o f new C h r i s t i a n m o v e m e n t s t e n d e d to m o v e to R o m e i f 4
t h i n g s b e c a m e difficult for t h e m at h o m e . " B a r d y ( 1 9 4 8 , 8 8 ) lists: V a l e n t i n u s from E g y p t ; C e r d o n from S y r i a ; M a r c i o n from
Pontus;
F l o r i n u s from Asia; P r o c l u s from Phrygia/Asia; T h e o d o t u s from B y zantium;
Praxeas from Asia.
4 1 2
I n C y p r i a n ' s t i m e as B i s h o p o f
C a r t h a g e , a n u m b e r o f people who were e x p e l l e d from the C a r t h a g i n i a n c h u r c h i m m e d i a t e l y sailed to R o m e , h o p i n g to b e a c c e p t e d in t h e church there,
4 1 3
a n d N o v a t u s sailed from Africa to R o m e to avoid
e x p u l s i o n from his h o m e c o n g r e g a t i o n .
414
Priscilian c a m e to R o m e
from S p a i n to try to see P o p e D a m a s u s b e f o r e his e n e m i e s c o u l d .
4 1 5
P o p e I n n o c e n t I also h a d to deal with l e a d e r s o f t h e S p a n i s h c h u r c h c o m i n g to R o m e to c o m p l a i n a b o u t o t h e r S p a n i a r d s .
4 1 6
Inscriptions
s u g g e s t t h e p r e s e n c e of a n u m b e r o f M o n t a n i s t s at R o m e , a l t h o u g h it c a n n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d w h e t h e r t h e i r r e l i g i o u s affiliation was t h e r e a son for t h e i r b e i n g t h e r e .
4 1 7
T h e arrival at R o m e of ' h e r e t i c s ' led to t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a system o f letters o f i n t r o d u c t i o n
for C h r i s t i a n
visitors (see p. 1 4 8 ) . E x i l e d b i s h o p s a n d o t h e r p r o m i n e n t c h u r c h figures
sometimes
g r a v i t a t e d to R o m e , p r o b a b l y in t h e h o p e t h a t t h e p o p e would use his i n f l u e n c e to r e s t o r e t h e m to t h e i r sees. B i s h o p B a s i l i d e s from S p a i n , r e p l a c e d for h a v i n g l a p s e d , w e n t to R o m e a n d t r i e d to p e r s u a d e P o p e S t e p h e n to r e s t o r e h i m .
4 1 8
A t h a n a s i u s stayed at R o m e (as well as at
T r e v e s a n d in the desert) while exiled from A l e x a n d r i a ,
419
a n d in the late
fifth c e n t u r y the exiled Alexandrian B i s h o p J o h n T a l a i a went to R o m e .
4 2 0
C h r i s t i a n c h a r i t y m a y e v e n t u a l l y have b e c o m e a pull factor as well. T h e e j e c t i o n of b e g g a r s in t h e late fourth c e n t u r y , a n d a t t e m p t s to find
126
Why did people
move to
Rome?
o t h e r ways o f s u p p o r t i n g t h e m , w e r e discussed at p. 4 0 . B e g g a r s w e r e often c h a r a c t e r i z e d as b e l o n g i n g to foreign g r o u p s , such as J u v e n a l ' s r e f e r e n c e to J e w i s h b e g g a r s .
421
In t h e a b s e n c e o f any welfare system
o r , o u t s i d e C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h circles, private c h a r i t y for t h e very p o o r , b e g g i n g would h a v e b e e n t h e last r e c o u r s e for i m m i g r a n t s whose o r i g i n a l plans did not w o r k o u t , a n d it is t h e r e f o r e likely that b e g g a r s really did t e n d d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y often to b e f o r e i g n e r s . The
r e a s o n s for c o m i n g to R o m e discussed in this c h a p t e r
are
p r i m a r i l y o n e s which would h a v e m o t i v a t e d m a l e s a i m i n g at selfa d v a n c e m e n t o f o n e form o r a n o t h e r . It is i m p o s s i b l e to a c h i e v e any real s e n s e o f t h e relative i m p o r t a n c e of t h e different r e a s o n s , a n d m a n y f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e m a y in any c a s e h a v e h a d m o r e t h a n o n e r e a s o n for c o m i n g . B r o a d l y , it was R o m e ' s position as t h e political, c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m i c c e n t r e o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n world which d r e w p e o p l e to it a c r o s s vast d i s t a n c e s .
Notes 1
Cf. Stanley (1990) for similar conclusions about migration in Roman Lusitania. RE vi A1.1063. t. 'Abod.Zar. 4.4, quoted from Gafni (1997, 6 7 ) . Midrash Exod.R. 5 2 . 3 , quoted from Gafni (1997, 6 9 ) . Artemidorus 4 . 3 4 ; Andre and Baslez 1993, 9 3 - 5 . Augustine, Conf. 5.8. Conveniently summarized by Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson (1998, 6 7 ) . Servius, in Bucol. 1.27; Sidonius, Ep. 1.16. Martial 12.pr.; Millar 1 9 8 1 , 157. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 67. As described by Panayi 1994, 35. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 6 3 ; Fischer, Martin and Straubhaar 1997, 73. Laurence (1996) criticizes modern interpretations o f Rome as 'dystopia', but the concept in ancient literature is not restricted to Juvenal 3 as he implies. See e.g. Livy 3 9 . 3 . 4 - 6 , 4 1 . 8 . 7 - 1 2 , 4 2 . 1 0 . 3 ; Servius, in Aen. l.pr., in Bucol. l.pr. In the case o f Virgil, as described by Servius, it was the hope of using influence to regain his family's land which brought him to Rome. 'Can it be supposed that these farmers who had become rich invested their agricultural revenues in other occupations, becoming city-dwellers far from their homeland?' Cf. Panayi (1994, 2 5 - 6 ) on the link between population growth at home and emigration. La Piana 1927, 192. 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
11
1 2
1 3
1 4
I;>
u>
1 7
127
Moving
lo Rome
1 8
Hopkins 1978, 39. Brunt 1980. Fleket 1993, 1 9 - 2 0 : in early modern Paris and Rome, 2 5 3 3 % o f the adult male population worked in the building trade. Kolb (1995, 4 8 5 ) estimates that there would have been 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 building workers in Rome in the 1st and early 2nd centuries AD. Brunt (1980, 93) suggests that people would go from Rome to work at Ostia during the summer; this work would presumably end with the sailing season. Kolb (1995, 4 8 6 ) estimates that 4,000 men would have been involved in transport between Ostia and Rome, and several thousand more would have worked at the quays and warehouses in Rome. Pleket 1993, 2 1 ; Lampe 1989, 3 8 . Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1 9 9 8 , 8 5 ; cf. Fischer, Martin and Straubhaar 1997, 59. Cf. Pleket 1993, 2 3 - 4 ; Purcell 1994, 6 6 3 . Nevertheless, the comment by Hopkins (1978, 13; cf. ibid. 4 9 , 105), that 'large numbers o f the displaced citizens migrated to the city o f Rome to take advantage o f the increased expenditure there' still stands. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 104. On the lure of the city in the modern world, cf. Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 1 2 8 - 1 4 0 . b. Kidd. 49b (tr. H. Freedman); cf. p. 4 8 on R. 'Ulla's misinformation about the corn dole. Martial 3.14. Bjeren 1997, 2 4 3 . Cf. Moretti (1989, 9) on the possibility o f a similar situation at Rome. Cf. Doblhofer 1987, 2 5 3 - 4 . Sailer (1982, 1 7 9 - 8 1 ) notes the importance for comrnunicipes o f patronage by Africans who were already established in aristocratic circles at Rome. Greek-speaking teachers sometimes swapped languages. T h e rhetor L. Cestius Pius from Smyrna taught in Latin ( P I R C694). Hierius, a Syrian orator known to Augustine at Rome, taught first in Greek and then in Latin (Augustine, Conf. 4 . 1 4 . 2 1 ; PLRK i 431 (Hierius 5 ) ) . Balsdon (1979, 5 4 - 8 ) gives a lengthy list. Digest 5.1.18.1 Ulpian, 12.1.17 Ulpian, 4 7 . 1 0 . 5 . 5 Ulpian, 5 0 . 1 . 3 6 Modestinus. Josephus, Ant. 15.342. T h e text only refers to him as 'Pollio', and it is not completely certain that Asinius Pollio is meant. SHA, Sev. 1. Bardy 1948, 89; Barnard 1967, 1 2 - 1 3 . ICUR 23076. C I L iii 6 4 1 4 . C I L xiii 2 0 4 0 . Gorce 1925, 15; J e r o m e , Ep. 3.5. Sidonius, Ep. 9.14. C.Theo. 14.9.1; cf. J o n e s 1964, 707. See J o n e s 1964, 6 9 1 . Philostratus,/lp.7: 7.42. 1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
2
3 3
3 4
3 d
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 5
128
Why did people 4 6
move to Rome?
I G U R 1186. Augustine, Conf. 6.8; PLRE i 8. Aulus Gellius 13.13.1; Robinson 1992, 142. Pliny, Ep. 1.10. Hopkins 1978, 79; B o n n e r 1977, 161. Philostratus, V.S. 5 8 0 . ° Philostratus, V.S. 5 8 9 - 9 0 ; the age is an exaggeration according to the Loeb introduction, xxxviii. Philostratus, V.S. 5 9 4 . Philostratus, V.S. 5 9 6 . Bonner 1977, 161. Philostratus, Ap.T. 4.42; B o n n e r 1977, 6 6 . ° Suetonius, Gramm. 7. Suetonius, Gramm. 11. ° Suetonius, Gramm. 10, 15. Lenaeus achieved fame by translating Mithridates' medical treatises into Latin. Bonner 1977, 6 0 ; see p. 2 3 5 . B o n n e r 1977, 154 and fig. 8. Iulius Hyginus (a freedman o f Augustus, originally from Alexandria), died poor despite being a well-known teacher, writing a commentary on Virgil, and being in charge of the Palatine Library: Suetonius, Gramm. 20. Strabo 14.1.48. SHA, Ant. 10. Strabo 14.5.4. Pliny, Ep. 2.3. IGUR 872. IGUR 320. I G U R 1176. Bardy 1948, 86. Philostratus, V.S. 557. Philostratus, V.S. 5 9 3 ; Loeb introduction, xxxviii-xxxix. AE (1947) 162. Augustine, Conf. 5.8. Strabo 13.1.54. Strabo 14 p. 6 7 5 . On the Palatine Library, see Horsfall 1993. Diodorus Siculus 1.4.2. Clark 1979, 6 8 . Chevallier 1988, 2 9 6 . PIR E74. PLRE i 6 0 3 - 4 ; in Rome in 3 5 8 according to Jerome, Chron., s.a. 3 5 8 (PL 2 7 . 6 8 7 - 8 ) ; Ausonius, Prof. 2 . 3 - 4 . P I R F59. Whittaker 1982, ix. Eunapius, V.S. 324 (tr. W.C. Wright). SHA, Marcus 2.3; Sailer 1982, 184. P I R A503. He was much travelled: he lectured at Antioch, Rome, Tarsus, and in Egypt (Philostratus, V.S. 2 7 1 ) . 4 7
4 8
4 9
5 0
5 1
2
5:5
5 4
5 5
5 0
7
5 8
9
6 0
6 1
6 2
6 3
6 4
6 5
6 6
6 7
6 8
0 9
7 0
7 1
7 2
7 3
7 4
7 5
7 6
7 7
7 8
7 9
8 0
2
8 1
8 2
2
8 3
8 4
8 5
8 6
2
129
Moving
to Rome
8 7
PLRE i 6 6 0 (Palladius 12). Statius, Silv. 4.pr and 4 . 5 . IGUR 371. PI R A145. Bowersock 1969, 2 1 . Porphyry, V.Plot. 7. This is often the significance o f his use o f ambilio elsewhere, e.g. de Ira 1.21.3 'the ambitio o f a great mind is not content with yearly honours'; Cons, ad Marc. 2 3 . 2 : Marcia's son sought honores sine ambitione; de Brev.Vit. 6 . 1 : Livius Drusus' youthful interference in judicial affairs showed inmatura ambilio; ibid. 15.3: honores and monumenta are examples of what ambitio builds impermanently. Plutarch, Mor. 470G (tr. Talbert 1984, 6 7 ) . Patterson 1992a, 2 0 4 . Pliny, Ep. 6.19. Eunapius, V.Ph. 4 9 0 (tr. W.C. Wright). Sidonius, Ep. 1.6. Acts 27.42. Ignatius, Rom. 5. C I L vi 2 7 6 5 7 . It could also be translated 'as a boy once a Phrygian shepherd'. Eunapius, V.Ph. 4 9 2 ; PLRE i 7 3 1 . Eunapius, V.Ph. 4 9 3 (tr. W.C. Wright); PLRE i 303 (Eusebius 12). A tribe transferred to Pannonia by Diocletian. Ammianus 28.1.5. Ammianus 28.1.12 (tr. W. Hamilton). PIR D126. 108 P I R 2 j r g g Q[ Champlin (1980, 18) on successful advocates from Africa. Martial 3.38. i.e. the sort of lifestyle satirized by Lucian in On Salaried Posts (De Mercede). AE (1953) 2 0 0 , vv.1-6. PIR A943. La Piana 1927, 2 7 8 . PIR D169. There have been a number o f studies o f the topic, and no attempt will be made to give a complete list here; see Chevallier (1988). 1 was unable to consult Canali de Rossi (1997). Affortunati (1994) gives a full survey o f all the evidence for German embassies at Rome. In a particularly unlucky group, two o f the three men from Termessos in Pisidia died o f disease at Rome and were commemorated there ( I G U R 1204). Nicias o f Xanthus in Lycia died on his third embassy ( I G U R 815). e.g. C I L xii 1750 (a decurio o f Lyon). Affortunati 1994, 108. S I G 6 5 6 (tr. Erskine 1994, 4 7 - 8 ) . Digest 50.7.13.pr Scaeuola. Talbert 1984, 2 0 8 , 4 1 2 . Andre and Baslez 1993, 105; Richardson 1992, 4 3 0 . 8 8
8 9
9 0
2
9 1
9 2
9 3
9 4
9 3
9 6
9 7
9 8
9 9
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3
1 0 4
1 0 5
1 0 6
1 0 7
2
1 0 9
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 1 2
2
1 1 3
1 1 4
2
1 1 5
1 1 6
1 1 7
1 1 8
1 , 9
3
1 2 0
1 2 1
1 2 2
130
Why did people 1 2 3
move to
Rome?
Digest 4.6.35 Paul, 4.8.32.9 Paul; 5.1.39.1 Papinian. Chevallier 1988, 2 0 6 . Me gives some statistics at p. 2 3 6 . Pausanias 7.9.4. Erskine 1994, 50. Suetonius, Aug. 2 1 , Tib. 16; Strabo 15.1.4, 15.1.73; Aurelius Victor, de Caes. 1.7; Augustus, R.G. 3 1 . Tacitus, Ann. 3.73. Suetonius, Clau.25. Friedlander ( 1 9 0 8 - 1 3 ) , vol. 3, 12-17, has a lengthy list o f ambassadors from outside the empire. Pliny, H.N. 6 . 8 4 - 9 1 . Dio 60.28.7. I G U R 567 = C I L vi 5207. The leg(atus) Bosp(h)or(anorum) commemo rated in C I L vi 2 9 6 9 4 seems more likely to be from the Crimean Bosporus than a Thracian as claimed by Ricci (1993b, no. T 4 ) . Suetonius, Nero 13; Tacitus, Ann. 16.24; Dio 6 3 . 1 - 2 ; Pliny, H.N. 3 0 . 1 6 - 1 7 . Josephus, B.J. 2 . 2 1 , 2.39; Ant. 17.219, 17.250. Penguin Gk.Anth., 179. Philostratus, V.S. 5 2 0 - 1 ; Bowcrsock 1 9 6 9 , 4 4 - 5 . Summarized in JRS 87 (1997), 2 1 1 . Suetonius, Tib. 52. Talbcrt 1984, 4 2 3 . ILS 3 8 9 6 ; Williams 1967, 4 7 5 . ILS 6 1 0 7 ; Williams 1967, 4 7 5 . • 42 Williams 1967, passim. I G U R 60. C I L v i 1401 (Bisica Lucana), 1684 (Chullu, AD 3 2 1 , honouring the magis trates who undertook the delegation at no expense to the city), 1685 (Thaenae, AD 3 2 1 ) , 1686 (Zama, AD 322, listing the people who apparently came to Rome), 1687 (Hadrumetum, 3 2 1 ) , 1688 (the Faustianenses, 3 2 1 ) . PLRE i 7 4 9 . Aulus Gcllius 6 . 1 4 . 8 - 1 0 ; Pliny, H.N. 7.112; Cicero, Rep. 3 . 8 - 9 . S I G 7 8 3 B ; Talbert 1984, 4 1 4 . Pliny, H.N. 8.135; Talbert 1984, 4 1 6 . Talbert 1984, 4 1 7 . C I L viii 2 2 7 3 7 , discussed by Sailer 1982, 70. Tacitus, Ann. 4.37, 4 3 , 5 5 . Philo, Leg., passim. Josephus, Ant. 15.403 ff. Josephus,/In/. 2 0 . 1 9 3 - 4 . Josephus, Vita 16; Lichtenberger 1996, 2 1 4 6 - 8 . Reynolds 1982, nos. 8, 9; Talbert 1984, 3 9 4 . Suetonius, Gramm. 2. Plutarch, Cato Mat. 2 2 . PIR C706. Philostratus, V.S. 6 0 0 - 1 . Bardy 1948, 9 0 , citing P.Oxy 4 1 2 , but the eds. follow the Suda that he was (|)iA.6ao<|)0(; Aifkic;. 1 2 1
1 2 5
1 2 0
1 2 7
1 2 8
1 2 9
1 3 0
1 3 1
1 3 2
1 3 3
1 3 4
1 3 5
1 3 6
1 3 7
1 3 8
1 3 9
1 4 0
1 4 1
1 4 3
1 4 4
1 4 5
1 4 0
1 4 7
3
1 4 8
1 4 9
1 5 0
1 5 1
1 5 2
1 5 3
1 5 4
1 5 5
1 5 0
1 5 7
1 5 8
1 5 9
2
1 0 0
1 0 1
131
Moving
to Rome
1 6 2
Strabo 14.1.26. Millar 1977, 4 8 3 . Tacitus, Ann. 13.54; cf. P I R M l 17. Reynolds 1982, no. 8 (probably 35 BC), restated in no. 9; there were no doubt similar provisions for others. Cicero, Fam. 3.10.6; Williams 1967, 4 7 8 . Tacitus, Ann. 15.20-2. 168 r j i g t 50.7.5.6 Marcian. Williams (1967, n. 62) shows that one or two members was the norm. Pliny, Ep. 1 0 . 4 3 - 4 . Williams 1967, passim. Williams 1967, 4 7 2 - 3 . RIT331. Talbert 1984, 4 1 8 . Cicero, pro Archia 5. Suetonius, Tib. 32. Tacitus, Ann. 3 . 6 0 - 3 . Dio 60.17.4. Augustus, R.G. 3 2 . P I R M329. Tacitus, Ann. 11.16. Tacitus, Ann. 12.10; cf. Augustus, R.G. 3 3 . Lee 1991, 3 6 8 . Josephus, B.J. 1.183-4, Ant. 1 4 . 1 2 3 - 4 . He was killed because he was caught up in the Civil War, not as a reprisal. Dio 5 2 . 4 3 . 1 . Suet, Aug. 4 3 . Matthews (1989b, 4 0 ) , comments: 'Hostages moved in high social circles, attended schools with leading Romans and members o f the official classes, and learned their languages.' Polybius 31.14. Polybius 15.18. Pausanias 7.9.6, 7.10.12. Pliny, H.N. 6.23. Chevallier 1988, 2 3 6 . Athenaeus l().438d. Athenaeus 10.440b; Polybius 3 1 . 1 1 - 1 5 . 193 Piocopius, Wars 3.4.13; PLRE ii 5 7 3 . T h e place o f captivity is not men tioned, but Rome is likely in the context. C I L vi 2 6 6 0 8 . T h e sister, but not the brother, had become a Roman citizen. C I L vi 1799. AE (1979) 78; Di Stefano Manzella ( 1 9 7 6 - 7 , 3 3 2 - 4 no. 3), who suggests that they may have come to Rome after the peace o f 116. AE (1968) 19. I G U R 1190. The lettering is 2nd-century according to Moretti. T h e 'kings' could be the emperors. Strabo 12.3.35 describes how Adiatorix, a tetrarch from Galatia, was 1 6 3
1 6 4
2
1 6 5
1 6 6
1 0 7
es
1 6 9
1 7 0
1 7 1
1 7 2
1 7 3
1 7 4
1 7 5
1 7 6
1 7 7
1 7 8
1 7 9
2
1 8 0
1 8 1
1 8 2
1 8 3
1 8 4
1 8 5
1 8 6
1 8 7
1 8 8
1 8 9
1 9 0
1 9 1
1 9 2
1 9 4
1 9 3
1 9 6
1 9 7
1 9 8
1 9 9
132
Why did people
move to Rome ?
brought to Rome with his family for Augustus' triumph, after which he and his eldest son were put to death but his wife and younger son were not; the 'younger' son was in reality the elder, but was allowed to return home. T h e assumption that prisoners would not necessarily be executed is clear. Diodorus Siculus 3 1 . 8 - 9 . Strabo 14.1.38. Tacitus, Ann. 12.36-7; P I R C 4 1 8 . Josephus, B.J. 6 . 4 2 4 - 5 , 7.36, 7.137, 7.154; Dio 66(65).7. Simon's rival J o h n of Gischala was sentenced to life imprisonment rather than execution, apparently without being taken to Rome. PIR E81. Polybius 31.12. C I L vi 35556a. C I L v i 1801; Ricci 1993b, nos. D a 6 - 8 ; R E x x . l col. 1220; Mateescu 1923, 99-100. 208 2 . Dio 78.12. T h e fact that the epitaph is in Creek may suggest that they were relatively new arrivals, since long-standing hostages and exiles normally used Latin. 209 P J R 2 1; C I L vi 1797. As that epitaph is in Latin, he may have been at Rome for some time. Ahmed 1997, 173. Diodorus Siculus 3 1 . 1 8 ; Valerius Maximus 5.1.1 f. Dio 39.13. Augustus, R.G. 32. Livy 4 0 . 5 5 . 6 , 42.5.4; Tataki 1 9 9 8 , 2 2 9 . I G L R 602 = C I L vi 3 2 2 6 4 , as interpreted by Pani ( 1 9 7 9 - 8 0 ) ; also P I R A1044. He has also been linked with the Cappadocian royal family. I G U R 4 1 5 ; P I R A1566. P 1 R A 5 5 5 ; I G U R 1 1 5 1 ; Moretti dates it to 1 1 4 - 1 1 7 . Cicero, Verr. 2.2.62. Bertolino 1997, 121. J e r o m e , Ep. 77.8. Lucian, Nigrinus 2. Galen, De part.art.medic. 2. Andre and Baslez 1993, 3 1 2 - 1 5 . Nutton 1973, 166; 1986, 4 0 . Moretti 1989, 10. Sidonius, Ep. 1.5. Balsdon 1979, 3 6 - 7 . Pliny, H.N. 29.12. Nutton (1986, 38) notes the likelihood that he was not actually the first doctor in Rome. Scarborough 1969, 150; J o n e s 1978, 1. Scarborough 1969, 151. P I R A585 and 5 8 6 . P I R C720; Pliny, H.N. 29.10.22. Scarborough 1969, 160. Scarborough 1969, 150, 158. 2 0 0
2 0 1
2 0 2
2
2 0 3
2 0 4
2
2 0 5
2 0 6
2 0 7
P 1 R
A
9
a
n
d
1 0
1
G
(
J
R
1
1
4
2
;
2 1 0
2 1 1
2 1 2
2 . 3
2 . 4
2 1 5
2
2 1 6
2 1 7
2
2
2 1 8
2 1 9
2 2 0
2 2 1
2 2 2
2 2 3
2 2 4
2 2 5
2 2 6
2 2 7
2 2 8
2 2 9
2 3 0
2 3 1
2
2 3 2
2
2 3 3
2 3 4
133
Moving
to Rome
2 3 5
Scarborough 1969, 159. Galen 1 4 . 6 2 1 - 3 . Galen 8 . 3 6 1 - 6 , 17b. 151. Philostratus, Ap.T. 8.14. Porphyry, V.Plol. 7. Ricci (1993a) lists the known doctors from Egypt. Pliny, II.N. 2 6 . 3 . Pliny, II.N. 29.93. Pliny, Ep. 10.5-6. Porphyry, V.Plot. 7. IGUR 607. I G U R 6 8 2 , commemorating his son. I G U R 1355. IGUR 1283+102. 2 4 9 T Q U R 299; commemorated by his syntrophos (foster-brother). AE (1972) 14. C I L vi 9580. I G U R 1303. C I L vi 9597 = I C U R 17495. Nutton (1986, 37), notes that 'Greekness' is less common in the names o f doctors in the West in the 3rd century than in the 1st. Nutton 1973, 166. PIR L414. Soranus, Gyn. 1 . 3 - 4 , 2 . 1 9 . Pliny, H.N. 12.5. 2:>8 Friedlander 1 9 0 8 - 1 3 , vol. 2, 322 (he thinks that native Italians were predominant in painting, however); Pliny, II.N. 36.38 (he also mentions someone from Tralles); I G U R 3 7 0 . Pliny H.N. 34.46. Martial 9.40. I G U R 1222. According to Ward-Perkins (1992, 102), Aphrodisian sculp tors enjoyed particular prestige. IGUR 251. I G U R 1425. C I L vi 18175. 26o Augustine, Civ.Dei 7.4; he is comparing the proliferation of workers with the proliferation o f pagan gods. e.g. Aurelius Agathias, a Syrian: I C U R 1860. Strabo 12.8.14 describes the export o f Docimaean marble to Rome for building purposes. Walker 1985, 1 8 - 3 5 ; Ward-Perkins 1992, 2 1 - 4 , 3 1 - 7 . I.Porto 3 8 . I G U R 4 1 3 ; Rigsby 1997. Ward-Perkins (1992, 69), suggests that he dealt in 'any stocks from the adjoining marble-yards that were surplus to official requirements.' He argues for the great importance o f Nicomedia as a centre o f the Roman marble trade. C I L vi 10091 = I G U R 1567; Vidman, S I R I S 4 3 2 = IG xiv 1093. 2 3 6
2 3 7
2 3 8
2 3 9
2 4 0
2 4 1
2 4 2
2 4 3
2 4 4
2 4 5
2 4 0
2 4 7
2 4 8
2 5 0
2 5 1
2 5 2
2 5 3
2 5 4
2 5 5
2
2 5 6
2 5 7
2 5 9
2 6 0
2 6 1
2 6 2
2 6 3
2 6 4
2 6 6
2 6 7
2 0 8
2 6 9
2 7 0
2 7 1
134
Why did people 2 7 2
move to Rome?
Avramea 1995, 4. C I L vi 9907. Another structor with a Greek name and a Latin epitaph, Cn. Cornelius Anthus, had a Greek wife but his own origin is not stated: C I L vi 9 9 0 6 . I G U R 1263. Solin 1983, 6 7 1 ; P I R A922. Loane 1938, 2 0 - 3 . Pleket 1993, 23. S E G xxxv 1039, interpreting I.Porto 4 5 . AE (1983) 111, interpreting I.Porto 1. 280 p,Mich, viii 5 0 0 - 1 ; see p. 165. Another possible trader is Sohaemus, probably a Syrian, who is described in his epitaph as 'both traversing the land and crossing the waves in ships' (IGUR 1334). P.Fouad i 77 (tr. W.G. Waddell). Cf. P.Mert. ii 8 1 . Cicero, Pro Flacco 7 1 . Minucius Felix, Octavius 2 . 1 . NS (1953) 2 4 0 no. 2. C I L xiv 4 6 2 6 . Digest 5.1.19.3 Labeo; 40.2.22.2 Paul. C I L xiv 397. C I L vi 9677; Ricci 1992b, no. a6 and p. 137. C I L vi 2 9 7 2 2 , discussed at p. 2 0 8 . 290 Mciggs (1960, 289), but he thinks the name is too common to be sure. Granino Cecere (1994a, 2 1 1 ) , and her new reading o f C I L vi 1885; AE (1980) 9 8 . AE (1973) 7 1 ; Panciera 1980, 2 4 4 - 5 ; Taglietti 1994, 1 6 2 - 3 , 1 7 2 - 4 . C I L vi 9 6 7 5 ; Loane 1938, 3 6 . Di Stefano Manzella 1 9 7 6 - 7 , 2 7 7 - 8 no. 11. Cf. Stanley 1990, 2 5 0 . C I L vi 5 6 3 9 = i 1334; Solin 1983, 6 7 5 . For the purposes o f the statistics in this book, he has been counted as a Bithynian. C I L vi 9 9 9 8 . C I L vi 9 7 1 7 . ICUR 19790. AE (1973) 7 1 : a female dealer in the 2nd century AD. C I L xv 3 7 8 2 - 3 : amphorae from the stock o f D. Caecilius Onesimus, found at Monte Testaccio. C I L vi 1935: a man who was both viator tribunicius and a dealer in oil from Baetica (not shown to be Spanish himself). Cf. p. 2 0 8 . C I L vi 1625. Ricci 1992b, 129. C I L vi 2 9 3 3 ; Ricci, 1993b, no. Mo2. C I L vi 3 3 0 3 6 ; cf. p. 271 n. 105. C I L vi 8 8 8 3 ; Solin 1983, 6 7 2 . His j o b could also be a military rather than civilian one. C I L vi 2 9 1 5 2 . Bevilacqua 1978. C I L vi 9 7 0 9 . 2 7 3
2 7 4
2 7 5
2
2 7 6
2 7 7
2 7 8
2 7 9
2 8 1
2 8 2
2 8 3
2 8 4
2 8 5
2 8 6
2 8 7
2 8 8
2 8 9
2 9 1
2 9 2
2 9 3
2 9 4
2 9 5
2 9 6
2
2 9 7
2 9 8
2 9 9
3 0 0
3 0 1
3 0 2
3 0 3
3 0 4
3 0 5
3 0 0
3 0 7
3 0 8
135
Moving
lo Rome
3 0 9
Eulropius, Brev. 3.1. Ovid, A.A. 1.174. Martial, Sped. 3. Florus, Vergilius Orator an Poela 1.1. C I L vi 3 2 0 9 8 1, m. They may, o f course, have been in Rome for other reasons. Theodoret, II.E. 5.26 (PC 82.1256). Dio 7 8 ( 7 7 ) . 2 1 . 2 (tr. E. Cary). He achieved great influence under Caracalla. C I L vi 10127. C I L vi 10110. Gk.Anth. 16.290. PIR B91. Juvenal 3 . 9 3 - 5 . SHA, Verus 8 . 1 0 - 1 1 . An honorific inscription for this man by one o f his freedmen is preserved on a marble altar: C I L vi 10117. Apolaustus' legal status at the time o f the inscription was imperial freedman. BCAR 51 (1923), 74 no. 16. C I L xiv 4 6 2 4 , with additions in J I W E i 15 a n d J I W E ii p. 5 7 1 . Dio 51.22. C I L vi 10194. I G U R 9 3 9 = ICUR 4 0 3 2 . C I L vi 10197. AE (1988) 24; Ricci 1993a, no. A19. C I L x 1685 (place o f origin unknown): procur(ator) ludi famil(iae) glad(iatoriae) Caesaris Alexandreae ad Aegyptum. C I L vi 10184. C I L vi 10187. Wiedemann (1992, 114) describes this as 'perhaps an example o f double deracination'. See Toynbee 1973, 6 5 - 6 , 8 2 - 3 ; Andre and Baslez 1993, 3 3 8 - 4 0 . Strabo 17.1.44. Toynbee 1973, 4 8 . C I L vi 10048. C I L vi 10050. C I L vi 10058. He was also honoured by the town council a t T e a n u m : AE (1979) 155. C I L vi 3 3 9 3 9 (including 10060), apparently dated 2 7 5 . Symmachus, Ep. 6.33, 6.42. I C U R 10549. I C U R 5 6 8 8 , as interpreted by Feissel (1982a, 3 5 3 - 7 ) . Dio 8 0 . 1 5 . 1 . e.g. M. Aurelius Polynices had two sons; all three were charioteers, and all three were born slaves but died free: C I L vi 10049. Suetonius, Cal. 18; Moretti 1989, 15. T h e games were still attracting Olympic champions in the early 3rd century, e.g. Aurelius Helix, a Phoenician ( P I R A1520). An inscription from 3 1 0
3 1 1
3 1 2
3 1 3
3 , 4
3 1 5
3 1 0
3 1 7
3 1 8
3 1 9
2
3 2 0
3 2 1
3 2 2
3 2 3
3 2 4
3 2 5
3 2 6
3 2 7
3 2 8
3 2 9
3 3 0
3 3 1
3 3 2
3 3 3
3 3 4
3 3 5
3 3 6
3 3 7
3 3 8
3 3 9
3 4 0
3 4 1
3 4 2
3 4 3
3 4 4
3 4 5
3 4 0
2
136
Why did people
move to Rome ?
the reign o f Commodus refers to the departure o f competitors to Rome from Aphrodisias, presumably for the Capitoline Games: Reynolds 1982, no. 5 9 . Artemidorus 4.82 (tr. R . J . White). Cf. 4.42, the pancratiast Menippus o f Magnesia. Moretti 1989, 15. Pleket 1973; I G U R 2 3 7 . 3:>o P I R 2 F 2 2 1 ; I.Napoli 5 0 . His father, referred to simply as Artemidorus, was apparently not a Roman citizen. I.Napoli 5 1 ; Andre and Baslez 1993, 2 1 8 - 2 0 . I.Napoli 4 7 . Cf. I.Napoli 5 1 : T . Flavius Archibios, a pancratiast from Alexandria victorious at Rome four times, AD 9 4 - 1 0 6 . I C R iv 1636 records a musician from Philadelphia in Lydia who was crowned at all the sacred games from Rome to Antioch. I C U R 12841 = I G U R 4 0 4 . Caldelli 1992; I.K.Ephesus iv 9 3 0 , 3 5 8 1 . Pleket 1973; Palmer 1981, 3 9 0 - 1 ; Bollmann 1997, 2 1 4 ; I G U R 26, 2 3 5 - 6 . Caldelli 1992; C I L vi 10154. La Piana 1927, 267. I.Porto 16. 3o9 Florus, Vergilius Orator an Poeta 1.3-4; P I R A650. 360 ] y i t i i 9.4() this is presumably what he means by the 'Tarpeian crowns'. Antipater o f Thessalonica 27, Crinagoras 2 4 , Antiphilus o f Byzantium 16, Leonidas o f Alexandria 8, Lucillius. Cicero, pro Arch. 3 . 4 - 5 . Suda, s.v. M8ao|or|8r|<;. AE (1986) 109. S E G xv 6 2 0 ; SEG xxvii 6 7 8 with a new version by M. Guarducci. Livy 39.6.8. C I L vi 10149. Defined by Liddell & Scott as 'one who plays the nomas expressing the battle between Apollo and the Python'. I G U R 5 5 1 . T h e inscription is fragmentary, and Kyprios could be a per sonal name o f someone else. This man has not been counted as an immigrant in ch. 4. I G U R 1034. Tacitus, Ann. 1 4 . 6 0 - 1 . La Piana 1927, 2 6 6 - 7 . Pliny, H.N. 7.74. Josephus, Ant. 18.103. The same man is probably meant by Columella, R.R. 3.8.2, 'a man o f the Jewish race higher than the tallest German'. As in P I R E 5 0 and Solin 1983, 6 0 1 - 2 . Phlegon, Mirab. 35 (6.4 ed. Hansen); cf. Pliny, H.N. 7.34 on hermaphro dites as attractions ('once they were counted among prodigies, now among pleasures'). Plutarch, Mor. 5 2 0 B (de Curiositate 10). Cf. Gilfoyle 1992, 5 9 . In 19th-century New York, immigrant prostitutes were outnumbered by those born in the U.S.A., even at the height o f 3 4 7
3 4 8
3 4 9
3 5 1
3 5 2
1
3 5 3
3 3 4
3 5 5
3 5 6
3 5 7
3 5 8
2
ar
a
;
3 6 1
3 ( 3 2
3 6 3
3 6 4
3 6 0
3 6 0
3 6 7
3 6 8
3 6 9
3 7 0
3 7 1
3 7 2
3 7 3
3 7 4
3 7 5
2
3 7 ( 1
3 7 7
3 7 8
137
Moving
to Rome
immigration. However, after 1845, 7 5 % or more o f the teenage prostitutes in the House o f Refuge had immigrant parents, although the death o f a parent (rather than ethnic or class background) was the most important factor in their turning to prostitution (Gilfoyle 1992, 6 2 - 6 ) . O r at least by the 4th century, when the text (SHA, Alex.Sev. 3 4 . 4 ) was written. Gk.Anth. 9.559. SHA, Sev. 15.7; Barnes (1967) shows that it is highly unlikely that Latin was really not her first language. Augustine, Conf. 5.8, 6 . 1 . Augustine, Conf. 6.15. Augustine, Conf. 6.10. I G U R 1262 (Lyka from Crete); I C U R 4 2 0 9 (Helpis from Sicily). Cf. C I L vi 17690, where a man commemorates his wife and says 'out o f duty you travelled with your husband in (his?) province' (pietate coiugi [sic] in provincia peregrinata es). Gk.Anth. 11.306. Bjeren 1997, 2 2 9 - 3 1 . Digest 3 8 . 1 . 2 0 . 1 , quoting Proculus. Chevallier 1988, 2 0 5 ; Andre and Basle/ 1993, 2 5 0 . See I G U R 77 = Vidman, S I R I S 3 8 4 : an inscription o f AD 146 about an Egyptian named Embes, involved in the cult o f Serapis. Solin 1983, 6 8 3 ; Turcan 1996, 37. Plutarch, Marius 17. Matthews 1989b, 4 3 . I C R i 1211 = S B 1002. Discussed by Bardy 1948, 9 0 ; Andre and Baslez 1993, 2 6 4 - 7 ; Di Stefano Manzella 1997b, 3 3 8 . Bardy 1948, 9 0 ; Andre and Baslez 1993, 2 6 5 . Ambrose, Hymn. 1 2 . 2 5 - 3 2 (ed. J. Fontaine, 1992). Bardy 1949, 2 2 6 - 7 . Augustine, Ep. 95.6 (408). Prudentius, Peristeph. 1 1 . 2 0 3 - 8 describes people coming from all over Italy. Gorce 1925, 4. e.g. I C U R 1 4 9 1 , 2 2 7 4 . Cf. MGR 18 (1994), 1 7 7 - 2 8 5 , no. 87: someone (not necessarily male, as in the editor's restoration) who died in peregre and was probably buried, if the restoration is correct, [in terra ajtiena. However, the same Latin terms would be used for 'on pilgrimage' and just 'while abroad'; e.g. someone who put up a dedication to the Genius Castrorum Peregrinorum described himself as peregre [cjonstitutus ( C I L vi 231). e.g. I C U R 15978. Solin 1983, 6 2 5 . Eusebius, H.E. 5.23, 6.43. Augustine, Ep. 4 2 . 4 , 5 3 . 5 , 88.3. T h e r e was a subsequent council at Aries on the same matter. Gorce 1925, 11. 3 7 9
3 8 0
3 8 1
3 8 2
3 8 3
3 8 4
3 8 5
3 8 6
3 8 7
3 8 8
3 8 9
3 9 0
3 9 1
3 9 2
3 9 3
3 9 4
3 9 5
3 9 0
3 9 7
3 9 8
3 9 9
4 0 0
4 0 1
4 0 2
4 0 3
4 0 4
4 0 a
4 0 6
138
Why did people 4 0 7
move to Rome?
J e r o m e , Vir.Ill. 35. Eusebius, H.E. AAA and 5.24, quoting Irenaeus, Ref.Her. 3. Eusebius, H.E. 6.14; J e r o m e , Vir.Ill. 6 1 ; Porphyry, V.Plot. 14. Gorce 1925, 15. La Piana 1925, 2 1 1 . Tcrtullian, adv.Prax. 1: 'For he first brought this sort o f perversity from Asia to Roman soil.' Cyprian, Ep. 54. Cyprian,/';/;. 4 8 . 2 - 3 . Priscillian, Liber ad Damasum 5 1 - 2 (CSEL 18.41). Innocent I, Ep.'S.l to bishops at Synod o f Toletum (PL 20.486). T a b b e r n e c 1997, nos. 72 (1CUR 4 4 3 7 ) , 93 ( I G C V O 134); nos. 7 3 , 74, 94 are possibly Montanist. Cyprian, Ep. 67.5 (ANCL edn). Gorce 1925, 2 3 . Pietri 1987. Juvenal 6.543. 4 0 8
4 0 9
4 1 0
4 1 1
4 1 2
4 1 3
4 1 4
4 1 5
4 1 6
4 1 7
4 1 8
4 , 9
4 2 0
4 2 1
139
Chapter 6
T H E PRACTICALITIES OF MOVINC T O ROME
T h i s c h a p t e r looks at t h e m e c h a n i c s o f m o v i n g to R o m e a n d settling i n t o life in t h e city. T h e p r o c e s s by which p e o p l e a r r a n g e d to leave t h e i r h o m e s a n d m a d e t h e i r way to R o m e is very p o o r l y d o c u m e n t e d , and
t h e e v i d e n c e is heavily b i a s e d t o w a r d s t h e m o s t
prosperous
m i g r a n t s . T h e c h a p t e r c o n c e n t r a t e s o n free, civilian i m m i g r a n t s ; slaves a n d soldiers would h a v e h a d very different e x p e r i e n c e s .
i. How to get to Rome A l t h o u g h p e o p l e still travelled to R o m e in times o f d i s t u r b a n c e , it was t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e Pax Romana
for travellers by l a n d a n d sea which
facilitated t h e j o u r n e y , a n d m a d e l o n g - d i s t a n c e m o v e m e n t possible o n 1
a l a r g e scale. T h e n a t u r e o f t h e j o u r n e y would h a v e b e e n d i c t a t e d by t h e traveller's s t a r t i n g - p o i n t , financial m e a n s a n d o t h e r p e r s o n a l cir c u m s t a n c e s . Divine i n f l u e n c e m i g h t also h e l p to d e c i d e what f o r m of travel to use, s i n c e , a c c o r d i n g to L u c i a n , w h e t h e r to m a k e t h e j o u r n e y to Italy by l a n d o r sea was a plausible q u e s t i o n to ask t h e o r a c l e at A b o n o u t e i c h o s in P a p h l a g o n i a .
2
T r a v e l o v e r l a n d was a i d e d by t h e
e m p i r e - w i d e n e t w o r k o f r o a d s , b u t was e x t r e m e l y slow c o m p a r e d to w a t e r - b o r n e t r a n s p o r t . T h e cursus publicus
a v e r a g e d only 4 5 k m daily,
a n d m o s t travellers would p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n using asses r a t h e r t h a n t h e best h o r s e s , a n d t h e r e f o r e travelling m u c h m o r e slowly, p e r h a p s at a daily r a t e o f 3 0 k m .
3
A t r a v e l l e r o n foot m i g h t h a v e
managed
a similar r a t e without b a g g a g e . T h e r e is a d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o m e o f t h e h a z a r d s o f t h e j o u r n e y by Aelius Aristides, w h o t r a v e l l e d o v e r l a n d from P e r g a m u m in AD 1 4 4 (the sea v o y a g e would n o t usually b e possi ble in t h e w i n t e r , since t h e r e was n o r m a l l y n o l o n g - d i s t a n c e sailing between November and March or April):
4
I set out for Rome in the middle o f winter... After [crossing the Hellespont], there was rain, frost, ice and all the winds. T h e Hebrus just now had been chopped up, so that it was viable by boat, but if it had not been, it was all solid ice. T h e fields were swampy as far as the eye could see. T h e r e was a dearth o f inns, and more rain came in through their roofs than from the sky without. And in all this, there was my haste and
141
Moving
to Rome
speed contrary to the season and the strength of my body. For not even the military couriers passed us, to say no more, and the majority o f my servants traveled leisurely. I myself sought out the guides if there was any need, and this itself was no easy matter. For it was necessary to drag the men, who fled like barbarians, sometimes by persuasion, sometimes even by force... And I lay at Edessa [in Macedonia, on the Via Egnatia] by the cataract, and scarcely on the one hundredth day after I started from home, I arrived at Rome. Aristides was clearly t a k i n g a substantial n u m b e r o f p e o p l e to R o m e with h i m , as a n y o n e o f his s t a n d i n g would; l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f b a g g a g e would r e q u i r e a n u m b e r o f porters."' T o m a k e t h e o v e r l a n d j o u r n e y in 1 0 0 days was evidently r e g a r d e d as s o m e t h i n g o f an a c h i e v e m e n t in w i n t e r . P r e s u m a b l y m o s t p e o p l e would try to travel at a m o r e favour 6
able t i m e o f y e a r . T h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f a typical i m m i g r a n t in J u v e n a l 3 . 8 3 as ' b r o u g h t to R o m e ' (advectus
Romam)
a s s u m e s arrival in a v e h i c l e
o r at least on t h e b a c k o f a beast o f b u r d e n r a t h e r t h a n o n foot. W h e n t h e e x i l e d P t o l e m y V I is d e s c r i b e d by D i o d o r u s as a p p r o a c h i n g R o m e o n foot, t h e i n t e n t i o n is p r o b a b l y to e m p h a s i z e his i m p o v e r i s h m e n t .
7
O v e r l a n d travel h a d t h e a d v a n t a g e o v e r t r a v e l l i n g by sea t h a t s o m e o n e with a m a r k e t a b l e skill m i g h t b e able to use it en r o u t e to f i n a n c e t h e journey.
8
T r a v e l by ship was relatively s p e e d y a n d was t h e r e f o r e usually s e e n as p r e f e r a b l e ; s o m e t h i n g like 3 0 days for a j o u r n e y from R o m e to E g y p t was t h o u g h t to b e g o o d , b u t travelling from east to west c o u l d 9
t a k e twice as l o n g b e c a u s e o f t h e p r e v a i l i n g w i n d s . S e a travel was also p o t e n t i a l l y very d a n g e r o u s . S h i p w r e c k a n d piracy a r e m e n t i o n e d as e q u a l d a n g e r s in legal texts, a l t h o u g h piracy a p p e a r s in reality to h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l y less likely, at least while t h e Pax Romana in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n .
10
was in f o r c e
T h e fear o f s h i p w r e c k m a y h a v e b e e n o n e o f
t h e r e a s o n s for p o t e n t i a l travellers to ask for divine advice o n w h e t h e r o r not to g o by sea. Paul was s h i p w r e c k e d t h r e e t i m e s d u r i n g his travels a r o u n d t h e e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . "
He and Josephus are
a m o n g t h o s e r e c o r d e d as b e i n g s h i p w r e c k e d o n t h e i r way to R o m e , a n d t h e elite w e r e equally v u l n e r a b l e , since M a r c u s A u r e l i u s was n e a r l y w r e c k e d in a very b a d s t o r m while sailing from G r e e c e to Brindisi.
12
T h e j o u r n e y m i g h t b e g i n in a very p u b l i c m a n n e r , as p e o p l e o f i m p o r t a n c e c o u l d a p p a r e n t l y e x p e c t to b e s e e n o f f from t h e i r h o m e p o r t by a l a r g e e s c o r t . A u g u s t i n e told his m o t h e r t h a t h e was g o i n g to t h e h a r b o u r to see o f f a friend w h e n h e was actually l e a v i n g himself, a n d ( a l t h o u g h this is a case o f e m i g r a t i o n / r o m R o m e ) , a l a r g e p a r t y saw o f f P a u l a at Ostia w h e n s h e sailed for P a l e s t i n e . 142
13
However, most
The practicalities travellers would p e r h a p s
of moving
to Rome
have b e e n m o r e c o n c e r n e d with
finding
a suitable ship a n d n e g o t i a t i n g t h e a r r a n g e m e n t s for t h e i r j o u r n e y . T h i s m i g h t in itself b e p r o b l e m a t i c , especially in late antiquity, w h e n t h e v o l u m e o f s h i p p i n g s e e m s to have fallen s u b s t a n t i a l l y .
11
Passengers
would n o r m a l l y n e e d to p r o v i d e n o t only t h e fare b u t also t h e i r own food a n d wine. O n l y d r i n k i n g w a t e r a n d m a t e r i a l s for p r e p a r i n g food w e r e p r o v i d e d by t h e s h i p o w n e r a c c o r d i n g to t h e n o r m a l c o n t r a c t e n t e r e d into by p a s s e n g e r a n d o w n e r .
13
naulum
F a r e s w e r e relatively
c h e a p , h o w e v e r , a n d a d u l t m a l e p a s s e n g e r s c o u l d s o m e t i m e s work their passage.
16
T h e possibility o f s o m e o n e m a k i n g t h e j o u r n e y with
o u t basic supplies is illustrated by t h e story o f t h e E g y p t i a n m o n k S e r a p i o n (who h a d s p e n t t i m e at A t h e n s a n d e l s e w h e r e ) : h e sailed from A l e x a n d r i a to R o m e without provisions, a n d was m a i n t a i n e d by the others on b o a r d .
1 7
W h a t would h a p p e n to s o m e o n e w h o did not
i n s p i r e t h e c h a r i t y o f fellow-voyagers is stated n o w h e r e , b u t in times o f d a n g e r it was p r o b a b l y n o r m a l for p e o p l e to s h a r e t h e i r p r o v i s i o n s .
18
T h e r e m a y b c a h i n t o f d a n g e r s from o t h e r s on b o a r d in a f r a g m e n t a r y s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD p a p y r u s l e t t e r from a w o m a n to h e r 'son':
1 9
...first and to choose either that you should remain or proceed to Rome. So, if you sail there...when are you likely to return? B e on your guard against those with whom you eat and drink. P e o p l e w h o m a d e t h e l a r g e r p a r t of t h e i r j o u r n e y to R o m e by sea would still c o m p l e t e it o v e r l a n d from B r i n d i s i , Puteoli, O s t i a o r P o r t u s ( d e p e n d i n g o n d a t e a n d starting p l a c e ) . T r a v e l l e r s from G r e e c e n o r mally a r r i v e d at B r i n d i s i . Aulus Gellius ( 1 9 . 1 ) d e s c r i b e s m a k i n g t h e j o u r n e y from C a s s i o p a (on C o r c y r a ) to B r i n d i s i in t h e c o m p a n y o f a f a m o u s Stoic p h i l o s o p h e r h e h a d m e t at A t h e n s , a n d 'a rich G r e e k m a n from Asia with, as we saw, m u c h o r n a m e n t a n d p r o v i s i o n o f g o o d s a n d h o u s e h o l d ' . T h i s was t h e r o u t e followed by G a l e n in r e v e r s e w h e n h e left R o m e to r e t u r n to P e r g a m u m ; t h e slave w h o m h e h a d left at R o m e to sell u p his h o u s e was told to g o h o m e via Sicily, h o w e v e r .
20
O t h e r s c a m e to Puteoli u p to t h e first c e n t u r y AD. J o s e p h u s , travel ling from J u d a e a with ( h e says) a b o u t six h u n d r e d o t h e r p a s s e n g e r s , was s h i p w r e c k e d in t h e Adriatic S e a , r e s c u e d by a ship o f G y r e n e , a n d l a n d e d at P u t e o l i .
21
A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n a sailed from Asia to C o r i n t h to
Sicily to Puteoli, a n d a f a v o u r a b l e wind got h i m t h e r e in four days a c c o r d i n g to Philostratus, p e r h a p s m e a n i n g from C o r i n t h .
22
R e a c h i n g t h e p o r t was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e e n d o f t h e d a n g e r s o f t h e j o u r n e y . T h e final stage, o v e r l a n d , was p r e s u m a b l y w h e n t h e S y r i a n sophist P a u s a n i a s h a d an a c c i d e n t in which h e fell o u t o f his c a r r i a g e , i n j u r i n g his b a c k a n d left h a n d .
2 5
It may also h a v e b e e n t h e p o i n t at 143
Moving
to Rome
which R . N a h u m of G i m z o was r o b b e d at an inn o f t h e gift h e was b r i n g i n g for t h e e m p e r o r .
2 4
E v e n in such a peaceful t i m e as that o f t h e
Y o u n g e r Pliny, t h e r e w e r e two cases o f p r o s p e r o u s m e n d i s a p p e a r i n g w i t h o u t t r a c e while travelling in I t a l y ,
25
a n d k i d n a p p i n g travellers for
use as a g r i c u l t u r a l slaves was said to b e rife u n d e r T i b e r i u s .
2 0
In the
early t h i r d c e n t u r y , t h e b a n d i t B u l l a Felix specialized in r o b b i n g a n d kidnapping travellers:
27
For he learned o f everybody that was setting out from Rome and every body that was putting into port at Brindisi, and knew both who and how many there were, and what and how much they had. Arrivals from B r i n d i s i a n d Puteoli would r e a c h R o m e via t h e V i a A p p i a . T h o s e c o m i n g from O s t i a a n d
Portus would use the Via
Ostiensis o r V i a P o r t u e n s i s . T h e H i s t o r i a A u g u s t a claims t h a t w h e n S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s built t h e S e p t i z o d i u m (at t h e c o r n e r o f t h e P a l a t i n e a n d t h e C i r c u s M a x i m u s ) , ' h e h a d n o o t h e r t h o u g h t b u t t h a t his b u i l d i n g m i g h t p r e s e n t itself to t h o s e a p p r o a c h i n g from A f r i c a ' . t h e b u i l d i n g w o u l d actually face t h o s e u s i n g t h e V i a A p p i a ,
28
As
this
a p p e a r s to b e an a n a c h r o n i s m for S e v e r u s ' own t i m e .
ii. First impressions of Rome S e e i n g t h e city for t h e first t i m e m u s t h a v e m a d e a g r e a t i m p r e s s i o n o n s o m e o n e a r r i v i n g after a l o n g j o u r n e y .
2 9
B y at least t h e
mid-first
c e n t u r y BC, R o m e was so m u c h l a r g e r t h a n a n y o t h e r city that e v e n an A l e x a n d r i a n o r A n t i o c h e n e m u s t h a v e b e e n i m p r e s s e d by its size. T h e r e are no direct
first-hand
a c c o u n t s o f w h a t it felt l i k e ,
30
but some
o f t h e views e x p r e s s e d by c h a r a c t e r s in l i t e r a t u r e may reflect t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e a u t h o r s t h e m s e l v e s w h e n they first c a m e to R o m e .
3 1
T h u s , t h e i m p a c t m a d e o n V i r g i l ' s c h a r a c t e r T i t y r u s m a y reflect h o w Virgil h i m s e l f felt w h e n first c o m i n g to R o m e from n o r t h e r n I t a l y :
32
I was a simpleton, Meliboeus. I used to think that the city they call Rome was like our market-town, where we shepherds are accustomed to drive down our new-weaned lambs. Arguing from what I knew, from a dog's likeness to a puppy and a goat's to her kids, I measured big by little things. But I soon saw that Rome stands out above all other cities as the cypress soars above the drooping undergrowth. Dionysius o f Halicarnassus thought that the most impressive features o f R o m e were the aqueducts, roads and sewers.
33
N e a r l y 4 0 0 years
later, it was still equally plausible for a w r i t e r w h o was h i m s e l f an o u t s i d e r to d e s c r i b e a n o t h e r o u t s i d e r b e i n g i m p r e s s e d by t h e scale o f t h e city, in this c a s e A m m i a n u s d e s c r i b i n g C o n s t a n t i u s I I ' s first visit
144
The practicalities to R o m e in 3 5 7 :
of moving
to Rome
54
As soon as he entered Rome, the home o f empire and o f all perfection, he went to the Rostra and looked with amazement at the Forum, that sublime monument o f pristine power; wherever he turned he was daz zled by the concentration o f wonderful sights... When he surveyed the different regions of the city and its environs, lying along the slopes and on level ground within the circle o f the seven hills, it seemed to him that whatever his eye First lit on took the palm. E d w a r d s ( 1 9 9 6 , 9 7 - 8 ) shows that A m m i a n u s is far from giving a realistic d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e city as it e x i s t e d at t h e t i m e , since h e c o n s p i c u o u s l y o m i t s a n y r e f e r e n c e to C h r i s t i a n m o n u m e n t s , b u t t h e s e n s e of w o n d e r can still b e t a k e n as g e n u i n e . P e o p l e m i g h t b e d i s a p p o i n t e d with t h e realities o f life at R o m e , b u t they w e r e likely to b e i m p r e s s e d , at least at first, by its physical s e t t i n g .
33
M o s t r e f e r e n c e s to t h e city of R o m e in r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e r n a visit t h e r e by a g r o u p o f rabbis in AD 9 5 : Gamaliel I I , Eleazar b. Azariah, J o s h u a b. H a n a n i a h a n d A q i b a .
30
T h e r e is a little a n e c d o t a l i n f o r m a
tion a b o u t t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e trip, giving m o r e o f an o u t s i d e r ' s view t h a n a n y o t h e r literary s o u r c e .
37
T h e y travelled by sea to Puteoli,
a n d suffered from a lack o f p r o v i s i o n s o n b o a r d s h i p : w h e n G a m a l i e l h a d c o n s u m e d all his b r e a d , h e h a d to rely o n J o s h u a ' s f l o u r .
38
They
c o m p l e t e d t h e j o u r n e y from Puteoli to R o m e o n foot, a n d c o u l d h e a r t h e n o i s e o f R o m e w h e n they w e r e still at P u t e o l i ;
39
this is, as far as
I k n o w , t h e only r e f e r e n c e to t h e fact t h a t t h e city's n o i s e m u s t h a v e b e e n o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p r e s s i v e t h i n g s for a n e w c o m e r . T h e y sailed h o m e from B r i n d i s i .
40
T h e r e is d i s a p p o i n t i n g l y little i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t w h a t t h e stay at R o m e o f t h e s e o r a n y o t h e r rabbis was actually like. O n e o f t h e m n o t i c e d that t h e d o g s o f R o m e k n e w how to d e c e i v e m e n so t h a t they could rob bakers' shops.
41
R . A q i b a s e n t o u t 'a m e m b e r o f his h o u s e
h o l d ' to b u y s o m e food in t h e m a r k e t , which m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t they usually travelled with t h e i r servants, as would b e e x p e c t e d for p e o p l e o f their status.
42
T h e r e is also a r a t h e r b i z a r r e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w h o l e
city, a p p a r e n t l y set at a s o m e w h a t l a t e r d a t e :
43
Ulla said: Greek Italy is the great city of Rome, which covers an area o f three hundredparasangs by three hundred. It has three hundred markets corresponding to the number o f days of the solar year. T h e smallest of them is that o f the poultry-sellers, which is sixteen mil by sixteen. T h e king dines every day in one o f them. Everyone who resides in the city, even if he was not born there, receives a regular portion o f food from the king's household, and so does everyone who was born there, even if he does not reside there. T h e r e are three thousand baths in it, and five 145
Moving
to Rome
hundred windows the smoke from which goes outside the wall. One side of it is bounded by the sea, one side by hills and mountains, one side by a barrier of iron, and one side by pebbly ground and swamp. This is p r o b a b l y b a s e d o n an eye-witness a c c o u n t from after t h e build ing o f t h e A u r e l i a n i c Walls. It suggests that t h e size o f t h e city was h a r d for a n e w c o m e r to t a k e in, a n d that t h e s m o k e (as well as t h e n o i s e ) i m p r e s s e d p e o p l e as they w e r e a p p r o a c h i n g .
iii. Where to go when you reached Rome A new arrival in R o m e with relatives o r friends a l r e a d y t h e r e would naturally t u r n to t h e m first. T h e y m i g h t a l r e a d y h a v e b e e n involved in a r r a n g i n g t h e m o v e i f it was p a r t o f a p r o c e s s o f c h a i n m i g r a t i o n . T h e future
e m p e r o r Severus apparently
Septimius Severus.
44
w e n t to his c o n s u l a r r e l a t i v e
W h e n his own sister a n d n e p h e w a r r i v e d (after h e
h a d b e c o m e e m p e r o r ) , they c a m e to h i m a n d w e r e rapidly s e n t h o m e with g i f t s .
45
A n o t h e r possibility would b e to g o to s o m e o n e influential; p r e f e r ably s o m e o n e with w h o m t h e n e w c o m e r h a d a l r e a d y h a d d e a l i n g s , o r at least s o m e o n e w h o c o u l d b e given a l e t t e r o f i n t r o d u c t i o n .
45
This
m i g h t b e t h e e m p e r o r himself. D i o g e n e s , a p r o f e s s o r o f l i t e r a t u r e from R h o d e s , c a m e to R o m e a n d w e n t to pay his r e s p e c t s to T i b e r i u s at t h e P a l a c e , p r e s u m a b l y in t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t s o m e a r r a n g e m e n t s would b e m a d e for h i m .
4 7
Aelius H e r o d i a n u s , a grmnmaticus
from A l e x a n d r i a ,
was r e c e i v e d i n t o t h e f r i e n d s h i p o f M a r c u s A u r e l i u s w h e n h e c a m e to Rome.
4 8
W h e n a new e m p e r o r c a m e to p o w e r , this m i g h t in itself
e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e w h o felt they h a d c l a i m s o n h i m to c o m e to R o m e ; Dio C h r y s o s t o m i n t e n d e d to travel to R o m e w h e n 'his old
friend
N e r v a ' b e c a m e e m p e r o r , a l t h o u g h h e did n o t actually g e t t h e r e b e f o r e Nerva's d e a t h .
4 9
Alternatively, t h e a p p r o a c h c o u l d b e to an a r i s t o c r a t w h o m i g h t h a v e r e a s o n to b e s y m p a t h e t i c , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e h e was a p a t r o n o f t h e new arrival's p r o f e s s i o n , o r o f t h e h o m e a r e a . W h e n t h e p o e t A r c h i a s a r r i v e d at R o m e in 1 0 2 BC, h e was i m m e d i a t e l y t a k e n into t h e h o u s e o f t h e Luculli-"
10
- C i c e r o d o e s n o t m a k e c l e a r w h e t h e r this was j u s t
b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e well-known p a t r o n s of t h e arts, o r b e c a u s e A r c h i a s h a d s o m e p r e v i o u s c o n n e c t i o n with t h e m . T h e c o m p l a i n t s o f J u v e n a l ' s U m b r i c i u s a b o u t how G r e e k h a n g e r s - o n o f g r e a t h o u s e s leave n o r o o m for native o n e s m a y b e m o t i v a t e d by o c c u r r e n c e s such as t h i s . s o m e cases, a tie o f hospitium
51
In
m i g h t exist b e t w e e n a p r o v i n c i a l ( p r e s u m
ably only an i m p o r t a n t o n e ) a n d a R o m a n a r i s t o c r a t , p e r h a p s d e r i v i n g from t h e aristocrat's t e r m o f office in t h e p r o v i n c e , o r from a h e r e d i t a r y
146
The, practicalities
of moving
to Rome
link b e t w e e n families. C i c e r o , in a l e t t e r o f 4 6 BC, r e f e r s to t h e
hospitium
r e l a t i o n s h i p h e h a d with a m a n n a m e d L y s o o f P a t r a e , w h o h a d stayed at R o m e for a y e a r a n d
' a l m o s t lived' with C i c e r o . '
2
Individual
provincials w h o p u t u p h o n o r i f i c i n s c r i p t i o n s at R o m e for l e a d i n g R o m a n s m a y have b e e n i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e m a r k i n g useful ties (which they m i g h t h a v e f o r m e d at h o m e ) , o r m a y h a v e b e e n s e n t to R o m e specially to h o n o u r s o m e o n e w h o h a d h e l p e d t h e i r h o m e c o m m u n i t y . F o r e x a m p l e , C a e r e l l i u s Pollittianus, p r o c o n s u l of M a c e d o n i a , was h o n o u r e d for ' i n n u m e r a b l e benefits' by a n u m b e r o f m e n from Africa with t h e n o m e n B o n ( i ? ) c i u s .
53
A m m i a n u s gives a cynical d e s c r i p t i o n of how t h e p r o c e s s o f m a k i n g t h e first c o n t a c t w o r k e d in t h e fourth c e n t u r y , p e r h a p s b a s e d o n personal experience:'
4
But nowadays, if you come as a respectable stranger from the provinces lo pay a first call on a man who prides himself on his ample means, you will be received like a long-lost friend. You will be asked so many ques tions that you are driven to invent the answers, and you will be so surprised to find an important personage who has never seen you before paying earnest attention to your slender claims that you will be sorry that you did not visit Rome ten years earlier to enjoy such exceptional favour. T h e favour rapidly d e c l i n e s , h o w e v e r , a n d a c l i e n t w h o a t t e n d s his p a t r o n for t h r e e years a n d is t h e n a b s e n t for t h r e e days g o e s b a c k to t h e b o t t o m o f t h e p e c k i n g o r d e r . A m m i a n u s d o e s n o t p o i n t o u t that t h e r e a s o n t h e new arrival would g o to t h e wealthy m a n in t h e p l a c e was ( p r e s u m a b l y ) t h e h o p e o f b e i n g p r o v i d e d
with
first
work,
a c c o m m o d a t i o n o r useful c o n t a c t s . M e m b e r s h i p o f t h e c h u r c h g a v e access to a m o r e r e g u l a r i z e d system o f c o n t a c t s for n e w c o m e r s . A C h r i s t i a n , at least o n e o f s t a n d i n g , c o u l d e x p e c t to r e c e i v e hospitality from fellow-Christians at R o m e . R o m a n m e m b e r s o f t h e J e s u s m o v e m e n t m e t Paul e v e n b e f o r e h e r e a c h e d t h e city;
35
t h e fact that this was t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e first C h r i s t i a n s suggests
t h a t it m a y h a v e b e e n b o r r o w e d from t h e J e w s . P r o v i d i n g h e l p for visitors was s e e n as an i m p o r t a n t use o f C h r i s t i a n c o m m u n a l funds in the second century:
56
T h e wealthy and willing each gives what he wants as each sees fit, and what is collected is deposited with the president. He helps orphans and foreigners staying with us; in a word, he takes care o f everyone in distress. C o n s i d e r i n g t h e n u m b e r o f ' h e r e t i c s ' w h o m a d e t h e i r way to R o m e (see p. 1 2 6 ) , t h e d a n g e r o f hospitality b e i n g a b u s e d (in o r t h o d o x t e r m s ) i n c r e a s e d . F o r e x a m p l e , M a r c i o n was w e l c o m e d as a b e n e f a c t o r by t h e R o m a n c h u r c h , w h o did n o t k n o w a b o u t his d o c t r i n a l l y s u s p e c t 147
Moving
to Rome
past in P o n t u s .
57
Phis eventually led to t h e c h u r c h h i e r a r c h y c a r r y i n g
letters of i n t r o d u c t i o n (litterae orthodoxy.
5 8
communicatoriae/formatae)
to show t h e i r
C y p r i a n w r o t e to R o m e to warn o f a case w h e r e h e h a d
refused to give such l e t t e r s .
59
In the fourth century, making contact
b e c a m e m u c h e a s i e r as t h e n u m b e r o f C h r i s t i a n institutions prolifer a t e d , a n d t h e c o n t a c t s c o u l d b e o f h i g h e r social s t a n d i n g as t h e elite gradually b e c a m e christianized. T h e m o n k Serapion enquired o t h e r m o n k s a n d n u n s w h e n h e a r r i v e d at R o m e .
0 0
for
Athanasius, during
a t h r e e - y e a r stay in t h e city, lived with t h e e m p e r o r ' s a u n t E u t r o p i u m and the senators Abuterius and Sperantius.
61
Fellow-feeling could benefit m e m b e r s o f other religions too. J o s e p h u s m a d e t h e a c q u a i n t a n c e o f an influential J e w i s h a c t o r n a m e d Aliturus.
62
W h e n A p u l e i u s ' c h a r a c t e r L u c i u s c o m e s to R o m e as a d e v o
tee o f t h e cult o f Isis, h e r e g u l a r l y a t t e n d s t h e Isis t e m p l e in t h e C a m p u s M a r t i u s a n d 'is r e c e i v e d t h e r e n o t as a s t r a n g e r ' .
63
Augustine
was a M a n i c h a e a n w h e n h e a r r i v e d at R o m e , a n d stayed at t h e h o u s e o f a M a n i c h a e a n a u d i t o r , w h e r e h e fell seriously i l l .
64
C o m p a t r i o t s c o u l d also b e e x p e c t e d to h e l p , at least i f t h e i m m i g r a n t was o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e social s t a n d i n g . L i c i n i u s M o n t a n u s o f C i r t a stayed with F r o n t o w h e n e v e r h e c a m e to R o m e , a n d h a d rights o f hospitium
with o t h e r s .
65
Sailer c o m m e n t s ( 1 9 8 2 , 1 8 5 ) :
This last clause suggests that a Roman aristocrat, especially a recent migrant who still had numerous ties with his patria, was expected to host provincial visitors as a routine duty, and so renew and strengthen his bonds with them. T h e sons o f S a r d i u s S a t u r n i n u s , a n o t h e r African, c a m e to study a n d live with F r o n t o at R o m e .
6 6
A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n a was allegedly h e l p e d
at R o m e by a t r i b u n e w h o h a d b e e n a boy at E p h e s u s w h e n A p o l l o n i u s c u r e d t h e city o f t h e p l a g u e .
67
W h e n G a l e n c a m e to R o m e
from
P e r g a m u m , o n e o f his first i m p o r t a n t patients was E u d e m u s , a n o t h e r P e r g a m e n e a n d a friend o f his father's w h o h a d b e e n at R o m e for at least t e n y e a r s .
68
M u c h e a r l i e r , w h e n P t o l e m y V I a r r i v e d in R o m e as a n
e x i l e , a c c o m p a n i e d by a e u n u c h a n d t h r e e o t h e r slaves, h e m o v e d i n t o t h e l o d g i n g s ( ' g a r r e t ' ) o f t h e A l e x a n d r i a n p a i n t e r D e m e t r i u s , until t h e Senate provided
h i m with b e t t e r a c c o m m o d a t i o n .
6 9
A c c o r d i n g to
Diodorus, he obtained Demetrius' address during the j o u r n e y , and c l a i m e d his hospitality b e c a u s e as k i n g h e h a d often e n t e r t a i n e d h i m at A l e x a n d r i a . L a t e r , s h a r e d g e o g r a p h i c a l o r i g i n m i g h t still b e i m p o r t a n t a m o n g Christians. T h e Pannonian mother and daughter Nunita and M a x i m i l l a w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d in t h e S. S e b a s t i a n o c a t a c o m b by L u c c e i a , d a u g h t e r o f t h e U r b a n P r e f e c t V i v e n t i u s , w h o was h i m s e l f
148
The practicalities a Pannonian.
7 0
of moving
to Rome
T h e hospitality system m u s t h a v e o p e r a t e d o n class
lines, h o w e v e r : F r o n t o would p r e s u m a b l y not have offered a c c o m m o d a t i o n to an African m u l e - d r i v e r , a l t h o u g h h e m i g h t have p o i n t e d h i m in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f o t h e r African m u l e - d r i v e r s . T h e first p o r t of call for a new arrival m i g h t b e an inn o r w i n e s h o p , e v e n i f it was only a t e m p o r a r y halt b e f o r e g o i n g o n to p u r s u e o t h e r c o n t a c t s . T h i s was a l l e g e d l y t h e c a s e for S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s b e f o r e h e m e t up with his r e l a t i v e :
71
On his arrival at Rome he chanced upon an innkeeper who was reading the Fife o f the emperor Hadrian at that very time. A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n a a n d his c o m p a n i o n s a r c d e s c r i b e d as g o i n g to an inn n e a r t h e gates w h e n t h e y first r e a c h e d t h e c i t y ,
72
a n d in a story
a b o u t t h e birth o f Ablabius, w h o b e c a m e C o n s t a n t i n e ' s Prefect, E u n a p i u s w r i t e s :
Praetorian
73
A certain Egyptian o f the class devoted to the study called astrology... pushed his way into one o f the more expensive wineshops, and called out that he was parched after finishing a long journey... W h i l e all t h e s e stories a r e unlikely to h a v e a n y factual basis in t h e m selves, t h e y p r o b a b l y i l l u s t r a t e a g e n e r a l a s s u m p t i o n
about
the
behaviour o f newcomers.
iv. Where to stay T h o s e w h o w e r e n o t a b l e to find a c c o m m o d a t i o n t h r o u g h
their
c o n t a c t s h a d to m a k e use of t h e various sorts o f l o d g i n g available at Rome.
7 4
A n u m b e r of L a t i n w o r d s a r e u s e d for r e n t e d a c c o m m o d a t i o n ,
a n d t h e e x a c t significance s e e m s to vary b e t w e e n writers. A
caupona
('inn') m i g h t p r o v i d e r o o m s o n a l o n g - t e r m basis as well as o v e r n i g h t a c c o m m o d a t i o n for t r a v e l l e r s .
75
S i d o n i u s stayed in a deversorium
('lodg
i n g - h o u s e ' ) in T r a s t e v e r e , p r e s u m a b l y a h i g h e r class o n e t h a n s o m e deversoria
m e n t i o n e d in l i t e r a t u r e .
70
J e r o m e lived in a
hospitiolum
( ' g u e s t - h o u s e ' ) for t h r e e years after c o m i n g b a c k from t h e E a s t . P a u l i n u s stayed in a hospitium
for his a n n u a l visit.
78
77
T h e s e types o f
a c c o m m o d a t i o n m u s t h a v e v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y : P a u l i n u s is unlikely to h a v e stayed a n y w h e r e t o o d o w n - m a r k e t , b u t t h e y would also have i n c l u d e d t h e c h e a p e s t r e n t a l a c c o m m o d a t i o n available, p r o b a b l y paid for o n a daily b a s i s .
79
R a t h e r than using ordinary lodging-houses, J e r o m e may have taken a d v a n t a g e o f t h e xenodochia
a n d hospitia
which t h e C o u n c i l o f N i c a e a
d e c r e e d s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d in all cities for p o o r a n d ill t r a v e l l e r s .
80
His
friends P a m m a c h i u s a n d F a b i o l a f o u n d e d t h e X e n o d o c h i u m at P o r t u s ,
149
Moving
to Rome
which c a t e r e d for travellers to a n d from R o m e , n o t only destitute ones.
81
M e l a n i a a n d P i n i a n u s w e n t o n e b e t t e r by o p e n i n g u p t h e i r own
s u b u r b a n h o u s e 'to t h e holy b i s h o p s a n d priests a n d all f o r e i g n e r s arriving'.
82
S o m e newcomers might have accommodation
already
a r r a n g e d for t h e m . J o s e p h u s , w h e n h e r e a c h e d R o m e , was able to g o to t h e h o u s e which V e s p a s i a n h a d previously o c c u p i e d as a private citizen.
83
A n o t h e r possibility for those u n a b l e to afford r e g u l a r a c c o m m o d a t i o n w o u l d b e t h e e r e c t i o n of s h a n t i e s , as s e e n in m a n y e x p a n d i n g m o d e r n cities. T h e s e a r e p r o b a b l y what is m e a n t by tuguria
('huts') w h e n t h e
w o r d is u s e d in an u r b a n c o n t e x t , a n d a d e r o g a t o r y r e f e r e n c e to ' t h e b u i l d i n g s o f t h o s e w h o live o u t s i d e t h e P o r t a F l u m e n t a n a o r in t h e 84
Huts erected
fire-risk.
P e n a l t i e s for
A e m i l i a n a ' m a y h a v e t h e s a m e sort o f t h i n g in m i n d . within t h e city w e r e liable to d e m o l i t i o n as a t h o s e w h o tried to build 'casas seu tuguria e n a c t e d in 3 9 7 .
8 5
on the Campus Martius were
T h e o c c u p a n t s of such a c c o m m o d a t i o n would n o t
necessarily b e i m m i g r a n t s , since p e o p l e a l r e a d y in R o m e w e r e liable to be made homeless through
fire,
flood, c o l l a p s e o r eviction, b u t it
w o u l d b e n a t u r a l for p o o r n e w c o m e r s to gravitate to such a r e a s . T h e h o m e l e s s w h o lived u n d e r b r i d g e s a n d in t o m b s , a n d b e g g e d o n t h e Clivus A r i c i n u s ,
86
n o d o u b t also i n c l u d e d i m m i g r a n t s .
v. Finding work F o r t h o s e w h o c a m e to R o m e as a c a r e e r m o v e , t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r profession would d e t e r m i n e Augustine students,
87
relied on word
how t h e y w e n t a b o u t o f mouth
when
finding
work.
h e b e g a n to
recruit
a n d G a l e n s e e m s to have r e c r u i t e d p a t i e n t s in t h e s a m e
way, which would b e n o r m a l for t e a c h e r s a n d d o c t o r s . As a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d ( p p . 9 5 , 1 1 2 ) , acquiring p r o m i n e n t students or patients m i g h t b e t h e q u i c k e s t way to establish a r e m u n e r a t i v e c l i e n t e l e . J u v e n a l ' s U m b r i c i u s lists t h e j o b s which ' G r e e k s ' will d o - t e a c h e r o f g r a m m a r , rhetoric or geometry, painter, wrestling-master,
fortune
teller, r o p e - d a n c e r , d o c t o r , m a g i c i a n - b u t t h e p e r s o n h e d e s c r i b e s as t u r n i n g his h a n d esuriens),™
to all this is a ' h u n g r y
little G r e e k '
(Graeculus
p r e s u m a b l y n o t s o m e o n e w h o is really qualified, b u t s o m e
o n e w h o is willing to p r e t e n d to b e qualified at a n y t h i n g which will e a r n h i m a living. In reality, letters o f r e c o m m e n d a t i o n would p r e s u m a b l y b e t h e only way in which a f o r e i g n e r ' s skills c o u l d b e v o u c h e d for b e f o r e they w e r e p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e , e x c e p t in cases w h e r e reputation arrived
the
first.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e at all a b o u t how unskilled o r
150
The practicalities
of moving
to Rome
semi-skilled i m m i g r a n t s set a b o u t finding work. F o r e i g n e r s c o u l d j o i n t h e r a n k s of t h e u n s k i l l e d h o p i n g to b e h i r e d for t h e day, b u t t h e details of how t h e p r o c e s s w o r k e d a r e u n k n o w n . T h e r e m a y have b e e n an i n f o r m a l system o f a g e n t s w h o p u t newly a r r i v e d w o r k e r s in t o u c h with p o t e n t i a l e m p l o y e r s , as is often t h e c a s e with m o d e r n i m m i g r a n t s , a n d it is likely that c o n t a c t s within an e x i s t i n g i m m i g r a n t g r o u p w e r e u s e d to find e m p l o y m e n t , o r p r e m i s e s in t h e c a s e o f t h o s e i n t e n d i n g to become self-employed. no disadvantage
89
A f o r e i g n e r with capital w o u l d p r o b a b l y b e at
c o m p a r e d to a n i n d i g e n o u s f r e e b o r n
R o m a n in
g e t t i n g s t a r t e d , b u t b o t h would h a v e b e e n in a less f a v o u r a b l e position t h a n an e x - s l a v e with a p a t r o n ' s b a c k i n g .
vi. Location of housing T h e t e n d e n c y o f i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s to c l u s t e r in specific a r e a s o f a city is well-known in studies o f m o d e r n m i g r a t i o n .
90
T h i s m a y b e partly
a m a t t e r o f c h o i c e by p e o p l e w h o w a n t to live a m o n g o t h e r s o f a similar b a c k g r o u n d , a n d partly a m a t t e r o f necessity i f h o u s i n g is difficult to o b t a i n o r l a n d l o r d s a r e liable to b e p r e j u d i c e d foreigners. T h e existence o f immigrant residential
against
neighbourhoods
can allow t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f s e p a r a t e identity at local level, t h r o u g h s h a r e d l a n g u a g e , b u s i n e s s e s a n d c u l t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , in ways which w o u l d b e t o o difficult i f t h e s a m e p e o p l e w e r e s p r e a d all o v e r t h e c i t y .
91
T h e r e is n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e o f l a n d l o r d p r e j u d i c e at R o m e , b u t h o u s i n g was in s h o r t s u p p l y for e v e r y o n e in t h e city. T r a s t e v e r e is g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t to h a v e b e e n t h e a r e a o f R o m e w h e r e e a s t e r n i m m i g r a n t s t e n d e d to live, a l t h o u g h t h e e v i d e n c e is p r o b a b l y n o t as c o m p e l ling as it is s o m e t i m e s m a d e to s o u n d . A c c o r d i n g to M a c M u l l e n , ' T h e w h o l e o f this vast R e g i o of t h e city was largely from t h e e a s t e r n Mediterranean.'
9 2
T h e e v i d e n c e is m a i n l y t h e n u m b e r of s h r i n e s o f
o r i e n t a l cults l o c a t e d in t h e a r e a (see p. 2 4 0 ) , t h e (allegedly) h i g h n u m b e r o f burials o f Asian a n d S y r i a n ex-slaves o n t h a t side o f t h e city (see p. 1 8 7 ) , a n d a few literary r e f e r e n c e s such as Philo's c o m m e n t t h a t t h e J e w s o f R o m e m a i n l y lived t h e r e .
9 3
Since both banks o f the T i b e r
for a d i s t a n c e o f a b o u t 2 k m s o u t h o f t h e T i b e r I s l a n d s e e m to h a v e b e e n d o m i n a t e d by d o c k s a n d w a r e h o u s e s ,
94
T r a s t e v e r e would h a v e
b e e n close to m u c h o f t h e w o r k which was available to i m m i g r a n t s . I t was c e r t a i n l y a n a r e a w h e r e C h r i s t i a n i t y f l o u r i s h e d e a r l y ,
partly
a m o n g i m m i g r a n t s , a n d it s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t d e n s e l y p o p u lated r e g i o n o f R o m e .
9 5
However, detailed information about housing
a r r a n g e m e n t s is c o m p l e t e l y l a c k i n g , so it is u n c l e a r w h e t h e r within T r a s t e v e r e t h e r e w e r e s e p a r a t e streets o r b l o c k s o f S y r i a n s , G a l a t i a n s ,
151
Moving
to Rome
etc., o r w h e t h e r i m m i g r a n t s w e r e c r a m m e d i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y i n t o t h e available a c c o m m o d a t i o n . T h e A v e n t i n e with its s u r r o u n d i n g s was also a n i m p o r t a n t a r e a in which
foreigners
century AD.
96
c o u l d settle, at least until its g e n t r i f i c a t i o n in t h e first
L i k e T r a s t e v e r e , it was o u t s i d e t h e p o m e r i u m a n d t h e r e
fore available for t h e use of f o r e i g n cults. It was also n e a r t h e d o c k s a n d w a r e h o u s e s , a n d it was a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a r e a for t h e e a r l y Christians o f R o m e .
9 7
T h e r e is a possible s o u r c e of e v i d e n c e for i m m i g r a n t s ' r e s i d e n c e in t h e n a m e s o f s o m e vici. I f streets in a p a r t i c u l a r p a r t o f t h e city t e n d e d to d e r i v e t h e i r n a m e s from a c e r t a i n a r e a o v e r s e a s , it is possible t h a t i m m i g r a n t s from that a r e a w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t . It m u s t b e a d m i t t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t this m e t h o d would p r o d u c e s o m e c o m p l e t e l y e r r o n e o u s 98
results i f a p p l i e d to m o d e r n R o m e . T h e vicus Capitis Africae,
running
n e a r t h e C o l o s s e u m r o u g h l y a l o n g t h e line o f t h e m o d e r n V i a della Navicella, m a y originally h a v e b e e n a n a r e a o f African s e t t l e m e n t , especially i f t h e vicus Stabuli Proconsulis, vicus Capsensis
vicus Syrtis, vicus Byzacenus
were all located in t h e s a m e a r e a .
99
and
However, Richardson
( 1 9 9 2 , 7 0 - 1 ) , believes that it was n a m e d after an allegorical sculpted h e a d of Africa, a n d t h e r e f o r e has n o relation to t h e p e o p l e w h o lived t h e r e . T h e r e has b e e n a t e n d e n c y to a s s u m e that p e o p l e w h o w e r e b u r i e d t o g e t h e r also lived t o g e t h e r in t h e s a m e p a r t o f R o m e . S o m e c a t a c o m b s c o n t a i n clusters o f burials which a p p e a r to b e l o n g to p e o p l e a similar b a c k g r o u n d (see p. 1 8 8 ) .
1 0 0
from
I t may b e t r u e t h a t t h e s e p e o p l e
all lived close to e a c h o t h e r a n d to t h e c a t a c o m b , b u t it is n o t n e c e s s a r ily so, as Pietri ( 1 9 7 6 ) has s h o w n clearly t h a t t h e r e is n o a u t o m a t i c c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n w h e r e p e o p l e lived a n d w h e r e they w e r e b u r i e d . T h e r e f o r e t h e o c c a s i o n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n of, for e x a m p l e , G a l a t i a n b u r i als in a p a r t i c u l a r c a t a c o m b d o e s n o t h a v e to r e p r e s e n t a G a l a t i a n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , a l t h o u g h it c o u l d d o so. I n g e n e r a l , t h e r e is little firm e v i d e n c e for a n y c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f individual nationalities a n y w h e r e in r e s i d e n t i a l R o m e , a l t h o u g h it is highly likely t h a t such c o n c e n t r a t i o n s did exist. F o r n e w c o m e r s to R o m e , t h e s u p p o r t a n d c o m p a n i o n s h i p o f c o m p a t r i o t s o r c o - r e l i g i o n a r i e s o f t h e i r own status (as well as t h e p a t r o n a g e o f t h o s e o f h i g h e r status) may well h a v e b e e n crucial factors in a d j u s t i n g to life in t h e city.
Notes 1
Andre and Baslez 1993, 1 2 3 - 5 ; Chevallier 1988, 4 0 9 ; Aelius Ar. 2 6 . 9 4 104. Lucian, Alex. 5 3 . 2
152
The practicalities 3
of moving
to Rome
Andre and Baslez 1993, 3 8 8 - 4 0 9 , 4 8 9 . Aelius Ar. 4 8 . 6 0 - 6 2 (tr. C.A. Behr; the descriptions o f Aristides' ailments have been omitted); Duncan-Jones 1990, 2 5 . Galen also made an overland journey from Pergamum on his first visit to Rome (and probably his second), travelling through T h r a c e and Macedonia on the Via Egnatia: Nutton 1973, 168; Galen 12.171. Cf. the description o f a much more comfortable journey from Gaul by Sidonius, Ep. 1.5, but most people are hardly likely to have had his network o f friends and relatives to stay with, or his access to the cursus publicus, including its river transport. Andre and Baslez 1993, 4 7 3 - 7 . Andre and Baslez 1993, 4 8 6 . For example, Symmachus (Ep. 4 . 6 3 ) refers to travel 'as soon as the spring sailing-season opens the sea'. Diod.Sic. 3 1 . 1 8 . 1 . Andre and Baslez 1993, 4 6 9 . Duncan-Jones 1 9 9 0 , 17, 2 6 ; Andre and Baslez 1 9 9 3 , 4 8 7 : Rutilius Namatianus preferred to travel by sea from Rome to Cisalpine Gaul, but was becalmed at the mouth o f the Tiber for fifteen days. Ibid. 4 8 9 : it was possible to travel from Ostia to Africa in one day, from Ostia to Cadiz in seven, and from Puteoli to Alexandria in nine. However, Duncan-Jones shows that these times were exceptionally fast. e.g. Digest 4.9.3.1 Labeo. 2 Cor. 11.25. SHA, Marcus 27.2. Gorce 1925, 106-7. Duncan-Jones 1990, 29. In the early 5th century, Synesius (Ep. 147) gave as an excuse for the non-payment o f tribute that no ships sailed from Gyrene to the capital. Andre and Baslez 1993, 4 2 4 ; Digest 20.4.6, 30.1.39.1. Digest 4.9.4.2 Vivianus mentions clothing and a daily food supply as items which might be taken on to a ship in addition to the real cargo. Andre and Baslez 1993, 4 2 4 . Palladius, H.L. 1.66. Midrash Eccl.R. 11.1. P.Mert. ii 81 (ed. B . R . Rees, H.I. Bell, J . W . B . Barns). Galen 1 2 . 6 4 8 - 9 . Josephus, Vita 15. Philostratus./ty.r. 7.10. Galen 8.213. J E xii 7 9 6 ; Ginzberg 1 9 2 5 - 3 8 , vol. 4, 2 0 3 . Pliny, Ep. 6.25. Suetonius, Aug. 32, Tib. 8. Dio 77.10.2 (tr. E. Gary). SHA, Sev. 24; Richardson 1992, 3 5 0 . Andre and Baslez 1993, 1 5 3 - 6 0 ; Edwards 1996, 1 5 - 1 6 , although, as she notes (p. I l l ) , this perspective is rarely found in literature. Aelius Aristides 26 does perhaps reflect some o f his first impressions, particularly in his emphasis on the height o f the buildings ('the cities which 4
3
6
7
8
9
1 0
11
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 0
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
153
Moving
to Rome
are now up in the air'), but with very heavy oratorical embellishments. Balsdon ( 1 9 7 9 , 2 0 8 ) comments: ' T h e r e is nothing in it to suggest that Aristides knew anything at all about Roman history or that he was interested in the city o f Rome itself.' Cf. the other writers quoted by Dudley (1967, 2 1 9 27) in praise o f Rome. Cf. Dyson and Prior 1995. Virgil, Eel. 1.19-25 (tr. E.V. Rieu). Dion.Hal., Ant.Rom. 3.67.5; it is unclear whether he is thinking o f the city only, or o f the empire as a whole. Ammianus 1 6 . 1 0 . 1 2 - 1 4 (tr. W. Hamilton). Cf. Edwards 1996, 129. References include: b. 'Abod.Zar. 54b; Midrash Gen.R. 13.9, 2 0 . 4 ; Midrash Ex.R. 3 0 . 9 ; Midrash Deut.R. 2.24; Midrash Eccl.R. 10.7. Some or all of these men probably made more than one visit: Solin 1983, 6 6 0 . T h e historicity o f any details about this trip or any other 'factual' event in rabbinic literature is o f course very questionable, but the impressions o f Rome may be real ones experienced by travellers, if not necessarily by the rabbis to whom they are attributed. b. Hor. 10a. b. Makk. 24a = Midrash Lam.R. 5.18; b. Yoma 20b. Bacher (1896, 1 9 5 - 6 ) suggests reading 'Palatine' rather than 'Puteoli', on the incontestable grounds that it would not be possible to hear the noise o f Rome from Puteoli, but it seems more likely that the passage is deliberately exaggerating to make its point. m. Erubim 4 . 1 . Midrash Gen.R. 22.6, attributed to a R. T a n h u m . Midrash Ruth 6 . 1 . b. Meg. 6b (tr. M. Simon). Cf. the discussion by Bacher (1896). Part o f the passage was discussed above, p. 4 8 . SHA, Sev. 1. SHA, Sev. 15. Andre and Baslez 1993, 4 5 2 - 4 . Suetonius, Tib. 32. PIRi A189. J o n e s 1978, 5 2 ; Dio Chrys., Or. 4 5 . 2 . Cicero, pro Archia 4 - 5 . Juvenal 3 . 1 1 9 - 1 2 2 . Cicero, ad Earn. 13.19. T h e 'almost' seems to show that Lyso frequently visited but did not actually live in Cicero's house. C I L v i 1366; P I R C I 5 9 . Ammianus 14.6.12 (tr. W. Hamilton). Acts 2 8 . 1 5 . Justin Martyr, Apol. 1.67 (tr. Beard, North and Price 1 9 9 8 , vol. 2, no. 12.7d). Bardy 1948, 100. Gorce 1925, 173. Cyprian, Ep. 29. 3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
3 5
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 5
4 6
4 7
4 8
2
4 9
5 0
5 1
5 2
5 3
2
5 4
5 5
5 6
5 7
5 8
5 9
154
The practicalities 0 0
of moving
to Rome
Palladius, H.L. 1.66. Gorce 1925, 139. Josephus, Vita 16. Apuleius, Met. 11.29; La Piana 1927, 3 3 7 . Augustine, Conf. 5 . 9 - 1 0 . Fronto, ad Amicos 1.3 = Loeb vol. 2, 2 7 8 - 2 8 3 . As noted above, hospilium could exist between Romans and provincials as well as between compatriots. Fronto, ad Amicos. 1.9; Sailer 1982, 184; Champlin 1980, 15. Philostratus,/!/?.'/'. 7 . 2 1 . Nutton 1973, 159; P I R E 1 0 9 . Diod.Sic. 3 1 . 1 8 ; Valerius Maximus 5.1. I C U R 13355; Bertolino 1997, 117. SHA, Sev. 2. Philostratus,^.T. 4.39. Eunapius, V.Ph. 4 6 3 (tr. W.C. Wright). Andre and Baslez 1993, 4 6 1 - 5 . Cf. Frier 1980 on the types o f accommo dation. Digest 4.9.6.3 Paul. Sidonius, Ep. 1.5.9; Gorce 1925, 142. Gorce 1925, 142; cf. the usage o f the word by J e r o m e , Comm. in Is. 58.7 (PL 2 4 . 5 6 6 ) , Comm. in Matth. 8.20 (PL 2 6 . 5 3 ) , where it represents the cheapest form o f accommodation available. Gorce 1925, 142. Scobie 1986, 4 0 2 . Council o f Nicaea, Canon 75; Gorce 1925, 147. J e r o m e , Ep. 6 6 . 1 1 , 7 7 . 1 0 ; he calls the building both hospitium and xenodochium. Vita S.Melaniae 7; Gorce 1925, 150. Josephus, Vita 4 2 3 . Varro, R.R. 3.2.6. Cf. Scobie 1986, 4 0 2 . C.Theo. 14.14.1. T h e punishment was perpetual exile. Martial 10.5. Augustine, Conf. 5.12. Juvenal 3 . 7 4 - 8 . Cf. Marett 1989, 8 1 , 9 6 . Panayi 1994, 4. Panayi 1994, 7 8 . MacMullen 1993, 6 2 - 6 3 . Philo, Leg. 155: Augustus knew that 'the great section o f Rome cut off across the T i b e r was occupied and inhabited by Jews'. Castagnoli 1980. Cracco Ruggini 1997, 1 7 7 - 8 ; Lampe 1989, 3 8 - 4 2 . La Piana 1927, 2 1 3 - 1 5 ; Balsdon 1979, 16; Lampe 1989, 4 6 . Walters 1998, 176; Lampe 1989, 13, 3 0 , 4 6 - 8 , 5 2 . Lampe's doubts about the presence o f Christians there in the lst-2nd centuries AD rest on the absence o f specific evidence for Jews there, which is not in itself very significant and in any case does not exclude Christians o f non-Jewish background. 0 1
6 2
6 3
6 4
6 5
0 6
6 7
6 8
2
6 9
7 0
7 1
7 2
7 3
7 4
7 5
7 6
7 7
7 8
7 9
8 0
8 1
8 2
8 3
8 4
8 5
8 6
8 7
8 8
8 9
9 0
9 1
9 2
9 3
9 4
9 5
9 6
9 7
155
Moving
to Rome
9 8
This area contained the Paedagogium o f the imperial pages, but it seems unnecessary to imagine that they were o f African origin (Bardy, 1948, 9 6 ) , as the toponym was surely established before then. It was a well-known name: according to the Appendix Probi (Keil, Gramm.Ijit. iv, 198), one should write vicocapitis Africae not vicocaput Africae. An imperial slave commemorated his son as Caputafricesi ( C I L vi 8987). La Piana 1925, 2 2 6 ; 1927, 2 2 0 - 1 . T h e possibility o f a residential area o f Armenians in the Via Appia area is suggested by Lega and Ricci 1997, on the basis o f two epitaphs found there. 9 9
1 0 0
156
Chapter 7
ASPECTS OF FOREIGNERS' LIVES AT ROME
T h i s c h a p t e r looks at s o m e o f t h e institutions a n d p r a c t i c e s which m a y h a v e b e e n s h a r e d by f o r e i g n e r s w h o h a d settled at R o m e , a n d which p e r h a p s c o n t r i b u t e d to feelings o f solidarity, o r at least o f s e p a r a t e n e s s from t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n . I t deals with t h e m m a i n l y in g e n e r a l t e r m s ; t h o s e specifically a p p l i c a b l e to o n l y o n e g r o u p will b e e x a m i n e d in t h e r e l e v a n t p a r t o f c h . 8. After discussion of t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f g r o u p identity, it looks first at institutions which facilitated c o n t a c t with ' h o m e ' a n d t h e n at various ways in w h i c h , directly o r i n d i r e c t l y , p e o p l e m i g h t p r e s e r v e s o m e o f t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e i r h o m e l a n d s while t h e y lived at R o m e .
i. Group identity - and lack of it T h e e x t e n t to which f o r e i g n e r s felt a n y s e n s e o f identity with o t h e r s from t h e s a m e a r e a m u s t h a v e v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y . A l e x a n d r i a n s m a y h a v e felt s t r o n g solidarity with e a c h o t h e r b u t little o r n o n e with 1
p e o p l e from t h e rest o f E g y p t . J e w s from Asia p e r h a p s h a d m o r e in c o m m o n with J e w s from e l s e w h e r e t h a n with o t h e r p e o p l e from Asia. S o m e n e w c o m e r s to R o m e w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y
a n x i o u s to t a k e o n
a ' R o m a n ' identity, a n d slaves a n d ex-slaves m a y h a v e h a d
more
loyalty to t h e i r h o u s e h o l d t h a n to t h e i r h o m e l a n d (see p . 1 1 ) . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f class m a y h a v e p l a y e d a p a r t in this t o o : for e x a m p l e , C h a m p l i n ( 1 9 8 0 , 1 6 ) b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e African elite w h o m o v e d to R o m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a n x i o u s to play d o w n t h e i r n o n - L a t i n h e r i t a g e at a t i m e w h e n t h e P u n i c l a n g u a g e was associ a t e d with i g n o r a n c e . T h u s , while it is possible to s e e ways in which s o m e f o r e i g n e r s m a i n t a i n e d a d e g r e e of s e p a r a t e n e s s o r c o m m u n a l identity in p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s o f t h e i r lives, it is n o t possible to assess how w i d e s p r e a d this was a m o n g f o r e i g n e r s in g e n e r a l . As n o t e d a b o v e (p. 9 ) , t h o s e w h o p r e f e r r e d to b l e n d i n t o t h e R o m a n b a c k g r o u n d a r e 2
now largely invisible in t h e s o u r c e s . N o n - R o m a n n a m e s o r i n c i d e n t a l b i o g r a p h i c a l details m a y give away t h e o r i g i n o f a few, b u t such cases must be exceptional. L a Piana was the first to pay serious attention to t h e question o f how far
157
Living
at
Rome
foreigners preserved a separate identity at R o m e , a p p r o a c h i n g it prima rily from t h e perspective o f the history o f t h e early Christians t h e r e :
3
...first o f all, it seems that the various foreign races which had a large representation in Rome formed at times special groups bound together by their common origin from the same province or from the same city, by their common traditions, and yet more by their peculiar religious cults o f national deities. Through the process o f adaptation and amalgamation those groups would be continually losing individuals and families merged in the racial mixture or fortunate enough to climb to the upper Roman classes, but the loss o f these was more than offset by newcomers who filled the gaps and perpetuated the existence o f the groups as long as the stream o f migration continued to flow. Moreover, the process of absorption of the foreign elements into the general environment was very slow. H e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e r e was a t e n d e n c y to m a i n t a i n s o m e aspects o f s e p a r a t e n e s s (in t e r m s o f l a n g u a g e a n d c u s t o m s ) while i m m i g r a t i o n c o n t i n u e d ; t h e i m p l i c a t i o n is t h a t o n c e i m m i g r a t i o n c e a s e d , a g r o u p w o u l d lose its identity a n d b e c o m e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e city. I h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d (p. 5 9 ) t h a t i m m i g r a t i o n n e v e r did c e a s e in t h e p e r i o d u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , b u t it will b e s u g g e s t e d b e l o w t h a t t h e p r e s e r v a tion o f s e p a r a t e n e s s , o r at least e x c l u s i v e n e s s , was m o r e t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a n t h e r u l e , a n d t h a t t h e f o r m s which it t o o k v a r i e d very m u c h from o n e g r o u p to a n o t h e r . T h e type o f s e p a r a t e identity which was felt by f o r e i g n g r o u p s in R o m e invites t h e use o f t h e m o d e r n t e r m i n o l o g y o f e t h n i c i t y . Panayi ( 1 9 9 4 , 5 ) defines e t h n i c i t y as: ...the way in which members o f a national, racial or religious grouping maintain an identity with people o f the same background in a variety o f official and unofficial ways. The
ways m a y i n c l u d e r e s i d e n c e , m a r r i a g e , a n d r e l i g i o u s o r social
activity. I n s o m e cases, t h e s e n s e o f e t h n i c i t y c a n b e e n c o u r a g e d from a b o v e , w h e n l e a d i n g m e m b e r s o f an i m m i g r a n t c o m m u n i t y , o r e v e n natives o f t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y , d e v e l o p institutions for r e l i g i o n , e d u c a tion o r p h i l a n t h r o p y Some modern
t a r g e t e d specifically at t h e i m m i g r a n t
group.
i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s h a v e w o r r i e d a b o u t losing t h e i r
identity a n d h a v e c o n s c i o u s l y f o r m e d t h e i r o w n c u l t u r a l a n d social 4
o r g a n i z a t i o n s to try to p r e s e r v e it. H a l l ( 1 9 9 7 , c h . 2 ) a d d s s o m e o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in his discussion o f A n c i e n t G r e e k e t h n i c i d e n t i t y : d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n criteria
which really d e t e r m i n e e t h n i c i t y a n d
5
the
indicia
which m e r e l y d e n o t e it; t h e association with c o m m o n t e r r i t o r y a n d (real o r i m a g i n e d ) c o m m o n d e s c e n t ; t h e d e p e n d e n c e o f o n e e t h n i c identity o n o t h e r o p p o s i n g e t h n i c identities to give it its self-definition.
158
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
T h e e x t e n t to which a n i m m i g r a n t g r o u p c a n p r e s e r v e a s e p a r a t e identity m a y b e i n f l u e n c e d by t h e d e m o g r a p h i c m a k e - u p o f t h e g r o u p , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e wishes o r i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e m e m b e r s . If a substantial m a j o r i t y o f t h e i m m i g r a n t s a r e y o u n g m a l e s , as was p r o b a b l y t h e case at R o m e (see p. 6 6 ) , m a n y a r e likely to h a v e to m a r r y o u t s i d e t h e i r g r o u p , simply t h r o u g h lack of a l t e r n a t i v e ; t h e i r c h i l d r e n a r e t h e r e f o r e m u c h less likely to c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p . A c c o r d ing to Panayi ( 1 9 9 4 , 1 8 ) , b l a c k e t h n i c i t y d e v e l o p e d in L o n d o n by t h e e n d of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , b u t d i s a p p e a r e d
in t h e
nineteenth
c e n t u r y b e c a u s e b l a c k i m m i g r a t i o n d r i e d up a n d t h e lack o f w o m e n f o r c e d m e n to m a r r y out. O n Panayi's a n d Hall's definitions, t h e J e w s of R o m e would c o u n t as an e t h n i c g r o u p , e v e n t h o u g h they w e r e n o t necessarily h o m o g e n o u s racially (as t h e r e would h a v e b e e n b o t h proselytes a n d d e s c e n d a n t s of J e w s from t h e l a n d of I s r a e l ) o r socially (new i m m i g r a n t s would b e m i x e d with p e o p l e w h o s e a n c e s t o r s h a d b e e n in R o m e for
many
g e n e r a t i o n s ) , since an e x c l u s i v e r e l i g i o n with a n o t i o n a l c o m m o n h o m e l a n d a n d c o m m o n a n c e s t o r s p r o v i d e d t h e basis o f t h e i r s h a r e d identity. P e o p l e from E g y p t as a w h o l e would n o t c o u n t as an e t h n i c g r o u p , a l t h o u g h A l e x a n d r i a n s w o u l d , c e r t a i n l y a c c o r d i n g to Hall's r e q u i r e m e n t s . S o m e f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e clearly felt t h a t t h e r e was m o r e to t h e i r identity t h a n t h e i r p l a c e o f o r i g i n , like t h e w o m a n w h o s e epitaph
r e a d s : ' M y r a c e was G r e e k , my h o m e l a n d was A p a m e a ' ;
6
a s e n s e o f G r e e k e t h n i c i t y m i g h t o v e r r i d e basic g e o g r a p h i c a l c r i t e r i a . H o w e v e r , a p a r t from s u c h e x t r e m e cases, it is now very difficult to assess how p e o p l e in R o m e saw t h e m s e l v e s in e t h n i c , r a t h e r t h a n m o r e r u d i m e n t a r i l y g e o g r a p h i c a l , t e r m s . W r i t e r s such as J u v e n a l ( o r at least s o m e o f his c h a r a c t e r s ) w e r e h a p p y to use labels like E g y p t i a n , S y r i a n a n d G r e e k , b u t p e r h a p s in ways which t h e p e o p l e so labelled would 7
n e v e r have used about themselves. W h e n s o m e o n e described a deceased relative as Galla,
it m i g h t m e a n t h a t s h e was an i n h a b i t a n t o f t h e
province(s) o f Gaul rather than another province, a m e m b e r o f the ' r a c e ' of G a u l s r a t h e r t h a n a n o t h e r r a c e , an i n h a b i t a n t of G a u l as a whole rather than o f Lyon or N a r b o n n e , or s o m e o n e who h a p p e n e d to h a v e b e e n b o r n
in G a u l r a t h e r
than at R o m e .
8
R e a c t i o n to
r o m a n i z a t i o n m i g h t in itself e n c o u r a g e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f new local 9
i d e n t i t i e s , a n d such identities m i g h t e v e n b e e x p r e s s e d m o r e readily at R o m e t h a n they would b e at h o m e - identification p r i m a r i l y with a town o r village while at h o m e m i g h t b e r e p l a c e d by identification with a r e g i o n o r p r o v i n c e while at R o m e .
1 0
M o s t o f t h e discussion
w h i c h follows will t h e r e f o r e c o n c e n t r a t e o n s h a r e d
159
geographical
Living
at Rome
o r i g i n , w h i c h is slightly less difficult to d e t e r m i n e t h a n s h a r e d e t h n i c identity o n t h e basis of t h e e v i d e n c e we h a v e . It is possible to look for signs that f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e t r i e d to p r e s e r v e t h e i r s e p a r a t e identity, b u t m u c h h a r d e r to look for signs that they did not, j u s t as individual f o r e i g n e r s a r e unlikely to b e d e t e c t a b l e in t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e unless they o r t h e i r c o m m e m o r a t o r s delib e r a t e l y m a d e t h e m s e l v e s d e t e c t a b l e . I f they wished to b l e n d i nt o t h e b a c k g r o u n d , they would n o t leave i n s c r i p t i o n s r e c o r d i n g special p r a c tices in, for e x a m p l e , religious cult o r n a m i n g p a t t e r n s . It s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e r e m e m b e r e d that t h e e v i d e n c e is heavily b i a s e d t o w a r d s t h o s e w h o left t r a c e s of s e p a r a t e n e s s , in e p i g r a p h y o r l i t e r a t u r e , a n d away from t h o s e who did not. It was s u g g e s t e d a b o v e (p. 7 8 ) that slaves w e r e a c c u l t u r a t e d m o r e quickly t h a n free i m m i g r a n t s , a n d it is t h e r e fore a m o n g t h e free f o r e i g n e r s r e s i d e n t at R o m e that t r a c e s o f s e p a r a t e identity a r e m o s t likely to survive.
ii. Stationes T h e institution r u n by f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e a n d O s t i a which has left t h e m o s t o b v i o u s t r a c e is t h e statio.
A substantial n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s
h a v e survived in b o t h G r e e k (at R o m e ) a n d L a t i n (at O s t i a ) r e f e r r i n g to b u i l d i n g s called stationes.
T h e i r e x a c t function is n o t specified any
w h e r e , b u t they w e r e closely associated with t r a d e r s a n d
shipowners
from specific cities o r a r e a s . T h e y s o m e t i m e s c o n t a i n e d statues o f e m p e r o r s a n d g o d s . A p a r t from o n e for T i b u r , " t h e k n o w n o n e s from R o m e a r e n e a r l y all for e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n cities, with i n s c r i p t i o n s in G r e e k which w e r e p r e s u m a b l y m e a n t to b e r e a d by o t h e r s from t h e s a m e a r e a r a t h e r t h a n by R o m a n p a s s e r s - b y .
12
M o s t o f t h e statio
in
s c r i p t i o n s from R o m e w e r e f o u n d in t h e V i a S a c r a in front o f t h e T e m p l e s o f Romulus and o f Antoninus and Faustina, near the Porticus M a r g a r i t a r i a , s u g g e s t i n g that t h e stationes
had a p r o m i n e n t and pres
tigious l o c a t i o n in t h e late s e c o n d / t h i r d c e n t u r y AD, t h e p e r i o d to which m o s t of t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s h a v e b e e n a s s i g n e d .
13
T h e buildings
them
selves h a v e n o t b e e n p r e s e r v e d . T h e i r e x i s t e n c e b e g a n e a r l i e r t h a n t h e d a t e o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s : t h e r e is a r e f e r e n c e from t h e t i m e o f N e r o (see b e l o w ) , a n d , a c c o r d i n g to t h e E l d e r Pliny, V e s p a s i a n l o c a t e d stationes
municipiorum
in C a e s a r ' s F o r u m .
T h e following stationes
the
1 4
a r e k n o w n at R o m e :
• Anazarbus (Cilicia). I G U R 7 8 : a third-century inscription from the V i a Sacra. T h e identification o f the city is based on Moretti's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
15
• E p h e s u s (Asia). I G U R 2 6 is a b u i l d i n g d e d i c a t i o n to A n t o n i n u s Pius a n d M a r c u s A u r e l i u s , a n d to t h e s h i p o w n e r s a n d t r a d e r s o f E p h e s u s ,
160
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
p r o b a b l y by M. U l p i u s D o m e s t i c u s (the n a m e is r e s t o r e d ) . A l t h o u g h n o t from a statio itself, it i m p l i e s t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an E p h e s i a n t r a d i n g organization. • H e r a c l c a . M o r e t t i t h i n k s that I G U R 8 8 , a m a r b l e b a s e o f t h e late s e c o n d o r t h i r d c e n t u r y f o u n d in t h e Basilica A e m i l i a with a d e d i c a t i o n to H e r a c l e s ' t h e g o d o f t h e h o m e l a n d ' , p r o b a b l y d e n o t e s a statio for o n e o f t h e n u m e r o u s cities called H e r a c l e a . • M o p s u e s t i a (Cilicia). I G U R 2 4 , a m a r b l e base with a G r e e k d e d i c a tion to A n t o n i n u s Pius, d a t e d AD 1 4 0 , m a y b e from an o t h e r w i s e un k n o w n statio a c c o r d i n g to M o r e t t i . • N o r i c u m . C I L vi 2 5 0 = 3 0 7 2 3 , a d e d i c a t i o n in L a t i n to t h e G e n i u s 16
N o r i c o r u m by L. l u l i u s B a s s u s , t h e i r stationarius.
T h i s statio is t h e only
o n e at R o m e that was o r g a n i z e d by a p r o v i n c e r a t h e r t h a n a city, a n d t h e only o n e from E u r o p e . • Nysa (Asia). A c c o r d i n g to M o r e t t i ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f I G U R 1 6 2 , a s e c o n d - c e n t u r y c i p p u s with a d e d i c a t i o n to H e s t i a by l u l i u s M a i o r A n t o n i n u s , it m a y c o m e from a m e e t i n g - p l a c e for Nysans at R o m e .
1 7
• S a r d i s (Asia). P r o b a b l y t h e city in t h e f r a g m e n t a r y I G U R 8 5 . I G U R 8 6 - 7 , with d e d i c a t i o n s to ' t h e virgin g o d d e s s o f t h e S a r d i a n s ' , m a y c o m e from t h e s a m e b u i l d i n g . • T a r s u s (Cilicia). I G U R 7 9 , a t h i r d - c e n t u r y i n s c r i p t i o n from t h e V i a S a c r a . A m a r b l e b a s e h o n o u r i n g G o r d i a n I I I p r o b a b l y c o m e s from t h e same building.
18
• T i b e r i a s a n d C l a u d i o p o l i s (Syria P a l e s t i n a ) . I G U R 8 2 , 8 3 ; t h e latter is t h e b a s e of a statue o f a w o m a n , d a t e d to t h e late s e c o n d o r t h i r d century. • T r a l l e s (Asia). I G U R 8 4 : t h e statio was built 'from t h e f o u n d a t i o n s ' by ...lia G a l e n e for h e r h o m e l a n d (patris),
in t h e t i m e o f C a r a c a l l a o r
Elagabalus. • T y r e ( S y r i a ) . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a T y r i a n statio,
p r o b a b l y in
the
F o r u m , is k n o w n indirectly. I n AD 1 7 9 , t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e T y r i a n statio at Puteoli wrote to t h e city-council o f T y r e c o m p l a i n i n g t h a t they w e r e u n a b l e to pay t h e i r r e n t , a n d t h a t t h e statio at R o m e h a d c e a s e d to m a k e an a n n u a l c o n t r i b u t i o n of 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 d e n a r i i to t h e m . m a n statio,
1 9
T h e Ro
u n l i k e t h e o n e at Puteoli w h e n t h e l e t t e r was written,
received financial contributions from T y r i a n shipowners a n d m e r c h a n t s . At Ostia, t h e stationes
w e r e small r o o m s a r r a n g e d in a d o u b l e c o l o n
n a d e a r o u n d t h e so-called Piazzale delle C o r p o r a z i o n i . N o t all t h e r o o m s w e r e u s e d by o v e r s e a s t r a d e r s ; s o m e w e r e for local guilds. T h e r o o m s h a d m o s a i c s in front o f t h e m which d e p i c t e d t h e n a m e o f t h e place r e p r e s e n t e d , s o m e t i m e s with symbols o f its p r o d u c e . T h e mosaics
161
Living
at
Rome
o v e r l a i d a n e a r l i e r set, so d o n o t b e l o n g to t h e A u g u s t a n d a t e o f t h e c o l o n n a d e itself, b u t p r o b a b l y to t h e late s e c o n d / e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r y AD; i.e. t h e s a m e p e r i o d as the statio i n s c r i p t i o n s from R o m e .
2 0
Occasionally
t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f different cities a p p a r e n t l y c o - o p e r a t e d with e a c h o t h e r , as t h e r e is also a statue set u p to a p a t r o n by ' t h e m a s t e r s o f all t h e African a n d S a r d i n i a n s h i p s ' . naviculari
Africani
21
A p e d i m e n t with t h e i n s c r i p t i o n
('African s h i p o w n e r s ' ) was f o u n d o n t h e e a s t e r n side
o f t h e c o l o n n a d e , a n d c a n n o t h a v e b e l o n g e d to o n e o f t h e individual rooms.
2 2
T h e following cities a r e r e c o r d e d as h a v i n g stationes
at O s t i a . The
n u m b e r after C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 indicates t h e n u m b e r o f t h e statio in t h e layout o f t h e c o l o n n a d e . • A l e x a n d r i a . C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 4 0 . [AleJxandrin[i]/forumJ restoration.
23
is t h e p r o b a b l e
A dedication to C o m m o d u s by t h e s h i p o w n e r s (vai)KA,r|poi)
o f t h e A l e x a n d r i a n fleet was f o u n d at P o r t u s .
24
• C a r a l e s ( S a r d i n i a ) . C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 2 1 . T h e m o s a i c o f t h e et negotiantes
Karalitani
navi(cularii)
depicts a ship a n d two c o r n m e a s u r e s , s h o w i n g
t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e c o r n t r a d e from S a r d i n i a .
25
• C a r t h a g e . C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 1 8 . • C u r u b i s (Africa). C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 3 4 . I f p a r t o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n is c o r rectly i n t e r p r e t e d C(urubitanae),
as s(tatio)
n(egoliatorum)
f(rumentariorum)
c(oloniae)
t h e t r a d e r s a r e specifically said to b e c o r n - m e r c h a n t s .
• G a z a ( S y r i a P a l e s t i n a ) . A d e d i c a t i o n f r o m P o r t u s (so n o t f o u n d in t h e Piazzale) has t h e city o f G a z a h o n o u r i n g G o r d i a n a c c o r d i n g to t h e order o f ' t h e ancestral god'.
26
T h i s was p r e s u m a b l y set up by a G a z a n
trading organization. • G u m m i (Africa). C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 1 7 . T h e mosaic depicts a c o r n - m e a s u r e . • H i p p o D i a r r h y t u s (Africa). C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 1 2 . • H i p p o R e g i u s (Africa). P. Aufidius F o r d s , w h o was a decurio O s t i a a n d at H i p p o R e g i u s , was also quinquennalis M e r c h a n t s at O s t i a .
27
b o t h at
o f the Guild o f Corn-
His p r e s e n c e m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t H i p p o R e g i u s
h a d a statio at O s t i a . • M a u r e t a n i a C a e s a r i e n s i s . C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 4 8 . T h i s is t h e
probable
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e letters M.C. b e t w e e n two j a r s of wine a n d two d a t e p a l m s in a m o s a i c .
28
I f so, it is t h e only O s t i a n statio for a p r o v i n c e
r a t h e r t h a n a city. • M i s y a (Africa).
C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 1 0 . T h e m o s a i c o f t h e
navicularii
d e p i c t s two ships. • M u s l u v i u m ( M a u r e t a n i a ) . C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 1 1 . T h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e n a m e MufsJlufviiJafniJ
is n o t c e r t a i n .
• N a r b o n n e . C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 3 2 . T h e m o s a i c d e p i c t s a ship a n d Claudian lighthouse o f Ostia.
29
162
the
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
• S a b r a t h a (Africa). C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 1 4 . T h e m o s a i c with t h e i n s c r i p t i o n stat(io)
Sabratensium
in i v o r y .
d e p i c t s an e l e p h a n t , p r o b a b l y r e f l e c t i n g t h e t r a d e
30
• S y l l e c t u m (Africa). C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 2 3 . T h e m o s a i c o f t h e s h i p o w n e r s from S y l l e c t u m d e p i c t s two ships a n d t h e C l a u d i a n l i g h t h o u s e of Ostia.
51
T h e r e is also an e p i t a p h for a m a n from S y l l e c t u m w h o died at
Ostia.
32
M e i g g s ( 1 9 6 0 , 2 8 7 ) t h i n k s t h a t t h e t r a d e from t h e r e was p r o b
ably m a i n l y in oil. • T u r r i s L i b i s o n i s ( S a r d i n i a ) . C I L xiv 4 5 4 9 . 1 9 . • M e i g g s ( 1 9 6 0 , 2 8 6 ) also believes that Aries m a y b e s y m b o l i z e d by a m o s a i c d e p i c t i o n o f t h e c o n f l u e n c e of a river, p r o b a b l y t h e R h o n e . I f t h e T y r i a n stationes
o f R o m e a n d Puteoli w e r e typical, they w e r e
n o t e n t i r e l y a u t o n o m o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s , b u t w e r e s u b j e c t , at least in t h e o r y , to t h e i r h o m e city c o u n c i l s . T h e y also h a d s o m e i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e cult o f t h e g o d s o f t h e h o m e l a n d . I n t h e c a s e o f cities involved in R o m e ' s c o r n supply, t h e stationes
p r o b a b l y a c t e d as i n t e r m e d i a r i e s
b e t w e e n t h e s h i p o w n e r s a n d t h e office o f t h e Annona.
T h e T y r i a n s at
Puteoli a p p a r e n t l y s h o u l d h a v e b e e n financially self-supporting, a n d only h a d to ask for a subsidy from T y r e b e c a u s e o f t h e difficulties they were e x p e r i e n c i n g . Although their financial a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e u n k n o w n , t h e rarity o f t h e n a m e s of individual b e n e f a c t o r s p r o b a b l y suggests that c o n t r i b u t i o n s from a n u m b e r o f users w e r e m o r e c o m m o n t h a n d e p e n d e n c e o n an individual p a t r o n . T h e n a t u r e o f t h e statio b u i l d i n g s at R o m e is u n c l e a r : they may h a v e c o n t a i n e d s t o r a g e a n d retail facilities,
33
b u t it s e e m s unlikely t h a t t h e r e
would have b e e n e x t e n s i v e w a r e h o u s i n g at t h e i r site away from t h e docks.
34
T h e y w e r e a p p a r e n t l y h i r e d directly from t h e state, as a would3
be private l a n d l o r d in t h e t i m e of N e r o f o u n d h i m s e l f in t r o u b l e : ' Salvidienus Orfitus was accused o f hiring out three shops in his house around the Forum to cities for use as a statio. T h e stationes
in t h e Piazzale d e l l e C o r p o r a z i o n i at O s t i a w e r e e x t r e m e l y
small, a n d c o u l d n o t h a v e a c c o m m o d a t e d m o r e t h a n a few p e o p l e at o n e t i m e , let a l o n e a n y retail g o o d s . T h e y p r o b a b l y s e r v e d as offices for taking orders and making business a r r a n g e m e n t s . w h e t h e r t h e stationes
3 6
It is n o t c l e a r
h a d o n l y c o m m e r c i a l functions o r w h e t h e r they
c o u l d act as a focus for social activities t o o . P l e k e t ( 1 9 9 3 , 1 6 ) takes t h e latter view, t h a t they ' w e r e c e n t r e s for t r a d e r s from t h o s e cities o r for citizens w h o lived in R o m e for o t h e r p u r p o s e s ' . L a P i a n a ( 1 9 2 5 , 2 5 5 ) sees t h e m as e n t i r e l y c o m m e r c i a l , h o w e v e r : Evidently they were merely headquarters of the foreign merchants,
163
Living
at Rome
meeting-places for their officers, and reference-bureaus for all purposes concerning their associations. T h e small size o f t h e O s t i a n stationes
would c e r t a i n l y h a v e p r e v e n t e d
a n y l a r g e - s c a l e social activity from t a k i n g p l a c e inside t h e m , a l t h o u g h it c o u l d still h a v e b e e n o r g a n i z e d a n d p u b l i c i z e d from t h e m .
iii. Contact with the homeland T h e stationes
certainly formed part o f a commercial network between
R o m e o r Ostia a n d t h e h o m e l a n d , a n d may h a v e facilitated c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two, p e r h a p s , for e x a m p l e , p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t ships c o m i n g to o r r e t u r n i n g from Italy. I n d i v i d u a l f o r e i g n e r s living at R o m e c o u l d r e m a i n in t o u c h with t h e i r family a n d friends at h o m e by l e t t e r , b u t t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l e difficulty in g e t t i n g letters d e l i v e r e d o v e r a l o n g d i s t a n c e for p e o p l e w h o w e r e n o t i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h to use t h e cursus publicus,
a n d t h e stationes
could
h a v e b e e n useful in this r e s p e c t . O t h e r w i s e , it would n o r m a l l y b e n e c e s s a r y to k n o w s o m e o n e w h o was g o i n g to m a k e t h e j o u r n e y . T h e lack o f official a d d r e s s e s , a n d in s o m e cases o f a p e r m a n e n t p l a c e o f r e s i d e n c e , c o u l d also m e a n t h a t t h e p e r s o n d e l i v e r i n g t h e l e t t e r n e e d e d to k n o w t h e r e c i p i e n t p e r s o n a l l y . O n e surviving l e t t e r has i n s t r u c t i o n s for how it is to b e f o r w a r d e d first to A l e x a n d r i a a n d t h e n o n to t h e family in P h i l a d e l p h i a .
37
T h e c h a n c e s o f such c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
g o i n g astray m u s t h a v e b e e n h i g h . T h e s p e a k e r A p e r in T a c i t u s ' Dialogus
(20.4) c o m m e n t s on students
s e n d i n g l e t t e r s h o m e . M a r t i a l s e n t a b o o k h o m e to Bilbilis,
and
a s s u m e d t h a t p e o p l e t h e r e would have u p - t o - d a t e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t his success at R o m e a n d his praise o f Bilbilis, i m p l y i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a r e g u l a r news link b e t w e e n t h e two p l a c e s .
38
H e suggests t h a t t h e
h o m e cities o f well-known writers w o r k i n g at R o m e always t a k e p r i d e in t h e successes o f t h e i r f a m o u s sons, a l t h o u g h h e is o f c o u r s e h a r d l y a d i s i n t e r e s t e d witness. T h e fact t h a t less w e l l - c o n n e c t e d p e o p l e c o u l d also get letters d e l i v e r e d successfully is s h o w n by t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f several p a p y r u s letters which w e r e written at R o m e a n d
apparently
r e c e i v e d safely in E g y p t . S i n c e t h e r e a r e very few o f t h e s e , they m a y , h o w e v e r , b e t h e e x c e p t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h e r u l e ; t h e surviving o n e s a r e from soldiers, sailors o r t r a d e r s , p e o p l e with t h e best access to c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k s . T h e i r c o n t e n t t e n d s n o t to b e very i n f o r m a t i v e , a n d it was p e r h a p s t h e s e n d i n g o f a l e t t e r at all, s h o w i n g t h a t t h e s e n d e r was alive a n d well, which was m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n a n y t h i n g which h e o r s h e h a d to say. A p o l l i n a r i u s , p r o b a b l y a soldier, w r o t e to E g y p t from R o m e , to
164
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
a friend o r relative ('most e s t e e m e d b r o t h e r ' ) S e m p r o n i u s o f K a r a n i s , in t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y ; S e m p r o n i u s h a d previously b e e n at R o m e himself, b u t left b e f o r e A p o l l i n a r i u s a r r i v e d t h e r e , a n d A p o l l i n a r i u s sent ' o u r ( m a n ) E r o s ' b a c k h o m e .
3 9
A n o t h e r A p o l l i n a r i u s w r o t e two letters to his m o t h e r T a e s i o n / T a e s i s , who lived at K a r a n i s , in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y .
40
He had j o i n e d the
R o m a n fleet a n d travelled via G y r e n e to P o r t u s , w h e r e h e wrote his first letter. H e asks his m o t h e r to write to h i m , r e v e a l i n g how such a l e t t e r would b e sent: ' I f you d o n o t find a n y b o d y c o m i n g to m e , write to S o c r a t e s a n d h e forwards it to m e . ' H e s e n d s g r e e t i n g s to various p e o p l e at h o m e , a n d passes o n g r e e t i n g s from s o m e o n e called A s c l e p i a d e s . I n t h e s e c o n d letter h e writes: I wish you to know, mother, that I arrived in Rome in good health on the fifth o f the month Pachon and was assigned to Misenum. But I have not yet learned my century, for I had not gone to Misenum when I wrote you this letter. T h i s letter also e n d s with n u m e r o u s g r e e t i n g s to p e o p l e at h o m e . T h e two letters a r e c o m p l e t e l y different from each o t h e r in writing, style a n d spelling, so p r e s u m a b l y at least o n e was n o t written by Apollinarius personally. A n o t h e r s e c o n d - c e n t u r y l e t t e r m e n t i o n s a j o u r n e y to R o m e via Syria, Asia a n d G r e e c e ; t h e last p r e s e r v e d line c o n t a i n s t h e
phrase
'from R o m e to A l e x a n d r i a ' . T h e r e is a r e f e r e n c e to p u r p l e dye, a n d it a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n a t r a d i n g trip. T h e e d i t o r s t h i n k that t h e writer was yet a n o t h e r A p o l l i n a r i u s , t h e r e c i p i e n t o f a l e t t e r sent to h i m p r o b a b l y at R o m e by Rullius, c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t t h e lack o f a l e t t e r from h i m a n d a s k i n g h i m :
41
Send the white cottons, as I requested o f you when I was with you, to Menon. ' I f there are soft ones', he said when he was with you, 'let them be sent from Rome.' A n o t h e r letter sent by s o m e o n e w h o h a d only g o n e to R o m e briefly w e n t from
I r e n a e u s , a sailor o n t h e g r a i n fleet, to his
'brother'
A p o l l i n a r i u s , r e p o r t i n g t h a t t h e ship h a d a r r i v e d o n J u n e 3 0 t h , h e h a d g o n e up to R o m e o n J u l y 9 t h , a n d t h e fleet was still awaiting its d i s c h a r g e p a p e r s w h e n h e w r o t e t h e l e t t e r on A u g u s t 2 n d .
4 2
Presum
ably s o m e o n e sailing o n a private ship t o o k t h e l e t t e r . T h e p r e s e n c e in R o m e for at least fifteen days o f c o n s i d e r a b l e n u m b e r s o f E g y p t i a n sailors with m o n e y to s p e n d a n d little to d o m u s t h a v e b e e n g o o d for s o m e businesses in the city. It would also have b e e n a g o o d o p p o r t u n i t y for t h e delivery o f letters from E g y p t , a n d for E g y p t i a n s settled at R o m e to s e n d letters h o m e . 165
Living
at Rome
T h i s sort o f e v i d e n c e for c o n t i n u e d c o n t a c t b e t w e e n i m m i g r a n t s a n d t h e i r h o m e s is only available for p e o p l e from E g y p t . A n o t h e r possible s o u r c e , a l t h o u g h in a different a n d very limited way, is e p i g r a p h y . It is occasionally possible to d e t e c t t h e s a m e p e o p l e in i n s c r i p t i o n s at h o m e a n d at R o m e , b u t t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e is n o t always c l e a r . A u r e l i u s I n g e n u u s , a D a c i a n p r a e t o r i a n in t h e early t h i r d c e n t u r y w h o d i e d a g e d 2 5 a n d was c o m m e m o r a t e d by his b r o t h e r at R o m e , s e e m s previously to have c o m m e m o r a t e d his m o t h e r a n d sister at S a r m i z e g e t h u s a while h e was still an o r d i n a r y l e g i o n a r y .
43
Iulius M o d e s t u s , an
urbanicianus,
a l o n g with two l e g i o n a r y b r o t h e r s a n d a sister, c o m
memorated
a n o t h e r b r o t h e r at L a m b a e s i s .
4 4
P. C l o d i u s A t h e n i o ,
a m e r c h a n t from M a l a g a w h o built a family t o m b at R o m e , is also m e n t i o n e d in an i n s c r i p t i o n from M a l a g a . w h o d i e d at R o m e a g e d
45
C. C o r n e l i u s I u n i a n u s ,
1 8 , previously m a d e a d e d i c a t i o n to his
b r o t h e r at h o m e at S a e t a b i s in H i s p a n i a C i t e r i o r .
46
Identifying such
cases from i n s c r i p t i o n s is largely fortuitous, a n d it is likely that t h e y represent a more widespread
phenomenon
o f people
maintaining
s t r o n g links with t h e i r h o m e s , a l t h o u g h s o m e m a y simply d a t e from shortly b e f o r e a n d shortly after t h o s e involved m o v e d to R o m e . P e o p l e w h o c o n t i n u e d to own p r o p e r t y in t h e i r h o m e l a n d w o u l d h a v e to r e m a i n in close c o n t a c t with w h o e v e r l o o k e d after it for t h e m .
4 7
S p e c i a l legal c o n c e s s i o n s w e r e m a d e to s e n a t o r s ' f r e e d m e n w h o m a n aged their h o m e property.
48
However, the owner's personal interven
tion m i g h t b e r e q u i r e d at times: t h e future e m p e r o r S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s w e n t h o m e after b e i n g q u a e s t o r to settle affairs after his f a t h e r ' s death.
4 9
Provincial p r o p e r t y c o u l d a p p a r e n t l y b e b o u g h t a n d sold at
R o m e , h o w e v e r , so n o t all b u s i n e s s r e q u i r e d r e t u r n i n g h o m e .
5 0
Until
t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , p r o p e r t y - o w n e r s below s e n a t o r i a l r a n k m i g h t also h a v e financial responsibilities to t h e i r h o m e cities, i f t h e y w e r e rich 5i
e n o u g h to b e liable for civic munera.
T h e y were therefore theoreti
cally liable to b e called b a c k h o m e to h o l d office t h e r e a n d s p e n d t h e i r m o n e y o n t h e i r h o m e cities, a l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e for this actually h a p p e n i n g to a n y o n e w h o h a d t a k e n up r e s i d e n c e at R o m e . P e o p l e w h o a c h i e v e d s e n a t o r i a l status a n d , effectively a n d for legal p u r p o s e s , t r a n s f e r r e d t h e i r m a i n r e s i d e n c e to R o m e (see p. 9 8 ) c o u l d still b e a n x i o u s to e m p h a s i z e t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t at h o m e . T a l b e r t ( 1 9 8 4 , 3 6 ) lists a n u m b e r o f i n s c r i p t i o n s in which p e o p l e a r e r e c o r d e d as t h e first from t h e i r h o m e l a n d to b e c o m e a s e n a t o r o r hold a p a r t i c u l a r office. T h i s c o u l d e x t e n d to such a d e t a i l e d claim as b e i n g :
5 2
T h e fifth man ever to enter the Senate from the whole o f Asia, and from Miletus and the rest o f Ionia the first and only one.
166
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
T h o s e w h o r e m a i n e d at h o m e c o u l d still take p r i d e in b e i n g d e s c r i b e d as t h e relative of a s e n a t o r . S o m e p e o p l e from
53
t h e o f f i c e - h o l d i n g class c o n t i n u e d
to
make
benefactions at h o m e while living at R o m e . Claudius' d o c t o r C. Stertinius X e n o p h o n of C o s u s e d his i n f l u e n c e to get t h e island freed
from
t a x a t i o n , a n d e r e c t e d new b u i l d i n g s a n d r e s t o r e d old o n e s at t h e s a n c t u a r y o f Asclepius t h e r e , a l t h o u g h h e also a c q u i r e d estates o f his own in t h e N a p l e s a r e a .
54
L . M i n i c i u s Natalis (cos. 1 0 6 ) a n d his son
L. M i n i c i u s Natalis Q u a d r o n i u s V e r u s (cos. 1 3 9 ) w e r e from B a r c e l o n a , w h e r e they c o n t i n u e d to own l a n d o n which, in t h e early 1 2 0 s , they b u i l t b a t h s , p o r t i c o e s a n d an a q u e d u c t .
5 5
L. Cuspius
Pactumeius
R u f i n u s , c o s . 1 4 2 , originally from P e r g a m u m , was staying t h e r e again in c. 1 4 5 , a n d built a t e m p l e o f Zeus Asclepius, b e i n g h o n o u r e d as ' t h e benefactor and founder o f the fatherland'.
56
Bowersock (1969, 29)
suggests that t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y was a t i m e at which p e o p l e w h o m a d e a n i m p r e s s i o n at R o m e would still b e b e n e f a c t o r s to t h e i r own cities; later, c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n t h e i r c a r e e r s at R o m e m a d e t h e m n e g l e c t t h e i r h o m e l a n d s . S e n a t o r s h a d e x e m p t i o n from p e r f o r m i n g munera
in t h e i r
h o m e cities, b u t t h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s of t h e m d e c l i n i n g to take advantage o f this.
57
T h e r e is e v i d e n c e for s o m e p a r t i c u l a r f o r m s o f o n g o i n g c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e J e w s o f R o m e a n d t h e l a n d of I s r a e l which will b e dis c u s s e d at p. 2 6 6 . T h e basis o f this was t h e o l o g i c a l a n d
institutional
r a t h e r t h a n p e r s o n a l , so it is very different from t h e sorts o f c o n t a c t discussed a b o v e .
iv. Homesickness T h e possibility o f an i m m i g r a n t d e c i d i n g t h a t a m i s t a k e h a d b e e n m a d e a n d l e a v i n g R o m e quickly was discussed at p. 8 9 . S u c h o c c u r r e n c e s a r e , inevitably, u n l i k e l y to b e m e n t i o n e d in a n y type o f s o u r c e . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , r a t h e r m o r e e v i d e n c e a b o u t how s o m e p e o p l e r e m a i n e d very a t t a c h e d to t h e i r o r i g i n a l h o m e s d u r i n g a p r o l o n g e d a b s e n c e . M a r t i a l ( 1 0 . 1 0 3 ) said that, a l t h o u g h h e left Bilbilis 3 4 years previously, it still o w e d h i m as m u c h as V e r o n a o w e d C a t u l l u s for m a k i n g it f a m o u s . H e also b e c o m e s lyrical a b o u t t h e virtues of his h o m e in a p o e m written to c e l e b r a t e his i m p e n d i n g r e t u r n t h e r e , beginning:
58
T h a t I should too often talk o f far-off peoples, Avitus, When I have grown old in the city, should not surprise you, And that I should thirst for gold-bearing Tagus and my native Salo, And return to the rough countryside o f a replete cottage.
167
Living
at Rome
L u c i a n has this sort o f nostalgia in m i n d w h e n h e d e s c r i b e s how m i g r a n t s in g e n e r a l (he d o e s n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y m e a n at R o m e ) c a n b e c o m e i n c r e a s i n g l y a t t a c h e d to 'home':"'
9
No-one was ever known to be so forgetful of his country as to care nothing for it when he was in another state. No, those who get on badly in foreign parts continually cry out that one's own country is the greatest o f all blessings, while those who get on well, however successful they may be in all else, think that they lack one thing at least, a thing o f the greatest importance, in that they do not live in their own country but sojourn in a strange land; for thus to sojourn is a reproach! And men who during their years abroad have become illustrious through acquisition o f wealth, through renown from office-holding, through testimony to their culture, or through praise o f their bravery, can be seen hurrying one and all to their native land, as if they thought they could not anywhere else find better people before whom to display the evidences o f their success. T h e more a man is esteemed elsewhere, the more eager is he to regain his own country. T h e c o n c e p t o f h o m e s i c k n e s s is rarely m e n t i o n e d directly, a l t h o u g h p h i l o s o p h i c a l writers a c k n o w l e d g e d its e x i s t e n c e by f r e q u e n t l y a r g u ing t h a t b e i n g far away from y o u r h o m e l a n d was n o t in itself a b a d t h i n g . P e o p l e such as O v i d wrote a b o u t t h e feelings c a u s e d by t h e i r a b s e n c e from
Rome.
6 0
T h e r e is n o G r e e k o r L a t i n w o r d with precisely
t h e s a m e m e a n i n g as h o m e s i c k n e s s , b u t A t h e n a e u s , writing a m a n called L a r e n s i s , says:
about
6 1
Again by his invitations to hospitality he made all feel that Rome was their native land. For who can suffer from homesickness (xct O'IKOI K O B E I ; literally 'miss the things at home') when in the company o f one who keeps his house wide open to his friends? A L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n from an altar m a y also r e f e r to h o m e s i c k n e s s , a l t h o u g h it c o u l d b e t h e d a n g e r s o f t h e j o u r n e y which t h e writer h a d in m i n d :
6 2
In a foreign place, you should ask the god that you can return to your people safe and sound. T h e c u r e f o r h o m e s i c k n e s s was o f c o u r s e r e t u r n , w h i c h
was
discussed at p. 5 3 . S o m e o n e w h o a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n d e s p e r a t e to r e t u r n h o m e w r o t e t h e following e n i g m a t i c c u r s e in G r e e k o n a l e a d tablet, p r o b a b l y in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y A D :
63
Bind Artemidorus the doctor o f the third cohort in the Praetorian Camp. T h e brother o f the late Demetrius is (your?) servant, who wishes now to go away to his own land. So do not allow(?) h i m , but bind the Italian 64
60
168
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
66
land, strike(?) the g a t e s o f Rome. But bind Artemidorus, the son o f Artemidorus the doctor. (A list o f divine or magical names follows.) T h e p e r s o n for w h o m t h e c u r s e was written, p r e s u m a b l y D e m e t r i u s ' b r o t h e r , was a n g r y at A r t e m i d o r u s , Italy a n d t h e 'gates o f R o m e ' for preventing
him from r e t u r n i n g h o m e . G a g e r t h i n k s t h a t h e was
a slave, b u t t h e r e a r e m a n y possible r e a s o n s why a free i m m i g r a n t m i g h t b c f o r c e d to stay at R o m e unwillingly. T h e d e s p e r a t i o n o f this m a n was n o d o u b t felt by m a n y o t h e r i m m i g r a n t s , b u t o n l y his w o r d s h a v e survived.
v. Language L a n g u a g e c a n b e a significant factor in the a c c u l t u r a t i o n o f i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s ( i f they quickly a d o p t t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e h o s t c o m m u n i t y ) , o r in t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of a s e p a r a t e identity (if they consciously r e t a i n t h e i r own l a n g u a g e ) . T h e R o m a n s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e a w a r e o f this to s o m e e x t e n t : L a u r e n c e ( 1 9 9 8 , 1 0 0 ) n o t e s t h a t 'for S t r a b o , a crucial e l e m e n t in t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of e t h n i c i t y was l a n g u a g e ' . E v i d e n c e a b o u t t h e l a n g u a g e s u s e d at R o m e c o m e s from l i t e r a t u r e a n d inscrip tions. B o t h t h e s e s o u r c e s a r e e x t r e m e l y i n a d e q u a t e : l i t e r a t u r e t e n d s to n o t e only cases w h e r e s o m e t h i n g u n u s u a l h a p p e n e d
(in t e r m s o f
l a n g u a g e u s e ) , a n d i n s c r i p t i o n s d o n o t necessarily reflect e v e r y d a y s p o k e n l a n g u a g e , as will b e s u g g e s t e d below. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to f o r m s o m e i m p r e s s i o n of t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f lan g u a g e use a m o n g f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e . Latin I m m i g r a n t s from the W e s t p r o b a b l y s p o k e L a t i n a l r e a d y as a first o r s e c o n d l a n g u a g e , b e f o r e they c a m e to R o m e . S o l d i e r s would
have
l e a r n e d it in t h e a r m y i f they did n o t k n o w it b e f o r e . Civilians from t h e East a r e m u c h less likely to have k n o w n L a t i n b e f o r e a r r i v i n g in R o m e . It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r p r e v i o u s k n o w l e d g e o f L a t i n would have h a d a n y effect o n t h e decision to c o m e to R o m e in t h e first p l a c e , a l t h o u g h it is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t r u e t h a t t h e p r o v i n c i a l s m o s t likely to m o v e to R o m e w e r e t h o s e w h o w e r e m o s t t h o r o u g h l y i m b u e d in G r a e c o R o m a n c u l t u r e (see p p . 5 6 , 1 8 1 ) . A c c o r d i n g to a study o f t h e use o f E n g l i s h by i m m i g r a n t s in t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y U . S . A . , t h e i m m i g r a n t s ' p r o f i c i e n c y is d e t e r m i n e d
by: i n f o r m a l s e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s e s w h i c h
e n c o u r a g e t h o s e with k n o w l e d g e o f E n g l i s h to c o m e ; similar c o u n t e r selection processes which e n c o u r a g e those without knowledge
to
leave; a n d p r o c e s s e s for i n c r e a s i n g p r o f i c i e n c y while living in t h e U . S . A . I m m i g r a n t s w h o c o m e as c h i l d r e n i n c r e a s e t h e i r p r o f i c i e n c y
169
Living
at Rome
m o r e t h a n t h o s e w h o c o m e as adults, b u t t h o s e w h o a l r e a d y k n o w English a r e m o r e likely to c o m e in t h e first p l a c e .
67
I f k n o w l e d g e o f Latin
h a d a c o m p a r a b l e effect o n m i g r a t i o n to R o m e , it is now i r r e c o v e r a b l e . H o w e v e r , t h e story of the e m p e r o r S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s ' sister b e i n g sent b a c k to L e p c i s b e c a u s e of h e r lack of k n o w l e d g e of Latin has n o rel e v a n c e to p e o p l e outside t h e elite - a n o n - L a t i n - s p e a k i n g relative would n o t have b e e n an e m b a r r a s s m e n t lower d o w n t h e social scale at R o m e . L a n g u a g e p r o f i c i e n c y d o e s n o t s e e m to h a v e b e e n an
important
c o n s i d e r a t i o n for t h e p u r c h a s e r s o f slaves for use in R o m e (see p. 3 7 ) .
6 8
Slaves w h o w e r e i n t e n d e d to d o m a n u a l w o r k m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d to pick up s o m e L a t i n , b u t t h e i r initial lack o f k n o w l e d g e would p r o b a b l y not be important.
P r e s u m a b l y , h o w e v e r , slaves with different
first
l a n g u a g e s w h o w o r k e d t o g e t h e r would t e n d to c o m m u n i c a t e with e a c h o t h e r in L a t i n .
69
Y o u n g e r slaves w e r e n o d o u b t likely to pick up L a t i n
m o r e quickly, a n d it is possible that, in s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , o w n e r s w o u l d d i s c o u r a g e slaves from u s i n g t h e i r native l a n g u a g e s , at least publicly.
70
S o m e t i m e s , h o w e v e r , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e sort of work for
which t h e slave was i n t e n d e d , it was k n o w l e d g e o f G r e e k r a t h e r t h a n o f L a t i n which was r e q u i r e d by o w n e r s . E v e n i m m i g r a n t s w h o s e first l a n g u a g e was L a t i n m u s t still h a v e s p o k e n it with a wide variety o f r e g i o n a l a c c e n t s . T h i s r e c e i v e s very little a t t e n t i o n in t h e s o u r c e s , a l t h o u g h S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s is said to h a v e r e t a i n e d his African a c c e n t into old a g e ;
7 1
H a d r i a n was m o c k e d
for his S p a n i s h a c c e n t w h e n h e first c a m e to R o m e , b u t s o o n lost i t .
72
O n e o f t h e r e a s o n s for r e c o m m e n d i n g t h a t w e t - n u r s e s ( w h o a r e e x p e c t e d to b e ' G r e e k ' by S o r a n u s ) s h o u l d b e c h o s e n very carefully was t h a t t h e c h i l d c o u l d pick up b a d s p e e c h habits from t h e m , b u t this p r o b a b l y i n c l u d e s g r a m m a t i c a l m i s t a k e s as well as n o n - s t a n d a r d pronunciation.
75
A m o n g t h e R o m a n C h r i s t i a n s , G r e e k was originally a lingua
franca
for p e o p l e from a variety o f linguistic b a c k g r o u n d s , b u t L a t i n r e p l a c e d it as t h e l i t u r g i c a l l a n g u a g e d u r i n g t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . L a P i a n a a t t r i b u t e s this c h a n g e to t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f i m m i g r a n t s from Africa a n d t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s in t h e c h u r c h .
7 4
I f t h a t is c o r r e c t , it shows t h a t
the adoption o f Latin could be part o f a m o r e c o m p l e x process than direct 'romanization'. As L a t i n was R o m e ' s official l a n g u a g e , a n d also t h e l a n g u a g e which p e o p l e w o u l d e x p e c t to b e u n d e r s t o o d by t h o s e o u t s i d e t h e i r o w n g r o u p , it was t h e n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e to use for e p i t a p h s . T h e fact t h a t L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s (principally e p i t a p h s ) o u t n u m b e r G r e e k o n e s in R o m e by a b o u t 5 0 : 1 d o e s n o t necessarily reflect t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f
170
Aspects of foreigners' p e o p l e w h o s e first l a n g u a g e was L a t i n .
75
lives at Rome
T h e r e are numerous epitaphs
in L a t i n for i m m i g r a n t s w h o s e h o m e a r e a s s u g g e s t that they a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y s p o k e G r e e k (see b e l o w ) .
76
K a j a n t o ( 1 9 8 0 , 9 4 ) suggests that
families o f ex-slaves m i g h t t e n d to s p e a k G r e e k at h o m e b u t use L a t i n for official d o c u m e n t s a n d e p i t a p h s ; h e n o t e s t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f slave/freed in G r e e k - l a n g u a g e i n s c r i p t i o n s is m u c h l o w e r t h a n in L a t i n o n e s . T h i s m a t c h e s t h e relatively small p r o p o r t i o n o f slave/freed desig n a t e d as f o r e i g n e r s in t h e i r e p i t a p h s (p. 7 8 ) , a n d suggests that a L a t i n e p i t a p h with n o r e f e r e n c e to n o n - R o m a n o r i g i n m i g h t in itself b e a c o n s c i o u s s t a t e m e n t o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , w h a t e v e r t h e real b a c k g r o u n d o f the person c o m m e m o r a t e d . P e o p l e from t h e following a r e a s h a v e left only Latin i n s c r i p t i o n s at R o m e : Africa, B r i t a i n , C o r s i c a , D a c i a , D a l m a t i a , G e r m a n y , M o e s i a ,
77
N o r i c u m , P a n n o n i a , a n d R a e t i a . All t h e military i n s c r i p t i o n s e x c e p t two ( o n e s o l d i e r from P a l e s t i n e , o n e from T h r a c e ) which have b e e n i n c l u d e d in this study a r e in L a t i n , so it is c l e a r that for soldiers, L a t i n was t h e a u t o m a t i c e p i g r a p h i c l a n g u a g e , w h a t e v e r a n individual's b a c k g r o u n d . T h i s is p r o b a b l y associated with t h e fact t h a t soldiers w e r e likely to b e b u r i e d n e a r e a c h o t h e r in military b u r i a l a r e a s , s o m e t i m e s on public l a n d .
78
It d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n that individual soldiers
w e r e all fluent Latin s p e a k e r s , a l t h o u g h they would have
needed
a basic k n o w l e d g e o f it; t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e military i n s c r i p t i o n s was very s t e r e o t y p e d a n d c a n h a v e r e q u i r e d little i n p u t from t h e p e o p l e who commissioned them. Greek G r e e k was familiar as a s p o k e n l a n g u a g e in R o m e at least by t h e t i m e o f Plautus. It g r a d u a l l y c a m e to b e a s s o c i a t e d with p e o p l e o f Asian a n d S y r i a n o r i g i n as well as t h o s e from G r e e c e itself a n d from
southern
79
I t a l y . J u v e n a l ' s U m b r i c i u s c o m p l a i n s a b o u t t h e use o f G r e e k by such p e o p l e , a n d i m p l i e s , as s o m e o n e o f such p r e j u d i c e d views naturally would, t h a t they did n o t m a k e m u c h effort to l e a r n L a t i n .
80
It also
s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t h e l a n g u a g e o f s o m e ' e a s t e r n ' r e l i g i o n s , such as t h e cults o f Isis a n d S e r a p i s . for peregrini
81
Kajanto ( 1 9 6 3 b , 1 0 - 1 1 ) notes a tendency
to h a v e G r e e k e p i t a p h s , b u t t h e r e is a d a n g e r o f overesti
m a t i n g this, s i n c e t h e r e a r e several definite e x a m p l e s of s o m e o n e w h o h a d a full R o m a n two- o r t h r e e - p a r t n a m e b e i n g d e s i g n a t e d in G r e e k only by a c o g n o m e n , so s o m e o f t h e p e o p l e w h o a r e k n o w n only by a G r e e k single n a m e a n d t h e r e f o r e a p p e a r to b e peregrini
m a y in fact
h a v e b e e n R o m a n citizens (see p. 7 6 ) . An anecdote about the philosopher Favorinus, who
presumably
s p o k e L a t i n as his first l a n g u a g e since h e c a m e from Aries a l t h o u g h h e 171
Living
at Rome
u s e d G r e e k for ' p r o f e s s i o n a l ' p u r p o s e s , illustrates t h e w i d e s p r e a d use o f G r e e k a m o n g t h e e d u c a t e d at R o m e :
8 2
When he delivered discourses in Rome, the interest in them was universal, so much so that even those in his audience who did not understand the Greek language shared in the pleasure that he gave; for he fascinated even them by the tones o f his voice, by his expressive glance and the rhythm o f his speech. Similarly, H a d r i a n o f T y r e ' i n s p i r e d even t h o s e w h o did n o t k n o w t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e with an a r d e n t d e s i r e to h e a r h i m d e c l a i m ' .
83
This
literary topos shows t h e high status o f G r e e k at R o m e as a l a n g u a g e associated with p h i l o s o p h y a n d l i t e r a t u r e ; n o - o n e would h a v e b e e n similarly p r a i s e d for t h e i r i n s p i r i n g d e c l a m a t i o n in P u n i c . At t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , G r e e k was also a low status l a n g u a g e associated with i m m i g r a n t s a n d ex-slaves. It is n o t t h e case t h a t G r e e k e p i t a p h s at R o m e w e r e c o m p o s e d only by first g e n e r a t i o n i m m i g r a n t s . K a j a n t o ( 1 9 8 0 , 9 1 ) n o t e s two cases of G r e e k e p i t a p h s for p e o p l e w h o w e r e explicitly b o r n at R o m e , a n d o b s e r v e s t h a t a n y o n e with a G r e e k e p i t a p h a n d n o e t h n i c might been born there.
8 4
have
A b o u t 3 0 % o f t h e p a g a n G r e e k e p i t a p h s from R o m e
a r e in v e r s e , a m u c h h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n t h a n from a n y w h e r e e l s e ,
85
but
this reflects t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f G r e e k as a literary l a n g u a g e in t h e city. In t h e c a s e o f t h e J e w s , m o s t o f t h o s e with G r e e k e p i t a p h s
were
p r o b a b l y natives o f R o m e , b u t t h e r e was an i n c e n t i v e within t h e g r o u p to r e t a i n t h e use o f G r e e k (see p. 2 6 4 ) . K a j a n t o o b s e r v e s ( 1 9 8 0 , 9 1 ) t h a t one-fifth o f p e o p l e in t h e G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s h a v e L a t i n c o g n o m i n a , which h e takes as f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t they w e r e n o t all i m m i g r a n t s . T h e e x t e n t to which f o r e i g n e r s k e p t G r e e k ( o r any o t h e r m i n o r i t y l a n g u a g e ) as t h e i r first l a n g u a g e , so t h a t it r e m a i n e d t h e first l a n g u a g e o f t h e i r R o m e - b o r n c h i l d r e n , c o u l d also d e p e n d partly o n t h e i r resi d e n t i a l a r r a n g e m e n t s ; it would b e m u c h e a s i e r to d o so i f living a m o n g o t h e r G r e e k - s p e a k e r s , w h e t h e r i m m i g r a n t s o r not, t h a n i f s u r r o u n d e d by L a t i n - s p e a k e r s .
86
A c c o r d i n g to K a j a n t o ( 1 9 8 0 , 9 0 ) , m o s t o f t h e slaves (N = 9 ) a n d e x slaves (N = 3 4 , i n c l u d i n g a few i m p e r i a l f r e e d m e n ) in G r e e k i n s c r i p tions s e e m to b e o f foreign o r i g i n ; t h e small n u m b e r s o f p e o p l e in t h e s e status c a t e g o r i e s was n o t e d a b o v e , a n d reflects t h e h i g h level o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n o f i n s c r i p t i o n - w r i t e r s from this sort o f b a c k g r o u n d , w h o w o u l d n o r m a l l y p r e f e r to use L a t i n . H e m a d e a d e t a i l e d survey o f t h e o r i g i n s o f all t h o s e c o m m e m o r a t e d in p a g a n G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d with a p l a c e o f o r i g i n i n d i c a t e d ( 1 9 8 0 , T a b . I ) .
8 7
Asia a n d B i t h y n i a
p r e d o m i n a t e , s u g g e s t i n g that p e o p l e from t h o s e a r e a s m a y have b e e n
172
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
p a r t i c u l a r l y r e a d y to use G r e e k as a sign o f t h e i r identity. H e n o t e s that, w h e r e t h e work o f t h e d e c e a s e d is given, it shows t h a t p e o p l e with G r e e k e p i t a p h s c o u l d b e a m o n g t h e m o r e affluent p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a tion. A c c o r d i n g to his c o u n t ,
8 8
t h e best a t t e s t e d g r o u p is d o c t o r s
( N = 1 7 ) . H e also n o t e s t h a t t h e G r e e k u s e d is g e n e r a l l y c o r r e c t , which m a y say s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e e c o n o m i c a n d e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d of its users. Kajanto
(1980,
100) further
suggests that speakers o f G r e e k
probably had a greater chance o f a G r e e k epitaph a m o n g Christians t h a n a m o n g p a g a n s , s i n c e C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h s t e n d e d to h a v e a less 'official' c h a r a c t e r , a n d w e r e often d o n e by a m a t e u r s r a t h e r t h a n by p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o n e c u t t e r s , factors which would favour t h e e p i g r a p h i c use o f G r e e k a m o n g t h o s e for w h o m it was t h e i r first l a n g u a g e . O f t h e e p i t a p h s h e s u r v e y e d in I C U R , 1 1 0 9 o u t o f 9 3 5 9 ( 1 1 . 8 % ) w e r e in Greek;
8 9
the proportion
v a r i e d from
7 . 6 % to 1 6 . 9 % in
different
c e m e t e r i e s . H e o b s e r v e s t h a t G r e e k is c o m m o n e r in t h e e a r l i e r p a r t s of t h e c a t a c o m b s , a n d a p p e a r s to d e c r e a s e drastically from t h e m i d fourth c e n t u r y .
90
All t h e p o p e s from U r b a n to G a i u s ( 2 2 2 - 2 9 6 ) e x c e p t
Cornelius had Greek epitaphs,
91
b u t L a t i n was t h e usual l a n g u a g e for
l a t e r p o p e s . T h e a r e a s o f p r o v e n a n c e for p e o p l e in t h e G r e e k C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h s r e m a i n similar to t h e G r e e k p a g a n e p i t a p h s , b u t with Syria rather more prominent.
9 2
T h e following table, b a s e d o n a l a r g e r n u m b e r of i n s c r i p t i o n s than was available to K a j a n t o , shows t h e a r e a o f o r i g i n o f f o r e i g n e r s c o m m e m o r a t e d in G r e e k , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f Latin e p i t a p h s for p e o p l e from t h e s a m e places. I h a v e divided p a g a n from C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h as in c h . 4 . It i n c l u d e s o n l y t h o s e a r e a s which h a v e p r o d u c e d some for e i g n e r s ' e p i t a p h s in G r e e k .
TABLE
12. Places of origin mentioned in Latin and Greek epitaphs.
Latin Armenia 1 14 Asia Bithynia 4 Bosporan 2 Cappadocia 7 3 Cilicia Crete Cyprus Egypt 9 Galatia 6
Pagan Greek 1 38 17 2 4 7 2 1 14 5
Mixed 2 3
93
Latin 2 3
Christian/J ewish Greek Mixed 2 1 6 1 9
2
2 1
1 1 2 173
2 9 17
Living
at Rome
(cont.) Latin Gaul 36 Greece 6 47 Mispania Lycia 2 Macedonia 2 Mauretania 6 Numidia 2 Palestine 5 Parthia Sardinia Sicily 1 Syria 20 Thrace 16 Unknown Total
%
Pagan Greek 2 6
Mixed
93
3
3 1
Latin 8 2 7
Christian/Jewish Greek Mixed
1 1 2 3 1 1
1
1
6 1 2 1 1 6
1 3 14
4
3
189 57.4
5 31 2
1
1
3 4 2 3
124
16
48
103
3
37.7
4.9
31.1
66.9
2.0
T h e r e a r e s o m e s u r p r i s i n g a n o m a l i e s , such as why w e r e C a p p a d o c i a n s m o r e likely to p r o d u c e L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a n G a l a t i a n s , but, as t h e n u m b e r s from individual a r e a s a r e small, t o o m u c h c a n n o t b e r e a d i n t o t h e m . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is a c l e a r t r e n d o v e r a l l : as K a j a n t o sug g e s t e d , G r e e k is u s e d
proportionately
much
m o r e o f t e n in
the
C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a n in t h e p a g a n o n e s . T h i s is t r u e for m o s t o f t h e a r e a s a n a l y s e d : e.g. for Syria, less than h a l f t h e p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s b u t n e a r l y all t h e C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h o n e s a r e in G r e e k . T h e r e a s o n is p r o b a b l y c o n t e x t r a t h e r t h a n a n y c h a n g e o v e r t i m e in t h e l a n g u a g e s p o k e n by i m m i g r a n t s . M a n y o f t h e p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s c o m e from c o l u m b a r i a , w h e r e L a t i n was a l m o s t universally u s e d , as t h e c o m m o n l a n g u a g e o f l a r g e familiae
and o f burial associations.
94
Many
o f t h e C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h o n e s c o m e from c a t a c o m b s . G r e e k was p r e d o m i n a n t in t h e J e w i s h c a t a c o m b s t h r o u g h o u t t h e i r use, a n d in t h e C h r i s t i a n c a t a c o m b s in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . K a i m i o ( 1 9 7 9 , 7 3 ) p l a c e s t h e d e c i s i o n , for s o m e o n e w h o s e first l a n g u a g e was G r e e k , a b o u t w h e t h e r to write an e p i t a p h in L a t i n o r G r e e k in t h e c o n t e x t o f i n - g r o u p a n d out-group language: T h e explanation seems to lie in the fact that the Jews and Christians buried their dead in catacombs - or it is usually only the catacomb epitaphs that we can identify - while the other epitaphs were exposed along the roads, in cemeteries common to everyone. In other words, when an epitaph was set up in a place where everyone could see it, the 174
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
out-group language was commonly chosen for it, and in Rome this was Latin. But as soon as an ethnic or religious group makes use o f its own cemeteries, closed to outsiders, the burying process becomes an in-group matter and the epitaphs acquire ethnic and religious symbols, and the ingroup language is normally reserved for them. H e n c e S y r i a n s w h o w e r e n o t C h r i s t i a n s o r J e w s t e n d e d to write e p i t a p h s in L a t i n , b e c a u s e they did n o t h a v e t h e i r own e x c l u s i v e burial a r e a s . C h r i s t i a n a n d J e w i s h S y r i a n s w e r e m u c h m o r e likely to use G r e e k , e v e n t h o u g h all S y r i a n s would p r o b a b l y h a v e t e n d e d to p r e f e r G r e e k o v e r L a t i n as a s p o k e n l a n g u a g e . T h e use o f G r e e k was n o t n o r m a l l y e n o u g h in itself to differentiate o n e f o r e i g n g r o u p
from
o t h e r s , s i n c e it c o u l d equally well apply to p e o p l e from A l e x a n d r i a , A n t i o c h a n d A t h e n s . H o w e v e r , it did e n a b l e t h e m to
differentiate
t h e m s e l v e s from t h e i n d i g e n o u s R o m a n p o p u l a t i o n , possibly to pass o n t h e i r linguistic p r a c t i c e s to t h e i r c h i l d r e n , a n d , for t h e J e w s , to differentiate t h e m s e l v e s from C h r i s t i a n s o n c e L a t i n h a d b e c o m e t h e m a i n l a n g u a g e o f c o m m e m o r a t i o n in t h e C h r i s t i a n c a t a c o m b s .
95
Bilinguality L a t i n - G r e e k bilinguality was n o r m a l a m o n g t h e elite o f R o m a n society, as C i c e r o ' s letters illustrate. I t is likely also to h a v e b e e n c o m m o n a m o n g immigrant groups: Kaimio ( 1 9 7 9 , 3 1 9 ) thinks that 'the G r e e k s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f slave o r i g i n in t h e W e s t ' was g e n e r a l l y bilin gual, a n d
Polome ( 1 9 8 3 , 5 1 5 ) envisages people from the
Eastern
M e d i t e r r a n e a n s p e a k i n g G r e e k at h o m e a n d L a t i n o u t s i d e . W r i t i n g a b i l i n g u a l i n s c r i p t i o n was, h o w e v e r , a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t m a t t e r . I t was s o m e t i m e s d o n e o n b e h a l f o f G r e e k - s p e a k i n g cities at R o m e . An i n s c r i p t i o n in which t h e p e o p l e o f L a o d i c e a ad L y c u m h o n o u r
the
p e o p l e o f R o m e as t h e i r s a v i o u r a n d b e n e f a c t o r has parallel texts in L a t i n a n d G r e e k , b u t with a m i s t a k e in t h e L a t i n .
96
W h e n t h e cities o f
B i t h y n i a et P o n t u s p u t up an h o n o r i f i c i n s c r i p t i o n for t h e i r g o v e r n o r , e a c h city was n a m e d in L a t i n b u t g a v e details o f its a m b a s s a d o r s in G r e e k , a n d G r e e k was p r o b a b l y t h e p r i m a r y l a n g u a g e o f c o m p o s i t i o n . T h e g o v e r n o r is called patrono
in L a t i n b u t 7tdTpcovt iced eijepY£xr|i in
Greek, perhaps because the Latin term a Greek audience.
needed
explanation
for
9 7
W r i t i n g a fully bilingual e p i t a p h , i.e. o n e with t h e w h o l e t e x t in b o t h l a n g u a g e s ( r a t h e r t h a n p a r t in o n e a n d p a r t in t h e o t h e r ) was very unusual. Kaimio ( 1 9 7 9 ,
176) counts only fourteen
associates t h e m with p e o p l e f r o m
instances, and
t h e E a s t a n d with a t t e m p t s
to
e m p h a s i z e t h e i r own i m p o r t a n c e by m a k i n g t h e e p i t a p h s b o t h l o o k a n d r e a d impressively. 175
Living
at Rome
E p i t a p h s which use a m i x t u r e o f L a t i n a n d G r e e k to say different t h i n g s in t h e two l a n g u a g e s a r e r a t h e r c o m m o n e r . K a j a n t o ( 1 9 8 0 , 9 4 ) t h i n k s t h a t they s u g g e s t bilinguality a m o n g t h e c o m p o s e r s a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l r e a d e r s . H e sees a t e n d e n c y to write t h e factual p a r t o f t h e e p i t a p h in L a t i n , b u t e p i g r a m s , r e f l e c t i n g t h e feelings o f t h e b e r e a v e d , in G r e e k . T h i s is c o n s i s t e n t with a situation o f diglossia, w h e r e p e o p l e use o n e l a n g u a g e for o n e form o f e x p r e s s i o n a n d a n o t h e r l a n g u a g e for a n o t h e r f o r m , s o m e t h i n g which I have a r g u e d e l s e w h e r e a p p l i e d to t h e R o m a n J e w s , w h o certainly r e g a r d e d s o m e p a r t s o f an e p i t a p h as a p p r o p r i a t e to o n e l a n g u a g e o r t h e o t h e r .
9 8
T h e people c o m m e m o
rated in m i x e d l a n g u a g e epitaphs nearly always have G r e e k c o g n o m i n a ; two c a m e from G r e e c e , a n d only o n e was explicitly a f r e e b o r n citizen (a c o m p e t i t o r in t h e C a p i t o l i n e G a m e s ) .
9 9
T h e table a b o v e shows t h a t
m i x e d l a n g u a g e e p i t a p h s a r e relatively u n u s u a l for p e o p l e clearly identified as f o r e i g n e r s . V e r y occasionally such an e p i t a p h uses differ e n t l a n g u a g e s for different p e o p l e : in I G U R 9 0 2 , L a t i n is used for t h e c o m m e m o r a t o r ' s wife, G r e e k for his P h r y g i a n m o t h e r , s u g g e s t i n g an a t t e m p t to m a k e the l a n g u a g e s fit t h e p e o p l e they a r e c o m m e m o r a t i n g . K a j a n t o sees t h e g r e a t e s t e v i d e n c e o f L a t i n - G r e e k symbiosis in t h e e p i t a p h s which a r e written in o n e a l p h a b e t a n d t h e o t h e r l a n g u a g e . H e c o u n t s t h r e e G r e e k e p i t a p h s in L a t i n letters, a n d f o u r t e e n L a t i n e p i t a p h s in G r e e k letters, a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e in fact m a n y m o r e .
1 0 0
He
associates t h e m with ex-slaves o r t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s , a n d n o t e s t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f G r e e k c o g n o m i n a a g a i n . H e suggests t h a t t h e y w e r e i n t e n d e d to show t h a t t h e d e c e a s e d was b i l i n g u a l , a n d t h a t L a t i n m i g h t b e u s e d b e c a u s e t h e d e c e a s e d was a R o m a n c i t i z e n .
101
While I would
a g r e e t h a t this type o f i n s c r i p t i o n r e q u i r e s p e o p l e to b e b i l i n g u a l ( o r , m o r e precisely, diglossic), it also suggests t h a t t h e i r p r o f i c i e n c y in t h e written l a n g u a g e was n o t as g r e a t as in t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e , a n d t h a t t h e y c o u l d only c o p e with o n e a l p h a b e t a l t h o u g h they c o u l d s p e a k two languages.
102
F o r m o s t i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e , bilinguality was p r o b a b l y a t e m p o rary situation in t h e i r family history, as with i m m i g r a n t s to t h e U . S . A . First g e n e r a t i o n i m m i g r a n t s w h o s p o k e G r e e k m u c h b e t t e r t h a n L a t i n w o u l d h a v e c h i l d r e n w h o w e r e equally at h o m e in b o t h l a n g u a g e s a n d g r a n d c h i l d r e n w h o s p o k e only L a t i n .
1 0 3
For immigrants who were
t h e m s e l v e s a l r e a d y bilingual w h e n they a r r i v e d , t h e d e c l i n e o f G r e e k m a y h a v e b e e n e v e n m o r e r a p i d , as with t h e W e l s h l a n g u a g e a m o n g b i l i n g u a l i m m i g r a n t s to P e n n s y l v a n i a .
104
O n l y a m o n g t h e J e w s is t h e r e
a n y c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e use o f G r e e k was r e t a i n e d by p e o p l e w h o s e i m m i g r a n t a n c e s t r y was several g e n e r a t i o n s b a c k .
176
1 0 5
Aspects of foreigners' Other
lives at Rome
languages
W i t h f o r e i g n e r s c o m i n g to R o m e from all p a r t s o f t h e e m p i r e a n d o u t s i d e , m a n y new arrivals u n d o u b t e d l y
h a d first l a n g u a g e s o t h e r
t h a n L a t i n o r G r e e k . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , very few e c h o e s in l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e possibility o f h e a r i n g o t h e r l a n g u a g e s s p o k e n , a n d t h e fact that J u v e n a l ' s U m b r i c i u s d o e s n o t c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e m m a y reflect t h e i r lack o f p e r c e i v e d i m p o r t a n c e .
1 0 6
S u e t o n i u s m e n t i o n s plays b e i n g p e r
f o r m e d in t h e vici o f R o m e 'by a c t o r s o f all l a n g u a g e s ' , i.e. n o t j u s t L a t i n a n d G r e e k - h e d o e s n o t m a k e c l e a r which o t h e r l a n g u a g e s h e means.
1 0 7
O t h e r i n d i c a t i o n s o f special a r r a n g e m e n t s b e i n g m a d e for
minority languages are completely lacking, perhaps not surprisingly as all t h e literary s o u r c e s a r e c o m p o s e d by p e o p l e w h o would h a v e h a d little o r n o i n t e r e s t in s u c h m a t t e r s . W h e n t h e s p e e c h m a d e by K i n g T i r i d a t e s to N e r o , p r e s u m a b l y in A r m e n i a n , h a d to b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o L a t i n , it was an e x - p r a e t o r w h o did it, n o t an A r m e n i a n living at R o m e , a n d t h e r e is n o c l e a r e v i d e n c e for f o r e i g n e r s living in t h e city e v e r b e i n g called o n to act as i n t e r p r e t e r s .
108
Furthermore, people who
s p o k e m i n o r i t y l a n g u a g e s m a y well h a v e a p p e a r e d to o u t s i d e r s to h a v e L a t i n as t h e i r first l a n g u a g e . P o l o m e ( 1 9 8 3 , 5 1 6 ) s e e m s to g o well b e y o n d t h e e v i d e n c e w h e n h e says t h a t M e r c u r i u s , i m p e r i a l t r e a s u r e r in AD 3 5 5 , 'was o f Persian o r i g i n . . . b u t h e h a r d l y s p o k e t h e l a n g u a g e o f his native c o u n t r y ' . A m m i a n u s ( 1 5 . 3 . 4 ) says n o t h i n g a b o u t M e r c u r i u s ' first l a n g u a g e , b u t in a n y case h e would n o t h a v e g o t very far by s p e a k i n g P e r s i a n at c o u r t , e v e n i f h e would h a v e p r e f e r r e d to d o so. L a n g u a g e s such as P u n i c , E g y p t i a n a n d T h r a c i a n , a n d various f o r m s o f S e m i t i c , Celtic a n d G e r m a n i c l a n g u a g e s , c e r t a i n l y m u s t h a v e b e e n 109
For
but
the
s p o k e n at R o m e , b u t largely as 'private, i n - g r o u p l a n g u a g e s ' . example, Tatian's
first
l a n g u a g e was p r o b a b l y S y r i a c ,
1 1 0
n u m b e r o f p e o p l e h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a b l e to talk to in S y r i a c at R o m e m u s t have b e e n l i m i t e d . E v e n i f they h a d an e p i g r a p h i c tradition at h o m e , t h e s e l a n g u a g e s very r a r e l y a c h i e v e d p e r m a n e n t written f o r m at R o m e . T h e possibility t h a t o n e T h r a c i a n w o r d h a s f o u n d its way i n t o a L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n will b e discussed below (p. 2 1 9 ) , b u t t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e for m o r e t h a n an individual w o r d o f a n y i m m i g r a n t E u r o pean language being inscribed on stone. S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s a r e slightly b e t t e r d o c u m e n t e d t h a n
European
ones. P a l m y r e n e was used jointly with Latin o r G r e e k in t h r e e inscriptions from a P a l m y r e n e s h r i n e o u t s i d e t h e P o r t a P o r t u e n s i s (see p. 2 4 2 ) . M a c M u l l e n ( 1 9 9 3 , 4 8 ) treats this as e v i d e n c e t h a t ' s o m e very signifi c a n t m i n o r i t y o f t h e capital, e v e n after m a n y g e n e r a t i o n s , h a d
not
b e c o m e t h o r o u g h l y R o m a n i z e d ' , b u t in fact t h e r e s e e m s n o r e a s o n to
177
Living
at
Rome
d o u b t t h e m o r e obvious e x p l a n a t i o n , that t h e p e o p l e involved w e r e relatively new arrivals in R o m e . N a b a t a e a n o c c u r s jointly with L a t i n 1
twice in e p i t a p h s ; " its use is a n y t h i n g b u t 'typical', as P o l o m e ( 1 9 8 3 , 5 1 7 ) claims. H e b r e w o r A r a m a i c was u s e d very occasionally at t h e e n d o f a G r e e k or Latin Jewish e p i t a p h ,
112
a n d t h e r e is o n e e p i t a p h e n t i r e l y
in A r a m a i c b u t o f very u n c e r t a i n m e a n i n g . " b e e n s o m e difficulty in
finding
3
T h e r e a p p e a r s to h a v e
people who could inscribe alphabets
o t h e r t h a n L a t i n o r G r e e k : for b o t h P a l m y r e n e a n d H e b r e w i n s c r i p tions, t h e l e t t e r i n g is g e n e r a l l y o f a m u c h l o w e r s t a n d a r d t h a n it is for t h e G r e e k o r L a t i n parts o f t h e s a m e i n s c r i p t i o n s : s m a l l e r , i r r e g u l a r , with u n e v e n a l i g n m e n t , a n d l a c k i n g s e r i f s . "
4
Calendars A n o t h e r possible e c h o o f linguistic a n d c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e lies in t h e use o f different d a t i n g systems. At R o m e , t h e usual e p i g r a p h i c way of giving t h e y e a r was by t h e n a m e s o f t h e c o n s u l s , a n d t h e day a n d m o n t h w e r e given a c c o r d i n g to t h e J u l i a n c a l e n d a r . T h e d a t i n g system ab urbe condita
was virtually n e v e r u s e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s . Its o n e epi
g r a p h i c use in a c o n t e x t associated with f o r e i g n e r s , by a d e v o t e e o f s o m e S y r i a n cults, a n d written side by side with a c o n s u l a r d a t e , s e e m s like a n e x t r a e x p r e s s i o n o f artificial ' R o m a n n e s s ' ; t h e a u t h o r protests t o o m u c h in u s i n g a R o m a n d a t i n g system which i n d i g e n o u s R o m a n s w o u l d n o t n o r m a l l y h a v e used t h e m s e l v e s in s u c h a c o n t e x t . " ' T h e r e were, o f course, many alternative calendars throughout the E m p i r e , with years given a c c o r d i n g to local e r a s (e.g. from t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a city o r p r o v i n c e ) , a n d m o n t h s h a v i n g different n a m e s a n d c o v e r i n g different p e r i o d s . It m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d t h a t f o r e i g n e r s would b r i n g their own
s y s t e m s o f r e c o r d i n g t i m e to R o m e with
them,
like
A p o l l i n a r i u s in t h e l e t t e r q u o t e d a b o v e (p. 1 6 5 ) , a n d t h a t t h e s e w o u l d e m e r g e in t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s . It s h o u l d b e n o t e d , h o w e v e r , that p a g a n e p i t a p h s r a r e l y give a d a t e at all; C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h s q u i t e often give t h e day o f t h e m o n t h , b u t n o t t h e y e a r . H e n c e m o s t o f t h e r e l e v a n t inscriptions are Christian. T h e r e a r e a few traces at R o m e o f t h e m o n t h s u s e d in G r e e k c a l e n d a r s in t h e East, all in G r e e k - l a n g u a g e i n s c r i p t i o n s . A very frag 1
m e n t a r y C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n uses t h e m o n t h P a n e m o s . " ' A m a n from 7
a village in P h o e n i c i a d i e d in t h e m o n t h D y s t r o s . " S o m e o n e from a village n e a r A p a m e a died AD 4 3 1 .
1 1 8
in t h e m o n t h
Daisios, probably
in
9
T h e m o n t h G o r p a i o s is u s e d in a J e w i s h e p i t a p h . " T h e r e is
o n e e x a m p l e o f a n o t h e r d a t i n g system in a b i l i n g u a l G r e e k - P a l m y r e n e i n s c r i p t i o n from t h e P a l m y r e n e s h r i n e (see p. 2 4 3 ) .
178
1 2 0
T h e y e a r is given
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
as 5 4 7 in b o t h l a n g u a g e s , a n d t h e m o n t h is Peritios in G r e e k a n d S e b a t in P a l m y r e n e . T h e r e is also a d e d i c a t i o n to a form o f Ares ("Apri 0ecp 7taxpcp(o £7tr|K6co) for t h e safety o f H a d r i a n , which gives t h e y e a r as 4 4 5 a n d t h e m o n t h as X a n t h i k o s ;
1 2 1
M o r e t t i takes t h e d e d i c a n t as a P a l m y
r e n e . T h e years a r e a c c o r d i n g to t h e S e l e u c i d e r a , a n d c o r r e s p o n d to AD 2 3 6 a n d 1 3 4 respectively. I n fact, t h e only n o n - R o m a n c a l e n d a r which has left a n y significant t r a c e at R o m e is t h e E g y p t i a n o n e , o c c u r r e n c e s o f which will b e dis c u s s e d at p. 2 4 8 ; E g y p t i a n d a t e s a r e r e a s o n a b l y c o m m o n in G r e e k l a n g u a g e C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h s . T h e r e l u c t a n c e to use a n y o t h e r d a t i n g f o r m is p r o b a b l y a result of t h e difficulty which o u t s i d e r s would h a v e in u n d e r s t a n d i n g it. U n l e s s a g r o u p h a d its own private b u r i a l a r e a , it would t e n d to use t e r m i n o l o g y which m e a n t s o m e t h i n g to o t h e r s , so local c a l e n d a r s w e r e a v o i d e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s for t h e s a m e r e a s o n s as local l a n g u a g e s - which d o e s n o t m e a n that they w e r e n o t in e v e r y d a y use a m o n g f o r e i g n e r s . T h e E g y p t i a n c a l e n d a r , t h r o u g h t h e cults o f Isis a n d S e r a p i s , p e r h a p s h a d w i d e r r e c o g n i t i o n t h a n any o t h e r , b u t its use was certainly not confined to Isis-worshippers, since most o f its occur rences are in Christian inscriptions. T h e g e n e r a l lack o f e p i g r a p h i c evi d e n c e for the use o f n o n - R o m a n calendars certainly shows a reluctance to inscribe t h e m , b u t n o t necessarily an a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e m in daily use.
vi. Names T h e r e may b e s o m e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e x t e n t to which p e o p l e u s e d t h e l a n g u a g e s o f t h e i r h o m e l a n d s a n d t h e e x t e n t to which t h e y used n a m e s from t h e i r h o m e l a n d s . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n is c e r t a i n l y n o t a direct one, since foreigners who forgot or deliberately a b a n d o n e d t h e i r o r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e would still retain t h e i r o r i g i n a l n a m e s (unless they w e r e r e p l a c e d by L a t i n o r G r e e k o n e s , which was often n o t t h e case a m o n g slaves a n d ex-slaves). K a j a n t o ( 1 9 8 0 , 8 5 ) c o u n t e d only 5 3 0 slaves/ex-slaves with local (i.e. n o t G r e e k o r L a t i n ) c o g n o m i n a ,
1 2 2
out o f
a total o f 2 5 , 0 0 0 slave n a m e s . H e n o t e s that t h e use of, e.g., a T h r a c i a n n a m e d o e s n o t necessarily p r o v e that s o m e o n e ' s m o t h e r t o n g u e was T h r a c i a n . N a m e s which w e r e n o t L a t i n o r G r e e k c o u l d b e p a s s e d down a m o n g people who actually spoke Latin or G r e e k ,
1 2 3
and
c o n v e r s e l y , L a t i n o r G r e e k n a m e s c o u l d b e a d o p t e d by p e o p l e w h o t h e m s e l v e s k n e w little o f t h o s e l a n g u a g e s . Solin ( 1 9 8 3 , 6 3 4 - 5 ) n o t e s that slaves with local n a m e s t e n d e d to h a v e w e l l - k n o w n o n e s such as M a l c h i o a n d M a r t h a w h i c h c o u l d b e a d a p t e d to t h e c a s e - e n d i n g s o f L a t i n o r G r e e k , while m o r e ' e x o t i c ' n a m e s such as H a b i b i a n d T h a b i b u w e r e r e s t r i c t e d to peregrini.
H e also o b s e r v e s that ' o r i e n t a l ' n a m e s (i.e.
179
Living
at Rome
local n a m e s from t h e e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s ) w e r e very r a r e for slaves at R o m e : only 1.9% in a total o f 2 6 , 3 0 0 .
1 2 4
Vernae,
i.e. slaves b o r n at
R o m e , w e r e almost invariably given Latin o r G r e e k n a m e s , irrespective o f their p a r e n t a g e .
1 2 5
I n m o s t R o m a n c o n t e x t s , local c o g n o m i n a w e r e n a m e s o f low p r e s t i g e . E l t o n ( 1 9 9 6 , 1 4 6 ) n o t e s t h a t m a n y b a r b a r i a n officers in t h e late R o m a n a r m y h a d
L a t i n n a m e s , b u t n o R o m a n officers h a d
b a r b a r i a n n a m e s . T h e usual t r e n d s e e m s to h a v e b e e n for L a t i n , a n d to a lesser e x t e n t G r e e k , n a m e s to r e p l a c e o t h e r types. I n a s a m p l e o f p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s from R o m e , K a j a n t o f o u n d that t h e c o g n o m i n a w e r e a b o u t 4 1 . 5 % L a t i n , 5 6 % G r e e k a n d only 2 . 5 % local; t h e local ( i n c l u d i n g S e m i t i c ) p r o p o r t i o n i n c r e a s e s to 3 . 5 % in C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p tions, w h e r e Latin n a m e s o u t n u m b e r G r e e k by two to o n e .
1 2 6
For
C h r i s t i a n s , t h e positive biblical c o n n o t a t i o n s o f s o m e S e m i t i c n a m e s outweighed
the negative barbarian
connotations which the
same
n a m e s h a d traditionally h a d . It is g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t that G r e e k n a m e s w e r e associated with slav ery.
1 2 7
K a i m i o a n d Solin n o t e t h e e x t e n t to which slaves b o r n in Italy
still r e c e i v e d G r e e k n a m e s , a n d t h a t slave-traders t e n d e d to give slaves G r e e k n a m e s which, in t h e c o n t e x t , w e r e p e r h a p s s e e n as m o r e desir a b l e t h a n e i t h e r L a t i n o r local o n e s .
1 2 8
O f t h e slaves from t h e East with
e t h n i c s , S o l i n c o u n t s 1 3 9 with G r e e k n a m e s , 3 3 with L a t i n a n d 4 with local o n e s . U n t i l t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, h e a r g u e s , this m e a n t t h a t G r e e k n a m e s t e n d e d to b e a v o i d e d for free p e o p l e at R o m e , but, as p e o p l e with G r e e k c o g n o m i n a b e g a n to b e c o m e s e n a t o r s a n d h o l d h i g h office, t h e servile associations o f t h e n a m e s g r a d u a l l y
disap
p e a r e d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , K a j a n t o associates t h e d e c l i n e o f G r e e k n a m e s w h i c h h e o b s e r v e s in C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s b e f o r e t h e fifth c e n t u r y with t h e d e c l i n e o f slavery. H o w e v e r , h e also shows t h a t t h e t e n d e n c y for fathers with G r e e k n a m e s to h a v e c h i l d r e n with L a t i n n a m e s is g r e a t e r in t h e p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a n in t h e C h r i s t i a n o n e s . T h e r e is t h u s a possibility that a close study o f n a m i n g
patterns
a m o n g foreigners and their children might indicate a continued sense o f ' f o r e i g n ' identity (by t h e c o n t i n u e d use o f local n a m e s ) o r a t r e n d t o w a r d s r o m a n i / a t i o n (by t h e use o f L a t i n n a m e s ) .
Unfortunately,
t h e r e a r e very few cases in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s w h e r e a f o r e i g n e r with a local n a m e has a child w h o was clearly b o r n after t h e p a r e n t ' s arrival at R o m e , to test w h e t h e r such p e o p l e would give t h e i r c h i l d r e n local o r L a t i n / G r e e k n a m e s . I n cases w h e r e t h e p a r e n t is explicitly an i m m i g r a n t a n d t h e child is n o t said to b e o n e ( a n d is t h e r e f o r e likely to h a v e b e e n b o r n at R o m e ) , t h e following p a t t e r n e m e r g e s :
180
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
TABLE 13. Types of name used by immigrants and their children. Parent's name. Latin Latin Greek Greek local local
Child's name Latin Greek Greek Latin Latin local
2 4
129
4 7 5
130
2 1
In o v e r h a l f t h e cases, b o t h p a r e n t a n d child have a Latin n a m e . L o c a l n a m e s a r e a l m o s t as r a r e for p a r e n t s as they a r e for c h i l d r e n .
131
It is c o m m o n e r to find a p a r e n t with a n o n - L a t i n n a m e a n d a child with a L a t i n n a m e t h a n vice versa, b u t t h e n u m b e r s a r e e x t r e m e l y small. T h e two cases w h e r e i m m i g r a n t p a r e n t s with ( p r o b a b l y ) local n a m e s gave t h e i r child a L a t i n n a m e a r c : I G U R 9 3 9 = I G U R 4 0 3 2 : m o t h e r T a o n , son S e r e n u s . C I L vi 3 4 5 4 : m o t h e r A u r e l i a G o r s i l a , son F e l i c i s s i m u s .
132
H o w e v e r , in b o t h cases t h e father h a d a L a t i n n a m e , so t h e c h o i c e o f a L a t i n n a m e for t h e son may b e n o t h i n g to d o with t h e fact o f m o v i n g to R o m e , b u t m i g h t h a v e o c c u r r e d anyway. T h i s e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t p r o v i d e m u c h insight i n t o t h e q u e s t i o n of how f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e n a m e d
t h e i r c h i l d r e n , b u t it d o e s raise
a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n : why did so m a n y f o r e i g n e r s h a v e L a t i n n a m e s t h e m selves? T h e n a m e s o f soldiers a r e particularly suspicious: for e x a m p l e , all t h e 4 B i t h y n i a n soldiers at R o m e h a d L a t i n c o g n o m i n a , w h e r e a s only 7 o u t o f 2 8 civilians did. It s e e m s fairly c e r t a i n that soldiers often a d o p t e d Latin c o g n o m i n a o n e n l i s t m e n t .
133
T h i s is s o m e t i m e s r e c o r d e d
explicitly in p a p y r i , e.g. in t h e c a s e o f A p i o n , an E g y p t i a n w h o j o i n e d t h e fleet at M i s e n u m in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD a n d t o o k o n t h e n a m e o f Antonius M a x i m u s .
1 3 4
A m o n g civilians, L a t i n c o g n o m i n a a r e also u n e x p e c t e d l y c o m m o n , a n d local n a m e s a r e e x t r e m e l y r a r e : for e x a m p l e , o u t o f t h e civilian i m m i g r a n t s from Egypt, t h e r e a r e 16 G r e e k n a m e s , 10 Latin, 3 Egyptian a n d 1 S e m i t i c (a C h r i s t i a n ) . It s e e m s possible t h a t s o m e i m m i g r a n t s took o n a L a t i n ( o r G r e e k ) n a m e w h e n they c a m e to R o m e , p e r h a p s for t h e practical r e a s o n t h a t local n a m e s c o u l d b e difficult for R o m a n s to say o r write. A n o t h e r possibility, which c o u l d b e an a d d i t i o n a l factor in e x p l a i n i n g t h e lack o f local n a m e s , is that p e o p l e w h o a l r e a d y h a d L a t i n o r G r e e k n a m e s ( a n d t h e r e f o r e c a m e from t h e m o r e r o m a n i z e d / h e l l e n i z c d p a r t o f t h e i r society) w e r e m o r e likely to m i g r a t e to R o m e
181
Living
at Rome
t h a n t h o s e with
local n a m e s a n d ,
hellenized b a c k g r o u n d .
i m p l i c i t l y , a less
romanized/
1 3 5
S o m e p e o p l e clearly c o u l d , for a variety o f r e a s o n s , have b o t h a local a n d a ' R o m a n ' n a m e , a n d would use e a c h in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t e x t s . T h i s is by definition very unlikely to a p p e a r in i n s c r i p t i o n s ( e x c e p t for t h o s e p e o p l e w h o w e r e r e c o r d e d as h a v i n g a d o u b l e n a m e with t h e qui et/6 Kai f o r m u l a
1 3 6
) , since an inscription would n o r m a l l y b e a c o n t e x t
for t h e R o m a n n a m e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e is an e x c e p t i o n in t h e case o f a d e d i c a n t at t h e P a l m y r e n e s a n c t u a r y in T r a s t e v e r e : in a Latin a n d G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n h e is called simply H e l i o d o r u s , b u t in a G r e e k a n d P a l m y r e n e i n s c r i p t i o n h e is called A u r e l i u s H e l i o d o r u s H a d r i a n u s son o f A n t i o c h u s in G r e e k , a n d I a r h a i son o f H a l i p h i son o f I a r h a i son o f L i s a m s son o f S o a d u in P a l m y r e n e .
1 3 7
T h e unusual context and
language-choice o f the inscription provides considerable information a b o u t t h e various n a m e s by which t h e s a m e m a n c o u l d b e k n o w n , a n d a l t h o u g h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n is e x c e p t i o n a l , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to t h i n k t h a t t h e n a m i n g p r a c t i c e s which it illustrates w e r e . T h e r e a r e n u m e r o u s attestations o f p e o p l e at R o m e with distinc tively local n a m e s w h o a r e n o t said in t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s to b e i m m i g r a n t s . S i n c e it is i m p o s s i b l e within t h e s c o p e o f this b o o k to m a k e a t h o r o u g h survey, anyway,
139
1 3 8
and many names are o f uncertain provenance
s o m e particularly distinctive n a m e s will b e studied in t h e
sections o f c h . 8 c o n c e r n e d with t h e a r e a s from which t h e
names
o r i g i n a t e d . T h e o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e s e n a m e s show that t h e i r b e a r e r s s e e m a l m o s t invariably to b e from a slave/freed o r military m i l i e u , e x c e p t w h e r e S e m i t i c n a m e s w e r e ' r e h a b i l i t a t e d ' by C h r i s t i a n i t y . W h i l e S y r i a n n a m e s w e r e c o m m o n for slaves, t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a S y r i a n n a m e for t h e child o f a slave o r ex-slave is very u n u s u a l , as Solin observes.
140
O n e e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e w h e r e a S y r i a n n a m e was still u s e d in
the second generation is:
141
T o the Di Manes. Mariame, lived 6 years, laso, peasant from the Marian estate, for his well-deserving daughter. O n e n a m e o f originally S y r i a n o r i g i n which s e e m s to h a v e b e e n inte g r a t e d i n t o L a t i n o n o m a s t i c s is G a m a l a : a family at O s t i a h a d m e m b e r s n a m e d P. Lucilius G a m a l a in b o t h t h e first c e n t u r y BC a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, e a c h with at least t h r e e g e n e r a t i o n s o f free a n c e s t o r s .
142
In
this c a s e , as t h e n a m e o f a city, it p e r h a p s did n o t h a v e t h e s a m e c o n n o t a t i o n s as S y r i a n p e r s o n a l n a m e s . It s e e m s that s o m e n a m e s which would h a v e h a d h i g h status else where (Pharnaces
1 4 3
mlk = king, H o r u s
1 4 5
was a royal n a m e , M a l c h i o
1 4 4
c o m e s from t h e r o o t
was a divine n a m e ) a c q u i r e d low status at R o m e . 182
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
T h e i r b e a r e r s h a d L a t i n e p i t a p h s , a n d a p p e a r n o t to have passed on t h e i r n a m e s , o r o t h e r n a m e s o f similar linguistic b a c k g r o u n d , to t h e i r c h i l d r e n . T h e k n o w n b e a r e r s of t h e s e n a m e s s e e m to h a v e b e e n r o m a n i z e d slaves a n d ex-slaves, a n d t h e r e f o r e n o t necessarily typical of free i m m i g r a n t s a l t h o u g h , like free i m m i g r a n t s , few c h i l d r e n
are
a t t e s t e d for t h e m . S o l i n ' s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t feelings o f n a t i o n a l p r i d e a n d solidarity m i g h t e n c o u r a g e free i m m i g r a n t s to pass o n S e m i t i c n a m e s to t h e i r c h i l d r e n d o e s n o t s e e m to b e b o r n e o u t by t h e available e v i d e n c e e x c e p t from t h e C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d .
1 4 6
H e notes elsewhere that
' o r i e n t a l n a m e s ' , which w e r e r a r e anyway, w e r e b o r n e by slaves from the East a n d w e r e not passed on to the n e x t g e n e r a t i o n b o r n at R o m e .
1 4 7
T y p i c a l l y T h r a c i a n n a m e s c o u l d also b e b o r n e by slaves, b u t a r e m a i n l y attested for soldiers (see p. 2 2 0 ) . T h e r e was n o t necessarily a different a t t i t u d e to t h e n a m e s t h e m s e l v e s , b u t t h e i r o c c u r r e n c e a m o n g a different a n d m o r e p r e s t i g i o u s g r o u p o f i m m i g r a n t s would h a v e l e s s e n e d t h e i r n e g a t i v e c o n n o t a t i o n s . B i t h u s was a fairly L a t i n s o u n d i n g n a m e which did n o t n e e d latinizing in t h e way t h a t s o m e local n a m e s did. I f t h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d h a d r e c r u i t e d m o r e in P a r t h i a , Syria o r E g y p t , t h e n m o r e e x a m p l e s of free m e n called P h a r n a c e s , M a l c h i o a n d H o r u s m i g h t b e k n o w n at R o m e . P e r h a p s , h o w e v e r , t h e first two would still have b e e n d i s c a r d e d o n e n l i s t m e n t as s o u n d i n g too u n - L a t i n . T h e suspicion r e m a i n s t h a t free i m m i g r a n t s as well as new soldiers m a y h a v e a d o p t e d new n a m e s i f t h e i r o r i g i n a l o n e s s o u n d e d i n a p p r o p r i a t e , a c h o i c e which was p r o b a b l y n o t available to slaves w h o w e r e e x p e c t e d to k e e p t h e i r o r i g i n a l n a m e s o r w h a t e v e r n a m e s w e r e a s s i g n e d to t h e m . Slaves a n d ex-slaves with local n a m e s did n o t e m p h a s i z e t h e i r o r i g i n s by stating in i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t they w e r e E g y p t i a n s o r S y r i a n s . P e r h a p s they felt t h a t t h e n a m e s w e r e sufficient i n d i c a t i o n o f this, b u t m o r e p r o b a b l y , especially in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s which they invariably p r o d u c e d , they did n o t w a n t to m e n t i o n t h e i r o r i g i n s at all.
vii. Cults M a n y f o r e i g n e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e from t h e East, c a m e from a r e a s with t h e i r own distinctive local g o d s , a n d t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f t h o s e g o d s to R o m e was potentially a way o f m a i n t a i n i n g c o m m u n a l
identity
a m o n g f o r e i g n g r o u p s , a n d o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e m s e l v e s from t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s . S i n c e m a n y m i g r a n t s m u s t have l a c k e d kin at R o m e , they m i g h t b e able to u s e c o n t a c t s m a d e t h r o u g h w o r s h i p to c r e a t e substitute n e t w o r k s for t h e m s e l v e s , in t h e s a m e m a n n e r t h a t m o d e r n m i g r a n t s have s o m e t i m e s u s e d c h u r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s .
183
148
Living
at Rome
W h i l e f o r e i g n e r s often a p p e a r to h a v e t a k e n p a r t in t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e usual R o m a n g o d s in t h e city, s o m e w o r s h i p p e d t h e i r own deities as well (or i n s t e a d ) . Dionysius o f H a l i c a r n a s s u s refers to ' t h e influx i nt o R o m e o f c o u n t l e s s f o r e i g n e r s , who a r e u n d e r a firm o b l i g a t i o n to w o r s h i p t h e i r a n c e s t r a l g o d s a c c o r d i n g to t h e c u s t o m s o f t h e i r h o m e land'.
149
T h e s e w e r e perfectly c o m p a t i b l e with t h e m a i n g o d s ( e i t h e r by
d i r e c t identification o r by an e x p a n s i o n o f t h e p a n t h e o n ) , b u t w o u l d n o t o t h e r w i s e have b e e n w o r s h i p p e d
at R o m e . I n s o m e cases they
g r a d u a l l y a c h i e v e d p o p u l a r i t y which t o o k t h e m o u t s i d e t h e c o n t r o l o f p e o p l e from t h e o r i g i n a l a r e a (e.g. Isis, S e r a p i s ) ,
1 5 0
b u t m o r e often t h e
cults s e e m to h a v e r e m a i n e d small, a l t h o u g h n o t usually e x c l u s i v e . It was also possible for a cult to b e s p r e a d by r e t u r n e d soldiers w h o h a d b e e n s t a t i o n e d in its o r i g i n a l l o c a l i t y ;
151
thus t h e s p r e a d o f a cult d o e s
n o t g u a r a n t e e that it was f o r e i g n e r s who b r o u g h t it. H o w e v e r , military votive i n s c r i p t i o n s from R o m e a l m o s t always show a close link b e t w e e n t h e p l a c e o f o r i g i n o f t h e soldiers a n d o f t h e g o d ( s ) in q u e s t i o n , e.g. T h r a c i a n soldiers h o n o u r i n g local T h r a c i a n g o d s . It is t h e r e f o r e p r o b ably safe to a s s u m e that m o s t local g o d s w e r e b r o u g h t to R o m e by military o r civilian i m m i g r a n t s from t h e g o d s ' localities, r a t h e r t h a n by p e o p l e w h o w e r e just passing t h r o u g h . C u l t - c e n t r e s for local deities h a d to b e l o c a t e d o u t s i d e t h e p o m e r i u m o f t h e city, b u t o t h e r w i s e t h e state t o o k n o i n t e r e s t , e x c e p t o n t h e few o c c a s i o n s w h e n a cult was associated with c r i m i n a l o r subversive activ ity a n d s u p p r e s s e d
(see p. 4 1 ) . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f J u d a i s m (see
p. 2 5 5 ) , t h e s e cults did n o t n e e d to b e e x c l u s i v e , a n d p e r h a p s t h e r e f o r e h a d less significance as a m e a n s o f d e n o t i n g ( o r c r e a t i n g ) identity t h a n , for e x a m p l e , Islam a m o n g T u r k i s h i m m i g r a n t s in G e r m a n y o r Paki stani i m m i g r a n t s in B r i t a i n .
1 5 2
N e v e r t h e l e s s , as L a Piana ( 1 9 2 7 , 2 2 5 )
noted: The need of practising in their new residence the religious cults o f their land o f origin is undoubtedly one o f the leading causes which led immigrants to form associations o f a religious character. T h e cults r e q u i r e d b u i l d i n g s a n d f u r n i t u r e . In s o m e cases, t h e s e a r e likely to h a v e b e e n d o n a t e d by wealthy m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p such as merchants:
1 5 3
T o that class also the small associations of humble workers o f their nationality turned to secure patroni and protectors who would dignify the college with their names and help the area communis by their gifts. S o m e i n s c r i p t i o n s have survived r e c o r d i n g such d o n a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h they d o n o t usually give t h e d e s i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e d o n o r ' s
184
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
b a c k g r o u n d , a n d L a Piana's c o m m e n t g o e s b e y o n d what t h e e v i d e n c e really shows. T h e e v i d e n c e l o r t h e worship of s o m e o f t h e i m p o r t e d deities will b e discussed in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e c t i o n s o f c h . 8, with t h e a i m of d e t e r m i n i n g
whether
the cults really c o n t r i b u t e d
to
the
p r e s e r v a t i o n of identity by i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s . Slaves w h o c a m e to R i o d e J a n e i r o often left t h e i r h o m e s b e f o r e they h a d b e e n fully initiated i n t o t h e i r traditional r e l i g i o n s , a n d t h e r e f o r e b r o u g h t only an i n c o m p l e t e k n o w l e d g e to B r a z i l with t h e m .
1 5 4
The
s a m e m a y apply to slaves b r o u g h t to R o m e ; thus t h e cult o f a local deity m i g h t a s s u m e a different form at R o m e from that which it t o o k at h o m e , even without b e i n g j o i n e d a n d i n f l u e n c e d by p e o p l e from o t h e r b a c k g r o u n d s . Slaves at R i o w h o h a d few c o m p a t r i o t s m i g h t b e o b l i g e d to g o o u t s i d e t h e i r own g r o u p to p r a c t i s e s o m e t h i n g like t h e i r o r i g i n a l r e l i g i o n ; s o m e b r o u g h t with t h e m from Africa a tradition o f religious a d a p t a t i o n , with t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f new e l e m e n t s . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s such as these c o u l d also have i m p e d e d t h e c o n t i n u e d exclusive worship o f local gods by local g r o u p s at R o m e . Nevertheless, an a t t e m p t to r e c r e a t e the religious practices o f h o m e ( w h e t h e r o r not this is d o n e accurately) can b e a way o f m a i n t a i n i n g an e m o t i o n a l link with h o m e .
1 5 5
I n m o s t cases, t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e cult o f a local deity is k n o w n only from o n e o r two i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d it is t h e r e f o r e i m p o s s i b l e to say how w i d e s p r e a d it was, o r how far t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s t e n d e d to b e i m m i g r a n t s . O n l y cults which p r o d u c e d i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e likely to b e k n o w n at all. Calzini G y s e n s ( 1 9 9 6 a , 2 6 1 ) n o t e s that m o s t i n s c r i p t i o n s attest only individual p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a cult a n d d o n o t give m u c h insight into how it was o r g a n i z e d . T h e e v i d e n c e discussed in c h . 8 shows that t h e cults which m a i n t a i n e d t h e s t r o n g e s t local identities, a p a r t from J u d a i s m , a r e t h o s e from Syria, p r a c t i s e d m a i n l y by civilians, a n d t h e B a l k a n s , w h o s e p r a c t i t i o n e r s s e e m to h a v e b e e n a l m o s t exclusively military. S i n c e t h e soldiers s t a t i o n e d at R o m e w e r e such u n i f o r m users o f L a t i n e p i t a p h s a n d n a m e s , t h e i r t e n d e n c y to c o n t i n u e to w o r s h i p t h e i r local g o d s s e e m s s o m e w h a t surprising. H o w e v e r , it is consistent with the e m p h a s i s p l a c e d by t h e T h r a c i a n s in p a r t i c u l a r o n t h e i r h o m e villages. T h e y d o s e e m to h a v e m a d e c o n s i d e r a b l e efforts to r e t a i n t h e i r own identity, a n d p r e s u m a b l y they n o r m a l l y r e t u r n e d h o m e at t h e e n d o f t h e i r p e r i o d o f service. F o r t h e S y r i a n civilians w h o w o r s h i p p e d S y r i a n g o d s , r e t u r n h o m e is less likely to h a v e b e e n an issue, a n d s o m e , such as t h e p r o m i n e n t cult m e m b e r M. A n t o n i u s G a i o n a s , a p p e a r to have b e e n well i n t e g r a t e d into o t h e r aspects o f city life. It t h e r e f o r e s e e m s likely that, for t h e m ,
185
Living
at Rome
r e l i g i o n p r o v i d e d a s e n s e of c o m m u n i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e very limited i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e i r cults p r e v e n t s this from b e i n g u n d e r s t o o d fully. T h e habit o f r e c o r d i n g t h e h o m e village which is f o u n d a m o n g t h e T h r a c i a n soldiers (see p. 2 1 9 ) also o c c u r s a m o n g s o m e S y r i a n s a n d G a l a t i a n s in t h e C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s (see p p . 2 3 2 , 2 3 7 ) . As C h r i s tians, t h e s e p e o p l e h a d n o s c o p e for s h o w i n g t h e s a m e local r e l i g i o u s loyalty as t h e T h r a c i a n soldiers (or t h e S y r i a n p a g a n s ) . T h e y may h a v e b e e n a t t a c h e d to t h e cults o f local saints, b u t t h a t would not b e a p p a r e n t in t h e e v i d e n c e which they have left. H o w e v e r ,
non-orthodox
C h r i s t i a n g r o u p s s e e m s o m e t i m e s to h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t e d with p a r t i c u l a r places o f o r i g i n . T h i s is m a d e c l e a r e s t by A u g u s t i n e in a l e t t e r d a t e d to 4 0 0 :
1 5 6
But, reversing the natural course o f things, the Donatists sent to Rome from Africa an ordained bishop, who, putting himself at the head o f a few Africans in the great metropolis, gave some notoriety to the name of 'mountain men', or Cutzupits, by which they were known. T h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e D o n a t i s t s with Africa was s e e n as s t r o n g , a l t h o u g h o f c o u r s e n o t all Africans w e r e D o n a t i s t s , a n d D o n a t i s m did n o t only a p p e a l to Africans. T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a sizeable African c o n t i n g e n t a l r e a d y in t h e c h u r c h at R o m e n o d o u b t h e l p e d t h e D o n a t i s t c a u s e t h e r e , a n d they h a d t h e i r own B i s h o p of R o m e for m u c h of t h e fourth c e n t u r y .
1 5 7
It m a y b e t h a t D o n a t i s m at R o m e , like t h e w o r s h i p of
S y r i a n g o d s , p r o v i d e d a c o m m u n a l focus for a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p o f f o r e i g n e r s in t h e city e v e n t h o u g h it was n o t e x c l u s i v e to t h a t g r o u p . M o n t a n i s m b e g a n in P h r y g i a in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , b u t
spread
rapidly a n d widely. T a b b e r n e e ( 1 9 9 7 ) alleges that t h e r e was a M o n t a n i s t c o m m u n i t y from Asia M i n o r at R o m e . T h i s is b a s e d on r a t h e r
flimsy
e v i d e n c e ; only o n e e p i t a p h is clearly b o t h M o n t a n i s t a n d b e l o n g s to s o m e o n e e x p l i c i t l y from Asia M i n o r .
1 5 8
T h e s e c t may h a v e
been
particularly s t r o n g a m o n g Asians, b u t t h e r e is n o firm e v i d e n c e for this. I t d o e s s e e m to h a v e b e e n t h e case, h o w e v e r , that s o m e ' n a t i o n a l ' g r o u p s within t h e R o m a n c h u r c h r e t a i n e d different p r a c t i c e s w h i c h t h e y h a d b r o u g h t with t h e m to R o m e . T h e Asians o b s e r v e d t h e i r o w n d a t e for E a s t e r , s o m e t h i n g which P o p e V i c t o r failed to s t o p .
1 5 9
This
i m p l i e s t h a t they f o r m e d a substantial c o n t i n g e n t within t h e R o m a n c h u r c h . T h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f G r e e k by Latin as the official a n d liturgical l a n g u a g e o f t h e c h u r c h in t h e m i d - t h i r d
c e n t u r y may h a v e b e e n
c o n n e c t e d with t h e i n f l u e n c e o f Africans r a t h e r t h a n t h a t o f indig enous Romans.
1 6 0
It s e e m s that C h r i s t i a n i t y , i n s t e a d of c r e a t i n g u n i
formity a m o n g its a d h e r e n t s , still e n a b l e d r e l i g i o n a n d local identity to
186
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
c o m p l e m e n t e a c h o t h e r in s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , e v e n if t h e s e a r e now h a r d to identify.
viii. Burial practices T h e disposal o f t h e d e a d is potentially a way in which i m m i g r a n t s c a n give e x p r e s s i o n to s o m e f o r m o f c o m m u n a l identity, in t h e rituals u s e d o r t h e site w h e r e t h e r e m a i n s a r e p l a c e d , a n d t h e d e s i r e to e n s u r e t h e ' c o r r e c t ' f o r m of disposal c a n e v e n lead to t h e f o r m a t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y o r g a n i z a t i o n s which a c q u i r e o t h e r functions as well. T h e p r o m i n e n c e o f b u r i a l associations (collegia
funeraticia)
is well k n o w n as a way by
which o r d i n a r y r e s i d e n t s of R o m e ( a l t h o u g h n o t t h e very p o o r ) c o u l d e n s u r e a burial in a c o l u m b a r i u m by m a k i n g m o n t h l y 'friendly society' c o n t r i b u t i o n s . L a P i a n a ( 1 9 2 7 , 2 7 2 - 3 ) suggests a link with t h e cults o f foreign deities, c l a i m i n g that t h e associations ' w e r e i n d e e d n o t an i m p o r t a t i o n b u t a local institution, c r e a t e d to satisfy a special n e e d o f t h e i m m i g r a n t g r o u p s in t h e capital o f t h e e m p i r e ' . T h i s is c e r t a i n l y a plausible picture, and
t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t s o m e
foreigners
b e l o n g e d to s u c h societies, b u t e v i d e n c e for t h e associations b e i n g d o m i n a t e d by f o r e i g n e r s o r b e i n g d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d with foreign g o d s is l a c k i n g .
101
T h e use of c o l u m b a r i a s e e m s to h a v e e n c o u r a g e d
the
s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f burial p r a c t i c e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f local peculiarities. I n fact, t h e r e is very little e v i d e n c e t h a t g r o u p s with a c o m m o n g e o g r a p h i c a l o r i g i n e v e r e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r own s e p a r a t e b u r i a l a r e a s at R o m e . Slaves a n d ex-slaves w e r e m o r e likely to b e b u r i e d with o t h e r m e m b e r s o f their familiae.
O t h e r i m m i g r a n t s u s e d collegial c o l u m b a r i a
( a n d later, c a t a c o m b s ) , o r , i f they w e r e p r o s p e r o u s e n o u g h , h a d t h e i r own t o m b s a l o n g s i d e t h e m a i n r o a d s . In o n e e p i t a p h , a T h e b a n , Phrygian and Carthaginian a r c a m o n g those sharing a burial p l o t .
102
In a n y o f t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , p e o p l e would n o t n o r m a l l y b e b u r i e d a l o n g s i d e t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s . T h e t e n d e n c y to write e p i t a p h s in L a t i n in such c o n t e x t s is discussed at p. 1 7 0 . I t s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , b e a c k n o w l e d g e d that i f t h e r e w e r e e x c l u s i v e b u r i a l a r e a s , they would b e very h a r d to identify now, b e c a u s e t h e r e would b e n o p o i n t u s i n g e t h n i c o r g e o g r a p h i c a l labels in t h e m : it would m a k e s e n s e to label s o m e o n e Syrus in an a r e a full o f p e o p l e of all b a c k g r o u n d s , b u t it would b e 11
i r r e l e v a n t i f t h e w h o l e a r e a was k n o w n to b e o c c u p i e d by S y r i a n s . '
3
T h e Jewish c a t a c o m b s p r o v i d e d a c o m m u n a l a n d p r o b a b l y e x c l u s i v e site for o n e religious g r o u p , a n d t h e C h r i s t i a n c a t a c o m b s o f f e r e d t h e s a m e for t h e g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f C h r i s t i a n s in t h e c i t y .
104
It d o e s n o t
s e e m to b e t h e c a s e t h a t a n y c a t a c o m b s w e r e r e s e r v e d for p a r t i c u l a r
187
Living
at Rome
n a t i o n a l g r o u p s . N u z z o ( 1 9 9 7 , 7 0 9 ) finds t h a t t h e r e w e r e f o r e i g n e r s in n e a r l y all t h e c a t a c o m b s b u t t h a t t h e y p r e d o m i n a t e d
nowhere. T h e
h i g h e s t p r o p o r t i o n of f o r e i g n e r s was at t h e c a t a c o m b s o f S. P a n c r a z i o , S. P a o l o , S S . M a r c o e M a r c e l l i a n o ( w h e r e they w e r e especially p e o p l e from S y r i a a n d Asia M i n o r ) , a n d C i r i a c a . I n t h e P r a e t e x t a t u s c a t a c o m b , t h e y w e r e m a i n l y f o u n d in t h e so-called area greca,
whose n a m e
is d e r i v e d f r o m t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f G r e e k e p i t a p h s n o t e d by t h e excavators.
165
I n n o case, h o w e v e r , c o u l d a w h o l e c a t a c o m b b e s e e n as
d o m i n a t e d by f o r e i g n e r s . A c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f Africans has b e e n sug g e s t e d at C o m m o d i l l a
1 6 6
o r at C a l l i s t u s ,
167
b u t this is b a s e d o n t h e
p r e v a l e n c e of s u p p o s e d l y African n a m e s a n d d o e s n o t s e e m to b e reliable. The
possibility o f a P a n n o n i a n b u r i a l a r e a in t h e S. S e b a s t i a n o
c a t a c o m b at t h e ' P l a t o n i a ' m a u s o l e u m , raised by S t y g e r b u t r e j e c t e d by F e r r u a , has b e e n a r g u e d quite c o n v i n c i n g l y by B e r t o l i n o ( 1 9 9 7 , 1 1 6 ) . H e suggests that t h e m a u s o l e u m , which f o r m e d p a r t o f t h e c a t a c o m b , was o r i g i n a l l y t h e family t o m b o f t h e U r b a n P r e f e c t from P a n n o n i a , V i v e n t i u s , in which s o m e o f his c o m p a t r i o t s w e r e also given b u r i a l , as i n d i c a t e d by e p i t a p h s . P a n n o n i a n s fleeing f r o m t h e b a r b a r i a n inva sions b r o u g h t with t h e m to R o m e t h e relics o f S t Q u i r i n u s , B i s h o p of Siscia, a n d t h e m a u s o l e u m was a d a p t e d to a c c o m m o d a t e t h e s e . A p a r t from V i v e n t i u s , four P a n n o n i a n p a g a n s , p r o b a b l y all with military c o n n e c t i o n s , a r e k n o w n to h a v e b e e n b u r i e d in t h e s a m e a r e a , suggest i n g t h a t it was a l r e a d y attractive to P a n n o n i a n s . T h e p r e s e n c e o f Quirinus'
r e l i c s p r o b a b l y i n c r e a s e d t h e a t t r a c t i o n for
Christians.
168
Pannonian
H o w e v e r , they only p r e d o m i n a t e d in a l i m i t e d a r e a , n o t
in a w h o l e c a t a c o m b . T h e r e is a n o t h e r m o r e substantial e x c e p t i o n to t h e g e n e r a l lack o f a real concentration o f burials o f people from
the same
area.
A n u m b e r o f G a l a t i a n s w e r e b u r i e d in t h e Octavilla c a t a c o m b o n t h e Via A u r e l i a .
169
Five e p i t a p h s which explicitly c o n c e r n G a l a t i a n s a r e
r e c o r d e d as c o m i n g from t h e r e .
1 7 0
T h r e e m o r e which c o m e f r o m t h e
Octavilla c a t a c o m b s e e m m o s t likely to c o n c e r n G a l a t i a n s b e c a u s e o f t h e similar t e r m i n o l o g y u s e d . although Octavilla.
171
A n o t h e r six follow a similar p a t t e r n ,
t h e i r p l a c e o f o r i g i n is n o t k n o w n ; 172
all c o u l d b e
from
M o s t a r e only partially p r e s e r v e d , a n d t h e n a m e s o f t h e
d e c e a s e d a r e m i s s i n g in n e a r l y all. M a n y use t h e c o m m o n e x p r e s s i o n s ev0d(o£) (Kaxa)KtTe a n d £naa<; + a g e , b u t m o s t c o n t a i n s o m e m o r e u n u s u a l f o r m u l a e : rcddxr|<; after t h e n a m e ; xoupuvu followed by the n a m e of the h o m e village
173
(see p. 2 3 2 ) ; t h e father's n a m e ; xeA-euxa a n d t h e
d a t e o f d e a t h . Ricci ( 1 9 9 7 a , 1 9 0 ) suggests that t h e r e was a G a l a t i a n
188
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
r e s i d e n t i a l q u a r t e r in t h e a r e a o f t h e V i a A u r e l i a , which is c e r t a i n l y possible, but not provable; t h e r e was not necessarily a correlation between w h e r e in t h e city p e o p l e lived a n d w h e r e they w e r e b u r i e d (cf. p. 1 5 2 ) . E p i t a p h s p r o v i d e t h e best e v i d e n c e for f o r e i g n burials, b u t burial practices a n d t o m b style a n d contents can also suggest a foreign p r e s e n c e . C r e m a t i o n was n o r m a l at R o m e until t h e early s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, w h e n i n h u m a t i o n b e g a n to r e p l a c e it g r a d u a l l y . It is likely that s o m e p e o p l e from a r e a s w h e r e i n h u m a t i o n was n o r m a l c o n t i n u e d to use i n h u m a t i o n at R o m e e v e n d u r i n g t h e city's c r e m a t i o n p e r i o d ,
174
a n d it
has b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i m m i g r a n t s was o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s for t h e g e n e r a l c h a n g e to i n h u m a t i o n .
1 7 5
T h e r e a r e also traces
o f o t h e r b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s which m a y b e associated with i m m i g r a n t s . H o w e v e r , since C. C e s t i u s , a m a n o f s e n a t o r i a l family, was b u r i e d in a p y r a m i d a n d P o p p a e a was e m b a l m e d , it was c e r t a i n l y also possible for such p r a c t i c e s to b e a d o p t e d by p e o p l e b o r n at R o m e .
1 7 0
T h r e e m u m m i e s have b e e n found at R o m e (a m i d - s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD o n e from t h e V i a Cassia, a n d two from t h e V i a A p p i a ) , b u t t h e i m p o r tation o f this p r a c t i c e was clearly e x c e p t i o n a l .
177
O n e o f them may
actually b e a c a s e o f e m b a l m i n g in h o n e y r a t h e r t h a n full E g y p t i a n style m u m m i f i c a t i o n .
178
T h e r e is also a possible r e f e r e n c e to e m b a l m
i n g in h o n e y in an e p i t a p h for a L a o d i c e a n .
1 7 9
e m b a l m e r s a v a i l a b l e at R o m e : a p a r t f r o m
T h e r e must have been the above examples,
L u c r e t i u s m e n t i o n s e m b a l m i n g in h o n e y as a possibility in his t i m e , and
S t a t i u s says t h a t
P r i s c i l l a , t h e wife o f D o m i t i a n ' s s e c r e t a r y
A b a s c a n t u s , was e m b a l m e d .
1 8 0
B o d i e s which w e r e to b e s e n t h o m e for
final b u r i a l w e r e e m b a l m e d i f they c o u l d n o t b e c r e m a t e d (see b e l o w ) . In t h e f r a g m e n t a r y e p i t a p h p u t up by a m a n n a m e d G y g e s for his son S k y m n o s , t h e w o r d Kripoxvttov is u s e d , which M o r e t t i takes as r e f e r r i n g e i t h e r to m a k i n g a wax i m a g e o r to p r e s e r v i n g t h e b o d y in wax, a Persian c u s t o m which m i g h t b e consistent with t h e 'oriental' n a m e s o f t h e p e o p l e involved (who a r e n o t specifically said to b e f o r e i g n e r s ) .
181
T h e J e w i s h c a t a c o m b s of R o m e , while not m o d e l l e d o n a n y p r e e x i s t i n g type o f c e m e t e r y in t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l , d o show s o m e signs o f Palestinian i n f l u e n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e use o f kokhim
in o n e p a r t o f
V i g n a R a n d a n i n i . T h e s e a r e b u r i a l places c u t i n t o t h e gallery wall at g r o u n d level, so that t h e b o d y c o u l d lie at r i g h t - a n g l e s to t h e gallery ( w h e r e a s in a n o r m a l loculus
it lay p a r a l l e l ) , with a l e d g e to e n a b l e two
b o d i e s to b e p l a c e d in o n e kokh. V i g n a R a n d a n i n i kokhim
Rutgers ( 1 9 9 5 , 6 1 - 5 ) notes that the
a r e very similar to t h o s e o f t h e ' t o m b o f t h e
P r o p h e t s ' o n t h e M o u n t o f Olives. T o m b Z in t h e V a t i c a n n e c r o p o l i s has b e e n l a b e l l e d ' t h e t o m b o f t h e
189
Living
at Rome
E g y p t i a n s ' b e c a u s e o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f an E g y p t i a n g o d o n e a c h o f t h e t h r e e surviving walls: ' n o H e l l e n i z e d deity in w e s t e r n g u i s e , s u c h as Isis, S e r a p i s o r H a r p o c r a t e s , b u t a fully-fledged native divinity in national c o s t u m e ' .
1 8 2
O n e o f t h e s e g o d s is p r o b a b l y H o r u s . T h e t o m b
was built for i n h u m a t i o n s only, a n d T o y n b e e a n d W a r d - P e r k i n s ( 1 9 5 6 , 5 5 ) e x p l a i n its u n u s u a l form as follows: T h e r e can be little doubt that T o m b Z was built, in the first instance, for an Egyptian family resident in Rome and practising there some aspects o f its native cult. Phis in itself would be sufficient to account for the absence o f cremation-burials, since the Egyptians never burned their dead. T h e r e w e r e n o i n s c r i p t i o n s associated with t h e first ( s e c o n d - c e n t u r y ) phase o f the tomb, although one o f the mid-third-century sarcophagi f o u n d t h e r e has an e p i t a p h . S u b s e q u e n t r e u s e m a y h a v e r e m o v e d a n y o r i g i n a l i n s c r i p t i o n s , b u t it s e e m s likely that p e o p l e w h o w e r e a n x i o u s to c r e a t e an Egyptian-style t o m b would h a v e a v o i d e d u s i n g G r e e k o r L a t i n in it. It is possible that t h e users o f this t o m b w e r e , like C. C e s t i u s , simply a t t r a c t e d to E g y p t i a n f u n e r a r y a r c h i t e c t u r e , b u t in t h e c a s e o f a t o m b i n t e r i o r which would h a v e m a d e n o visual i m p a c t o n o u t s i d e r s , it s e e m s m u c h m o r e likely that they w e r e E g y p t i a n s t h e m s e l v e s , d o i n g t h e i r b e s t to r e t a i n t h e i r traditional p r a c t i c e s . I t m a y b e significant t h a t while t h e inside o f t h e t o m b was c o n s c i o u s l y E g y p t i a n , t h e o u t s i d e , as far as c a n now b e j u d g e d , h a d n o p a r t i c u l a r E g y p t i a n f e a t u r e s a n d w o u l d n o t h a v e differed from o t h e r n e a r b y t o m b s . It was o f c o u r s e possible for a t o m b to c o n v e y o n e m e s s a g e to t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c w h o p a s s e d by a n d a different o n e to t h e private g r o u p which actually w e n t inside,
183
b u t I h a v e f o u n d n o o t h e r c o m p a r a b l e cases w h e r e this was
d o n e in t h e c o n t e x t o f ' n a t i o n a l ' burial c u s t o m s . A very different sort o f f o r e i g n i n f l u e n c e c a n b e s e e n o n t h e t o m b of t h e s e c o n d - c e n t u r y N o r i c a n eques singularis
T . Aurelius Genetivus,
which has a P a n n o n i a n - s t y l e d e p i c t i o n o f a g r o o m h o l d i n g horses.
1 8 4
T h e equiles singulares
three
d e v e l o p e d t h e i r o w n distinctive style of
stelae which a r e u n l i k e a n y o t h e r type o f R o m a n t o m b , a n d m a y o w e s o m e t h i n g to t h e artistic i n f l u e n c e s of t h e i r G e r m a n a n d B a l k a n h o m e 18
l a n d s . ' Speidel ( 1 9 9 4 a , 145) points out that the scene o f ' t h e longr e i n i n g o f t h e h o r s e by a g r o o m , often with a coil o f line in his h a n d s , p r o v e s u n m i s t a k a b l y that t h e g u a r d s m e n b r o u g h t t h e s e i m a g e s from L o w e r G e r m a n y ' . O t h e r s show t h e ' T h r a c i a n r i d e r ' s c e n e o f a r i d e r a n d his d o g r u s h i n g a b o a r , which c a m e from t h e l o w e r region.
1 8 6
M o s t o f t h e t o m b s o f equites singulares
Danube
c o m e from a b u r i a l
a r e a n e a r t h e V i a Casilina, w h e r e t h e S S . P i e t r o e M a r c e l l i n o c a t a c o m b subsequently developed; many tombstones were reused in the catacomb.
190
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
T h e e x i s t e n c e o f a c e m e t e r y which was a p p a r e n t l y e x c l u s i v e to t h e equites
n o d o u b t e n c o u r a g e d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s re
flecting t h e military identity o f t h e g r o u p , b u t r e g i o n a l differences within t h e g r o u p w e r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y o b l i t e r a t e d . I m m i g r a n t s did n o t necessarily p r e s e r v e t h e f u n e r a r y c u s t o m s o f t h e i r h o m e l a n d s , h o w e v e r . N o c k n o t e s a n u m b e r o f cases w h e r e p e o p l e w h o s e n a m e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y w e r e i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e from the East (Egypt, Syria, Parthia) were c r e m a t e d d u r i n g the early E m p i r e , e v e n t h o u g h it was n o t t h e i r native c u s t o m .
1 8 7
T h e e p i t a p h of
two e n v o y s from T e r m e s s u s w h o d i e d at R o m e specifically says that 'fire b u r n e d b o t h o u r b o d i e s ' .
188
T h u s s o m e f o r e i g n e r s a r e clearly
s h o w n to h a v e a d o p t e d R o m a n p r a c t i c e s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e r e is relatively little e v i d e n c e o f p r o v i n c i a l burial c u s t o m s o r t o m b - t y p e s at R o m e , a l t h o u g h this may to s o m e e x t e n t b e t h e result o f a lack o f p r e s e r v e d sites, o r of impracticability: t u m u l i a n d t o m b s with r o c k - c u t fagades w e r e n o t really feasible t h e r e . O n e way o f e n s u r i n g b u r i a l a c c o r d i n g to t r a d i t i o n a l local c u s t o m was to h a v e y o u r r e m a i n s s e n t h o m e from R o m e after you died. T h e r e w e r e obvious practical difficulties in this: it would r e q u i r e e i t h e r s o m e o n e to a c c o m p a n y t h e r e m a i n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e j o u r n e y ( p e r h a p s c o m i n g from t h e h o m e a r e a specially to collect t h e m ) , o r at least s o m e o n e to s e n d t h e m o f f from R o m e by ship a n d s o m e o n e else to r e c e i v e t h e m a n d give t h e m a p r o p e r b u r i a l . W h e r e c r e m a t i o n was t h e p r e f e r r e d rite, t h e b o d y c o u l d b e b u r n t at R o m e a n d t h e a s h e s s h i p p e d h o m e ; w h e r e c r e m a t i o n was e x c l u d e d on religious g r o u n d s , a n d w h e n i n h u m a t i o n b e c a m e n o r m a l d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, t h e practical difficulties b e c a m e g r e a t e r . T h e e x i l e d J u d a e a n r u l e r Aristobulus I I , p o i s o n e d at R o m e in 4 9 BC, h a d his b o d y e m b a l m e d in h o n e y so t h a t it c o u l d b e s e n t b a c k to t h e family t o m b o f t h e H a s m o n e a n s .
1 8 9
This
indicates a n o t h e r g e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t : a t o m b would n e e d to b e available at h o m e . A v r a m e a ( 1 9 9 5 , 5 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t s o m e
people
p r e p a r e d t h e i r t o m b at h o m e b e f o r e leaving, a n d Ricci ( 1 9 9 4 a , 2 0 - 1 ) gives a n u m b e r of e x a m p l e s o f soldiers s e r v i n g at R o m e w h o h a d t o m b s built at h o m e d u r i n g t h e i r lifetimes. H o w e v e r , most o f t h e m i g r a n t s to R o m e a r e unlikely to have b e e n in a financial position to d o this, o r to have left h o m e at t h e t i m e o f life w h e n they would h a v e b e e n t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h e i r t o m b s , so they m o r e p r o b a b l y r e l i e d on an e x i s t i n g family t o m b .
1 9 0
T h e d e s i r e to b e b u r i e d at h o m e is unlikely to h a v e b e e n p r o m p t e d by r e l i g i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , e x c e p t p e r h a p s in t h e c a s e o f r a b b i n i c J e w s from t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y AD o n w a r d s .
191
191
It implies instead an e m o t i o n a l
Living
at Rome
a t t a c h m e n t to h o m e , a n d p e r h a p s also a feeling t h a t t h e t o m b was m o r e likely to b e c a r e d for at h o m e t h a n at R o m e . I n t h e Acta Pauli el Antonini,
t h e A l e x a n d r i a n Paulus, w h o finds h i m s e l f in t r o u b l e at
R o m e , says, ' M y only c o n c e r n is for t h e g r a v e in A l e x a n d r i a which I e x p e c t to h a v e ' ,
1 9 2
a n d a n o t h e r G r e e k writer c o m m e n t s o n how, for
a G r e e k , it is a t e r r i b l e t h i n g 'to lie after d e a t h in a f o r e i g n l a n d ' . S o m e o f t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in an a n e c d o t e
1 9 3
about
E u o d i a n u s o f S m y r n a , w h o h e l d t h e c h a i r of r h e t o r i c at R o m e , a n d w h o s e son h a d died a n d b e e n b u r i e d t h e r e :
1 9 4
When he was at the point of death in Rome, all his most intimate friends were by his bedside and were consulting about his body, whether they ought to bury it there or embalm it and ship it to Smyrna, when Euodianus exclaimed in a loud voice: 'I will not leave my son behind alone'. T h u s did he clearly enjoin on them that he should be buried in the same grave as his son. T h e r e was clearly n o t h i n g u n u s u a l a b o u t s o m e o n e o f that level o f society, for w h o m n e i t h e r m o n e y n o r h e l p e r s w e r e l a c k i n g , wishing to b e b u r i e d at h o m e , b u t in this case t h e r e was a p e r s o n a l r e a s o n for h a v i n g a s t r o n g e r a t t a c h m e n t to R o m e . A n o t h e r sophist w h o did h a v e his b o d y t a k e n h o m e by his relatives was Philiscus of M e l o s .
1 9 3
Chris
tians as well as p a g a n s c o u l d feel a d e s i r e for b u r i a l at h o m e . M o n i c a originally m a d e a r r a n g e m e n t s for h e r b o d y to b e s e n t b a c k from Italy to Africa to b e b u r i e d with h e r h u s b a n d , b u t o n h e r d e a t h b e d s h e lost i n t e r e s t in w h e r e s h e was b u r i e d , which, A u g u s t i n e n o t e s , p e o p l e found surprising.
190
An a l t e r n a t i v e for p e o p l e w h o d i e d at R o m e was to h a v e t h e i r r e m a i n s b u r i e d t h e r e b u t to b e c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e as well, p r e s u m a b l y o n t h e wall o f a family t o m b . M. A n t o n i u s T u r b o , a g e d 6 5 , d i e d at R o m e a n d was b u r i e d in a t o m b in t h e V a t i c a n a r e a , b u t h e was also given an e p i t a p h
at h o m e at S i c c a in A f r i c a .
197
P. L u c a n i u s
R e b u r r i n u s was b u r i e d at R o m e , a n d also c o m m e m o r a t e d by his m o t h e r at C o n i m b r i g a in L u s i t a n i a .
198
M. l u l i u s S e r e n u s from
the
s a m e city d i e d while on a j o u r n e y to R o m e a n d was b u r i e d t h e r e , b u t also c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e by his m o t h e r .
1 9 9
S o m e t i m e s e p i t a p h s explicitly say t h a t t h e r e m a i n s o f s o m e o n e w h o died at R o m e w e r e t a k e n h o m e a n d b u r i e d t h e r e . T h e p e r s o n w h o p r o v i d e d t h e e p i t a p h was usually t h e s a m e p e r s o n w h o h a d g o n e to R o m e to collect t h e a s h e s o r b o d y , a n d m a d e s u r e that such a p i o u s d e e d was c o m m e m o r a t e d . T h a t is t h e situation in t h e
following
i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e fact t h a t they a r e all p a g a n m a y r e s u l t from
the
g r e a t e r t e n d e n c y o f pagan epitaphs to give details o f the c o m m e m o r a t o r ,
192
Aspects offoreigners'
lives at Rome
r a t h e r t h a n from the p r a c t i c e d y i n g o u t a l t o g e t h e r a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s : • Q . C a d i u s F r o n t o , a g e d 3 5 ; his r e m a i n s w e r e p l a c e d in t h e family t o m b in H i s p a n i a by his f a t h e r .
200
• I u l i a H e l i a s , priestess of t h e i m p e r i a l cult, a g e d 2 5 ; h e r two sisters a r r a n g e d for h e r b o d y to b e b r o u g h t b a c k from R o m e to L y o n a n d p l a c e d in a s a r c o p h a g u s in a ' m a u s o l e u m ' .
201
T h i s was clearly an
inhumation not a cremation. • A n t o n i u s V e c e t i n u s , a g e d 2 5 , b u r i e d at h o m e in G a u l by his f a t h e r . • Papirius Proculus, aged between
11 a n d
202
1 9 , killed at R o m e by
a falling roof-tile; his m o t h e r b u r i e d h i m at S a l o n a in t h e family t o m b a l o n g with his s i s t e r .
203
• P r i n c i p i u s , a s t u d e n t at R o m e a g e d 2 2 ; his b o d y was t a k e n h o m e to D a l m a t i a by his f a t h e r .
204
• L. P o s t u m i u s P a e m u l u s Pius, a g e d 2 1 , died at R o m e a n d was b u r i e d in A f r i c a .
205
• Rufinus o f 'Nilopolis'; although
commemorated
at R o m e , his
r e m a i n s w e r e t a k e n b a c k to E g y p t by his wife, a n d p l a c e d in t h e t o m b w h e r e his c h i l d r e n w e r e l a t e r b u r i e d .
2 0 6
• S a l o m e , a g e d 11 m o n t h s , was to have h e r r e m a i n s t a k e n h o m e , p r e s u m a b l y to Syria o r Palestine, by h e r m o t h e r .
2 0 7
In a slightly g r e a t e r n u m b e r o f cases, t h e d e c e a s e d was c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e , b u t it is n o t explicitly said that t h e r e m a i n s w e r e t a k e n t h e r e from R o m e . No d o u b t s o m e o f t h e following e p i t a p h s r e c o r d cases similar to t h e list a b o v e , b u t o t h e r s may i n d i c a t e that t h e actual r e m a i n s stayed in R o m e . • A m a n w h o s e n a m e is lost; c o m m e m o r a t e d by his adsidua Q u i n t a in H i s p a n i a .
Sulpicia
208
• T i . C l a u d i u s Pius, d i e d at R o m e on an e m b a s s y a n d was c o m m e m o r a t e d by his p a r e n t s at L y o n .
2 0 9
• A. Vitellius V a l e r i u s , a s t u d e n t at R o m e , was c o m m e m o r a t e d by his p a r e n t s at L y o n .
2 1 0
• L. M a e c i u s M a e l o n , d i e d at O s t i a a g e d 5 0 ; c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e 2
in G a u l by his s o n s . " • P r o x i m u s , d i e d at R o m e ; c o m m e m o r a t e d brother.
in A q u i t a n i a by his
2 1 2
• C. M a x i m i u s I u n i a n u s , a g e d 3 0 , died o n an e m b a s s y ; c o m m e m o r a t e d in a family t o m b in N o r i c u m .
2 1 3
• S u c c e s s i a n u s , a g e d 2 0 ; c o m m e m o r a t e d by his p a r e n t s in N o r i c u m . • T i . Iulius I n g e n u u s , an urbanicianus; (both ex-slaves) in N o r i c u m .
2 1 4
c o m m e m o r a t e d by his p a r e n t s
2 1 5
• A m a n w h o s e n a m e is lost, a g e d 2 2 ; c o m m e m o r a t e d in D a l m a t i a by his w i f e .
216
193
Living
at Rome
• S i < t h ? > a , a g e d 4 5 ; c o m m e m o r a t e d in M o e s i a . • P r a e t o r i a n u s , a notarius
2 1 7
w h o died at R o m e a g e d 17 in AD 2 2 5 , was
c o m m e m o r a t e d at Sitifis in M a u r e t a n i a with his father, a l o n g with his sister w h o d i e d t h e following y e a r a g e d 8 .
2 1 8
• L. C a e c i l i u s F r o n t o o f Volubilis d i e d at R o m e a g e d 2 5 ; t h e cityc o u n c i l o f Volubilis, to which his family p r e s u m a b l y b e l o n g e d , d e c r e e d h i m a statue a n d a funeral at public e x p e n s e , b u t his s t e p m o t h e r accepted only the h o n o u r and c o m m e m o r a t e d him herself.
219
• L . S e n i u s F l a c c u s , a g e d 3 0 ; c o m m e m o r a t e d at T h a m u g a d i s N u m i d i a by his b r o t h e r .
in
2 2 0
T h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f m e n in t h e i r twenties a n d thirties is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g , as they a p p e a r to have f o r m e d t h e largest p a r t o f t h e i m m i g r a n t p o p u l a t i o n . N e i t h e r is t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f a r e a s fairly close to R o m e : w e s t e r n a n d c e n t r a l E u r o p e a n d N o r t h Africa. T h e e v i d e n c e shows that t h e d e s i r e for b u r i a l o r c o m m e m o r a t i o n at h o m e
was
w i d e s p r e a d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y a n d lasted for several c e n t u r i e s . O n t h e w h o l e in t h e s e cases, u n l i k e in t h e literary e v i d e n c e , t h e d e s i r e o f p a r e n t s to b r i n g t h e i r d e c e a s e d s o n s ' r e m a i n s h o m e m a y h a v e b e e n o f m o r e i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e i m m i g r a n t s ' own wishes a b o u t w h e r e to b e b u r i e d . P e o p l e w h o died at R o m e while they still h a d a p a r e n t alive w e r e clearly m u c h m o r e likely to b e c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e t h a n t h o s e w h o outlived t h e i r p a r e n t s .
221
T h e vast majority o f e p i t a p h s at R o m e follow fairly s t a n d a r d f o r m u lae, a n d s o m e of t h e m o r e o r i g i n a l o n e s h a v e n o parallels a n y w h e r e o u t s i d e R o m e . H o w e v e r , in s o m e cases t h e w o r d i n g o f G r e e k e p i t a p h s c a n b e l i n k e d with f o r m s o f e x p r e s s i o n which w e r e used e l s e w h e r e , in a r e a s from w h e r e i m m i g r a n t s c a m e to R o m e . T h e f o r e i g n w o r d i n g m a y b e c o m b i n e d with typically R o m a n f o r m u l a e like 0(eoi<;) K(axa%Oovtotc,), o r t h e e p i t a p h may b e e n t i r e l y in a ' n o n - R o m a n ' style. I n t h e s e cases it is very likely t h a t t h e d e c e a s e d o r c o m m e m o r a t o r c a m e from t h e a r e a w h e r e t h e n o n - R o m a n style was u s e d , o r at least h a d close c o n n e c t i o n s with that a r e a . T h e s e e p i t a p h s may h a v e b e e n delib e r a t e a t t e m p t s to retain t h e c o m m e m o r a t i v e p r a c t i c e s of h o m e , o r j u s t u n c o n s c i o u s r e p r o d u c t i o n s o f what w e r e c o n s i d e r e d to b e ' n o r m a l ' epitaphs. T h e r e a r e s o m e e x a m p l e s o f a p e r s o n w h o is explicitly said to b e a f o r e i g n e r u s i n g a f o r m u l a from t h e h o m e l a n d . O n e of t h e s e is I G U R 413.
T h e e p i t a p h o f t h e B i t h y n i a n M. A u r e l i u s X e n o n i a n u s Aquila
calls his t o m b xfiv
nvaXov,
a very u n u s u a l t e r m which s e e m s to b e u s e d
o t h e r w i s e only at N i c o m e d i a in B i t h y n i a .
2 2 2
Another Bithynian whose
e p i t a p h has a local f o r m u l a is C. Hostilius A g a t h o p u s o f N i c a e a ; his
194
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
t o m b c a r r i e s t h e c u r s e ' i f a n y o n e despoils (the t o m b ) , may t h e sea n o t be n a v i g a b l e for t h e m n o r t h e e a r t h passable', which was used m o s t c o m m o n l y at N i c a e a .
2 2 3
A g a t h o p u s was c o m m e m o r a t e d by a w o m a n
w h o was p r o b a b l y his wife, while A q u i l a a p p e a r s to h a v e c o m p o s e d his own e p i t a p h .
P e o p l e w h o w r o t e t h e i r own e p i t a p h s , o r w h o w e r e
c o m m e m o r a t e d by s p o u s e s o r siblings from t h e s a m e p l a c e , must h a v e h a d a m u c h g r e a t e r c h a n c e o f r e c e i v i n g a local-style e p i t a p h t h a n t h o s e w h o w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d by t h e i r c h i l d r e n . The
f o r m u l a xpnoxoc; K a i du\£U7rco<; was largely r e s t r i c t e d to S i c i l y .
224
It o c c u r s twice at R o m e , in t h e f e m i n i n e f o r m , for C l a u d i a S o t e r i s a n d M i n u c i a Sicula ( M i v o u i d a L I K E A T I ) .
225
N o t h i n g is said a b o u t t h e o r i g i n
o f S o t e r i s . I n t h e case o f M i n u c i a , s i n c e h e r h u s b a n d w h o c o m m e m o r a t e d h e r has only a single n a m e , it s e e m s safe to a s s u m e that ZIKEATI is an e t h n i c r a t h e r t h a n a n a m e , ' M i n u c i a t h e S i c i l i a n ' .
220
S o t e r i s was
p r o b a b l y a Sicilian t o o , o r at least c o m m e m o r a t e d by o n e . T h e s e c l e a r links b e t w e e n e p i t a p h s written at R o m e a n d styles used in t h e h o m e l a n d show t h a t c u s t o m e r s must in s o m e cases h a v e c o m posed the epitaphs themselves rather than relying on the stone-cutter to p r o v i d e a stock o n e . T h i s was p e r h a p s m o r e likely to h a p p e n in G r e e k , w h e r e t h e r e was less s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n at R o m e a n d , p r e s u m a b l y , c o n s i d e r a b l y fewer c o m p e t e n t s t o n e - c u t t e r s , t h a n in L a t i n . It implies that, in s o m e cases w h e r e e p i t a p h s h a v e a p a r t i c u l a r l y u n u s u a l style, it m a y b e possible to associate t h e m with a h o m e r e g i o n , e i t h e r w h e n t h e r e is n o e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e to m i g r a t i o n , o r in cases w h e r e
the
d e c e a s e d is evidently an i m m i g r a n t b u t it is n o t stated w h e r e from. An e x a m p l e o f t h e latter c o m e s in I G U R 3 6 7 . L i b e r a l i s c o m m e m o r a t e d his brother Eutactus, aged
1 4 , w h o h a d 'lived a b r o a d with h i m ' (cruv-
^EvetTEtxKxvxa, an o t h e r w i s e a p p a r e n t l y u n k n o w n w o r d ) for five years. It is n o t stated w h e r e t h e y c a m e from, b u t t h e e p i t a p h calls t h e t o m b xf|V K c t u d p a v ,
a t e r m which was m a i n l y used in a small p a r t o f Asia
( T e o s , S m y r n a , E p h e s u s ) . It is t h e r e f o r e very likely t h a t t h a t was t h e h o m e a r e a o f t h e two b r o t h e r s .
2 2 7
Agaklytos c o m m e m o r a t e d his f a t h e r , w h o s e n a m e is largely lost, u s i n g t h e following w o r d i n g : TO (ivr||j.8iov
KmeaiceijaGev
228
fivrmri<;
v l
x«P> Cnaavxi exr) X.
He built the monument as a memorial, for the man who lived 30 years. A l t h o u g h t h e individual e l e m e n t s o f this a r e all c o m m o n , t h e c o m b i n a tion is very u n u s u a l , b u t r e p r o d u c e s a l m o s t e x a c t l y t h e w o r d i n g o f an e p i t a p h from P r u s a in B i t h y n i a for a s o l d i e r n a m e d N i c o m e d e s : ^ricravTi
eir|
KG', [TO
|ojvr)|i£iov
K[aT£loK£i3aa£v uvf|nr|c;
195
%dpiv.
2 2 0
Living
at Rome
Agaklytos a n d his father therefore seem likely to have b e e n B i t h y n i a n s .
230
T h e r e is also an u n u s u a l c o m b i n a t i o n o f e l e m e n t s in t h e e p i t a p h which A s c l e p i o d o t e p u t up for h e r h u s b a n d S t r a t o n i c u s :
231
'AaK>.r|7rio86Tr| Zxpaxoviiccp "yA/uicuxdxcp dv5pi xfiv axr|A.r|v EK XOJV i8ia>v KaxeaKeijaoa ^naavxt exr| Xe. xatpe napoSeixa. Asclepiodote built the stele from her own resources for her sweetest husband Stratonicus, who lived 35 years. Farewell, passer-by. A g a i n t h e individual e l e m e n t s a r e n o t u n u s u a l b u t t h e way t h e y a r e c o m b i n e d is. At Cius/Prusias, close to Prusa, A u r e l i a C h r e s t e d a u g h t e r o f A p o l l o n i d e s c o m m e m o r a t e d h e r h u s b a n d C h r e s t u s in a virtually identical way:
232
Avp. Xpf)axr| 'AKOAAOVISOV TO) yA.uK[\)]x[d]xcp dfvSJpiv (sic) Xpriaxco EKK (sic) [xlcofvl L8icov K a x e a K e u a a a xr\v oxr\Xr\\, ^ a a v x i EXT| v'. % a i p a i x a i (sic) 7iapo8fixaiJ. Aurelia Chreste, daughter o f Apollonides, built the stele from her own resources for her sweetest husband Chrestus, who lived 5 0 years. Fare well, passers-by. A s c l e p i o d o t e m a y well h a v e c o m e from t h e s a m e a r e a . A G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n d e n o t e s a t o m b as t h e p r o p e r t y o f C n . O c t a v i u s Bassillus, h e i r o f O c t a v i a H y g e i a .
2 3 3
T h e practice o f indicating owner
ship o f a t o m b was in itself u n u s u a l at R o m e . T h e f o r m u l a u s e d to d e s c r i b e t o m b a n d o w n e r s h i p r e p r o d u c e s e x a c t l y o n e f o u n d in several e p i t a p h s at E p h e s u s ,
2 3 4
a n d Bassillus, d e s p i t e his L a t i n n a m e , was
p r o b a b l y an E p h e s i a n too. Similarly, t h e e p i t a p h o f t h e J e w i s h t r a d e r P. Catilius H e r m i a s a n d his family uses f o r m u l a e which a r e c o m p l e t e l y u n l i k e a n y t h i n g else k n o w n for t h e J e w s at R o m e , i m p o s i n g a fine o n a n y o n e w h o violates t h e t o m b a n d t h r e a t e n i n g t h e m with t h e wrath o f God.
2 3 5
T h e style is typical o f J e w i s h e p i t a p h s from Asia, a n d H e r m i a s
a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y c a m e from t h e r e . H e is p a r t i c u l a r l y likely to h a v e b e e n an i m m i g r a n t in view o f his profession. At
Portus, a praetorian
named Aurelius Aphrodisius
commemo
r a t e d L u c i u s A e l i a n u s , p r o b a b l y his father-in-law. H e f o r b a d e a n y o n e else to use t h e s a r c o p h a g u s a n d i m p o s e d a fine i f t h e y did, p a y a b l e to t h e ' m o s t s a c r e d t r e a s u r y ' a n d to t h e h e i r s .
2 3 6
T h e g e n e r a l w o r d i n g is
typical o f Asia M i n o r , a n d t h e fact that t h e i n s c r i p t i o n is in G r e e k , w h i c h is e x t r e m e l y u n u s u a l for a p r a e t o r i a n , a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p e o p l e involved h a d c o m e from s o m e w h e r e in t h e East. T h e closest p a r a l l e l which I h a v e f o u n d to t h e l a n g u a g e u s e d is in an epitaph from N i c o m e d i a .
2 3 7
196
Aspects of foreigners'
lives at Rome
T h e s a m e p r o c e s s c o u l d h a p p e n in r e v e r s e , with a f o r m u l a from R o m e s p r e a d i n g o u t w a r d s . T h e c l e a r e s t c a s e o f this is p r o b a b l y t h e Jewish f o r m u l a ev etpfivri r| Koluvnoti; (in p e a c e t h e s l e e p ) . T h i s was e x t r e m e l y c o m m o n in J e w i s h e p i t a p h s at R o m e , b u t o u t s i d e R o m e it is only f o u n d five times in t h e e a r l y p a r t of t h e J e w i s h c a t a c o m b at V e n o s a , o n c e at P o r t u s a n d o n c e at T a r a n t o .
2 3 8
It was a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y
s p r e a d o u t w a r d s from R o m e by J e w s w h o m o v e d from t h e city. E p i t a p h s a r e thus o n e a s p e c t o f b u r i a l p r a c t i c e which f o r e i g n e r s c o u l d b r i n g to R o m e with t h e m . T h e y d o not, h o w e v e r , show a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n t h e p r e f e r e n c e s o f a few individuals - a n d t h e small n u m b e r of e x a m p l e s given a b o v e shows how u n u s u a l f o r e i g n e p i t a p h s w e r e at R o m e . O t h e r t h a n t h e J e w s , t h e r e is little e v i d e n c e for any foreign g r o u p (as o p p o s e d to individuals) at R o m e m a k i n g s t r o n g c o m m u n a l efforts to r e t a i n its s e p a r a t e n e s s after d e a t h , d e s p i t e t h e c l a i m s which have sometimes been made.
Notes 1
Many people in the inscriptions are identified as Alexandrians, but very few as Egyptians; see p. 247. In comparable circumstances, Feissel (1995, 3 7 2 ) notes that none of the soldiers with 'barbarian' names in epitaphs at Constantinople gives an ethnic. La Piana 1927, 2 0 3 - 4 . Faist 1997, 198; Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson 1998, 72; Jones 1993, ch. 3. ' Hall is largely concerned with indigenous groups living in 'their' terri tory, whereas Panayi is dealing with immigrants and their descendants. I G U R 1287. Cf. Mark 7.26: 'a Greek woman, Syro-Phocnician by birth' (Yuvr|...'E>.A,r|vic; Zupo^oiviKiaca TW yevei); Lib.Pont., Euaristus: 'a Greek by nationality, an Antiochenc' (natione Grecus Anliochenus). Cf. Solin 1983, 6 0 1 - 2 ; Matthews 1999, 16. Hall 1997, 3 3 : 'Ethnic identity can only be constituted by opposition to other ethnic identities.' Matthews 1999, 29. McCormack (1984, 3 5 7 ) notes the emergence o f a pan-British identity among immigrants to Canada in the face o f competition from other ethnic groups. He also (p. 3 7 1 ) refers to the formation o f local societies such as the 'Aberdeen, Banff and Kincardine Association' among British immigrants at Winnipeg. C I L vi 342 = 3 0 7 4 2 . Kaimio 1979, 67: '...we cannot, therefore, compare them to the door plates of consulates o f foreign states in modern capitals'. Moretti 1958, 1 1 5 - 1 6 . Pliny, H.N. 16.236; Moretti 1958, 1 1 5 - 1 6 . However, Moretti believes that these were different from the overseas stationes. 2
3
4
6
7
8
9
1 0
11
1 2
1 3
1 4
197
Living
at Rome
1 3
Moretti 1958, 105-7. Statio-ma.na.ger}; the word can also mean the users of, or contributors to, a statio. T h e same man made a dedication to Nomioi Theoi (IGUR 163). I G U R 80 = C I L vi 3 1 1 2 8 . IG xiv 8 3 0 . Meiggs 1960, 2 8 3 - 6 ; Pohl 1978, 3 3 3 - 4 ; Bakker et al. 1999. They are not necessarily all of the same date; the tenants o f some o f the rooms no doubt changed. T h e identity o f the users of many o f the rooms has not been preserved. C I L xiv 4 1 4 2 . Meiggs 1960, 2 8 5 ; he dates it no later than the reign o f Hadrian. Meiggs 1960, 2 8 6 . I.Porto 2. Cf. ibid.3, the z%i\iz\r[V(\c, o f the whole Alexandrian fleet. Meiggs 1960, pi. X X I I I b . I.Porto 5. C I L xiv 4 6 2 0 . Meiggs 1960, 2 8 6 . Meiggs 1960, pi. X X I I I d . Meiggs 1960, 2 8 7 , pi. X X I I la. A dedication to Diva Sabina by the Sabrathenses, found in Caesar's Forum and dated to AD 138, may suggest that there was a statio at Rome as well: AE (1934) 146. Meiggs 1960, pi. X X I Vb. C I L xiv 4 7 7 . Loane 1938, 5 6 . La Piana 1925, 2 5 9 . ' Suetonius, Nero 37. Meiggs 1960, 287. B G U ii 4 2 3 ; Winter 1933, 4 1 - 2 . Martial 1.49. 1.61, 1 0 . 1 0 3 - 4 . P.Mich, viii 487; cf. viii 4 6 5 - 6 and 4 8 6 , probably concerning the same man. Sempronius may not actually have been at Karanis when he received the letter. T h e use of family terminology in such letters does not necessarily indicate a real family relationship. P.Mich, viii 4 9 0 - 1 (ed. H.C. Youtie and J . G . Winter). P.Mich, viii 5 0 0 - 1 (ed. H.C. Youtie and J . G . Winter). BGU i 27; Winter 1933, 3 8 - 9 . C I L vi 2 4 2 5 ; C I L iii 1479; Ricci 1993b, 189, 2 0 6 . C I L viii 2 8 9 0 . C I L v i 9677; C I L ii 1971; Ricci 1992b, 111. C I L v i 16247; C I L ii 3624; Ricci 1992b, 111. Sailer 1982, 191. Talbert 1984, 4 2 . SFIA, Sev. 2. °° Digest 50.7.13 Scaevola refers to an ambassador coming to Rome from Nicopolis (it does not say which one), and buying a house at Nicopolis before he had completed the business o f the embassy. 15
17
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 5
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
3;
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 3
4 6
4 7
4 8
4 9
198
Aspects offoreigners' 5 1
lives at Rome
Morley 1996, 175. R. Harder, Didyma II (Berlin, 1958) no. 2 9 6 11. 6 - 1 1 (quoted from Talbert). Talbert 1984, 9 5 . Pliny, H.N. 2 9 . 5 . 7 - 9 ; Bowersock 1969, 6 5 ; Talbert 1984, 4 1 3 ; Jackson 1988, 5 6 - 7 . Further bibliography in Nutton 1986, n. 2 0 . Millar 1 9 8 1 , 1 5 8 - 9 ; the son was also a patron o f Tibur. PIR CI637. Talbert 1984, 4 0 . Martial 10.96.1-4. Lucian, My Native Land (Patriae Laudatio) 8 (tr. A.M. Harmon). Doblhofer 1987, 4 7 , 6 3 - 4 ; Edwards 1996, ch. 5. Athenaeus 1.3b (tr. C.B. Gulick). C I L vi 3 1 0 6 6 . A word written at the end in the Greek alphabet is probably a name: perhaps Ariphilos. Guarducci 1 9 5 1 - 2 ; Gager 1992, no. 7 9 ; S E G xiv 6 1 5 . It was found in a grave near the Porta Ardeatina; such curses were normally left at tombs. This is how it is understood by Guarducci ( 1 9 5 1 - 2 , 6 3 - 4 ) . Gager trans lates: 'who has worked as his assistant'. Perhaps 'Do not allow him (i.e. the doctor) (to prevent the departure)', as suggested by Gager. Guarducci ( 1 9 5 1 - 2 , 6 6 ) , takes this as a reference to the mouth of the Tiber, which she thinks the speaker is asking to be blocked with sand. She goes on to suggest (p. 6 9 ) that this idea would be most likely to occur to someone from the coast o f Syria or Palestine. However, asking for the exit route to be blocked would be rather strange for someone so anxious to leave Rome. Stevens 1994, 1 8 1 - 2 . Kajanto 1980, 8 5 . Or in Greek (MacMullen 1990, 51). Slaves at Rio de Janeiro used Portuguese to each other if they did not share an African language (Karasch 1987, 2 1 5 ) . This would probably not apply if the native language was Greek. Cf. Karasch 1987, 2 1 5 . SHA, Sev. 19.9: 'sed Afrum quiddam usque ad senectutem sonans'. SUA, Had. 3 . 1 . Spanish accents seem to have attracted particular com ment (Balsdon 1979, 130), but regional Italian accents were also mocked (Talbert 1984, 3 7 ) . Lucian, On Salaried Posts (De Mercede) 24 refers to the 'villainous accent' o f highly educated Greeks. Quintilian 1.1.4; Soranus, Gyn. 2.19. La Piana 1925, 2 2 3 ; Bardy 1948, 8 1 - 9 4 . Kajanto 1980, 9 3 . Moretti (1989, 6) rather oversimplifies the issues by claiming that there was no need for Greek-speakers to use Latin because everyone at Rome understood Greek. Despite the predominance o f Greek in Moesia Inferior itself, noted by Kaimio (1979, 8 9 ) . Ricci 1994a, 1 8 - 1 9 . See below, p. 190. MacMullen 1993, 4 8 - 9 . 5 2
5 3
5 4
5:>
5 6
2
5 7
5 8
5 9
6 0
6 1
6 2
0 3
0 4
6 5
6 6
6 7
0 8
6 9
7 0
7 1
7 2
7 3
7 4
7 5
7 6
7 7
7 8
7 9
199
Living
at Rome
8 0
Juvenal 3.62 it.; Kajanto 1980, 87. Kaimio 1979, 166. Philostratus, V.S. 491 (tr. W.C. Wright). Philostratus, V.S. 5 8 9 (tr. W.C. Wright). IG xiv 1440; I G U R 1317. Cf. I G U R 1171, a bilingual Latin and Greek inscription for a charioteer family, and 1350, a Greek epitaph for a girl o f 'Ausonian family'. Moretti 1989, 7. Solin 1983, 7 2 1 . His figures are rather different from those given in the table below, due largely to new publications since his study, but the overall picture remains similar. Kajanto 1980, 9 1 - 2 . Kajanto 1980, Tab. 2. Lombardi (1997) gives a full list of those now in the Musei Vaticani. I C U R was incomplete at the time o f Kajanto's study. Kajanto 1980, 9 8 . This date is somewhat later than the probable date o f the Roman church's change from Greek to Latin as the main liturgical language (see above). ' Bardy 1948, 87. Cf. Kajanto 1980, T a b . 3. Either Latin and Greek, or Latin/Greek and another language (Hebrew, Palmyrene, Nabatean). Solin 1983, 7 2 1 . Noy 1997, 3 0 9 . C I L vi 3 0 9 2 5 = 374 = I G U R 6. C I L vi 1508 = I G U R 7 1 . Noy 1997, 307. Kajanto 1980, 9 5 ; C I L vi 18175, 2 0 5 4 8 , 3 3 9 7 6 . Cfi Noy 1997, 3 0 7 - 8 . Kajanto 1980, 9 6 . Noy 1997, 3 0 8 . Edwards 1995, 8 3 ; Boyance 1956, 125. J o n e s 1993, 1 0 6 - 1 5 . Noy 1997, 3 0 8 - 9 . Solin 1983, 7 2 0 . Suetonius, Aug. 4 3 . T h e reference might be to other Italian languages. Suetonius, Nero 13. Rochette (1996) finds very little evidence for any sort of interpreters o f languages other than Greek at Rome. Kaimio 1979, 3 2 0 . Bardy 1948, 89. C I L vi 19134, 3 4 1 9 6 (CIS ii 159). Noy 1999. J I W E ii 5 8 ; see p. 283 n. 4 8 6 . Noy 1999; Equini Scheider 1988, 6 4 . I G U R 166; see p. 2 4 1 . ICUR 5693. ICUR 1861. ICUR 4891. 8 1
8 2
8 3
8 4
8 5
8 6
8 7
8 8
8 9
9 0
9
9 2
9 3
9 4
9 3
9 6
9 7
9 8
9 9
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3
1 0 4
1 0 5
1 0 6
1 0 7
1 0 8
1 0 9
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 , 2
1 1 3
1 1 4
1 1 5
1 1 6
1 1 7
1 1 8
200
Aspects of foreigners' 1 1 9
lives at Rome
J I W E ii 5 6 2 . IGUR 119-20. I G U R 122: 'Arcs the ancestral god who listens to prayer'. In the following discussion, I shall refer to names which are not Greek or Latin as 'local', in the absence of any standard terminology - writers such as Kajanto tend to refer to them as 'barbarian' or 'barbaric'. T h e most obvious example of this is the use of Semitic names by Christians. Solin 1977b. They were much commoner in Greece: 4 . 8 % out o f 3,530. Solin 1977b, 2 1 0 . Kajanto 1963a, 57; 1997, 106. T h e same proportions apply in both Latin and Greek inscriptions. Solin 1977a, 163; Kolb 1 9 9 5 , 4 6 0 . Kaimio 1979, 183; Solin 1977a, 164. Includes one case where the father has both a Latin and a Greek name. Includes one case where the child has both a Latin and a Greek name. Kajanto (1963a, 5 9 - 6 0 ) , surveying cognomina o f fathers and sons in Christian inscriptions from Rome, produced similar results with a much larger sample (N = 212). He found that 4 8 % were Latin in both generations, 2 4 % Greek in both, 12% Latin father Greek son, 16% Greek father Latin son. As interpreted by Ricci (1993b, no. P3). T h e father was a veteran. Solin 1983, 7 2 2 . I f the new recruit was not previously a Roman citizen, he would take on a complete Latin name. BGU ii 4 2 3 ; Winter 1933, 4 1 - 2 . Solin 1983, 7 2 2 ; cf. p. 169. Cf. Kajanto 1963a, 2 8 . I G U R 1 1 8 - 1 9 . Cf. p. 2 4 3 . On Semitic names at Rome and in the West, see Solin (1983), csp. 6 3 3 - 4 7 . Cf. Kajanto (1963a, 5 6 ) : 'it is often impossible to decide the particular provenance o f a barbaric name'. Some names can have two different prov enances, e.g. Simon can be both Greek and Semitic. Solin 1983, 7 2 3 , 7 8 2 . Cf. for example C I L vi 8 6 5 3 , where the father is called Bclambclus (a slave o f Tiberius) and the son Primus, evidently named after his mother Prima. C I L vi 9 2 7 6 . It is not certain that these people were slaves. Zevi 1973. See p. 2 3 9 . Sec p. 2 3 8 . See p. 2 4 8 . Solin 1983,635. As he notes, the Jews of Rome were an exception (see p. 262). Solin 1977b, 2 1 1 - 1 2 . McCormack 1984, 3 5 8 . Dion.Hal. 2.19.3 - Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 1, no. 8.7a. ' ° Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 1, p. 3 0 0 : 'It is easy enough to imagine how a rootless immigrant, lost in a great city, might have found attraction in the community or worshippers o f Isis. But there is no reason to suppose that such people made up the majority o f the cult's adherents or explain its success.' La Piana 1927, 2 8 6 . 1 2 0
1 2 1
1 2 2
1 2 3
1 2 4
1 2 5
1 2 6
1 2 7
1 2 8
1 2 9
1 3 0
1 3 1
1 3 2
1 3 3
1 3 4
1 3 5
1 3 6
1 3 7
1 3 8
1 3 9
1 4 0
1 4 1
1 4 2
1 4 3
1 4 4
1 4 5
1 4 6
1 4 7
1 4 8
1 4 9
h
1 5 1
201
Living
at Rome.
1 3 2
Dahya 1973, 2 4 6 . La Piana 1927, 2 6 5 . Karasch 1987, 2 5 4 - 6 6 . Cf. McCormack 1984, 3 7 0 . Augustine, Ep. 53.2. Frend 1952, 164, 1 6 9 - 7 0 . His no. 72 ( I C U R 4 4 3 7 ) . No. 74 ( I C U R 4 4 4 1 ) has a Galatian immigrant who might be a Montanist. No. 93 ( I G C V O 134) has a Montanist doctor named Alexander. Although there is nothing to connect him with Asia except the use o f Greek in his epitaph, Tabbernee writes (p. 5 4 6 ) : 'Presumably Alexander was a member o f the thriving Montanist congregation o f immi grants from Asia Minor resident in Rome... This community was centered around the Via Aurelia.' La Piana 1925, 2 1 3 - 1 6 ; Bardy 1948, 97. Bardy 1948, 8 1 - 9 4 . Apart from the prevalence of Greek names in some cases, which is not in itself necessarily a sign o f foreignness (cf. p. 180 above). T h e possibility o f a link between foreigners and particular burial societies is not even considered by Patterson (1992b). AE (1972) 14. In the Jewish catacombs, the designation Ioudaios seems largely to have been reserved for those who were somehow on the fringes o f the Jewish community (Williams 1997). Bardy ( 1 9 4 8 , 2 7 4 ) suggests that Pope Victor may have got from Carthage the idea o f establishing corporate ownership o f the Christian cemeteries o f Rome. Nuzzo 1997, 707. La Piana 1925, 2 2 9 , quoting Marucchi. Bardy 1948, 9 6 . Bertolino 1997. Feissel 1982a, 3 7 1 - 7 . I C U R 4437 (following Feissel 1982a, 3 7 1 ) , 4 4 3 9 (Feissel 1982a, 3 7 3 - 4 ) , 4441, 4442, 4443=4444. ivi 4 4 3 4 ^ w p t o v j with an otherwise unknown village name (contra Avramea (1995, no. 259), who tentatively attributes it to Syria). Ferrua 1939, p. 148 no. 10, uses x^ptou with an unknown village. I C U R 4 2 7 1 b + 4 4 5 2 a , joined by Nuzzo 1997, refers to Kcopiw MiKpdq KC6|JT|<;, previously assumed to be Egyptian (Avramea 1995, no. 2 9 4 , I G C V O no. 100), but on no firm grounds. As the 4 4 5 2 a piece comes from Octavilla, that is further evidence for thinking that Mikra Kome was really a Galatian village. I C U R 5 0 6 4 (Avramea 1995, 3 2 2 ) , 5 6 5 8 (Feissel 1982a, 3 7 5 ) , 5 6 6 1 , 5 6 6 9 + 5 6 7 5 (Feissel 1982a, 3 7 5 - 6 ) , 5 6 7 6 (Feissel 1982a, 3 7 4 ) , 5 6 7 9 (Avramea 1995, 3 3 2 ) . T h e same word for village is used in inscriptions in Galatia itself, mean ing village, estate or district, although otherwise these inscriptions do not obviously reproduce Galatian patterns. None of them names the commemorator or gives the year o f death, as Christian inscriptions from Galatia commonly do. 1 3 3
1 3 4
1 3 3
1 3 6
1 3 7
1 3 8
1 3 9
1 6 0
1 6 2
1 6 3
1 6 4
1 6 3
1 6 6
1 6 7
1 0 8
1 6 9
1 7 0
u
s
e
s
1 7 2
1 7 3
202
Aspects of foreigners' 1 7 4
lives at Rome
Cf. Noy 1998a, 7 5 - 6 . Turcan 1958. T o y n b c c 1971, 1 2 7 - 8 ; Tacitus, Ann. 16.6. Toynbee 1971, 4 1 - 2 . Counts 1996. I G U R 1288, according to Sacco's interpretation cited by Moretti ad loc. Lucretius 3 . 8 9 0 - 3 ; Statius, Silv. 5.1; Toynbee 1971, 4 1 . I G U R 1333, with comments ad loc. Toynbee and Ward Perkins 1956, 54. Cf. D'Ambra (1988) on tombs at Ostia which depicted the deceased's occupation on the outside and were decorated with mythological scenes on the inside. Speidel 1994c, no. 165, with comments ad loc. Speidel 1994a, 25. The German bodyguards o f the 1st century, on the other hand, borrowed the gravestone style of the praetorians. Speidel 1994a, 145. Nock 1932, 3 2 9 - 3 0 . T h e Egyptians may, however, have been Egyptian Greeks and therefore not departing from their native custom. Audin (1960, 526) notes that initiates of Mithras, Isis and Cybele used cremation at this time. I G U R 1204. Josephus, B.J. 1.184; Ant. 14.124. Ricci (1994a, 23) also gives examples o f veterans who had served at Rome being buried at home in family tombs. Gafni 1997, ch. 4; Noy 1998a , 7 8 - 9 ; see also p. 267. T h e r e does not seem to be any evidence of Jews from Rome being sent for burial in the land of Israel during this period, although burial there was represented as theologi cally desirable. Musurillo 1954, 58 col. 6. Lucian, My Native Land (Patriae Laudatio) 9. Philostratus, V.S. 597 (tr. W.C. Wright). Philostratus, Ap.T. 8.15. Augustine, Conf. 9 . 1 1 . C I L viii 15930. T h e epitaph is shared with a woman o f the same family who is probably an aunt, cousin or niece. C I L ii 3 8 2 ; lst-2nd century according to Ricci 1992b, no. a 12. C I L ii 3 7 9 . C I L ii 6 2 7 1 . CILxiii 2181. C I L x i i 155. C I L iii 2 0 8 3 . C I L iii 6 4 1 4 ; 3rd-4th century according to Ricci 1993b, no. De4. C I L viii 2 7 5 3 2 . I G U R 1321; 3rd-4th century according to Moretti. I G U R 1323. C I L ii 3 0 3 5 . In the context, the Latin word probably means something like 'constant companion'. C I L xii 1750 (1st century according to Ricci 1992a, no. A7). The surviving 1 7 5
1 7 0
1 7 7
1 7 8
1 7 9
1 8 0
1 8 1
1 8 2
1 8 3
1 8 4
1 8 5
, 8 6
1 8 7
1 8 8
1 8 9
1 9 0
1 9 1
1 9 2
1 9 3
1 9 4
1 9 5
1 9 6
1 9 7
1 9 8
1 9 9
2 0 0
2 0 1
2 0 2
2 0 3
2 0 4
2 0 5
2 0 6
2 0 7
2 0 8
2 0 9
203
Living
at
Rome
part of the epitaph does not specifically say that the remains were sent home. C I L xiii 2 0 4 0 . He was either aged 10 or a student for 10 years. C I L xii 2211. C I L xiii 2 6 0 . C I L iii 5031. C I L iii 5 6 6 7 . C I L iii 4 8 4 5 . C I L iii 9713. IMS ii no. 2 1 8 ; 3 r d - 4 t h century according to Ricci (1993b, no. Mo7). C I L viii 8 5 0 1 . Inscr.Lat.Mar. 93 = Inscr.Ant.Mar. 4 5 7 . C I L viii 2 4 0 2 . Charmos at Rome commemorated his mother Chiliarchis, 'dead in the land o f Egypt' ( I G U R 1357); in this case, it could be that Charmos had come to Rome as an immigrant and, when he heard news o f his mother's death, commemorated her at Rome as he was unable to return to Egypt to do it. However, it is equally possible that Chiliarchis had gone to Egypt from Rome. Charmos has not been counted as an immigrant for the purposes o f ch. 4. TAM iv 295, 3 0 6 . I G U R 837 and Robert (1978), with the examples quoted there. Ferrua 1 9 4 1 , 180. IGUR 646, 794. She has been counted as a Sicilian in ch. 4. As they were certainly immigrants from somewhere, they have been counted under Asia in ch. 4. IGUR 271. I.K.Prusa ad Olympum 145. 230 T"hese and the following examples have not been counted as foreigners in ch. 4. IGUR 379. I.K.Kios40. I G U R 8 2 4 : XOUXOIJ XOVJ i^vrmeioi) iced xa>v KAX£7UK£i|j.£va)v aopwv KR|8£xai rvdi(o<;) Oicxdomoc; BaoGiXkoc, KA.r|pov6|j.oc, OKxaomat; Tyeia<;. ( T h e owner o f this memorial and o f the surrounding sarcophagi is Cn. Octavius Bassillus, heir o f Octavia Hygeia'). I.K.Ephesus 2 3 4 4 c - d , 2 5 5 8 use xorjxot) TOV (ivri|j.£iov), aopov, KF|8£xou. J I W E ii 3 6 0 . 236 j p 3 3 . A"upf|A.io<; 'A(|)po8iaioc;
xpaxianr|<; 7tpaixcopiav6<; AOUKICO AiAiavcp xcp KT|8£0xfj fiot) xfiv aopov KOU Pot>A.o|aai frr|8£va £X£pov dvu^av <£>i 8<£> XI<; xoA.|a,r|0£i, 8a>o£i 7ipoaxi|aou xw i<£>pcoxdxcp xa|a.<£>icp (8riv.) ,£ KI xoiq KA.r|pov6(ioi<; (8r(v.) a'. %aip<£>x£. TAM iv 1.267: Arjp. MapKiavofq Kjax£OK£"6aoa xfiv [iov nveXov Ejaamcp KE [XEKIVOIC; [KE xfi TrlapriKOTjari [iov cruvpicp Aiovuaid8f po\)Xo|a.£ 8E jaExd xo Kaxax£9f)V£ xovc, 7tpoy£Ypa(i|j.£voD<; |ir|8iva x£0f|v£ £i 5e xic, xoA.|j.f|a£i £7iavu^£ xf)v aopov, 8c6a£i xfi noXi npoaxi|j.o\) (8r|v.) a(j)' KE xfi KOOIITJ Kmpivwv (8r|v.) ,a. %ep£X£. Noy 1997, 3 1 0 . 2 1 0
2 1 1
2 1 2
2 1 3
21/1
2 1 5
2 1 6
2 1 7
2 1 8
2 1 9
2 2 0
2 2 1
2 2 2
2 2 3
2 2 4
2 2 5
2 2 6
2 2 7
2 2 8
2 2 9
2 3 1
2 3 2
2 3 3
2 3 4
2 3 3
o r l o
7ipoyoviK:riv
2 3 7
-
2 3 8
204
Chapter 8
FOREIGN GROUPS A T ROME E a c h section o f c h . 8 focuses on o n e o f t h e main a r e a s from which f o r e i g n e r s c a m e to R o m e . T h e r e will b e an overview o f t h e basic points o f t h e history o f m i g r a t i o n from that a r e a to R o m e : dates, political b a c k g r o u n d , p r i n c i p a l r e a s o n s . T h e various ways o f r e f e r r i n g to t h e h o m e l a n d which a r e u s e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s by p e o p l e from t h e a r e a will b e a n a l y s e d a n d , in s o m e cases, t h e o c c u r r e n c e s o f distinctive local n a m e s at R o m e will b e studied. Finally, an a t t e m p t will b e m a d e to t r a c e a n y e v i d e n c e for p e o p l e from t h a t r e g i o n a c t i n g as a g r o u p , for e x a m p l e t h r o u g h s h a r e d institutions o r s h a r e d religious p r a c t i c e s . T h e J e w s h a v e b e e n t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y in t h e final section s i n c e , a l t h o u g h they w e r e in s o m e r e s p e c t s seen as a ' g e o g r a p h i c a l ' g r o u p , t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n with t h e i r ' h o m e l a n d ' was m u c h m o r e t e n u o u s t h a n that o f S p a n i a r d s o r S y r i a n s . T h e r e is also literary e v i d e n c e from r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s available for t h e J e w s which is u n l i k e a n y t h i n g which exists for other groups.
i. Gaul and Hispania Overview T h e first G a u l s at R o m e w e r e p r e s u m a b l y t h o s e w h o c a p t u r e d t h e city in -590 BC. After that, for a p e r i o d o f o v e r two c e n t u r i e s , G a u l s ' would p r o b a b l y h a v e c o m e to R o m e only as slaves. O n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e Sibylline B o o k s , two G a u l s a n d two G r e e k s ( p r e s u m a b l y slaves) w e r e b u r i e d alive in t h e F o r u m B o a r i u m in 2 2 8 , 2 1 6 a n d 1 1 3 B C , which m u s t imply that they w e r e a r e c o g n i z e d p r e s e n c e in t h e city at t h o s e 2
d a t e s . M a r s e i l l e , as a G r e e k city, may h a v e s e n t m i g r a n t s in t h e s a m e way a n d for t h e s a m e r e a s o n s as G r e e k cities in t h e East (e.g. as 3
d o c t o r s ) ; t h e p a t t e r n o f m i g r a t i o n from t h e r e l a t e r a p p e a r s to have b e e n similar to that from Asia M i n o r .
4
Gallia N a r b o n e n s i s b e c a m e
a R o m a n p r o v i n c e in 121 BC, a n d , as a rapidly r o m a n i z e d a r e a , p r o b ably b e g a n to s e n d free m i g r a n t s to R o m e . It was heavily settled by Italian c o l o n i s t s , a n d also b e c a m e an i m p o r t a n t a r e a for military r e c r u i t m e n t . T h e slave t r a d e also c o n t i n u e d : C i c e r o was t a u g h t by M. A n t o n i u s G n i p h o , w h o h a d b e e n b r o u g h t up as a slave in G a u l
205
Living
at Rome
a l t h o u g h originally f r e e b o r n , a n d a g r a m m a r i a n of t h e first c e n t u r y AD, 5
P. V a l e r i u s C a t o , was said by s o m e to b e a f r e e d m a n from G a u l . J u l i u s C a e s a r ' s c a m p a i g n s in G a u l in t h e 5 0 s BC, which c r e a t e d what ulti m a t e l y b e c a m e t h e t h r e e p r o v i n c e s ( T r e s Galliae) o f A q u i t a n i a , B e l g i c a a n d L u g d u n e n s i s , would have c r e a t e d h u g e n u m b e r s of p r i s o n e r s , s o m e o f w h o m r e a c h e d R o m e as slaves. The G a u l s e x p e l l e d from R o m e after t h e V a r u s disaster (see p. 4 4 ) w o u l d have b e e n only t h o s e from t h e n o r t h e r n part, n o t from N a r b o n e n s i s . E a r l y m i g r a t i o n from H i s p a n i a to R o m e is likely to h a v e followed t h e s a m e p a t t e r n as t h a t from G a u l . P e o p l e from H i s p a n i a p r o b a b l y a p p e a r e d at R o m e first as slaves, p e r h a p s in t h e late t h i r d c e n t u r y BC, b u t t h e r e s e e m s to b e n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e for S p a n i a r d s t h e r e b e f o r e t h e t i m e of A u g u s t u s . R o m a n military i n v o l v e m e n t in H i s p a n i a b e g a n as a c o n s e q u e n c e of rivalry with C a r t h a g e a n d t h e S e c o n d P u n i c W a r . T h e r e was p r o l o n g e d military activity for m o s t o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, n o d o u b t c r e a t i n g m a n y captives, a n d B a e t i c a , like N a r b o n e n s i s , b e c a m e a highly r o m a n i z e d a r e a . T h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e n o r t h - w e s t of t h e p e n i n s u l a was only c o m p l e t e d u n d e r A u g u s t u s . Slaves c o n t i n u e d to c o m e from t h e a r e a : A u g u s t u s ' f r e e d m a n C. I u l i u s H y g i n u s was p r o b a b l y natus
Hispanus,
a b o u t his o r i g i n s .
0
although
Suetonius records some doubts
P a m p h i l u s Asturconarius,
c o m m e m o r a t e d in t h e
M o n u m e n t o f t h e Statilii from t h e early first c e n t u r y AD, was p r e s u m 7
ably a slave o r e x - s l a v e . C o r i n t h u s , a slave from C o l l i p p o in L u s i t a n i a , was c o m m e m o r a t e d by his two b r o t h e r s .
8
B o t h Gauls and Spaniards had a bellicose reputation
at R o m e .
9
Julius Caesar and Augustus had a band o f Spanish bodyguards, prob ably from C a l a g u r r i .
10
H i s p a n i a was a n i m p o r t a n t r e c r u i t m e n t a r e a for
t h e R o m a n a r m y , a n d a substantial n u m b e r o f S p a n i s h p r a e t o r i a n s a r e r e c o r d e d from t h e late first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s . " Equites
singulares
w e r e r e c r u i t e d in G a u l at t h e s a m e p e r i o d . S o m e p e o p l e h a d successful a r m y c a r e e r s : e.g. P. V a l e r i u s Priscus from U r c i , w h o was b u r i e d at R o m e a g e d 6 5 , was a military p r e f e c t in p o s t i n g s from M a u r e t a n i a to C a p p a d o c i a , a n d also s e e m s to have his n a m e s t a m p e d o n a lead p i p e from t h e V i a C a s i l i n a .
12
R e b e l s from G a u l a n d S p a i n u n d e r t h e b a n d i t -
l e a d e r M a t e r n u s c a m e to R o m e to try to m u r d e r C o m m o d u s . c r u i t m e n t of p r a e t o r i a n s a n d equites
singulares
1 3
Re
in t h e W e s t d e c l i n e d
substantially in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . Ambassadors to R o m e from Hispania a r e poorly attested; the only o n e r e c o r d e d in an inscription at R o m e is a m a n from C l u n i a .
14
Q . Caecilius
R u f i n u s o f S a g u n t u m was h o n o u r e d at h o m e for u n d e r t a k i n g a n e m b a s s y to H a d r i a n at his own e x p e n s e .
206
1 5
T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , literary
Foreign
groups
at Rome
r e f e r e n c e s to e m b a s s i e s c o m i n g to R o m e with b u s i n e s s c o n c e r n i n g t h e imperial cult.
16
P r e s u m a b l y t h e n u m e r o u s d e d i c a t i o n s by individual
Spanish cities to e m p e r o r s (Augustus a n d Aurelian), provincial governors a n d o t h e r p a t r o n s also r e p r e s e n t t h e fruits of e m b a s s i e s to R o m e .
1 7
S o m e o f t h e p e o p l e of high r a n k in t h e i r own Gallic c o m m u n i t i e s w h o died at R o m e m a y h a v e b e e n t h e r e o n e m b a s s i e s , a l t h o u g h this is n o t specified, e.g. S e x . Attius Atticus o f V i e n n e , jlamen of Narbonensis.
18
o f the province
V e r u s ( t h e rest o f his n a m e is lost) t o o k p a r t in an
e m b a s s y which o b t a i n e d t h e j u r i d i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f A q u i t a n i a , p r o b ably in t h e late s e c o n d o r t h i r d c e n t u r y .
19
T i . C l a u d i u s Pius, a d e c u r i o
of L y o n , is specifically said to h a v e died on an e m b a s s y .
20
Atticus,
a slave o w n e d by t h e T h r e e P r o v i n c e s o f G a u l , was p r e s u m a b l y at R o m e o n official b u s i n e s s w h e n h e d i e d t h e r e , b u t t h e r e a s o n for his p r e s e n c e is n o t s t a t e d . his alumnus
21
P. C l a u d i u s A b a s c a n t u s , w h o c o m m e m o r a t e d
at O s t i a , was a f r e e d m a n o f t h e T h r e e G a u l s .
22
C o r n e l i u s B a l b u s from C a d i z b e c a m e t h e first p r o v i n c i a l c o n s u l , in 40 BC.
23
T h e families o f T r a j a n a n d H a d r i a n w e r e from Italica, a n d
r e p r e s e n t t h e m o s t successful o f t h e l a r g e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e
from
S p a i n w h o e s t a b l i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s in t h e s e n a t o r i a l class from t h e first c e n t u r y AD, a l t h o u g h they would n o d o u b t have s e e n t h e m s e l v e s as e t h n i c a l l y R o m a n . Ricci ( 1 9 9 2 b , 1 0 7 ) n o t e s that t h e vast majority o f k n o w n s e n a t o r s a r e from B a e t i c a r a t h e r t h a n from T a r r a c o n e n s i s o r Lusitania.
24
G a u l , especially N a r b o n e n s i s , also p r o d u c e d
s e n a t o r i a l families from t h e first c e n t u r y AD o n w a r d s .
25
numerous
Leaders o f the
A e d u i a n d o t h e r tribes from T r e s G a l l i a e r e q u e s t e d C l a u d i u s for p e r mission to stand for senatorial office in AD 4 8 , a n d Claudius c o m m e n t e d t h a t t h e r e w e r e a l r e a d y s e n a t o r s from V i e n n e ;
2 6
Julius V i n d e x w h o led
t h e revolt a g a i n s t N e r o in 6 8 was t h e son o f a s e n a t o r a n d t h e d e s c e n d a n t of a royal family in A q u i t a n i a .
27
H o w e v e r , from t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f
t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , t h e r e is little e v i d e n c e of m e n from G a u l o r Hispania reaching senatorial r a n k .
28
O t h e r s followed a n e q u e s t r i a n
c a r e e r which would h a v e t a k e n t h e m to R o m e t e m p o r a r i l y .
29
People
from H i s p a n i a a n d G a u l a r e also r e c o r d e d at R o m e as indices selecli ex quinque
30
decuriis.
A m a n c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e in T a r r a c o n e n s i s by
his sister was apparitor second century.
of t h e c u r u l e a e d i l e at R o m e , p r o b a b l y in t h e
31
At t h e s a m e t i m e that t h e a r e a was p r o d u c i n g s e n a t o r i a l families, it also m a d e an i m p a c t o n t h e world of L a t i n l i t e r a t u r e . A n u m b e r o f h i g h - p r o f i l e figures in l i t e r a t u r e a n d e d u c a t i o n c a m e from H i s p a n i a : t h e E l d e r S e n e c a (whose sons c a m e with h i m to R o m e as p a r t o f a family m i g r a t i o n ) , C o l u m e l l a , M a r t i a l , Q u i n t i l i a n , P o m p o n i u s M e l a .
207
3 2
Living
at Rome
M a r t i a l a n d t h e E l d e r S e n e c a r e f e r to several o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n S p a n i a r d s from t h e s a m e m i l i e u . f r e q u e n t l y as h o m e c i t i e s .
34
33
C o r d o b a a n d Cadiz r e c u r m o s t
N a r b o n e n s i s also p r o d u c e d
distinguished
3
o r a t o r s a n d writers in t h e first c e n t u r y AD. ° Some products
in big d e m a n d
at R o m e c a m e from
Gaul
and
H i s p a n i a , n o t a b l y olive oil, wine a n d fish-products such as g a r u m (see p. 1 1 4 ) .
3 6
M o s t o f t h e a m p h o r a e f r a g m e n t s from t h e M o n t e T e s t a c c i o ,
d a t i n g f r o m t h e late s e c o n d a n d e a r l y t h i r d c e n t u r i e s , a r e Spain.
37
from
B a e t i c a was p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s u p p l i e r o f oil, b u t it
c a m e from N a r b o n e n s i s t o o .
38
T h e t r a d e in t h e s e c o m m o d i t i e s clearly
b r o u g h t a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n a b l y affluent p e o p l e to R o m e , a n d p r o b ably t h e less affluent t o o . T h e b u s i n e s s e s o p e r a t e d in t h e a r e a o f t h e Emporium
and
Malacitanorum
the Aventine.
3 9
T h e r e was a corpus
with its o w n quinquennalis
P. C l o d i u s A t h e n i o , negotians
salsarius,
negotiantium
in t h e s e c o n d
century:
w h o is t h o u g h t by Ricci ( 1 9 9 2 b ,
1 3 7 - 9 ) to h a v e o r i g i n a t e d from M a l a g a h i m s e l f . o r g a n i z a t i o n o f d e a l e r s in oil, negotiatores
olearii
40
T h e r e was also an 41
ex Baetica.
Wine,
especially from T a r r a c o n e n s i s , was i m p o r t e d in l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s from t h e A u g u s t a n p e r i o d at least until t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . N a r b o n e n s i s was also an i m p o r t a n t s u p p l i e r o f wine to R o m e ,
4 3
42
but
t h e r e d o n o t s e e m to b e any N a r b o n e s e w i n e - t r a d e r s r e c o r d e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s at R o m e . T h e r e is, h o w e v e r , an e p i t a p h for a m a n w h o s e e m s to h a v e h a d b u s i n e s s interests in b o t h H i s p a n i a a n d G a u l ; t h e e x a c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is n o t c e r t a i n b e c a u s e o f a b b r e v i a t i o n s :
44
Sacred to the Di Manes. For C. Sentius Regulianus, eques Romanus, dealer in oil (diffus. olearius) from Baetica, curator o f the same corporation, wine-dealer (negot. vinarius) of Lyon, operating in the settlements (canabae), curator and patron o f the same corporation, sailor of the River Saone, patron of the same corpora tion, patron (and) sevir '-' of those operating at Lyon. L. Silenius Reginus his grandfather and Vlattia (sic) Metrodora and the sons of the same (man?) arranged for this to be placed. It was carried out by Dionysius and Bellicianus and... 4
O t h e r p r o d u c t s i m p o r t e d from S p a i n , such as p r e c i o u s m e t a l s a n d minium,
4 6
c a n n o t b e l i n k e d directly with a n y of t h e k n o w n S p a n i a r d s
at R o m e . A n o t h e r a r e a in w h i c h t h e r e is a little e v i d e n c e for p e o p l e from G a u l playing an i m p o r t a n t r o l e is t h e supply o f c l o t h i n g a n d footwear. D i o has a story a b o u t a c o b b l e r from G a u l w h o i n s u l t e d C a l i g u l a a n d g o t away with i t .
47
An i n s c r i p t i o n r e c o r d s a f r e e d m a n from N a r b o n e n s i s
w h o was a vestiarius
( d e a l e r in c l o t h i n g ) .
208
48
Stanley ( 1 9 9 0 , 2 5 0 ) detects
Foreign Celtic names a m o n g some freedman clothing).
sagarii
groups at Rome
( d e a l e r s in
woollen
49
F e m a l e d a n c e r s from Cadiz a r e m e n t i o n e d by a n u m b e r o f s o u r c e s from t h e late first a n d early s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s , a n d s e e m to h a v e b e c o m e a p r o v e r b i a l f o r m o f e r o t i c e n t e r t a i n m e n t ; t h e 'shameful m a s t e r from C a d i z ' m e n t i o n e d by M a r t i a l p r o b a b l y o r g a n i z e d a t r o u p e o f them.'
0
It is n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r they s h o u l d b e e n v i s a g e d as slaves
(which is p r o b a b l y t h e i m p l i c a t i o n ) , o r w h e t h e r C a d i z was a t r a i n i n g s c h o o l for w o m e n o f all o r i g i n s . A w o m a n c o m m e m o r a t e d as C a r p i m e Gaditana,
a p p a r e n t l y t h e slave o f a n i m p e r i a l f r e e d m a n , m a y h a v e b e e n
o n e of t h e m . p. 1 1 9 ) ,
5 2
51
T h e L u s i t a n i a n c h a r i o t e e r C. A p p u l e i u s Diocles (see
t h e reliarius
t h e emboliaria
3
M. U l p i u s A r a c i n t h u s (natione A
( i n t e r l u d e - a c t r e s s ) P h o e b e Vocontia~
Palantinusf
and
are representative
o f o t h e r aspects o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t in which p e o p l e from H i s p a n i a a n d Gaul were prominent. A u s o n i u s lists m a n y r h e t o r s from B o r d e a u x ( a n d literary figures from all o v e r G a u l ) w h o s p e n t at least p a r t o f t h e i r c a r e e r s at R o m e in t h e fourth a n d fifth c e n t u r i e s . E v e n t i u s o f V i e n n e , w h o d i e d in AD 4 0 7 , is d e s c r i b e d as causidicus
consularisLeading
church
figures
moved
from G a u l to R o m e a n d its s u r r o u n d i n g s in t h e f o u r t h a n d centuries, notably Paulinus (eventually o f N o l a ) .
5 6
fifth
T h e letters o f
S i d o n i u s show t h e c o n t i n u e d i m p o r t a n c e o f travel b e t w e e n G a u l a n d R o m e , a n d o f h o l d i n g office at R o m e , for t h e elite o f G a u l in t h e fifth c e n t u r y AD. T h e latest d a t e d e p i t a p h for G a u l s at R o m e (a b r o t h e r a n d sister) is from AD 4 4 2 .
5 7
T h e r e a r e fewer C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s m e n
t i o n i n g p e o p l e from H i s p a n i a , o r literary r e f e r e n c e s , a l t h o u g h S p a n iards c e r t a i n l y c a m e to R o m e for ecclesiastical r e a s o n s (see p. 1 2 5 ) . T h e latest d a t e d i n s c r i p t i o n is from 3 8 8 , w h e n N i c e t u s c o m m e m o r a t e d his son R a p e t i g a , a d o c t o r a n d civis References
to the
5
Hispanus. *
homeland
T h e way in which a f o r e i g n e r ' s p l a c e o f o r i g i n was d e s i g n a t e d in an i n s c r i p t i o n m a y show s o m e t h i n g a b o u t w h e r e his o r h e r
primary
loyalty lay: to p r o v i n c e , city, tribe, r e g i o n o r village ( a l t h o u g h
the
w o r d i n g was n o d o u b t also i n f l u e n c e d by e p i g r a p h i c c o n v e n t i o n as well as p e r s o n a l p r e f e r e n c e ) . P e o p l e c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d by o t h e r s as Hispani
in l i t e r a t u r e without a n y i m p l i c a t i o n for h o w they d e f i n e d
t h e m s e l v e s , b u t i f they a r e labelled Hispani
in i n s c r i p t i o n s , it m u s t c a r r y
a m e s s a g e a b o u t how they d e f i n e d t h e m s e l v e s o r w e r e d e f i n e d by t h e i r c o m m e m o r a t o r s . B e l o w , a n d in t h e e q u i v a l e n t p a r t s of t h e
other
sections o f c h . 8, s o m e o f t h e a r e a s which h a v e f u r n i s h e d t h e m o s t
209
Living
at Rome
i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e a n a l y s e d for t h e i r u s e o f ' e t h n i c ' l a b e l s .
30
T h e r e are
m a n y f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p t i o n s w h e r e t h e e x a c t f o r m u s e d is u n c e r t a i n ( h e n c e t h e d i s a g r e e m e n t with t h e totals o f c h . 4 ) ; only t h o s e i n s c r i p tions w h e r e t h e r e l e v a n t words a r e c o m p l e t e , o r w h e r e t h e r e s t o r a t i o n / e x p a n s i o n is c e r t a i n , have b e e n u s e d h e r e . 'City' i n c l u d e s towns a n d villages.
TABLE 14. Designation of people from Hispania.
Province
Region/tribe
City
01
27
60
Hispanus Ilispanus + city Hispania/ex Hispanis ex Espanis + city (ex) Hispania Citerior(e) Hispania Citerior + city ex (provincia) Baetica Baetica + city ex Hisp. Ult. Lusitania Ilispanus Lusitanus Lusitania + city
4 2 3 1 2 4 3 3 I 1 3
Arava Callaeca Cantabcr
1 1 1
3
36
P e o p l e from S p a i n w e r e identified by a r e f e r e n c e to t h e whole p r o v i n c e o r p e n i n s u l a ( r a t h e r t h a n a p a r t o f it) m o r e often t h a n t h o s e from m o s t o t h e r a r e a s . I t is n o t a b l e t h a t identification with H i s p a n i a as a w h o l e is c o m m o n e r t h a n with o n e o f t h e t h r e e A u g u s t a n p r o v i n c e s , a n d t h a t t h e C i t e r i o r / U l t e r i o r division is a l m o s t as c o m m o n as that b e t w e e n t h e t h r e e p r o v i n c e s ( a l t h o u g h t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e n e a r l y all l a t e r t h a n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e A u g u s t a n s y s t e m ) . Cities a r e m e n t i o n e d
more
often t h a n H i s p a n i a as a w h o l e , b u t t h a t is n o r m a l for all t h e a r e a s s t u d i e d ; for p a g a n civilians it is in fact slightly c o m m o n e r t o m e n t i o n H i s p a n i a t h a n j u s t a city. T h e i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s is that ' S p a n i s h ' identity was fairly i m p o r t a n t (in a way that, for e x a m p l e , 'Asian' identity was n o t ) , s o m e t h i n g which is also implied by t h e S p a n i s h writers o f t h e f i r s t - s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s AD.
210
Foreign
groups
at Rome
TABU: 15. Designation o f people from Gaul. Province
12 Callus Callus + city III provinciae Galliae Aquitania + city Bclgica + city/tribe provincia Lugdunensis
4 1
Aeduus Ambianus Novempopulanus Treveri Tunger
2 1 2 2 1
62
Region/tribe
City
1 2 1
8
47
6 4
Cities a n d tribes s e e m to h a v e played a r a t h e r m o r e i m p o r t a n t r o l e in t h e self-definition o f p e o p l e from G a u l t h a n they did for p e o p l e from H i s p a n i a . T h e e t h n i c Callus Hispanus.
was c e r t a i n l y m u c h
less u s e d
than
T h i s m i g h t b e a t t r i b u t a b l e to t h e n e g a t i v e i m a g e o f t h e G a u l
in traditional R o m a n history, o r to t h e o t h e r m e a n i n g s which c o u l d h a v e in L a t i n .
65
gallus
H o w e v e r , since r e f e r e n c e s to t h e n a m e s o f t h e
p r o v i n c e s a r e also m u c h r a r e r for p e o p l e from G a u l t h a n for t h o s e from Hispania, t h e implication may b e that any form o f ' G a l l i c ' identifi cation was s e e n less positively t h a n t h e ' S p a n i s h ' e q u i v a l e n t . Community
and
religion
T h e r e a r e few signs o f a n y c o m m u n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a m o n g
the
S p a n i a r d s at R o m e . T h e c o r p o r a t i o n o f t h e M a l a c i t a n i a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n a b u s i n e s s association, a l t h o u g h it m a y h a v e h a d social functions too. T h e seats at t h e C o l o s s e u m which in t h e t h i r d / f o u r t h c e n t u r i e s w e r e r e s e r v e d for p e o p l e from C a d i z (see p. 1 1 7 ) i m p l y t h a t t h e r e was a substantial G a d i t a n e p r e s e n c e in t h e city, b u t they c o u l d h a v e b e e n for visitors to R o m e r a t h e r t h a n for r e s i d e n t s .
66
T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e
for any s h a r e d r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s . Martial a n d t h e E l d e r S e n e c a give t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f s o m e links b e t w e e n S p a n i a r d s o f similar social b a c k g r o u n d , b u t these a p p e a r to b e based entirely on p e r s o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s , n o t o n institutions. T h e r e is also little t r a c e o f linguistic o r o n o m a s t i c p r a c t i c e s c o m i n g to R o m e from
Spain. ' P h o e b u s also called T o r m o g u s ' , b o r n
at
S e g i s a m a in AD 1 4 3 a n d c o m m e m o r a t e d by his p a r e n t s at R o m e in 1 6 3 ,
211
Living
at Rome
a p p a r e n t l y h a d a S p a n i s h n a m e as well as a G r a e c o - L a t i n o n e ,
6 7
but he
is an isolated c a s e as far as i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e c o n c e r n e d . T h e e v i d e n c e from G a u l is slightly m o r e substantial.
Narbonne
m a i n t a i n e d a statio at Ostia, a n d Aries may h a v e d o n e so as well (see p p . 1 6 2 - 3 ) . T h e r e a r e also d e d i c a t i o n s by g r o u p s o f p e o p l e from a specific city to t h e i r p a t r o n s o r b e n e f a c t o r s ( o r to p e o p l e w h o they h o p e d would b e c o m e b e n e f a c t o r s ) . T h e s e c a n usually b e associated with e m b a s s i e s , b u t m a y in s o m e cases h a v e b e e n m a d e by p e o p l e actually r e s i d e n t in R o m e . T h e Sextani
Arelatenses
(from Aries) m a d e
d e d i c a t i o n s b o t h in t h e t i m e o f T i b e r i u s a n d to Diva F a u s t i n a .
68
The
L u g d u n e n s e s (from L y o n ) m a d e two h o n o r i f i c d e d i c a t i o n s in t h e m i d second century.
69
T h e T h r e e Provinces of G a u l h o n o u r e d P. Licinius
C o r n e l i u s S a l o n i n u s in 2 5 9 / 2 6 0 .
7 0
P e o p l e living at R o m e would
no
d o u b t h o p e t h a t t h e g o o d offices o f t h e p a t r o n s o f t h e i r h o m e c o m m u nities would c o n t i n u e to b e available to t h e m as individuals at R o m e . O n e deity from G a u l h a d h e r own s h r i n e at R o m e : t h e h o r s e goddess E p o n a .
7 1
S p e i d e l ( 1 9 9 4 a , 1 4 1 ) associates t h e s p r e a d o f h e r
w o r s h i p with t h e s t a t i o n i n g o f c a v a l r y m e n from G a u l , a n d t h e r e is c e r t a i n l y n o e v i d e n c e for h e r b e i n g w o r s h i p p e d by civilians at R o m e ; t h e b r i n g i n g to R o m e by military p e r s o n n e l o f local deities is also well a t t e s t e d for T h r a c i a n s (see p. 2 2 2 ) . P r a e t o r i a n s from t h e p r o v i n c e o f B e l g i c a m a d e a d e d i c a t i o n to t h e i r Dii Sancti
12
Patrii.
A
praetorian
n a m e d M . Q u a r t i n i u s M.f. Gives S a b i n u s R e m u s (which Ricci u n d e r stands as M . Q u a r t i n i u s S a b i n u s , civis Remus)
m a d e a d e d i c a t i o n to
A r d u i n n a (a g o d d e s s from t h e A r d e n n e s r e g i o n ) a n d C a m u l u s , a l o n g with s o m e m o r e c o n v e n t i o n a l R o m a n d i v i n i t i e s . c a t i o n to t h e numen
73
T h e r e is also a d e d i
o f D e a V i e n n a by a m a g i s t r a t e from L y o n , n o t
necessarily a r e s i d e n t of R o m e .
7 4
H o w e v e r , n o n e o f this a m o u n t s to c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t p e o p l e from H i s p a n i a o r G a u l a c t e d t o g e t h e r o u t s i d e t h e very r e s t r i c t e d worlds o f military w o r s h i p a n d t r a d e o r g a n i z a t i o n . I f t h e r e was a n y t h i n g w h i c h c o u l d b e d e f i n e d as a ' S p a n i s h c o m m u n i t y ' o r 'Gallic c o m m u n i t y ' a m o n g civilians living at R o m e , it has left n o t r a c e .
ii. Central and Eastern Europe Overview T h e E u r o p e a n p r o v i n c e s from G e r m a n y to M o e s i a , i n c l u d i n g R a e t i a , N o r i c u m , P a n n o n i a , D a c i a a n d D a l m a t i a , h a v e similar histories o f c o n t a c t with t h e R o m a n E m p i r e a n d similar p a t t e r n s o f m i g r a t i o n to Rome. Macedonia and T h r a c e , although
t h e i r r e l a t i o n s with
the
E m p i r e w e r e r a t h e r different, also p r o d u c e d similar m i g r a t i o n patterns
212
Foreign
groups at Rome
(see p. 5 9 ) . T h e first c o n t a c t s with t h e R h i n e - D a n u b e r e g i o n , a p a r t from e m b a s s i e s a n d c r o s s - b o r d e r slave t r a d i n g , w e r e military, a n d t h e first m i g r a n t s to R o m e w e r e p r i s o n e r s o f war. W i t h t h e possible e x c e p tion of T h r a c i a n s a n d M a c e d o n i a n s ,
73
t h e s e would usually h a v e b e e n
c o n s i d e r e d m o r e useful for farm w o r k t h a n for u r b a n life, a l t h o u g h t h e i r military qualities also m a d e t h e m d e s i r a b l e as b o d y g u a r d s
and
for o t h e r security p u r p o s e s . T h e influx o f slaves in l a r g e n u m b e r s lasted l o n g e r from C e n t r a l E u r o p e t h a n from a n y w h e r e else: G e r m a n p r i s o n e r s w e r e led in t r i u m p h by D o m i t i a n ,
76
a n d t h e last m a j o r influx
of captives was p r o b a b l y w h e n T r a j a n a u c t i o n e d o f f 5 0 , 0 0 0 D a c i a n s .
77
I n d i v i d u a l slaves w e r e still c o m i n g from t h e a r e a m u c h later, h o w e v e r : t h e r e is an e p i t a p h at R o m e from t h e late s e c o n d o r t h i r d c e n t u r y for a f r e e d m a n from Ovilavis in N o r i c u m .
7 8
G e r m a n s first c a m e into military c o n t a c t with t h e R o m a n E m p i r e in t h e invasion o f N a r b o n e n s i s a n d Italy by t h e C i m b r i a n d T e u t o n e s (defeated in 1 0 2 - 1 0 1 BC). It would h a v e b e e n d u r i n g t h e c a m p a i g n s in G e r m a n y u n d e r A u g u s t u s , until t h e defeat o f V a r u s in AD 9 , that they c a m e to R o m e in the largest n u m b e r s as p r i s o n e r s , a l t h o u g h o n g o i n g conflict o n t h e n o r t h e r n f r o n t i e r p r e s u m a b l y c o n t i n u e d to p r o d u c e s p o r a d i c supplies o f c a p t i v e s .
79
Ricci ( 1 9 9 3 c , 2 2 3 ) believes that t h e
G e r m a n s always r e m a i n e d o n t h e m a r g i n s o f R o m a n society, a n d w e r e seen as m o r e foreign t h a n o t h e r g e o g r a p h i c a l l y r e m o t e r p e o p l e s such as t h e T h r a c i a n s . G e r m a n s w e r e b o t h a d m i r e d a n d f e a r e d as 'fierce b a r b a r i a n s ' , valuable as fighters as l o n g as they w e r e k e p t o n t h e r i g h t side b u t viewed with suspicion in o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e p e o p l e from t h e D a n u b e r e g i o n s e e m , o n t h e w h o l e , to h a v e a t t r a c t e d less a d m i r a t i o n a n d m o r e c o n t e m p t , b e i n g s e e n as p u r e b a r b a r i a n s .
80
I m m i g r a n t s from t h e o t h e r future C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n p r o v i n c e s d o n o t s e e m to h a v e m a d e a n y i m p r e s s i o n at R o m e b e f o r e t h e first c e n t u r y BC. T h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s is w h e n i m m i g r a t i o n is likely to h a v e begun seriously.
81
T h e a r e a s which b e c a m e R a e t i a a n d N o r i c u m w e r e
b r o u g h t u n d e r d i r e c t R o m a n c o n t r o l in 15 BC. D a l m a t i a , P a n n o n i a a n d M o e s i a w e r e also c o n q u e r e d u n d e r A u g u s t u s , n o t w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r able difficulty a n d t h e r e f o r e , p r e s u m a b l y , l a r g e n u m b e r s o f p r i s o n e r s . Dacia was a n n e x e d in AD 1 0 6 . All t h e s e p r o v i n c e s c o n t a i n e d a n u m b e r o f cities f o u n d e d
as R o m a n c o l o n i e s o r which l a t e r a c q u i r e d civic
status, a n d it s e e m s to h a v e b e e n t h r o u g h t h e s e that m i g r a t i o n to R o m e was c h a n n e l l e d . M a c e d o n ' s first d e a l i n g s with R o m e w e r e r a t h e r different from t h o s e o f t h e a r e a f u r t h e r n o r t h , since it was initially viewed very m u c h as p a r t of t h e G r e e k r a t h e r t h a n t h e b a r b a r i a n world. R o m e ' s i n t e r f e r e n c e in
213
Living
at Rome
Illyria in t h e late t h i r d c e n t u r y BC led to p o t e n t i a l conflict
with
M a c e d o n , a n d to an a l l i a n c e with t h e Aetolian L e a g u e a g a i n s t Philip V in 2 1 1 BC. After P e r s e u s o f M a c e d o n was d e f e a t e d at t h e B a t t l e of P y d n a in 1 6 8 , b o t h Illyrians a n d M a c e d o n i a n s w e r e p a r a d e d in t h e triumph, and
1 5 0 , 0 0 0 Epirotes were enslaved.
82
H o w e v e r , t h e epi-
g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e for M a c e d o n i a n s at R o m e is very similar to t h a t for p e o p l e from f u r t h e r n o r t h , i.e. a l m o s t e n t i r e l y in L a t i n
8 3
a n d heavily
d o m i n a t e d by soldiers a n d t h e i r associates. S o m e of t h e M a c e d o n i a n soldiers at R o m e h a v e distinctly T h r a c i a n c o g n o m i n a , e.g. A u r e l i u s M u c a p o r from B e r o e ,
8 4
a n d very few h a v e G r e e k o n e s . T h e p o p u l a t i o n
o f t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f M a c e d o n i a m u s t h a v e b e e n very m i x e d , partly n o d o u b t as a result o f t h e severity o f t h e t r e a t m e n t given to t h e a r e a by t h e R o m a n s in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, b u t t h e r o m a n i z e d a n d T h r a c i a n e l e m e n t s s e e m to p r e d o m i n a t e
a m o n g M a c e d o n i a n s at
R o m e . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n may b e t h a t t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t e n d e d n o t to m i g r a t e to R o m e , o r that its m i g r a t i o n has been
made
i n v i s i b l e by l a c k o f r e f e r e n c e s to M a c e d o n i a in its
inscriptions. T h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e suggests that T h r a c i a n s w e r e m o r e p r o m i n e n t a m o n g civilians at R o m e t h a n t h e o t h e r C e n t r a l / E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n g r o u p s in t h e first c e n t u r y A D .
85
Although
T h r a c e only b e c a m e
a R o m a n p r o v i n c e in AD 4 6 , it was a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f slaves b e f o r e then;
8 0
' T h r a c i a n ' slaves c o u l d , h o w e v e r , h a v e c o m e from a w i d e r a r e a
t h a n what b e c a m e t h e R o m a n p r o v i n c e o f T h r a c e . T h r a c i a n slaves w e r e c e r t a i n l y well k n o w n at R o m e by t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e of T h r a c i a n s at R o m e b e f o r e
then.
8 7
T h r a c i a n s often u s e d distinctive local n a m e s , a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e often e a s i e r to identify in i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a n m a n y o t h e r s . As C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e c a m e u n d e r firm R o m a n c o n t r o l , it b e c a m e an i m p o r t a n t military r e c r u i t i n g g r o u n d : initially for such specialized units as t h e e m p e r o r s ' G e r m a n b o d y g u a r d (an idea b e g u n by M a r k A n t o n y ) , a n d l a t e r for g e n e r a l r e c r u i t m e n t to t h e l e g i o n s . T h e Statilii h a d t h e i r own b a n d o f G e r m a n s , o n e of w h o m is d e s c r i b e d as ' t h e G e r m a n o f T a u r u s ' , a n d a n o t h e r as ' t h e G e r m a n armiger rus'.
88
of Tau
O t h e r l e a d i n g families m a y h a v e k e p t similar private security
g u a r d s . T h e r e was a t e m p o r a r y e x p u l s i o n o f G e r m a n s ( a n d G a u l s ) after t h e V a r u s disaster o f AD 9 (see p. 4 4 ) , b u t this h a d n o l o n g - t e r m effect. T h e a r e a was always t h e m a i n s o u r c e o f equites singulares,
and,
after t h e c h a n g e o f r e c r u i t m e n t policy by S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , it b e c a m e the main source o f praetorians t o o .
8 9
T h e Urban Cohorts apparently
recruited heavily in N o r i c u m a n d P a n n o n i a .
214
90
B e s s a n s from the s o u t h e r n
Foreign coast of T h r a c e
9 1
and Dalmatians
w e r e also G e r m a n frumentarii century.
93
92
groups at Rome
w e r e i m p o r t a n t in t h e fleet. T h e r e
at R o m e from t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d
T h e G e r m a n tribes m o s t heavily r e p r e s e n t e d in military
units at R o m e a r e the B a t a v i , Ubii a n d F r i s i i .
94
L e a d i n g figures from i n d e p e n d e n t G e r m a n tribes c a m e to R o m e as 9 5
h o s t a g e s o r r e f u g e e s , e.g. M a r o b o d u u s o f t h e M a r c o m a n n i in AD 1 9 . S o did T h r a c i a n s in t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s a n d a f t e r w a r d s ;
96
s e e m s to b e B i t h u s son o f Cotys in t h e late first c e n t u r y B C . slaves of K i n g R h o e m e t a l c e s left i n s c r i p t i o n s .
98
97
the
first
TWO ex-
T h e r e is a b r i e f r e f e r
e n c e to a visit to D o m i t i a n by t h e K i n g o f t h e S e m n o n e s a n d a G e r m a n virgin p r i e s t e s s .
99
second century.
S o m e D a c i a n royalty w e r e at R o m e at t h e e n d o f t h e
1 0 0
O t h e r w i s e , t h e r e is little literary e v i d e n c e for free civilians c o m i n g from t h e a r e a to R o m e b e f o r e t h e fourth c e n t u r y . T r a d e b e t w e e n R o m e a n d t h e a r e a was p r o b a b l y less significant t h a n with m o s t o f t h e o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e e m p i r e , a l t h o u g h still substantial. A negotians
from
M o e s i a was c o m m e m o r a t e d with his wife by a s o l d i e r o f t h e U r b a n Cohorts.
1 0 1
O t h e r j o b s a t t e s t e d for C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n s at
R o m e s e e m to b e a fairly r a n d o m s e l e c t i o n , with n o i n d i c a t i o n o f a n y p a r t i c u l a r specialization. A B e s s a n slave was a d e a l e r in oil, p r o b a b l y at t h e P o r t i c u s P a l l a n t i a n a ; h e was n o t d e a l i n g in t h e p r o d u c e o f his home area.
102
A free B e s s a n was a nummularius
l e n d e r ) at t h e Basilica J u l i a .
1 0 3
(coin-changer or money
T w o Dardanians who are probably
slaves a r e d e s c r i b e d as m a s s e u r (unctor)
104
and spinner
(quasillaria).
105
T . A u r e l i u s P r i m u s , a N o r i c a n , was a
librarius.
G e r m a n s a r e s h o w n in l i t e r a t u r e to h a v e w o r k e d as gladiators at Rome,
1 0 6
b u t t h e r e a r e n o i n s c r i p t i o n s for G e r m a n g l a d i a t o r s . T h r a c e
was also a n i m p o r t a n t s u p p l i e r o f g l a d i a t o r s , n o t a b l y S p a r t a c u s ,
107
but
Thraex
in gladiatorial i n s c r i p t i o n s is a type o f f i g h t e r r a t h e r t h a n an
ethnic.
1 0 8
T h e r e was a L u d u s Dacicus in R e g i o I I o r I I I , a c c o r d i n g to
t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s of R o m e given by t h e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y
regionaries,
which m a y (but n e e d n o t ) i m p l y t h a t D a c i a n g l a d i a t o r s w e r e i m p o r t a n t in t h a t p e r i o d .
1 0 9
T h e c h a r i o t e e r Avillius T e r e s h a s a
Thracian cognomen.
probably
1 1 0
S o l d i e r s at R o m e from G e r m a n y a n d e l s e w h e r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w h o r e q u i r e d g r o o m s for t h e i r h o r s e s , c o u l d a p p a r e n t l y b r i n g t h e i r own slaves with t h e m . A n u m b e r o f equites singulares
commemorated
t h e i r slaves a n d r e c o r d e d t h e i r p l a c e of o r i g i n : a M a r s a c i a n n a m e d 1
M i l e s ; " a Norican called T e r t i u s ; " a Dacian freedman, Aurelius P r i m u s
2
a Raetian called M e r c a t o r ; "
1 1 4
3
(n.b. t h e L a t i n n a m e s ) . T h e
p l a c e of o r i g i n of t h e c o m m e m o r a t o r is n e v e r stated, b u t c o u l d b e t h e
215
Living
at Rome
s a m e as that o f t h e slave in e a c h c a s e .
1 1 3
Other German
soldiers
c e r t a i n l y h a d family m e m b e r s with t h e m (see p. 7 0 ) . Central and
Eastern
Europe produced
v e r y few p e o p l e
who
a c h i e v e d a d v a n c e m e n t o t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h t h e a r m y , at least until t h e legalization o f C h r i s t i a n i t y o p e n e d
up a n o t h e r p a t h t h r o u g h
the
c h u r c h . A p a r t from t h e coastal cities o f D a l m a t i a , a l m o s t n o s e n a t o r s a r e k n o w n , a n d very few civilian e q u e s t r i a n o f f i c i a l s ; "
6
this m a y b e
a t t r i b u t a b l e to t h e relative lack of p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e a r e a , which m a d e it difficult for civic l e a d e r s to build up t h e financial b a s e n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e s e n a t o r i a l o r even e q u e s t r i a n r a n k . "
7
H o w e v e r , from t h e t h i r d
c e n t u r y , m e n from C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e s t a r t e d to a p p e a r in positions o f p r o m i n e n c e at R o m e t h r o u g h t h e a r m y (as officers a n d s o m e t i m e s as e m p e r o r s , from M a x i m i n u s T h r a x to G r a t i a n ) a n d t h e church.
1 1 8
P a n n o n i a n s in p a r t i c u l a r s e e m to h a v e p r o t e c t e d t h e i r local
interests a n d e x e r t e d i n f l u e n c e o n t h e c e n t r e ,
1 1 9
a n d they w e r e p r o m i
n e n t in t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n at R o m e in t h e fourth c e n t u r y (see p. 9 9 ) . Flavius U r s i c i n u s , a P a n n o n i a n , w o r k e d for t h e magister T h e vir darissimus
120
ojficiorum.
S i m p l i c i u s c o m m e m o r a t e d in an e p i t a p h of 3 7 5 is
p r o b a b l y Flavius S i m p l i c i u s o f E m o n a , vicarius
urbis in 3 7 4 - 5 .
1 2 1
There
is m o r e e v i d e n c e for P a n n o n i a n s in t h e C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a n for p e o p l e from a n y o t h e r p a r t o f t h e a r e a , a n d s o m e i n d i c a t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n P a n n o n i a n c o m m u n i t y at R o m e in t h e fourth c e n t u r y (see p. 1 8 8 ) . 122 References
to the
123
homeland
TABI.K 16. Designation of people from Germany. Province
40 124
Region/tribe
Germanus Gcrmanus + tribe provincia Germania Inf. Germania Superior Germania + tribe + city Germana tellus ex collegio Germanorum
17 3
Batavus Batavus + Noviomagum Frisi(ae)us/Frisaevo Su(a)ebus Helvctius Marsacus/-quius
28 3 10 5 6 6
16
67
216
Foreign
groups
at Rome
Ubius Canonefas Baetesius regio Bisentinae City
3 4 1 1
19 Colonia Claudia Ara Ag. Noviomagum Mogontiacum
15 3 1
T h e d e s i g n a t i o n G e r m a n , o r a r e f e r e n c e to G e r m a n y , was very rarely used by r e g u l a r soldiers at R o m e , a l t h o u g h it was t h e n o r m a l d e s i g n a tion for t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n corporis guards.
125
custodies
T h e c o n c e p t oiGermanus/Germania
and
body
a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n o f
c o n s i d e r a b l y less i m p o r t a n c e t h a n Gallus/Gallia, Hispanus/Hispania.
for private
a n d less still than
M o s t G e r m a n s w e r e r e c o r d e d by t h e i r t r i b e . V e r y
few r e f e r r e d to a city; n e a r l y all t h o s e w h o did c a m e from C o l o g n e . T h i s is a very significant d i f f e r e n c e from a l m o s t e v e r y o t h e r a r e a : it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f G e r m a n soldiers a n d t h e m i g r a t i o n o f G e r m a n civilians w e r e n o t c h a n n e l l e d t h r o u g h cities as they w e r e for p e o p l e from e l s e w h e r e . I t was tribal r a t h e r t h a n civic o r p r o v i n c i a l identity which was i m p o r t a n t .
TABLE 17. Designation of people from Noricum. Province
27 Noricus Noricus + city provincia Noricum
City
15
17 9 1
1 2 6
F o r t h e rest o f c e n t r a l E u r o p e , h o w e v e r , t h e v o c a b u l a r y was very different. R a c t i a n s a r e virtually always d e s i g n a t e d by a n d N o r i c a n s very c o m m o n l y use Noricus,
127
Raetus/Raetia,
showing the importance o f
t h e p r o v i n c e (or of t h e single t r i b e o n which it was b a s e d ) in t h e i r selfidentity.
N o r i c a n s w e r e , h o w e v e r , m o r e likely t h a n R a e t i a n s o r
G e r m a n s to b e associated with a city.
TABLE 18. Designation o f people from Pannonia. Province
79 Pannonius/a
217
44
Living
at Rome (provincia) Pannonia
3
P a n n o n i u s / a + city
Region/tribe
City
10
P a n n o n i u s / a + village
4
Pannonia Superior
6
P a n n o n i a S u p e r i o r + city
1
P a n n o n i a S u p e r i o r + village
3
Pannonia Inferior
4
P a n n o n i a I n f e r i o r + city
2
P a n n o n i a I n f e r i o r + village
2
Boius
1
Varcianus
1
2
3 7
.28
T h e r e is a similar p i c t u r e for P a n n o n i a n s , a l t h o u g h cities a r e m o r e significant at least for soldiers. ' P a n n o n i a ' , w h e t h e r r e f e r r i n g to t h e p r o v i n c e o r t h e t r i b e o n which it was b a s e d , was an i m p o r t a n t selfd e s i g n a t i o n . T h e o n e substantial d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n P a n n o n i a a n d t h e a r e a s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e is t h e n u m b e r o f r e f e r e n c e s to t h e
home
village; this is always given very carefully after t h e p r o v i n c e a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e n e a r e s t city. It will b e discussed f u r t h e r below. D a c i a follows t h e s a m e p a t t e r n as R a e t i a : 2 9 o u t o f 3 3 d e s i g n a t i o n s c o n t a i n s o m e form o f Dacus/Dacia,
a n d o n l y 4 give t h e city w i t h o u t t h e
p r o v i n c e . O n e m a n is d e s c r i b e d as natione
Dacisca
regione
Serdic,
i.e. ' e t h n i c a l l y ' D a c i a n b u t from a n a r e a in t h e p r o v i n c e o f T h r a c e .
1 2 9
T h i s shows t h e possible d i s j u n c t u r e b e t w e e n official b o u n d a r i e s a n d locally p e r c e i v e d o n e s . T h e s a m e p a t t e r n o c c u r s a m o n g D a l m a t i a n s : 11 o u t o f 16 use a f o r m oiDalmatus/Dalmatia.
Moesians, however, are
very different: 11 o u t o f 2 1 use s o m e form o f Moesius/Moesia,
b u t this
i n c l u d e s 6 w h e r e t h e city o r village is also m e n t i o n e d ; 6 a r e d e s i g n a t e d ' D a r d a n i a n s ' , a n d 4 r e f e r only to t h e city. T h e 3 which r e f e r to t h e village follow t h e s a m e p r a c t i c e as s o m e P a n n o n i a n s a n d , as will b e s e e n b e l o w , T h r a c i a n s . M a c e d o n i a n s show e v e n less i n t e r e s t in t h e p r o v i n c e : only 5 o u t o f 18 a r e d e s i g n a t e d ' M a c e d o n i a n ' , while t h e o t h e r s r e f e r to t h e i r city only.
TABLE 19. Designation o f people from Thrace. Province
31 Thra(e)x (provincia) Thracia 218
,3
19 ° 2
Foreign
groups
al
Rome 7131
Thrax/Thracia + city Thrax/Thracia + village Region/tribe
3
35 Bessus Bcssus + city Bessus + village region + village
City
1 2
28 4 2
132
T h r a c e shows a very d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n from t h e o t h e r p r o v i n c e s c o n s i d e r e d h e r e , largely b e c a u s e o f t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e Bessus,
designation
which is m a i n l y (but n o t exclusively) u s e d for sailors. It h a d n o
c o n n e c t i o n with any R o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e unit, a n d shows that p r e R o m a n distinctions ( o r unofficial distinctions e x i s t i n g a l o n g s i d e t h e R o m a n system) could retain considerable i m p o r t a n c e .
1 3 3
A n o t h e r f e a t u r e of t h e T h r a c i a n , P a n n o n i a n a n d M o e s i a n inscrip tions is t h e f r e q u e n c y o f r e f e r e n c e s to t h e h o m e village ( r a t h e r t h a n t h e h o m e city). T h i s is s h a r e d with s o m e , b u t only s o m e , o f t h e e a s t e r n p r o v i n c e s : p a r t i c u l a r l y G a l a t i a , b u t also S y r i a a n d E g y p t . Any casual r e a d e r of an e p i t a p h c o u l d p r o b a b l y b e e x p e c t e d to k n o w what an Alexandrian or a Pannonian
was, b u t was unlikely to h a v e
k n o w l e d g e of, o r i n t e r e s t in, a n o b s c u r e village (vicus,
KC6U.T|,
much
%copiov).
N e v e r t h e l e s s , h o m e villages a r e m e n t i o n e d in s o m e religious d e d i c a tions by soldiers ( w h e r e it is explicitly p a r t of a . ^ / / - d e s i g n a t i o n ) a n d in e p i t a p h s for soldiers a n d civilians. I n t h e case o f t h e s o l d i e r s ' d e d i c a t i o n s , it is used w h e n a g r o u p of soldiers from t h e s a m e village o r from several different villages j o i n e d t o g e t h e r to e r e c t a n i n s c r i p t i o n . T h i s s e e m s to b e exclusively a t h i r d c e n t u r y T h r a c i a n c u s t o m . F o u r p r a e t o r i a n s from t h e s a m e village w h o b e t w e e n t h e m w e r e s e r v i n g in t h r e e different c o h o r t s c o - o p e r a t e d in one dedication.
134
In a d e d i c a t i o n by twenty p r a e t o r i a n s from
P h i l i p p o p o l i s a r e a to t h e domus o n e g a v e his vicus,
divina
a n d Asclepius Z i m i d r e n u s , e a c h
a n d fifteen different vici a r e n a m e d ; b e t w e e n t h e m ,
they w e r e m e m b e r s o f e i g h t different c o h o r t s .
1 3 5
T h e village n a m e was
invariably p r e c e d e d by a r e f e r e n c e to t h e a r e a o r t r i b e , e.g. ex ex vico Perdica
m>
et ex vico Tilis.
accidentally o m i t t e d .
137
b e i n g given in G r e e k .
O n o n e o c c a s i o n t h e village n a m e was
1 3 8
I n o n e c a s e , a very o d d w o r d is used w h e r e Trade
reg. Serdicens.
T h e most p r o b a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n is that MIDNE
w o r d for v i l l a g e .
Dardania
T h e r e is also an e x a m p l e o f t h e village f o r m u l a
vico s h o u l d h a v e b e e n written: cives prov. Potelense.
the
139
219
MIDNE
was a T h r a c i a n
Living
at Rome
T h e s e T h r a c i a n votive i n s c r i p t i o n s use t h e n a m e o f t h e village in a c o n t e x t w h e r e it would m e a n s o m e t h i n g to o t h e r c o n t r i b u t o r s to t h e i n s c r i p t i o n , e i t h e r b e c a u s e they c a m e from t h e s a m e village o r b e c a u s e t h e y c a m e from o t h e r similar villages, p r e s u m a b l y
nearby. S o m e
a t t e m p t was also m a d e to m a k e t h e n a m e s m o r e g e n e r a l l y m e a n i n g f u l by a s s o c i a t i n g t h e village with a r e g i o n o r city which o t h e r r e a d e r s m i g h t h a v e h e a r d of. It s e e m s likely that similar c i r c u m s t a n c e s e x i s t e d w h e n villages w e r e m e n t i o n e d in e p i t a p h s : a g r o u p o f p e o p l e from t h e s a m e p l a c e j o i n e d t o g e t h e r to c o m m e m o r a t e o n e o f t h e i r
number.
M o s t o f t h e villages a r e o t h e r w i s e c o m p l e t e l y u n k n o w n . I n s c r i b i n g t h e village n a m e s may h a v e b e e n a way o f p r e s e r v i n g a sort o f local identity.
1 4 0
T h e Latin epitaphs
p r a e t o r i a n s o r equites singulares.
w h i c h n a m e villages all c o n c e r n
T h e y a p p e a r to b e c o n t e m p o r a r y with
t h e votive i n s c r i p t i o n s , b u t c o v e r a w i d e r g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a : P a n n o n i a a n d M o e s i a as well as T h r a c e . T h r a c i a n s a n d M o e s i a n s always u s e d t h e t e r m vicus, a n d n e a r l y always gave a city o r r e g i o n as well as p r o v i n c e and village.
141
142
P a n n o n i a n s used vicus,
i n s c r i p t i o n has all t h r e e .
1 4 5
4
pagus* *
144
o r pedes,
and one
T h u s t h e r e s e e m s to b e a c l e a r a t t e m p t to
p r e s e r v e s o m e sort o f s h a r e d local identity, a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e t h e r e is p e r h a p s a survival o f distinctive local t e r m i n o l o g y . Language
and
names
As has a l r e a d y b e e n n o t e d (p. 1 7 1 ) , t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s for p e o p l e from all t h e C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n p r o v i n c e s a r e a l m o s t exclusively in L a t i n , e v e n t h o u g h M o e s i a , T h r a c e a n d M a c e d o n i a t h e m s e l v e s all h a d a h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h i s c a n b e e x p l a i n e d by t h e military c o n t e x t o f t h e vast majority o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s ; L a t i n was t h e n a t u r a l e p i g r a p h i c l a n g u a g e for soldiers. T h r a c i a n a n d o t h e r local l a n g u a g e s h a d n o e p i g r a p h i c tradition o f t h e i r own, a n d , with t h e possible e x c e p t i o n o f t h e o n e T h r a c i a n w o r d discussed a b o v e , t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e for a n y o f t h e local l a n g u a g e s b e i n g i n s c r i b e d at R o m e . T h i s d o e s not, h o w e v e r , necessarily m e a n t h a t G r e e k , T h r a c i a n a n d other languages were not spoken a m o n g the Eastern
Europeans
resident there. T h r a c i a n s ( n o t only t h o s e from t h e p r o v i n c e o f T h r a c e ) often h a d distinctive n a m e s which a r e easily r e c o g n i z a b l e in i n s c r i p t i o n s . S o m e T h r a c i a n s u s e d a l t e r n a t i v e local a n d R o m a n n a m e s , e.g. t h e v e t e r a n A u r e l i u s M a r c e l l i n u s qui el D i z a .
146
S i n c e a t h o r o u g h survey o f o c c u r
r e n c e s o f T h r a c i a n n a m e s is b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f this w o r k ,
147
only t h e
b e s t - d o c u m e n t e d o n e will b e s t u d i e d h e r e . 'Bithus'
(occasionally written
B i t u s o r V i t u s ) was a
220
common
Foreign T h r a c i a n n a m e which o c c u r s m a n y times at R o m e .
1 4 8
groups at Rome
T h e status o f t h e
b e a r e r s o f t h e n a m e is as follows:
TABLE
20. Status o f people called Slave Freedman Single name
149
Bithus.
6 11 5
Duo/tria nomina Uncertain Soldier
9 1 18
T h e associations o f t h e n a m e s e e m to b e r a t h e r different from t h o s e o f t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y servile ' e a s t e r n ' n a m e s discussed l a t e r in this c h a p ter. A l t h o u g h at least 3 4 % o f t h e p e o p l e called B i t h u s , a n d potentially c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e , a r e o f servile o r i g i n , at least 3 6 % a r e soldiers. T h i s p r o b a b l y p r e v e n t e d B i t h u s from b e i n g seen as a typical slave n a m e . It h a d t h e a d v a n t a g e o f b e i n g very similar to t h e L a t i n n a m e V i t u s . T h e slave a n d military c o n t e x t o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s m e a n s t h a t n o n a m e d c h i l d r e n a r e r e c o r d e d for a n y o f t h e B i t h i at R o m e ,
1 5 0
but their broth
ers all h a v e G r a e c o - L a t i n , n o t T h r a c i a n c o g n o m i n a : A. M u c i u s A.l. B i t h u s , b r o t h e r o f Attalus a n d P h i l o t i m u s ; of Aratus;
152
151
M. Livius B i t h u s , b r o t h e r
Aurelius Vitus, a p r a e t o r i a n , b r o t h e r o f Aurelius L u c i u s ;
M. A u r e l i u s B i t h u s , b r o t h e r o f M. A u r e l i u s S u m s .
1 3 4
153
T h i s also suggests
that t h e n a m e was q u i t e a c c e p t a b l e in families w h o s e n a m i n g p r a c t i c e s were otherwise G r a e c o - R o m a n . Community
and
religion
N o r i c u m is t h e only p r o v i n c e k n o w n to have m a i n t a i n e d its own statio at R o m e .
1 5 5
T h e stationarius,
a civilian, h o n o u r e d t h e Genius
Noricorum.
T h i s is u n u s u a l b e c a u s e o t h e r local deities from C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e a r e only k n o w n to h a v e b e e n w o r s h i p p e d at R o m e by soldiers. E i g h t N o r i c a n civitates
c o m b i n e d to m a k e a d e d i c a t i o n to a c u r u l e
a e d i l e , p r e s u m a b l y t h e i r p a t r o n o r b e n e f a c t o r , in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , b u t this is likely to h a v e b e e n d o n e by a special d e l e g a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n by r e s i d e n t s o f R o m e .
1 5 6
T h e r e is n o o t h e r e v i d e n c e o f a n y specifically
N o r i c a n o r R a e t i a n o r g a n i z a t i o n at R o m e . T h e i m p o r t a n c e for s o m e T h r a c i a n s o f t h e i r h o m e village, a n d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s for s h a r e d local identity, w e r e discussed a b o v e . T h e r e is a n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n of this. W h e n in 2 3 8 t h e villagers o f S c a p t o p a r a in T h r a c e w a n t e d to p r e s e n t a petition to t h e e m p e r o r a b o u t t h e imposi tions they suffered from p e o p l e a t t e n d i n g a n e a r b y m a r k e t , they u s e d a villager w h o also h a p p e n e d to b e a p r a e t o r i a n s e r v i n g in R o m e to d o it, A u r e l i u s P u r r u s .
157
T h i s was clearly a c a s e w h e r e a city would h a v e
221
Living
at Rome
s e n t its own a m b a s s a d o r s b u t a s m a l l e r c o m m u n i t y h a d to m a k e d o with w h o m e v e r it c o u l d find. It shows, h o w e v e r , that P u r r u s m u s t h a v e m a i n t a i n e d his links with his h o m e , s o m e t h i n g which is c o n s i s t e n t with the other T h r a c i a n evidence. A n u m b e r o f specifically T h r a c i a n divinities h a d cults at R o m e , s u c h as t h e T h r a c i a n H e r o , w h o was w o r s h i p p e d at R o m e a n d O s t i a .
1 5 8
S o m e o f t h e m s e e m to b e e x t r e m e l y local g o d s , w h o s e w o r s h i p at R o m e was p r o b a b l y p a r t o f t h e s a m e o u t l o o k which e m p h a s i z e d t h e h o m e village. F o r e x a m p l e , an i n s c r i p t i o n h o n o u r e d , in G r e e k , ' t h e m o s t manifest god Zberthourdos and A p o l l o (Cicanos,
Vergulesis,
Iambadoules'.
Raimullos)
1 5 9
T h r a c i a n t o p o n y m s w e r e h o n o u r e d by p r a e t o r i a n s . were probably honoured
Several forms o f
which a r e p r o b a b l y d e r i v e d from 100
T h r a c i a n gods
in a G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n p u t
u p by
the
p r a e t o r i a n A u r e l i u s B o u r i s a n d his f a t h e r A u r e l i u s P o u r i s ; t h e b e g i n n i n g is lost a p a r t from 'to t h e g o d s ' .
161
Moretti thinks that a T h r a c i a n
g o d was also h o n o u r e d by a frumentarius century altar.
162
o f L e g i o I I Italica o n a t h i r d -
T h e o c c a s i o n a l u s e o f G r e e k at R o m e for T h r a c i a n
r e l i g i o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s p r o b a b l y illustrates t h a t t h e altars w e r e s o m e t i m e s i n s c r i b e d in an i n - g r o u p c o n t e x t , to b e r e a d only by o t h e r Thracians. T h e following r a t h e r o d d i n s c r i p t i o n was p u t up by a g r o u p o f equites singulares
for C a r a c a l l a in 2 1 9 :
1 6 3
T o Hercules Magusanus, for the return o f our lord M. Aurelius Antoninus Pius Felix Augustus, his equites singulares Antoniniani, Batavian or Thracian citizens, recruited from the province o f Germania Inferior, willingly discharged their vow, deservedly. T h e s e m a y h a v e b e e n B a t a v i a n s r e c r u i t e d to a T h r a c i a n u n i t while it was s t a t i o n e d in G e r m a n y ; as t h e deity t h e y h o n o u r e d was a G e r m a n o n e , they m u s t have r e t a i n e d t h e i r own religious p r a c t i c e s .
164
It was n o t
u n u s u a l for a g r o u p o f soldiers from t h e B a l k a n p r o v i n c e s , d e s c r i b i n g t h e m s e l v e s as cives o f a certain a r e a , to join t o g e t h e r for a dedication to a g o d o r e m p e r o r , for e x a m p l e t h e cives Dalmatas Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus, honoured J u n o , Zimidrenus,
167
1 6 6
165
t h e Marcianopolitani
t h e cives Philippopolitanorum
a n d t h e cives Cotini
ex provincia
Germanorum
honoured cives w h o
w h o h o n o u r e d Asclepius Pannonia
e r e c t e d several p r a e t o r i a n d i s c h a r g e i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e collegium
(sic) w h o
inferiore
who
168
f o r m e d by t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n b o d y g u a r d
was in itself a n u n u s u a l institution since r e g u l a r soldiers w e r e n o t allowed to f o r m similar a s s o c i a t i o n s .
169
It evidently gave G e r m a n s o f
v a r i e d tribal b a c k g r o u n d s a f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n with its own officers which p r e s u m a b l y , in view o f its f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e in e p i t a p h s , 222
Foreign
groups
at Rome
a r r a n g e d burials. It c a m e to an e n d u n d e r G a l b a , a n d t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e of a n y e q u i v a l e n t institution later, a l t h o u g h G e r m a n s still c o o p e r a t e d for religious p u r p o s e s : a f r a g m e n t a r y d e d i c a t i o n d a t e d to AD 2 2 3 s e e m s to have b e e n p u t u p by cives o f G e r m a n i a I n f e r i o r ,
170
and
t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e M a t r e s S u l e v i a e (a Celtic n a m e ) was b r o u g h t by t h e equites singulares
from L o w e r G e r m a n y to R o m e .
1 7 1
F o r P a n n o n i a n s , t h e r e is s o m e c i r c u m s t a n t i a l e v i d e n c e for at least i n f o r m a l activity as a c o m m u n i t y in late antiquity. T h e e v i d e n c e for a Pannonian
b u r i a l a r e a in t h e S. S e b a s t i a n o c a t a c o m b , p e r h a p s
p a t r o n i z e d by t h e P a n n o n i a n U r b a n P r e f e c t V i v e n t i u s a n d e n c o u r a g e d by t h e t r a n s f e r to R o m e o f t h e relics of t h e P a n n o n i a n saint Q u i r i n u s , was discussed at p. 1 8 8 . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f P a n n o n i a n of fice-holders at R o m e in t h e fourth c e n t u r y was m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , a n d t h e r e may h a v e b e e n s o m e sort of s u p p o r t n e t w o r k which e n c o u r a g e d P a n n o n i a n s to w o r k for t h e a d v a n c e m e n t of t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s . I n t h e C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d a s e n s e of solidarity c o u l d n o t b e e x p r e s s e d by d e d i c a tions to local g o d s , so t h e r e is n o e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e of it, b u t it probably existed nevertheless.
iii. Greece Overview A history of R o m e ' s c o n t a c t s with G r e e c e (in t h e s e n s e of what b e c a m e t h e p r o v i n c e o f A c h a e a , i n c l u d i n g t h e A e g e a n islands) is b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f this w o r k . T h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d i r e c t R o m a n r u l e o v e r m u c h of t h e a r e a in 1 4 6 BC, a n d t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i n c e o f A c h a e a in 2 7 BC, w e r e t h e c u l m i n a t i o n of a l o n g i n v o l v e m e n t in t h e political m a n o e u v r e s o f t h e various l e a g u e s a n d m o n a r c h s w h o c o m p e t e d with e a c h o t h e r in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , b u t t h e c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e was of c o u r s e o f m u c h l o n g e r s t a n d i n g . T h e a t t e m p t m a d e by Dionysius of H a l i c a r n a s s u s to p r o v e t h a t R o m e was really a ' G r e e k ' city is p e r h a p s i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e d e s i r e of s o m e h i g h l y e d u c a t e d i m m i g r a n t s to capitalize o n i t .
Greek-speaking
172
T h e first G r e e k s from t h e future a r e a o f A c h a e a r e c o r d e d in reliable l i t e r a t u r e at R o m e a r e p r i s o n e r s - o f - w a r such as Polybius, a m b a s s a d o r s a n d slaves. T h e r e must h a v e b e e n a G r e e k p r e s e n c e in t h e city by t h e e n d o f t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y BC, s i n c e , as m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , o n t h e i n s t r u c tions o f t h e Sibylline B o o k s , two G a u l s a n d two G r e e k s ( p r e s u m a b l y slaves) w e r e b u r i e d alive in t h e F o r u m B o a r i u m in 2 2 8 , 2 1 6 a n d 113 BC.
17:5
T h e r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d t h e c h o i c e of nationalities is u n c l e a r
b e c a u s e a l t h o u g h t h e G a u l s w e r e e n e m i e s o f R o m e at t h e t i m e , t h e G r e e k s w e r e not. R o m e ' s d i r e c t i n v o l v e m e n t in G r e e c e b e g a n with t h e
223
Living
at Rome
a n t i - M a c e d o n i a n alliance with t h e Aetolian L e a g u e in 2 1 1 , an alliance which g r a d u a l l y e x p a n d e d to i n c l u d e various G r e e k c i t i e s .
174
Numer
ous leading Greeks suspected o f being pro-Macedonian were taken b a c k to R o m e for trial o r i m p r i s o n m e n t after t h e defeat o f M a c e d o n in 168.
1 7 5
In t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC, e n s l a v e m e n t a n d m a n u m i s s i o n was
a r e g u l a r r o u t e by which G r e e k s with s o u g h t - a f t e r
skills c a m e to
p r o m i n e n c e at R o m e . F i g h t i n g , a n d t h e r e f o r e p r e s u m a b l y
capture
a n d e n s l a v e m e n t , c o n t i n u e d sporadically in G r e e c e for m u c h o f t h e first c e n t u r y B C ,
1 7 6
w h e n t h e r e was still a plentiful supply o f slaves b o r n
in G r e e c e ( a l t h o u g h m u c h of this m a y h a v e c o m e from t h o s e b o r n in slavery). L . Ateius P h i l o l o g u s , a g r a m m a r i a n a n d r h e t o r i c i a n active in t h e late R e p u b l i c , was a f r e e d m a n b o r n at A t h e n s ; P o m p e y ' s f r e e d m a n L e n a e u s was allegedly k i d n a p p e d from t h e r e as a b o y .
1 7 7
T h e supply o f G r e e k slaves may have d r i e d up later, since Philostratus m a k e s A p o l l o n i u s o f T y a n a r e m a r k , w h e n a c c u s e d of m u r d e r i n g an A r c a d i a n b o y , t h a t 'slaves from P o n t u s o r L y d i a o r P h r y g i a c a n b e b o u g h t in R o m e , b e c a u s e you may see d r o v e s o f t h e m b e i n g s e n t h e r e ' , b u t t h a t G r e e k s , a n d especially A r c a d i a n s , w e r e n o t available in t h e slave m a r k e t ;
1 7 8
t h e p o i n t m i g h t b e a p p l i c a b l e to A p o l l o n i u s ' t i m e in
R o m e (late first c e n t u r y AD) o r P h i l o s t r a t u s ' (early t h i r d c e n t u r y ) . I n s c r i p t i o n s show t h a t t h e r e w e r e still G r e e k - b o r n slaves at R o m e in A p o l l o n i u s ' t i m e , e.g. E u t y c h e s , natione t h e Flavian p e r i o d o r l a t e r .
179
Graecus,
w h o s e e p i t a p h is from
Iulia L a u d i c e , a f r e e b o r n w o m a n from
S a m e o n C e p h a l l e n i a , w h e r e s h e left h e r family in u n s p e c i f i e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s , was m a r r i e d to an i m p e r i a l f r e e d m a n , T . Flavius A l c i m u s , w h o m a y h a v e b e e n o f t h e s a m e o r i g i n , j u d g i n g from his G r e e k c o g n o m e n , a l t h o u g h this is n o t s t a t e d .
180
G r e e c e u n d e r R o m a n r u l e h a d t h e i m a g e o f b e i n g an a r e a suffering from d e p o p u l a t i o n a n d e c o n o m i c d e c l i n e , a l t h o u g h this p i c t u r e was p r o b a b l y s o m e way r e m o v e d from reality. T h e G r e e k s t h e m s e l v e s c o u l d b e d e p i c t e d as r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e i r own d e c l i n e , at least w h e n it suited R o m a n p r o p a g a n d a p u r p o s e s .
181
T h e difficulty for s o m e o n e
b a s e d in G r e e c e to establish t h e n e c e s s a r y capital may b e a r e a s o n for t h e relative lack o f s e n a t o r s from t h e a r e a , a l t h o u g h it was possible, as H e r o d e s Atticus s h o w e d in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , to b e e x t r e m e l y rich while r e t a i n i n g local links. T h e e c o n o m i c s t a g n a t i o n o f G r e e c e w o u l d , if g e n u i n e , h a v e b e e n a significant p u s h factor in e n c o u r a g i n g e m i g r a tion, a n d t h e r e was c e r t a i n l y a d e m a n d at R o m e for s o m e o f t h e skills which e d u c a t e d G r e e k s w e r e likely to possess. N e v e r t h e l e s s , e v i d e n c e for
migration
to R o m e by f r e e G r e e k s o u t s i d e c e r t a i n
professions is fairly limited.
224
specific
Foreign
groups
at
Rome
T h e taste for G r e e k c u l t u r e a m o n g R o m a n a r i s t o c r a t s in t h e s e c o n d a n d first c e n t u r i e s BC c r e a t e d a d e m a n d for p h i l o s o p h e r s , poets a n d private tutors in g r e a t h o u s e s . T h e g e o g r a p h i c a l o r i g i n o f t h e s e p e o p l e was less significant t h a n t h e i r c o m m a n d o f G r e e k c u l t u r e , b u t m a n y o f t h e m c a m e from G r e e c e itself. R o m e c o n t i n u e d to h a v e an a t t r a c t i o n for t h e m in t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d , e n c o u r a g i n g s o m e to c o m e i n d e p e n d ently, e v e n i f it periodically r e a c t e d a g a i n s t t h e m , e.g. with e x p u l s i o n s of p h i l o s o p h e r s (see p. 4 4 ) . As discussed at p. 9 4 , t h e G r e e k c h a i r at R o m e was a p p a r e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d a p r o m o t i o n o v e r t h e e q u i v a l e n t c h a i r at A t h e n s . T h e a t t r a c t i o n s w e r e still t h e r e in late antiquity: Palladius o f A t h e n s t a u g h t r h e t o r i c at R o m e b e f o r e b e i n g s u m m o n e d to c o u r t in 3 7 9 .
1 8 2
G r e e c e was an i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f d o c t o r s for R o m e , i n c l u d i n g C l a u d i u s ' d o c t o r C. S t e r t i n i u s X e n o p h o n , from C o s (see p. 1 6 7 ) . C o s itself was a t r a i n i n g c e n t r e for d o c t o r s w h o l a t e r w o r k e d at R o m e . Craftsmen
also c a m e to R o m e from
S t r a t o c l e s , a s c u l p t o r from A t h e n s , smith.
184
1 8 3
G r e e c e , s u c h as C n .
Arrius
and Euboulos, a Corinthian gold
C o r i n t h h a d a p a r t i c u l a r l y high r e p u t a t i o n for m e t a l w o r k
a l t h o u g h , since t h e city was a R o m a n c o l o n y , C o r i n t h i a n s c o u l d b e o f Italian a n c e s t r y . G r e e c e was n o t an i m p o r t a n t military r e c r u i t m e n t a r e a , a l t h o u g h G r e e k f r e e d m e n w e r e p r o m i n e n t as naval c o m m a n d e r s in t h e civil wars at t h e e n d of t h e R e p u b l i c . O n l y t h r e e military figures from G r e e c e h a v e e p i t a p h s at R o m e , all o f w h o m s e r v e d in t h e f l e e t .
185
This
is c o n s i s t e n t with t h e low e s t i m a t i o n o f G r e e k military prowess which is f o u n d in m a n y R o m a n s o u r c e s . References The
lo the
homeland
e t h n i c Graecus,
in Latin o r G r e e k form, s e e m s to b e c o n f i n e d
largely to military a n d C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s . It is also u s e d for a small n u m b e r o f p e o p l e w h o a r e p r o b a b l y slaves o r e x - s l a v e s . from t h e P a l a t i n e P a e d a g o g i u m , t h e labels Graecus u s e d for i m p e r i a l s l a v e s .
187
186
In graffiti
a n d "EAAriv a r e b o t h
P a g a n civilians from G r e e c e a r e usually
labelled a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r h o m e city ( A t h e n i a n , L a c e d a e m o n i a n , C o r i n t h i a n , e t c . ) o r r e g i o n ( B o e o t i a n ) . A ' H e l l e n e ' c e r t a i n l y did n o t n e e d to c o m e from G r e e c e itself, so it is possible that a Graecus
did n o t
e i t h e r , b u t it s e e m s likely that it would imply G r e e k g e o g r a p h i c a l o r i g i n , especially in t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y a l t e r n a t i v e t e r m i n o l o g y Achaicus
-
is n e v e r used as an e t h n i c , a n d t h e r e is only o n e i n s c r i p t i o n
w h e r e A c h a e a is given as t h e n a m e o f t h e h o m e l a n d .
1 8 8
ft is slightly s u r p r i s i n g to find t h a t in TABLE 1, G r e e c e is o n e o f t h e
225
Living
at Rome
'Type C
a r e a s w h e r e a substantial p r o p o r t i o n
o f the
epigraphic
e v i d e n c e for m i g r a t i o n is C h r i s t i a n / J e w i s h , since it would s e e m m o r e n a t u r a l for p e o p l e to m o v e from G r e e c e to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t h a n to R o m e in t h e fourth c e n t u r y . It is e v e n m o r e s u r p r i s i n g to find t h a t in t h e p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s for p e o p l e from G r e e c e (TABLK 12) L a t i n is u s e d as often as G r e e k is, in c o n t r a s t to a r e a s like Asia a n d E g y p t , for which G r e e k is u s e d far m o r e often t h a n L a t i n . T h e e x p l a n a t i o n m a y b e t h a t m i g r a t i o n from G r e e c e is i m d ^ r - r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s : p e o p l e from G r e e c e t e n d e d n o t to r e c o r d t h a t they w e r e ' G r e e k s ' , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e they w e r e c o m m e m o r a t e d as d o c t o r s o r r h e t o r i c i a n s i n s t e a d , o r b e c a u s e t h e G r e e k label was so w i d e s p r e a d that it was of little use in identifying h o m e l a n d , o r , for t h o s e w h o did n o t qualify as Athenians or Lacedaemonians, because the connotations o f 'Greek' w e r e felt to b e t o o n e g a t i v e in a R o m a n e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e a n t i - G r e e k p r e j u d i c e was s t r o n g . Community
and
religion
T h e c u l t u r a l position o f G r e e c e m a d e it virtually i m p o s s i b l e for t h e r e to b e a n y local g o d s w h o w e r e n o t w o r s h i p p e d by p e o p l e from else w h e r e t o o . Thus t h e r e is n o c l e a r e v i d e n c e for a n y r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a tion e x c l u s i v e to t h o s e from G r e e c e . A l o n g G r e e k - l a n g u a g e i n s c r i p tion o f c. AD 1 5 0 shows t h e e x i s t e n c e at R o m e of a D i o n y s i a c cult o r g a n i z e d a n d a i d e d financially by P o m p e i a A g r i p p i n i l l a , a w o m a n o f s e n a t o r i a l b a c k g r o u n d w h o s e family t r a c e d its a n c e s t r y b a c k 2 0 0 years to L e s b o s , w h e r e t h e r e was a local D i o n y s u s c u l t . numbered
189
T h e members, who
o v e r 4 0 0 , w e r e slaves a n d ex-slaves of h e r family a n d
a r e l a t e d o n e , w h o w e r e t a k i n g p a r t in t h e cult b e c a u s e o f t h e i r ties to A g r i p p i n i l l a , n o t t h r o u g h religious c h o i c e .
1 9 0
A l t h o u g h m a n y of t h e
n a m e s a r e G r e e k , this is only to b e e x p e c t e d a m o n g slaves, a n d t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to s u p p o s e a d i r e c t association b e t w e e n t h e cult a n d p e o p l e of o n e p a r t i c u l a r g e o g r a p h i c a l o r i g i n , d e s p i t e t h e c l a i m s which h a v e sometimes been made.
1 9 1
T h e r e is n o o t h e r e v i d e n c e for a n y s o r t of c o m m u n i t y at R o m e o f p e o p l e from G r e e c e . D o c t o r s a n d r h e t o r i c i a n s w e r e m o r e likely to associate with o t h e r d o c t o r s a n d r h e t o r i c i a n s t h a n with p e o p l e from t h e s a m e p l a c e ( a l t h o u g h o f c o u r s e o t h e r d o c t o r s m i g h t h a p p e n to c o m e from t h e s a m e p l a c e ) . T h e i n d i c a t i o n s in l i t e r a t u r e o f solidarity a m o n g ' G r e e k s ' , n o t necessarily j u s t t h o s e from G r e e c e , a r e
from
a hostile p e r s p e c t i v e which o n l y reflects t h e x e n o p h o b i c p r e j u d i c e s b e h i n d it, n o t a n y real b e h a v i o u r (see p. 3 4 ) .
226
Foreign
groups ai Rome
iv. Asia Minor Overview D i r e c t R o m a n i n v o l v e m e n t in Asia M i n o r
1 9 2
began when Antiochus I I I
c a m e into conflict with R o m e in t h e 1 9 0 s BC; h e was d e f e a t e d
at
M a g n e s i a in 1 8 9 a n d f o r c e d to withdraw to t h e east o f t h e T a u r u s M o u n t a i n s . R o m e was t h e n d o m i n a n t in t h e a r e a , b u t without a n y direct territorial control until the k i n g d o m o f P e r g a m u m was b e q u e a t h e d to t h e R o m a n p e o p l e by Attalus I I I in 1 3 3 BC a n d t u r n e d into t h e p r o v i n c e o f Asia. D i r e c t r u l e s p r e a d only g r a d u a l l y , m o r e by peaceful a b s o r p t i o n o f client k i n g d o m s t h a n by c o n q u e s t , until t h e p r o v i n c e of Lycia et P a m p h y l i a was c r e a t e d by V e s p a s i a n , b r i n g i n g t h e w h o l e a r e a under R o m a n administration.
O n the eastern frontier,
Armenia's
status varied b e t w e e n p r o v i n c e a n d c l i e n t k i n g d o m . R o m a n e x p a n s i o n in Asia M i n o r did not, t h e r e f o r e , p r o d u c e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f e n s l a v e d p r i s o n e r s in t h e way that e x p a n s i o n in E u r o p e did. H o w e v e r , t h e slave t r a d e was e x t r e m e l y active in t h e a r e a , a n d t h e plentiful supply of Asian slaves is m a d e c l e a r in R o m a n l i t e r a t u r e . T h e s e varied from G r e e k i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e west c o a s t to ' b a r b a r i a n s ' from t h e i n t e r i o r . J u v e n a l refers to slaves w h o a r c t h e 'flower o f Asia', a n d to P h r y g i a n s a n d L y c i a n s as g o o d quality s l a v e s .
193
Slaves from
P o n t u s , L y d i a a n d P h r y g i a w e r e s u p p o s e d l y in plentiful supply at 194
R o m e in t h e Flavian p e r i o d .
A c c o r d i n g to C a t u l l u s , B i t h y n i a was
a g o o d s o u r c e o f l i t t e r - b e a r e r s ; i.e. t h e sort o f j o b c o n s i d e r e d to n e e d strength rather than intelligence or education.
195
Evidently n o t all t h e
i n h a b i t a n t s o f Asia M i n o r w e r e r e g a r d e d as attractive. C i c e r o insults s o m e o n e by saying t h a t h e looks as u n c o u t h as 'a C a p p a d o c i a n j u s t g r a b b e d from t h e flock o f slaves for sale', a c o m m e n t which also illustrates t h e a u t o m a t i c association b e t w e e n t h e a r e a a n d slavery in some Roman minds.
1 9 6
Domitian's eunuch cupbearer
Earinus came from
Pergamum.
1 9 7
After D o m i t i a n p r o h i b i t e d c a s t r a t i o n , e u n u c h s w o u l d , at least t h e o r e t i cally, have h a d to b c i m p o r t e d from o u t s i d e t h e e m p i r e , n o r m a l l y via Asia M i n o r . A n o t h e r s o u r c e of slaves was k i d n a p p i n g : H i e r a x , o n e o f t h e c o m p a n i o n s of Justin M a r t y r at R o m e , was a P h r y g i a n w h o h a d been orphaned and kidnapped. from
the imperial period
Domitilla;
199
1 9 8
Asian slaves a t t e s t e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s
include
Hector, Mygdonian
E u t y c h a s (sic), P h r y g i a n slave o f an eques singularis
unlikely to h a v e b e e n from Asia M i n o r h i m s e l f ; d o c i a n slave o f a n o t h e r eques
201
singularis.
200
slave o f w h o is
Primitivus, C a p p a
T h e numerous
imperial
slaves a n d ex-slaves w h o o r i g i n a t e d in Asia M i n o r m a y h a v e b e e n b o r n o n i m p e r i a l estates in t h e a r e a .
227
Living
at Rome
A l t h o u g h l i t e r a t u r e e m p h a s i z e s t h e significance of Asian slaves at R o m e , inscriptions present a rather different
picture. T h e
large
n u m b e r o f e p i t a p h s in G r e e k , especially for p e o p l e from t h e p r o v i n c e o f Asia (see TABI.K 1 2 ) , is c o n s i s t e n t with t h e l a r g e n u m b e r of r e c o r d e d peregrini
(see
TABLE
10) in s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e m i g r a t i o n o f p e o p l e o f
free status was p a r t i c u l a r l y significant for this a r e a . T h e e v i d e n c e is, h o w e v e r , a l m o s t exclusively c o n c e r n e d with t h e G r e e k p o p u l a t i o n o f Asia M i n o r , a n d t h e r e is very little sign o f p e o p l e o f n o n - G r e e k b a c k g r o u n d c o m i n g to R o m e e x c e p t as s l a v e s .
202
This is c o n s i s t e n t with t h e
g e n e r a l p r e d o m i n a n c e o f t h e m o s t r o m a n i z e d / h e l l e n i z e d section o f t h e i r h o m e society a m o n g free m i g r a n t s to R o m e . O n e e x c e p t i o n is t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e cult o f M a g n a M a t e r to R o m e in 2 0 5 - 4 BC, which b r o u g h t P h r y g i a n priests with it, b o t h t h e n a n d later. T h e s t r a n g e n e s s o f t h e r i t e s l e d to t h e initial s e g r e g a t i o n o f t h e p r i e s t s , a n d a prohibition on 'native-born R o m a n s ' participating in the c e r e m o n i e s .
to 20:5
Cities in Asia M i n o r s e e m to have h a d t h e g r e a t e s t f o n d n e s s o f a n y p a r t o f t h e e m p i r e for s e n d i n g e m b a s s i e s to R o m e (see p. 1 0 0 ) . T h i s m a y also h e l p to e x p l a i n t h e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e o f h i g h status at h o m e w h o a r e c o m m e m o r a t e d at R o m e a l t h o u g h n o t specifically said to h a v e b e e n there on embassies: L. Antonius Hyacinthus, an A u r e l i a T a t i a , p r o b a b l y high-priestess of A s i a ; from
Smyrna and
son o f a h i g h - p r i e s t .
2 0 6
205
L a o d i c e a a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n an a m b a s s a d o r ; cifically c a l l e d a Cilician a m b a s s a d o r .
208
L u c i u s , an
Hortensius 207
asiarch;
2 0 4
athlotheies Pedon o f
C h r y s i p p u s is s p e
T w o o f the three members o f
o n e e m b a s s y from T e r m e s s o s died at R o m e .
2 0 9
Nicias from X a n t h u s in
Lycia is explicitly said to have b e e n b o t h high-priest a n d a m b a s s a d o r .
210
S e n a t o r s from Asia M i n o r s t a r t e d to a p p e a r in significant n u m b e r s from t h e Flavian p e r i o d , a l t h o u g h individuals r e a c h e d s e n a t o r i a l r a n k u n d e r the Julio-Claudians.
211
S o m e c a m e from R o m a n c o l o n i e s o r
G r e e k cities with Italian s e t t l e m e n t s ; s o m e w e r e d e s c e n d a n t s o f l o c a l r u l e r s . A c c o r d i n g to Millar ( 1 9 8 1 , 2 0 3 ) : Most came from the landed bourgeoisie o f the cities, whose families combined office in the cities and provincial koina with posts in the equestrian order and the Senate. O t h e r s w h o did n o t a c h i e v e s e n a t o r i a l r a n k c o u l d still find a c o m f o r t a b l e lifestyle at R o m e . S o c r a t e s from T r a l l e s was able to b o a s t in his L a t i n e p i t a p h a b o u t e n j o y i n g t h e delights of B a i a e a n d s p e n d i n g H S 5 0 , 0 0 0 o n his t o m b .
2 1 2
T h e fact t h a t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a d i s p u t e at t h e
C i r c u s M a x i m u s in 2 1 7 has t h e s e n a t o r s a n d e q u i t e s s h o u t i n g in G r e e k is p r o b a b l y a reflection o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e e a s t e r n elite at R o m e 21
by that d a t e . '
5
228
Foreign
groups
at Rome
P e o p l e from Asia M i n o r , especially B i t h y n i a , a r e associated with t h e m a r b l e t r a d e , a n d with b u i l d i n g , s c u l p t i n g a n d p a i n t i n g (see p. 1 1 4 ) . T h e r e is e n o u g h e v i d e n c e to a s s u m e that t h e r e was an e s t a b l i s h e d pattern o f Bithynian marble-workers
m o v i n g to R o m e , s o m e t h i n g
which is likely to h a v e c r e a t e d a distinctive B i t h y n i a n c o m m u n i t y at R o m e , l i n k e d by o c c u p a t i o n as well as o r i g i n . T h i s is, h o w e v e r , h y p o t h e t i c a l , since t h e r e is n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e for such a c o m m u n i t y . T h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e for Asian i n v o l v e m e n t in Alcimas t h e tubocantius
was from S m y r n a .
a c t o r in a f r a g m e n t a r y i n s c r i p t i o n .
215
2 1 4
entertainment.
T h e r e may be a Bithynian
T h e r e is a C a p p a d o c i a n c h a r i o t
e e r , a n d a n o t h e r from s o m e w h e r e in t h e D i o c e s e o f t h e
Orient.
2 1 6
H o w e v e r , it is in athletics that Asians a r e best a t t e s t e d . P e o p l e from Asia d o m i n a t e t h e list o f victors at t h e C a p i t o l i n e G a m e s ( s e c TABLK 1 1 ) , a n d t h e a t h l e t e s ' association at R o m e h a d a s e c r e t a r y from Philadel p h i a in Lydia a n d m e t in a b u i l d i n g p r o v i d e d by a m a n from E p h e s u s in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD (see p. 1 2 1 ) . M o s t o f t h e foreign d o c t o r s w h o s e p l a c e o f o r i g i n is k n o w n c a m e from Asia M i n o r .
2 1 7
T h e p r o m i n e n c e o f Asians in t h e world o f litera
t u r e is also r e f l e c t e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s : t h e r e a r e several Septimius Nestor o f Laranda, a poet; losopher;
220
2 1 9
sophists;
218
A l e x a n d e r o f T a r s u s , a phi
Cn. Artorius Apollo o f Perge, a Stoic philosopher.
221
The
l e n g t h y e p i t a p h o f Philetus from L i m y r i s in Lycia suggests that h e was a philosopher too.
2 2 2
T r a d e b e t w e e n Asia M i n o r a n d R o m e was c e r t a i n l y i m p o r t a n t : s o m e Asian cities m a i n t a i n e d stationes
at R o m e ( s e c p. 1 6 0 ) , a n d N i c o m e d i a n
m e r c h a n t s at P o r t u s m a y h a v e collectively h o n o u r e d C a r a c a l l a , t h e r e is little e v i d e n c e for individual t r a d e r s .
224
225
but
A m a n from P h r y g i a
was a b a n k e r in p a r t n e r s h i p with s o m e o n e from A n t i o c h , p r o b a b l y in the second century AD.
225
T W O f r e e d m e n w e r e involved in t h e sale o f
cloaks: L . A r l e n u s L.l. D e m e t r i u s , a Cilician negotiat(or) c o m m e m o r a t e d with L. A r l e n u s L.l. A r t e m i d o r u s , a mercator
226
sagarius.
sagar(ius)
is
Paphlagonian
H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to t h i n k that t h e s e
o c c u p a t i o n s w e r e c o n n e c t e d with t h e places o f o r i g i n o f t h e p e o p l e involved. Asia M i n o r was not a significant a r e a o f military r e c r u i t m e n t . N e i t h e r t h e G r e e k n o r t h e i n d i g e n o u s p o p u l a t i o n s h a d m u c h o f a military r e p u t a t i o n a m o n g t h e R o m a n s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e individual e x a m ples o f soldiers from n e a r l y all t h e Asian p r o v i n c e s s e r v i n g at R o m e (see p. 5 9 ) . T h e n u m b e r s a r e similar to t h o s e from G r e e c e , e.g. four from B i t h y n i a , t h r e e from Cilicia. T h e r e is substantial e v i d e n c e that m i g r a t i o n to R o m e from Asia
229
Living
at
Rome
M i n o r c o n t i n u e d in late antiquity, d e s p i t e t h e
foundation
o f Constanti
n o p l e . G a l a t i a n s a r e particularly well a t t e s t e d (see p. 1 8 8 ) , a l t h o u g h t h e e v i d e n c e for t h e m m a y have b e e n d i s t o r t e d slightly by t h e p r e s e r vation o f o n e distinctive g r o u p o f e p i t a p h s , discussed f u r t h e r below. T h e latest d a t e d Asian inscription is for a G a l a t i a n , from AD 5 3 4 . References
to the
2 2 7
2
homeland
TABLE 2 1 . Desumation o f people from Asia.
Province
24 Asiaticus Asia Asia/Asiaticus + city Phryx/Phrygius Phrygia Phrygia + city Phrygia + village
Region
3 Maeander Mygdonia Maeonia
City
1 2 10 8 1 1 1 1 1 1
43 229
Laodicea Cyzicus Aphrodisias Miletus Smyrna Ephesus others 230
6 4 4 3 3 3 20
F o r p e o p l e from t h e p r o v i n c e o f Asia, t h e p r o v i n c e itself s e e m s to h a v e h a d little significance unless it was associated with t h e n a m e o f a city which in s o m e cases was p r o b a b l y d o n e simply to avoid c o n f u s i o n with a n o t h e r city o f t h e s a m e n a m e . T h e r e c u r r e n c e o f t h e d e s i g n a t i o n ' P h r y g i a n ' p r o b a b l y reflects t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f P h r y g i a as a p r e - R o m a n entity r a t h e r t h a n its revival as an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e unit in late antiquity, since o n l y 2 o f t h e 11 r e l e v a n t i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e C h r i s t i a n . It was t h e h o m e city w h i c h was i m p o r t a n t for p e o p l e from Asia, a n d this is c o n s i s t e n t with t h e h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f peregrini
among them, people
w h o h a d c i t i z e n s h i p o f an Asian city which they wished to e m p h a s i z e in t h e i r i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h u s t h e r e is unlikely to h a v e b e e n a n y c o m m u n i t y o f p e o p l e from Asia at R o m e , although t h e r e may have b e e n c o m m u n i t i e s
230
Foreign
groups at Rome
o f E p h e s i a n s , A p h r o d i s i a n s , e t c . L a o d i c e a is i n d i c a t e d by t h e inscrip tions to h a v e b e e n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t city in s e n d i n g Asians to R o m e .
TABLE 22. Designation of people from Bithynia. Province
11 4 2 2 3
Bithynius/icus Bithynia + city Ponticus Paphlago City
22 Nicomedia Constantinople others
The
231
12 4 6
B i t h y n i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s show a similar p i c t u r e to t h o s e from Asia
( a l t h o u g h t h e e v i d e n c e is m u c h less plentiful): t h e p r o v i n c e was less i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e city in p e o p l e ' s self-identity. N i c o m e d i a is m e n t i o n e d m o r e often t h a n all o t h e r B i t h y n i a n cities c o m b i n e d . Lycia, on t h e basis o f very little e v i d e n c e , s e e m s to follow t h e s a m e p a t t e r n : t h e r e a r e o n l y 2 r e f e r e n c e s to t h e p r o v i n c e , b o t h a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e n a m e o f a city, while 5 i n s c r i p t i o n s r e f e r to t h e city only. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , for
C a p p a d o c i a , t h e p r o v i n c i a l d e s i g n a t i o n (usually Cappadox)
is of
g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e , a c c o u n t i n g for 14 o f t h e 16 r e l e v a n t i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d Cilicia is similar: 8 o u t o f 13 i n s c r i p t i o n s use s o m e f o r m o f Cilix, a n d 4 of t h e o t h e r s r e f e r to o n e city, T a r s u s .
TABLE 2 3 . Designation o f people from Galatia. Province
Region/tribe
City Village
For
17 Galata/-es Galatia Galata + city Galates + village
8 1 1 7
Gallograecus Solymius + city
2 3
5
6 7
G a l a t i a n s , t h e p i c t u r e is s o m e w h a t different. I n t h e i r identity, t h e
city has less i m p o r t a n c e , a n d t h e p r o v i n c e ( o r at least t h e e t h n i c ) m o r e . 231
Living
at Rome
T h i s p r o b a b l y reflects t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s for t h e G a l a t i a n s ; by t h e fourth c e n t u r y , with u n i v e r s a l R o m a n c i t i z e n s h i p , civic identity was of less significance t h a n p r o v i n c i a l o r r e g i o n a l i d e n tity. Additionally, Galata R o m e which Gallus
did n o t have t h e n e g a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s at
h a d for Celts from G a u l .
T h e h a b i t o f r e c o r d i n g t h e h o m e village o c c u r s in C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h s in G r e e k for p e o p l e from G a l a t i a as well as, less often, from E g y p t a n d Syria. T h e few precisely d a t e d o n e s a r e fifth o r sixth c e n t u r y . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f n a m i n g villages for t h e a t t e m p t e d p r e s e r v a t i o n o f local identity h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n discussed in t h e c o n t e x t o f T h r a c i a n mili tary i n s c r i p t i o n s (see p. 2 1 9 ) . T h e s a m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s apply for t h e G a l a t i a n s : t h e r e m u s t h a v e b e e n o t h e r s p r e s e n t at R o m e for w h o m t h e village also h a d s i g n i f i c a n c e .
232
I n k e e p i n g with usual C h r i s t i a n epi
g r a p h i c p r a c t i c e , t h e c o m m e m o r a t o r is n e v e r i d e n t i f i e d in
these
e p i t a p h s , so it is n o t c l e a r i f t h e c o m m e m o r a t i o n was d o n e by family m e m b e r s . T h e G a l a t i a n s show less c o n c e r n for m a k i n g t h e villages identifiable t h a n t h e T h r a c i a n soldiers a n d t h e i r c o m m e m o r a t o r s they d o n o t specify t h e n e a r e s t city, o r give t h e r e g i o n .
2 3 3
-
Instead, the
i n t e n d e d r e a d e r s h i p was p r o b a b l y p e o p l e w h o a l r e a d y k n e w all a b o u t t h e villages, s o m e t h i n g which would b e c o n s i s t e n t with G a l a t i a n s p r e d o m i n a t i n g in an a r e a o f o n e c a t a c o m b (see p. 1 8 8 ) . T h e G a l a t i a n e p i t a p h s use f o r m u l a e which a r e r a t h e r different from t h o s e r e f e r r i n g to S y r i a n a n d E g y p t i a n v i l l a g e s . for v i l l a g e ,
235
instead.
O n l y o n e uses
KOOUTI
a n d t h e n o r m a l e x p r e s s i o n was t h e g e n i t i v e xcopioo) fol
lowed by t h e n a m e o f t h e v i l l a g e ; 237
234
236
o c c a s i o n a l l y t h e dative was u s e d
S o m e f o r m o f t h e w o r d G a l a t i a o r G a l a t i a n was often
a t t a c h e d . I n view o f this distinct r e g i o n a l u s a g e , it s e e m s t h a t several e p i t a p h s which use x^piorj a n d m e n t i o n o t h e r w i s e u n k n o w n villages s h o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d to G a l a t i a n s r a t h e r t h a n to S y r i a n s o r E g y p t i a n s , as has b e e n d o n e p r e v i o u s l y . Community
and
238
religion
T h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e e v i d e n c e for t h e i m p o r t a t i o n o f deities from Asia M i n o r to R o m e , which may b e c o n n e c t e d with Asian life at R o m e . B y far t h e best d o c u m e n t e d Asian cult is t h a t of M a g n a M a t e r / C y b e l e , b u t its history is r a t h e r different from that o f m o s t originally local cults, since it first c a m e to R o m e officially, at t h e o r d e r o f t h e S e n a t e . H o w e v e r , b e s i d e s t h e 'official' t e m p l e o n t h e P a l a t i n e , several o t h e r s h r i n e s a p p e a r e d in R o m e , in R e g i o n s X I a n d X I I I a n d t h e V a t i c a n .
2 3 9
T h e priests, including the e u n u c h galli, were almost certainly i m m i g r a n t s from t h e c u l t - c e n t r e in P h r y g i a ,
240
since R o m a n citizens w e r e for a l o n g
232
Foreign
groups
at Rome
time p r o h i b i t e d from taking part in t h e 'Phrygian c e r e m o n i e s ' , at least until the p e r i o d when Dionysius o f Halicarnassus was writing. O n e priest, a m a n from Pessinus, was e x p e l l e d in the late R e p u b l i c (see p. 4 4 ) . T h e y may, h o w e v e r , have b e e n partially r e c r u i t e d a m o n g i m m i g r a n t s w h o w e r e a l r e a d y in R o m e , r a t h e r t h a n all b e i n g b r o u g h t to R o m e specifically to s e r v e as p r i e s t s . slaves,
242
211
S o m e were imperial ex-
a n d L a P i a n a ( 1 9 2 7 , 2 9 6 ) suggests that it was t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
Asian f r e e d m e n which led C l a u d i u s to r e m o v e t h e legal c u r b s o n t h e priesthood. V e r m a s e r e n ( 1 9 7 7 ) lists 5 7 L a t i n , 4 G r e e k a n d 2 b i l i n g u a l inscrip tions from t h e Cybele/Attis cult at R o m e . T h e y d a t e from t h e first to t h e late fourth c e n t u r y AD. T h e earliest G r e e k i n s c r i p t i o n is from 2 4 4 (his n o . 2 4 5 ) a n d t h e o t h e r s (nos. 2 3 7 , 2 3 9 , 2 7 1 ) a r e f o u r t h - c e n t u r y ; t h e b i l i n g u a l o n e s (nos. 2 3 6 , 2 3 8 ) a r e b o t h from t h e 3 7 0 s . T h i s suggests that t h e association o f G r e e k with t h e cult is late, b u t since m a n y o f t h e e a r l i e r L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e e p i t a p h s for f r e e d m e n a n d o t h e r s w h o would t e n d to use Latin anyway in such a c o n t e x t , they d o not
necessarily
i n d i c a t e t h a t L a t i n was t h e m a i n l a n g u a g e o f t h e cult b e f o r e t h e fourth c e n t u r y . T h e r e is little d i r e c t association with i m m i g r a n t s , b u t t h e epitaph
o f H e c t o r , a ' M y g d o n i a n ' (i.e. P h r y g i a n ) a n d
apparently
a slave o r f r e e d m a n o f D o m i t i l l a , is a d d r e s s e d in L a t i n to ' Y o u w h o worship Cybele and m o u r n Phrygian Attis.'
243
P e o p l e o f high status in
R o m a n society w h o w e r e n o t i m m i g r a n t s t h e m s e l v e s also p a t r o n i z e d t h e cult, at least in late antiquity. F o r e x a m p l e , an e l a b o r a t e l y c a r v e d altar d a t e d to 3 7 0 has an i n s c r i p t i o n in L a t i n a n d G r e e k : t h e Latin p a r t gives details of t h e d o n o r s P c t r o n i u s A p o l l o d o r u s a n d his wife Rufia V o l u s i a n a , a n d t h e G r e e k p a r t has a p o e m a b o u t M a g n a M a t e r a n d Attis.
244
T h i s shows t h a t t h e use of G r e e k n e e d h a v e n o c o n n e c t i o n at
all with i m m i g r a n t s . T h e w o r s h i p of t h e h e a l i n g g o d Asclepius was b r o u g h t to R o m e officially, from E p i d a u r u s , o n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e Sibylline B o o k s in 2 9 3 BC. H o w e v e r , new institutions for t h e cult c o n t i n u e d to b c f o u n d e d o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d . A Collegium o f AD 1 5 3 ,
2 4 5
Aesculapii
et Hygeae,
with a c o n s t i t u t i o n
has officers with foreign n a m e s , a n d in view o f t h e p r e v a
l e n c e o f i m m i g r a n t d o c t o r s m a y well h a v e b e e n d o m i n a t e d by p e o p l e from Asia, b u t it was a p p a r e n t l y n o t e x c l u s i v e to o n e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a . T h e d o c t o r N i c o m e d c s of S m y r n a e r e c t e d a very l o n g G r e e k inscription h o n o u r i n g Asclepius. G r e e k by P. Aelius I s i d o r u s .
247
246
Asclepius was also h o n o u r e d
in
T h e cult is m o r e likely to b e c o n n e c t e d
with t h e collective identity o f d o c t o r s t h a n o f p e o p l e from Asia. T h e r e a r e two d e d i c a t i o n s to ' t h e V i r g i n G o d d e s s o f t h e S a r d i a n s ' by
233
Living
at Rome
i m p e r i a l f r e e d m e n , L. A u r e l i u s S a t y r u s a n d M . A u r e l i u s S y m p h o r u s , presumably Sardians themselves. were Artemis o f E p h e s u s ,
249
248
O t h e r Asian deities w o r s h i p p e d 2
Aphrodite o f Aphrodisias, ™ a n d S a b a z i u s .
251
A very specific local deity was h o n o u r e d in G r e e k by t h e stator A u r e l i u s M a r c u s : 'Zeus O l y b r i u s of t h e n a t i o n of t h e Cilicians o f t h e m o s t h o n o u r a b l e city o f A n a z a r b u s ' .
252
A p a r t from S a b a z i u s , w h o m a y h a v e
a c q u i r e d w i d e r a p p e a l , t h e s e a r e all deities w h o can only have i n t e r e s t e d p e o p l e from t h e city with which t h e deity was a s s o c i a t e d . T h e y m a y t h e r e f o r e i n d i c a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f cult o r g a n i z a t i o n s which w e r e e x c l u s i v e to p e o p l e from that city, b u t t h e r e is u n f o r t u n a t e l y n o evi d e n c e o f h o w such o r g a n i z a t i o n s o p e r a t e d , o r e v e n any p r o o f t h a t t h e worshippers
were p e r m a n e n t
r e s i d e n t s of R o m e r a t h e r t h a n j u s t
t e m p o r a r y visitors. T h e o t h e r c o m m u n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n k n o w n to h a v e e x i s t e d at R o m e for p e o p l e from Asia is t h e statio (see p. 1 6 0 ) . T h e m a j o r i t y o f k n o w n stationes
at R o m e a r e for Asian cities. T h e y i n d i c a t e t h a t t r a d e b e t w e e n
t h e s e cities a n d R o m e was thriving, b u t t h e lack of e v i d e n c e a b o u t e x a c t l y what t h e functions o f t h e stationes
w e r e m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e to
say w h e t h e r they w e r e focal points for c o m m u n i t i e s of E p h e s i a n s , T a r s i a n s , e t c . at R o m e . T h e c l e a r e s t e v i d e n c e for an Asian ' c o m m u n i t y ' at R o m e c o n c e r n s t h e G a l a t i a n s in late a n t i q u i t y . T h e r e c u r r e n c e o f r e f e r e n c e s to G a l a t i a n villages was d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , a n d
the concentration o f
G a l a t i a n b u r i a l s in t h e Octavilla c a t a c o m b was e x a m i n e d at p. 1 8 8 . T h e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t show t h a t t h e r e was a specific G a l a t i a n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a , as Ricci ( 1 9 9 7 a , 1 9 0 ) claims, b u t it is e n o u g h to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e G a l a t i a n s at R o m e h a d sufficient c o m m u n a l feeling to b e b u r i e d n e a r to e a c h o t h e r a n d to r e f e r in t h e i r relatives' e p i t a p h s to t h e i r h o m e villages. T h e fact t h a t this was h a p p e n i n g in late antiquity,
when
C o n s t a n t i n o p l e m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d to b e a m o r e attractive d e s t i n a t i o n for G a l a t i a n s , is s u r p r i s i n g . T h e m o s t likely e x p l a n a t i o n is t h a t t h e r e was a pattern o f chain migration, in which the success o f o n e o r two Galatians at R o m e
2 5 3
e n c o u r a g e d m o r e people from the s a m e a r e a to j o i n
t h e m ; the pattern could have c o n t i n u e d for several g e n e r a t i o n s . T h e r e is n o obvious reason why this should apply to Galatians m o r e than to others from Asia M i n o r , so it may j u s t b e an a c c i d e n t o f the survival o f e v i d e n c e that t h e r e is n o equivalent material for C a p p a d o c i a n s o r Cilicians.
v. Syria Overview R o m a n a n n e x a t i o n o f S y r i a t o o k p l a c e in 6 3 BC, b u t S y r i a n s w e r e
234
Foreign
groups
at Rome
a l r e a d y familiar at R o m e - P h o e n i c i a n s m a y e v e n h a v e b e e n t h e r e as early as t h e sixth c e n t u r y B C : .
254
S o m e prisoners would have been taken
d u r i n g R o m e ' s conflicts with t h e S e l e u c i d s in t h e s e c o n d a n d
first
c e n t u r i e s BC, a n d t h e r e w e r e also S e l e u c i d h o s t a g e s at R o m e at various times (see p. 1 0 7 ) .
2 5 5
H o w e v e r , m o s t S y r i a n s a r r i v e d at R o m e t h r o u g h
t h e w o r k i n g s o f t h e slave t r a d e . S y r u s was a c o m m o n slave n a m e , a l t h o u g h n o t necessarily given only to S y r i a n s , since t h e association S y r i a n = slave s e e m s to h a v e b e e n very w i d e s p r e a d : it is e x e m p l i f i e d by C i c e r o ' s n o t o r i o u s c o m m e n t , ' J e w s a n d S y r i a n s , n a t i o n s b o r n for slav e r y ' , a n d by a passage o f Livy w h e r e M . Acilius talks a b o u t ' S y r i a n a n d Asiatic G r e e k s , m o s t worthless races o f m e n a n d b o r n for s l a v e r y ' .
256
Plautus r ef er s to 'a S y r i a n o r E g y p t i a n ' slave girl, a n d Ap. C l a u d i u s Pulcher had a Syrian freedman
in 7 2 B C .
2 5 7
Cicero comments
t h e r e w e r e m a n y e u n u c h s from Syria a n d E g y p t .
2 5 8
that
Slaves w h o h a d
b e e n b r o u g h t to R o m e from o v e r s e a s for sale h a d t h e i r feet m a r k e d with white c h a l k o r what t h e E l d e r Pliny calls silversmiths' e a r t h . H e g o e s o n to list s o m e o f t h e f a m o u s p e o p l e w h o s e lives at R o m e h a d b e g u n in this way, i n c l u d i n g Publilius o f A n t i o c h (Publilius S y r u s ) , his cousin Manilius o f Antioch and Staberius Eros, who c a m e on the same ship in t h e early first c e n t u r y BC a n d f o u n d e d , respectively, m i m e writing, a s t r o n o m y a n d g r a m m a r - t e a c h i n g at R o m e .
2 5 9
He continues
with a list o f t h o s e w h o a c h i e v e d political i n f l u e n c e as t h e
freedmen
a n d - w o m e n o f p e o p l e like S u l l a a n d P o m p e y . Slaves still c a m e from Syria in t h e i m p e r i a l p e r i o d , for e x a m p l e S t r a t o , 'by birth S y r i a n , A n t i o c h e n e ' , f r e e d m a n o f t h e Augusti, m u s t b e late s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD (or l a t e r ) ; as with Asia M i n o r , s l a v e - b r e e d i n g a n d c r o s s - b o r d e r t r a d i n g maintained the supply. Voluntary migration
260
from S y r i a to R o m e w o u l d
probably
have
b e g u n in t h e late R e p u b l i c . M o s t o f t h e e v i d e n c e , h o w e v e r , is from t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD o r later. T h e r e is a c l e a r i m p l i c a t i o n that s o m e o f t h e slaves a n d ex-slaves l a b e l l e d S y r i a n s in t h e literary s o u r c e s w e r e t h o r o u g h l y i m b u e d with G r e e k c u l t u r e , w h e t h e r t h e i r a n c e s t r y was S y r i a n , G r e e k o r m i x e d . S o l i n ( 1 9 8 3 , 7 2 2 ) n o t e s that S y r i a n i m m i g r a n t s in g e n e r a l t e n d e d to b e o f G r e e k d e s c e n t o r at least to b e from t h e m o s t h e l l e n i z e d p a r t o f S y r i a n society. W h e n J u v e n a l ' s U m b r i c i u s c o m p l a i n s a b o u t ' t h e filth o f t h e O r o n t e s ' at t h e s a m e t i m e as c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t G r e e k s , h e clearly e q u a t e s t h e two (see p. 3 4 ) . H o w e v e r , a distinction b e t w e e n ' S y r i a n ' a n d ' S y r i a n G r e e k ' a p p e a r s to b e m a d e in s o m e s o u r c e s , e.g. P o p e E v a r i s t u s (c. 9 7 - 1 0 5 ) is d e s c r i b e d in t h e Ponlificalis
as nalione
is natione
Syrus.
Grecus Anliochenus,
261
235
Liber
w h e r e a s A n i c e t u s (c. 1 5 5 - 1 6 6 )
Living
at Rome
E v e n after t h e d e m i s e o f t h e S e l e u c i d s , t h e r e w e r e still local dynasts in S y r i a . T h e p r e s e n c e o f a f r e e d m a n o f K i n g S a m p s i c e r a m u s o f E m e s a ( e i t h e r from t h e t i m e o f Julius C a e s a r o r o f C a l i g u l a a n d C l a u d i u s ) may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e k i n g h i m s e l f c a m e to R o m e .
2 6 2
Syria gradually pro
d u c e d its s h a r e o f s e n a t o r s , a l m o s t exclusively m e n from t h e l a r g e cities.
263
T h e influence o f J u l i a D o m n a u n d e r Septimius Severus, and
the reigns o f Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, were
presumably
stimuli for m e m b e r s of t h e S y r i a n elite to c o m e to R o m e , b u t t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n a c o r r e s p o n d i n g r e a c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e m after t h e e n d o f t h e S e v e r a n dynasty. S y r i a was n o t a m a j o r r e c r u i t m e n t a r e a for t h e military units at R o m e , a l t h o u g h S y r i a n p r a e t o r i a n s , equites singulares
a n d sailors a r e all
r e c o r d e d . A n u m b e r o f p e o p l e from Syria with specialized skills a r e k n o w n at R o m e : Archias t h e p o e t , A p o l l o d o r u s t h e a r c h i t e c t , P r o b u s the grammarian.
2 6 4
T h e s e a r e all t h e sorts o f work c a r r i e d o u t at R o m e
by p e o p l e from t h e G r e e k - s p e a k i n g world. I n g e n e r a l , p e o p l e from S y r i a s e e m to have t h e i r work m e n t i o n e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s m u c h m o r e 26
r a r e l y t h a n p e o p l e from Asia Minor. "' A b a n k e r from A n t i o c h was in p a r t n e r s h i p with o n e from P h r y g i a .
266
A u g e ( p r o b a b l y a slave), c o m
m e m o r a t e d in t h e M o n u m e n t o f t h e Statilii, was a s p i n n e r .
267
A man
d e s c r i b e d as ' b o t h t r a v e r s i n g t h e l a n d a n d c r o s s i n g t h e waves in ships' was p r o b a b l y a t r a d e r .
2 6 8
S y r i a n s h a d a r e p u t a t i o n as slave-traders, a n d
t h e e p i t a p h of ' L . V a l e r i u s Aries, f r e e d m a n o f t h e s l a v e - t r a d e r Z a b d a ' p r o b a b l y r e f e r s to o n e o f t h e m in view o f t h e S e m i t i c n a m e .
2 6 9
W i t h this
e x c e p t i o n , t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e for a n y c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f S y r i a n s at R o m e in a n y p a r t i c u l a r sort o f work in t h e classical p e r i o d . T h i s s e e m s to h a v e c h a n g e d in late antiquity, h o w e v e r , w h e n t r a d e in t h e W e s t was r e g a r d e d as b e i n g so d o m i n a t e d by S y r i a n s that Syrus was u s e d by s o m e writers as an e q u i v a l e n t o f m e r c h a n t a n d m o n e y l e n d e r , in a d d i t i o n to b e i n g an e t h n i c l a b e l .
270
T h e e v i d e n c e only really
shows t h a t S y r i a n s w e r e d o m i n a n t in l u x u r y g o o d s a n d t h e slave t r a d e , however.
271
O n t h e possibility of e m i g r a t i o n from S y r i a in late antiq
uity b e i n g e n c o u r a g e d by c h a n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s in S y r i a itself, see p. 8 8 . S y r i a n s a r e particularly well attested in C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s at R o m e (see TABLE 1); t h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n twice as m a n y S y r i a n C h r i s t i a n s r e c o r d e d as C h r i s t i a n s from any o t h e r p r o v i n c e . A u g u s t i n e a d m i r e d t h e S y r i a n r h e t o r H i e r i u s , w h o t a u g h t G r e e k r h e t o r i c at R o m e first b u t b e c a m e a c c o m p l i s h e d in L a t i n t o o .
2 7 2
D i o g e n e s , w h o d i e d in AD 4 1 4 ,
was t h e n e p h e w o f A n a t o l i u s , praepositus from a village n e a r A p a m e a .
2 7 3
thesaurorum;
t h e family c a m e
As with G a l a t i a , a substantial n u m b e r o f
S y r i a n s d e c i d e d to c o m e to R o m e in late antiquity r a t h e r t h a n m a k e t h e s h o r t e r m i g r a t i o n to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . 236
Foreign References
to the
groups
at Rome
homeland
TABLE 24. Designation o f people from Syria Province
49 Syrus Syria Syrus/Syria + city Syria + village Surisca Coele Syria Phoenix Phoenicia + city Phoenicia + village
24 2 13 2 2 2 1 1 2
Region/tribe Arab(ic)us Arabus + city City
2 1
35 Antioch others
8 27
:
Village
T h e designation Syrus is very c o m m o n at R o m e , n u m e r i c a l l y c o m m o n e r t h a n a n y o t h e r e t h n i c . It was used for n e a r l y all S y r i a n soldiers, a n d for t h e m a j o r i t y o f civilians. It was r a r e , h o w e v e r , a m o n g S y r i a n C h r i s t i a n s a n d J e w s , s o m e t h i n g which m a y b e t h e result o f t h e t e n d e n c y in late antiquity to identify ' S y r i a n ' with ' t r a d e r ' n o t e d a b o v e . C h r i s t i a n s w e r e n o r m a l l y d e s i g n a t e d by t h e i r h o m e city o r , in at least 12 cases, village. The
p r a c t i c e o f r e f e r r i n g to t h e h o m e village has a l r e a d y b e e n dis
c u s s e d for G a l a t i a n C h r i s t i a n s ( 2 3 2 ) a n d T h r a c i a n soldiers ( 2 1 9 ) , a n d it is f o u n d a m o n g g r o u p s o f S y r i a n s e l s e w h e r e in late antiquity, e.g. at Corycus
2 7 5
and Aquileia.
276
W h e r e t h e l o c a t i o n s o f t h e villages m e n
t i o n e d at R o m e c a n b e identified (fewer t h a n h a l f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s give t h e r e g i o n as well as t h e village), they a r e all from t h e A p a m e a a r e a .
2 7 7
T h e t e r m u s e d for village is n e a r l y always Kc6|iT|, e i t h e r in t h e genitive o r after ano. T h e r e is also o n e L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n for a S y r i a n , using 278
vicus.
In two cases w h e r e t h e n a m e o f t h e village following cato
has b e e n lost, S y r i a n o r i g i n is m o s t l i k e l y .
279
KCOU,T|<;
T h e r e w e r e clearly s o m e
S y r i a n s at R o m e for w h o m t h e r e c o r d i n g o f t h e h o m e village was i m p o r t a n t , b u t it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e y w e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y t h o s e from t h e A p a m e a a r e a . T h e fact t h a t they r e f e r r e d to e a c h o t h e r by t h e village r a t h e r t h a n j u s t as A p a m e a n s is significant, a n d
237
the presence o f
Living
at Rome
a substantial
community
o f villagers from
t h e a r e a is
probably
implied, presumably the consequence o f a process o f chain migration. Names
and
language
S y r i a n s , like T h r a c i a n s , often h a d distinctive local n a m e s which a r e identifiable in i n s c r i p t i o n s from R o m e . S o l i n ( 1 9 8 3 ) gives a m a g i s t e r i a l survey o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e s of such n a m e s .
T h e r e a r e , as would
be
e x p e c t e d , s o m e e x a m p l e s o f p e o p l e using b o t h a S y r i a n a n d a G r a e c o L a t i n n a m e , e.g. X a n t h i a s qui et A d u d a s .
280
B e l o w , two n a m e s a r e
studied in an a t t e m p t to d i s c e r n t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s w h e n u s e d at R o m e . ' M a l c h i o ' ( a n d latinized variant M a l c h u s ) was a c o m m o n name.
2 8 1
i n c l u d i n g several C h r i s t i a n o n e s of which m o s t a r e in G r e e k :
TABLE
Syrian
It o c c u r s in m a n y i n s c r i p t i o n s at R o m e , m a i n l y L a t i n b u t 2 8 2
25. Status o f people called Malchio Slave Freedman Freeborn Single name
4 18 1 2
Duo/tria nomina Uncertain Christian
10 6 4
T h e association with servile status is c l e a r : at least 2 2 o f t h e
pagan
b e a r e r s o f t h e n a m e w e r e slaves o r ex-slaves, a n d only o n e definitely was not. H o w e v e r , two o f t h e four C h r i s t i a n s a r e explicitly free i m m i grants,
283
a n d o n e of t h e o t h e r s is a g e d 4 a n d c o m m e m o r a t e d by his
f a t h e r (who has a L a t i n n a m e ) ;
2 8 4
t h e fourth has a son n a m e d P e t r u s .
285
O f all t h e n o n - C h r i s t i a n p e o p l e called M a l c h i o , only o n e has his chil d r e n n a m e d in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n :
280
For Sabidia 3.1. Fusca who lived 18 years, [an 8-line verse epitaph follows] L. Faenius Malcio her father, Facnia L.3.1. Hilara her mother, P. Sabidius Fortunatus her brother. T h i s m a n ' s c h i l d r e n a n d his wife all h a d L a t i n c o g n o m i n a . "The n a m e M a l c h i o a p p e a r s n o t to h a v e b e e n passed o n to c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e o f its S y r i a n a n d / o r servile c o n n o t a t i o n s (which m i g h t b e t h e s a m e t h i n g ; see a b o v e ) . H o w e v e r , a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s , M a l c h i o , like m a n y S e m i t i c n a m e s , was a p p a r e n t l y viewed r a t h e r differently, a n d was given to a c h i l d p r e s u m a b l y b o r n at R o m e . ' P h a r n a c e s ' was a n a m e which m u s t h a v e s o u n d e d
distinctively
' o r i e n t a l ' ( a l t h o u g h n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y S y r i a n ) . It is o f I r a n i a n o r i g i n , a n d
238
Foreign
groups
at Rome
was m u c h u s e d by the P a r t h i a n a n d A r m e n i a n royal family, as well as in Syria a n d a r o u n d t h e B l a c k S e a . It is well a t t e s t e d as a p e r s o n a l n a m e at R o m e , always in L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s .
287
It o c c u r s for p e o p l e with
t h e following statuses:
TABLE 2 6 . Status of people called Slave Freedman Single name
Pharnaces
2 14 3
Duo/tria nomina Uncertain
11 1
N o t a single b e a r e r o f t h e n a m e is c e r t a i n l y f r e e b o r n , a n d at least h a l f a r e definitely from a slave b a c k g r o u n d . N o n e o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s has a n y r e f e r e n c e to t h e p a r e n t s o f t h e p e r s o n called P h a r n a c e s . Few o f t h e m e n called P h a r n a c e s a r e r e c o r d e d with c h i l d r e n , b u t w h e r e c h i l d r e n a r e n a m e d they have L a t i n n a m e s in t h r e e c a s e s , two,
2 8 9
288
G r e e k n a m e s in
a n d b o t h types o f n a m e in t h e following i n s c r i p t i o n :
290
P. Ostorius Scapulae 1. Pharnaces made this for himself, and for his freedwoman Ostoria P.l. Amma, and for his sons C. Sallustius Calvinae 1. Utilis and Phosphorus, and for his freedmen and freedwomen and all his descendants. S i n c e this P h a r n a c e s ' c h i l d r e n w e r e b o r n slaves, h e m a y n o t h a v e d e c i d e d t h e i r n a m e s anyway; his wife h a d a n a m e which is p r o b a b l y S y r i a n . O n e o f t h e wives of an i m p e r i a l slave called P h a r n a c e s h a d a probably T h r a c i a n name, Claudia P a e z u s a .
2 9 1
T h e name Pharnaces
was a p p a r e n t l y n o t o n e which p e o p l e w h o h a d settled in R o m e wished to pass o n to t h e i r c h i l d r e n . T h a t c o u l d b e b e c a u s e it was o r i e n t a l , o r b e c a u s e of its c o n n o t a t i o n s o f slavery. I n p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s for S y r i a n s , L a t i n is c o m m o n e r t h a n G r e e k , l a r g e l y b e c a u s e o f t h e slave b a c k g r o u n d
o f many o f the Syrians
r e c o r d e d . I n C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s , t h e p i c t u r e is c o m p l e t e l y different, with n e a r l y all t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s in G r e e k , a c l e a r c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e possibility of u s i n g t h e i n - g r o u p l a n g u a g e in t h e c a t a c o m b s w h e r e a s t h e o u t - g r o u p l a n g u a g e was r e q u i r e d in p a g a n b u r i a l a r e a s (see
TABLE
12). S o m e S y r i a n s h a d to m a k e f u r t h e r linguistic c h o i c e s , h o w e v e r , since a few c h o s e to use P a l m y r e n e o r N a b a t a e a n ; p r e s u m a b l y o t h e r s w h o c o u l d h a v e used t h o s e l a n g u a g e s d e c i d e d n o t to. T h e P a l m y r e n e i n s c r i p t i o n s c o m e from t h e P a l m y r e n e s a n c t u a r y , a n d will b e discussed below. N a b a t a e a n is u s e d a l o n g s i d e L a t i n in two e p i t a p h s .
292
The
o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t s o f t h e s e a r e n o t k n o w n , b u t t h e y a r e likely to have
239
Living
at Rome
b e e n in s o m e sort o f private o r s e m i - p r i v a t e b u r i a l a r e a w h e r e an ing r o u p l a n g u a g e c o u l d b e used a l o n g with t h e o u t - g r o u p o n e . T h e fact that only two a r e known may b e d u e to the rarity o f the a p p r o p r i a t e burial a r r a n g e m e n t s , the difficulty o f finding s o m e o n e c o m p e t e n t to inscribe Nabataean (see p. 1 7 8 ) , o r to a general lack o f interest in the l a n g u a g e a m o n g c o m m e m o r a t o r s (who a r e likely to h a v e b e e n b o r n at R o m e ) . Community
and
religion
T h e r e is m o r e e v i d e n c e a b o u t t h e religious activities o f S y r i a n s t h a n o f a n y o t h e r p a g a n g r o u p at R o m e . T h e e v i d e n c e has b e e n s t u d i e d in c o n s i d e r a b l e d e p t h r e c e n t l y , a n d an a t t e m p t will b e m a d e below to s u m m a r i z e t h e r e l e v a n t findings. T h e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n h e r e is t h e e x t e n t to which S y r i a n cults r e m a i n e d t h e p r e s e r v e o f S y r i a n s , s o m e t h i n g which is n o t easy to a n s w e r . It is likely t h a t t h e J a n i c u l u m s a n c t u a r y a n d t h e P a l m y r e n e cult, at least, w e r e only o f i n t e r e s t to p e o p l e with S y r i a n c o n n e c t i o n s in t h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d c e n t u r i e s . The Syrian Sanctuary
on the
Janiculum
T h e b u i l d i n g now r e f e r r e d to by this title, c o n t a i n i n g a n u m b e r o f cellae a r o u n d a c o u r t y a r d , was f o u n d o n t h e J a n i c u l u m in T r a s t e v e r e at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e twentieth c e n t u r y .
293
It m a y have b e e n d e d i c a t e d
to t h e H e l i o p o l i t a n triad, b u t this is n o t c e r t a i n ;
294
L o m b a r d i t h i n k s it is
m o r e g e n e r a l l y S y r o - P h o e n i c i a n r a t h e r t h a n specifically H e l i o p o l i t a n , a l t h o u g h Calzini G y s e n s takes it as H e l i o p o l i t a n with s o m e e x t e r n a l influence.
295
J u p i t e r H e l i o p o l i t a n u s was c e r t a i n l y w o r s h i p p e d
there,
b u t n u m e r o u s finds show t h a t various o t h e r local deities w e r e t o o : Hadad,
2 9 6
D e a Syria (a.k.a. Atargatis, V e n u s H e l i o p o l i t a n a ) ,
M a l e c i a b r u d e s ('lord o f I a b r u d a ' ) ,
2 9 8
Zeus K e r a u n i o s .
2 9 9
297
Jupiter
A relief o f the
P a l m y r e n e g o d s Aglibel a n d I a r h i b o l was also f o u n d t h e r e , d a t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y to t h e 2 3 0 s .
3 0 0
T h e s a n c t u a r y f l o u r i s h e d (on a site with
p r e v i o u s religious associations, t h e L u c u s F u r r i n a e ) at least b e t w e e n t h e m i d - s e c o n d a n d m i d - t h i r d c e n t u r i e s ; it m a y s u b s e q u e n t l y h a v e u n d e r g o n e an ' e g y p t i a n i z i n g ' p r o c e s s .
301
Its users w e r e p r o b a b l y work
e r s in t h e H o r r e a G a l b i a n a , j u s t a c r o s s t h e l i b e r , a n d p e o p l e living in Trastevere itself.
302
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b e n e f a c t o r t h e r e was M. A n t o n i u s M.f. G a i o n a s , w h o was active in t h e t i m e o f M a r c u s A u r e l i u s a n d C o m m o d u s . His b a c k g r o u n d is n o t k n o w n : h e was clearly a f r e e b o r n R o m a n citizen ( a l t h o u g h h e is r e f e r r e d to j u s t as G a i o n a s in m o s t o f t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s ) , but, d e s p i t e t h e a s s u m p t i o n s which h a v e s o m e t i m e s b e e n m a d e , t h e r e is n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e a b o u t w h e t h e r h e was an i m m i g r a n t o r a native o f
240
Foreign Rome.
3 0 3
304
at Rome
T h e i n s c r i p t i o n s show that h e felt a s t r o n g a t t a c h m e n t to
Commodus, and verse.
groups
h e was a b l e to write ( o r c o m m i s s i o n ) H o m e r i c
H e o c c u r s in six i n s c r i p t i o n s , o f which f o u r a r e definitely
associated with t h e s a n c t u a r y , a n d a n o t h e r is his e p i t a p h . T h o s e f o u n d in t h e s a n c t u a r y all h a v e a u n i f o r m style o f l e t t e r i n g .
303
1. C I L v i 3 6 7 9 3 , d a t e d 1 7 6 , from t h e J a n i c u l u m : a m a r b l e p l a q u e from a table for offerings, l a t e r r e u s e d as a t h r e s h o l d . [Latin] For the safety and return and victory o f the Emperors Augusti Antoninus and Commodus Caesar Germanicus princeps iuventutis Sarmaticus, Gaionas, cisliber o f the emperors, gave (this) as a gift. M)b
2. C I L vi 4 2 0 = 3 0 7 6 4 = 3 6 7 4 9 = C I L xiv 9 8 5 = I G U R 1 6 6 , d a t e d 1 8 6 , from t h e J a n i c u l u m ; a m a r b l e c o l u m n w h i c h p r o b a b l y c a r r i e d a statue o f C o m m o d u s .
3 0 7
[Latinl T o Jupiter Optimus Maximus Heliopolitanus. [Greek] T o the most kingly man, shicldcr (aspistes) of the world. [Latin] T o the Emperor Caesar M. Aurelius Commodus Antoninus Pius Sarmaticus Germanicus (etc.), M. Antonius M.f. Gaionas, Claudialis, Augustalis, Quirinalis, egfregijus,' cisliber, dedicated this in the year A.U.C.939, in the fifth consulship of Commodus Antoninus Pius Felix Augustus, and second consulship o f M. Acilius Glabrio, November 9th. im
3. C I L vi 3 6 8 0 4 = I G U R 1 0 9 , from t h e J a n i c u l u m ; c a r v e d o n a p l a q u e which was p e r f o r a t e d to serve as a f o u n t a i n - m o u t h
309
o r , a c c o r d i n g to
t h e r e c e n t s u g g e s t i o n of S c h e i d ( 1 9 9 5 , 3 1 1 - 1 4 ) , h e l d a r i n g to which a sacrificial a n i m a l was t e t h e r e d . [Greek] A strong desmos which Gaionas the deipnokrites might supply sacrifice to the g o d s .
erected so that it
310
4 . D u t h o y a n d F r e l 1 9 9 6 , 2 9 4 : a l i m e s t o n e c o l u m n b a s e from
the
Janiculum. |Latin] [To Jupiter Optimus Maximus Heliopolitanus, for L. Aurelius Commodus] Antoninus Augustus Pius Imperator, M. Antonius Gaionas, cisliber o f the emperors, gave (this) as a gift. 5. C I L xiv 2 4 from P o r t u s , o n a ' g r a n i t e l l o ' c o l u m n , d a t e d 1 7 6 - 1 8 0 . [Latin] T o Jupiter Optimus Maximus Angelus Heliopolitanus, for the safety of the emperors Antoninus and Commodus Augusti, Gaionas gave (this) as a gift. 6. C I L vi 3 2 3 1 6 = I G U R 1 1 5 7 : G a i o n a s ' e p i t a p h . [Latin] Sacred to the Di Manes. [Greek] Here I lie in death, Gaionas, who was once cistiber in Rome, and
241
3 1 1
Living
at Rome
judged many things in banquets with cheerfulness, owed nothing. [Latin] Gaionas, little soul. T h e H e l i o p o l i t a n cult was n o t a w i d e s p r e a d o n e at R o m e , a n d t h e n u m b e r o f cult objects c o n n e c t e d with it f o u n d o u t s i d e t h e s a n c t u a r y is small.
312
C i c e r o n i ( 1 9 9 6 , 3 6 3 ) writes t h a t t h e finds follow 'le m o d e
figuratif o r i e n t a l ' , a n d suggests: ...on ne peut exclure que la realisation des monuments 'heliopolitains' de Rome puisse etre expliquee, mieux que par la circulation de modeles iconographiques, par des descriptions detaillees fournies par les commanditaires. 313
T h i s would s u g g e s t that t h e d e v o t e e s w e r e t h e m s e l v e s p e o p l e w h o h a d b e e n to H e l i o p o l i s , a n d t h e r e f o r e m o s t p r o b a b l y S y r i a n i m m i g r a n t s . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n to t h i n k t h a t t h e cult was d e l i b e r a t e l y e x c l u s i v e , b u t it m a y h a v e b e e n attractive only to p e o p l e with S y r i a n c o n n e c t i o n s . G a i o n a s h a d a S e m i t i c c o g n o m e n which is o t h e r w i s e attested at R o m e only for o n e f r e e d m a n , a citizen o f u n c e r t a i n status, a n d two m e n for w h o m it a p p e a r s as a single n a m e .
3 1 4
I f h e w e r e n o t explicitly said to b e
f r e e b o r n , h e would s e e m likely to b e a f r e e d m a n himself. H e is m o s t likely to h a v e b e e n a free i m m i g r a n t , given t h e a p p a r e n t rarity o f S e m i t i c n a m e s for i m m i g r a n t s ' c h i l d r e n (see a b o v e , a n d p. 1 8 1 ) a n d also t h e r a t h e r s t r a n g e d a t i n g in i n s c r i p t i o n n o . 2 a b o v e (discussed at p. 1 7 8 ) which suggests s o m e o n e n o t fully at h o m e with t h e R o m a n d a t i n g system. N e v e r t h e l e s s , h e was very well i n t e g r a t e d , with status in t h e i m p e r i a l cult a n d ( p r o b a b l y ) t h e city p o l i c e as well as within t h e H e l i o p o l i t a n cult. Llis n o m e n , A n t o n i u s , may suggest that h e c a m e from a family which h a d h a d R o m a n citizenship for a l o n g t i m e ( a l t h o u g h it c o u l d , o f c o u r s e , h a v e b e e n a c q u i r e d from a f r e e d m a n a s c e n d a n t ) . D e v o t i o n to s o m e o f t h e i n d i g e n o u s institutions o f t h e city c o u l d c o - e x i s t happily with d e v o t i o n to s o m e i m p o r t e d institutions. I n his e p i t a p h , b o t h his police a n d his cult functions w e r e m e n t i o n e d , a l t h o u g h t h e latter was d o n e r a t h e r cryptically. T h e r e m a y , h o w e v e r , h a v e b e e n a d e l i b e r a t e o m i s s i o n o f his p l a c e of o r i g i n . Palmyrenes T h e r e was a s a n c t u a r y o f t h e S u n G o d a n d o t h e r P a l m y r e n e deities in Trastevere.
3 1 5
T h i s too m a y h a v e b e e n u s e d by w o r k e r s at t h e d o c k s
a n d w a r e h o u s e s , as well as p e o p l e from T r a s t e v e r e . Solin ( 1 9 8 3 , 6 8 3 ) n o t e s t h a t t h e users may n o t h a v e b e e n p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t s , b u t this s e e m s u n n e c e s s a r i l y sceptical; t h e r e is n o t h i n g to s u g g e s t t h a t t h e dedicants were only t e m p o r a r y
visitors.
242
316
In a Latin/Palmyrene
Foreign
groups
at Rome
i n s c r i p t i o n o f t h e first o r s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, T i . C l a u d i u s F e l i x , his wife a n d son m a d e a d e d i c a t i o n which differs n o t a b l y b e t w e e n t h e two languages:
317
[Latin] T o the most holy Sun. T i . Claudius Felix and Claudia Helpis and Ti. Claudius Alypius their son fulfilled their vow willingly and deservedly. T h e Galbienses from block 3 . [Palmyrene; tr. Teixidor 1979] This is the altar (which) T i . Claudius Felix and the Palmyrenes offered to Malachbel and the gods o f Palmyra. T o their gods. Peace. 3 1 8
T h e p e o p l e involved m a y b e (but n e e d n o t b e ) i m p e r i a l ex-slaves from t h e e n d of t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n p e r i o d , as s u p p o s e d by T u r c a n ( 1 9 9 6 , 1 7 5 - 6 ) . Felix used t h e s a m e n a m e in b o t h l a n g u a g e s ; p r e s u m a b l y h e did n o t h a v e a P a l m y r e n e n a m e , which suggests t h a t h e m a y n o t h a v e b e e n an i m m i g r a n t himself. T h e Latin t e x t uses t h e s t a n d a r d v o c a b u lary o f L a t i n votive i n s c r i p t i o n s , a n d n a m e s all t h e d e d i c a t o r s . T h e P a l m y r e n e version, which n o d o u b t says what was c o n s i d e r e d a p p r o p r i a t e in t h a t l a n g u a g e , n a m e s different g o d s , a n d specifies n o n e o f t h e individual d e d i c a t o r s o t h e r t h a n F e l i x ; they a r e p r e s u m a b l y i n c l u d e d a m o n g "the Palmyrenes". A fragmentary
Greek/Latin inscription records the building o f
a t e m p l e , p e r h a p s the s a m e o n e , to s o m e local d e i t i e s :
3 1 9
[Latin] For the safety o f the Emperor [ J, C. Licinius [ N — and Heliodorus] the Palmyrene built [the temple for Bel, laribol, Malachbel with their own money?] [Greek] Heliodorus the [Palmyrene and C. Licinius N — built] the tem ple for Bel, [laribol, Malachbel and the gods] o f Palmyra [with their own money?] H e l i o d o r u s is f o u n d a g a i n in a b i l i n g u a l G r e e k / P a l m y r e n e i n s c r i p t i o n d a t e d to 2 3 6 ,
3 2 0
w h e r e h e d e d i c a t e s a silver statue a n d o t h e r offerings
to B e l , Aglibel a n d M a l a c h b e l : this t i m e h e gives his full n a m e as A u r e l i u s H e l i o d o r u s H a d r i a n u s son o f A n t i o c h u s in G r e e k , b u t as I a r h a i , with filiation g o i n g b a c k to his g r e a t - g r e a t - g r a n d f a t h e r ,
in
P a l m y r e n e (see p. 1 8 2 ) . A n o t h e r G r e e k / P a l m y r e n e i n s c r i p t i o n m a r k s a d e d i c a t i o n to B e l , l a r i b o l a n d M a l a c h b e l by M a k k a i o s M a l e ( c o m m o n P a l m y r e n e n a m e s ) a n d S o ' a d u (also t h e n a m e o f H e l i o d o r u s ' great-great-grandfather).
321
T h e c h a n g e o f l a n g u a g e a c c o m p a n i e d by a c o m p l e t e c h a n g e o f o n o m a s t i c p r a c t i c e shows s o m e o n e at h o m e in b o t h linguistic c o d e s . H e l i o d o r u s / I a r h a i was p r e s u m a b l y an i m m i g r a n t from P a l m y r a . T h e use o f P a l m y r e n e in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s i m p l i e s t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e h a d s o m e r o l e in t h e cult. E q u i n i S c h n e i d e r ( 1 9 8 8 , 6 3 - 4 ) sees its use as t h e 243
Living
at Rome
result o f t r a d i t i o n a l i s m a n d a d e s i r e to e m p h a s i z e links with P a l m y r a , not o f linguistic necessity. T h e use o f a minority language
and
i m p o r t e d r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s c a n g o h a n d - i n - h a n d , a n d a d e c l i n e in o n e may a c c o m p a n y a d e c l i n e in t h e o t h e r , as o c c u r r e d in t h e W e l s h l a n g u a g e N o n c o n f o r m i s t c h a p e l s in P e n n s y l v a n i a in t h e late n i n e teenth and early twentieth centuries; the children o f immigrants r e j e c t e d t h e use o f W e l s h a n d f o u n d e d t h e i r own E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e c h a p e l s w h i c h rapidly d i s p l a c e d t h e W e l s h - l a n g u a g e o n e s .
3 2 2
It is
i m p o s s i b l e to k n o w i f t h e P a l m y r e n e s a n c t u a r y at R o m e h a d a similar e x p e r i e n c e , b u t it is q u i t e plausible; t h e c h i l d r e n o f P a l m y r e n e i m m i g r a n t s would p e r h a p s g e n e r a l l y ( a l t h o u g h n o t in t h e c a s e o f F e l i x ) h a v e p r e f e r r e d to use L a t i n o r G r e e k only. Jupiter
Dolichenus
T h e w o r s h i p o f J u p i t e r D o l i c h e n u s at R o m e is shown by t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a b u i l d i n g called t h e D o l o c e n u m o n t h e A v e n t i n e , w h e r e a l a r g e n u m b e r o f altars with L a t i n d e d i c a t i o n s h a v e b e e n f o u n d , a n d a n o t h e r s h r i n e o n t h e E s q u i l i n e . His cult was w i d e s p r e a d , a n d n o t r e s t r i c t e d to p e o p l e with a S y r i a n c o n n e c t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e r e clearly w e r e S y r i a n s a m o n g t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s . T h e users o f t h e A v e n t i n e s h r i n e w e r e civil ians from a wide variety o f b a c k g r o u n d s ; Bellelli suggests t h a t they, a n d t h e military users o f t h e E s q u i l i n e s h r i n e , w e r e mainly b u t e v e n this is n o t c l e a r .
3 2 3
B o t h s h r i n e s s e e m to h a v e
t h e m i d - s e c o n d to e a r l y - t h i r d c e n t u r i e s .
324
orientals,
flourished
from
S h e writes (p. 3 2 5 ) :
Certaines formes de culte (procession de la statue), tout comme les mobiliers (petites statues d'offrants egyptiens, antefixes avec uraei, decorations zoomorphes) scmblent vouloir recreer l'atmosphere de la patrie d'origine pour celebrer les rites qui la rappcllent. L'organisation du sanctuaire, les fideles, les bienfaiteurs etaient surtout o r i e n t a u x . 323
S o r r e n t i ( 1 9 9 6 , 4 2 4 ) offers a similar e x p l a n a t i o n for t h e o r i e n t a l i z i n g style o f D o l i c h e n i a n i c o n o g r a p h y at R o m e : ...elle s'explique sans doute par la presence stable d'individus d'origine orientale, notamment syrienne, dans les sanctuaires de la capitale, soucieux de maintenir leurs liens avec les traditions culturelles de leur terre natale. 32()
T h i s is e q u i v a l e n t to t h e c o m m e n t s o n t h e H e l i o p o l i t a n a n d P a l m y r e n e cults. S i n c e D o l i c h e n u s h a d a w i d e r a p p e a l , h o w e v e r , it is possible t h a t e m p h a s i z i n g t h e ' S y r i a n - n e s s ' o f t h e cult is different from t h e cult actually b e i n g d o m i n a t e d by S y r i a n s ; E g y p t i a n e l e m e n t s o f t h e Isis cult w e r e also e m p h a s i z e d b e c a u s e they w e r e attractive to p e o p l e w h o h a d
244
Foreign
groups at Rome
n o E g y p t i a n c o n n e c t i o n s o f t h e i r own. At least, t h e cult did n o t have t h e exclusively Syrian n a t u r e which would h a v e b e e n n e c e s s a r y i f it was to play a p a r t in t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f S y r i a n g r o u p identity. Other
deities
A variety o f o t h e r local deities from Syria w e r e also w o r s h i p p e d
at
R o m e , b u t in m o s t cases t h e r e is little e v i d e n c e a b o u t how t h e i r cults operated.
T h e 'paternal
god o f C o m m a g e n e ' , another
title for
D o l i c h e n u s , was h o n o u r e d by a S y r i a n sailor from t h e M i s e n u m fleet, his sons a n d a p r i e s t .
327
T h e cult o f E l a g a b a l , from E m e s a , r e c e i v e d
official s p o n s o r s h i p by t h e e m p e r o r o f t h a t n a m e , b u t was a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d at R o m e by t h e late s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, p r o b a b l y Trastevere.
3 2 8
O t h e r S y r i a n d e i t i e s w e r e also h o n o u r e d :
Bellefarus (Baal o f ' E f a r a ) ;
3 2 9
Jupiter Damascenus;
g a d a , a n o t h e r f o r m of B a a l ; from B e r y t u s .
3 3 2
3 3 1
3 3 0
in
Jupiter
Jupiter Turmas-
J u p i t e r Balmarquodes and
M a r n a s from G a z a h a d a s h r i n e at P o r t u s .
Neotera,
333
T h u s , t h e r e is c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t a l a r g e n u m b e r of S y r i a n deities w e r e w o r s h i p p e d at R o m e . J u p i t e r D o l i c h e n u s is t h e only o n e w h o s e a p p e a l clearly went b e y o n d t h e p a r t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n with S y r i a n c o n n e c t i o n s . T h e cults o f J u p i t e r H e l i o p o l i t a n u s , t h e P a l m y r e n e g o d s , a n d t h e o t h e r local divinities a r e likely to h a v e b e e n t h e p r e s e r v e of Syrians, b u t it is unfortunately impossible to distinguish first-generation i m m i g r a n t s from t h e i r d e s c e n d a n t s a m o n g t h e w o r s h i p p e r s w h o left i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e n e a r e s t parallel is t h e w o r s h i p o f local T h r a c i a n deities by T h r a c i a n soldiers s e r v i n g at R o m e (see p. 2 2 2 ) , b u t t h e T h r a c i a n s w e r e at R o m e for a limited p e r i o d b e f o r e t h e y w e n t h o m e . T h e S y r i a n s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m u s t have i n c l u d e d m a n y p e r m a n e n t i m m i g r a n t s . T h e i r cults a r e likely to h a v e b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t feature o f c o m m u n i t y life, p r o v i d i n g a f o r m o f institution n o t usually available to p a g a n civilian g r o u p s , b u t o n e which would h a v e b e e n lost in t h e fourth c e n t u r y with t h e s p r e a d o f C h r i s t i a n i t y .
vi. Egypt Overview E g y p t b e c a m e a R o m a n p r o v i n c e in 3 0 BC, b u t h a d a l r e a d y b e e n closely e n t w i n e d with R o m a n history for a l o n g t i m e . T h e sorts o f E g y p t i a n s r e c o r d e d as c o m i n g to R o m e in t h e R e p u b l i c fall i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : m e m b e r s o f t h e P t o l e m a i c family, priests of E g y p t i a n cults (discussed at t h e e n d o f t h e s e c t i o n ) , a n d slaves. S e v e r a l E g y p t i a n r u l e r s s p e n t t i m e at R o m e : P t o l e m y V I P h i l o m e t o r in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC a n d P t o l e m y X I I Auletes in t h e first w h e n they w e r e d r i v e n from t h e i r
245
Living
at Rome
t h r o n e s , a n d C l e o p a t r a V I I d u r i n g h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p with J u l i u s C a e s a r (see
p. 1 0 9 ) .
E g y p t i a n slaves a r e m e n t i o n e d as early as t h e t i m e o f Plautus. At first t h e y w o u l d only h a v e r e a c h e d R o m e t h r o u g h t h e slave t r a d e , b u t l a r g e n u m b e r s w e r e p r o b a b l y b r o u g h t b a c k for O c t a v i a n ' s t r i u m p h in 2 9 BC, a n d m o r e after t h e revolt o f 2 5 B C .
3 3 4
B y t h e first c e n t u r y AD, E g y p t i a n
slaves a n d ex-slaves h a d allegedly a c h i e v e d g r e a t i n f l u e n c e at R o m e , e.g. C a l i g u l a ' s E g y p t i a n c h a m b e r l a i n H e l i c o n w h o is said to h a v e u s e d his i n f l u e n c e o n b e h a l f o f t h e A l e x a n d r i a n G r e e k d e l e g a t i o n a g a i n s t the J e w s .
3 3 5
T h e association b e t w e e n E g y p t i a n s a n d slavery f o u n d in
l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e late first a n d early s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s AD suggests t h a t E g y p t i a n slaves w e r e still c o m i n g to R o m e in significant n u m b e r s ,
3 3 6
a l t h o u g h Ricci ( 1 9 9 3 a , 8 5 ) n o t e s t h a t n o n e o f t h e E g y p t i a n s r e c o r d e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e specifically said to b e slaves (cf. TABLE 1 0 ) . M o s t r e f e r e n c e s to E g y p t i a n s at R o m e c o n c e r n A l e x a n d r i a n s , a p p a r ently o f G r e e k e x t r a c t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n ' i n d i g e n o u s ' E g y p t i a n s . O n t h e other hand, the stereotyped R o m a n image o f Egyptians concentrated o n t h e aspects o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r p e r c e i v e d as m o s t o u t l a n d i s h , p a r ticularly t h e w o r s h i p o f a n i m a l - g o d s ,
337
a n d largely i g n o r e d t h e G r e e k
c o m p o n e n t o f t h e i r c u l t u r e . T h e r e s e e m s to b e s o m e t h i n g o f a c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n i m a g e a n d reality which m a y b e d u e at least in p a r t to a n t i - C l e o p a t r a p r o p a g a n d a a n d its legacy. The
E g y p t i a n elite was n e v e r really i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e s e n a t o r i a l
class, a n d t h e p r o v i n c e did n o t p r o d u c e a n y s e n a t o r s until t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y . B o t h o f t h o s e r e c o r d e d t h e n a r e c e r t a i n l y not r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e elite of t h e p r o v i n c e : T i . l u l i u s A l e x a n d e r I u l i a n u s , from t h e e x J e w i s h family o f Philo's n e p h e w , a n d P. Aelius C o e r a n u s , p r o b a b l y d e s c e n d e d from a f r e e d m a n o f H a d r i a n .
3 3 8
C r i s p i n u s , a pickled-fish
seller from C a n o p u s m e n t i o n e d f r e q u e n t l y by M a r t i a l a n d J u v e n a l , allegedly r e a c h e d at least e q u e s t r i a n r a n k at R o m e u n d e r D o m i t i a n .
3 3 9
A l e x a n d r i a n s w e r e active at R o m e in t h e world o f l i t e r a t u r e , from t h e t i m e o f A u g u s t u s until C l a u d i a n c a m e to R o m e in 3 9 4 .
3 4 0
Egyptian
d o c t o r s , w h o m a y n o t all h a v e b e e n A l e x a n d r i a n , a r e well d o c u m e n t e d (see
p. 111). A s t r o l o g e r s from E g y p t w e r e also p r o m i n e n t .
The
3 4 1
R o m a n fleet r e c r u i t e d in E g y p t , n o d o u b t a m o n g t h e s a m e p o o l
o f p e o p l e w h o m a n n e d t h e g r a i n fleet (see p. 1 6 5 ) . S e r v i c e in t h e fleet (or
l e g i o n s ) was a r e a s o n for leaving E g y p t which was specifically
allowed in t h e G n o m o n of t h e I d i o s L o g o s .
3 4 2
A small n u m b e r of
Egyptian praetorians are recorded, but praetorian recruitment ap p e a r s to h a v e b e e n u n u s u a l t h e r e . A l e x a n d r i a n m e r c h a n t s to R o m e ,
3 4 4
246
3 4 3
T h e c o r n t r a d e also b r o u g h t
a l t h o u g h t h e i r activities w e r e n o t
Foreign
groups at Rome
only c o n c e r n e d with g r a i n . A c c o r d i n g to S u e t o n i u s , A u g u s t u s
was
h o n o u r e d while sailing t h r o u g h t h e B a y of Puteoli by t h e p a s s e n g e r s a n d c r e w o f an A l e x a n d r i a n s h i p , w h o t h a n k e d h i m for m a k i n g t h e seas safe, a n d h e r e s p o n d e d by giving his staff m o n e y to s p e n d o n Alexandrian goods.
3 4 5
T w o peregrini
with E g y p t i a n - s o u n d i n g
a r e r e c o r d e d as m e m b e r s o f t h e corpus fabrum
navalium
names
o f Ostia.
S o m e o n e k n o w n from a p a p y r u s m a y h a v e b e e n d e a l i n g in c o t t o n .
3 4 6
3 4 7
O t h e r p r o d u c t s o f E g y p t , n o t a b l y p a p y r u s , linen a n d s t o n e , m u s t also h a v e b r o u g h t t r a d e r s to R o m e , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o d i r e c t e v i d e n c e for E g y p t i a n s d e a l i n g in t h e m . E g y p t i a n slaves a r e r e c o r d e d in l i t e r a t u r e as e n t e r t a i n e r s , such as t h e d a n c e r B a t h y l l u s (a f r e e d m a n o f M a e c e n a s ) , named Paris,
349
3 4 8
a n d V e r u s ' a c t o r f r e e d m a n A p o l a u s t u s (see p. 1 1 8 ) .
E g y p t was also a s o u r c e o f gladiators (see p. 1 1 8 ) , e p i t a p h for a citharoedus Hermodorus
o n e o f the actors
,
3 5 1
3 5 0
a n d t h e r e is an
T h e pancratiast M. Aurelius Asclepiades
c a m e from a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t social b a c k g r o u n d ,
office-holding A l e x a n d r i a n f a m i l y .
an
352
E g y p t r e m a i n s a fairly well-attested s o u r c e o f i m m i g r a n t s to R o m e in C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e latest d a t e d o n e is from 5 8 9 .
3 5 3
Church
politics b r o u g h t s o m e A l e x a n d r i a n exiles to R o m e : A t h a n a s i u s in t h e fourth c e n t u r y a n d J o h n Talai'a in t h e fifth. References
to the
homeland
TABLE 27. Designation o f people from Egypt. Province
13 Aegypt(i)us Egypt+Alexandria
Alexandria Other cities Villages
12 1
21 3 4
T h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f A l e x a n d r i a n s in t h e e v i d e n c e is c l e a r , a n d t h e r e is a distinct lack of r e f e r e n c e s to a n y o t h e r E g y p t i a n cities. T h e p e o p l e d e s i g n a t e d with t h e e t h n i c Aegyptus
a r e m a i n l y b u t n o t e n t i r e l y mili
tary. T h i s suggests e i t h e r a g e n u i n e s h o r t a g e o f n o n - A l e x a n d r i a n E g y p t i a n s at R o m e o r , p e r h a p s m o r e plausibly, a r e l u c t a n c e to identify t h e m s e l v e s as s u c h in view o f t h e s t r o n g hostility to E g y p t i a n s n o t e d a b o v e . T h e label ' A l e x a n d r i a n ' m a y s o m e t i m e s i n d i c a t e n o t o n l y a native o f A l e x a n d r i a b u t also s o m e o n e w h o m o v e d t h e r e from s o m e w h e r e in t h e E g y p t i a n chora a n d t h e n m o v e d o n to R o m e , a p a t t e r n of 247
Living
at Rome
m i g r a t i o n which is c e r t a i n l y to b e e x p e c t e d o n t h e basis o f m o d e r n e v i d e n c e (see p. 5 5 ) . T h e r e a r e t h r e e r e f e r e n c e s to t h e o t h e r w i s e u n d i s t i n g u i s h e d village o f K o p r i t h i s in C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s .
354
T h e practice o f naming the
h o m e village also o c c u r s in I C U R 1 2 8 8 3 : Ktouri Meyc^A-ric, noxOecx; in t h e t e r r i t o r y o f H e r a c l e o p o l i s M a g n a . F o r E g y p t , as for Syria, t h e t e r m used for village is always K(6|ir|, e i t h e r in t h e genitive o r after ano. T h e p r o v i n c e o r n e a r e s t city is n e v e r given for E g y p t i a n s . T h e significance o f n a m i n g h o m e villages has a l r e a d y b e e n discussed (see p. 2 3 7 for t h e S y r i a n villages). T h e r e a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n a c o m m u n i t y o f p e o p l e from K o p r i t h i s at R o m e in t h e fifth c e n t u r y . Names,
language
and
calendar
Few distinctly E g y p t i a n n a m e s a r e r e c o r d e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s at R o m e . T h e c o m m o n e s t s e e m s to b e H o r u s , b u t that o c c u r s only five t i m e s , all in L a t i n i n s c r i p t i o n s .
TABLE
355
28. Status o f people called Horus. Slave Freedman Duo/tria nomina
2 2 1
T h e s a m e association with servile status applies for this as for m a n y o t h e r local n a m e s (see p p . 1 7 9 , 2 3 8 ) . T h e o n e b e a r e r o f t h e n a m e with a r e c o r d e d child (a f r e e d m a n o f G a l b a ) h a d a d a u g h t e r n a m e d Basilia, which is c o n s i s t e n t with t h e g e n e r a l r e l u c t a n c e o f t h e b e a r e r s o f local n a m e s to pass t h e m o n to t h e i r c h i l d r e n .
356
G r e e k is c o m m o n e r t h a n L a t i n for E g y p t i a n s in p a g a n i n s c r i p t i o n s , s o m e t h i n g which reflects t h e fact t h a t free i m m i g r a n t s , especially Alexandrians, predominate
and
slaves a r e a b s e n t . T h e
Christian
i n s c r i p t i o n s a r e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y in G r e e k . T h e r e is n o t r a c e o f t h e use o f any form o f the Egyptian language; hieroglyphics might have been u s e d for t h e s a m e sort o f visual effect which s o m e J e w s a c h i e v e d with H e b r e w , b u t a p p a r e n t l y they w e r e n o t - this m a y b e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e lack ( a p a r t from t h e t o m b of t h e E g y p t i a n s at t h e V a t i c a n ; see p. 189) o f separate Egyptian burial areas. O n e o t h e r e p i g r a p h i c way o f s h o w i n g E g y p t i a n identity was by u s i n g the Egyptian calendar, the only n o n - R o m a n calendar which
was
r e g u l a r l y i n s c r i b e d at R o m e (see p. 1 7 8 ) . T h i s is s o m e t h i n g for which t h e r e is substantial e v i d e n c e . It was only u s e d in i n s c r i p t i o n s written 248
Foreign
groups
at
Rome
largely o r e n t i r e l y in G r e e k , a n d it s e e m s to have b e e n c o m m o n e s t in t h e fifth c e n t u r y . T h r e e C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h s use it for p e o p l e w h o a r e stated to b e i m m i g r a n t s : Paulus o f A l e x a n d r i a d i e d o n P h a o p h i 2 4 ; a m a n from K o p r i t h i s d i e d o n Payni 2 2 ; died on Mecheir 2 1 .
3 5 9
3 5 8
3 5 7
A m m o n from A l e x a n d r i a
T h e r e is also a C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h in which t h e
details o f t h e d e c e a s e d a r c a l m o s t e n t i r e l y lost b u t a d a t e in P h a o p h i is given;
360
a n o t h e r very f r a g m e n t a r y o n e which s e e m s to use b o t h G r e e k
a n d L a t i n has a d a t e in P h a r m o u t h i ;
361
a n d b o t h give t h e y e a r by
c o n s u l a r d a t i n g ( 4 7 1 a n d 4 5 8 o r 4 7 4 ) . S o m e o n e w h o s e n a m e is largely lost d i e d o n H a t h y r 7 , Pharmouthi.
3 6 3
3 0 2
a n d t h e r e is a n o t h e r f r a g m e n t a r y d a t e in
An e p i t a p h which may b e J e w i s h r e c o r d s t h e d e a t h o f
[ T h e o j d o s i a on T y b i 2 0 .
3 6 4
An i n s c r i p t i o n d a t e d to 5 8 9 which s e e m s to
r e c o r d a b e n e f a c t i o n has a d a t e in P h a r m o u t h i .
3 6 5
BLgyptian dates w e r e n o t r e s t r i c t e d to a C h r i s t i a n c o n t e x t , a l t h o u g h t h a t is w h e r e m o s t o c c u r . In two i n s c r i p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e cult o f S e r a p i s , t h e d a t e is carefully given a c c o r d i n g to b o t h systems: '1 day b e f o r e t h e N o n e s o f M a y , which is a c c o r d i n g to t h e A l e x a n d r i a n s Pachon l l ' , I'.367
D
o
t
n
gj
3 6 6
v e
a n d ' 6 days b e f o r e t h e K a l e n d s o f April, P h a r m o u t h i t
h
e
y
e a r
D
y
t
n
e
n o r m a l c o n s u l a r dating. T h e mainly (but
not exclusively) Egyptian practice o f writing L for 'year(s)', either in a date o r in s o m e o n e ' s age, is also found in several G r e e k inscriptions at R o m e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , A u r e l i u s A p i o n o f H e r m o p o l i s d i e d on Kalends o f D e c e m b e r .
3 6 9
3 6 8
the
T h e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e is t h a t A p i o n ' s
e p i t a p h is in L a t i n , w h e r e a s all t h o s e which use E g y p t i a n dates a r e in G r e e k . It was evidently felt that a L a t i n e p i t a p h
required a date
a c c o r d i n g to t h e R o m a n system, b u t that t h e E g y p t i a n d a t i n g system a n d t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e w e n t t o g e t h e r naturally. I t is n o t c l e a r i f t h e p e o p l e c o m m e m o r a t e d with E g y p t i a n dates w e r e all i m m i g r a n t s from E g y p t t h e m s e l v e s , a l t h o u g h s o m e clearly w e r e . W h i l e n o n - E g y p t i a n s m i g h t a d o p t t h e E g y p t i a n c a l e n d a r for religious r e a s o n s , t h e fact t h a t t h e l a r g e majority o f t h e e x a m p l e s given a b o v e a r e C h r i s t i a n shows that this was n o t usual. M o r e p r o b a b l y , t h e i n s c r i b i n g o f dates from t h e i r own c a l e n d a r was a small s t a t e m e n t o f E g y p t i a n identity m a d e by E g y p t i a n s t h e m s e l v e s a n d p e r h a p s also ( a l t h o u g h this is n o t p r o v a b l e ) by p e o p l e o f E g y p t i a n a n c e s t r y . Community
and
370
religion
T h e cult o f Isis at R o m e was p r o b a b l y e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e e a r l y first c e n t u r y BC (see p. 4 3 ) . It was r e p r e s s e d r e p e a t e d l y from t h e 5 0 s BC, a l t h o u g h t h e t r i u m v i r s set u p a t e m p l e o f Isis a n d S e r a p i s in 4 3 B C . Despite some further
3 7 1
s e t b a c k s u p to a n d i n c l u d i n g t h e r e i g n o f
249
Living
at Rome
T i b e r i u s , t h e cult a c h i e v e d such p r o m i n e n c e t h a t o n e of t h e r e g i o n s o f R o m e c a m e to b e k n o w n as Isis et
Serapis.
A l t h o u g h t h e cult was n o t e x c l u s i v e to, o r e v e n d o m i n a t e d
by,
E g y p t i a n s , t h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e t h a t E g y p t i a n s usually h e l d t h e 2
p r i e s t h o o d s . " E m b e s , d e s c r i b e d as prophetes
a n d pater o f t h e c o l l e g e o f
P a e a n i s t a i o f S e r a p i s in AD 1 4 6 , was a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y an E g y p t i a n . The
neokoros
Alexandrian.
373
o f t h e t e m p l e o f S e r a p i s at P o r t u s in c. 2 0 0 was an 374
E v e n as late as t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , Plotinus m e t an
E g y p t i a n priest w h o h a d c o m e to R o m e a n d c o n j u r e d up a spirit in t h e temple o f Isis.
375
T h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e s e e m s to h a v e b e e n o b l i g a t o r y for d e d i c a t i o n s to Isis a n d S e r a p i s . T h e E g y p t i a n c a l e n d a r was o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e d (see a b o v e ) . T h e cult was very attractive to s o m e u p p e r - c l a s s R o m a n s , a n d t h e r o l e of E g y p t i a n s s e e m s to h a v e b e e n fairly limited b e y o n d supply ing t h e priests. W h e n it was t e m p o r a r i l y s u p p r e s s e d by T i b e r i u s after a s c a n d a l , t h e priests w e r e c r u c i f i e d , w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t they m u s t h a v e b e e n slaves o r peregrini.
H o w e v e r , t h e lack o f a n y a s s o c i a t e d
e x p u l s i o n of E g y p t i a n s t h e n o r in a n y o f t h e p r e v i o u s
suppressions
m a y i n d i c a t e t h a t it was n o t t h o u g h t to b e limited to o n e n a t i o n a l g r o u p (see p. 4 3 ) . At O s t i a , w h e r e Isis' p o p u l a r i t y was n o
doubt
i n c r e a s e d by h e r p a t r o n a g e o f sailing a n d by t h e r e g u l a r arrival o f t h e g r a i n fleet from A l e x a n d r i a , t h e s a m e m a n was p r i e s t of b o t h ' O s t i a n Isis a n d M a t e r D e o r u m o f T r a s t e v e r e ' .
3 7 6
A c c o r d i n g to t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e , m o s t o f t h o s e involved in t h e cult d o n o t a p p e a r to b e i m m i g r a n t s . T h i s is d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s for S e r a p i s . T h e p r i e s t V i b i u s m a d e a d e d i c a t i o n to h i m , 'on t h e g o d ' s o r d e r s ' .
3 7 7
T h e Arellii S e v e r u s a n d F u s c u s (very L a t i n
n a m e s ) a n d t h e 'holy o r d e r o f paianistai Greek.
3 7 8
T h e prophetes
with a g r o u p of paianistai the imperial cult.
3 7 9
in R o m e ' also h o n o u r e d h i m in
E m b e s w h o a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n E g y p t i a n , w h o p r o b a b l y w e r e not, a s s o c i a t e d h i m with
T h e hierodoulos
C. Avidius T r o p h i m i a n u s
made
a vow to h i m for t h e safety o f t h e e m p e r o r ( p r o b a b l y C a r a c a l l a ) .
3 8 0
was identified with Zeus H e l i o s in a t h a n k s g i v i n g i n s c r i p t i o n . P o r t u s , h e was h o n o u r e d by a f a t h e r a n d s o n from A l e x a n d r i a .
He
381
382
At
The
c o s m o p o l i t a n n a t u r e o f t h e cult m e a n s t h a t it c a n n o t h a v e f u n c t i o n e d as a c o m m u n a l focus for E g y p t i a n s at R o m e . E g y p t i a n g o d s o t h e r t h a n Isis a n d S e r a p i s w e r e also w o r s h i p p e d , a n d in t h e s e cases t h e r e a r e s o m e c l e a r e r c o n n e c t i o n s with p e o p l e w h o c a m e from E g y p t . ' A n t i n o u s t h e c o m p a n i o n o f t h e g o d s in E g y p t ' was M. U l p i u s A p o l l o n i u s .
383
An A l e x a n d r i a n c o u n c i l l o r h o n o u r e d ' t h e a n c e s t r a l g o d s ' at P o r t u s .
384
h o n o u r e d with a d e d i c a t i o n from t h e prophetes
250
Foreign
groups al Rome
T h e e p i t a p h o f a girl n a m e d Isias c o m m e m o r a t e d by h e r
parents
A n t i n o u s a n d P a n t h i a suggests t h e i n f l u e n c e o f E g y p t i a n w o r s h i p o n n a m i n g p r a c t i c e , b u t d o e s n o t necessarily i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p e o p l e w e r e themselves Egyptians.
385
T h e inevitable c o n c l u s i o n is t h a t E g y p t i a n s at R o m e l a c k e d a n y f o r m of communal organization.
Isis- a n d
Serapis-worship could
have
u n i t e d A l e x a n d r i a n s with o t h e r E g y p t i a n s , b u t o n l y a l o n g with p e o p l e from a variety of o t h e r b a c k g r o u n d s . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e o f a n y o t h e r institution which p r o v i d e d a focus for A l e x a n d r i a n s o r o t h e r E g y p t i a n s , a n d only t h e p e o p l e from
fifth-century
K o p r i t h i s s e e m to
h a v e b e e n a n x i o u s to p r e s e r v e a f o r m o f local identity.
vii. North Africa
386
Overview R o m e ' s d e a l i n g s with C a r t h a g e would h a v e b r o u g h t p e o p l e to R o m e from t h e r e as a m b a s s a d o r s a n d as p r i s o n e r s o f war d u r i n g t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y BC. T h e r e was also a t h r i v i n g slave t r a d e b e t w e e n R o m e a n d Africa. T h e playwright T e r e n c e , b o r n at C a r t h a g e , is an e x a m p l e o f s o m e o n e c o m i n g to R o m e t h r o u g h t h e slave t r a d e ; h e was n o t a war captive.
387
Cicero c o m m e n t s on the high n u m b e r o f Carthaginian and
M a c e d o n i a n p r i s o n e r s in slavery at R o m e .
3 8 8
D i r e c t R o m a n r u l e was e s t a b l i s h e d in Africa after t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f C a r t h a g e in 1 4 6 BC. C y r e n e was a n n e x e d in 7 4 BC a n d j o i n e d with C r e t e to f o r m a p r o v i n c e . N u m i d i a c a m e u n d e r R o m a n c o n t r o l in 4 6 BC, a l t h o u g h it was n o t m a d e a s e p a r a t e p r o v i n c e until AD 1 9 6 . M a u r e t a n i a , previously a c l i e n t k i n g d o m , was i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e e m p i r e in AD 4 2 / 3 after fierce r e s i s t a n c e . N o r t h Africa c o n t a i n e d s o m e cities which w e r e G r e e k , L i b y a n o r P h o e n i c i a n f o u n d a t i o n s , b u t m a n y o f t h e m a i n p o p u l a t i o n c e n t r e s b e g a n as R o m a n c o l o n i e s ( n o t a b l y t h e r e - e s t a b l i s h e d C a r t h a g e ) o r military s e t t l e m e n t s . Ricci ( 1 9 9 4 b , 1 9 8 ) believes that the colonization p r o g r a m m e
o f Julius Caesar
and
A u g u s t u s in N o r t h Africa also s t i m u l a t e d a p o p u l a t i o n flow from t h e r e to R o m e . T h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e a r e a c a m e from a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds (Italian, Greek, Punic, Libyan, B e r b e r , Jewish), but, as with o t h e r a r e a s , it is likely to have b e e n t h e m o s t r o m a n i z e d / h e l l e n i z e d section o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n which p r o v i d e d m o s t o f t h e free m i g r a n t s to R o m e . V a r i o u s m e m b e r s o f N o r t h African r u l i n g families a r e r e c o r d e d as s p e n d i n g t i m e at R o m e . J u b a I I , c l i e n t k i n g o f M a u r e t a n i a , lived at R o m e in t h e time o f J u l i u s C a e s a r a n d Augustus, a n d t h e r e a r e epitaphs for two o f his slaves: a strucLor, subsequently o w n e d by A u g u s t u s ,
251
389
and
Living
at Rome
a mime-actress.
3 9 0
T h e r e a r e also two f r e e d m e n o f ' K i n g P t o l e m a e u s ' ,
meaning Juba's son.
391
E v e n after M a u r e t a n i a was i n c o r p o r a t e d into
t h e e m p i r e , o t h e r m i n o r dynasts r e m a i n e d o u t s i d e d i r e c t r u l e , a n d at t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD an i n s c r i p t i o n m e n t i o n s t h e son o f C a n a r t h a , a s s i g n e d by t h e R o m a n s as princeps Baquates.
o f the tribe o f the
3 9 2
S e n a t o r s from N o r t h Africa b e c a m e n u m e r o u s from t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD, a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e of F r o n t o a n d , l a t e r a n d m o r e significantly, S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s n o d o u b t e n c o u r a g e d O v e r a h u n d r e d African s e n a t o r s a r e k n o w n in a l l .
3 9 3
them.
Mauretania and
N u m i d i a p r o d u c e d t h e i r first s e n a t o r in t h e Flavian p e r i o d ; N u m i d i a n s , mainly from C i r t a , heavily o u t n u m b e r e d M a u r e t a n i a n s .
394
T h e extent
o f N o r t h African i n f l u e n c e b e c a m e so g r e a t that: ' I n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y p e r h a p s o n e in e i g h t of t h e R o m a n S e n a t e was o f African o r i g i n . '
3 9 5
T h i s c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d in p a r t to t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e a r e a , which e n a b l e d l a r g e n u m b e r s o f m e n to a c h i e v e t h e level o f wealth n e c e s s a r y for s e n a t o r i a l status. Ricci ( 1 9 9 4 b , n o . A l ) r e c o n s t r u c t s t h e family o f L . Aelius P e r p e t u u s , an a m b a s s a d o r
3 9 6
from T h a m u g a d i s w h o d i e d at R o m e in t h e late
s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD. H i s b r o t h e r quaestorius
S e x . A e l i u s V i c t o r was a
at R o m e , a n d his g r a n d s o n L. Aelius T e r t i u s , a
scriba
causidicus,
was b o r n at R o m e a n d c o m m e m o r a t e d at P i a c e n z a . T h e family illus t r a t e s t h e possibility of p e o p l e slightly b e l o w t h e s e n a t o r i a l elite m i g r a t i n g from N o r t h Africa to R o m e . T h e y a r e n o t t h e o n l y p e o p l e from N o r t h Africa w h o w o r k e d at R o m e in c o n n e c t i o n with t h e law: t h e r e is also an advocatus 39
perilus. *
from T r i p o l i t a n i a .
397
P r a e t e x t a t u s was a iuris
L . S e p t i m i u s S e v e r u s , a city m a g i s t r a t e from L e p c i s , was
a index inter seleclos at R o m e .
3 9 9
S e v e r a l African j u r i s t s w h o w e r e active
at R o m e a r e k n o w n from literary s o u r c e s .
400
S i n c e t h e p r o v i n c e o f Africa was o n e o f t h e m a i n s o u r c e s o f R o m e ' s g r a i n supply, t r a d e m u s t have b e e n an i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n for Africans to c o m e to R o m e . T h e n u m e r o u s African cities which h a d stationes
at
O s t i a (see p. 1 6 2 ) w e r e involved in t h e c o r n t r a d e , a l t h o u g h they m a y have sent other commodities t o o . curator
4 0 1
L . C a e l i u s Aprilis V a l e r i a n u s ,
o f t h e C a r t h a g i n i a n ships a n d p r o b a b l y a C a r t h a g i n i a n h i m s e l f
in view o f his voting t r i b e , built his family t o m b at O s t i a . L. C a e c i l i u s A e m i l i a n u s , a p r a e t o r i a n
402
S o did
v e t e r a n , m a g i s t r a t e o f Aelia
Ulizibbira a n d m e m b e r o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n of w i n e - i m p o r t e r s .
403
lulius
C r e d e n t i u s , ' w h o sailed from t h e r e g i o n o f V a g a ' , m a y have b e e n a t r a d e r ( a l t h o u g h t h e r e f e r e n c e c o u l d simply b e to his m o v i n g to Rome).
4 0 4
T h e r e was a b o o m in t h e olive oil t r a d e from N o r t h Africa to
252
Foreign
groups at Rome
R o m e in t h e s e c o n d - t h i r d c e n t u r i e s , a l t h o u g h n o i n s c r i p t i o n s explicitly 10
r e c o r d individuals settling at R o m e b e c a u s e o f it.' "' T h e city o f V o l u b i l i s r e m a i n e d
loyal to R o m e t h r o u g h o u t
the
c o n q u e s t o f M a u r e t a n i a , a n d V a l e r i u s S e v e r u s son o f B o s t a r , o n e o f t h e l e a d i n g m e n o f t h e city w h o c o m m a n d e d a u x i l i a r i e s in t h e war, is r e c o r d e d as g o i n g o n an e m b a s s y to C l a u d i u s a n d o b t a i n i n g R o m a n citizenship for t h e city a n d i m m u n i t y from t r i b u t e for ten y e a r s .
400
S o l d i e r s w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y r e c r u i t e d t h r o u g h o u t N o r t h Africa, b u t p a r t i c u l a r l y in M a u r e t a n i a . N o r t h Africans a r e r e c o r d e d as m e m b e r s o f all t h e military units at R o m e : p r a e t o r i a n s , equites singulares, urbanicianii,
classiarii.
vigiles,
M a n y o f t h e r e c r u i t s a r e likely to h a v e b e e n
c h i l d r e n o f soldiers s t a t i o n e d in t h e a r e a , w h o i n t e r m a r r i e d with o t h e r soldiers' families m u c h m o r e t h a n with t h e native p o p u l a t i o n .
407
Africans a r e well attested as c h a r i o t e e r s at R o m e . M . A u r e l i u s L i b e r a n d his son A u r e l i u s C a e c i l i u s P l a n e t a P r o t o g e n e s w e r e b o t h 409
a n d C r e s c e n s was a Maurus. et agitator
Claudius Aurelius Polyphemus,
dominus
o f t h e R e d faction, is d e s c r i b e d as a C a e s a r e a n , which is likely
to m e a n C a e s a r e a in M a u r e t a n i a . popular,
408
Afri,
411
4 1 0
N o r t h African h o r s e s w e r e also
a n d g r o o m s may have c o m e to R o m e with t h e m .
T h e slave t r a d e r e m a i n e d significant in late antiquity. A u g u s t i n e c o m m e n t s o n b o t h k i d n a p p i n g a n d t h e sale o f c h i l d r e n by t h e i r p a r e n t s as i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s o f slaves for t h e o v e r s e a s m a r k e t in early fifth-century A f r i c a .
412
Voluntary migration r e m a i n e d important too:
e p i t a p h s for p e o p l e from all t h e N o r t h African p r o v i n c e s i n c l u d e substantial p r o p o r t i o n s o f C h r i s t i a n s a n d J e w s (see
TABLE
1). T h e early
success o f Christianity in Africa a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f African C h r i s tians in t h e c h u r c h h i e r a r c h y would h a v e b o o s t e d t h e n u m b e r o f C h r i s t i a n m i g r a n t s a n d , for p e o p l e w h o s e lingua franca
(if n o t always
t h e i r first l a n g u a g e ) was L a t i n , C o n s t a n t i n o p l e w o u l d h a v e b e e n a m u c h less attractive a l t e r n a t i v e d e s t i n a t i o n . References
to the
homeland
Africans h a d a w i d e r c h o i c e o f self-designation t h a n a l m o s t a n y o n e else, s i n c e , in a d d i t i o n to u s i n g f o r m s b a s e d on 'Africa', they c o u l d also use versions o f ' P u n i c ' o r , as F r o n t o did, ' L i b y a n ' . T h e significance o f t h e t e r m s s e e m s to h a v e varied c o n s i d e r a b l y , s i n c e Afer c o u l d b e u s e d for a C a r t h a g i n i a n w h o was n o t a B e r b e r o r a B e r b e r w h o was n o t a Carthaginian.
413
T h e o n l y o c c u r r e n c e o f ' P u n i c ' is for a f r e e d w o m a n ,
414
a n d it m a y h a v e b e e n a t e r m d e l i b e r a t e l y a v o i d e d at R o m e b e c a u s e o f its historical c o n n o t a t i o n s . C a r t h a g e itself is m e n t i o n e d only twice, p e r h a p s for t h e s a m e r e a s o n s .
253
Living
at Rome
TABLE 29. Designation o f people from Africa and Numidia. Province
33
Region/tribe
Afer/Afra Africanus/a (provincia) Africa Afer/Africa + city Numidus Numidia + city
14 2 5
regione + name Punica
2 1
1 0
4 1 5
416
1 1
3
City
1
9
4.7
L i b y a was n o t a R o m a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t until t h e t i m e o f D i o c l e t i a n , b u t t h e e t h n i c ' L i b y a n ' is u s e d twice in G r e e k C h r i s t i a n i n s c r i p t i o n s (A\)(3etKOv, At)p\)Kf|). Moretti thought
418
T h e e x a c t significance o f t h e t e r m is u n c l e a r :
it d e s i g n a t e d G r e e k s f r o m G y r e n e , b u t it c o u l d
equally well d e s i g n a t e p e o p l e w h o specifically did not c o n s i d e r t h e m selves G r e e k .
4 1 9
T h e L a t i n Libycus
a m a n from t h e M i s e n u m fleet.
is u s e d o n c e as t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f 4 2 0
F r o n t o m a y h a v e called h i m s e l f
a L i b y a n b e c a u s e h e h a d a n c e s t o r s w h o w e r e o f i n d i g e n o u s (i.e. n o n G r e e k , Italian o r P u n i c ) stock, o r simply as a g e o g r a p h i c a l label. Community
and
religion
T h e r e was c e r t a i n l y n o f o r m a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s e n a t o r s from
North
Africa, b u t t h e e x t e n t to which p e o p l e from t h e s a m e h o m e a r e a w h o a c h i e v e d political i n f l u e n c e felt a n y s y m p a t h y with e a c h o t h e r is a m a t t e r o f s o m e d i s p u t e . A c c o r d i n g to B a r n e s ( 1 9 6 7 , 8 9 ) : ...there is no evidence o f an African patriotism or o f African senators' regarding themselves as thereby joined by any common bond. C h a m p l i n ( 1 9 8 0 , 1 4 - 1 5 ) , h o w e v e r , believes t h a t t h e r e was a distinct C i r t a n a r i s t o c r a t i c c o m m u n i t y at R o m e in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y , with F r o n t o a c t i n g as p a t r o n o f y o u n g e r s e n a t o r s .
421
T h e r e need be no
c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two s t a t e m e n t s i f F r o n t o was, as C h a m p l i n i n d i c a t e s , i n t e r e s t e d only in C i r t a n s , a n d felt n o solidarity with o t h e r Africans. A r i s t o c r a t i c solidarity with fellow-citizens m i g h t largely b e b a s e d o n family c o n n e c t i o n , as t h e l e a d i n g families in a city like C i r t a w e r e n o d o u b t r e l a t e d to e a c h o t h e r by b l o o d o r m a r r i a g e . T h e b r a n c h o f t h e S e p t i m i i w h o m o v e d to R o m e evidently g a v e h e l p to t h o s e w h o r e m a i n e d at L e p c i s .
4 2 2
254
Foreign T h e r e was a c o r p o r a t i o n of mercalores the second century A D . annonae,
4 2 3
frumentarii
groups at Rome
el olearii
Afrari
T h e y m a d e a d e d i c a t i o n to t h e
in
praefectus
with w h o m t h e y m u s t h a v e h a d r e g u l a r p r o f e s s i o n a l d e a l i n g s .
T h i s is t h e only e v i d e n c e for an o r g a n i z a t i o n of Africans as a w h o l e ( a s s u m i n g t h a t they w e r e Africans t h e m s e l v e s r a t h e r t h a n j u s t d e a l e r s in African p r o d u c t s ) , b u t n i n e g r o u p s ol navicularii h a d stationes
from African p o r t s
at O s t i a , a n d also s e e m to have c o - o p e r a t e d in o n e j o i n t
i n s c r i p t i o n (see p. 1 6 2 ) . P. Aufidius F o r t i s , a m a g i s t r a t e at Ostia a n d H i p p o R e g i u s , was quinquennalis orum,
o f t h e corpus
mercatorum
frumenlari-
which m a y in t h e c o n t e x t b e a n o t h e r African o r g a n i z a t i o n , b u t
this is not m a d e c l e a r .
4 2 4
T h e e x i s t e n c e o f an African c o m m u n i t y a m o n g C h r i s t i a n s ( o r t h o d o x o r D o n a t i s t ) has b e e n discussed a l r e a d y (p. 1 8 6 ) . Africans m a y have b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e for L a t i n r e p l a c i n g C r e e k as t h e liturgical l a n g u a g e o f C h r i s t i a n s at R o m e in t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y . T h e D o n a t i s t b i s h o p at R o m e was r e g a r d e d by A u g u s t i n e as t h e l e a d e r o f a g r o u p o f Africans t h e r e in t h e fourth c e n t u r y , a n d t h e D o n a t i s t m o v e m e n t was p r i m a r i l y associated with Africans. T h e r e m a y b e a parallel with t h e S y r i a n cults. The
w o r s h i p o f J u p i t e r H e l i o p o l i t a n u s at R o m e was n o t formally
r e s t r i c t e d to S y r i a n s , b u t in p r a c t i c e was p r o b a b l y largely o r e n t i r e l y e x c l u s i v e to t h e m ; h o w e v e r , n o t all t h e S y r i a n s at R o m e w e r e partici pants. S i m i l a r l y , D o n a t i s m at R o m e was n o t officially e x c l u s i v e to Africans b u t was d o m i n a t e d by t h e m ; h o w e v e r , n o t all t h e Africans at R o m e w e r e Donatists. It s e e m s that, w h e r e a s for S y r i a n s C h r i s t i a n i t y a b o l i s h e d t h e m a i n c o m m u n a l focus which t h e y h a d , for Africans it u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y c r e a t e d a new focus.
viii. Jews Overview T h e r e is a f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e e v i d e n c e for J e w s a n d for o t h e r foreign groups: 'Syrian', 'African', etc. w e r e ethnic/geographical labels, b u t ' J e w ' was a r e l i g i o u s o n e as well. N o - o n e ' b e c a m e ' a S y r i a n h o w e v e r fervently they w o r s h i p p e d J u p i t e r D o l i c h e n u s , b u t p e o p l e w h o publicly a d o p t e d t h e J e w i s h religion b e c a m e J e w s , w h a t e v e r t h e i r o r i g i n a l b a c k g r o u n d . T h u s it was possible to b e a n African J e w o r a S y r i a n J e w , a n d such d o u b l e labels a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y f o u n d in t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s . J e w i s h identity c o u l d b e p a s s e d d o w n t h e g e n e r a t i o n s at R o m e o r a n y w h e r e else in t h e D i a s p o r a , in a way which was very unlikely to h a p p e n for African o r S y r i a n identity. W h i l e all J e w s at R o m e ( e x c e p t p r o s e l y t e s ) m u s t h a v e a s s u m e d like o t h e r J e w s that t h e i r ancestors ultimately c a m e from
the land o f Israel, their
255
known
Living
at
Rome
a n c e s t o r s n e e d h a v e n o c o n n e c t i o n with a n y w h e r e o u t s i d e R o m e . R u t g e r s ( 1 9 9 5 , 4 8 - 9 ) writes: Jews, not only in Rome but throughout the Roman Empire, formed a religious community, one which derived its internal coherence not merely from the fact that they upheld the same religious beliefs and practices, but also from the knowledge that they shared in the same history. In other words, in ancient Rome Syrian immigrants never had nor could have the sense of belonging that many Jews in this city must have felt. T h e Jews o f Rome were a people in the sense that their Syrian neighbors were not. N e v e r t h e l e s s , w h e n R o m e first c a m e into c o n t a c t with t h e J e w s , they f o r m e d a s e p a r a t e political a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l unit, t h e M a c c a b e a n state. I n t h e p e r i o d from t h e 1 6 0 s to t h e 1 4 0 s BC, t h e M a c c a b e a n l e a d e r s J u d a s , J o n a t h a n a n d S i m o n a r e all said to h a v e s e n t e m b a s s i e s to R o m e to o b t a i n s u p p o r t against t h e S e l e u c i d s .
425
S o m e J e w s must
h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e m s e l v e s in t h e city at a r o u n d this t i m e i f t h e r e p o r t o f t h e e x p u l s i o n o f 1 3 9 BC is c o r r e c t (see p. 4 1 ) . P h i l o a t t r i b u t e s t h e o r i g i n of R o m e ' s J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y to p r i s o n e r s w h o w e r e b r o u g h t to Italy a n d t h e n e m a n c i p a t e d .
4 2 0
T h i s is likely to
h a v e b e e n t h e tradition o f t h e R o m a n J e w s t h e m s e l v e s , w h o m Philo would h a v e m e t w h e n h e t o o k p a r t in t h e e m b a s s y to C a l i g u l a . L a r g e n u m b e r s o f p r i s o n e r s w e r e c a p t u r e d by P o m p e y d u r i n g his war in J u d a e a in 6 3 BC a n d b r o u g h t to R o m e for his t r i u m p h in 6 1 , b u t this d o e s n o t e x p l a i n t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e s e c o n d - c e n t u r y BC c o m m u n i t y , which m a y h a v e c o n s i s t e d o f a small n u m b e r o f free i m m i g r a n t s a n d individuals w h o r e a c h e d R o m e t h r o u g h t h e slave t r a d e .
427
a c t i n g c o l l e c t i v e l y , w e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r at p u b l i c (conliones)
T h e Jews, gatherings
in 5 9 BC, which s e e m s too early for substantial n u m b e r s o f
P o m p e y ' s p r i s o n e r s to h a v e b e e n m a n u m i t t e d . Jews o f 5 9 were presumably R o m a n citizens,
429
4 2 8
T h e politically active
w h i c h implies t h a t they
w e r e t h e m s e l v e s f r e e d m e n o r t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f f r e e d m e n ; at this d a t e few free i m m i g r a n t s from t h e E a s t would h a v e h a d c i t i z e n s h i p . I t s e e m s t h e r e f o r e t h a t J e w i s h slaves m u s t have b e e n r e a c h i n g R o m e in t h e late s e c o n d a n d early first c e n t u r i e s BC, a c h i e v i n g m a n u m i s s i o n (which i m p l i e s that they w e r e d o i n g skilled w o r k r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g u s e d as f o r c e d l a b o u r ) a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e m s e l v e s as a significant a n d r e c o g n i z a b l e p r e s e n c e in t h e city. P o m p e y ' s p r i s o n e r s would a d d e d to t h e n u m b e r s o f t h e e x i s t i n g c o m m u n i t y .
have
4 3 0
S m a l l e r n u m b e r s o f J e w i s h slaves may h a v e c o n t i n u e d to r e a c h R o m e after s m a l l e r - s c a l e wars such as S o s i u s ' in 3 7 BC a n d V a r u s ' in 4 BC, d i s t u r b a n c e s like t h e a n t i - c e n s u s protests o f AD 6 , a n d
256
Herod's
Foreign policy o f selling brigands
into slavery.
1 3 1
groups at Rome
In addition,
enslaved
D i a s p o r a J e w s c o u l d b e s e n t to R o m e by t h e slave t r a d e in e x a c t l y t h e s a m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s as a n y o t h e r slaves. Livia h a d a f e m a l e J e w i s h slave n a m e d A c m e w h o was n o t necessarily a p r i s o n e r - o f - w a r , Jewish rhetor o f the Augustan a freedman
from S i c i l y .
4 3 3
432
and the
p e r i o d , C a e c i l i u s o f C a l a c t e , was
F u r t h e r waves of p r i s o n e r s would
have
a r r i v e d after t h e revolts of t h e first a n d early s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s A D .
434
E n o r m o u s n u m b e r s o f J e w s w e r e c a p t u r e d in 6 6 - 7 0 : e.g. after t h e fall o f T a r i c h a e a e in 6 7 , 6 , 0 0 0 p r i s o n e r s w e r e s e n t to w o r k o n C o r i n t h i a n C a n a l a n d a n o t h e r 3 0 , 4 0 0 w e r e sold as s l a v e s .
435
the
Even if
only a small p r o p o r t i o n w e r e e v e n t u a l l y sent westwards, t h e n u m b e r s c o u l d still h a v e b e e n q u i t e c o n s i d e r a b l e . T h e r e l i g i o u s d u t y for J e w s to try to r a n s o m e n s l a v e d f e l l o w - J e w s
430
may h a v e m e a n t that slavery
lasted a s h o r t e r t i m e for J e w i s h slaves at R o m e t h a n for o t h e r s : for e x a m p l e , d u r i n g his visit to R o m e in AD 9 5 , R . J o s h u a is said to h a v e r a n s o m e d a J e w i s h c h i l d , w h o r e t u r n e d to P a l e s t i n e with him a n d b e c a m e R . I s h m a e l b. E l i s h a .
4 3 7
I f I s h m a e l was o n e of t h e p r i s o n e r s
t a k e n b a c k to R o m e after t h e fall o f J e r u s a l e m in 7 0 , h e was h a r d l y a ' c h i l d ' in 9 5 . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e story m a y illustrate a real possibility for a few i n v o l u n t a r y m i g r a n t s ( n o t only J e w s ) : t h a t they m i g h t b e r e s c u e d by t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s a n d r e t u r n e d to t h e i r h o m e l a n d . T h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y o f R o m e p r o b a b l y n u m b e r e d s o m e w h e r e in t h e r e g i o n o f 2 0 , 0 0 0 - 6 0 , 0 0 0 in t h e e a r l y first c e n t u r y AD; S o l i n takes 4 0 , 0 0 0 as a likely m a x i m u m .
4 3 8
T h e e s t i m a t e s a r e b a s e d o n two figures
in t h e a n c i e n t s o u r c e s : J o s e p h u s says t h a t 8 , 0 0 0 J e w s t u r n e d o u t to o p p o s e A r c h e l a u s w h e n h e c a m e to R o m e to claim his f a t h e r H e r o d ' s t h r o n e in 4 B C ,
4 3 9
a n d T a c i t u s says t h a t 4 , 0 0 0 J e w s d e s c e n d e d
from
f r e e d m e n (i.e. m a l e citizens o f military a g e ) w e r e c o n s c r i p t e d a n d s e n t to S a r d i n i a in AD 19 (see p. 4 2 ) . T h e J e w s t h e r e f o r e c o m p o s e d s o m e t h i n g b e t w e e n 2 % a n d 6 % o f R o m e ' s p o p u l a t i o n up to AD 1 9 .
4 4 0
The
e x p u l s i o n s by T i b e r i u s a n d C l a u d i u s would h a v e r e d u c e d this t e m p o rarily, b u t p r o b a b l y m a d e little l o n g - t e r m d i f f e r e n c e . It is, h o w e v e r , unlikely that t h e J e w s o f R o m e would have b e e n
self-reproducing,
since m o s t o f t h e factors i n h i b i t i n g t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e in t h e city would have a p p l i e d to t h e m as m u c h as to t h e rest o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n (see p. 1 8 ) .
4 4 1
C o n v e r s i o n s to J u d a i s m c o u l d h a v e h e l p e d to m a i n t a i n
t h e size o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , b u t they w e r e surely n o t h a p p e n i n g to t h e s a m e e x t e n t as they l a t e r did for t h e C h r i s t i a n s ; Solin ( 1 9 8 3 , 6 1 6 ) t h i n k s it unlikely that t h e r e w e r e ' m a n y ' p r o s e l y t e s .
442
As t h e r e is n o
evidence o f whether the n u m b e r o f J e w s or the proportion o f the population which they f o r m e d r e m a i n e d stable, i n c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d
257
Living
at
Rome 3
after t h e J u l i o - C l a u d i a n p e r i o d , " t h e r e a r e n o g r o u n d s for e s t i m a t i n g how m u c h J e w i s h i m m i g r a t i o n t h e r e was after t h e early first c e n t u r y . E p i t a p h s a n d r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e show t h a t t h e r e was c e r t a i n l y s o m e . It is also i m p o s s i b l e to know what p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e J e w i s h c o m m u nity at R o m e h e l d R o m a n citizenship b e f o r e 2 1 2 . Ex-slaves would n o r m a l l y b e citizens; o t h e r i m m i g r a n t s from t h e East w e r e m o r e likely to be peregrini.
I f t h e two g r o u p s i n t e r m a r r i e d , t h e e x t e n t o f citizenship
m a y h a v e d i m i n i s h e d r a t h e r than i n c r e a s e d within t h e c o m m u n i t y , since c i t i z e n s h i p c o u l d only b e i n h e r i t e d by t h e c h i l d r e n o f m a r r i a g e s between citizens.
444
L i t e r a r y s o u r c e s a b o u t R o m e from t h e J e w i s h p e r s p e c t i v e a r e lim ited. S o m e r a b b i n i c first i m p r e s s i o n s o f R o m e w e r e m e n t i o n e d p. 1 4 5 . Philo m a k e s s o m e o b s e r v a t i o n s in t h e Legatio
at
based on informa
tion h e m u s t h a v e a c q u i r e d w h e n h e h a d d e a l i n g s with t h e J e w s of R o m e d u r i n g his stay t h e r e . J o s e p h u s says very little a b o u t
them
d e s p i t e b e i n g o n e o f t h e i r n u m b e r after AD 7 0 ; it is unlikely t h a t h e was o n very friendly t e r m s with m o s t of t h e m . T h e only e v i d e n c e surviving from J e w s t h e m s e l v e s which gives a n y real i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i r life in t h e city is e p i g r a p h i c : t h e e p i t a p h s from t h e J e w i s h c a t a c o m b s a n d o t h e r places o f J e w i s h b u r i a l . T h i s m a t e r i a l has m a n y s h o r t c o m i n g s : t h e difficulty o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g J e w i s h from n o n - J e w i s h r e c o r d s ; t h e lack of any J e w i s h e p i t a p h s from b e f o r e t h e e n d of t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y AD. N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is i n f o r m a t i v e a b o u t s o m e aspects o f t h e life o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , such as t h e n u m b e r of different s y n a g o g u e s a n d t h e titles h e l d within t h e m . It
provides
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a small n u m b e r of J e w s w h o a r e specifically said to b e i m m i g r a n t s : from Aquileia, C a t a n i a , A c h a e a , L a o d i c e a , C a e s a r e a in P a l e s t i n e , S e p p h o r i s , T i b e r i a s , Area L i b a n i , T h a b r a c a in
Numidia,
T r i p o l i s (which o n e is u n c e r t a i n ) ; t h e r e is a n o t a b l e p r e d o m i n a n c e of places in S y r i a - P a l a e s t i n a in t h e l i s t .
445
O n e e p i t a p h has a c u r s e f o r m u l a
a b o u t t h e 'wrath of G o d ' which is also attested at A c m o n i a in Asia, s u g g e s t i n g an i m m i g r a n t from t h e r e .
4 4 6
I n s c r i p t i o n s also show t h e
v a r i o u s t e r m s o f self-identification w h i c h w e r e a v a i l a b l e , s u c h Ioudaios
a n d Hebraios
as
(see b e l o w ) , as well as t h e visual symbols by which
t h e J e w s identified t h e m s e l v e s . The
state saw t h e J e w s as an identifiable g r o u p which r e c e i v e d
special t r e a t m e n t in c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e fact t h a t t h e r e w e r e t h r e e e x p u l s i o n s o f J e w s from R o m e up to t h e t i m e o f C l a u d i u s (see p. 4 1 ) shows t h a t they w e r e p e r c e i v e d as ' f o r e i g n ' at least until t h a t d a t e , s i n c e e x p u l s i o n s w e r e only p r a c t i s e d a g a i n s t g r o u p s which w e r e in s o m e s e n s e f o r e i g n . H o w e v e r , t h e i r t r e a t m e n t as a special c a s e h a d
258
Foreign
groups
at Rome
s o m e a d v a n t a g e s too, such as t h e p e r m i s s i o n they w e r e given to m a k e t h e i r own c o l l e c t i o n s of m o n e y for t h e T e m p l e e v e n while J e r u s a l e m was o u t s i d e R o m a n j u r i s d i c t i o n , a n d t h e special a r r a n g e m e n t s m a d e by A u g u s t u s to save J e w s from h a v i n g to collect t h e i r c o r n d o l e o n t h e sabbath.
117
J e w s w e r e likely to b e o b j e c t s o f suspicion but, u n l i k e t h e
t r e a t m e n t of t h e G e r m a n s after t h e V a r u s disaster, they w e r e n o t p e n a l i z e d for t h e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e i r co-religionists e l s e w h e r e a g a i n s t R o m a n a r m i e s . W h a t e v e r t h e e x a c t m o t i v a t i o n o f t h e e x p u l s i o n s , they w e r e r e l a t e d to local c a u s e s in R o m e r a t h e r t h a n e v e n t s in J u d a e a , a n d they w e r e n o t r e p e a t e d d u r i n g AD 6 6 - 7 0 o r t h e s u b s e q u e n t revolts. T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e t h a t reprisals w e r e t a k e n a g a i n s t t h e J e w s of R o m e t h e n , o r even t h a t they suffered a n y p a r t i c u l a r restrictions d u r i n g t h e revolts, a l t h o u g h like all J e w s they s u b s e q u e n t l y b e c a m e liable to t h e J e w i s h T a x . Two
4 4 8
R o m a n J e w s w h o b e c a m e C h r i s t i a n s , Prisc(ill)a a n d Aquila,
h a v e o n e of t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e surviving m i g r a t i o n histories o f a n y individuals of similar status, a n d show t h e d i s t a n c e s it was possible for m i g r a n t s to travel a n d t h e r a n g e o f c o n t a c t s they c o u l d m a k e . Aquila was a native o f P o n t u s ; Prisca's p l a c e o f o r i g i n is n o t stated (but m a y well h a v e b e e n t h e s a m e ) . N o t h i n g is said a b o u t t h e i r legal status, b u t they w e r e p r o b a b l y peregrini.
T h e L a t i n n a m e s which a r e r e c o r d e d for
t h e m m a y n o t have b e e n t h e i r o r i g i n a l n a m e s . T h e y w e r e victims o f t h e e x p u l s i o n from R o m e u n d e r C l a u d i u s a n d w e n t to C o r i n t h , w h e r e they m e t Paul, p r o b a b l y in AD 5 1 .
4 4 9
W h i l e living at C o r i n t h , they sailed
with Paul from C e n c h r e a e to E p h e s u s , a n d stayed t h e r e for l o n g e n o u g h to c o n v e r t t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w Apollos. T h e y w e r e t e n t m a k e r s (GKT)v07t;otot) at C o r i n t h like Paul, a n d p r e s u m a b l y p r a c t i s e d t h e s a m e t r a d e at R o m e . T h e y h a d r e t u r n e d to R o m e by t h e t i m e Paul w r o t e 450
Romans.
T h e i r story illustrates two p o i n t s a b o u t b e i n g e x p e l l e d from
R o m e : t h e e x p e l l e d did n o t necessarily r e t u r n to t h e i r o r i g i n a l h o m e s , a n d they c o u l d r e t u r n to R o m e after t h e initial p r o b l e m h a d d i e d d o w n . S o m e o f t h e o t h e r J e w s e x p e l l e d at t h e s a m e t i m e s e e m to have g o n e only as far as A r i c i a .
451
J e w i s h m i g r a t i o n to R o m e was p r o b a b l y d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y similar to t h a t o f o t h e r g r o u p s : d o m i n a t e d by m a l e s in t h e i r t e e n s a n d twenties. Ages a r e given in t h e e p i t a p h s t o o r a r e l y to c o n f i r m this, b u t t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f cases w h e r e J e w i s h i m m i g r a n t s s e e m to h a v e h a d t h e i r c h i l d r e n at R o m e . J u s t u s , son of A m a c h i u s o f C a t a n i a , w h o died at 2 2 was evidently not an i m m i g r a n t himself; h e was p r o b a b l y c o m m e m o r a t e d by his father, w h o e m p h a s i z e d his own p l a c e o f o r i g i n .
452
In the
e p i t a p h o f Alypius o f T i b e r i a s a n d his s o n s J u s t u s a n d Alypius, t h e sons
259
Living
at Rome
a r e also i m p l i e d to h a v e b e e n b o r n at R o m e .
4 5 3
Symmachus,
gerusiarch
o f T r i p o l i s , m a y h a v e b e e n c o m m e m o r a t e d at R o m e a g e d 8 0 with t h e title h e h e l d at h o m e , b u t i f so h e would h a v e b e e n an i m m i g r a n t o f fairly a d v a n c e d a g e , since g e r u s i a r c h s usually s e e m to h a v e b e e n at least in t h e i r f o r t i e s .
454
A n u m b e r o f m e m b e r s o f t h e H e r o d i a n family, sons a n d g r a n d s o n s o f H e r o d t h e G r e a t , h a d at least p a r t o f t h e i r u p b r i n g i n g at R o m e .
4 5 5
T h i s was p r o b a b l y m o r e for H e r o d ' s c o n v e n i e n c e t h a n at R o m e ' s d e m a n d , giving t h e m e d u c a t i o n a n d c o n t a c t s a n d k e e p i n g t h e m o u t o f his way. It h a d t h e a d v a n t a g e for R o m e o f c r e a t i n g a n u m b e r o f suitable actual a n d p o te n tia l c l i e n t - r u l e r s , but c a m e to an e n d with A g r i p p a I I . H e a n d J o s e p h u s w e r e effectively e x i l e s at R o m e after t h e e n d o f t h e revolt in AD 7 0 .
4 5 6
N u m e r o u s J e w i s h e m b a s s i e s to R o m e a r e r e c o r d e d , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e sent by t h e M a c c a b e e s to s e c u r e an a l l i a n c e (see a b o v e ) , t h e p r o - a n d a n t i - A r c h e l a u s e m b a s s i e s o f 4 BC, t h e e m b a s s y o f t h e A l e x a n d r i a n J e w s to C a l i g u l a (see p. 1 0 4 ) , a n d various r a b b i n i c d e l e g a t i o n s in t h e first a n d s e c o n d c e n t u r i e s AD (see b e l o w ) . I n this r e s p e c t t h e J e w s a c t e d like m a n y o t h e r g r o u p s within o r a r o u n d t h e E m p i r e , a n d t h e subjects o f t h e e m b a s s i e s w e r e usually m a t t e r s affecting only o n e city o r a r e a , r a t h e r t h a n t h e J e w s o f t h e E m p i r e as a w h o l e . S o m e a m b a s s a d o r s , such as P h i l o , c o u l d find t h e m s e l v e s staying at R o m e for m u c h l o n g e r t h a n they e x p e c t e d . T h e defeat o f t h e B a r K o k h b a revolt c r e a t e d s o m e v o l u n t a r y exiles, as well as p e o p l e w h o w e r e e n s l a v e d . O n e o f t h e f o r m e r was R . M a t t h i a b. H e r e s h , w h o e v e n t u a l l y f o u n d e d a yeshivah
at R o m e .
4 5 7
O n his first
v o y a g e t h e r e , h o w e v e r , h e allegedly r e a c h e d Puteoli b u t t h e n t u r n e d b a c k b e c a u s e o f l o n g i n g for t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l .
4 5 8
Todos or Theudas
( T h e o d o s i u s ? ) o f R o m e , w h o was active at a similar t i m e , was p r e s u m ably also a H e b r e w s c h o l a r , in view o f his h i g h p r e s t i g e a m o n g t h e sages o f P a l e s t i n e ;
459
h e was also a figure o f i n f l u e n c e a m o n g t h e J e w s
o f R o m e , to w h o m h e i n t r o d u c e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f e a t i n g a ' h e l m e t e d kid' (or possibly a l a m b ) r o a s t e d w h o l e o n P a s s o v e r n i g h t ( i m p l y i n g that t h e r e w e r e l a r g e g a t h e r i n g s to c e l e b r a t e t h e o c c a s i o n ) .
460
T h e visit to R o m e in AD 9 5 by a g r o u p o f rabbis ( G a m a l i e l I I , E l e a z a r b. Azariah, J o s h u a b. H a n a n i a h a n d A q i b a ) is m e n t i o n e d f r e q u e n t l y in r a b b i n i c l i t e r a t u r e (see p. 1 4 5 ) ; t h e real p u r p o s e o f t h e trip is n o t c l e a r . I n t h e A n t o n i n e p e r i o d , R . S i m o n b. Y o h a i a n d R . E l e a z a r b. Y o s e visited R o m e to ask for t h e r e p e a l o f a n t i - J e w i s h legislation ( p r o b a b l y , t h e r e f o r e , in t h e r e i g n o f A n t o n i n u s P i u s ) ;
461
t h e i r visit t h u s fits i nt o t h e
g e n e r a l t r a d i t i o n o f e m b a s s i e s to R o m e . W h i l e t h e r e , E l e a z a r saw s o m e
260
Foreign
groups at Rome
o f t h e spoils o f t h e T e m p l e : t h e c u r t a i n from t h e H o l y of H o l i e s , t h e H i g h Priest's v e s t m e n t s ,
462
and
fragments o f Solomon's t h r o n e .
4 6 3
T h e y m e t M a t t h i a b. H e r e s h while in R o m e , a n d evidently h a d deal ings with t h e Jewish c o m m u n i t y t h e r e , since E l e a z a r is r e c o r d e d as d e l i v e r i n g a r u l i n g in R o m e .
4 6 4
O n e third-century rabbi, R. J o s h u a b.
Levi, is also r e c o r d e d as visiting R o m e , p r o b a b l y as p a r t o f a d e l e g a tion.
465
In t h e late t h i r d o r early fourth c e n t u r y , R . Hiyya b. A b b a went
to R o m e as well as travelling a r o u n d t h e e a s t e r n D i a s p o r a .
466
T h e exact
p u r p o s e o f this a n d m o s t o t h e r r a b b i n i c visits to R o m e is n o t stated, b u t they m u s t h a v e s e r v e d ( i n t e n t i o n a l l y o r n o t ) to s t r e n g t h e n t h e links of t h e R o m a n J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y with t h e land o f I s r a e l . Jewish
attitudes
to
4 6 7
migration
J e w i s h l i t e r a t u r e p r o v i d e s s o m e insights i n t o h o w m i g r a t i o n
was
viewed which a r e u n a v a i l a b l e from a n y o t h e r a n c i e n t literary s o u r c e . A l t h o u g h they a r e n o t directly r e l a t e d to p e o p l e m o v i n g to R o m e , t h e ideas they e x p r e s s would h a v e a p p l i e d as m u c h to t h o s e g o i n g to R o m e as to a n y w h e r e else, a n d a r e therefore worth s o m e b r i e f consideration h e r e . T h e y a r e all from the perspective o f J e w s living in the land o f Israel. M o v i n g from
Israel to t h e D i a s p o r a is t r e a t e d with a variety o f
attitudes; it c o u l d b e s e e n as a mission s e n t by G o d to e x t e n d t h e J e w i s h r e l i g i o n , o r as a p u n i s h m e n t for t h e sins o f t h e p e o p l e .
4 6 8
Most
pseudepigraphical, apocryphal and rabbinic literature tends towards t h e latter view, while P h i l o a n d J o s e p h u s a r e m o r e s y m p a t h e t i c to t h e positive i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T o s o m e e x t e n t , t h e c a u s e o f t h e m i g r a t i o n c o u l d b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n : v o l u n t a r y m i g r a t i o n was m o r e likely to b e s e e n positively t h a n f o r c e d m i g r a t i o n . T h e r e was an i n c r e a s i n g hostility o n t h e p a r t o f t h e Palestinian rabbis after t h e B a r - K o k h b a revolt, i.e. at e x a c t l y t h e t i m e w h e n b o t h v o l u n t a r y a n d
involuntary
e m i g r a t i o n from I s r a e l a r e likely to h a v e i n c r e a s e d . A c c o r d i n g to t h e m , living in t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l c o u l d c o n f e r a t o n e m e n t for sins a n d s p e e d m e s s i a n i c r e s u r r e c t i o n ; i.e. e m i g r a n t s would lose t h e s e b e n e f i t s .
469
T h e J e w s w e r e a w a r e that t h e r e w e r e o t h e r d i a s p o r a s t h a n t h e i r own, b u t felt that t h e i r own p r o b l e m s w e r e g r e a t e r b e c a u s e o f t h e r e l i g i o u s o b s t a c l e s to full assimilation in t h e i r h o s t c o m m u n i t i e s :
4 7 0
J u d a h has gone into exile' (Lam. 1.3) - do not the nations o f the world go into exile? [The fact is, however, that] though they go into exile, their exile is not really exile. T h e heathen nations who eat their [local] bread and drink their wine, their exile is not real exile, but Israel - who do not eat their bread or drink their wine - do experience real exile. T h i s consciousness o f a f u n d a m e n t a l difference b e t w e e n b e i n g a J e w i s h
261
Living
at Rome
i m m i g r a n t a n d a g e n t i l e i m m i g r a n t shows a w a r e n e s s o f s o m e t h i n g which, it will b e s u g g e s t e d b e l o w , s e e m s to h a v e b e e n very real in t h e lives o f t h e J e w s o f R o m e . F o r t h e o l o g i c a l r e a s o n s , they m a i n t a i n e d institutions a n d p r a c t i c e s which p r e s e r v e d a s e p a r a t e identity
for
t h e m , e v e n t h o u g h m o s t o f t h e m w e r e n o d o u b t fully i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e life o f t h e city in o t h e r r e s p e c t s . J e w i s h m i g r a t i o n in g e n e r a l m a y have b e e n facilitated by c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n J e w i s h c o m m u n i t i e s in different p a r t s of t h e D i a s p o r a , o r b e t w e e n t h e D i a s p o r a a n d t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f syna g o g u e s also m a d e it relatively easy for J e w s to s e e k o u t t h e i r c o religionists; this was how Paul a n d his c o m p a n i o n s m a d e c o n t a c t with o t h e r J e w s while they w e r e travelling, a n d it e n a b l e d J e w s newly a r r i v e d at A l e x a n d r i a to find o t h e r s in t h e s a m e line o f w o r k .
471
Names A c c o r d i n g to t h e e p i g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e , t h e J e w s o f R o m e h a d L a t i n n a m e s m o r e often t h a n G r e e k o n e s , a n d G r e e k o n e s m o r e often t h a n S e m i t i c o n e s . S e m i t i c n a m e s o c c u r in 1 3 . 1 % o f t h e e p i t a p h s .
472
p e o p l e a r e r e c o r d e d with only o n e n a m e , o r with a n o m e n
Most and
c o g n o m e n , as is usual in i n s c r i p t i o n s from t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y a n d later. W h i l e it m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d t h a t R o m a n J e w s would h a v e a J e w i s h n a m e in a d d i t i o n to a s t a n d a r d R o m a n o n e , t h e r e is little e v i d e n c e o f this. T h e r e a r e only four cases w h e r e b o t h a G r e e k o r L a t i n n a m e a n d an additional J e w i s h n a m e (agnomen Eusabbatis, Cocotia Iuda, Sarah.
4 7 3
o r signum)
Hermione
are recorded: Monimus
Barsheoda, Veturia
Paulla
T h e last o f t h e s e was a p r o s e l y t e w h o t o o k on t h e n a m e o f
S a r a h after h e r c o n v e r s i o n . S i n c e t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e v i d e n c e is t h e J e w i s h c a t a c o m b s , J e w i s h n a m e s would naturally b e u s e d t h e r e i f t h e y e x i s t e d ( u n l i k e T h r a c i a n o r S y r i a n n a m e s in m i x e d p a g a n
burial
a r e a s ) . It is, h o w e v e r , c l e a r t h a t L a t i n , G r e e k a n d S e m i t i c n a m e s all o c c u r r e d within t h e s a m e family, a n d (on t h e basis o f very limited e v i d e n c e ) t h a t p a r e n t s with L a t i n o r G r e e k n a m e s w e r e as likely to give t h e i r c h i l d r e n S e m i t i c n a m e s as p a r e n t s with S e m i t i c n a m e s w e r e to give t h e i r c h i l d r e n L a t i n o r G r e e k n a m e s .
4 7 4
T h i s is a c l e a r c o n t r a s t
with t h e S y r i a n s , for w h o m m o s t S e m i t i c n a m e s d i s a p p e a r e d in t h e first g e n e r a t i o n o f i m m i g r a n t s . It was p r e s u m a b l y t h e biblical c o n n o t a tions o f S e m i t i c n a m e s which m a d e t h e m a c c e p t a b l e to t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f J e w i s h i m m i g r a n t s when they were not a c c e p t a b l e to t h e d e s c e n d a n t s o f Syrian immigrants. Self-identification
and
language
T w o labels w e r e available to identify J e w s , u s e d by b o t h t h e m s e l v e s 262
Foreign a n d o t h e r s : Ioudaios
a n d Hebraios,
groups
at Rome
which b o t h e x i s t e d in G r e e k a n d
L a t i n v e r s i o n s . T h e r e has b e e n m u c h d e b a t e a b o u t t h e e x a c t signifi c a n c e o f t h e two words, a n d w h e t h e r they w e r e p r i m a r i l y religious o r ethnic descriptions. V a r i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f Ioudaios
are summarized
by W i l l i a m s
( 1 9 9 7 , 2 4 9 ) . K r a e m e r ( 1 9 8 9 ) a r g u e s for a r a n g e o f m e a n i n g s , g e o g r a p h i c a l ( ' J u d a e a n ' ) as well as r e l i g i o u s ( ' J e w ' ) , b u t W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 9 7 , 2 5 1 - 2 ) shows t h a t t h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e o f Ioudaios
e v e r b e i n g u s e d in
t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l s e n s e in i n s c r i p t i o n s . R o m a n writers such as Dio w e r e c e r t a i n l y a w a r e that t h e t e r m was originally a g e o g r a p h i c a l o n e , b u t also t h a t it h a d lost its g e o g r a p h i c a l significance, a n d t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p r o s e l y t e s m e a n t t h a t J e w s w e r e n o l o n g e r a distinct racial g r o u p .
4 7 5
U s i n g t h e label in a p r e d o m i n a n t l y J e w i s h c o n t e x t s u c h as a J e w i s h c a t a c o m b w o u l d n o r m a l l y b e s u p e r f l u o u s . H e n c e it is r a r e l y f o u n d in R o m a n J e w i s h i n s c r i p t i o n s ; w h e n it is, it is usually e m p h a s i z i n g t h e J e w i s h n e s s of p e o p l e w h o , as proselytes o r i m m i g r a n t s , w e r e o n t h e 47
fringes o f t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y . * ' T h e i m p o s i t i o n o f t h e J e w i s h T a x in AD 7 0 m e a n t t h a t t h e state h a d to d e f i n e w h o was ( a n d was n o t ) a J e w in a m o r e systematic way t h a n e v e r b e f o r e . G o o d m a n ( 1 9 8 9 ) a r g u e s that N e r v a ' s r e f o r m o f t h e Fiscus Iudaicus
t r a n s f o r m e d ' J e w ' from an e t h n i c label which p e o p l e w e r e
b o r n with to a r e l i g i o u s o n e which they c o u l d a c q u i r e o r lose t h r o u g h proselytism o r apostasy. H o w e v e r , I h a v e s u g g e s t e d at p. 4 3 t h a t t h e state was a l r e a d y c a p a b l e o f d e f i n i n g J e w s e i t h e r e t h n i c a l l y o r reli giously in t h e e a r l y first c e n t u r y AD. N e r v a ' s r e f o r m w o u l d h a v e set up a fixed definition, w h e r e previously t h e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t o n e h a d b e e n u s e d in different c o n t e x t s . Hebraios
in e p i g r a p h i c u s a g e simply signifies a n a d h e r e n t o f t h e
J e w i s h r e l i g i o n , a l t h o u g h its literary u s a g e was r a t h e r m o r e c o m plex.
4 7 7
It s e e m s to h a v e s u p e r s e d e d Ioudaios
g r a d u a l l y as t h e p r e
f e r r e d f o r m o f self-identification, b e c a u s e o f t h e n e g a t i v e associations which Ioudaios
h a d with t h e t a x a n d t h e revolts. H e b r e w s w e r e ' g o o d
J e w s ' w h o c o u l d c l a i m piety, t r a d i t i o n a n d o r t h o d o x y .
4 7 8
T h e term
d o e s n o t h a v e a n y p a r t i c u l a r association with t h e use of t h e H e b r e w l a n g u a g e , o r a n y d i r e c t c o n n e c t i o n with t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l .
4 7 9
A n o t h e r possible label, I s r a e l i t e , is m u c h r a r e r in l i t e r a t u r e
480
and
a l m o s t u n k n o w n in R o m a n i n s c r i p t i o n s . T h e o n e o c c u r r e n c e , in t h e e p i t a p h o f a t h r e e - y e a r - o l d girl d e s c r i b e d as b o t h Ioudaia
and Israelite,
s e e m s to b e a n a t t e m p t to e m p h a s i z e t h e J e w i s h n e s s o f s o m e o n e w h o s e family w e r e p r o s e l y t e s .
481
T h e r e a r e also e p i g r a p h i c o c c u r r e n c e s o f
' I s r a e l ' , e i t h e r as an individual w o r d written in H e b r e w c h a r a c t e r s
263
4 8 2
or
Living
at Rome
as p a r t o f t h e H e b r e w f o r m u l a ' p e a c e u p o n I s r a e l ' (salom
al
4
3
yisra'el). *
T h e significance is a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y t h e w h o l e J e w i s h ' n a t i o n ' r a t h e r t h a n t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l as a g e o g r a p h i c a l c o n c e p t .
4 8 4
T h e fact t h a t ' I s r a e l ' is only written in t h e H e b r e w a l p h a b e t is c o n n e c t e d with t h e symbolic i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e H e b r e w l a n g u a g e for J e w s at R o m e . W i t h o n e e x c e p t i o n , H e b r e w (or A r a m a i c ) is only u s e d for a c o n c l u d i n g f o r m u l a in an o t h e r w i s e G r e e k o r L a t i n e p i t a p h (see p. 1 7 8 ) . W h e r e a s immigrants apparently used Nabataean a n d P a l m y r e n e , t h e r e is n o r e a s o n to associate t h e use o f H e b r e w with i m m i g r a n t s . I n s t e a d it s e e m s to have b e e n i n s c r i b e d as m u c h for its s y m b o l i c a n d visual effect as for a n y linguistic r e a s o n .
485
All S e m i t i c l a n g u a g e s l a c k e d
c o m p e t e n t i n s c r i b e r s at R o m e . T h e r e is o n e e x c e p t i o n to this: J I W E ii 5 8 , from t h e M o n t e v e r d e c a t a c o m b . T h i s is e n t i r e l y in t h e H e b r e w a l p h a b e t , with n o G r e e k o r Latin. T h e s t a n d a r d o f t h e lettering is m u c h h i g h e r , with r e a s o n a b l e a l i g n m e n t ( a l t h o u g h
the letters b e c o m e
slightly s m a l l e r to t h e left) a n d s o m e use o f serifs. It a p p e a r s to b e in A r a m a i c , b u t n o satisfactory i n t e r p r e t a t i o n has b e e n s u g g e s t e d , a n d it is c o m p l e t e l y e x c e p t i o n a l a m o n g the R o m a n inscriptions, almost certainly i n s c r i b e d for s o m e o n e with close c o n n e c t i o n s to t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l .
4 8 6
T h e i m p o r t a n t l a n g u a g e o f t h e s y n a g o g u e s a n d J e w i s h c a t a c o m b s at R o m e was G r e e k . T h e s e w e r e b o t h c o n t e x t s in which t h e
in-group
l a n g u a g e c o u l d b e u s e d , so t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t G r e e k ( r a t h e r t h a n L a t i n , H e b r e w o r A r a m a i c ) was t h e p r i m a r y i n - g r o u p l a n g u a g e . T h e titles h e l d within t h e s y n a g o g u e s w e r e all basically G r e e k , e v e n i f o c c a s i o n a l l y latinized ( n e v e r h e b r a i z e d ) . T i t l e - h o l d e r s w e r e in fact slightly m o r e , likely t h a n o t h e r J e w s to have a n e p i t a p h in G r e e k .
4 8 7
T h e vast m a j o r i t y o f e p i t a p h s for t h e J e w s as a w h o l e a r e in G r e e k : 7 4 % , as o p p o s e d to 1 7 % in L a t i n , 6 % in a m i x t u r e o f G r e e k a n d L a t i n , and 3 % using some Hebrew or A r a m a i c .
4 8 8
T h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y was
p r o b a b l y largely diglossic, u s i n g G r e e k o r L a t i n in different c i r c u m stances; t h e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e from o t h e r g r o u p s at R o m e is t h a t this s e e m s to have r e m a i n e d a p e r m a n e n t situation r a t h e r t h a n d y i n g o u t within o n e o r two g e n e r a t i o n s after i m m i g r a t i o n .
489
Community T h e Jewish synagogues o f R o m e were a form o f organization without parallel a m o n g o t h e r foreign g r o u p s . B y e s t a b l i s h i n g c o m m u n a l insti tutions which t o o k o n a life o f t h e i r own, t h e J e w s h a d t h e m e a n s to pass o n a s e p a r a t e identity from o n e g e n e r a t i o n to t h e n e x t , irrespective of immigration.
490
O t h e r g r o u p s which w e r e p r o b a b l y m o r e n u m e r o u s
t h a n t h e J e w s h a d n o e q u i v a l e n t , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e they h a d n o similar
264
Foreign
groups
at
Rome
ideological i m p e r a t i v e to c r e a t e such institutions. T h e S y r i a n cults w e r e n o t in p r i n c i p l e e x c l u s i v e to o n e g r o u p , w h e t h e r d e f i n e d
on
r e l i g i o u s o r e t h n i c g r o u n d s , a l t h o u g h in p r a c t i c e they m a y have b e e n c o n f i n e d to p e o p l e o f t h e s a m e e t h n i c a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d . T h e y p r o d u c e d few p e o p l e w h o h e l d titles within t h e m o f sufficient i m p o r t a n c e to b e r e c o r d e d in t h e i r epitaphs: G a i o n a s (see p. 2 4 0 ) is very m u c h an e x c e p t i o n .
491
F o r the J e w s , on the other hand, the holding o f
titles s e e m s to have b e e n r e m a r k a b l y c o m m o n . O v e r 2 0 % o f t h e R o m a n J e w s k n o w n from i n s c r i p t i o n s as d e c e a s e d , c o m m e m o r a t o r s o r relatives a r e r e c o r d e d with t i t l e s .
492
N o t h i n g is k n o w n a b o u t t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f a n y o f t h e
individual
s y n a g o g u e s b e y o n d w h a t can b e i n f e r r e d from t h e i r n a m e s . O t h e r l a r g e cities h a d several s y n a g o g u e s , b u t n o n e e x c e p t J e r u s a l e m is k n o w n to h a v e h a d as m a n y as R o m e : o f synagogues are known t h e r e ,
4 9 4
4 9 3
at least e l e v e n different n a m e s
a n d t h e r e m a y well h a v e b e e n m o r e
which a r e n o t r e c o r d e d . T h e r e was c e r t a i n l y n o overall
planning
b e h i n d t h e m , a n d various p r o c e s s e s o f splitting, m e r g e r , new f o u n d a tions a n d c l o s u r e s c a n b e i m a g i n e d . S o m e m a y h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d by p r a c t i c e s b r o u g h t from e l s e w h e r e in t h e D i a s p o r a , since t h e i r n a m e s s u g g e s t t h a t they h a d r e g i o n a l o r i g i n s ( T r i p o l i t a n s , p e r h a p s t h e Secenians and El(a)ea).
495
It m a y b c significant t h a t n o s y n a g o g u e s a r e
k n o w n for p e o p l e from, for e x a m p l e , T i b e r i a s o r S e p p h o r i s . O n l y J e w s from m o r e ' o b s c u r e p l a c e s in t h e D i a s p o r a s e e m to h a v e w a n t e d to p r e s e r v e t h e i r identity in this way, p e r h a p s p a r a l l e l i n g t h e G a l a t i a n villagers in t h e C h r i s t i a n e p i t a p h s (see p. 2 3 2 ) . T h e s y n a g o g u e o f t h e V e r n a c u l i m a y have b e e n originally for natives o f R o m e as o p p o s e d to immigrants.
4 9 0
T h e s y n a g o g u e o f t h e H e b r e w s has often b e e n c l a i m e d
to b e t h e first s y n a g o g u e f o u n d e d at R o m e , b u t it would h a v e b e e n 497
m o r e n a t u r a l to call t h e first s y n a g o g u e t h e loudaioi;
Harvey's inter
p r e t a t i o n ( 1 9 9 8 , 1 4 6 - 7 ) t h a t they used t h e label to identify t h e m s e l v e s as ' g o o d J e w s ' is m o r e p l a u s i b l e . O f t h e o t h e r s y n a g o g u e s ,
the
A g r i p p e s i a n s a n d A u g u s t e s i a n s a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n n a m e d after fa mous people;
4 9 8
t h e C a l c a r e s i a n s , C a m p e s i a n s a n d S i b u r e s i a n s after
a r e a s o f R o m e w h e r e t h e s y n a g o g u e s w e r e situated o r t h e i r m e m b e r s lived; tain.
499
500
t h e o r i g i n o f t h e n a m e o f t h e V o l u m n e s i a n s is very u n c e r
T h e s y n a g o g u e s a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n t r e a t e d in s o m e r e s p e c t s
like collegia
u n d e r R o m a n law, b u t w e r e a p p a r e n t l y e x e m p t from t h e
legislation a g a i n s t collegia
e n a c t e d by J u l i u s C a e s a r a n d A u g u s t u s .
501
B e c a u s e o f t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f s y n a g o g u e s a n d lack o f e v i d e n c e for any j o i n t organization, it has usually b e e n assumed that the J e w s o f R o m e (unlike those o f Alexandria) did not have a gerousia
265
o r o t h e r city-wide
Living
at Rome
b o d y to r e p r e s e n t t h e i r interests; B o t e r m a n n ( 1 9 9 6 , 6 9 ) sees this as a factor in m i n i m i z i n g conflict b e t w e e n Jews a n d n o n - J e w s in t h e city. H o w e v e r , W i l l i a m s ( 1 9 9 8 ) claims that t h e r e was a c e n t r a l i z e d c o m m u nal s t r u c t u r e for t h e Jews of R o m e . O n e o f h e r a r g u m e n t s is t h a t this would h a v e r e f l e c t e d t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e Jews in A l e x a n d r i a a n d else w h e r e . H o w e v e r , it may b e m o r e r e l e v a n t to n o t e t h a t it would h a v e g o n e a g a i n s t t h e p r a c t i c e o f all o t h e r f o r e i g n g r o u p s at R o m e . T h e r e is n o e v i d e n c e for a n y city-wide o r g a n i z a t i o n of a n y r e l i g i o u s , g e o g r a p h i cal o r e t h n i c g r o u p at R o m e b e y o n d what e m e r g e d a r o u n d p a r t i c u l a r s h r i n e s . T h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e R o m a n J e w s did act collectively o n o c c a s i o n s , as s h e points o u t ,
502
a n d c o u l d b e t r e a t e d as a unit by t h e
a u t h o r i t i e s ( a l t h o u g h all t h e e v i d e n c e for this c o m e s from t h e p e r i o d from A u g u s t u s to C l a u d i u s ) , b u t t h e s a m e c o u l d b e said o f E g y p t i a n s o r a s t r o l o g e r s , g r o u p s which c e r t a i n l y did n o t h a v e a c e n t r a l c o u n c i l . T h e s y n a g o g u e s d o n o t s e e m to h a v e b e e n involved in t h e o r g a n i z a tion o f t h e J e w i s h c a t a c o m b s . Williams ( 1 9 9 4 a ) n o t e s t h e impossibility o f l i n k i n g w h e r e t h e J e w s w e r e b u r i e d with w h e r e they lived o r which s y n a g o g u e they b e l o n g e d to; t h e s a m e is t r u e for t h e C h r i s t i a n s , as s h o w n by Pietri ( 1 9 7 6 ) . S h e suggests (p. 1 8 1 ) t h a t t h e c a t a c o m b s w e r e r u n by s e p a r a t e b u r i a l c o n s o r t i a , b u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e is n o t k n o w n . T h e s y n a g o g u e s a p p e a r to h a v e f l o u r i s h e d until t h e fourth c e n t u r y , j u d g i n g from t h e e p i t a p h s . T h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y m a y h a v e n o t lasted m u c h l o n g e r , at least in t h e s a m e f o r m . C h r i s t i a n s d e s t r o y e d o n e o f t h e R o m a n s y n a g o g u e s in 3 8 8 , a n d its r e b u i l d i n g was o r d e r e d by t h e ' u s u r p e r ' M a x i m u s , s o m e t h i n g which a p p a r e n t l y Christian support.
5 0 3
cost him
T h e r e was p r o b a b l y a n o t h e r i n c i d e n t o f syna
g o g u e - b u r n i n g in 3 9 5 ,
5 0 4
b u t t h e fate o f individual s y n a g o g u e s after
t h a t is u n k n o w n . S i n c e t h e r e c e r t a i n l y w e r e still s y n a g o g u e s in t h e sixth a n d s e v e n t h c e n t u r i e s , they w e r e n o t all d e s t r o y e d , b u t
the
n u m b e r o f s e p a r a t e institutions, a n d t h e size o f t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e , is likely to have c o n t r a c t e d as t h e total p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e city c o n t r a c t e d . Links with the land of
Israel
T h e r e is e v i d e n c e for d i r e c t links b e t w e e n t h e J e w s o f R o m e a n d t h e l a n d of I s r a e l o f a r a t h e r different n a t u r e from t h e sorts o f link discussed at p. 1 6 4 . A c c o r d i n g to Acts 2 8 . 2 1 , it was n o r m a l p r a c t i c e for t h e T e m p l e a u t h o r i t i e s in p r e - 7 0 J e r u s a l e m to c o r r e s p o n d with t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y in R o m e , at least to warn t h e m a b o u t travellers b e t w e e n t h e cities: And they said to him [Paul], 'We have received no letters out o f J u d a e a
266
Foreign
groups ai Home
about you, and none of the brethren corning here has reported or spoken any evil about you.' C i c e r o a n d J o s e p h u s show that m o n e y was b e i n g s e n t from R o m e to t h e T e m p l e in t h e first c e n t u r i e s BC a n d A D .
505
In the second century,
a c c o r d i n g to r a b b i n i c s o u r c e s , T o d o s ' i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e Passover kid o r l a m b at R o m e (see a b o v e ) was p e r m i t t e d by t h e rabbis in t h e l a n d o f I s r a e l , b e c a u s e they h e l d him in such high r e g a r d , a l t h o u g h s u p p o s edly it would h a v e b e e n c o n d e m n e d i f it h a d b e e n a n y o n e else's idea. T h e story shows r a b b i n i c a u t h o r i t i e s c l a i m i n g s o m e p o w e r at R o m e (just as t h e T e m p l e a u t h o r i t i e s h a d d o n e in t h e first c e n t u r y ) , w h e t h e r it reflects t h e real position in t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y o r n o t .
5 0 0
T h e Patri
a r c h (Nasi) m u s t have u n d e r t a k e n fund-raising in t h e W e s t , since t h e legal t e x t o f AD 3 9 9 which a b o l i s h e s his r i g h t to s e n d o u t apostuli collect m o n e y is a d d r e s s e d Africa.
507
to
to t h e P r a e t o r i a n P r e f e c t o f Italy a n d
T h u s it s e e m s t h a t r e l i g i o u s l e a d e r s in t h e l a n d o f Israel
always c l a i m e d s o m e sort of suzerainty o v e r t h e J e w s of R o m e . H o w far they w e r e a b l e to e n f o r c e it is m u c h less c l e a r . B u r i a l in t h e l a n d of I s r a e l was s t r o n g l y e n c o u r a g e d by rabbis from t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y , b u t t h e only k n o w n case o f a J e w w h o d i e d at R o m e b e i n g s e n t b a c k to I s r a e l for b u r i a l is m u c h e a r l i e r : A r i s t o b u l u s I I in 4 9 BC (see p. 1 9 1 ) . T h e links c o u l d b e political as well as t h e o l o g i c a l . W h e n A r c h e l a u s c a m e to R o m e to p l e a d for H e r o d ' s t h r o n e in 4 BC, h u g e n u m b e r s of J e w s t u r n e d o u t to o p p o s e h i m .
5 0 8
A m a n c l a i m i n g to b e a n o t h e r of
H e r o d ' s s o n s , A l e x a n d e r , won s u p p o r t a m o n g J e w s at Puteoli a n d R o m e - t h e real A l e x a n d e r h a d e a r l i e r lived at R o m e a n d p r e s u m a b l y built up his p o p u l a r i t y .
509
At this stage, t h e r e was clearly a lively
i n t e r e s t a m o n g t h e J e w s o f R o m e in e v e n t s in J u d a e a .
5 1 0
The revolts
a p p e a r to h a v e c h a n g e d this, a n d largely to h a v e s e v e r e d t h e political links. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e l a n d of I s r a e l r e m a i n e d t h e focal p o i n t for t h e R o m a n J e w s , s o m e t h i n g which is g r a p h i c a l l y illustrated by t h e way in which t h e s y n a g o g u e at Ostia was r e o r i e n t a t e d , p r o b a b l y in t h e fourth c e n t u r y , so t h a t p e o p l e would face J e r u s a l e m w h e n p r a y i n g .
511
Jews
b o r n at R o m e n o d o u b t r e g a r d e d t h e city as t h e i r h o m e l a n d , j u s t as Philo r e g a r d e d A l e x a n d r i a ,
512
b u t would still h a v e felt an o v e r r i d i n g
loyalty to J e r u s a l e m .
Notes 1
2
3
4
Other than those from Cisalpine Gaul, who are not under consideration here. Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 2, no. 6.6b. Ricci 1992a, 3 0 4 . T h e three Massiliotes mentioned in epitaphs all appear to be peregrini: C I L 267
Living
at Rome
vi 24057; IGUR 8 2 0 , 9 4 0 . Suetonius, Gramm. 7, 11; an alternative version said that Gnipho was educated at Alexandria. Suetonius, Gramm. 20. C I L vi 6 2 3 8 . C I L vi 16100: lst-2nd century according to Ricci (1992b, no. a34). Ricci 1992b, 105. Suetonius, D.J. 86 ('armed Spaniards'), Aug. 4 9 ('men from Calagurri'). " Ricci 1992b, 1 2 1 - 2 . AE (1974) 2 2 6 , AE (1993) 3 8 8 . Herodian 1.10.3. Ricci 1992b, 108; C I L v i 1454. RIT331. Tacitus, Ann. 1.78, 4.37. A priest o f the imperial cult for the conventus Asturum apparently died at Rome: C I L vi 2 9 7 2 4 . Ricci 1992b, 1 2 5 - 6 . There are also dedications by Aries, Lyon and the T h r e e Provinces o f Gaul (Ricci 1992a, 3 1 4 - 1 5 ) . C I L vi 2 9 6 8 8 . C I L xiii 4 1 2 , add. p.4; Ricci 1992a, no. A41. 'He obtained for the nine peoples (the right) to separate (from) the Gauls'. C I L xii 1750. C I L vi 2 9 6 8 7 ; Ricci 1992a, no. A34. C I L xiv 327. Millar 1 9 8 1 , 147; Garcia Marline/ 1991, 2 7 0 . This is not the case with the civilians in the inscriptions, among whom both Lusitania and Tarraconensis outnumber Baetica (Ricci 1992b, 128). Garcia Martinez (1993, 325) gives an extensive bibliography on Spanish senators. Ricci 1992a, 3 0 5 . A. Annius Camars of Aries, tribune in the Flavian period, was probably one o f the first office-holders from Gaul, if Ricci's identification (no. A2) is correct. Tacitus, Ann. 1 1 . 2 3 - 5 ; C I L xiii 1668. Millar 1 9 8 1 , 149. Millar 1 9 8 1 , 159. Ricci 1992b, 108. M. Vibius Maternus, who describes himself as Ilurensis, put up a dedication to the Urban Prefect L. Fabius Septiminus Cilo, whose 'candidate' he was ( C I L vi 1410). Spain: Ricci 1992b, nos. a l 3 , a l 6 ; Rodriguez Neila 1978. T h e r e is one from Lyon ( C I L xiii 1798) who is explicitly said to have served at Rome. There may also be one from Gaul (CIL xiii 5 0 0 7 - 8 ; Ricci 1992a, no. A20), but the text is heavily restored. R I T 2 3 0 = C I L ii 4 1 8 0 . Ricci 1992b, 105. Ricci 1992b, 106. Ricci 1992b, 129. Ricci 1992a, 3 0 3 - 4 . Ricci 1992b, 1 3 9 - 4 0 . Salsariilsalsamentarii were dealers in salted fish products. Strabo (3.1.8, 3.5.3) refers to salsamentarii from Cadiz. 0
6
7
8
9
1 0
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2 j
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
3 1
3 2
3 3
3 4
3 5
3 6
268
Foreign 3 7
groups at Rome
Millar 1 9 8 1 , 128; Garcia Martinez 1991, 2 6 8 ; Remesal and Revilla 1999. C I L vi 9 7 1 7 , an olearius from Aix-en-Provence. Ricci 1992b, 137. C I L vi 9 6 7 7 . C I L vi 1625. Ricci (1992b, 135) notes that an olearius ex Baetica did not necessarily come from Baetica personally, but there is little evidence that any of the people supplying Baetican products were not Baeticans themselves. However, I have not counted as Baetican (contra Garcia Martinez 1993, 3 2 5 ) L. Marius Phoebus, who is described in C I L vi 1935 as both viator tribunicius decuriae maioris and mercator olei Hispani ex provincia Baetica: he may have been a Spanish merchant who had a career change after coming to Rome, but more probably he was someone from a wealthy Roman background who also made money from trade with Baetica. Ricci 1992b, 137. Ricci 1992a, 3 1 6 . C I L vi 2 9 7 2 2 ; cf. Panciera 1980, 2 4 1 . According to Panciera (1980, 2 4 1 ) , 'patron of the seviri\ Ricci 1992b, 129. Dio 5 9 . 2 6 . 8 - 9 ; it is not certain that this happened at Rome. AE (1979) 75 (CIL vi 9 9 6 2 + 2 1 0 5 3 ) . C I L vi 7971 L. Salluius L.l. Nasta; C I L vi 3 7 3 7 8 L. Salluius L.l. Thcuda. Ricci (1992b, 105 n. 4 ) gives a full list o f references; Martial 1.41, 6 . 7 1 . C I L vi 9 0 1 3 . C I L vi 10048 (dated AD 146); C I L 2 8 8 4 . C I L v i 10184. C I L vi 10177 = 33977 is the epitaph o f a Tungrian (natione lunger) man who is described as mimillonis veterani - possibly a veteran myrmillo, although mimillonis could be part of his name. C I L vi 10127. AE (1953) 2 0 0 . Ricci 1992a, 3 0 5 . IGUR 2 0 8 1 9 . ICUR 17495 = C I L vi 9 5 9 7 . Inscriptions such as dedications which are not treated in ch. 4 or the Appendix as showing immigrants (because they may have been made by people who were only in Rome very briefly) but which show the sort o f selfdesignations available have sometimes been used in this chapter; references are given in the footnotes. T h e 'tribal' designations used by Martial for 'his' people, Celtae et Hiberi (6.52, 10.65) do not occur in the inscriptions. No city occurs more than three times. All but one o f the Spanish soldiers takes his designation from city not province. Ricci (1992a, 3 1 7 ) believes that Gallus is used for someone from I r e s Galliae not from Narbonensis. However, no other label appears to have been available to someone from Narbonensis (unless Narbonensis is an ethnic from the province rather than, as assumed in this table, the city). Including AE (1934) 161. Including AE (1930) 7 0 , C I L vi 1400, C I L vi 3 6 8 3 5 . T h e city mentioned 3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 j
4 0
4 7
4 8
4 9
5 0
5 1
3 2
5 3
3 4
5 5
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
6 0
6 1
6 2
6 3
6 4
269
Living
at Rome
most often is Vienne (7). Since it was also a title for the castrated priests of Magna Mater, and was used by them (in the forms gallus and archigallus) in their epitaphs, there was poten tial for confusion in epigraphic usage. Gallus also means a cockerel in Latin. Ricci 1992b, 130. C I L vi 2 4 1 6 2 . BCAR 56 (1928), pp. 3 1 8 - 2 0 ; C I L vi 1006. C I L vi 1400, 1526; Ricci 1992b no. C2. NS (1933) pp. 5 0 5 - 6 no. 2 2 6 = AE (1934) 161. Beard, North and Price (1998), vol. 1, p p . 2 7 0 - 1 . She was the only west ern deity to get her own shrine. C I L vi 3 2 5 5 0 . 32551 includes omnibus diis patriensibus in a list o f gods beginning with I.O.M. C I L vi 4 6 ; Ricci 1992a, no. B 2 1 ; R E ii 6 1 6 . Arduinna and Camulus are depicted as Diana and Mars. C I L vi 3 6 8 3 5 . According to Bang, quoted as 'piu che attendibile' by Ricci (1992a, 3 0 6 ) , this may be evidence o f a statio for Vienne at Rome, but this seems an unnecessary conclusion, and would bc inconsistent with the other stationes, where magistrates from the home city are not mentioned. Cicero, Tusc. 3.53, mentions the large number o f Macedonian slaves at Rome. Ricci 1993c, 2 2 3 . Carcopino 1941, 7 5 . C I L v i 12304; Ricci 1993b, no. N l . Martial (11.96) complains about a German slave elbowing someone out o f the way to drink from the Aqua Marcia. Ricci 1993b, 144. Ricci 1993b, 144. Hammond and Walbank 1998, ch. X X V I . T h e only ones in Greek are I C U R 15000 and I G U R 1312. C I L vi 2 3 8 6 = 3 2 6 2 5 , a.i.9. Ricci 1993b, 161. Ricci 1993b, 1 6 5 - 6 . Palmer 1 9 8 1 , 3 7 4 ; Mateescu 1923, 7 4 - 5 . A number o f slaves commemo rated in the Monument of the Statilii have Thracian names (Mateescu 1923, 78). CILvi 6221, 6229-37. Dio 75.2.4 says that before 193 the praetorians were recruited 'exclusively from Italy, Spain, Macedonia and Noricum'. Inscriptions show that this was not actually the case, but it was perhaps how it seemed to an onlooker. Ricci 1993b, 176. Kolendo 1 9 8 8 - 9 . According to Tacitus, Hist. 3.12, the fleet at Ravenna in 6 9 was mainly manned by Dalmatians and Pannonians; the inscriptions show the importance of Dalmatians but not o f Pannonians. Ricci 1993c, 2 1 9 . Ricci 1993c, 2 0 6 . Ricci 1993c, 2 0 6 . 6 1
6 6
6 7
6 8
6 9
7 0
7 1
7 2
7 3
7 4
7 y
7 6
7 7
7 8
7 9
8 0
8 1
8 2
8 3
8 4
8 5
8 6
8 7
8 8
8 9
9 0
9 1
9 2
9 3
9 4
9 5
270
Foreign 9 6
groups
at Rome
Ricci 1993b, 145; C I L vi 2 6 6 0 8 . Mateescu 1923, 114. C I L vi 2 0 7 1 8 ; NS (1922) 4 1 7 nos. 5 1 + 5 3 . Mateescu (1923, 80) thinks that the latter is associated with a 2nd-century AD Bosporan king, not a Thracian ruler, but Ricci (1993b, no. T 7 ) links him with a Thracian king from the time o f Augustus. Dio 67.5.3. C I L vi 1 8 0 1 . According to Mateescu (1923, 100), they were probably captured by the Asdings in 1 7 1 - 2 and handed over to the Romans. C I L vi 2 9 3 3 ; Ricci 1993b, no. Mo.2. C I L vi 9 7 1 9 ; Ricci 1993b, no. T 1 2 . T h e main products exported from the area to Rome were metals, amber, animals, skins (Ricci 1993b, 1 6 3 - 4 ) . C I L vi 9 7 0 9 - 1 0 ; Ricci 1993b, 1 6 4 - 5 . 9 7 0 9 , the inscription from the tomb which T . Flavius Genethlius prepared for himself and his family, ends with the mysterious comment: 'He never drove a chariot in the four stables'. Other nummularii are recorded at Aquincum and Poetovio. C I L vi 6 3 4 3 . ' C I L vi 3 3 0 3 6 . This may be a military post, as it is in C I L vi 2638 (a man possibly from Serdica), and Ricci 1993b, 1 9 8 - 2 0 0 no. 1 (a Dacian), but could also refer to a civilian transcriber or seller o f books. Dio 51.22; Ricci 1993c, 207. Mateescu 1923, 76: presumably there were other Thracians in his revolt. Horace, Sat. 1.7.20 mentions a gladiator with the Thracian name Bithus. In C I L vi 10187, the gladiator is a Samnite from T h r a c e . Petolescu 1992. Mateescu 1923, 86, 2 1 4 . AE (1989) 3 0 . T h e same man also had a slave 'from the shores o f the Black Sea'. C I L vi 3 2 2 9 . C I L vi 3 2 7 9 6 . C I L vi 3227. Other equites singulares were commemorated by their freedmen: e.g. M. Ulpius Victor from Cologne ( C I L vi 3 3 1 1 ) ; T . Aurelius Impetratus, a Raetian ( C I L vi 3 2 8 4 5 ; Speidel 1994c, no. 133); T . Aurelius lucundus, another Raetian (CIL vi 3 2 0 8 ) . In these cases, the freedmen's place o f origin is not given. One exception is C. Vallius Scribonianus, a magistrate from Carnuntum who was a judge (interselectos) at Rome. C I L iii 14359.3; Ricci 1993b, no. P. 14. Millar 1981, 2 3 5 ; Ricci 1993b, 146-7; Ricci 1993c, 2 0 7 - 8 , 2 2 3 . Ricci 1993b, 1 4 5 - 8 . Ricci 1993b, 2 0 6 . C I L vi 3 2 9 7 8 ; Lega and Orlandi 1997. 1CUR 13109; Bertolino 1997, 119; PLRE i 8 4 4 . I C U R 1480 is a dedication by the gens Carnuntum to their bishop; this has usually been taken to refer to the Pannonian city o f Carnuntum, but Di Stefano Manzella (1997a) argues that it means the Carnutes from Gaul. T h e r e is some general discussion o f the nature o f these tables at p. 2 0 9 . 9 7
9 8
9 9
1 0 0
1 0 1
1 0 2
1 0 3
1 0 4
10;
1 0 6
1 0 7
1 0 8
1 0 9
1 1 0
1 1 1
1 1 2
11:5
1 1 4
1 1 5
1 1 0
1 1 7
1 1 8
1 1 9
1 2 0
1 2 1
1 2 2
1 2 3
271
Living
at Rome
1 2 4
Someone with this designation is almost invariably a German bodyguard. j r th Qermanus was both an ethnic and a j o b title (Ricci 1993c, 2 2 0 ) . Including 6 from Celeia. 25 out o f 28 refer to the province; 3 are designated by city only. Including 17 from Savaria. G I L vi 2 6 0 5 . Including C I L vi 31147. Including C I L vi 3 2 5 4 6 . Including C I L vi 32543 = 2 7 9 9 . Fol (1967, 9) notes that Roman administrative divisions did not replace earlier ones in Thracian thinking. C I L v i 32582 = 2807. C I L v i 3 2 5 4 3 = 2799. C I L vi 3 2 6 0 5 = 2845. C I L vi 3 2 5 8 9 = 2 8 1 8 : 'nationem Mesacus vie.'' I G U R 134: EK 5e xcopir|<; Trioeoq. One o f the men who erected this dedication was himself commemorated with a Latin epitaph ( C I L vi 2 7 3 2 ) . C I L vi 32567 = 2819, dated 266; Ricci 1993b, no. T 1 7 ; Mateescu 1923, 133. I owe this idea to Stephen Mitchell. T h r a c e : AE (1993) 3 3 2 , C I L vi 2772 + 3 2 6 6 0 , I C U R 23627. Moesia: C I L vi 2 7 3 0 , 2 7 3 6 (both by wives for praetorian husbands). C I L vi 3300; one o f the commemorators is the deceased's wife. C I L vi 3 7 2 2 4 , 3297. C I L vi 2494a. C I L vi 3 7 2 1 3 . C I L vi 2 6 9 4 . See Mateescu 1923 for an exhaustive survey; however, subsequent com ments on his work show the scope for disagreement about exactly what constitutes a Thracian name. T h e following table is largely based on the list o f occurrences compiled by Mateescu (1923, 7 7 ) . Vitus is assumed to be a form o f Bithus only when there is a Thracian ethnic with it. T h e status criteria used are the same as those outlined at p. 7 6 , with the addition o f the category of'soldier'. In C I L vi 3 1 6 5 , the classiarius C. Caecilius Valens was the son o f a Bithus, presumably a, peregrinus. CILvi 9166. C I L vi 2 0 2 1 6 . C I L vi 2 5 7 0 . T h e brother's cognomen is suggestive o f someone who took up a Latin name on enlistment and did not understand the difference between a praenomen and a cognomen. C I L vi 3 1 9 5 . C I L v i 250 = 3 0 7 2 3 ; see p. 161. C I L vi 1569; Ricci 1993b, no. N10. C I L iii 1 2 3 3 6 , corrected in AE ( 1 9 9 4 ) 1 5 5 2 ; Millar 1 9 8 1 , 2 2 8 - 9 . Mateescu (1923, 148) suggests that the village o f Omurovo thanked the i2o
o
r
e n i j
1 2 6
1 2 7
1 2 8
1 2 9
1 3 0
1 3 1
1 3 2
1 3 3
1 3 4
1 3 5
1 3 6
1 3 7
1 3 8
1 3 9
1 4 0
1 4 1
1 4 2
1 4 3
1 4 4
1 4 5
1 4 6
1 4 7
1 4 8
1 4 9
I;)0
1 5 1
1 5 2
l j 3
1 3 4
1 5 5
1 5 6
1 5 7
272
Foreign
groups at Rome
praetorian Aurelius Mucianus for a similar reason ( I C R i 7 3 8 ) . Turcan 1996, 2 4 9 - 5 0 ; Mateescu 1923, 1 5 9 - 6 2 , 188, 2 4 3 ; C I L vi 3 0 9 1 2 = 3 6 9 1 , 32582 = 2807. Floriani Squarciapino (1962, 67) suggests a link between his cult at Ostia and the presence o f Bessan sailors there. I G U R 132, found on the Esquiline. T h e first divinity is well attested in Thrace, but the second is otherwise unknown. C I L vi 3 2 5 4 6 = 2797, 3 2 5 7 0 = 2 7 9 8 , 3 2 5 7 1 ; Mateescu 1923, 1 4 3 - 4 . I G U R 134. I G U R 135. C I L vi 3 1 1 6 2 ; Ricci 1993c, no. C I ; Mateescu 1923, 186. RE viii 6 1 1 . C I L vi 3 2 5 8 8 = 2 8 1 7 . C I L vi 2 8 0 8 . C I L vi 3 2 5 4 3 = 2 7 9 9 . C I L vi 3 2 5 4 2 , 3 2 5 4 4 , 3 2 5 5 7 . According to Mateescu (1923, 137), the Cotini were a Celtic tribe allowed to settle in Pannonia Inferior. Speidel 1994a, 26. C I L vi 2 8 3 5 . Speidel 1994a, 142. Dion.Hzl, Ant.Rom. 1.89-90. Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 2, no. 6.6b. T h e s e Greeks could be from Magna Graecia rather than from Greece itself. Hammond and Walbank 1998, 4 0 3 . Hammond and Walbank 1998, 567. Alcock 1993, ch. 1. Suetonius, Gramm. 10, 15. Philostratus, Ap.T. 8.12. C I L vi 17448. C I L vi 2 0 5 4 8 = I G U R 1239. Alcock 1993, 2 4 - 3 2 . T h e ambivalent attitudes o f the Roman elite to Greek culture in the late Republic are discussed by Erskine (1997). PLRE i 6 6 0 . IGUR 370. GIL vi 18175 = I G U R 1210. C I L vi 3 1 0 2 , 3 1 3 6 , 3 1 6 8 (all described zsnalione Graecus). C I L vi 8 1 4 2 , 9 9 0 6 , 17448 (definitely a slave). Solin and Itkonen-Kaila 1966, nos. 121, 3 2 9 . J I W E ii 5 0 3 . McLean 1993 gives the text. Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 1, 271 (IGUR 160); Scheid 1986. She was the daughter and wife of 2nd-century consuls, but, as often in this type of inscription, her full name was omitted, and she is referred to only as Agrippinilla. e.g. McLean 1993, 2 5 2 : ''The fact that parents bearing Greek names tended to give their sons Latin cognomina suggests that most of these slaves and freedmen bearing Greek names on the Agrippinilla inscription are firstgeneration immigrants'; 2 5 4 : 'Since I have established that many o f those bearing Greek names had only recently immigrated from Lesbos as the slaves 1 5 8
1;>9
1 6 0
1 6 1
1 6 2
1 6 3
1 6 4
1 6 5
1 6 6
1 6 7
1 6 8
1 6 9
1 7 0
1 7 1
1 7 2
1 7 3
1 7 4
1 7 5
1 7 6
1 7 7
1 7 8
1 7 9
1 8 0
1 8 1
1 8 2
1 8 3
1 8 4
1 8 0
1 8 6
1 8 7
1 8 8
1 8 9
1 9 0
1 9 1
273
Living
at Rome
and freedmen o f the Gallicanus household...' Many of McLean's comments in the article are based on misunderstandings about onomastic practices in Roman epigraphy. In this section, 'Asia Minor' will be used to refer to the area which eventually contained the provinces of Asia, Bithynia et Pontus, Galatia, Lycia et Pamphilia, Cilicia and Cappadocia. In the absence o f any other available terminology, 'Asian' refers to someone from Asia Minor, not just from the province o f Asia. Juvenal 5.56, 1 1.147. Philostratus, Ap. T. 8.12; c f discussion at p. 2 2 4 . Catullus 10. C I L vi 6311 is an epitaph for a Paphlagonian litter-bearer. Carrying sedan chairs in 18th-century London was a j o b associated with Irish immigrants. Cicero, Post Red. in Sen. 14. 1 9 2
1 9 3
1 9 4
I9;)
1 9 0
197
P
I
R
2
F
2
6
2
1 9 8
Acts of Justin & Companions 4. C I L vi 10098. C I L vi 3 1 7 3 . Speidel 1994c, no. 697. In I G U R 8 4 6 , a woman with the local (cf. Palmer 1 9 8 1 , 3 8 6 ) name Ouddas commemorates her husband; both have only a single name. In AE (1983) 50, a woman named Iulia Ma is commemorated by her son, a praetorian from Germanicopolis in Bithynia. The same name occurs (Ramia M.l. Maa) in AE (1966) 51. In Vaananen 1973, 79, the imperial slave Tilles has a Cappadocian name according to Robert. Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 1, p. 97; vol. 2, no. 8.7a (Dion.Hal., Ant.Rom. 2.19). See further below. IGUR 352. ° I G U R 4 3 3 , with Moretti's comments ad loc. A high-priest from Laodicea may be commemorated in the very fragmentary I G U R 1063. I G U R 1260. I G U R 1288 (heavily restored). IGUR 1361. I G U R 1204. IGUR 815. T h e first known Bithynian senator was advanced under Claudius (Jones 1978, 4 ) . C I L xiv 4 8 0 . Dio 79.20.2. C I L vi 10149. BCAR 51 (1923), p. 74 no. 16. I C U R 10549; I C U R 5 6 8 8 as understood by Feissel 1982a, no. I. I G U R 607, 6 8 2 , 1283, 1355; C I L vi 9 5 8 0 ; J o n e s 1978, 1. See also p. 111. AE (1947) 162; I G U R 8 7 2 ; I G U R 6 2 6 = C I L vi 6 0 4 8 . S E G xxvii 6 7 8 . IGUR 320. IGUR 371. 1 9 9
2()()
2 0 1
2 0 2
2 0 3
2 0 4
2 0
2 0 6
2 0 7
2 0 8
2 0 9
2 1 0
2 1 1
2 1 2
2 1 3
2 1 4
2 1 5
2 1 0
2 1 7
2 1 8
2 1 9
2 2 0
2 2 1
274
Foreign
groups
at Rome
2 2 2
I G U R 1351, with Morctti's comments ad loc. I.Porto 1, according to the interpretation by Maz/.oleni cited ad loc. But see I.Porto 4 5 , as interpreted by Fbert 1985. Bevilacqua 1978. C I L vi 9 6 7 5 . I C U R 5 0 6 4 , as restored by Avramea 1995, 3 2 2 . T h e r e is some general discussion of the nature of these tables at p. 2 0 9 . In addition, there are 6 references to some version o f 'Laodicea in Asia', counted above under province. ™ These are all cities which are mentioned once or twice only. Including one reference to 'Byzantium'. Villages were of great importance in communal life throughout Asia Minor, not just in Galatia (Mitchell 1993, vol. 1, 170, 178), so there is no obvious reason why only Galatian villages are named at Rome. Cf. Mitchell 1993, vol. 1, 179. 234 Qf ii i by Feissel 1982a. 2 2 3
2 2 4
2 2 5
2 2 6
2 2 7
2 2 8
2 2 9
2 ( 1
2 3 2
2 : w
t
n
e
(
s t : u s s
o n
2 3 y
ICUR 4441, with the spelling KOHTV, the name of the village seems to have been omitted accidentally. T h e restoration in ICUR 5679 of [onto KC6|XT|<;1 is almost certainly wrong; in a Galatian inscription, it is much more likely to be [xcopiovj. -' I C U R 4437, 4 4 4 4 (where just fxlcopioi) rather than [GOTO xlcopiou should probably bc restored), 5 6 6 1 , 5 6 7 6 . ICUR 5669+5675. I C U R 4 0 4 1 : xapiov TIia|i[ - - J. ICUR 4271b: Kwptcp Mixpdc; Kcorxtiq. I C U R 4 4 3 4 : xwpioi) Tovyouxecov. ICUR 5 8 3 3 : xcopioi) KvnKvoov. Ferrua 1939, p. 148 n o . 10: [%]copio"u Eixcov. Cf. p. 188. La Piana 1927, 2 1 9 - 2 0 ; Richardson 1992, 2 9 0 on the Phrygianum in the Vatican under St Peter's. Dion.Hal. Ant.Rom.2.19.4: 'her priests are a Phrygian man and a Phrygian woman'. La Piana 1927, 2 8 9 . e.g. Livia Briseis Aug.lib. in C I L vi 4 9 6 . C I L vi 10098. I G U R 129. C I L vi 10234. I G U R 102, probably the same man for whom I G U R 1283 is the epitaph (they are assumed to be the same man in ch. 4 ) . IGUR 104. 248 I Q U K 8 6 - 7 ; they are probably connected with the Sardian statio (see p. 161). They have not been counted as Sardians in ch. 4. I G U R 146; Turcan 1996, 2 5 4 . Turcan 1996, 257. Floriani Squarciapino (1962, 6 9 ) notes that at least seven statues of her were found a t Rome and one in Ostia, probably for private use in lararia. She suggests a link with Aphrodisian sculptors at Rome (cf. p. 113). I G U R 1 8 5 - 6 ; Turcan 1996, 3 2 3 - 4 . Cf. p. 41 on the possible expulsion of Sabazius worshippers in the 2nd century BC. I G U R 131 = C I L vi 32591 = 2 8 2 3 . My
2 3 7
2 3 8
2 3 9
2 4 0
2 4 1
2 4 2
2 4 3
2 4 4
2 4 5
2 4 ( )
2 4 7
2 4 9
2 ) 0
2 5 1
2 5 2
275
Living
at
Rome
2 5 3
I C U R 4441 (Philip the domestkus); perhaps I C U R 2 3 7 4 3 (Eustathius the merchant). Rebuffat 1966. The background of the Syrian prophetess Martha who advised Marius is not clear (Plutarch, Marius 17). Cicero, de Prov.Cons. 10; Livy 36.17.5. Plautus, Merc. 4 1 5 ; Plutarch, Luc. 2 1 . Cicero, Oral. 232. Pliny, H.N. 35.58.199. C I L vi 2 6 8 8 3 . Solin 1983, 6 7 1 . Cf. IGUR 1287: 'my race was Greek ("EMr|v), my homeland was Apamea'. C I L vi 3 5 5 5 6 a . Solin 1983, 6 6 6 - 7 0 . Solin 1983, 6 7 1 . Cf. Solin 1983, 7 2 2 . Bevilacqua 1978. C I L vi 6 4 3 1 . I G U R 1334. C I L vi 3 3 8 1 3 . Ruggini 1959, 188. Ruggini 1959, 189. Augustine, Conf. 4 . 1 4 . 2 1 . AE (1982) 74 = Feissel 1982b, no. I L L T h e r e are also 4 inscriptions, counted under province, which use both 'Syria(n)' and 'Antioch(ene)'. MAMA iii 2 4 0 , 2 4 8 , 4 0 8 , 4 3 6 , 4 4 3 , 4 4 5 , 5 0 0 , 507, 5 6 3 , 6 4 2 , 7 3 3 . T h e expression used for 'village' in these inscriptions is nearly always %copiou; only one uses K(6(rn<;. T h e names of a number of donors from Syrian villages were recorded in the mosaic floor o f the 4th-5th century basilica at Monastero in Aquileia; see J I W E i, p. xiv, with the bibliography there. I C U R 4 0 0 4 : and Kcojin<; M[— opcov 'ArcoOnecov xr\q KvXr\(q) <£>upia<;. I C U R 4 8 9 1 : and Kcojxni; Aax[--] opcov 'Ana\ie((av). IGUR 9 3 1 9 : data (sic) K(C6)MT|(<;) 'Op(d)ycov %c6(pa<;) A7ta>i(ecov). AE (1982) 74 (dated 4 1 4 ) : Kc6|xr|c; Mayapaxcov Kctxtoxepat; xf|<; Arcaiaecov rcapoiKiac;. ICUR 5175. I C U R 5 7 0 6 , 8 4 0 4 . However, I have argued above (pp. 188, 2 3 2 ) that some inscriptions which have previously been assigned to Syrians actually belong to Galatians. I C U R 12896. T h e suggestion by Solin (1977b, 2 1 0 ) that it was such a common slave name that it may have been given to non-Syrian slaves seems unnecessary, given that so many slaves were o f Syrian origin. In addition to occurrences in C I L vi and I C U R , the following arc included: NS (1916), p. 107 no. 119 = BCAR 43 (1915), p. 3 0 8 ; NS (1923), p. 3 6 0 ; NS (1969), p. 104; BCAR 51 (1923), p. 107 no. 153. 2 5 4
25;>
2 ; , b
2 5 7
2 5 8
2 5 9
2 6 0
2 6 1
2 6 2
2 6 3
2 6 4
2 6 5
26(3
2 6 7
2 6 8
2 6 9
2 7 0
2 7 1
2 7 2
2 7 3
2 7 4
2 7 5
27(1
2 7 7
2 7 8
2 7 9
2 8 0
2 8 1
2 8 2
276
Foreign 2 8 3
groups
at Rome
I C U R 1861, 2636. ICUR 6467. ICUR 20608. C I L vi 2 5 7 0 3 . All the relevant inscriptions are in the index o f C I L vi except Vaaniinen 1973, no. 3 6 . C I L v i 16851, 19118, 2 8 6 3 5 . CILvi 21548, 29636. CILvi 23601. CILvi 20564. C I L vi 19134, 3 4 1 9 6 (CIS ii 159). The latter was found in the Tiber. Palmer 1981, 3 7 0 - 2 ; Turcan 1996, 188. Turcan 1996, 1 8 8 - 9 3 ; he suggests, apart from the Syrian element, a link with the cult o f Osiris and a late, clandestine use by pagans during the ascendancy o f Christianity. Lombardi 1996, 62; Calzini Gysens 1996a, 2 6 2 ; 1996b, 2 7 7 - 8 2 . Ciceroni (1996, 3 6 4 ) , in the same volume, regards it as established that it was not a Heliopolitan shrine. C I L vi 3 6 8 0 3 = I G U R 110; Lombardi (1996, 6 1 - 2 ) dates it to the late 2nd century. One of Hadad's epithets is Libaneotes, i.e. o f Lebanon. Cellini 1996, 29; Calzini Gysens 1996a, 2 6 3 - 4 . C I L vi 3 6 7 9 2 . Duthoy and Frel (1996, 296) state that the name of Jupiter Heliopolitanus was erased in order to inscribe this one. Iabruda was near Damascus (Calzini Gysens 1996c, 5 4 ) . C I L vi 36802 = I G U R 111; Lombardi 1996, 5 8 - 6 1 . T h e inscription, which also mentions the Nymphae Furrinae, is by a woman from Cyprus; the god was worshipped in both Cyprus and Syria (Calzini Gysens 1996c, 5 4 ) . Lombardi dates it to the first half o f the 2nd century. Duthoy and Frel 1996, 299. It therefore appears that Palmyrenes did not worship entirely in their own sanctuary (see below), which was also active at this time. Calzini Gysens (1996b, 2 8 5 ) thinks that 'phase I I ' lasted until the mid4th century, but Duthoy and Frel (1996, 2 9 8 ) link its destruction by fire with a fire o f AD 2 4 2 . MacMullen 1993, 6 2 - 3 . Ilajjar (1977, no. 2 8 8 ) sees him as probably Syrian and possibly from Heliopolis. Duthoy and Frel (1996, 293) call him 'a Heliopolitan, whose family was well established at Rome for at least one generation', but they do not appear to have any grounds for being so definite. Mciggs (1960, 216) and Lampe (1989, 4 2 ) even call him 'a Syrian trader'. Duthoy and Frel (1996, 295), on the assumption that the very fragmen tary C I L vi 36805 = I G U R 112, a Greek metrical inscription o f at least three lines, was also by Gaionas. 305 Duthoy and Frel (1996, 295); they suggest that some other inscriptions, including one from the Dolichenum on the Aventine, were produced by the same officina. 306 r i j usually taken as a nocturnal police function descended from the 2 8 4
2 8 5
2 8 6
2 8 7
2 8 8
2 8 9
2 9 0
2 9 1
2 9 2
2 9 3
2 9 4
2 9 5
2 9 6
2 9 7
2 9 8
2 9 9
3 0 0
3 0 1
3 0 2
3 0 3
3 0 4
n
s
s
277
Living
at
Rome
republican quinquevin cis Tiberim. An alternative view that it is a cult title derived from Kiaxo<|)6po<; has not received much support, but has recently been revived by Scheid (1995, 314). See Lombardi 1996, 67. Duthoy and Frel 1996, 2 9 4 . Restored by Goodhue, quoted by Duthoy and Frel (1996, 2 9 4 n. 2 8 ) . Turcan 1996, 190; Lombardi 1996, 6 4 - 7 ; Duthoy and Frel 1996, 2 9 5 . Greek: 5ea|u6<; OTCGX; icpaxepot; 0141a 0eoi<; rcapexoi. T h e exact significance of desmos in this context is unclear; the Liddell & Scott definition is 'a band, bond, fetter: a halter: a mooring cable: a door-latch'. T h e fountain interpreta tion involves seeing the desmos as a 'bond' for the water. Deipnokrites, j u d g e o f banquets' (6v dr\ raicovdq 8£i7tvoKpixr|c; e0exo), appears to be a cult title, and is also alluded to in Gaionas' epitaph (see below). According to Duthoy and Frel (1996, 2 9 5 ) , quoting the interpretation o f Montesi, the words should be understood as spoken by the monument: '(I am) a strong...' According to Bianchi ( 1 9 8 2 ) , desmos is an installation for the water supply, and the deipnokrites was in charge o f banquets held at the sanctuary in honour of Jupiter. Lombardi suggests that channelling the water into a basin would have provided somewhere for people to leave ex-voto lead figurines, as they did in the temple at Ileliopolis. Pellegrino 1996, 5 6 5 . I.O.M. Heliopolitanus received an altar from a unit of Ituraeans: C I L vi 4 2 1 . 'It cannot be excluded that the creation o f "Heliopolitan" monuments at Rome can be explained, rather than by the circulation o f iconographic mod els, by detailed descriptions provided by the commissioners.' Solin 1983, 6 7 7 , 6 8 0 ; AE (1975) 101; C I L vi 2 1 2 3 5 ; I G U R 4 5 1 , 5 6 9 . T h e site has been variously known as Vigna Crescenzi/Bonelli/Mangani (Palmer 1981, 3 7 2 ) . It is the use o f the Palmyrene language which led to the suggestion, also made by Kajanto (1980, 8 5 ) , but it does not seem very logical, since the language was quite appropriate in the context. C I L vi 7 1 0 = 30817 = CIS ii 3.3903; Teixidor 1979, 4 7 ; Palmer 1 9 8 1 , 3 7 0 - 2 ; Rutgers 1995, 7 0 ; Turcan 1996, 176. Malachbel is shown as a little child carrying a kid, riding a sun chariot, with a youth with a radiate halo. This is how the Latin Calbienses de coh(orte) III is understood by Houston (1990), taking it as a reference to residents o f the Horrea Galbiana. C I L vi 5 0 = I G U R 117. C I L vi 51 = I G U R 118, which seems to have the same text, gives a consular date (AD 116). I G U R 119 = CIS ii 3.3902. It is not absolutely certain that he is the same man. T h e inscription is from an aedicula in which Aglibel and Malachbel are depicted in very romanized fashion (Rutgers 1995, 70). I G U R 120 = CIS ii 3.3904; Equini Schneider 1988, 6 2 . Dated to the late 2nd century by Savage 1940, 54. J o n e s 1993, 1 0 6 - 8 . Bellelli 1996, 3 0 5 - 3 6 ; Cellini 1996, 2 1 , 3 2 , 3 5 ; Lombardi 1996, 7 1 - 7 ; Zappata 1996, 8 7 - 2 2 8 ; Calzini Gysens 1996a, 2 6 2 . T h e r e may have been other Dolichenian shrines on the Caelian and in Trastevere. Bellelli (1996, 311) says that the names o f the people on the Aventine altars 'arc most often 3 0 7
3 0 8
3 0 9
3 1 0
3 1 1
3 1 2
3 1 3
3 H
3 1 0
3 1 6
3 1 7
3 1 8
3 1 9
3 2 0
3 2 1
3 2 2
3 2 3
278
Foreign
groups at Rome
greco-oriental, Egyptian, oriental'. However, some are not, e.g. Chaibio, probably Germanic (Zappata 1996, 9 9 ) ; Semnus, mainly known in Venetia (ibid., 113); Bacradis, probably African (ibid., 121). M. Ulpius Chresimus was a Parthian ( C I L vi 3 1 1 8 7 ) ; Bellelli (1996, 3 1 5 ) associates him with the Caelian shrine. On the other hand, the priest Aquila Barhadados (Zappata 1996, 104) has a very Syrian name along with a Latin one; Teatecnus is probably a latinization o f the Syriac Baralaha (ibid., 193). Bellelli 1996, 3 1 4 - 1 5 , 3 2 1 . 'Certain forms o f cult (processions o f the statue), just like the furnishings (small statues o f Egyptians making offerings, antefixes with uraei, zoomorphic decorations) seem to try to recreate the atmosphere o f the original homeland to celebrate rites which recall it. T h e organisation o f the sanctuary, the faithful and the benefactors were primarily oriental.' 'It is probably explained by the lasting presence o f individuals o f orien tal, especially Syrian, origin in the sanctuaries o f the capital, anxious to maintain their links with the cultural traditions of their native land.' Ilorig and Schwertheim, C C I D 4 3 3 = AE (1953) 26 (the base of a statue o f Jupiter Dolichenus); Zappata 1996, 195; Bianchi 1996, 5 9 9 - 6 0 3 . T h e r e is also a reference to the 'great god o f the Commageni' in another Dolichenus inscription: Horig and Schwertheim, CCID 3 7 6 ; Zappata 1996, 125. Turcan 1996, 178; Calzini Gysens 1996a, 2 7 0 - 1 . Calzini Gysens 1996a, 2 6 6 - 7 . Calzini Gysens 1996a, 2 6 7 - 8 . C I L vi 39050a; Turcan 1996, 172; Calzini Gysens 1996a, 2 6 9 - 7 0 . Calzini Gysens 1996a, 2 7 1 - 2 . I.Porto 1 0 - 1 1 ; Turcan 1996, 171; Pellegrino 1996, 5 6 2 . Ricci 1993a, 7 6 . 33o p j i j_ g 1 6 6 - 7 8 . He may have been an Alexandrian rather than an Egyptian, since Philo would naturally use the most pejorative (in his view) term available; c f Pearce 1998. Ricci 1993a, 7 6 . Ricci 1993a, 7 1 - 3 . 338 R J J 1 9 9 3 ^ 77; Kolb 1 9 9 5 , 4 5 8 . Ricci classes them only as 'possible senators'. Ricci 1993a, 7 8 . Ricci 1993a, 7 5 . Ricci 1993a, 7 5 . Vidman 1990, 2 5 9 ; Gnomon 5 5 . Ricci (1993a, 87) counts six, all from the 3rd century. T h r e e were from Ptolemais and only two from Alexandria. I.Porto 2 - 3 ; I G U R 3 9 3 . Suetonius, Aug. 9 8 . C I L xiv 2 5 6 ; Ricci 1993a, 9 0 . P.Mich, viii 5 0 0 - 1 ; cf. p. 165. Ricci 1993a, 7 6 . Martial 11.13. C I L vi 10194, 10197; IGUR 9 3 9 = I C U R 4 0 3 2 ; AE (1988) 24. I G U R 1034. 3 2 4
32r>
3 2 6
3 2 7
3 2 8
3 2 9
3 3 0
3 3 1
3 3 2
3 3 3
3 3 4
n
0 )
£
m
3 3 0
3 3 7
C C
3 3 9
3 4 0
3 4 1
3 4 2
3 4 3
3 4 4
3 4 5
3 4 0
3 4 7
3 4 8
3 4 9
3 5 0
3 5 1
279
Living
at Rome
3 5 2
IGUR 240. ICUR 3974. ICUR 4973, dated AD 474; 4957, dated 4 7 1 ; 9307. Cf. Feissel 1982a, 3 7 7 - 8 it is the modern Kom Kabrit. Vidman 1990, 2 6 1 . C I L vi 2 6 9 5 9 . I C U R 12856. 358 ] C U R 4 9 5 7 ; the year is given by consular dating. ICUR 6415. Ferrua 1939, p. 148 no. 11; S E G xxx 1215; cf. Avramea 1995, 2 9 6 . I G C V O 1066. I C U R 12864. I C U R 19855c. J I G R E 141. ICUR 3974. I G U R 77. I G U R 191 = Vidman, SIR1S 3 9 8 , dated 2 9 9 . IGUR 333, 452, 644, 884. I C U R 1170. Lombardi (1997) considers that the people who used Egyptian dates and gave no place o f origin are more likely to be from Cyrene than from Egypt, but 1 can see no reason for thinking that Cyrene is more likely, in view o f the small number o f known immigrants from there. La Piana 1927, 2 9 1 ; Turcan 1996, 8 5 - 7 . Beard, North and Price 1998, vol. 1, 2 9 4 . I G U R 77; Ricci 1993a, no. A12; Vidman 1990, 2 6 3 . Vidman 1990, 262. Porphyry, V.Plot. 10. 376 pioriani Squarciapino 1962, 15, 30; C I L xiv 4 2 9 . I G U R 100. I G U R 188, 77. I G U R 77; Ricci 1993a, no. A12; Vidman 1990, 2 6 3 . I G U R 190. I G U R 193. I G U R 187, 189, 191, 192, 194 are also Serapis inscriptions. I.Porto 16. IGUR 98. I.Porto 2 1 . C I L vi 19716; contra Ricci 1993a, no. A16. In this section, 'North Africa' means the provinces o f Mauretania, Numidia, Africa and Cyrene. 'Africa' will be used for the province only. Suetonius, Terence 1. Cicero, Tusc. 3.53. C I L vi 9 0 4 6 . C I L v i 10110. C I L vi 4 0 7 8 , 2 0 4 0 9 ; Ricci 1994b, 193. C I L vi 1800; Ricci 1994b, 2 0 3 . Ricci 1994b, 2 0 3 . 3 5 3
3 5 4
3 5 5
3 5 6
3 5 7
3 5 9
3 6 0
3(31
3 6 2
3 0 3
3 6 4
3 6 3
3 6 6
3 6 7
3 6 8
3 6 9
3 7 0
3 7 1
3 7 2
3 7 3
3 7 4
3 7 5
3 7 7
3 7 8
3 7 9
3 8 0
3 8 1
3 8 2
3 8 3
3 8 4
3 8 5
3 8 6
3 8 7
3 8 8
3 8 9
3 9 0
3 9 1
3 9 2
3 9 3
280
Foreign 3 9 4
groups
at Rome
Ricci 1994b, 2 0 3 - 4 . Millar 1 9 8 1 , 178. T h e numerous dedications by North African cities which must have been placed at Rome by ambassadors are listed by Ricci (1994b, 198). C I L vi 3 3 8 2 9 = I C U R 6537. C I L vi 33867. Ricci 1994b, no. A17. Ibid., 2 0 5 : 35 African iudices ex quinque decuriis arc known altogether. Ricci 1994b, 2 0 3 . Cf. Ricci 1994b, 2 0 2 . Other North African products exported to Rome included wine, figs, dates and Numidian marble. C I L xiv 4 6 2 6 ; Meiggs 1960, 2 1 4 . AE (1940), 6 4 ; Meiggs 1960, 2 1 4 - 1 5 . However, Ricci (1994b, 202) argues that he was o f Italian origin; this seems unnecessary in view o f the similar case o f Valerianus. I C U R 2 0 1 0 0 ; Ricci 1994b, no. A13. Ricci 1994b, 2 0 1 . AE (1916) 4 2 ; Millar 1 9 8 1 , 172. Cherry 1998, 133. C I L vi 10058; AE (1979) 155. C I L v i 10050. C I L vi 10060, dated AD 2 7 5 . For example, one o f the horses depicted in C I L vi 10058 is called Garamantinica. Augustine, EpA0*.2. Ricci 1994b, 197. AE (1972) 14, dated 47 B C Including C I L vi 1366. Including C I L vi 1401, xiv 4 6 2 0 . Including AE (1934) 146, C I L v i 1010. Libya (Aipwi) could be used in Greek as Africa was in Latin, to indicate the province, North Africa or the whole continent (Fruyt 1976, 2 3 5 ) . I C U R 1 8 9 1 , 19797; Ricci 1994b, 194. C I L vi 3 1 3 4 . Libys is used in C I L viii 12792, where a woman from Rome died at Carthage: 'Rome was your nation {genus); it was your fate to be a Libyan'. It is also used in a verse epitaph, Gk.Anth. 7.185: 'Italian dust covers me, a Libyan'. Cf. Sailer 1982, 181. Sailer 1982, 1 7 7 - 8 ; Barnes 1967, 8 8 . C I L vi 1620. C I L xiv 4 6 2 0 . 1 Mace. 8 . 1 7 - 3 2 , 1 2 . 1 - 4 , 14.24. Philo, Leg. 155. As noted by Leon (1960, 2), the victims o f the first expulsion were not necessarily permanent residents of Rome. Cicero, Pro Flacco 6 6 . 129 "phis is not certain, however, as condones were not voting assemblies, so 3 9 5
3 9 6
3 9 7
3 9 8
3 9 9
4 0 0
4 0 1
4 0 2
4 0 3
4 0 4
4 0 5
4 0 6
4 0 7
4 0 8
4 0 9
4 1 0
4 1 1
4 , 2
4 1 3
4 1 4
4 1 5
4 1 6
4 1 7
4 1 8
4 1 9
4 2 0
4 2 1
4 2 2
4 2 3
4 2 4
4 2 5
4 2 6
4 2 7
4 2 8
281
Living
at Rome
attendance was not restricted to citizens. Leon 1960, 4 - 5 . Kasher 1987, 5 0 - 1 ; Rutgers 1995, 168. Josephus, Ant. 17.5.7; B.J. 1.32. Leon 1960, 15. Fuks 1985. J e r o m e , In Jlieremiam 31.15.6 (CCSL 74, 307), refers to huge numbers o f prisoners in both revolts, but only mentions their reaching Rome under Vespasian. Josephus, B.J. 3.540. Williams 1994a, 176. b. Gitt. 58a = Midrash Lam.R. 4.4; J E ix 8 3 - 6 . 438 Various estimates (or guesses) are collected by Solin (1983, 6 9 8 - 7 0 1 ) and Botermann (1996, n. 132). Two contributions to a recent volume show the lack o f consensus: 'These figures allow for a guess that there were around twenty thousand Jews at Rome in the time o f Nero' (Brandle and Stegemann 1998, 120); 'About forty thousand to fifty thousand Jews lived in the city o f Rome by the first century C E ' (Jeffers 1998, 129). Josephus, B.J. 2.80; Ant. 17.300. Botermann (1996, n. 132) is sceptical about the basis o f the figure. Solin 1983, 7 0 0 . I f the total population was less than 1,000,000, the Jewish proportion would be correspondingly greater, since the Jewish figures are independent o f the total population figures. However, their aversion to family limitation and their use of charity (Goodman 1994, 84) may have made them nearer to being self-reproducing than the rest o f the population. Antoninus Pius forbade circumcision for non-Jews and Septimius Severus forbade conversion (Digest 48.8.1 l.pr Modestinus; SHA, Sev. 17.1), which would certainly have restricted the number o f proselytes in the late 2nd century AD if the law was enforced. Solin 1983, 7 0 0 - 1 . Even his assumption o f the proportion remaining stable cannot be confirmed, any more than the statement by Williams (1994a, 180) that the Jewish community must have grown by the 2nd century. Or, outside the Familia Caesaris, by the children o f (technically) unmar ried citizen women. ' J I WE ii, p. 537. First-generation immigrants would have formed only a small proportion o f the Jewish community by the 3rd century AD. J I WE ii 3 6 0 . Josephus, Ant. 1 4 . 2 1 5 - 1 6 ; Cicero, pro Flacco 6 6 ; Philo, Leg. 158. Rutgers 1998, 112-13; Walters 1998, 185 (noting that the Jews at Rome, like those at Antioch, would have feared reprisals even though they did not material ize). Admittedly, Josephus might be unlikely to mention such measures if they did exist, and the sources for the other two revolts are very scanty anyway. Levinskaya (1996, 175) points out that they did not necessarily go directly from Rome to Corinth. Acts 1 8 . 1 - 3 , 18.18, 1 8 . 2 4 - 6 ; Romans 16.3-4; 1 Cor. 16.19. Scholion to Juvenal 4.117 ( = Stern, GLAJJ 5 3 8 ) . J I W E ii 5 1 5 . 4 3 0
4 3 1
4 3 2
4 3 3
4 3 4
4 3 5
4 3 ( 3
4 3 7
4 3 9
4 4 0
4 4 1
4 4 2
4 4 3
4 4 4
4 4 :
4 4 6
4 4 7
4 4 8
4 4 9
4 5 0
4 5 1
4 5 2
282
Foreign
groups
at Rome
« 3 j i w E ii 5 6 1 . 4 5 4
J 1 WE ii 113. It is also possible to understand 'gerusiarch (and) o f Tripolis', or to take Tripolis as a reference to the Tripolitan synagogue at Rome rather than to the original city. Leon 1960, 14. Vismara 1986, 3 5 4 . b. Sanh. 32b; Levi 1970; Segal 1992; Rutgers 1995, 2 0 3 - 4 . J E xi 1132, quoting Sifre Deut. 8 0 ; this could well be an addition for the purposes o f anti-emigration propaganda, b. Yoma 86a has Matthia meeting R. Eleazar b. Azariah at Rome, but that is apparently an anachronism. b. Bezah 23a; t. Yom Tov 2.15; y. Moed Qatan 3.1. It is not stated that he was an immigrant to Rome, but his prestige seems more plausible in someone born in the land of Israel than in a native o f Rome. y. Pesahim 7.34a; Bokser 1990; Rutgers 1995, 2 0 4 . J E vi 5 9 9 - 6 0 0 . b. Yoma 57a; b. Sukk. 5a; b. Me'il. 17b; Midrash Ex.R. 1.4. Midrash Esth.R. 1.12. b. Me'il. 17a; b. Nidd. 58a. T h e story that Eleazar was in Rome at the time o f Titus' death (Midrash Eccl.R. 5.8.4) is another anachronism. Midrash Gen.R. 3 3 . 1 , 78.5; Midrash Lev.R. 2 7 . 1 ; J E x 2 8 2 - 4 . y. Ma'as.Sh. 4.1.54d; J E viii 7 9 6 . Solin 1983, 6 2 5 , 6 6 0 . T h e points made in this paragraph are all based on Gafni (1997, passim). Babylonian rabbis developed a view o f Babylonia as a moral equivalent of Israel, where it was equally commendable to live. Midrash Lam.R. 1.28, quoted from Gafni (1997, 3 0 ) . y. Sukk. 5.1.55a-b. Rutgers 1995, 150 tab.4. J I W E ii 108 (the second name appears to be Semitic with a Greek prefix), 217 (since the person in question is male, Cocotia cannot be a nomen), 5 5 1 , 577. Noy 1999. Williams 1997, 2 5 2 - 3 . Williams 1997, 2 5 4 . Williams 1997, 2 5 3 ; Harvey 1996, passim. Harvey 1998, 132, 1 4 5 - 6 . Harvey 1998, 1 3 5 - 6 and Noy 1998b, 1 1 2 - 1 3 , refuting various theories. Harvey 1996, 47. J I W E ii 4 8 9 ; Williams 1997, 2 5 4 ; Noy 1998b, 1 1 3 - 1 4 . J I W E ii 186. 4 5 5
4 5 6
4 5 7
4 5 8
4 5 9
4 6 0
4 6 1
4 6 2
4 G 3
4 6 4
4 6 5
4 6 6
4 6 7
4 6 8
4 0 9
4 7 0
4 7 1
4 7 2
4 7 3
4 7 4
4 7 5
4 7 6
4 7 7
4 7 8
4 7 9
4 8 0
4 8 1
4 8 2
4 8 3
4 8 4
4815
4 8 6
JIWE ii 193, 529. Noy 1998b, 116. Noy 1999. T h e text reads:
nann rran T h e words are divided by small spaces on the stone. Noy 1997, 3 0 6 - 7 . 4 8 7
283
Living
at Rome
4 8 8
Noy 1997, 3 0 1 . Noy 1997, 3 0 7 - 8 . 490 ]yf arett (1989, 21) comments, in the context o f Asians in East Africa: 'this exclusiveness and concern with perpetuating communal traditions were inter preted as racial arrogance and superiority'. T h e Jews may well have been viewed in the same way. T h e 'Agrippinilla inscription' (see p. 2 2 6 ) lists a wide range o f titles held by members o f a Bacchic association, but none o f these seem to occur in epitaphs from Rome. Rutgers 1995, 199; Noy forthcoming. This does not, o f course, mean that 2 0 % o f the Jewish community held titles; the community leaders are certain to be heavily over-represented in the evidence. T h e Great Synagogue o f Alexandria implies a more centralized organi zation o f the Jewish community there, consistent with the existence of a Jewish gerousia. Rome had no equivalent. Williams 1994a, 1 6 6 - 8 ; J I W E ii, pp. 5 3 9 - 4 0 . 49o Williams 1994b, 137. It is not clear which of the cities called Tripolis the Tripolitans came from. T h e Seceni may have come from (I)Scina in North Africa (see J I WE ii 4 3 6 ) . On Elea, which may be a place name, see J I WE ii 4 0 6 and Levinskaya (1996, 183). Vismara 1986, 3 5 8 . Noy 1998b, 112, contra Richardson 1998, 2 0 . Cf. Richardson 1998, 2 0 - 1 . However, his attempt to revive the argument that there was a synagogue o f the Herodians (pp. 2 3 - 8 ) is unconvincing, and requires both a forced reading o f the surviving part o f the inscription ( J I W E ii 292) and an improbable reconstruction o f the missing part; cf. my comments ad loc. (not taken into account by him). Although Philo states that the Jews of Rome lived in Trastevere, this does not necessarily mean that they all lived there, or that they always remained as concentrated there as they were in the time of Augustus to which he is referring. Richardson (1998, 22) identifies it with the Volumnius known from Josephus as a Roman official in Syria, but he seems too peripheral a figure to be honoured by the Jews o f Rome. Richardson 1998, 18; Rutgers 1998, 94. Slingerland (1997, 4 6 - 7 , 93 n. 12) expresses some doubt about the collegial status o f synagogues. Cf. Botermann 1996, n. 136. Ambrose, Ep. 4 0 . 2 3 . Ruggini 1959, 207 n. 54. Cicero, pro Flacco 66; Josephus, Ant. 18.81-4. Noy 1998b. C.Theo. 16.8.14. Josephus, B.J. 2.80; Ant. 17.300. J o s e p h u s , / ? . / . 2 . 1 0 1 - 1 0 ; Ant. 1 5 . 3 4 2 - 3 , 1 7 . 3 2 4 - 3 8 . ° However, Botermann (1996, 65) points out that there is no reason to assume that messianism spread from J u d a e a to Rome in this period. White 1998, 5 0 . Pearce 1998, 1 0 1 - 5 . 4 8 9
4 9 1
4 9 2
4 9 3
4 9 4
4 9 6
4 9 7
4 9 8
4 9 9
5 0 0
5 0 1
5 0 2
5 0 3
5 0 4
;,()5
5 0 6
5 0 7
5 0 8
5 0 9
1 0
5 1 1
5 1 2
284
CONCLUSION T h e p e o p l e w h o s e e p i t a p h s were q u o t e d in t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n exemplify s o m e o f t h e t r e n d s which have b e e n discussed in t h e previous c h a p t e r s . •
B a s i l e u s c a m e from B i t h y n i a to b e a t e a c h e r at R o m e a n d
was
c o m m e m o r a t e d with a n e p i t a p h in G r e e k . H e shows t h e a t t r a c t i o n o f t h e city to p e o p l e with m a r k e t a b l e skills, e v e n i f t h e y h a d to travel very l o n g d i s t a n c e s to g e t t h e r e , a n d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e G r e e k l a n g u a g e to i m m i g r a n t s from Asia M i n o r . • T h e T h e b a n , P h r y g i a n , S m y r n a n a n d C a r t h a g i n i a n ex-slaves w h o w e r e all r e c o r d e d in t h e s a m e i n s c r i p t i o n show how slavery c o u l d b r i n g t o g e t h e r p e o p l e o f very d i f f e r e n t o r i g i n s , a n d how t h e use o f L a t i n c o u l d b e p a r t o f t h e i r a c c u l t u r a t i o n at R o m e . •
P. P a p i r i u s P r o c u l u s , killed in an a c c i d e n t at R o m e a n d b u r i e d at
h o m e in S a l o n a , is a r e m i n d e r o f h o w p e o p l e w h o c a m e to R o m e did n o t n e c e s s a r i l y lose c o n t a c t with t h e i r h o m e l a n d s , at least while t h e y still h a d family m e m b e r s t h e r e . •
Flavia V i v e n t i a , c o m m e m o r a t e d by h e r m o t h e r , shows that R o m e
a t t r a c t e d f e m a l e i m m i g r a n t s as well as m a l e s , a n d that it was still d r a w i n g n e w c o m e r s in late antiquity. V i v e n t i a a n d h e r m o t h e r m a y h a v e b e e n m e m b e r s o f a P a n n o n i a n c o m m u n i t y at R o m e . • T h e E g y p t i a n s F u s c i n u s a n d T a o n c o m m e m o r a t e d t h e i r y o u n g son, w h o h a d p r o b a b l y b e e n b o r n at R o m e a n d h a d a L a t i n n a m e . F u s c i n u s was a g l a d i a t o r , o n e o f t h e m a n y p e o p l e b r o u g h t to R o m e from all parts o f t h e e m p i r e to w o r k in t h e w o r l d o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t . • T h e T h r a c i a n A u r e l i a M a r c i a , w h o s e e p i t a p h was p u t u p by h e r sister a n d by h e r h u s b a n d , a m e m b e r o f t h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d , shows that n o t o n l y t h e p r a e t o r i a n s t h e m s e l v e s b u t also t h e relatives w h o c a m e to R o m e with t h e m f o r m e d an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t o f t h e foreign population. T h e n a t u r e o f t h e e v i d e n c e m e a n s t h a t it is i m p o s s i b l e to d r a w a c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e o f t h e lives o f f o r e i g n e r s at R o m e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e is e n o u g h e p i g r a p h i c a n d literary s o u r c e m a t e r i a l to f o r m a c l e a r b a c k g r o u n d for s o m e p a r t s o f a p i c t u r e , a n d to s k e t c h in o t h e r p a r t s r a t h e r m o r e tentatively, b e a r i n g in m i n d t h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e s o u r c e s to c o n v e y m o s t i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e p e o p l e w h o s e ' f o r e i g n n e s s ' was most obvious.
285
Conclusion Immigration
was e s s e n t i a l to R o m e b o t h d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y ,
i n c r e a s e o r at least m a i n t a i n t h e size o f t h e city's p o p u l a t i o n ,
to and
socially, to p r o v i d e skilled w o r k e r s a n d soldiers. T h e slave t r a d e m e t s o m e o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s , b u t free i m m i g r a n t s w e r e always n e e d e d . Provincials p r o b a b l y b e g a n to o u t n u m b e r Italians a m o n g n e w c o m e r s to R o m e in t h e first c e n t u r i e s BC a n d AD. T h e t h i r d c e n t u r y AD, w h e n all r e c r u i t m e n t for t h e P r a e t o r i a n G u a r d was d o n e in t h e p r o v i n c e s , m a y h a v e s e e n t h e n u m e r i c a l p e a k o f R o m e ' s f o r e i g n p o p u l a t i o n . It is plausible to s u p p o s e t h a t at least 5 % o f t h e city's i n h a b i t a n t s w e r e b o r n o u t s i d e Italy in t h a t p e r i o d ; t h e reality c o u l d b e m u c h g r e a t e r . F o r e i g n e r s w h o did n o t have R o m a n citizenship w e r e always liable to s u m m a r y e x p u l s i o n from t h e city, a n d by t h e fourth c e n t u r y t h e possession of citizenship was n o l o n g e r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t such treat m e n t . A l t h o u g h t h e r e was a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f x e n o p h o b i a within t h e R o m a n literary class, e x p u l s i o n was o n l y u s e d in c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s : to deal with t h e actual o r p o t e n t i a l m i s d e e d s o r a l l e g e d b a d i n f l u e n c e of specific g r o u p s (which c o u l d b e d e f i n e d by nationality, r e l i g i o n o r o c c u p a t i o n ) , o r to c o u n t e r a c t t h e effect o f food s h o r t a g e s by r e d u c i n g t h e n u m b e r o f m o u t h s to feed. E x p u l s i o n s w e r e p r o b a b l y n o t c a r r i e d o u t very efficiently, a n d w e r e always short-lived. I n f o r m a t i o n from i n s c r i p t i o n s c a n b e u s e d to a n s w e r m a n y q u e s tions a b o u t t h e p e o p l e w h o c a m e to R o m e as free i m m i g r a n t s . T h e y c a m e from all p a r t s o f t h e e m p i r e ( a n d b e y o n d ) , b u t civilians usually c a m e from t h e p r o v i n c e s a r o u n d t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , w h e r e a s soldiers w e r e mostly from C e n t r a l a n d E a s t e r n E u r o p e . I m m i g r a t i o n c o n t i n u e d i n t o late antiquity e v e n from places as r e m o t e as G a l a t i a a n d Syria. M a l e s o u t n u m b e r e d females substantially, p r o b a b l y in a ratio o f t h r e e o r four to o n e . M a l e s in t h e i r t e e n s a n d twenties p r e d o m i n a t e d , a n d they w e r e m o r e likely to c o m e to R o m e as individuals t h a n as p a r t o f a family unit. A wide variety o f r e a s o n s for free civilians to c o m e to R o m e a r e r e c o r d e d , a l t h o u g h t h e relative i m p o r t a n c e of t h e different r e a s o n s c a n n o t b e assessed. R o m e as a c e n t r e o f e d u c a t i o n a t t r a c t e d
both
t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s . As t h e c e n t r e o f g o v e r n m e n t , it d r e w a s p i r i n g politicians a n d civil servants, lawyers, a m b a s s a d o r s , h o s t a g e s a n d refu g e e s . As it was by far t h e largest single m a r k e t in t h e A n c i e n t W o r l d , p e o p l e wishing to p r o v i d e g o o d s a n d services c a m e t h e r e : d o c t o r s , c r a f t s p e o p l e , b u i l d e r s , t r a d e r s , e n t e r t a i n e r s . O t h e r s c a m e to t h e city to a c c o m p a n y o r join family m e m b e r s , or, especially i f they were Christians, in p u r s u i t o f r e l i g i o u s fulfilment. T h e e x p e r i e n c e s o f n e w c o m e r s w h e n they first a r r i v e d in t h e city a r e
286
Conclusion p o o r l y d o c u m e n t e d . T h e y m i g h t get t h e r e by l a n d o r sea, a n d t h e j o u r n e y was potentially h a z a r d o u s by e i t h e r m e t h o d . O n arrival, they would c e r t a i n l y have b e e n struck by R o m e ' s size a n d n o i s e . T h e y would usually seek out family, friends, c o m p a t r i o t s o r potential p a t r o n s w h o would h e l p t h e m to find w o r k a n d a c c o m m o d a t i o n . O n c e they w e r e settled at R o m e , f o r e i g n e r s c o u l d try to i n t e g r a t e o r to r e t a i n at least s o m e aspects o f t h e i r ' f o r e i g n ' identity; they m i g h t also try to pass this on to t h e i r c h i l d r e n . P e o p l e c o u l d k e e p in t o u c h with t h e i r h o m e l a n d s , t h r o u g h t h e stationes
o r g a n i z e d by t r a d e r s from
s o m e cities, by letter, p e r s o n a l visits a n d , ultimately, by b e i n g b u r i e d o r c o m m e m o r a t e d at h o m e . At R o m e , t h e y m i g h t c o n t i n u e to s p e a k t h e i r native l a n g u a g e , a l t h o u g h i f it was n o t L a t i n o r G r e e k they w e r e unlikely e v e r to have it i n s c r i b e d . M a n y i m m i g r a n t s w e r e bilingual, b u t their children and
grandchildren
were much
m o r e likely to b e
m o n o g l o t L a t i n - s p e a k e r s . F o r e i g n e r s m i g h t h a v e n a m e s which w e r e typical of t h e i r h o m e l a n d , b u t they a l m o s t n e v e r passed t h e s e on to t h e i r c h i l d r e n , a n d m a y often h a v e a d o p t e d Latin o r G r e e k n a m e s t h e m s e l v e s . T h e y c o u l d p a r t i c i p a t e in r e l i g i o u s cults which
were
i m p o r t e d from t h e i r h o m e l a n d s , a n d use t h e b u r i a l p r a c t i c e s a n d types o f e p i t a p h s which w e r e n o r m a l at h o m e . The
g r o u p which m a d e t h e g r e a t e s t effort to retain a s e p a r a t e
identity was t h e J e w s . In t h e i r religious a n d c o m m u n a l institutions, t h e i r use o f s e p a r a t e c a t a c o m b s , t h e i r e p i g r a p h i c a n d liturgical use o f G r e e k , a n d e v e n t h e i r n a m i n g p r a c t i c e s , they b e h a v e d differently from o t h e r s a n d w e r e able to pass o n a J e w i s h identity, so t h a t p e o p l e w h o s e a n c e s t o r s h a d lived at R o m e for g e n e r a t i o n s a n d w h o w e r e o t h e r w i s e well i n t e g r a t e d i n t o R o m a n society w e r e still identifiably J e w i s h . O t h e r p e o p l e h a d only very l i m i t e d e q u i v a l e n t s . S y r i a n s p r a c t i s e d cults which w e r e e x c l u s i v e to t h e m . T h r a c i a n s , P a n n o n i a n s , G a l a t i a n s a n d S y r i a n s r e t a i n e d loyalty to t h e i r h o m e villages a n d w e r e in close c o n t a c t with o t h e r s w h o c a m e from t h e s a m e places. Asians a n d A l e x a n d r i a n s w e r e p r o u d o f t h e i r citizenship o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l cities, a n d G e r m a n s e m p h a sized t h e i r native tribes. E g y p t i a n s u s e d t h e i r own c a l e n d a r . T h e oil t r a d e was d o m i n a t e d by S p a n i a r d s a n d t h e m a r b l e t r a d e by B i t h y n i a n s . African s e n a t o r s offered hospitality to e a c h o t h e r , a n d
Pannonians
h e l p e d t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s to i m p o r t a n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e posts in late antiquity. Y e t all t h e s e p r a c t i c e s s e e m to h a v e b e e n r e l e v a n t only to first-generation
immigrants. T h e i r children
may have
s o m e , b u t it is unlikely t h a t a n y w e r e used by t h e i r
continued
grandchildren.
O n l y J e w i s h identity was s t r o n g e n o u g h to b e passed t h a t far d o w n t h e family t r e e .
287
APPENDIX A LIST OF INDIVIDUAL IMMIGRANTS RECORDED IN INSCRIPTIONS 1
REFERENCE
2
NAME
3
INSCRIPTION
Africa and Numidia (Military) Decimius Augurinus 2431 2564 Q. Aurelius Q.f. Quir. Gallus [—]ius L.f. Arn. [—J 2663 2987 Q. lulius Q.f. Galatus 3171 L. Surdinius Saturninus Aurelius Masculinus 3212 C. Iunius C.f. Quir. Fortunatus 32757 32802 T. Flavius Fortunatus viii 2890 lulius Modestus xiv 4488 Q. Gargilius Q.f. Iu[lia]nus qui et Semeliu[s] Speidel T. Aur. V[-~] 1994a, 201 Africa and Numidia (Pagan Civilian) L. Aelius Perpetuus 1803 6
2564 3171 6507 10058
7
11496 12281= 34055 13327-8
25917
REASON
ROLE IN 4
FOR INCLUSION
3
comm dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm dec
nat. Afer Uszali domo Carthagin. Thysdro nat. Afer nat. Afer Curzesis nat. Afer brother Karthago
dec
1 nat.] Afe[r]
dec
coloniae Ulpiae Thamugadis ex Numidia brother (see abov< brother mother Afra natione Afri
Aurelius Saturninus Q. Aurelius Maximus Clodia Secunda Preirna M. Aurelius Liber Aurelius Caeciliius Plancta Protogenes Allia Urbica Venus
dec comm comm dec dedicatee dedicator dec dec
Numidi Afra
Numida Catulus Aemilia Primitiva Saturninus
comm comm/ dec comm dec
Medauriani/ oriundi ex Afric; col. Theveste [cojloniae Milevitan.
289
Appendix 29539 31652 33867 36277 viii 2402
L. Volussius Saturninus Faustinus Praetexftatus] P. Rutilius Saturninus L. Senius Flaccus
dec comm dec dec dec
viii 15930
M. Antonius D.f. Turbo
dec
viii 27532
L. Postumius Paemulus Pius
dec
xiv 477 xiv 481 xiv 4626
P. Caesellius Felix Valerius Veturius L. Caelius L.fil. Afrn.] Aprilis ValerianfusJ Phryne qua(e et) Sillaria L. Caecilius Aemilianus
dec dec builder
AE(1928)9 At: (1940) 64
Numitoria C.l. Erotis Q. Sextius Cf. Pap. Martialis C. Sextius Martialis Solin and Itkonen-Kaila 1966, 65 Tertius 73 Saturus 78,198 Marinus 118 Venustus 281 Umanus 297,332-3 Nikaensis
AE(1972) 14 AE(1974) 143
dec builder dec dec comm
na. Afro Neapolitano ex Africa [ex] Africa Gurzensis ex Africa commemorated at home commemorated at home commemorated at home civis Sullecthinus civis Afer curator navium Kartha[g.] Africana duovir Aeliae Ulizibbirae Africae natio. Punica Ricci 1994b,A18& 19
graft' graft graft' graff graft" graff
Hadrumetinus Afer Hadrumetinufs] Afer [AJfer At". Af. Hadrimetinus/
graft' graff"
Afer Af. Kartha.
dec dec dec dec dec dec comm dec
Carpitanus Tenitanus Aler Ves[ce]ritanu[sJ Africanus ex provincia Africa brother de regione{m} Admederensium Ammedarenses
"A<J>. A8pi)|Ltr|Ti[vo<;l
298 322-3
Fortunatus Eugamus
Africa and Numidia (Christian/Jewish) 2444« Vernaclus 6151 Balsamius 8596 Ulpius Festus 9517 (name lost) Felix 12632 15451 Considius Lucius (name not given) 17166 Victoria 19659 20100 32054a J I W E ii 508
(names lost)
parent(s) commemorate children Iulius Credentius dec ex Bagense regione (name lost) dec provinc. Afri[cae] Maximus dec 0a(3paK8voq
290
A list of individual
immigrants
Armenia/Bosporan Kingdom/Parthia (Civilian) Abgar Prahates dec 1797 Seraspadanes dec 1799 Rhodaspes dec dec [—Js Aug.l. Narcissus 8972 dec C. Pettius Celer 9431 dec 20537D Iulia Irena L. Cornificius Telemastes dec 29694 10
32264 = IGUR 602 IGUR415 IGUR 567
IGUR 763 IGUR 1142 IGUR 1151 AE (1979) 78
in
inscriptions
2
PIR A11 Parthus Parthus natione Parthus Gaunacarius natione Armin. leg(atus) Bospor[anorum] father Pani 1979-80 9
P. Cornelius Serapio C. lulius C f . Artabasdes
comm dec
Aurelius Merithas Aurelius Pacorus I ledykos
dec comm' dec
Aspourgos
dec
Macarius Abgaros Antoninus Amazaspus (name lost) Ulpia Axse
dec dec comm dec builders
KpeoPeuxnc; Oavayopeixcbv xtdv Kaxct Booc; rcopov epixrpvEix; Zapiiaxcbv Bcocmopavoc; Boarcopeave P I R A 9 & 10 brother Moretti, ad loc. opses Parthorum
dec
[nat. P]ontico
graft'
Graecus Chersonesita
graff
6 SKTJOTIC;
dec
civem Armeniacum Cappadocem [0eo]8oaeiojto?iiT[r|<;l natione Armenius civis Carrhenus
Speidel 1994a, (name lost) 692 Solin and Itkonen-Kaila 1966, Bassus no. 73 Solin and Itkonen-Kaila 1966, Asclepiodotus no. 249 Armenia/Parthia (Christian) Quirillus 1441 1942 13443 16997
recorded
dec dec dec
Eu[-J Aedesius Aurelius Theofilus
Moretti, ad loc.
2
Asia (Military) dec M. Aurelius Hermias 2669 M. Sempronius M.f. Col. Celer dec 3627 M. Tuccius C.f.Col. Maximus dec 32699
patr. Meonia domo Pessenunto Tiberiopoli
Asia (Civilian) Eutychas 3173 Cotinos 4936
natione Phryge Milesios
dec dec 291
Appendix
I lector Alcimas L. Aelius L.l. Eros Aurelius Iustus M. Aurelius Sostratianus Egnatuleia 0 . 1 . Urbana
dec dedicatee/ builder dec decdec dec comm dec
Terentia M.l. Tyrannion Trophimus Aug. lib. Apollonius P. Aelius Papias Messia Candida Asclepiades Socrates
dec dec dec comm dec builder dec
CI. Rufus 6 iced Apollonius Alcestis P. Alfenus Martialis (unnamed) Andromenes L. Antonius Ilyacinthus Apronias Eutactus Liberalis Aurelia Tatia (name lost) Galenus Menippus Demetrius Eudamos Theseus C. Iulius Themison Claudius Zosimus Menandros
dec dec dec comm dec dec dec dec comm dec dec comm dec comm dec comm dec comm dec
IGUR 8 3 4 IGUR 8 4 3
Onesimus Valeria Olympias
dec dec
IGUR IGUR IGUR IGUR
Valerius Menander Papias Pinitas Iulia f) K a i Nana Tryphon
comm builder dec dec dec
9907 10091 =
Timotheus Q. Iulius Miletus
IGUR 1 5 6 6 10098 10149 10683+21021 13139 13236 17130
27264 27657 34466
xiv xiv
475 480
IGUR 2 4 4 IGUR 3 2 2 IGUR 3 2 6 IGUR IGUR IGUR IGUR
337 352 363 367
IGUR 4 3 3 IGUR 4 5 3 IGUR 4 7 0 IGUR IGUR IGUR IGUR IGUR
532 589 607 682 784
Laudica Asiatica 7ipoXm:c6v Aaiaq Tpi7lO?llV
Mygdonis umbra Zmurneus Asiatico natio. Asi[a] Stratoni(ceaP) epitaph addressed to: quern Phrycia (sic) edidit tellus Cyzicena Phrygii n. Phryg.
Cnidius natus in egregiis Trallibus ex Asia rieiaaiov 'Aair|0£v 'A<|)po8icn.dc; Aao5iK8\)<; xfjc; 'Aaiac; father 11
'RIEIJC;
ACCOSIKEI xf|c; 'Aaiac;
Aa8iKr|vfi see p. 1 9 5 ©tiaxiprivfii Ku£lKT|Va>
brother brother 'A^poSeiaietK; 'A^poSeiaexx; nEpyafrrivoc; [TplaAAiavot; E(])£aiot; 'l£pajioX£iTr|(; 7tp6<;
M£av8pOV TtOTCCUOV
870 891 902 987
'RlEtl
'Aaiavfi 7i6X8co<; AaoSiKeiaq father Zap8iav6c; Za^dvioq Eijp.£viaaa AaSucijc; xf\q npoc, 12
AVKOV
292
A list of individual
immigrants
IGUR 1141 IGUR 1200
Flavia Aphrodisia Donata
dec dec
I G U R 1202
Elpis
dec
IGUR 1222 IGUR 1244 IGUR 1260
Zeno Kosmos Lucius
comm dec dec
IGUR 1274 IGUR 1283 IGUR 1288
Menophilus Nicomedes Hortensius Pedon
dec dec dec
IGUR 1293 IGUR 1354
Ulpius Philometor Flavianus
dec dec
IGUR 1355 IGUR 1395
Dorus comm Fonteius Fortis Asclepiades dec Nymphf—J dec
IGUR 1425 IG xiv 938 SEGivl32 SEG xxxv 1039 AE (1972) 14
(name lost) Phileros Hyginus (name missing) Numitoria C.l. Philumina P. Opitreius C.l. Butas AE (1979) 24 Antiochis AE (1984) 49 L. Sedatius Celsus Artemas Bevilacqua 1978 Synnadeus Asia (Christian/Jewish) 1857= 9767 Anthesthius 1883 11691 12182 12204 12473 12841 = IGUR 404 C I L vi 37072 J 1 W E ii 183 Avramea 1995, 318
dec comm dec dec builders
in
inscriptions
TpaAAiavri
TpdAAeax; f|V 8E yevoc; K a i yf\c, '\oir\q epaxeivfn; nmpiq 8' Aairiq 7ipovjxot)aa Aao8iKei' Ttaxpic;... 'A<|>po8[i.]aid<;
riepyduot) 7tdxpr|<; L|xupvrj<;
epaxivf|(; et, 'Acirn; eA,9c6v Moretti, ad loc. [7iaxpil8a AaoSfixeiav £A£iv|/a Aoir|]<; and and %pt>ofi<; Kepdiaou anavevQe MupLvnq father xcp yevei 'E^eoiov 7iaxpi<; eia Meav8peidt; Aao8iKia nax\ pr\] 7idxpr|t;
MeiA.f|Gio<;
MeiATiaioq comments ad loc. natione Prugia natione Smurnaeus Prygiae dec Laudiceni dec uncertain 0pt>^ 13
14
dec
Metricius Gaies Anatolius Heliodorus [—]lakios Constantius Aurelius Herodes
dec dec comm dec dec comm dec
Q. Pompeius Callistratus Ammias (name lost)
dec decdec
293
recorded
EuKaprceix; and Opinion; Ku^iKTivot; 7iaxpl<; " E ^ e a f o c ; ]
10
KI)£IKT|V6C;
brother Ac|)po8ioT£vj<; Ladiciae yevvr|0£i<; EV 0iA.a8eX(|)ia Dareno drco Aa8iKia<; fopltov xf\q OpDfyiagJ
Appendix Bithynia (Military) L. Musius Q.f. Pol. October 2780 T. Amydius Severus 3094 C. Veratius Maximus 3143 AE (1983) 50 Aurelius Tau(rus)
dec dec dec comm
Nicom. n. Ponticus n. Ponticus Germanicopolis in B(ithynia)
Bithynia (Civilian) L. Lutatius Paccius 5639
dec-
6311
Philiros
dec
9675 27053 I G U R 299
L. Arlenus L.l. Artemidorus Synforus Q. Aelius Tertianus Q. Aelius Archelaus Asclepiodotus Asclepiod[—J M. Aurelius Xenonianus Aquila M. Aurelius Proclus
dec comm comm dec dec dec dec? dec
de familia rege Mitredatis LAPI.AGO (1. Paphlago?) nat. Paphlago gen. Bythynus foster-brother NetKornlriSei
C. Hostilius Agathopus Sympherousa Barbarianus Basileus
decdec dec dec
IGUR 1196 IGUR 1205 I G U R 1255
Domitianus Hermione Cornoution
dec dec dec
I G U R 1263 I G U R 1383 BCAR(1923), p. 74 no. 16 AE (1947) 162
Maximus (name lost) M. Volcius M.f. E[—]
dec dec comm
P. Aelius Samius Isocrates
dec
AE (1983) 50 I.Porto 26
Iulia Ma L. Aelius Flavius Diodorus
dec dec
n p o D c a E t x ; CCTT'
I.Porto 38
Gorgias
dec
'OA.1J|Ll7lO\) N£lKOUT]8£1JC;
Bithynia (Christian) Pan[— | 2052
dec-
IGUR 377 I G U R 378 I G U R 413 IGUR 418 + 708 IGUR 837 IGUR 956 I G U R 1175 IGUR 1176
NIKOUT|8£TJ<; [Nl8iKoar|5e[il BeiGuvoc; yevefi Niriclour|8£ij<; NetKctexx; BeiGuvfi "Auacxpic; eQpe\\ie NiKairiq npoXiiubv Bi0v>vL8o<; ['Aoxa]Ki8r|v ['Aax]aKi[r|c; ]air|c; £K7lpoA,l7TCb[v] \5e rcjdxpav Xivawrnv 7taxpL8oc; 'AaxaKvric; rioVTOc; 7l£A£l Bithynicus 16
r
N£iKouri8£ij<; K a i 'E
r Ko)vaxav]Tivo7t\olixr\](q) KfcolvaxavxivoujtoHxifaaal N£IKOUTI8£'6<; n
2092
(name lost)
dec
4002
Zosimus
dec 294
A list of individual
immigrants
recorded
in
inscriptions
4009 4731 = IGUR 573 4849 9287 10541 12183
(name lost) Kris Hypatia Aurelius Aelianus Aggaros Anicetus
dec dec dec dec dec dec
Avramea 1995, 305 Bt>C,dvTio<; Kcoo"TavTivo7toA.iTio"c>a fla^Xaycov XaA.Ke<8>6vi<; N£iico[|ar|8]£w;
Britain (Military) 3279 3301 32861
Nig. Marinianus M. Ulpius lustus (name lost)
dec dec dec
natione Britanicianus natione Britto natione Brit[—]
Cappadocia (Military) Afranius Zoilus 3092
dec
nat. Cappadox
Cappadocia (Civilian) 2171 L. Antistius L.l. Eros Prima 6510 Aelius Aelinus 10636 11188 C. Aeteius C.l. Eros 14968 Ti. Claudio Chilon L. Arruntius Castor 37552 Pollux IGUR 872 Papirius Ileraclitus Gordius IGUR 1186 IGUR 1338 Spinther Speidel 1994a,697 Primitivus
dec dec dec dec dec dec comm dec dec dec dec
Cappadoxs Cappadoca n. Kap. Cappadox Kappadoci n. Cappadoces AapavSei Ka7iJia86[Kr|v] Tuavf|oc; na. Cappadoc.
Cappadocia (Christian) 10549 Acacius 12201 Paulus 13397 (name lost) 19478 Bibianus
dec dec dec dec
Ka7i7id8oKO(; 7tco?i£iTT|c; Ka7ia[SoKia<;l civis Cap[padox?] Kappados
Cilicia (Military) 3113 3123 3129
L. Germanius Asclepiades C. Mucius Valens Publicius Messor
dec dec dec
natio. Cilix n. Cilix natione Cilix
Cilicia (Civilian) 6483 9675 13066 IGUR 320 I G U R 1166 IGUR 1206
Laudica L. Arlenus L.l. Demetrius M. Aurelio Di[—J Alexander Pompeia Hermocrates
dec dec dec dec dec dec
Cilicissa nat. Cilix nation. Cilix TapoeiK; Tapaoyevfi fyelvEfj 7rdxpr|<; drco Tdpafovjl
18
295
Appendix IGUR 1278 IGUR 1286 IGUR 1361
Mousaios Athenaeus Augustanus
19
Cilicia (Christian) 12186 Aurelius Silvanus
dec comm dec
Tapaea
dec
K(6(n.T|<;) EuavSpeiat; opwv rep^aveiKiac;
Corsica/Sardinia (Military) 3101 Atilius Modestus 3105 Q. Catius Firminus M. Marius Pudens 3121 (name lost) 3172 Cossu[tius?| Nepot[—] 32766 37251 (name lost) (name lost) xiv 242 xiv 4 4 9 6 M. Marius Nepos AE (1916) 52 L. Tarcunius Ileraclianus
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
nat. Sard, nat. Sardus nat. Sardus na. Corsus nat. Sa[rd.J [n]at. Sard, n. Sardus n. Cor. na. Sardus
Corsica/Sardinia (Civilian) 29152= M. Ulpius Augg.l. Chariton I G U R 1294 Ulpia Charitine P. Aelius Augg.l. Africanus
dec comm comm
TIKTC 5e Zap5ovtn ae
Crete/Cyrene/Cyprus (Military) 3115 C. Iulius Aristianus 3134 T . Turranius Pollio
dec dec
Cyr. n. Libycus
Crete/Cyrene/Cyprus (Civilian) IGUR 508 Epaphrys
dec
Kpriq FIo?i
IGUR 512 IGUR 1262
Antipolios Episkeuos Lyca
comm dec dec
Crete/Cyrene/Cyprus (Christian) 1891 Rufinus
dec
6537
Aemilius Pollio
dec
14510 15752 17297 19258 19797
Nicolaus Epaphroditus Chresimus Romana Thallousa
dec dec dec dec dec
296
sister cognatus
Kpfic; rio>A)pf|vio<; 6 K a i Kiaduic; [e regijone Tripolit < a > n < a > Creticum K\)7i(picp)
Kmpioc; nationis Tripolitanae AiPuKt) [ditto BepveiKi8o[(;]
A list of individual Dacia (Military) 2403 = 32642 2425
immigrants
recorded
in
inscriptions
Aurelius Vitalis C. Marius Gemellinus Aurelius Emeritus Marius Marcellinus 3288 Septimius Sacretius 3296 M. Ulpius Avitus 3320 (name lost) 3419 Aurelius lulianus 3456 (name lost) Iulius Quintianus 32786 32791 (name lost) 32845b Aurelius Super Aureliu[s —] 37252 37258a (name lost) AE (1983) 82 Aurelius Fro[—J AE (1993) 3 3 3 (name lost) Mateescu 1923, 194 Aurelius [—] Speidel 1994a, 151 (name lost)
decdec comm comm dec dec dec dec dec dec dec decdec dec dec dec dec dec
Speidel 1994a, 254
(name lost)
dec
Sarm(izegetusa) nat. provinc. Dacia brother nat. Dacus ex provincia Dacia nat. Dacus domo Daciae regione Scodrihese nat. Dacus nat. Dacus nat. Dacus natione Daqus domum coloni Zermiegete nat. Dacus nat. Dacus brother brother nat. Dacus Ulpia Traiana [D]aciscu[sj nat. Dacia nat. Dacia na. Dac. [natiojne Dafcus?] natione Dajcus?] [n.J Dac[us] [ex provijnc. Da[cia] nat. Da[cus?] Col. Ulpia Traiana Dacfus] fnat. D|ac. [domo colonia U]lpia [Sarmizegethjusa [Ulpia Tra]iana
Zia Aurelius Primus Aurelius Longinus (name lost) Aurelius Aurelianus Nunnia Tyche Diuppaneus qui et Euprepes Munatia Procula
decdec comm comm comm dec dec
Dacae nat. Dacus paganus grandparent brother Dac[—J Dacus
dec
nat. pr. Dacia
2495 2602 2696 2698
Ulpius M.f. [—] Aurelius Ingenuus Aurelius Petronianus Iulius Secundinus M. Aurelius Lucianus Aurelius Domitianus Aurelius Passar
decdec comm dec dec dec dec
3191 3200 3234 3236
Aurelius Antonius T. Aurelius Dexter Aurelius Victor Aurelius Victorinus
dec dec dec dec
3238 3277
2 0
Dacia (Civilian) 1801 3227 3236 3456 4230 16903 AE (1993) 331
297
Appendix Dacia (Christian) 23076 Alexander
dec
Dacia quern genuit
dec
Seni
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
n. Dalmat. n. Dalmata nat. Delm. n. [Da]lm. [D]almat[—] Salonas Delma. Aenona natione Dalmati. nat. Dalmat[us]
Dalmatia (Civilian) 2633 Septimia Secunda 20012 C. lulius H[—1 C. lulius Fla[—1 28053b Vibia Euplia iii 2083 P. Papirius Proculus iii 6414 Principius iii 9 7 1 3 (name lost)
dec comm dec dec dec dec dec
ex provincia Dalmatia Liburnus father n. D a < l > m . commemorated at home commemorated at home commemorated at home
Dalmatia (Christian) 3421 Erotia ILCV1178 Caelestinus (Pope)
dec dec
Dalma(ta?) Illyrica de gente
dec decdec dec dec dec dec dec dec decdec dec dec dec
n. Alex. nat. Alexandrinus n. Aegyp. nat. Alex. nat. Aeg. n. Aegyp. natione Aegyptius na. Aegy. nati[one Aegy]ptus d[omo A]lexan[dria [n. A]egyptius [njation. Aegy. nat. Al[—] n. Aegyp.
Dalmatia (Military) M. Valerius M.f. Ser. 2451 Quintianus 3108 M. Domitius Nepos 3126 P. Plotius Celer 3149 Antonius [—] 3261 [—Glemellinus 3663 (name lost) 32895 L. Statilius L.f. Secundus M. Baebius Celer qui et Bato 39472 M. Sestius M.f. Ser. Clemens A E ( 1 9 8 4 ) 64 AE (1988) 1138 D. Annius Rufus Speidel 1994a, (name lost) 366 2 2
Egypt (Military) 3093=7463 C. Ammonius Montanus 3096 C. Antestius Longus T . Flavius Maximus 3110 Germanus 3112 3117 C. lulius Priscus 3127 T. Plotius Maximus 3133 L. Sulpicius Artemidorus 3159 L. Septimius Amonianus 3162 [—Jclisis 32670 M. Aurelius Gaius xiv 239 Q. Lusius Rufus IGUR 312a M(?). Cornelius Pr[—] AE (1916) 109 T . Flavius Flavianus NS (1916) M. Pinnius Vales p. 100 no. 44 2 3
298
21
A list of individual
immigrants
Egypt (Civilian) 10117 L. Aurelius Augg.lib. Apolaustus 10194 M. Antonius Exochus 10197 Macedo xiv 4 7 8 T. Flavius Apollonius xiv 4 7 9 Aphrodisius IGUR 77 Embes IGUR 240 M. Aurelius Asclepiades Hermodoros IGUR 393 M. Aurelius Asklas 6 Kcti Zenon
dec
Aurelia Boubastous Iulius Hilarus Iulia Pia IGUR 858 M. Ulpius Heron IGUR 875 Pappus IGUR 1034 Flavius Terpnus IGUR 1060 (name lost)
dec dec comm builder dec dec dec
recorded
in
inscriptions
dedicatee
Memphio
dec dec dec dec dedicatee dedicator
nat. Alexandrinus Alexandrin. Alexandrino Alex. Ricci 1993a, A l 2 'A2i£%av8p£iJ<;
24
IGUR 3 9 5 IGUR610
2 5
'AA^avSpetvou 'AA£^av8ptvr| 'AXe^av5pi mother 'Ake^avdpevc, 'AAe^favSpcugj ' AXe^avdpevc, eij0r|vidp%r|v xf\c, ?iau7i;poxdxr|<; 7lOA£C0<; X(DV
'AA£^av5peo)v KOU PouteUTTlV
IGUR 1191
Dikaiosyne
dec
IGUR 1233 IGUR 1321 IGUR 1358
(name not given) If-] Rufinus Epaphras
comm dec dec comm
AE (1916) 57 Thermitarion A E ( 1 9 8 8 ) 24 Pardus I.Porto 23 [—jus Lupus
dec dec comm?
0pev|/£ Ate^dv8peia sister npea^evxr\<; NeiXot) 7t6?iiv 26
A<X>ec;dv8poio 7ioA£ixr|c; Alexandrin. nat. Aegyptus ['AA^ctjvSpeiac; xf\[c, Aiy\)7i:xo\)j
Egypt (Christian) 1170 Aurelius Apion 4032 = Fuscinus IGUR 939 Taon 4957 [—jonna 2 7
dec comm
Ermopoli[sJ Aiywxioi
dec
and Kcounc;
4973 6415 9307
Ammonius Ammon Ioannes
dec decdec
KcoPpr|(0)£(OV Ko7tpi0lea)<;l 'Ate^avSpEox; and K(bnr\q Koppli]0eoc;
12856
Paulus
dec
AA£<;av8p£ijc;
299
Appendix 12883
Flavius Paulus
dec
15868
Bassus
dec
HpaKAElSoVJ GOTO 'EyUJtXOI) Kcopric; MeydXrn; H'oxBeax; xf\c, MeydA-r^ 'Hpa(KA£oi> noXzox) 7tdxpr| noXiq BaPuA,covo<;
Galatia (Military) 2455 L. Annius L.f.Cla. Valcns 2964 C. lulius C.f.Cla. Sossianus 3271 C. lulius Vales
dec dec dec
Iconio Iconio natione Nysius
Galatia (Civilian) Diodes 4351 Alexander 5188 12495 Asclepi|—J 33777 Hilarus Euangelis IGUR 527 Exeteon IGUR 535 I G U R 789 Mettius Nicephorus I G U R 797 (name lost) [— |nes IGUR 1204 Hermaios Konon IGUR 1341 Telesistratus
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm dec
natione Gallograe[c] Pylaemenianus nati[one Ga]lata Gallograeci yevei Ta^dxiaaa [ AJiaxxaeix; Ze?iy8(; raXd[-rr|]<; and Yla[—] Tep|a.r|co6v vaicov EOAAJ|IIOI<;
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
rcxA.dxcov rhxep|xr|vcov Xcopiov) nvdLi Kcoplcp Mucpdq Kcouric; Xcopiot) Touyowecov
Galatia (Christian) 870™ Eustathius (name lost) 4041 Alexander 4271b 4434 Callinicus 443732 Ablabes Sumeonis 4439 4441 Philippus (name lost) 4442 (name lost) 4443 5064= Calonymus IGCVO 32 Antiochus 5658 5661 Docimus 3 1
3 3
5669+5675 5676 5679 3 5
3 6
5833 27335 23743
3 4
28
29
T e p ^ et, 'Iepfn;
raA.dxnc;
xwpiot) M O V A - I K O ^
'A7iouKc6|j.riq 7iaxpi<; (xoi raA.axia«;> Ko^r\ TaXaxrilt;] raA.dxr|<; [TaA.d]xr|<;
dec dec
raA.rdxric;l
Ioannes Saloukina Nessi|— J
dec dec dec
[riaXdxrii; xcoptco A^vicov
Sozomenus (name lost) Eustathius
dec %copiot) Kvf)Kvcov comm de Galatia dec TdXaxa Avicupavot^ Galata cibis Anquira 300
Xcopiou <$>oX6r\c, Mucpdq
Xcoptov na7tot>Kc6|xr| aX.[dxr|(; and KCOIITH;] ro[A.6r|<;J
A list of individual
immigrants
recorded
in
inscriptions
23748 (name lost) AE (1988) 30 Hypatius Eerrua 1939, 10 (name lost)
dec dec dec-
lF]aXdOr|c; Galata fxlcopiou Eizov
Gaul (Military) 2549 Sex. Valerius C.f.Vol. Firminus 2623 C. Acilius C.f.Vol. Martialis 2714 T. Lucconius Quartinus T. Lucconius Paternus 2763 L. Aucilius L.f.Vol. Secundus M. Orbius M.f. M[— | 3328 L. Gratius L.f. Cla. Verinus 3339 3607 C. Iulius C.f.Vol. Silvanus 3639 M. Valerius M.f. Ani. Saturninus 32799 Aurelius Paternus T . Aurelius Cla. Certus 32872 M. Ulpius Felix Mimillo 33977 C. Licinius C.[f.] Ani. Fuscus x 6230 xii 65 Quartinius Maternus
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
Viennae Vasione domo Reis Apollinarib. Vienna Aquis Sex(tis) Cemeneli domo Vienna Foro Iuli [nat.] Trever. Cemeneli natione Tunger Foro Iuli commemorated at home Foro Iuli Foro Iuli Lugduno Cemeneli Tolosa Reis Vasione Nemausi
AE (1934) 139
L. Terentius L.f.Ani. Secundus C. Terentius L.f.Ani. Fronto M. Ulpius Gal. Verecundus Q. Valerius Q.f.Cla. Verus C. Iulius C.f.Vol. Verecundus L. Octavius L.f.Vol. Saturninus C. Primius C.f.Vol. Proclus D. Valerius Feroxs
dec comm dec dec dec dec dec dec
2497=32651
Iulius Lupercus Clau[dia] Victorina Valeria Iustina
dedicator dedicator dec
2714 6974 7760 9717 9998 10127 15493
Iulia Quartia Q. Hortensius Q.f.Vol. Secundus L. Vetilius L.l. Primus L. Iulius M.f.Vol. Fuscus L. Faenius Telesphorus Phoebe Claudia Lepidilla
comm dec dec dec dec dec dec
17555 17643 20121/2
Q. Fabius Pompeianus C. Fabricius C.f.Vol. Proximus C. Iulius Marcellus
dec dec dec
AE (1954) 82 AE (1984) 59 A E ( 1 9 8 4 ) 62 A E ( 1 9 8 4 ) 69 AE (1984) 70 NS (1917) p. 303 no. 44 Gaul (Civilian) 1625a
37
301
ex Belgica Treveri nata Convena Aquitania mother Nemausies Gallf—J Aquensis Lugdunensis "Vocontia ex provincia Belgica Ambianae Viennensis Tolosensis Narbonesi
Appendix
21921 24057 27344 27477 27741 28278 29687
[G]lyco L. Manilius L.f.Vol. Silanus Phaeder [—Jus Tharsus A. Titinius A.l. Scymnus T. Tullius Syntropus Valeria L.f. Successa Atticus
29688 29692 29709
Sex. Attius Sex.f.Vol. Atticus Ti. Claudius Honoratianus P. Manlius Vitalis
29718 29722 34037 34676
Sex. Sammius Sex.f.Vol. Aper C. Sen[ti]us Regulianus Aemilius Morvinnicus Belliciola
xii 155 xii 1750
Antonius Vecetinus Ti. Claudius Ti.f.Gal. Pius
xii 2211 xiii 260 xiii 2040 xiii 2181 xiv 327 I G U R 820 I G U R 940 AE (1953) 56
L. Maec(ius) Terti(i) f. Maelo Proxumus Danna A. Vitellius Valerius Iulia Helias P. Claudius Abascantus Nymphon (name lost) T . lulius T.f.Vol. Lentinus T. lulius C.f.Vol. Couribocalus
A E ( 1 9 7 9 ) 75 M. Licinius M.l. Lactus AE(1984) Ti. Claudius Sextinus 102 AE (1984) Caprilia Severa
comm decdec dec dec dec dec dec
father Viennensi Massalitanus Narbonensi Corda nati. Gal. Narboniensis III provinciarum Galliarum servo dec? Vienn. dec Castrensis Morini decurioni dec Lugudunensium dec domo Nemauso dec see p. 2 0 8 dec Aeduo dec natione Galla in cibitate Triberis dec commemorated at home dec decurioni Luguduni, commemorated at home dec commemorated at home dec commemorated at home commemorated at home dec commemorated at home dec comm trium Galliar. lib. MaaaaA.ico-ca dec MaaaaA.if|Ta dec ex civitate Tricassium dec dec ex civitat<e> Tricassium dec N|aJrbone[n(sis)] dec ex provincia Lugdunensi dec
civis Aeduae
dec
Pict. ex Aquitanica
1 91 1 C1
Thylander 1951-2, A13 C. Annaeus Atticus Gaul (Christian) 5568 Bonfosus?] (name not given) 5967 (name lost) 11104 20819
38
dec cibis Triberensis comm mother dec stirpe Novempo[pulana— Gallica terra dec Salicenis dec natione Galla dec
(name lost) Remus Arcontia 302
A list of individual 22694 25968 ILCV 4443 A E ( 1 9 5 3 ) 200
Victoria [—Jcentia Aurelia Thcudosia Eventius
immigrants dec dec dec dec
recorded
in
inscriptions
civi Galle Novcmpop[ulana] nat. Ambiana Viennae
Germany (Military - including Julio-Claudian bodyguard) 2514 Q. Vetius Ingenuus dec ex provincia Germania Inferiore Felicius Marcus comm cives 2548 Sanctinius Probinus dec nat. Batavs Sanctinius Genialis comm brother 3175=xiv 208 Aelius Aventinus dec Col. CI. Ara 3203 T. Aurelius Felix dec nat. Canonefas 3220 T. Aurelius Probus dec nat. Batavs 3223 T . Aurelius Scribonius dec natione Batavs 3230 Aurelius Verus dec nat. Friseo 3237 T. Aurelius T.f. Vindex dec Ulp. Noviomag. 3240 Candidinius Verax dec natione Badavs Candidinius Spectatus dec nat. Badavs 3260 T. Flavius Verinus dec nat. Frisaevone T. Flavius Victor comm brother 3263 T . Hortensius Mucro dec nat. Marsaquio Aelius Verinus comm brother 3280 decn. Ger. Paulinius Abentinus 3284 [—] Saturninus dec [Ulp. Noviomjagi 3289 Superinius Peregrinus dec nat. Ba[tavo] 3290 natus in Ger. Sup. T. Tertinius Marcianus dec comm municeps lulius Iulianus 3298 M. Ulpius Faustus dec CI. Ara 3299 Ulpius Flavinus dec CI. Ara 3302 M. Ulpius Liberalis dec natione Helvetius M. Ulpius Victor 3311 dec nat. CI. Ara 3315 [ Jinus dec [nat.J German. [nat.] Frisi[avoni] 3321a (name lost) dec 3343 dec [MJogontfiaco] [.J Aelius P.f. [—J 3348 C. Acutius Cla. Severus dec Ara 3360 M. Aemilius M.f. Cla. Nigrinus dec Ara 34 5 8 na. 1. Ara Q. C[ ]s [Tlere[ntia]nus dec 4337 Germanus Bassus dec 4338 Bassus dec Germanus 4339 Macer dec Gcrmano natione Vein. Macer 4340 dec Germanus 4341 Valens dec Germanus natione ATAEVS dec natione Frisius 4342 Bassus 4343 Hilarus dec natione Frisiaeo 4344 nat. German. Peucennu Nereus dec 39
4 0
303
Appendix 4345 8802
Proculus Alcimachus Batavus Ti. Claudius Chloreus 8803 Ti. Claudius Diadumenus Censor 8804 Epagathus Macer 8805 (name lost) Marsus 8806 Nobilis 8807 Paetinus Virus 8808 Phoebus Gnostus 8809 Postumus Capito 8810 Severus 8811 Ti. Claudius Aug.l. Ductus 32789 P. Aelius Pom[—] 32806 [.] Secundinius Verus 32812a (name lost) 32834 (name lost) 32843 [.] Aurelius A[—J 32850 (name lost) 32866 (name lost) 32869a (name lost) 33016 Certin[—] 37299 (name lost) AE (1952) 145 Fannius Corinthus AE (1952) 146 T e r [ . . . l Sollemnis Reginus A E ( 1 9 5 2 ) 147 Gamo Hospes
dec dec comm dec comm comm dec comm dec comm dec dec comm dec comm dec comm dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm dec comm comm dec comm
AE (1952) 148 Indus Eumenes
dec comm
AE (1952) 149 [...]nus Calyx AE (1968) 32 Saturnifnus] LaL-] AE (1983) 55 Divius Tau|rus] AE (1983) 56 Septimi[us —Jdus A E ( 1 9 8 3 ) 58 Vetus
dec comm dec comm dec dec dec 304
decurio Germanorum nat. Batavs ex coll. Ger. natione Batavs ex collegio Germanorum natione Batavus ex collegio Germanorum nation. U|bius] ex collegio Germanorum nat. Batavs nat. Batavs ex col. Germa[norum] nat. Baetesius ex colleg. German. nat. Ubius ex col. Germ. natione Suefbus] dec. Germanorum [nat.] Helvetius natione Suaebo [nat.J Batavs [nat.] Batavs Ulpia Novioma[go] [natio]ne Fr[isaevo] [nat. Fr|isiavo [nat. Majrsacfus] Batavo Agrippinensis nation. Ubius ex colleg. German. nat. Batavs ex collegio Germanorum 41
42
nat. Batavs brother, ex collegio Germanorum natione Batavus brother, ex collegio Germanorum nat. Batavs ex col. Germ. natione Ba[tavs] ex [coll.] Germanor[um] n. Bad. n. B(atavus) n. Ba[tavus?]
A list of individual
immigrants
AE (1984) 58 AE (1993) 385
C. Valerius C.f.Cla. Flaccus dec [. Sijmplicinius Serenus dec
NS (1922) 142 no. 6 Speidel 1994a, 87 Speidel 1994a, 103 Speidel 1994a, 137 Speidel 1994a, 144
(name lost) f.] lulius Messor T. Flavius Genialis (name lost) [— Simpjlex
Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel
1994a, 170 1994a, 174 1994a, 175 1994a, 239 1994a, 245 1994a, 275 1994a, 277 1994a, 278 1994a, 298 1994a, 352 1994a, 359 1994a, 374 1994a, 378 1994a, 555 1994a, 703a 1994a, 744
M. Ulpius Quartio [P. A]elius Bassus P. Aelius Cresc[ens] f—] Vindex [—] Aprilis (name lost) (name lost) (name lost) (name lost) (name lost) (name lost) [—]s Avitus Aurelius Dignu[s] Aurelius Victor [...]ius Ama[ndus] C. lulius C.f.Cla. Victor C. Valerius Lepidinus Ferrua 1951, no. 77 (name lost) Ferrua 1951, no. 82 (name lost) Speidel & Scardigli [...Jbius Vitalis 1990, 2 0 1 Speidel & Scardigli Verecundinius Verus 1990,203
recorded
in
inscriptions
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm decdec dec
Ara natione Ulp. Novimagi Batavs nat. Ilelfvet.] nat. Hellvetlio [nat.] Fnsaoni [nat.] Marsacus [nat. Ba]tavs Ulpia [Novioma]gi C. Ar. A. natione Mars[aquius CI. Ara n[at. Canno]nel[as] [nat. Cannonejfas [nat. Mar]saquio nat. Bat[avs] [nat.] Helvet[ius] [nat..] CI. Ara [nat. Ba]tavs [nat. Fri]saoni [nat. Bat]avs [nat.] Germ. n. B(atavus) [na]t. Ba[tavo] Ara brother [nat. Bat|avo nat. Hel[vetius] nat. Suebus Necresis
dec
Suebus
dec dec dec dec dec
4 3
Germany (Civilian -- including private bodyguard) 3348 comm C. Acutius Romanus Paterna dec 3452 6221 6229 6230 6231 6232 6233 6234 6235 6236 6237
Donatus Felix Casti Cirratus Clemens Nothus Pothus Strenuus Suebus Urbanus
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec 305
brother me Germana creat tellus German. German. Germ. Germanus Germanus Germanu[s] Germanus Germanus Germanus Germani
Appendix Felix T . Nigrius Similis
17861 22981
dec: dec:
nat. Germanus Triboco ex Germani Superiore Luco Augusti brother Suebus natione Canin. nat. Agrippinensi nat. Frisao father nat. Marsac. Agrippinensis father [Ulpijo Novio[ma|gi Batavo
Nigrius Modestus (name lost) (name lost) M. Sennius M.f. Verus C. Valerio C f . Messeanus C. Valerius Messor Miles AK (1989) 30 M. M(em)mius Saturninus BCAR(1915), Primus p. 305 Speidel 1994a, 710 (name lost)
comm dec? dec: dec dec comm dec dec comm dec
Germany (Christian) Anneus Fortunalis 18423
dec
Bisentinae Se(quanorum)
Greece (Military) L. Baebius Diogenes 3102 M. Valerius Bassus 3136 L. Acc Valens 3168
dec dec dec
n. Grae. natione Graecus nati. Grae.
dec: dec dec comm dec dec: dec comm dec dec dec dec dec dec: builder comm
Boeotiani Graecus Graeca Athenesis nat. Graecus 'A0r|vaicoi ASnvaia
30569 34 7 73 ' 36324-5 4
1
Greece (Civilian) Eros 6436 L. Abuccius Eros 8142 Cornelia Stacte 9906 17343=37867 Euhodus Eulychides 17448 Cn. Arrius Stratocles IGUR 370 IGUR 4 8 0 Diodora Petronius Serenus I G U R 615 Martha IGUR 771 Neike IGUR 809 Artemo IGUR 1161 Euboulos IGUR 1210 lulia C f . Laudica IGUR 1239 Ulpia f—1 IGUR 1293 C. Numitorius C.I. Nicanor AE (1972) 14 Thylander 1951-2 Aristida A27 Solin & Itkonen-Kaila 1966, [Peri?]genes no. 121 Solin & Itkonen-Kaila 1966, Zosimus no. 329 306
graff graff
AotKe5aiu6vio<;
AaKe5aiuovia Apyeia AaKCOvic;
Kopiv0io<; Edur)
Ttaxpig an
'AOnvwv
nationi Tebaeus Rodi
Graecus 'EXkr\v
A list of individual
immigrants
Greece (Christian/Jewish) 1856 Andragathos 2973 Agathemerion 3455 Euschemon 5098b Atto 13899 Mar[tin]us 19820 Nicomachus 23369 Ilelene J I W E ii 503 ![--] 45
in
inscriptions
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
rpeiccx; rpaiKoc; Graecus Tevaploi) Grecus TpaiKoq KopivOia
dedicator dec dec dec dec dec comm dec dec dec dec dec dec
L. Aemilius L.f.Qui. Candidus dec (name lost) dec C lulius C.f.Pap. Flaccus dec
Ilurensis Sego[briga] Avila Asturica Carthag. Scallabi municeps Osca Salacia Bilbili [Br]ac(ara) Pace lulia commemorated at home Calacur. Urc[i]tano ex Hisp. Citer. Compluto [—Jbriga Aug. (Emerita)
C. Proculeius C.f.Pom. Rufus
Asturica
Hispania (Military) 1410 M. Vibius Maternus 2454 C. Aelius C.f.Gal. Aelianus 2490 L. Cornelius Qui. Firmanus 2536 L. Flavius L.f.Pom. Caesianus 2607 C. Fabius C.f.Ser. Crispus 2614 M. Paccius M.f.Iul. Avitus L. Valerius 2629 C. Antonius C.f.Qui. Priscus 2685 C. Melamus C.f.Gal. Rufinus 2728 T . Acilius T.f.Gal. Capito 3349 L. Pontius Gal. Nigrinus 32682 M. lulius M.f. Nevianus ii 2610 L. Pompeius L.f.Pom. Reburrus AE (1921) 83 C. Marius C f . Aemilianus AE (1974) 2 2 6 P. Valerius P.f.Gal. Priscus 4 8
A E ( 1 9 8 4 ) 65 A E ( 1 9 9 2 ) 156 BCAR (1915), p. 61 BCAR (1915), p. 323
recorded
dec dec
dec
Hispania (Civilian) 1885 D. Caecilius Abascantus 49
3422 3491
Reginia Titula C. Vibellius Fortunatus
dec dec
5337 6238 9013 9677
Primulus Pamphilus Carpime P. Clodius Athenio
comm dec dec builder
307
47
diffusor olearius ex provincia Baetica nat. Arava Emeritus Augustorum Hispanus Asturconarius Gaditanae qq. corporis negotiantium Malacitanorum
Appendix 10048 10184 13820 14234 16100
C. Appuleius Diodes M. Ulpius Aracinthus Caecilia Graecula Calpurnia Ilias Corinthus
dec dec dec decdec
16247
Victor Celer C. Cornelius C f . lunianus
comm comm dec
16310
L. Cornelius Secundus
dec
18190
T . Flavius Rufus
dec
20768 21569
C. lunius Celadus Lucifera Atticianus [ — ]nius C f . [M]acer M. Manlius Saturninus Phoebus qui et Tormogus Phoebion Primigenia M. Terentius Paternus Timoteus Arrius Severus Arria Felicissima Domitia Clodiana Vesonia Cn.f. Procula
dec dec comm dec dec dec comm comm dec dec comm comm comm dec
P. Veturius P.f. Niger [—]us L.f. Quir. Silvanus (name lost) Baebia Venusta
dec dec dec dec
Ephesia L. Manlius A.f.Cor. Canus C. Pupius Restitutus
dec dec dec
[—]nius Q.f. [—]rnus M. Iulius Serenus P. Lucanius [.]f. Reburrinus (name lost) Q. Cadius Fronto L. Numisius L.l. Agathemerus M. Caesius Maximus M. Laelius Sabinianus
decdec dec dec decdec
Hisp. colonia patricia Corduba ex provincia Baetica civitate Baesarensi [Segob]rigensi commemorated at home commemorated at home commemorated at home \ commemorated at home ex Hispania Citeriore
dec dec
Aeminiensis commemorated at home
21763 21956 24162
27198 27441
28151 28624 28743 29724 30430 34664= 37898 38309 38595 38809 39136 ii 379 ii 382 ii 3035 ii 6271 xiv 397 xiv 4822 R1T 230
308
[nati]one Hispanus Lusitanus Hispano natione Palantinus natione Hispana Eborensi ex Lusitania ex Lusitania municip. Collipponensi brother brother ex Hispania Citeriore Saetabitanus ex provincia Lusitania Salacensis ex Hispania Ulteriore Lusitania Cordubensis ex Hispanis Ev(andriana?) [Hispani]a Cite[rioJre Segobri. Hispanus natus Segisamoine father mother ex Hp. Citeriore Aesonensi Cantabrio father mother Ilipensis ex provincia Baetica ex Hispania Citeriore Iessonensis Saguntinus conventus Asturum Gaditan[o] domo Cordub[a]
A list of individual
immigrants
AE (1973) 71
(name lost.)
dec
A E ( 1 9 8 0 ) 98
D. Caecilius Onesimus
dec
L. Popilius Dento M. Allius Pudens Iunia L.f. Amoena
dec dec dec
AE (1992) 1 5 2
50
A E ( 1 9 9 2 ) 153 A E ( 1 9 9 2 ) 154
L. Valerius L.f. C[—J Valeria C f . Ma[—] L. Valerius [—] Valeria S[—] A E ( 1 9 9 2 ) 155 Corbulo Clodia Ursa Helius NS (1915) p. 48 Atilia no. 42 Castren in Vaananen 1973, no. 120 (name lost)
recorded
in
inscriptions
[ne]gotiatri. olear. ex provinc. Baetic. diffusori [olear(io)] ex Baet[ica] Iliberritani
ex provincial Baetica municipifo] Italica dec Me < i > dubr[igens(i)] dec Salaens(i) dec Medubri[gens(i)] sister comm dec nat. Tarracone comm mother comm/dec father dec natione Galliga
dec?
ex Hispania
ev Ei|j.epiTr| 7coA.v xf|c;
Hispania (Christian) 962
lulius Syrus
dec
1748 3402
dec
18216a 18762
Saturnalis Contantius Clamerarus Sibirinus Silvina Rapetiga Niceitus (name lost) Felicissimus
builder dec dec dec comm dec dec
18995
Lazarus
dec
Timoteus Pannosus
comm comm
Eio"<7i>avLa<; ex Espanis, Cartaginese llicenis relative sister civis Hispanus father Spanii[s] had wife in provincia Hispanica had wife in prov. Hispania brother brother
T. Flavius Coelius Severus Valeria .1. Lycisca 3 Cn. Artorius Apollo Seccius Trophimus Nicias Aurelius Agesilaus Philetus
comm
Sidensis
dec dec dec
epitaph says she is an immigrant nepyaicoi yevei Ei8fiTr|<;
dec
SdvGioc; xf|<; AUKICK;
comm dec
fellow-citizen rfjc, Ai)Ktri<; Aurupcov
17495
Lycia (Civilian) 9580 28228 IGUR 371 IGUR 626 I G U R 815 IGUR 1351
309
Appendix Lycia (Christian) Onesimus 9316 19808 Aurelia Domna
dec comm
riepyee riepyea
dec comm dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
Dobiro municeps Heraclia domo Heraclea Sentica Thessalonica Thessalonic. Dobero domo Heraclea Sentica Thess. Durraci Stobis [nat.] Macedo Anphipoli nat. Macedo
Macedonia (Civilian) Flavius Meiovius 18132a 22178 C. Marius f—] I G U R 1312 Publius
dec dec dec-
nat. Macedo domo Byllid[—] MaK£5c6v
Macedonia (Christian) 188 Claudia Apuleia 15000 Valerius
dec? dec
Macedon [—] TTioaA.coviKaio<;
Mauretania (Military) 3262 Geminius Pacatus Umbrius Valerianus 3312
dec dec
CI. Caesaria Mauretania ex provin. Maur. Caesarense brothers
Macedonia (Military) 2520 T . Aelius T.f.Aem. Marcellus T . Flavius Petronianus 2611 C. Iulius C f . Verus C. Iulius Fab. Gemellus 2645 2646 C. Iulius C.f.Cor. Pudes 2679 L. Cusonius L.f. Proculus 2715 [—] Aem. Maximus 2767 C. Iulius Fab. Montanus P. Aelius P.f.Cla. Quintianus 2886 2916 C. Iulius C.f.Aem. Rufus P. Herennius P.f. Aem. Macedo 32738 32851 (name lost) A E ( 1 9 1 6 ) 4 9 L. Aurelius L.f.Iul. Dignus Speidel 1994a, Valerius Mestrius 568
Umbrius Sedatus Umbrius Secundus [Valerius Hisjpanus
3365
comm comm dec
Valerius A E ( 1 9 9 0 ) 63 Afur]elius [—] Speidel 1994a, T . Aurelius Pompeius 210
comm dec dec
Mauretania (Civilian) 1800 Memor 51
dec
310
natus in provincia Maureftania Cae]sariensi brother n. Mau[rus] nat. Maurus
son o f princeps gentium Baquatium
A list of individual
immigrants
recorded
in
inscriptions
dec dec dec dedicatee
ex-slave o f King Ptolemy slave o f King Juba natione Maurus Caesareus
10110 33032
Paramonus Chius Crescens Claudius Aurelius Polyphemus Ecloga Ulpia Danae
dec dec
viii 8501
Praetorianus
dec
slave of King Juba ex Mauretania Caesariensi commemorated at home patriae Rusguniensum
4078 9046 10050 10060
viii 9249 Licinio Q.f. Qui. Donatus dec Inscr.Lat.Mar. 93 = Inscr.Ant.Mar. 457 L. Caecilius L.f.Cla. Fronto dec
52
Volubilitano, commemo rated at home
Mauretania (Christian) 5337
Gaudentius
dec
12780
[Fortu?]nata Valerius Lila
comm dec
natione Maurus
Moesia (Military) 2525 2736
M. Aurelius M.f.Ael. Gallus dec Aurelius Mucconius dec
2760
Valerius Victorinus
dec
3199 3650 3292 3342 3891=32685
T . Aurelius Decimus (name lost) [Valjerius Herculanus T . Flavius Pap. Valerianus L. Licinius L.f.Qui. Paternus Aurelius Paetinianus M. Aurelius Paulus (name lost) Antonius Paterius
dec dec dec dec dec
32559 32800 32937 AE (1979) 20
[de provJncia Mauritania mother
Speidel 1994a, (name lost) 246 Speidel 1994a, Aurelius Saturfninus] 427 Ferrua 1951, (name lost) 102
dec dec dec dec
dec dec dec
311
Vivinacio natione Mesacus civis Meletinus vico Perepro nat. Mesia Inferiore domo Escum nat. Mysius Dardanus [nat.J Moes. Imp. Oesco Novia Dardan[—] nat. Dardanus [Nai]sso Dardafniae] nat. Mysia Superiore reg. Ratiarese vico C[—Jnisco [nat.] Moesus nat. Mofesus col. Uljpia Oesci Mo[esus]
Appendix
Moesia (Civilian) 2933
Aurelius Diza
dec
3650
Aurelius [—Jianus
comm comm dec comm dec
6343 13233
Aurelius [—1 Messia Iacinthus Aurelius Silvinus
Aurelius Severus [Ul]pius Marcellus 29235 Thomasson 1961, p. 185 no. 20 [—JernaL—]
comm dec
natus ex provincia Moesia infer, regione Nicopolitane vico Saprisara brother brother Dardana Dardanus natione Moesia Inf. civitate Oesci brother [n]atus Viminacio
dec
Moesiacus
dec
commemorated at home
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm comm dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
ex provincia Norica Viruno Ce{l}leia d. Celeia Solva Solva Celeie brother nat. Noricus Celeia Viruno nat. Noricus nat. Noricus Claudio Viruno nat. Noric. nat. Noricus Claud. Viruni nat. Noricus natione Noricus nat. Noricus CI. Viruno municipes
Moesia (Christian) IMS ii 218 S i < t h ? > a
Noricum (Military) 2482 2483 2522 2534 2543 2547 2619 2712 2751 2914 3206 3211 3225 3253 3259 3283 3295 3304
M
3588 32681 32797 32805 32813 32822 32844
Aelius Emeritus P. Aelius P.f'.Cla. Fuscus P. Aelius P.f'.Cla. Taurus C. Cornelius Memor L. Plenatius L.f. Qui. Senilis C. Sabinius C f . Angulatus C. Valerius C f . Cla. Cupito C. Quartius Secundus Iustius Frontinus M. Saturius M.f.Cla. Maximus Ti. Iulius Ti.f.Cla. Ingenuus T. Aurelius T.f. Genetivus T. Aurelius Mansuetinus T. Aurelius Summus T. Flavius Iulius T. Flavius Saturninus Rexpectinus Respectianus Ulpius Angulatus M. Ulpius Maturus Aurelius Messor Aurelius Novellus L. Cuspius L.f. Cla. Lautus Cottionius Rusticus (name lost) f—1 Maturus P. Aelius [---] T. Aur[clius—J Aurelius Hon[oratus] 312
Iuvai Norico Claudia Iuvao nat. Noricus [nat.] Noric. [nat.] Nor[—] n[at. Nojricus nat. Norifcus]
A list of individual 37218 37228 iii 4845 AE (1924) 107
AE (1993) 165 BCAR (1941) p. 171 no. 4 Speidel 1994a, 89
immigrants
C. lulius Verus C. Reginius P[—] (name lost) Ti. lulius Ingenuus
dec comm dec dec
P. Aelius P.f.Cla. Finitus P. Aelius Tutor P. Aelius Respectus P. Aelius Tutor (name lost) Ael[ius —1
dec comm dec dec dec dec
[— Re]stitutus
dec
Speidel 1994a, 186 (name lost)
dec
Speidel 1994a, 233 Aelius Vi[—J
dec
Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel
dec dec dec dec
1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a,
236 248 252 285
(name lost.) [—]inius (name lost) [— Am]battus
recorded
in
inscriptions
ex civitate Celeiae comm[uniceps?]' Agun[to] commemorated at home Celeia brother municipes 4
[njatione Noricus na[tione No]rico civitafte —]o [natjione Norico C[l.] Viruni [nat. Norjic. CI. luavo nat. No[ricus civi]s Ovilavis [natiojne N[oricus] CI. Iuavo [nat. NJoricus natione Noricus CI. 1 lr> 1—J°
Speidel 1994a, 574 [— Adjnamus Speidel 1994a, 594 Aurelius Decoratus
dec dec
[n. Norijcus nat. Noricus
Noricum (Civilian) 250=30723 L. lulius Bassus
dedicator
2482 2543 3229 12304 33036
Aelia Saturnina L. Plenatius Valens Tertius Argentonius Martialis M. LJlpius Ursinus
comm comm dec dec dec
iii 5031
T. Aurelius Primus C. Maximius C f . Iunianus
comm dec
iii 5667
Successianus
dec
Noricorum stationarius sister brother nat. Noric. Ovilavis natione Norico Aelio Cetio brother decurioni Viruniensium, commemorated at home commemorated at home
Pannonia (Military) 2488 M. Aurelius M.f. Secundinus 2494a lulius Nero 313
dec
nat. Pannonio
dec
Pannonia Superiore pede Faustiniano
Appendix 2504 2518 2521 2544
C. Poetilius C.f.Cla. Paullus M. Ulpius M.f.Iul. Verus Aelius Regulus Pletorius Primus
dec dec dec dec
2552 2571 2579
Ulpius Tertius P. Barbius P.f. Pap. Maximianus C. Iulius C f . Iulianus C. Iulius Glaus C. Iulius T ( — ) Sex. Iulius Sex.f.Fla. Augurinus Aurelius Tertius C. Valerius Cf.Fla. Spectatus Aurelius Iaseir C. Iulius C.f.Cla. Florus L. Optatius L.f.Iul. Secundinus L. Optatius Crispinus T . Aurelius A.f.Pap. Clemens Aurelius Muccus
dec dec dec comm comm dec dec dec dec dec dec comm dec dec
2644 2673 2689 2697 2710 2718 2733 2735
55
2746 2758
C. Iulius Valerianus Valerius Martinus Valerius Ianuarinus 2877 C. Marcius Proculus 3146 [—]eri[us?] 3156-7 C. Iulius Proculus 3180 Aelius Lucius (unnamed) (unnamed) 3183 T . Aelius Rufinus 3184 P. Aelius Surio 3186 C. Arantius Atiutor 3192 T . Aurelius Armenius 3204 Aurelius Firmanus 3214 T . Aurelius T.f.Ael. Maximus 3222 T . Aurelius Saturninus 3232 T . Aurelius Victor 3235 T . Aurelius Victorinus 3239 T. Aurelius Vitellianus 3241 Candidius Valentinus
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm comm dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
3256 3257 3264 3266 3267 3270
dec dec dec dec dec dec
T . Flavius Reburrus Flavius Respectus Iulius Bonosus Iulius Proculus Iulius Quartus Iulius Serbandus 314
Emona Emona n. Pannunia Sup. ex pr[o]vincia Panno.Inferiore natus Castello Vixillo natione Petoviensis Poetovione Ulpia Petavione brother brother Siscia natione Pann. Siscia natio. Pan. Savaria Emona brother domo Altini natus [Panno]nia Inferfiore] natione Pannunius natione Pannonius civis domo Sa[varia?j n. Pan[—] natione Pannonius dom. Fl. Siscia
nat. Pann. natione Pannonius nat. Pannonius nat. Savarie ex provin. Pann. Imf. Mursa, natione Pannonio nat. Pann. nat. Pannonius Ael. Mursa nat. Pann. nation. Pann. civi Faustiano n. Pannonius n. Varcianus nat. Pann. nat. ex Pann. Imf. nat. Pann. nat. Pannonius
A list of individual 3272 3276 3285 3286 3287 3291 + 3 3 1 0 3293 3297
immigrants
C. lulius Victor Q. Marcius Q.f.Cla. Rufus Septimius Adiutor Septimin[—J L. Septimius M. Ulpius Valens Valerius Iustianus Ulpius Cocceius
dec dec dec dec dec dec decdec
3300
Ulpius fllan[u]arius
dec
3307 3308 3336 3411 3431
M. Ulpius Speratus Ulpius Titus M. Ulpius M.f. Iustinus M. Ulpius Ingenuus Albius Moderatus lulius Iulianus
comm dec dec comm dec dec
3472
Longinius Victor
dec
6 6
5 7
3489 (name lost) 3625 Salvinius Valentinus 3913 = 32807 [M. Ul]pius Genetivus 32671 L. Valerius L.f. Fla. Sabinus L. Valerius Victorinus 32680 M. Aurelius Dasius M. Aurelius Candidus 32783 Aurelius Constans
decdec dec dec comm dec comm dec
32793 32798 32804a
Aurelius Aurelianus Aurelius Martinus (name lost)
decdec dec
32808 32859 32862 37206 37213
Ulpius Quintianus [—]us Tert[—] (name lost) [—] Cla. Aquilinus Aurelius Verus
dec dec dec dec dec
37224
Valerius Paternianus
dec
xiv 238
L. Licinius Capito
dec 315
recorded
in
inscriptions
nat. Pann. CI. Savaria Savaria nat. P[anno]n. [nat.] Pann. Sup[eriore [nati]one CI. Savaria [Sav]aria Panonie Superiore ex Pan. Sup. natus ad Aquas Balizas pago Iovista vie. Coc[—] natione Pannoniae Superiore C. Savaris vico Voleuci[o?]nis brother nat. Boius domo Savaria brother nat. Pannonius domo Sept. Aquinci ex Pannonia Inferiore natus Pannoniae Superiorae nat. Pann. natus Carnunto [e]x Pann[onia] Novid. brother nat. Pann. colon. Siscia brother natus in Pa[n]nonia Inferiore domo Briget[i]one nat. Pannon. nat. Pannon. Super. ex provincia Pannonia Superiore civitate Poetabionense Pannonia terra creat [natio]nc Pann[—] [Pa]nnonio d[omo — ] Savaria nat. Pannon. pede Sirmese pago Martio vico Budalia natione Pannonica page Traiani nationae Panonius
Appendix AE (1946) AE (1967) AE(1983) AE (1984) AE (1993) AE (1993)
148 33 48 68 334 335
Germ. Taurinus L. Helvius L.f.Cla. Victor Aelius Florus M. Lucilius M.f.Qui. Proculus C. Iulius [—1 (name lost)
dec dec dec dec dec dec
AE (1993) 336
(name lost)
dec
AE (1993) 337 BCAR(1941) p. 172 no.79 Ferrua 1951, no. 26 Ferrua 1951, no. 81 Speidel 1994a, 128
(name lost) M. Ulpius Vitalis
dec dec
(name lost) (name lost) [—]inus
dec dec dec
Speidel 1994a, 1 3 9
58
[—] Secundus
Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel
1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a,
221 261 273 281
C. Iulius f—] (name lost) Faonius [—] [—] Dextrianus
Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel
1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a,
306 335 395 415 425 529 530
Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel
1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a,
563 564 623 624
Aurelius Crispinus L. Aurelius [—J (name lost) (name lost) (name lost) Ulpius Victorinus [Nata]linius Natalinianus Natalinius [—] Aelius Imf—] (name lost) Septimius Marcianus M. Ulpius Criscentinus
Pannonia (Civilian) Aelia Valentina 2488 Aurelia Crescentina 2501 2673 Aurelius Quintus Aurelia [—la Aurelia Iusta 2708 3183 Titius Marcellus 3239 T . Aurelius Verus 3307 Ulpius Ianuarius 3411 Flavia Ursa 316
brother Savaria natione Pann. Siscia CI. Savafria] nati. Panfnonius] Flav. Sirmi. [S]avaria, nat. fPannon]io CI. Savaria domo Aelia Mursa
nat. Savafria] nat. Panf—] [Clajudia [S]avaria [nat. Pa]nn. dec [n]at. Pannonius Claudia Savaria dec CI. Savafria] dec Savaria dec [nat.] Pannonio [nat.J Pann. Ael. dec S[ept. Aquinjci nat. Pan[n.] dec [nat.] Pannon. dec dec [Sava]ria fna]t. Sava[ri—] dec dec [nat.] Pannof—] dec natio[n]e Pannonius natione Pan[noni]us dec comm brother(?) dec nt. Pann. lfnfer.] dec fnjat. Panfnonio] nat. Pann. dec nat.Pann.Inferior. dec nat.f—]
comm dec comm comm dec comm comm dec comm
sister civi Pannoniae brother sister na. Pann. brother brother nat. Pannon. sister
A list of individual
immigrants
345459
Aurelia Gorsilla
dec
13336 15011 26478 32804a 32808 3275S
Aurelia Iustina Ti. Claudius E[—] P. Sebcrin(us) [—J Longinius Paternianus (name uncertain) (name lost)
dec comm dec? comm comm dec
34408 36351
Q. Annius Q.f. [—Icianus Silvania Cresce[ntina]
dec dec
37271 AE (1946) 148 Speidel 1994a, 623 Bertolino 1997, 124
Iulia Carnuntilla Germ. Super Septimius Romulus Aurelius Dubitatus (name lost)
dec comm dec comm dec
60
61
62
recorded
in
inscriptions
natione A[q]ui(n)ce(n)sis nat. Pannonia natione Panon[—] Pann. brother cousin prata per Inlyrici litora Dannuvii lul. Emona nata fPanno]nia Su[pe]r[i]ore ter[ritorio] Arabo[nle ex pr. P. Super, nat. Savar. brother brother natio. Pan[—]
Pannonia (Christian) Mandronius 1480 Flavius Ursicinus 1619 + 2 2 4 6 0 Aurelia Marciana 3327 = 20722 13109 Simplicius 13155 Flavia Valeria Flavia Vi(v)entia 13355 Maximilla Nunita 19444 Valerius Taurus 25130 Euf[-]
dec dec dec dec comm dec dec dec dec dec
gens Carnuntum cives Pannonius cives Pannonia Bertolino 1997, 119 mother ex provincia Pannonia civis Pannonia mother natio. natu. Panonius Pann[onicus civis] Vindobofnensis]
Raetia (Military) 3190 T . Aurelius Africanus 3208 T . Aurelius Iucundus 3210 T. Aurelius M[—] 3213 Aurelius Masucius 3218 T . Aurelius Pacatinus T. Aurelius Victorinus 3224 T. Aurelius Speratus 3228 T. Aurelius Tertius 3233 T . Aurelius Victor 3273 lustus Ilissa Q. Putentinus 3282 3353 C. lulius Vettius 3430 lulius Concessus 3576 T . Aurelius Secund(us?)
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm dec dec dec dec dec
nat. Raetus nat. Raetus [nat.] Rae[tus] nat. Raet. nat. Raetus brother natione Raeto nat. Rae[to] brother n. Raetus na. Ret. Aug. Vindelicum natione Retus nat. Raito
63
64
317
Appendix 32473 32804 32840 S2845 32848 33025 Ferrua 1951, p. 115 no. 80 Speidel 1994a, 88 65
Claudius Quintilianus Iulius Saturninus (name lost) T . Aurelius Impetrjatus?] (name lost) Sabinius Sabinianus (name lost)
dec dec dec decdec dec dec
nat. Raetus n. Ret. Ael. Aug. n|at. Ra]etus [nat.] Retus nation. Raet. n. Rae.
(name lost)
dec-
Speidel 1994a, 164 C. Ann[—]lianus Speidel 1994a, 234 T . Aurelius Em|—] Speidel 1994a, 267 (name lost)
dec dec dec
Speidel 1994a, 565 (name lost) Speidel 1994a, 745 C. Iulius Seclfaris'l
dec dec
[Aejl. Aug., [n]ation. [Raeto] [Aelia] Augusta nat. Raet[—] natione [Raetufs Aelia Au[gusta] n. Reto [nat.] Retus
Raetia (Civilian) 3233 32796
T . Lavinius Mercator
dec dec
nat. Ra[eto] nat. Raeto
Raetia (Christian) 1640
Heraclius
dec
civis Secundus Retus
Rufio L. Gellius Peticianus Synkamon Minucia Xenon
dec dec comm dec dec
Siculi TuvSapeixoti brother IiiceA.fi Tuv8apixa
dec dec comm dec dec dec dec dec comm?
Euce. navoputxr|c; Siculae regionis husband EK LiKeA,ir|<; ano xf\c, ZuceAiac; Siciliae ZuceA-Oi; [Sy]racusis Kaxaveot)
Sicily (Civilian) 6514 IGUR 456 IGUR 794 IGUR 823
Sicily (Christian and Jewish) 2585 Symphorus 4209 Helpis (unnamed) 13858 (name lost) 22815 Callistus 23409 L-lus 27228 Mari(u?)s ILCV 725 (name lost) JIWE ii 515 Amachius
Syria and Palestine (Military) 2627 M. Antonius M.f. lanuariusdec 2910 3114
A. Curius A.f.Sab. Rufus Iulius Apollinaris 318
dec dec
66
67
domo Laudicia ex Suria domo Beryt. nat. Surus
A list of individual 3138 3151 3197 3251 3644 32776 32795 33009 33039 37254 IGUR 590 Ferrua 1939, p. 145 no. 4 Ferrua 1951, p. 112 no. 54 Speidel 1994a, 206
immigrants
C. Anthestius Niger T . Aurelius Gemellinus T . Aurelius Maximus (name lost) (name lost) Antoninus (name lost)
dec dec dec dec dec comm dec
nat. Syro n. Sur. brother nat. Surus brother domo Antiochia Syria natio. Surus na. Surus nat. Syrus n. Sur[—] nat. Syru[s] brother from Berytus
[
dec
natio. Surus
dec
nat. Syrus c|o]l. Caesarea [nat..] Syrus [nat.] Arabus Filadellfia] n[at. Sy]rus Damas[c—] n. Sur.
]sianus
T. Aurelius Ariscus
Speidel 1994a, 424 [— B]enignus
dec
Speidel 1994a, 524 Marius Alexander
dec
Syria and Palestine (Civilian) 50 = IGUR 117 Heliodorus 700 C. Ducenius C.l. Phoebus
13055 16486 17117 17318 17356 19134
inscriptions
dec dec comm dec comm dec
dec dec
4699 6338 6340 6431 8883 13021
in
Valerius Maximus M. Aurelius Romanus M. Aurelius Romanus [sic] T . Aurelius Claudianus Domitius Herenianus C. Vettius C.f.Col. Niger
Speidel 1994a,215 T. Aurelius Augu[—] Speidel 1994a, 265 (name lost)
3251
recorded
Domitius Lucius Domitius 1 talus Glapyra Prima Auge Dapnis M. Ulpius Castoras T. Aur. Apollinaris Aurelius Cl(audius?) Aurelius Antipater Manneia J.\. Epistolium Egnatia 3.1. Fortunata Eudem[—] Eunus Habibi (name not given) r
319
dedicator Palmyrenus dedicator natus in Suria Nisibyn. nation. Surus dec brother comm dec Syra dec Sura dec Sura dec Sura comm librarius Arabicus dec nat Sfyjrus Apamenus builders natio. Syri dec dec dec dec dec comm
Surisca Surisca natione Surus Antioc. Palmurenus brother
Appendix Postumus L.l. Annaeus Strato Augg.l. Tyche Bassus T. lngenus Acceptus [—J Iulianus Abgarus
dec dec dec dec comm comm comm dec dec dec
38719 IGUR 304 IGUR 306
Abdareta Bathyllus C. lulio regis Samsicerami 1. Glacus Patulcia Truphera Aelius Philocalus Cocceius Iulianus Syncsius
dec dec comm
IGUR 590
Iamour
dec
IGUR 749 IGUR 811 IGUR 1027
L. Lon. Protogenes Neike f) KCU Marcellina T. Flavius Cassianus (name not given) Callistus Olympia
dec
24898 26883 27868 32827 33009
68
34196
34672 35556a
IGUR 1243 IGUR 1287
dec dec comm dec dec
(name not given) Proclus Salome (name not given) Soemus IGUR 1334 (name lost) IGUR 1384 Maros IG xiv 934 SEG xxx 1801 Diodorus
comm comm dec comm dec dec dec dec
IGUR 1317 IGUR 1323
Syrus natione Syru Antiocense Phoenicae nationem Surus brother brother Petraeus; uses Nabataean cognatus Syro freedman of king of Emesa Surae TO yevoc; Tupicp Avxioxexx; xcov npoc, Aa<\>vr\v 5X)po<; 'AcKaA-coveiTnc; riaXaiaxeivTi 'Avxioxei)«;> Ad^vnc;
Ajtduioaa Avxioxl xa>v npoc; Ad<|)vriv sibling yevoc; rupvr|0ev " EA-A-Tiv uev xo yevoc;, Kaxpic; 5e uoi f)xov 'Anduea brother 2/upir|<; a7ro yairn; see p. 193
see p. 2 3 6 et,'Lvp'\.r\q,noXewilq —] ZeXevKevc, Fliepiac; and ZupiaKf|<; AeKan6Xe(oq FaSdpou uncertain Zvjpot; 'AvxioxeiJt;
Bevilacqua (name lost) 1978 Teixidor 1979, Ti. Claudius Felix p. 47
dedicator sec p. 2 4 3
Syria and Palestine (Christian and Jewish) dec 330=8721 Megetius 731 dec [~-jna 868 EmWabous^ dec 1860 Aurelius Agathias dec 1861 Aurelius Malchus dec
320
cibes Eliopolitfanjus Emisina KC6HTI<; A5dvcov Zijpoc; and Kc6(ar)c;) 'Apvcovop fxlfic; OwiKnt;
A list of individual 1870 2151 2634 2636 2896 4554 4891 5175 7 0
5659 5688 6417 7243 7275a 8048 8395 8404 71
72
73
7 4
7 5
7 6
9319
7 7
12188 12198 12200 12400 12404a 12516 12866c 13150 13845 13849 17373
Zaoras Asclepius Leonteis Malchus Heliodorus Bassus (name lost) Sosanna
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
Aurelius la[—]s Heortasius (name lost) Ginadis (name lost) Hermes Zenodorus (name lost) (name lost) Paulus
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
immigrants
Vitalius Maris Obres Constantius Stercorius Heliodorus (name lost) Eusebius (name lost) Euetheia Silvanus Theodotus Merou 19790 Eusebius 22909a (name lost) AE (1982) 74 Diogenes
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec? dec dec comm comm dec dec dec
J1WE ii 60 J l W E i i 112 J I W E i i 113 J I W K ii 459 J I W E i i 561 J I W E ii 568
dec dec dec comm comm comm
78
79
80
Ionios 6 Kai Akone Macedonius Symmachus Gelasius Alypius Alexander
recorded
M. Aurelius Mucianus dec dec Aurelius Iobinus 321
inscriptions
Kt6|o.(r|<;) KcmpoKiAlecov Li86vio<; xfi 0"uviKf|<; ©pr|aTOA£iTn<; 0eA.aer|[ vo<;] 'Avxioxevjc; civis Arabus cmo KC6|OT|C; Actx[—] opcov Arcaiaecov de provincia Syriae ex vico Ravv[...]no Koi.AT|<; Zupiaq AvaTOK[6<;] 69
GOTO KCOLLTJC; BepaPe
L-upoq 'ELUOTIVO^
Kavc66[cov] Kc6rn; Kcmpavavecov Xaapr|v6<; cxjio k[cou,tjc, —1 cmd ic(c6)|j.(ri(;) Op(d)ycov x^pa<; A7ia|a.(ecov) Avxioxeix; Niai(3av6<; Oevr)Gia dno Oi^oTiq xf|<; OIMKTU;
[B?]anP\)[Kriv6(;?] 'Ejaecrrivov
'Pa())ilcoxr|(;] Antiocenos f A]vxioxei[a], Zijpa Avxiox[eia<;] Z-upovj drco 7I6A£CO<; Zeiiyiaa brother brother KC6UT|C; "Appcov Xcopaq Avxio[—] KC6UTI<; Mayapaxcov Kaxcoxepag xf|<; ATtcqaecov 7iapoiKia<; Zec|)Copr|v6(; Keaapeix; xx\c, naXeaxivri^ TputoAixrn; Keaapecoc; 81
Tipepeix;
"ApK[r|(; Aip]dvo\)
Thrace (Military) 2461 2486
in
nat. Thrax nat. Bessus
Appendix 2566 2570
Aurelius Mucianus Aurelius Vitus
dec dec
2601
Aurelius Bitus Valerius Aulusanus Aurelius Victorinus
dec comm dec
2605
natus Tremontiae natione Trax domu Sergica Asclepias natione Trax cives Filopopulit brother natione Dacisca regione Serdic brother natus Pautaliae cousin Serdicensis (?) nat. Pautalia natione Besus cf. IGUR 134 (below, p. 3 2 4 ) convicani
comm dec comm dec 2638 dec 2671 2699 dec dec 2732 comm comm dec nat. Trax civitate Serdica 2742 comm brother dec nat. vico Bitalcostf—J reg. 2772+ Pautaliensef—] 32660 comm brother Aurelius Vitupaus dec 2785 Valerius Sarmatius civis Filopopuletanus 2954 Firminius Valens dec natus in prov.Trhacia civit. Philippopol. 3097 C. Antistius [Secunjdus dec n. Bess[us] 3103 Caecilius Celer dec natio. Bessus 3107 Ti. Claudius Urbanus dec n. Bessus 3128 P. Popilius Maximus dec n. Bessus 3 1 3 9 = 7 4 6 6 C. Valerius Modestus dec n. Bes. 3141 M. Valerius Proculus dec nat. Bessus dec nat. Bessus 3142 Velonius Masclus M. Ulpius Maximus dec nat. Bess. 3145 nat. Bessus 3163 Q. Arruntius Aquila dec 3176 P. Aelius Avitus dec Traianopoli, natione Thrax 3177 P. Aelius Bassus dec nat. Bessus Claudia Apris T . Flavius Marcellinus comm municipes comm Aurelius Quintus nat. Thrax 3195 M. Aurelius Bithus dec comm brother M. Aurelius Sums 3196 Aurelius Brinursius dec nat. Trax civis Bero<e>ensis 3201 Aurelius Diso dec n. Thrax 3202 Aurelius Dizala dec nat. [ T h r a x ? ] 3205 T . Aurelius Gaius decFl. Scupis nat. Bessus 3216 Aurelius Mucianus dec domo Thracia Iulius Valens comm municeps 3217 M. Aurelius Optatus dec nati. Tra. [nat.Thr]ax 3250 f—] M.f. Deciminus dec Valerius Augustus [—] Dolens [—J Sebastianus Aurelius Zinama Aurelius Pyrrhus Aurelius Victor Aurelius Buris Aurelius Diszairai Aurelius Asclepiades Diogenes Gaius Aurelius Erodes Aurelius Mestrius
2616
8 2
83
84
89
322
A list of individual
immigrants
3303 3314 3447 32714 32768 = xiv 236 32836 32867a 33040
M. Ulpius Longinus (name lost) P. Aelius Severus (name lost) M. Flavius Valens (name lost) (name lost) (name lost)
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec dec
37255 xiv 234 xiv 240 AE (1931) 89 A E ( 1 9 8 0 ) 141 AE (1981) 94
Ulpius Valentinus L. Carisius Valfens] C. Valerius Festus Ti. Claudius Dolens Flavius Mucianus T . Aurelius Secundus
dec dec dec dec dec dec
N S ( 1 9 0 6 ) p . 209 no. 6 Ferrua 1943-4, no. 93 Ferrua 1951, no. 22 Ferrua 1951, no. 109 Speidel 1994a, 209
(name lost) Sisitianus Clemens (name lost) (name lost) P. Aelius Bellicus
dec dec dec dec dec
Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel Speidel
T . A[urelius — ] [—JIngenuus [—] Veratius [—] Apronius (name lost) lulius Lucius Aurelius Daicosis Aurelius Daicon
dec dec dec dec dec dec dec comm
Aurelius Lucius Aurelia Marcia
comm dec
86
1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a, 1994a,
216 243 253 545 546 567 608
recorded
in
inscriptions
natione Bessus natus Ulpia Serdicae nat. Bessus [Sjerdic. natio. Bessus [Th]raci [nat.] Trax [Heraclea] Sentifca], [na]t. Bessus nati. B(essus) nat. Vcssus Bessus nat. Bes. dom. Nicopoli nat. Thrac[—] Ulpia Tonzo Bess[us| nat. Vessus [nat.] T r a x n. BesL—] [nat.] Bess[us] civitas U[--] [nati]on. Bessu[s] [natiojne Bes[sus] [nat. B]essu[s] [nat.] Bes. [nat.] Bes. n. T r . nat. Thrax brother
Thrace (Civilian) 2570 2734
2785 2954 3163 3303 6519 9709 9719 10187 18066
Aurelia Zenodora Sudicentius Tataza Tataza Mucapora C. Cassius Censorinus L. Sentius Fortis Secunda T . Flavius Genethlius Crescens Thelyphus Flavius Felix [Flavius EJxupergius Fidus 323
brother n[a]tione Trax civitau Promesiana comm sister comm brother comm mother comm wife comm brother comm father dec Thraecida builder natione Bess. dec natione Bessus dec natione Traex dec na[tio]ne T r h a x comm brother 87
Appendix 20718
Iulia Tyndaris
builder
26608
Sitalces Iulia Phyllis f—]thus [—]ruillio Se[-1 Aurelius [—J T . Aurelius Bithus (name lost) Aurelius Puris Iulius Valerianus (name lost)
dec dec dec comm comm dec dec dec dedicator comm dec
30584 32714 33005 34619 34635 I G U R 134 A E ( 1 9 8 0 ) 141 AE (1993) 332
NS (1922) p. 417 Ti. Iulius Diogenes no. 51 Remothalcianus
builder
freedwoman of K. Rhoemetalces opses Thracum sister lna]t. Thrax brother brother nat. T[hrax] Thrax nacione Thracia eic 8e xcopiric; Tryseoc, cousin cives Bes[sus regione —]ese vico Trifon. Fabre and Roddaz 1982, 87
Thrace (Christian) 14201 (name lost) 16873 Paula 23627 Valerius Dalatfralis]
dec dec dec
Serdica an[6] NetKorcoAlecocJ [e pro]vincia Tracia vicuf—J
Unknown (Military) 2740 Ti. Claudius Ti.f. Rufus 2741 C. Commagius Secundinus
dec dec
2992b 3239a
dec dec
Apsoles commemorated by municeps natio. MINOPf—] domu I [—]
T . Aurelius Salvianus M. Aurelius [—]
Unknown (Civilian) 2741 (name not given) I G U R 962 Artemidorus Socrates Dionysis I G U R 1257 Lacon I G U R 1313 (name lost) SEG xiv 615 Demetrius (name not given)
comm dec comm comm dec dec dec comm
Unknown (Christian) 1491 Aestonia 2274 Honoratus 13226 Victor
dec dec dec
MGR 18 (1994) pp.177-285 no. 87
Asclepiodj—]
dec
municeps e m cjevric;
brother brother rarcplg 5e M[—] [e]jii cjelvnCj see p. 168 brother
perecrina peregrini qu <ma>ria treiecit in peregre [obitus/a]
A list of individual
immigrants
recorded
in
inscriptions
Notes 1
The criteria for inclusion here are set out at pp< 6 - 7 . For the 'military' and 'civilian' categories, references are to C I L vi if there is simply an Arabic numeral, or to another volume of C I L if there is a Roman and then an Arabic numeral. For the 'Christian/Jewish' category, references are to ICUR if there is simply a numeral. I have tried to give the most accessible reference rather than the original publication. Names are given in the nominative case and, as far as possible, in standard ized spelling. 'comm' = commemorator, 'dec' = deceased, 'builder' = builder of tomb, 'grafF = graffiti. Where the reason for inclusion is quoted directly from the inscription, the exact form and spelling used in the inscription is given here (with restoration or expansion where necessary). I have not used 'sic' to indicate non-standard spell ings and grammar, because these are too common. Ricci (1994a, no. A l ) gives a family tree. Two charioteers who appear to have been working at Rome. Following Ricci 1997b. I have assumed that there is a connection with the city in Media called Gauna (RE vii 876). Ricci (1993b, T 4 ) treats these people as Thracian. This could be in Asia or Greece. See Moretti, ad loc. There is a different interpretation in SEG xliv 822. T h e man is described as a banker in the Roman Forum. Avramea 1995, 307. Moretti, ad l o c , takes this as an alternative form of'Nicomedian'. ' Restoration by Avramea 1995, 299. This is almost certainly military. T h e man in the inscription could be Athenaeus the Cilician or Cilix the Athenian; I have assumed the former. Published independently by Speidel 1994c, 584. Ricci 1993b, D e l 3 , following Vulpe 1925, 143. Corrected by Ferrua 1951, 135. Printed as 3 1 0 9 in CIL. S e e p . 118. Interpretation from Ricci 1993a, A5. This inscription is very fragmentary; Moretti restores ['Avxivor)rcaxpu;]in 1.1 and AvxivforiJ in 1.4; the latter seems more likely to be the beginning of a personal name. However, since the deceased was an ambassador from some.where, Moretti has been followed here. As interpretated by Avramea 1995, 2 9 1 . Mateescu (1923, 193) takes Nysius as a mistake for Mysius, and Speidel (1994c, 435) understands it as Moesius. It is assumed here to be the ethnic for Nysa. According to RE xxiii.2 2 1 0 7 - 8 , the Pylaemenes who was the previous owner was the son of King Amyntas of Galatia. Interpretation from Avramea 1995, 319. 2
3
4
5
b
7
8
9
1 0
11
1 2
1 3
1 4
1 5
1 6
1
1 8
1 9
2 0
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 4
2;)
2 6
2 7
2 8
2 9
3 0
325
Appendix 3 1
For the assumption that this and some other unknown villages are Galatian, see p. 2 3 2 . Interpretation from Feissel 1982a, 3 7 1 . Interpretation from Feissel 1982a, 3 7 3 - 4 . Feissel 1982a, 375-7. Interpretation from Feissel 1982a, 3 7 3 - 4 . Interpretation from Felle 1997, 331, 4 0 0 . 25249 is probably the same inscription. Following Ricci 1992a, A44, contra Nu/./.o 1997. C I L restores [nat. Noviomjagi. Following Ricci 1993c, B 6 0 . Restoration from Dobo 1975, 585. Restoration from Granino Cecere 1994b. This is from a gravestone now at Fiesole but most likely to originate from Rome. Following Ricci 1993c, A9. Legaand Felle 1997. Tainaron in Laconia according to Nuzzo 1997. Restoration by Ricci 1992b, b l 9 . Includes C I L v i 3654. Corrected in AE (1994) 193. It is unclear if these are two separate people or one person with a double name. Interpretation from Ricci 1994a. ° I have assumed this to be Caesarea in Mauretania as the man in question is a charioteer, and therefore more likely to have been of North African than Eastern origin. Corrected by Ferrua 1951, 135. Restoration by Ricci 1993b, N41. ' Name interpreted by Vulpe 1925, 146. Corrected by Ferrua 1951, 135. Joined by Speidel 1994c, 346. C I L vi 32830, 32835, 32837d. Interpretation from Ricci 1993b, P3. Interpretation from Ricci 1993b, P I 9 . One o f the commemorators, Valerius Antonius el Aurelius Victorinus, is the deceased's cousin, but it is not stated which one. Interpretation from Ricci 1993b, P20. Different interpretation by di Stefano Manzella 1997a. Lega and Orlandi 1997. Corrected by Speidel 1994c, 133. S e e p . 195. Who travelled with her. AE (1992) 92.109. T h e interpretation of the text is uncertain. It reads: Bassus bixit annus XXf—J \ civis Arabus vola Marina vixit [—] Feissel 1982a, no. 11.3. Feissel 1982a, no. I; the 'ethnic' could be from anywhere in the East. Avramea 1 9 9 5 , 2 8 6 . 3 2
3 3
3 4
3 5
3 6
3 7
3 8
3 9
4 0
4 1
4 2
4 3
4 4
4 5
4 6
4 7
4 8
4 9
5 0
2
5 3
5 4
:
5
5()
5 7
5 8
5 9
6 0
1,1
6 2
0 3
6 4
6 5
6 6
6 7
0 8
()9
7 0
7 1
7 2
326
A list of individual 7 3
immigrants
recorded
in
inscriptions
Nuzzo 1997, 706. Feissel 1982a, 3 6 1 . Feissel 1982b, 3 3 8 - 9 . Nuzzo 1997, 706. Feissel 1982b, 3 3 0 - 1 . Feissel 1982a, 358. Nuzzo 1997, 706. Feissel 1982a, 2 6 7 - 9 . It is uncertain which Tripolis is meant. Ricci 1993b, 206 n. 14. Joined by Ricci 1993b, T 2 6 . Restoration from Mateescu 1923, 192. Although commemorated by his brother, someone else acted as curator, so I have assumed that the brother was not present at Rome. Mateescu 1923, 203. She has been included because of her Thracian name. 7 4
7 5
7 0
7 7
7 8
7 9
8 0
8 1
8 2
8 3
8 4
8 5
8 6
8 7
327
GLOSSARY Advocatus fisci Annona Apparitor Assessor Beneficiarius Civis Romanus/a Classiarius Cognomen Collegium Cursus publicus Dextrarum iunctio Di Manes Domesticus
Duo/tria nomina
Equites
Equites singulares Evocatus Familia Filiusfamilias Frumentarius Grammaticus Hospitium Iudices quinque decuriarum
A barrister working for the state. Rome's corn supply and the administration dealing with it. T h e servant of an official. A judge's assistant. A soldier seconded to special duties. Someone with the legal status of a Roman citizen. A soldier serving in the Roman fleet. T h e final part o f a Roman name, e.g. M. Tullius Cicero, Vipsania Agrippina. A society or association, usually with a nominal religious function. T h e state-run system for delivering official corres pondence. T h e joining of right hands symbolizing marriage. T h e spirits o f the dead, regularly invoked in secondthird century AD epitaphs. Probably a personal assistant to an officer of state such as the urban prefect, but could also be an army officer. T h e name of a Roman citizen, usually with three parts for a man (M. Tullius Cicero), two for a woman (Vipsania Agrippina). People of the rank immediately below that o f the sena torial class, normally having to meet a property qualifi cation o f HS 4 0 0 , 0 0 0 . The cavalry, normally recruited outside Italy, who formed the imperial bodyguard (see p. 2 1 ) . A semi-retired soldier, liable to be called up in an emergency. A household, including free members and slaves. A male whose father was still alive and who was there fore legally under his father's control. A soldier whose duties included security and sur veillance. A teacher o f grammar. The moral right to claim hospitality or the duty to give it. Men selected for jury service, who had to meet a property qualification. Only those designated inter seleclos served at Rome.
329
Glossary
Latus clavus Loculus Magister officiorum Mcrcator Munera Navicularius Negotiator/negotians Nomen (gentilicium) Notarius Officina Patria Peregrinus/a Praenomen Praeses Praetorian Guard Provocator Quinquennalis Sacerdos augustalis Signum Stator Structor Urbanicianus Verna Viator Vicarius urbis Vigiles Vir clarissimus
The broad stripe on a toga which denoted someone entitled to seek office o f senatorial status. A burial slot in a catacomb. T h e official in charge o f the central bureaucracy from the fourth century. A merchant. T h e Financial responsibilities undertaken by city mag istrates or other wealthy citizens. A shipowner. A dealer or trader. T h e inherited part o f a Roman name, e.g. M. Tullius Cicero, Vipsania Agrippina. A civil servant, originally with secretarial functions but also used for diplomatic and under-cover activity. A workshop. Someone's home city or country. Someone who was o f free status but not a Roman citizen. T h e first part o f a Roman man's full name, e.g. Marcus Tullius Cicero. A provincial governor. T h e main body o f troops stationed at Rome to guard the emperor and keep order (see p. 2 0 ) . A type of gladiator. T h e leading magistrate in a collegium or a city, appointed once in five years. A priest o f the imperial cult. An additional name (the word is usually found in the ablative case, signo). An official servant of a provincial governor or general. A building worker. A member of the Urban Cohorts, the main lawenforcing body in Rome. A home-bred slave. A magistrate's attendant and enforcement officer. A deputy to the Urban Prefect. T h e night-watch o f Rome, mainly responsible for detecting and fighting fires. A man o f senatorial status.
330
ABBREVIATIONS AE b. BCAR BGU CCSL CIG CIL CIS CSEL EE ICUR IG IGCVO ICR IGUR IK 1LCV ILS IMS JK J I WE m. MAMA MGH NDIEC NS PG PIR PL PLRE RE RIT SB SEG SHA SIG TAM t. y-
Annee Epigraphique Babylonian Talmud Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunalc di Roma Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin Griechische Urkunden Corpus Christianorum, Series Latina Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum Ephemeris Epigraphica Inscriptiones Christianae Urbis Romae Inscriptiones Graecae Inscriptiones Graecae Christianae Veteris Occidentis Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas Pertinentes Inscriptiones Graecae Urbis Romae Inschriften griechischer Stadte aus Kleinasien Inscriptiones Latinac Christianae Veteres Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae Inscriptiones Moesiae Superioris Jewish Encyclopaedia Jewish Inscriptions o f Western Europe Mishnah Monumenta Asiae Minoris Antiqua Monumenta Germaniae Historica New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity Notizie degli Scavi Patrologia Graeca Prosopographia Imperii Romani Patrologia Latina Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Real-Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft Die romischen Inschriften von Tarraco Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Aegypten Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum Scriptores Ilistoriae Augustae Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum Tituli Asiae Minoris Tosefta Jerusalem Talmud
Other abbreviations which are not self-explanatory follow the Annee logique system. 331
Philo-
BIBLIOGRAPHY Affortunati, M. 1994 'Ambasciatori germanici in Italia dal II sec. a.C. al II sec. d . C , in B. and P. Scardigli (eds.) Germani in Italia, Rome, 1 0 5 - 1 5 . Ahmed, I. 1997 'Exit, voice and citizenship', in T . Hammar, G. B r o c h m a n n , K. Tamas and T . Faist (eds.) International Migration, Immobility and Development. Multidisciplinary perspectives, Oxford/New York, 159-85. Alcock, S. 1993 Graecia Capta, Cambridge. Andre, J . M . and Baslez, M.F. 1993 Voyager dans I'Antiquite, Paris. Audin, A. 1960 'Inhumation et incineration', Latomus 19, 3 1 2 - 2 2 , 5 1 8 - 3 2 . Avramea, A. 1995 'Mort loin de la patrie. L'apport des inscriptions paleochretiennes', in G. Cavallo and C. Mango (eds.) Epigrafia medievale Greca e Latina. Ideologia e funzione. Atti del seminario di Erice (12-18 sett. 1991), Spoleto, 1-65. Bacher, W. 1896 'Rome dans le Talmud et le Midrasch', REJ 3 3 , 1 8 7 - 9 6 . Bagnall, R.S. and Frier, B.W. 1994 The Demography of Roman Egypt, Cambridge. Bakker, J . T . et al. 1999 Ostia, Harbour of Ancient Rome, http://www.ncl.ac.uk/ostia/ Balsdon, J . P . V . D . 1979 Romans and Aliens, London. Barclay, J . M . C . 1996 Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora from Alexander to Trajan, Edinburgh. Bardy, G. 1948 La question des langues dans I'eglise ancienne, Paris. 1949 'Pelerinages a Rome vers la fin du I V siecle', AB 67, 2 2 4 - 3 5 . Barnard, L.W. 1967 Justin Martyr: His life and thought, London. Barnes, T . D . 1967 ' T h e family and career o f Septimius Severus', Historia 16, 8 7 - 1 0 7 . Barnish, S . J . B . 1987 'Pigs, plebeians and potentes: Rome's economic hinterland c. 3 5 0 600 AD', PBSR 5 5 , n.s. 4 2 , 1 5 7 - 8 5 . Beard, M., North, J. and Price, S. 1998 Religions of Rome, 2 vols., Cambridge. C
333
Bibliography Bellelli, G.M. 1996
'Les sanctuaires cle Iuppiter Dolichenus a Rome', in G.M. Bellelli and U . Bianchi (eds.) Orienlalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 3 0 7 - 3 0 .
Beloch, J . 1886 Die Bevblkerung der griechisch-rbmischen Welt, Leipzig. Repr. New York, 1979. Bertolino, A. 1997 ' "Pannonia terra creat, tumulat Italia tellus". Presenze pannoniche nell'area di S. Sebastiano', RivAC 7 3 , 115-27. Bevilacqua, G. 1978 'Due trapeziti in un'iscrizione di Tivoli', ArchClass 30, 2 5 2 - 4 . Bianchi, U . 1982 'Per la storia dei culti nel sito del "santuario siriaco" sul Gianicolo', in M. Mele and C.M. Carpano (eds.) L'area del «santuario siriaco del Gianicolo». Problemi archeologici e storico-religiosi, Rome, 8 9 - 1 0 5 . 1996 7.0.M. et Deo Paterno Comageno\ in G.M. Bellelli and U . Bianchi (eds.) Orienlalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 6 0 1 - 6 . Bjeren,G. 1997 'Gender and reproduction', in T . Hammar, G. Brochmann, K. Tamas and T . Faist (eds.) International Migration, Immobility and Development. Multidisciplinary perspectives, Oxford/New York, 2 1 9 - 4 6 . Blackman, E.D. 1948 Marcion and his Influence, London. Bokser, B.M. 1990 'Todos and rabbinic authority in Rome', in J . Neusner et al. (eds.) New Perspectives on Ancient Judaism I: Religion, literature and society in ancient Israel, formative Christianity and Judaism, Brown J u d a i c Studies 2 0 6 , Atlanta, 1 1 7 - 3 0 . Bollmann, B . 1997 'La distribuzione delle scholae delle corporazioni a Roma', in La Rome imperiale. Demographie et logistique. Acles de la table ronde (Rome, 25 mars 1994), C E F R 2 3 0 , Rome, 2 0 9 - 2 5 . Bonner, S.F. 1977 Education in Ancient Rome, London. Botermann, H. 1996 Das Judenedikt des Kaisers Claudius, Hermes Einzelschriften 7 1 , Stuttgart. Bowersock, G.W. 1969 Greek Sophists in the Roman Empire, Oxford. Boyance, P. 1956 'La connaissance du grec a Rome', REL 34, 1 1 1 - 3 1 . Boyle, P, Halfacree K. and Robinson V. 1998 Exploring Contemporary Migration, Harlow. Bradley, K.R. 1994 Slavery and Society at Rome, Cambridge.
334
Bibliography Brandle, R. and Stegemann, E.W. 1998 ' T h e formation o f the first "Christian congregations" in Rome in the context o f the Jewish congregations', in K.P. Donfried and P. Richardson (eds.) Judaism and Christianity in first-century Rome, Grand Rapids, 1 1 7 - 2 7 . Brown, P. 1982 'Dalla "plebs romana" alia "plebs Dei": aspetti della cristianizzazione di Roma', in P. Brown, L. Cracco Ruggini and M. Mazza, Governanti e intellettuali, popolo di Roma e popolo di Dio (I-VI secolo), Passatopresente 2, Turin, 1 2 3 - 4 5 . Brunt, P. 1980 'Free labour and public works at Rome', JRS 7 0 , 8 1 - 1 0 0 . Caldelli, M.L. 1992 'Curia athletarum, iera xystike synodos e organizzazione delle terme a Roma', ZPE 9 3 , 7 5 - 8 7 . 1993 L'agon Capitolinus, Studi pubblicati dall'Istituto Italiano per la Storia Antica 5 4 , Rome. Calzini Gysens, J . 1996a 'Dieux ancestraux et Baals syriens attestes a Rome', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orientalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolilana, Rome, 2 6 1 - 7 6 . 1996b 'La localisation du temple de J u p i t e r Heliopolitain au Janicule', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orientalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 2 7 7 - 9 0 . 1996c 'II Lucus Furrinae e i culti del cosidetto «Santuario Siriaco»', in E.M. Steinby (ed.) Ianiculum-Gianicolo. Storia, topografia, monumenti, leggendi dall'antichitd al rinascimento, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 16, Rome, 5 3 - 6 0 . Calzini Gysens, J . and Duthoy, F. 1992 'Nuovi elementi per una cronologia del santuario siriaco del Gianicolo', Ostraka 1, 1 3 3 - 5 . Canali de Rossi, F. 1997 Le ambascerie dal mondo greco a Roma in eta repubblicana, Rome. Carcopino, J . 1941 Daily Life in Ancient Rome. Penguin, tr. E.O. Lorimer, ed. H.T. Rowell, Harmondsworth, 1 9 9 1 . Castagnoli, F. 1980 'Installazioni portuali a Roma', in J . H . d'Arms and E.C. Kopff (eds.) The Seaborne Commerce of Ancient Rome: Studies in archaeology and history, MAAR 3 6 , Rome, 3 5 - 4 2 . Cellini, G.A. 1996 'Les sources litteraires sur Iuppiter Dolichenus et Iuppiter Heliopolitanus', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orientalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 1 9 - 5 6 . Champlin, E. Fronto and Antonine Rome, Cambridge, Mass.
.335
Bibliography Chauvot, A. 1998 Opinions romaines face aux barbares au IVe siecle ap.J.-C, Paris. Cherry, D. 1998 Frontier and Society in Roman North Africa, Oxford. Chevallier, R. 1988 Voyages et deplacements dans I'empire romain, Paris. Ciceroni, M. 1996 'L'iconographie de la triade heliopolitaine a Rome', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orienlalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 3 5 9 - 6 8 . Clark, P. 1979 'Migration in England during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries', P&P 8 3 , 5 7 - 9 0 . Counts, D. 1996 'Regum externorum consuetudine: the nature and function of embalming in Rome', CA 15, 1 8 9 - 2 0 2 . Cracco Ruggini, L. 1997 'Spazi urbani clientelari et caritativi', in La Rome imperiale. Demographie et logistique. Actes de la table ronde (Rome, 25 mars 1994), C E F R 2 3 0 , Rome, 1 5 7 - 9 1 . Dahya, B . 1973 'Pakistanis in Britain: transients or settlers?', Race 14, 2 4 1 - 7 7 . Repr. in C. Holmes (ed.) Migration in European history, vol. 2, Cheltenham, 1996, D'Ambra, E. 1988 'A myth for a smith: a Meleager sarcophagus from a tomb in Ostia', A/A 9 2 , 8 5 - 9 9 . Dauge, Y.A. 1981 Le barbare: recherches sur la conception romaine de la barbarie et de la civilisation, Coll. Latomus 176, Brussels. Di Stefano Manzella, 1. 1 9 7 6 - 7 TI riordinamento del Lapidario profano ex lateranense', RPAA 49, 249-93. 1997a 'II venerando Mandronius (benefattore o santo?) nella dedica votiva del popolo gallico dei Carnutes presso Lione ( 3 5 5 - 3 6 3 ? ) ' , in I. di Stefano Manzella (ed.) Le iscrizioni dei Cristiani in Vaticano, Inscriptiones Sanctae Sedis 2, Vatican City, 2 9 4 - 6 no. 3.7.5. 1997b 'Roma: societa, presenze etniche e religiose', in I. di Stefano Manzella (ed.) Le iscrizioni dei Cristiani in Vaticano, Inscriptiones Sanctae Sedis 2, Vatican City, 3 3 8 - 9 . Doblhofer, E. 1987. Exil und Emigration: zum Erlebnis der Heimatferne in der rbmischen Literatur, Darmstadt. Dobo, A. 1975 Inscriptiones extra fines Pannoniae Daciaeque repertae ad res earundem provinciarum pertinentes, 4th edn, Amsterdam. Dudley, D. 1967 Urbs Roma, London. 336
Bibliography Dunand, F. 1980 'Cultes egyptiens hors d'Egypte. Essai d'analyse des conditions de leur diffusion', in Religions, pouvoir, rapports sociaux, Annales Litteraires de 1'Universite de Besancon 237, 7 1 - 1 4 8 . Duncan-Jones, R. 1990 Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy, Cambridge. Duthoy, F. and Frel, J . 1996 'Observations sur le sanctuaire syrien du Janicule', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orientalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 2 9 1 - 3 0 6 . Dyson, S.L and Prior, R.E. 'Horace, Martial and Rome: two poetic outsiders read the ancient city', Arethusa 2 8 , 2 4 5 - 6 3 . Ebert,J. 1985 'Ein alter Name des Maander. Zu IG X I V 9 3 3 und I. Magn. 17', Philologus 129, 5 4 - 6 3 . Edwards, C. 1996 Writing Rome, Cambridge. Edwards, J . 1995 Multilingualism, London. Elton, H. 1996 Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425, Oxford. Equini Schneider, E. 1988 'Palmireni a Roma e nell'Africa del nord. Tradizionalismo linguistico e religioso', in E. Campanile, G.R. Cardona and R. Lazzeroni (eds.) Bilinguismo e biculturalismo nel mondo antico, Pisa, 6 1 - 6 . Erskine, A. 1994 'Greek embassies and the city o f Rome', Classics Ireland 1, 4 7 - 5 3 . 1997 'Greek gifts and Roman suspicion', Classics Ireland 4, 3 3 - 4 5 . Evans, J . K . 1991 War, Women and Children in Ancient Rome, London. Fabre, G. and Roddaz, J . M . 1982 'Recherches sur la «familia» di M. Agrippa', Athenaeum 6 0 , 8 4 - 1 1 2 . Faist, T . 1997 ' T h e crucial meso-level', in T . Hammar, G. Brochmann, K. Tamas and T . Faist (eds.) International Migration, Immobility and Development. Mullidisciplinary perspectives, Oxford/New York, 1 8 7 - 2 1 7 . Feissel, D. 1982a 'Contributions a l'epigraphie grecque chretienne de Rome', RivAC 58, 3 5 3 - 8 2 . 1982b 'Remarques de toponymie syrienne d'apres des inscriptions grecques chretiennes trouvees hors de Syrie', Syria 59, 3 1 9 - 4 3 . 1995 'Aspects de 1'immigration a Constantinople d'apres les epitaphes protobyzantines', in C. Mango and G. Dagron (eds.) Constantinople and its Hinterland, Aldershot, 3 6 6 - 7 7 . Felle, A. 1997 'Manifestazioni di bilinguismo nelle iscrizioni cristiane di Roma', X / 337
Bibliography Congresso Internazionale di Epigrafia Greca e Latina. Preatti, 6 6 9 - 7 6 . Ferrua, A. 1939 'Antiche iscrizioni inedite di Roma', Epig 1, 1 4 2 - 5 0 . 1941 'Epigrafia sicula pagana e cristiana', RivAC 18, 1 5 1 - 2 4 3 . 1 9 4 3 - 4 'Analecta romana II - S. Sebastiano', Epig 5 - 6 , 3 - 2 6 . 1951 'Nuove iscrizioni degli equites singulares', Epig 13, 9 6 - 1 4 1 . 1 9 6 7 - 8 'Antiche iscrizioni inedite di Roma', Epig 2 9 , 6 2 - 1 0 0 . Finlay, R. 1981 Population and Metropolis: The demography of London 1580-1650, Cambridge. Fischer, P.A., Martin, R. and Straubhaar, T . 1997 'Should I stay or should I go', in T . Hammar, G. Brochmann, K. Tamas and T . Faist (eds.) International Migration, Immobility and Development. Multidisciplinary perspectives, Oxford/New York, 4 9 - 9 0 . Floriani Squarciapino, M. 1962 / culti orientali ad Ostia, E P R O 3, Leiden. Fol, A. 1967 'Les thraces dans l'empire romain d'occident ( I - I I I s.). Deuxieme partie: documentation epigraphique', Ann.Univ.Sof.Fac.Lett. 6 1 , 1-17. Frend, W.H.C. 1952 The Donatist Church, Oxford. Friedlander, L. 1 9 0 7 - 1 3 Roman Life and Manners under the Early Empire, 4 vols., tr. A.B. Gough, London. Frier, B . 1980 Landlords and Tenants in Imperial Rome, Princeton. Fruyt, M. 1976 'D'Africus ventus a Africa terra', RevPhil 3 ser. 5 0 , 2 2 1 - 3 8 . Fuks, G. 1985 'Where have all the freedmen g o n e P ' J / S 3 6 , 2 5 - 3 2 . Gafni, I.M. 1997 Land, Center and Diaspora: Jewish constructs in late antiquity, Sheffield. Gager, J . G . 1992 Curse Tablets and Binding Spells from the Ancient World, New York. Garcia Martinez, M.R. 1991 'Caracteres y signification socio-economica de los movimientos de poblacion hispana hacia las provincias imperiales en epoca romana', HAnt 15, 2 6 3 - 9 7 . 1993 'Aspectos socio-profesionales y onomasticos del proceso migratorio hispano hacia las provincias imperiales en epoca romana', HAnt 17, 321-8. Gardner, J . F . 1993 Being a Roman Citizen, London. Garnsey, P. 1988 Famine and Food Supply in the Graeco-Roman World: Responses to risk and crisis, Cambridge. c l
e
338
e
Bibliography Gilfoyle, T . J . 1992 City of Eros. New York City, prostitution and the commercialization of sex, 1790-1920, New York. Ginzberg, L. 1 9 2 5 - 3 8 The Legends of the Jews, 7 vols., tr. H. Szold, Philadelphia. Giorgetti, D. 1977 'Castra Ravennatium: indagine sul distaccamento dei classiari Ravennati a Roma', CCAB 2 4 , 2 2 3 - 5 3 . Goodman, M. 1989 'Nerva, the Eiscus Iudaicus and Jewish identity', JRS 7 9 , 4 0 - 4 . 1994 Mission and Conversion, Oxford. Gorce, D. 1925 Les voyages, I'hospitalite et le port des letlres dans le monde chretien des IVe et Ve siecles, Paris. Gordon, M.L. 1924 ' T h e nationality o f slaves under the early Roman Empire', JRS 14, 93-111. Granino Cecere, M.G. 1994a 'D. Caecilius Abascantus, diffusor olearius ex provincia Baetica (CIL vi 1885)', in Epigrafia delta produzione e delta distribuzione, C E F R 193, Rome, 2 0 5 - 1 9 . 1994b Suebi nelle iscrizioni di Roma', in B . and P. Scardigli (eds.) Germani in Italia, Rome, 1 9 9 - 2 0 7 . Guarducci, M. 1 9 5 1 - 2 'L'ltalia e Roma in una "tabella defixionis" greca recentemente scoperta', BCAR 74, 5 7 - 7 0 . Hajjar, Y. 1977 La triade d'Heliopolis-Baalbek, 2 vols., E P R O 5 9 , Leiden. Hall, J . M . 1997 Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity, Cambridge. Hammond, N.G.L. and Walbank, F.W. 1998. A History of Macedonia. Vol. Ill, 336-167 BC, Oxford. Harris, W.V. 1980 'Towards a study o f the Roman slave trade', in J . H . d'Arms and E.G. Kopff (eds.) The seaborne commerce of ancient Rome: Studies in archaeology and history, MAAR 3 6 , Rome, 1 1 7 - 4 0 . Harvey, G. 1996 The True Israel. Uses of the names Jew, Hebrew and Israel in ancient Jewish and early Christian literature, AGAJU 3 5 , Leiden. 1998 'Synagogues o f the Hebrews: "good J e w s " in the Diaspora', in S. J o n e s and S. Pearce (eds.) Jewish local patriotism and selfidentification in the Graeco-Roman period, Sheffield, 1 3 2 - 4 7 . Horig, M. and Schwertheim, E. 1987 Corpus cultus Iovis Dolicheni, E P R O 106, Leiden. [CCID] Hopkins, K. 1978 Conquerors and Slaves, Cambridge. l
339
Bibliography Horbury, W. and Noy, D. 1992 Jewish Inscriptions of Greco-Roman Egypt, Cambridge. [ J I G R E ] Horsfall, N. 1993 'Empty shelves on the Palatine', G&R 4 0 , 5 8 - 6 7 . Houston, G.W. 1990 ' T h e altar from Rome with inscriptions to Sol and Malakbel', Syria 67, 1 8 9 - 9 3 . Huttunen, P. 1974 The Social Strata in the Imperial City of Rome, Oulu. Jackson, R. 1988 Doctors and Diseases in the Roman Empire, London. Jeffers, J . S . 1998 'Jewish and Christian families in first-century Rome', in K.P. Donfried and P. Richardson (eds.) Judaism and Christianity in firstcentury Rome, Grand Rapids, 1 2 8 - 5 0 . J o n e s , A.H.M. 1964 The Later Roman Empire 284-602, 3 vols., Oxford. Jones, C P . 1978 The Roman World of Dio Chrysostom, Cambridge, Mass. J o n e s , W.D. 1993 Wales in America. Scranlon and the Welsh, 1860-1920, Cardiff. Joshel, S.R. 1992 Work, Identity, and Legal Status at Rome: A study of the occupational inscriptions, Norman, Okla. Kaimio, J . 1979 The Romans and the Greek Language, Commentationes Humanarum Litterarum 6 4 , Helsinki. Kajanto, I. 1963a Onomastic Studies in the Early Christian Inscriptions of Rome and Carthage, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 2 . 1 , Rome. 1963b A Study of the Greek epitaphs of Rome, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 2.3, Rome. 1980 'Minderheiten und ihre Sprachen in der Hauptstadt Rom', in G. Neumann and J . Untermann (eds.) Die sprachen im rbmischen Reich der Kaiserzeit, Beihefte der B o n n e r J a h r b u c h e r 5 0 , Cologne, 83-101. 1997 'Roman nomenclature during the late Empire', in 1. di Stefano Manzella (ed.) Le iscrizioni dei Cristiani in Vaticano, Inscriptiones Sanctae Sedis 2, Vatican City, 1 0 3 - 1 1 . Karasch, M . C 1987 Slave Life in Rio de Janeiro 1808-1850, Princeton. Kasher, A. 1987 ' T h e nature of Jewish migration in the Mediterranean countries in the Hellenistic-Roman era', MHR 2, 4 6 - 7 5 . Kelly, A.J.D. 1989 'Ethnic identification, association and redefinition: Muslim Pakistanis and Greek Cypriots in Britain', in K. Liebkind (ed.) New identities in 340
Bibliography Europe, Aldershot, 7 7 - 1 1 5 . Kennedy, D.L. 1978 'Some observations on the Praetorian Guard', AncSoc 9, 2 7 5 - 3 0 1 . Klein, S. 1940 'Bar-Yohannis o f Sepphoris at Rome', Bulletin of the Jewish Palestine Exploration Society 7, 4 7 - 5 1 . Kolb, F. 1995 Rom. Die Geschichte der Stadt in der Anlike, Munich. Kolendo, J . 1 9 8 8 - 9 'Les Besses dans la flotte romaine de Misene et de Ravenne', Puteoli 1 2 - 1 3 , 7 7 - 8 6 . Kraemer, R.S. 1989 'On the meaning o f the term "Jew" in Graeco-Roman inscriptions', HTR 82, 3 5 - 5 3 . Lampe, P. 1989 Die stadtrbmischen Christen in den ersten beiden Jahrhunderten, 2nd edn, Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2, Reihe 18, Tubingen. 1991 ' T h e Roman Christians o f Romans 16', in K.P. Donfried (ed.) The Romans Debate, rev. edn, Edinburgh, 2 1 6 - 3 0 . Lane, E.N. 1979. 'Sabazius and the Jews in Valerius Maximus: a re-examination', JRS 69, 3 5 - 8 . La Piana, G. 1925 ' T h e Roman church at the end o f the second century', HTR 18, 201-77. 1927 'Foreign groups in Rome during the first centuries o f the Empire', HTR 2 0 , 1 8 3 - 4 0 1 . Laurence, R. 1996 'Writing the Roman metropolis', in H. Parkins (ed.) Roman Urbanism. Beyond the consumer city, London, 1-19. 1998 'Territory, ethnonyms and geography. T h e construction of identity in Roman Italy', in R. Laurence and J . Berry (eds.) Cultural Identity in the Roman Empire, London, 9 5 - 1 1 0 . Le Bohec, Y. 1994 The Imperial Roman Army, London. Lee, A D . 1993 Information and Frontiers: Roman foreign relations in late antiquity, Cambridge. Lega, C. and Felle, A. 1997 'Epitaffio del catecumeno Andragathos di origine greca', in I. di Stefano Manzella (ed.) Le iscrizioni dei Cristiani in Vaticano, Inscriptiones Sanctae Sedis 2, Vatican City, 287 no. 3.6.7. Lega, C. and Orlandi, S. 1997 'Epitaffio di Flavius Ursicinus funzionario Pannone della burocrazia imperiale', in I. di Stefano Manzella (ed.) Le iscrizioni dei Cristiani in Vaticano, Inscriptiones Sanctae Sedis 2, Vatican City, 2 7 6 no. 3.5.12. 341
Bibliography Lega, C. and Ricci, C. 1997 'Epitaffio di Cyrillus Armeno di Cappadocia', in I. di Stefano Manzella (ed.) Le iscrizioni dei Cristiani in Vaticano, Inscriptiones Sanctae Sedis 2, Vatican City, 3 5 0 - 1 no. 3.12.25. Leon, H.J. 1960 The Jews of Ancient Rome, Philadelphia. Levi, A.J. 1970 'Gli ebrei in Roma antica nel ricordo della Haggada', in D. Carpi, A. Milano and U. Nahon (eds.) Scritti in memoria di Enzo Sereni, Jerusalem, 7 5 - 8 7 . Levinskaya, I. 1996 The Book of Acts in its First Century Setting. Vol. 5. Diaspora setting, Grand Rapids. Lichtenberger, H. 1996 'Jews and Christians in Rome in the time o f Nero: Josephus and Paul in Rome', ANRW I I . 2 6 . 3 , 2 1 4 2 - 7 6 . Lightfoot, J . B . 1 8 8 9 - 9 0 The Apostolic Fathers, 5 vols., London. Lintott, A. 1994 'Political history, 146-95 BC', in J.A. Crook, A. Lintott and E. Rawson (eds.) The Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd edn, Vol. I X , Cambridge, 4 0 - 1 0 3 . Loane, H.J. 1938 Industry and Commerce of the City of Rome (50 BC-200 AD), Baltimore. Lo Cascio, E. 1997 'Le procedure di recensus dalla tarda repubblica al tardoantico e il calcolo della popolazione di Roma', in IM Rome imperiale. Demographie et logistique. Actes de la table ronde (Rome, 25 mars 1994), C E F R 2 3 0 , Rome, 3 - 7 6 . Lombardi, P. 1996 'Les sources epigraphiques grecques du sanctuaire du Janicule et de Jupiter Dolichenien a Rome', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orienlalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 5 7 - 8 6 . 1997 'Le iscrizione greche cristiane nei Musei Vaticani', in I. di Stefano Manzella (ed.) Le iscrizioni dei Cristiani in Vaticano, Inscriptiones Sanctae Sedis 2, Vatican City, 4 5 - 5 1 . McCormack, A.R. 1984 'Networks among British immigrants and accomodation [sic] to Canadian society: Winnipeg, 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 1 4 ' , Histoire SocialelSocial History 17, 3 5 7 - 7 4 . Repr. in C. Holmes (ed.) Migration in European history, vol. 2, Cheltenham, 1996. McGinn, T.A.J. 1998 Prostitution, Sexuality and the Law in Ancient Rome, New York. McLean, B . H . 1993 ' T h e Agrippinilla inscription: religious associations and early church formation', in Origins and Method: Towards a new under standing of Judaism and Christianity: Essays in honour of John C. Hurd, J S N T s.s. 8 6 , Sheffield, 2 3 9 - 7 0 . 342
Bibliography MacMullen, R. 1990 Changes in the Roman empire: Essays in the ordinary, Princeton. 1993 ' T h e unromanized in Rome', in S.J.D. Cohen and E.S. Frerichs (eds.) Diasporas in Antiquity, Brown Judaic Studies 288, Atlanta, 4 7 - 6 4 . McNeill, W.H. 1978 'Human migration: a historical overview', in W.H. McNeill and R.S. Adams (eds) Human Migration: Patterns and policies, Bloomington, Ind., 3 - 1 9 . Malmberg, G. 1997 ' T i m e and space in international migration', in T . Hammar, G. Brochmann, K. Tamas and T . Faist (eds.) International Migration, Immobility and Development. Multidisciplinary perspectives, Oxford/New York, 2 1 - 4 8 . Marett, V. 1989 Immigrants Settling in the City, Leicester. Mateescu, G.G. 1923 'I Traci nelle epigrafi di Roma', EphDacor 1, 5 7 - 2 9 0 . Matthews, J . 1989a The Roman Empire of Ammianus, London. 1989b 'Hostages, philosophers, pilgrims and the diffusion o f ideas in the late Roman Mediterranean and Near East', in F.M. Clover and R.S. Humphreys (eds.) Tradition and Innovation in Late Antiquity, Madison Wis., 2 9 - 4 9 . Matthews, K . J . 1999 Britannus/Britto: Roman ethnographies, native identities, labels, and folk devils', in A. Leslie (ed.) Theoretical Roman Archaeology and Architecture. The Third Conference proceedings, Glasgow, 1 4 - 3 2 . Meiggs, R. 1960 Roman Ostia, Oxford. Millar, F. 1977 The Emperor in the Roman World, London. Millar F. et al. 1981 The Roman Empire and its Neighbours, 2nd edn, London. Miranda, F.. 1990 Iscrizioni greche dTtalia: Napoli 1, Rome. [I. Napoli] Mitchell, S. 1993 Anatolia. Land, men and gods in Asia Minor, 2 vols., Oxford. Moretti, L. 1958 'Sulle «stationes municipiorum» del Foro Romano', Athenaeum n.s. 3 6 , 1 0 6 - 1 6 . 1 9 6 8 - 9 0 Inscriptiones Graecae Urbis Romae, 4 vols., Rome. [IGUR] 1989 'I greci a Roma', Opuscula Instituti Romani Finlandiae 4 , 5 - 1 6 . 1990 'Sui traci nelle iscrizioni pagane e cristiane di Roma', in Tra epigrafia e storia, Vetera 5, 2 0 5 - 9 . First published in Pulpudeva 2 (1978), 3 6 - 4 0 . Morley, N. 1996 Metropolis and Hinterland: The city of Rome and the Italian economy, 200 BC-AD 200, Cambridge. l
343
Bibliography Musurillo, H.A. 1954 The Acts of the Pagan Martyrs: Acta Alexandrinorum, Oxford. 1972 The Acts of the Christian Martyrs, Oxford. Namias, J . 1978 First Generation, Boston. Nock, A.D. 1932 'Cremation and burial in the Roman Empire', HTK 2 5 , 3 2 1 - 5 9 . Noy, D. 1 9 9 3 - 5 Jewish Inscriptions of Western Europe, 2 vols., Cambridge. [J I WE] 1997 'Writing in tongues: the use o f Greek, Latin and Hebrew in Jewish inscriptions from Roman Italy', JJS 4 8 , 3 0 0 - 1 1 . 1998a 'Where were the Jews o f the Diaspora buried?', in M. Goodman (ed.) Jews in a Graeco-Roman World, Oxford, 7 5 - 8 9 . 1998b ' "Letters out of Judaea": echoes o f Israel in Jewish inscriptions from Europe', in S . J o n e s and S. Pearce (eds,.) Jewish Local Patriotism and Self-identification in the Graeco-Roman Period, Sheffield, 1 0 6 - 1 7 . 1999 ' "Peace upon Israel": Hebrew formulae and names in Jewish inscriptions from the Western Roman Empire', in W. Horbury (ed.) Hebrew Study from Ezra to Ben-Yehuda, Edinburgh, 1 3 3 - 4 4 . (forthcoming) 'Jewish inscriptions o f Western Europe: language and community', in S. Panciera (ed.) Atti del XI Congresso Internazionale di Epigrafia Greca e Latina. Nutton, V. 1973 ' T h e chronology o f Galen's early career', CQ 2 3 , 1 5 8 - 7 1 . 1986 ' T h e perils o f patriotism: Pliny and Roman medicine', in R. French and F. Greenaway (eds.) Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the Elder, his sources and influence, London, 3 0 - 5 8 . Nuzzo, D. 1997 'Provinciali a Roma nelle testimonianze dell'epigrafia sepolcrale tardoantica', XI Congresso Internazionale di Epigrafia Greca e Latina. Preatti, 7 0 5 - 1 2 . Pack, R. 1953 'The Roman digressions of Ammianus Marcellinus', TAPhA 84, 181-9. Pagnoni, A. 1942 'Sul reclutamento degli «urbaniciani»', Epig 4, 2 3 - 4 0 . Palanque, J . R . 1931 'Famines a Rome a la fin du I V siecle', RE A 3 3 , 3 4 6 - 5 6 . Palmer, R.E.A. 1981 ' T h e topography and social history of Rome's Trastevere (southern section)', PAPhS 125, 3 6 8 - 9 7 . Panayi, P. 1994 Immigration, Ethnicity and Racism in Britain, 1815-1945, Manchester. Panciera, S. 1980 'Olearii', in J . H . d'Arms and E.G. Kopff (eds.) The Seaborne Commerce of Ancient Rome: Studies in archaeology and history, MAAR 3 6 , Rome, 2 3 5 - 5 0 . 1993 'Soldati e civili a Roma nei primi tre secoli deH'impero', in W. Eck C
344
Bibliography (cd.) Prosopographie unci Sozialgeschichte, Cologne, 2 6 1 - 7 6 . Pani, M. 1 9 7 9 - 8 0 'Documenti sulle relazioni fra Augusto e i re d'Armenia', in Miscellanea di studi classici in onore di Eugenio Manni, 5 vols, Rome, vol. 5, 1 6 7 9 - 8 4 . Parkin, T . 1992 Demography and Roman Society, Baltimore. Patterson, J . R . 1992a ' T h e city o f Rome: from Republic to Empire, JRS 8 2 , 1 8 6 - 2 1 5 . 1992b 'Patronage, collegia and burial in imperial Rome', in S. Bassett (ed.) Death in Towns, Leicester, 1 5 - 2 7 . Pearce, S. 1998 'Belonging and not belonging: local perspectives in Philo o f Alexandria', in S. J o n e s and S. Pearce (eds.) Jewish Local Patriotism and Self-identification in the Graeco-Roman period, Sheffield, 7 9 - 1 0 5 . Pellegrino, A. 1996 'Les cultes de J u p i t e r Dolichenien et de Jupiter Heliopolitain a Ostie', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orientalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 5 6 3 - 8 2 . Perler , O. 1969 Les voyages de saint Augustin, Paris. Petolescu, C.C. 1992 'Varia Daco-Romana ( X V - X V I ) ' , Thraco-Dacica 13, 1 2 1 - 3 . Pietri, Ch. 1976 Roma Christiana, Rome. 1987 'D'Alexandrie a Rome: J e a n Tala'ia, emule d'Athanase au Ve siecle', in AAEHANAPINA. Hellenisme, Judaisme et Christianisme a Alexandrie. Melanges P.C. Mondesert, S.J., Paris, 2 7 7 - 9 5 . Pleket, H.W. 1973 'Some aspects o f the history o f the athletic guilds', ZPE 10, 197-227. 1993 'Rome: a pre-industrial megalopolis', in T . Barker and A. Sutcliffe (eds.) Megalopolis: The giant city in history, Basingstoke, 1 4 - 3 5 . Pohl, I. 1978 'Piazzale delle Corporazioni ad Ostia. Tentativo di ricostruzione del Portico Claudio e la sua decorazione', MEFRA 9 0 , 3 3 1 - 4 7 . Polome, E. 1983 ' T h e linguistic situation in the western provinces of the Roman Empire', ANRW II.29.2, 5 0 9 - 5 3 . Purcell, N. 1994 ' T h e city of Rome and the Plebs Urbana in the late Republic', in J.A. Crook, A. Lintott and E. Rawson (eds.) The Cambridge Ancient History 2nd edn, Vol. I X , Cambridge, 6 4 4 - 8 8 . Quilici, L. 1974 'La campagna romana come suburbio di Roma antica', PdP 29, 410-38. Rapport, N. and Dawson, A. 1998 ' T h e topic and the book', in N. Rapport and A. Dawson (eds.) 345
Bibliography Migrants of Identity, London/New York, 3 - 1 7 . Rebuffat, R. 1966 'Les pheniciens a Rome', MEFRA 7 8 , 7 - 4 8 . Remesal, J . and Revilla, V. 1999 Le anfore betiche: un vuoto a perdere, http://www.ub.es/CEIPAC/ MOSTRA/expo.htm Reynolds, J . 1982 Aphrodisias and Rome, J R S Monographs 1, London. Ricci, C. 1992a 'Dalle Gallie a Roma', RAN 2 5 , 3 0 2 - 2 3 . 1992b 'Hispani a Roma', Gerion 10, 1 0 3 - 4 3 . 1993a 'Egiziani a Roma', Aegyptus 7 3 , 7 1 - 9 1 . 1993b 'Balcanici e Danubianii a Roma', in L. Mrozewicz and K. Ilski (eds.) Prosopographica, Poznan, 1 4 1 - 2 0 8 . 1993c 'Germani a Roma', Polis (Universidad de Alcald de Henares) 5, 2 0 5 - 2 5 . 1994a Soldati delle milizie urbane fuori di Roma. La documentazione epigrafica, Opuscula Epigraphica 5, Rome. 1994b 'Africani a Roma. Testimonianze epigrafiche di eta imperiale di personaggi provenienti dal Nordafrica', AnlAf 30, 1 8 9 - 2 0 7 . 1997a 'Presenze italiche e multietniche a Roma fra IV e VI secolo', in I. di Stefano Manzella (ed.) lje iscrizioni dei Cristiani in Vaticano, Inscriptiones Sanctae Sedis 2, Vatican City, 1 8 9 - 9 1 . 1997b 'Epitaffio di Vernaculus originario di Carpis sul golfo di Cartagine', in I. di Stefano Manzella (ed.) Le iscrizioni dei Cristiani in Vaticano, Sanctae Sedis 2, Vatican City, 3 4 7 - 8 no. 3.12.18. Richardson, L. j r 1992 A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome, Baltimore. Richardson, P. 1998 'Augustan-era synagogues at Rome', in K.P. Donfried and P. Rich ardson (eds.) Judaism and Christianity in First-century Rome, Grand Rapids, 1 7 - 2 9 . Rigsby, K.J. 1997 'Graecolatina 5. A Roman address', ZPE 119, 2 4 9 - 5 0 . Robert, L. 1978 'Maledictions funeraires grecques', CRAI, 2 4 1 - 8 9 . Robinson, O. 1992 Ancient Rome: City planning and administration, London. Rochette, B . 1996 'Fidi interpretes: la traduction orale a Rome', AncSoc 27, 7 5 - 8 9 . Roda de Llanza, I. 1970 'Lucius Licinius Secundus, liberto de Lucius Licinius Sura', Pyrenae 6, 1 6 7 - 8 3 . Rodriguez Neila, J . F . 1978 'Los jueces de las cinco decurias oriundos de la Hispania romana. Una contribucion prosopografica', HAnt 8, 1 7 - 6 5 . Ruggini, L. 1959 'Ebrei e orientali nell'Italia settentrionale fra il IV e il VI secolo 346
Bibliography d.Cr.', SDHI 2 5 , 1 8 6 - 3 0 8 . Rutgers, L.V. 1995 The Jews of Late Ancient Rome, Leiden. 1998 'Roman policy towards the Jews: expulsions from the city o f Rome during the first century CK', in K.P. Donfried and P. Richardson (eds.) Judaism and Christianity in first-century Rome, Grand Rapids, 9 3 - 1 1 6 . Sacco, G. 1984 Iscrizioni greche d'Jtalia: Porto, Rome. [I.PortoJ Sailer, R.P. 1982 Personal Patronage under the Early Empire, Cambridge. Sailer, R.P. and Shaw, B.D. 1984 'Tombstones and Roman family relations in the principate: civilians, soldiers and slaves', JRS 74, 1 2 4 - 5 6 . Savage, S.M. 1940 ' T h e cults o f ancient Trastevere', MAAR 17, 2 6 - 5 6 . Scarborough, J . 1969 Roman Medicine, London. Schafer, P. 1997 Judeophobia, Cambridge, Mass. Scheid, J . 1986 'Le thiase du Metropolitan Museum, (IGUR i 160)', in L'association dionysiaque dans les societes anciennes, C E F R 8 9 , Rome, 2 5 7 - 9 0 . 1995 'Le desmos de Gaionas. Observations sur une plaque inscrite des Dieux Syriens a Rome, (IGUR 109)', MEFRA 107, 3 0 1 - 1 4 . Scheidel, W. 1994 'Libitina's bitter gains: seasonal mortality and endemic disease in the ancient city o f Rome', AncSoc 2 5 , 1 5 1 - 7 5 . 1996 Measuring Sex, Age and Death in the Roman Empire: Explorations in ancient demography, J R A s.s. 2 1 , Ann Arbor. Scobie, A. 1986 'Slums, sanitation and mortality in the Roman world', Klio 6 8 , 3 9 9 433. Segal, L. 1992 'R. Matiah ben Heresh o f Rome on religious duties and redemption: reacting to sectarian teaching', PAAJR 5 8 , 2 2 1 - 4 1 . Sharlin, A. 1978 'Natural decrease in early modern cities: a reconsideration', P&P 79, 1 2 6 - 3 8 . Slingerland, I I . D . 1997 Claudian Policymaking and the Early Imperial Repression of Judaism at Rome, S F S H J 160, Atlanta. Smallwood, E.M. 1981 The Jews under Roman Rule, Leiden. Solin, H. 1977a 'Zu den griechischen Namen in Rom', in L'onomastique latine, Colloques internationales du Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique 5 6 4 , Paris, 1 6 1 - 7 5 . 347
Bibliography 1977b
'Die Namen der orientalischen Sklaven in Rom', in L'onomastique latine, Colloques internationales du Centre Nationale de la Recherche Scientifique 5 6 4 , Paris, 2 0 5 - 2 0 . 1983 'Juden und Syrer im westlichen Teil der romischen Welt.', ANRW II.29.2, 5 8 7 - 7 8 9 . Solin, H. and Itkonen-Kaila, M. 1966 Graffiti del Palatino I. Paedagogium, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 3, Rome. Sorrenti, S. 1996 'Les representations figurees de J u p i t e r Dolichenien a Rome', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orienlalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, L'Erma di Bretschneider, Rome, 3 6 9 - 4 5 6 . Speidel, M. 1994a Riding for Caesar, London. 1994b 'Germanen in der kaiserlichen Leibwache zu Rom', in B . and P. Scardigli (eds.) Germani in Italia, Rome, 1 5 1 - 7 . 1994c Die Denkmdler der Kaiserreiter, Beihefte der B o n n e r J a h r b u c h e r 5 0 , Cologne. Speidel, M. and Scardigli, B . 1990 'Neckarschwaben (Suebi Nicrenses)', Arch.Korr.Mainz 20, 2 0 1 - 7 . Stambaugh, J . E . 1988 The Ancient Roman City, Baltimore. Stanley, F.II. j r 1990 'Geographical mobility in Roman Lusitania: an epigraphical perspective', ZPE 82, 2 4 9 - 6 9 . Stern, M. 1 9 7 4 - 8 4 Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism, 3 vols., Jerusalem. [GIAJJ] Stevens, G. 1994 'Immigration, emigration, language acquisition and the English language proficiency of immigrants in the U.S.', in B . Edmonston and J . S . Pastel (eds.) Immigration and Ethnicity, Washington D.C., 163-85. Storey, G.R. 1997 ' T h e population o f Ancient Rome', Antiquity 7 1 , 9 6 6 - 7 8 . Tabbernee, W. 1997 Montanist Inscriptions and Testimonial Epigraphic sources illustrating the history of Monlanism, Patristic Monograph Series 16, Macon, Ga. Taglietti, F. 1994 'Un inedito bollo laterizio ostiense ed il commercio dell'olio betico', in Epigrafia della produzione e della distribuzione, C E F R 193, Rome, 156-93. Talbert, R.J .A. 1984 The Senate of Imperial Rome, Princeton. Tataki, A.B. 1998 Macedonians Abroad, M E L E T H M A T A 2 8 , Paris. Teixidor, J . 1979 The Pantheon of Palmyra, E P R O 79, Leiden. 348
Bibliography Thomasson, B . E . 1961 'Aus einer stadtromischcn Inschriftensammlung', OpuscRom 3, 179-90. Thylander, H. 1 9 5 1 - 2 Inscriptions du port d'Ostie, Lund. Tilly, C. 1978 ' T h e historical study of vital processes', in C. Lilly (ed.) Historical Studies of Changing Fertility, Princeton, 3 - 5 6 . Toynbee, J . M . C . 1971 Death and Burial in the Roman World, London. 1973 Animals in Roman Life and Art, London. Toynbee, J . M . C . and Ward-Perkins, J . B . 1956 The Shrine of St Peter and the Vatican Excavations, London. Turcan, R. 1958 'Origines et sens de l'inhumation a l'epoque imperiale', REA 6 0 , 323-47. 1996 The cults of the Roman Empire, tr. A. Nevill, Oxford. Urso, G. 1994 'II concetto di "alienigena" nella guerra annibalica', in M. Sordi (ed.) Emigrazione e immigrazione nel mondo antico, Contributi dell' Istitufo di Storia Antica 20, Milan, 2 2 3 - 3 6 . Vaananen, V. (ed.) 1973 Le iscrizioni delta necropoli dellAutoparco vaticano, Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 6, Rome Vermaseren, M.J. 1977 Corpus cullus Cybelae Attidisque, E P R O 5 0 , Leiden. [CCCA] Vidman, L. 1969 Sylloge inscriptionum religionis Isiacae et Sarapiacae, Religionsgeschichtliche Versuche und Vorarbeiten 2 8 , Berlin. [SIRIS] 1990 'Agypter ausserhalb von Agypten in der Kaiserzeit', in M. Ta'eva and D. Bojad'iev (eds.) Sludia in honorem Borisi Gerov, Sofia, 2 5 9 - 6 6 . Vismara, C. 1986 'I cimiteri ebraici di Roma', in A. Giardina (ed.) Societd romana e impero tardantico, vol. 2, Bari, 3 5 1 - 9 2 . Vulpe, R. 1925 'Gli Illiri nell'Italia imperiale romana', EphDacor 3, 1 2 9 - 2 5 9 . Walker, S. 1985 Memorials to the Roman Dead, London. Walters, J . C . 1998 'Romans, Jews, and Christians: the impact o f the Romans on Jewish/Christian relations in first-century Rome', in K.P. Donfried and P. Richardson (eds.) Judaism and Christianity in First-century Rome, Grand Rapids, 1 7 5 - 9 5 . Ward-Perkins, J . B . 1992 Marble in Antiquity, Archaeological Monographs o f the British School at Rome 6, London. Weaver, P.R.C. Familia Caesaris, London. 349
Bibliography Wells, C M . 1997
' " T h e daughters of the regiment": sisters and wives in the Roman army', in W. Groenman-van Waateringe et al. (eds.) Roman Frontier Studies 1995, Oxbow Monographs 9 1 , Oxford, 5 7 1 - 4 .
Wessel, C. 1989 Inscriptiones Graecae Christianae veteres occidentis, ed. A. Ferrua and C Carletti, Bari. [IGCVO] White, L.M. 1998 'Synagogue and society in imperial Ostia: archaeological and epigraphic evidence', in K.P. Donfried and P. Richardson (eds.) Judaism and Christianity in First-century Rome, Grand Rapids, 3 0 - 6 8 . Whittaker, M. 1982 Tatian: Oratio ad Graecos and Fragments, Oxford. Wiedemann, T . E . J . 1992 Emperors and Gladiators, London. Williams, M.H. 1989 ' T h e expulsion of the Jews from Rome in AD 19', Latomus 4 8 , 7 6 5 - 8 4 . 1994a ' T h e organisation of Jewish burials in ancient Rome in the light o f evidence from Palestine and the Diaspora', ZPE 101, 1 6 5 - 8 2 . 1994b ' T h e structure o f Roman Jewry re-considered - were the synagogues of ancient Rome entirely homogeneous?', ZPE 104, 1 2 9 - 4 1 . 1997 'The meaning and function of Ioudaios in Graeco-Roman inscriptions', ZPE 116, 2 4 9 - 6 2 . 1998 ' T h e structure o f the Jewish community in Rome', in M. Goodman (ed.) Jews in a Graeco-Roman World, Oxford, 2 1 5 - 2 8 . Williams, W. 1967 'Antoninus Pius and the control o f provincial embassies', Historia 16, 4 7 0 - 8 3 . Winter, J . G . 1933 Life and Letters in the Papyri, Ann Arbor. Wrigley, E.A. 1967 'A simple model o f London's importance in changing English society and economy, 1 6 5 0 - 1 7 5 0 ' , P&P 37, 4 4 - 7 0 . Reprinted in People, Cities and Wealth, Oxford, 1987, 1 3 3 - 5 6 . Zappata, E. 1996 'Les divinites dolicheniennes et les sources epigraphiques latines', in G.M. Bellelli and U. Bianchi (eds.) Orientalia Sacra Urbis Romae. Dolichena et Heliopolitana, Rome, 8 7 - 2 5 6 . Zevi, F. 1973 'P. Lucilio Gamala senior e i "Quattro tempietti" di Ostia', MEFRA 85, 5 5 5 - 8 1 . Zgusta, L. 1984 Kleinasiatische Ortsnamen, Beitrage zur Namenforschung Beiheft 2 1 , Heidelberg.
350
INDEX Abdera 101 Achaea see Greece Achaean League 101, 107 Acmonia 2 5 8 actors, actresses 4 0 , 4 5 - 6 , 9 4 , 1 1 7 19, 122, 148, 177, 2 0 9 , 2 2 9 , 247, 252 Adara 120 Aedui 2 0 7 , 211 Aelius Aristides 3 1 , 9 7 , 1 4 1 - 2 , 1 5 3 4 n. 30 Africa x, 5 - 6 , 2 1 , 2 3 , 33, 3 5 , 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 7 6 , 82 n. 67, 82 n. 7 4 , 9 3 - 4 , 9 7 - 8 , 103, 1 1 9 - 2 1 , 124, 1 2 5 - 6 , 128 n. 3 1 , 130 n. 108, 144, 147, 149, 152, 153 n. 9, 157, 162, 1 7 0 - 1 , 1 8 5 - 6 , 188, 1 9 2 - 3 , 2 5 1 - 5 , 2 7 8 - 9 n. 3 2 3 , 287, 2 8 9 - 9 1 age-rounding 6 6 - 7 Agrippa, M. Vipsanius 4 5 , 2 6 5 Agrippa I 107, 2 6 0 Agrippa II 104, 2 6 0 Agrippinilla, Pompeia 2 2 6 , 2 8 4 n. 491 Aix-en-Provence 116, 2 6 9 n. 38 Alabandae 34 Albanians 101 Alexander (s. o f Herod) 9 2 , 2 6 0 , 267 Alexander Severus 2, 2 4 , 3 2 , 4 0 , 4 5 , 105, 123, 2 3 6 Alexandria 22, 2 5 , 3 1 - 2 , 3 5 , 5 6 - 7 , 7 8 , 8 5 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 97, 9 9 , 100, 104, 109, 110, 112, 1 1 8 - 2 2 , 124, 126, 129 n. 6 2 , 137 n. 3 5 2 , 1 4 3 - 4 , 146, 148, 153 n. 9, 157, 159, 162, 1 6 4 - 5 , 175, 192, 2 1 9 , 2 4 6 - 5 1 , 2 5 9 - 6 0 , 2 6 2 , 2 6 5 - 7 , 2 6 8 n. 5, 279 n. 3 3 5 , 2 7 9 n. 3 4 3 , 287 Alypius (friend o f Augustine) 9 3 - 4 Ambrose 18, 4 0 - 1 , 125 351
Ammianus Marcellinus 32, 3 5 , 4 0 , 50 n. 6 6 , 5 9 , 1 4 4 - 5 , 147, 177 Amydon 34 Anazarbus 160, 2 3 4 Andros 34 Antioch (Syria) 3 1 , 50 n. 6 1 , 5 6 , 9 5 , 116, 1 2 0 - 1 , 123, 1 2 5 - 6 , 129 n. 8 6 , 137 n. 3 5 2 , 144, 175, 197 n. 6, 2 2 9 , 2 3 5 - 7 , 282 n. 4 4 8 Antioch on Maeander 122 Antiochus I V 107 Antoninus Pius 9 5 , 105, 1 2 1 , 160, 161, 282 n. 4 4 2 Apamea 6, 111, 159, 178, 2 3 £ - 7 Aphrodisias 5 5 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 113, 134 n. 2 6 1 , 137 n. 3 4 6 , 2 3 0 - 1 , 2 3 4 Apolaustus 118, 247 Apollonius o f Tyana 143, 1 4 8 - 9 , 224 Appian 3 5 , 4 4 , 52 n. 112, 100 Apuleius 148 Aquileia 2 3 7 , 2 5 8 Aquincum 7 1 , 271 n. 103 Aquitania 193, 2 0 6 - 7 , 211 Arabians 3 6 - 7 , 1 1 1 , 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 122, 237 Aramaic language 1 7 8 , 2 6 4 Arcadians 2 2 4 Area Libani 2 5 8 Archagathus 4 7 , 1 1 1 - 1 2 Archelaus (s. o f Herod) 1 0 2 , 2 6 0 , 267 Archias 38, 106, 1 2 1 , 146, 2 3 6 architects 114, 2 3 6 Arduinna 2 1 2 Aristobulus II 107, 191, 267 Aristobulus (s. o f Herod) 92, 2 6 0 Aristonicus 108 Aries 9 6 , 138 n. 4 1 5 , 163, 171, 2 1 2 , 2 6 8 n. 17, 2 6 8 n. 25 Armenia 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 8 0 n. 3 1 ,
Index Bidis 110 Bilbilis 5 4 , 164, 167 Bithynia et Pontus ix, 5, 3 1 , 5 4 - 6 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 67, 7 6 , 82 n. 74, 8 6 , 9 8 , 103, 105, 111, 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 118, 120, 126, 172, 1 7 4 - 5 , 181, 1 9 4 - 6 , 224, 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 2 5 9 , 2 8 5 , 287,294-5 Boeotia 95 Bordeaux 9 6 , 2 0 9 Bosporan Kingdom 59, 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 76, 80 n. 3 1 , 82 n. 70, 102, 131 n. 132, 174, 271 n. 9 8 , 291 Bostra 126 Brindisi 1 4 2 - 5 Britain (Roman province) 2 1 , 4 6 , 59, 1 0 8 - 9 , 171, 2 9 5 Byzantium 105, 126, 2 7 5 n. 231
1 0 1 - 2 , 109, 156 n. 100, 174, 177, 227, 2 3 9 , 291 Artemidorus (writer on dreams) 8 6 , 120 Arvernes 113 Ascalon 118 Asclepius 1 6 7 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 2 , 2 3 3 Asia 2 5 , 34, 4 1 - 2 , 4 4 , 51 n. 80, 5 5 6, 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 7 6 - 7 , 80 n. 3 1 , 82 n. 70, 9 4 , 9 9 , 102, 104, 106, 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 1 4 - 1 6 , 1 2 0 - 2 , 126, 143, 151, 157, 1 6 5 - 6 , 1 7 1 - 2 , 174, 186, 1 9 5 - 6 , 2 1 0 , 2 2 6 , 2 2 7 - 3 4 , 287, 2 9 1 - 3 Assyria 9 5 , 96 Astigi 116 astrologers 4 1 , 4 5 - 6 , 2 4 6 , 2 6 6 Athanasius 126, 148, 247 Athenaeus 3 1 , 168 Athens 3 1 , 5 6 , 83 n. 104, 9 4 - 7 , 9 9 , 1 0 3 - 4 , 113, 126, 143, 175, 2 2 4 5, 3 2 5 n. 19 athletics 113, 1 2 0 - 1 , 2 2 9 , 247 Attalia 111 Augustine xi, 2, 3, 5, 82 n. 77, 8 6 7, 9 3 , 9 6 , 113, 1 2 4 - 5 , 128 n. 3 2 , 142, 148, 150, 186, 192, 2 3 6 , 253,255 Augustus 2 0 - 1 , 26 nn. 2 - 3 , 3 9 - 4 0 , 4 3 , 4 7 , 51 n. 8 5 , 9 5 , 1 0 1 - 3 , 1 0 6 7, 109, 111, 117, 129 n. 62, 1 3 2 3 n. 199, 155 n. 9 3 , 2 0 6 - 7 , 247, 251, 259, 265 Aurelian 106, 108, 207 Ausonius 59, 9 2 , 9 6 , 2 0 9 Aventine 152, 2 0 8 , 244
Cadiz 117, 153 n. 9, 2 0 7 - 9 , 2 1 1 , 268 n. 36 Caesarea (Cappadocia) 9 4 , 126 Caesarea (Mauretania) 119, 2 5 3 , 326 n. 52 Caesarea (Palestine) 9 9 , 126, 2 5 8 Calagurri 9 6 , 2 0 6 Caligula 4 3 , 104, 107, 120, 2 4 6 , 256,260 Camulus 212 Capitoline Games 5, 81 n. 4 6 , 1 2 0 1, 176, 2 2 9 Cappadocia 3 1 , 37, 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 76, 9 3 - 4 , 107, 119, 126, 133 n. 2 1 5 , 1 7 3 - 4 , 2 0 6 , 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 2 3 4 , 2 7 4 n. 2 0 2 , 2 9 5 Caracalla 108, 114, 136 n. 3 1 5 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 9 , 250 Carales 162 Caria 119, 120 Carnuntum 271 n. 116, 271 n. 122 Carthage ix, 14 n. 3 8 , 9 4 , 107, 1 1 4 15, 126, 162, 187, 202 n. 164, 206, 2 5 1 - 3 , 281 n. 4 2 0 , 2 8 5 catacombs xi, 7, 2 1 , 148, 152, 1 7 3 5, 1 8 7 - 9 1 , 197, 2 2 3 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 4 , 239, 2 5 8 , 2 6 2 - 4 , 2 6 6 , 3 3 0 Catania 2 5 8 - 9
Bactrians 101 Baquates 252 Barcelona 167 Batavians 2 1 5 - 1 6 , 222 beggars 28 n. 6 0 , 4 0 , 52 n. 112, 126-7, 150 Berber 2 5 1 , 253 Berytus 9 8 , 2 4 5 Bessans 1 1 7 , 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 1 9 , 2 7 3 n. 158
352
Index Catullus 1 6 7 , 2 2 7 Celeia 272 n. 126 Celtic languages 177, 209 Cenchreae 2 5 9 Ceraunus 83 n. 104 Chaeronea 95 chain migration 54, 9 0 - 1 , 123, 146, 234,238 Chalcis 95 charioteers 5 6 , 117, 119, 2 0 0 n. 84, 209, 2 1 5 , 2 2 9 , 253, 271 n. 103, 325 n. 7 Chatti 106 Cherusci 106 children as migrants 6 4 - 6 8 , 74, 107,169-70, 239 Chios 9 8 , 120 Christians x, 1, 2 8 n. 4 9 , 34, 4 2 , 4 6 , 51 n. 7 6 , 5 6 - 6 2 , 6 5 - 6 , 6 8 , 7 4 - 5 , 92, 1 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 2 5 - 6 , 145, 1 4 7 - 9 , 1 5 1 - 2 , 1 5 7 - 8 , 170, 1 7 3 - 5 , 1 7 8 - 9 , 1 8 0 - 3 , 186, 1 9 2 - 3 , 201 n. 123, 209, 216, 223, 225-6, 230, 232, 236-9, 245, 247-9, 253-5, 257, 259, 265-6, 286 Cicero 2, 3 6 , 3 8 - 9 , 4 4 , 94, 100, 110, 115, 121, 146-7, 175, 2 0 5 , 227, 235, 2 5 1 , 267 Cilicia 14 n. 3 8 , 32, 59, 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 94, 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 120, 174, 2 2 8 - 9 , 231, 234, 295-6 Cirta 148, 2 5 2 , 254 citizenship 1, 4, 1 0 - 1 2 , 15, 18, 2 1 , 2 3 - 6 , 3 8 , 4 0 , 4 4 - 5 , 47, 5 2 , 7 0 , 7 6 - 7 , 8 8 , 9 4 , 103, 1 0 5 - 6 , 112, 120, 171, 176, 2 3 2 , 2 4 2 , 2 5 3 , 256-8, 329 Cius/Prusias 196 Claudian 32, 2 4 6 Claudiopolis 161 Claudius 24, 4 2 - 3 , 99, 102, 104, 1 0 6 - 8 , 111, 122, 207, 2 0 9 , 2 2 5 , 233,253,257-9 Cleopatra 24, 2 4 6 clothing 3 6 , 116, 2 0 8 - 9 , 2 2 9 Collippo 2 0 6 Cologne 217
columbaria 174, 187 Columella 207 Commagene 107, 2 4 5 Commodus 28 n. 3 8 , 9 5 , 117, 162, 206, 240-1 Conimbriga 192 Constantine 2 0 , 125, 149 Constantinople 2 3 , 37, 4 1 , 79 n. 10, 96, 9 8 , 125, 197 n. 2, 2 2 6 , 2 3 0 - 1 , 234, 236, 253 Constantius II 3 2 , 5 9 , 1 4 4 - 5 Corcyra 123, 143 Cordoba 2 0 8 Corinth 5, 9 4 , 113, 143, 2 2 5 , 2 5 9 corn dole 16, 18, 2 4 , 4 2 , 4 8 , 8 8 , 259 corn trade 114, 117, 1 6 2 - 3 , 165, 246, 2 5 0 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 5 Corsica 59, 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 9 9 , 171, 2 9 6 Corycus 237 Cos 110, 120, 167, 2 2 5 Costobocesians 108 Cotini 222 Crates o f Mallos 3, 104 Crete 6 0 - 2 , 7 6 , 82 n. 7 0 , 111, 120, 122, 138 n. 3 8 5 , 174, 2 5 1 , 2 9 6 Cumae 5 6 Curubis 162 Cybele see Magna Mater Cyprus 6 0 - 2 , 7 6 , 120, 122, 174, 277 n. 2 9 9 , 2 9 6 Cyrene 6 0 - 2 , 7 6 , 143, 153 n. 14, 165, 2 5 1 , 2 5 4 , 2 8 0 n. 3 7 0 , 2 9 6 Cyzicus 5 6 , 111, 2 3 0 Dacia 2 1 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 77, 92, 103, 1 0 7 - 8 , 118, 166, 171, 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 215, 2 1 8 , 271 n. 105, 2 9 7 - 8 Dalmatia 59, 6 1 - 2 , 67, 77, 82 n. 7 0 , 171,193-4, 212-13, 215-16, 218, 222, 2 7 0 n. 9 2 , 2 9 8 Damascus 114, 118, 245 Dardanians 6, 2 1 5 , 2 1 8 - 1 9 Dea Syria 2 4 0 Demetrius I 1 0 7 - 8 Dendera 119 Dio, Cassius 2 1 , 3 8 - 9 , 51 n. 74, 51
353
Index epitaphs x-xi, 3 - 1 1 , 1 6 , 2 1 - 3 , 2 5 , 5 3 - 6 , 6 3 - 9 , 7 1 - 2 , 74, 76, 7 8 , 9 2 3 , 9 5 , 99-100, 107-8, 113-14, 116, 118, 1 2 1 - 2 , 1 2 4 - 5 , 156 n. 100, 159, 163, 1 7 0 - 9 , 183, 1 8 5 - 9 , 192-7, 2 0 8 - 9 , 2 1 6 , 2 1 9 20, 2 2 2 , 2 2 4 - 5 , 2 2 8 - 3 0 , 2 3 2 - 4 , 236, 238-9, 241, 247-51, 253, 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 6 2 - 6 , 287 Epona 212 equites singulares 13 n. 30, 13 n. 32, 2 0 - 1 , 2 5 , 36, 6 3 , 6 8 , 70, 190, 2 0 6 , 2 1 4 - 1 6 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 2 - 3 , 227, 2 3 6 , 2 5 3 , 3 2 9 Ethiopians 3 7 , 5 1 n. 80, 117, 119 Eumeneia 25 expulsions xi, 1, 2 3 - 5 , 3 7 - 4 7 , 9 4 , 96, 118, 123, 2 0 6 , 2 1 4 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 3 , 250, 2 5 6 , 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 8 6 ex-slaves see freedmen/women
n. 77, 51 n. 8 5 , 54, 2 0 8 , 263 Dio Chrysostom 146 Diodorus Siculus 9 6 , 142, 148 Dionysius o f Halicarnassus 39, 144, 184, 2 2 3 , 233 disease 18, 111 Docimaeum 114 doctors ix, 4 7 - 8 , 5 6 , 1 1 0 - 1 3 , 150, 167, 169, 173, 202 n. 158, 2 0 5 , 209, 225-6, 229, 233, 246, 286 Domitian 20, 4 5 - 6 , 9 6 , 102, 120, 121, 189, 2 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 227 Donatists 186, 255 Edessa (Macedonia) 142 education ix, 3 - 4 , 39, 4 7 - 8 , 54, 67, 9 1 - 7 , 150, 158, 207, 2 3 5 - 6 , 2 6 0 , 285-6 Egypt i x - x , 6, 22, 2 4 - 5 , 37, 4 2 - 3 , 4 5 , 51 n. 80, 56, 6 0 - 2 , 67, 7 7 - 8 , 82 n. 7 4 , 104, 109, 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 1 3 15, 1 1 7 - 2 0 , 1 2 5 - 6 , 129 n. 86, 138 n. 3 9 0 , 1 4 2 - 3 , 149, 157, 159, 1 6 4 - 6 , 174, 181, 183, 1 8 9 - 9 1 , 193, 2 0 2 n. 171, 2 0 4 n. 2 2 1 , 2 1 9 , 226, 232, 235, 244, 245-51, 266, 285,287, 298-300 Egyptian calendar 6, 165, 179, 2 4 8 - 5 0 , 287 Egyptian language 1 7 7 , 1 9 0 , 2 4 8 Elagabal (god) 106, 245 Elagabalus (emperor) 1 1 9 , 2 3 6 Elea 265 embalming 189, 1 9 1 - 2 embassies 3, 8, 13 n. 3 0 , 4 4 , 6 8 , 9 0 , 1 0 0 - 5 , 107, 1 0 9 - 1 0 , 123, 175, 191, 193, 198 n. 5 0 , 2 0 6 - 7 , 2 1 2 , 213, 2 2 2 - 3 , 2 2 8 , 2 5 1 - 3 , 2 5 6 , 260, 2 8 6 Emesa 108, 2 3 6 , 2 4 5 Emmaus 105 Emona 2 1 6 Emporium 2 0 8 Ephesus 5 , 9 6 , 105, 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 114, 121, 148, 1 6 0 - 1 , 1 9 5 - 6 , 2 2 9 - 3 1 , 234,259 Epictetus 4 5 , 9 6 1
families as migrants 9, 2 0 , 2 2 , 5 4 , 7 0 - 5 , 87, 9 0 , 9 6 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 114, 1 2 3 - 4 , 166, 171, 1 8 0 - 1 , 194, 207, 2 1 6 , 2 5 2 , 2 8 5 - 6 Favorinus 3 5 , 9 6 , 171 Florus, P. Annius 117, 121 food shortages 3 9 - 4 1 , 2 8 6 freedmen/women ix, 9, 2 5 , 26 nn. 2 - 3 , 3 5 , 39, 4 2 , 7 1 - 3 , 7 6 - 8 , 80 n. 3 5 , 8 9 , 9 2 , 9 4 - 6 , 9 9 , 108, 1 1 1 - 1 3 , 1 1 5 - 1 8 , 1 2 2 - 4 , 151, 157, 166, 1 7 1 - 2 , 176, 179, 1 8 2 - 3 , 187, 193, 2 0 6 - 9 , 2 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 2 1 , 224-6, 229, 233, 235-6, 238-9, 2 4 2 - 3 , 2 4 5 - 8 , 2 5 2 - 3 , 2 5 6 - 8 , 285 Frisians 1 0 5 , 2 1 5 - 1 6 Fronto 5, 3 2 , 97, 1 4 8 - 9 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 4 Gaionas, M. Antonius xiii, 7 6 , 185, 2 4 0 - 2 , 265 Galatia 5 5 , 6 0 - 2 , 77, 9 8 , 120, 1 3 2 - 3 n. 199, 1 5 1 - 2 , 1 7 3 - 4 , 186, 1 8 8 9, 2 1 9 , 2 3 0 - 2 , 2 3 4 , 2 3 6 - 7 , 2 6 5 , 276 n . 2 7 9 , 2 8 6 - 7 , 3 0 0 - 1 Galba 2 1 , 9 6 , 100, 2 2 3 , 2 4 8 Galen xi, 4 8 n. 2, 5 4 , 5 6 , 6 6 , 7 9
354
Index n. 2, 1 1 0 - 1 2 , 143, 148, 150, 153 n. 4 games 105, 114, 1 1 7 - 2 3 Garamantes 101 Gaul x, 6, 2 1 , 27 n. 22, 34, 4 4 , 4 8 n. 11, 57, 5 9 - 6 2 , 6 7 - 8 , 74, 77, 82 n. 70, 82 n. 7 4 , 89, 94, 9 9 , 112, 120, 153 n. 4, 159, 174, 193, 2 0 5 - 9 , 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 217, 2 2 3 , 2 3 2 , 301-3 Gaza 1 6 2 , 2 4 5 Germanic languages 177 Germanicopolis 2 7 4 n. 202 Germany x, 18, 2 1 - 2 , 4 4 , 47, 59, 6 1 - 2 , 7 1 , 77, 82 n. 70, 83 n. 9 4 , 102, 109, 130 n. 115, 137 n. 3 7 4 , 171, 190, 203 n. 185, 2 1 2 - 1 7 , 2 2 2 - 3 , 2 5 9 , 2 7 8 - 9 n. 3 2 3 , 2 8 7 , 303-6 Gigthis 103
Hebrew language 178, 2 0 0 n. 9 5 , 248, 260," 2 6 3 - 4 Heliopolis 2 4 0 - 2 , 2 4 4 Helvetians 113, 2 1 6 Heraclea 106, 161 Hercules Magusanus 222 Hermopolis 2 4 9 Hierapolis (Phrygia) 96 Hieropolis 125 Hippo Diarrhytus 162 Hippo Regius 162, 2 5 5 Hispania x, xii, 5, 2 1 , 2 3 , 34, 37, 54, 5 9 - 6 2 , 6 6 - 7 , 77, 82 nn. 6 7 - 8 , 89, 9 1 , 9 4 , 1 0 2 - 3 , 105, 112, 1 1 4 17, 119, 122, 1 2 5 - 6 , 166, 170, 174, 193, 2 0 5 - 1 2 , 217, 2 7 0 n. 89, 287,307-9 Horrea Galbiana 2 4 0 , 2 4 3 , 2 7 8 n. 3 1 8 hospitium 146-7, 149, 3 2 9 hostages 67, 81 n. 57, 1 0 6 - 9 , 122, 215, 2 3 5 , 2 8 6
gladiators ix, 39, 67, 1 1 7 - 1 9 , 2 0 9 , 215, 2 4 7 , 2 8 5 goldsmiths 113, 2 2 5 Gordian 5 6 , 108, 1 6 1 - 2 Greece 2 3 , 37, 47, 5 6 , 6 0 - 2 , 77, 9 4 , 98, 101-2, 114-15, 120-1, 142-3, 165, 171, 174, 176, 2 2 3 - 6 , 2 2 9 , 306-7 Greek calendars 1 7 8 - 9 Greek language xi, 7, 2 3 , 2 5 , 27 n. 10, 3 6 - 7 , 5 5 , 7 1 , 76, 9 1 , 9 4 - 5 , 1 0 3 - 4 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 111, 114, 133 n. 2 0 8 , 1 6 0 - 1 , 168, 1 7 0 - 9 , 182, 186, 188, 190, 194-7, 2 1 4 , 2 1 9 20, 2 2 2 , 2 2 5 - 6 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 2 - 4 , 2 3 6 , 238-9, 241, 243, 248-50, 254-5, 264,285,287 Greeks 6, 3 4 - 5 , 4 4 , 4 6 , 7 1 - 2 , 80 n. 3 1 , 100, 104, 111, 1 1 3 - 1 4 , 118, 146, 150, 1 5 8 - 9 , 170, 192, 199 n. 72, 2 0 5 , 2 2 3 - 9 , 2 3 5 , 2 4 6 , 251, 254 Gummi 162
lambadoules 2 2 2 Iberians 101, 109 Ignatius o f Smyrna 9 9 Indians 101 integration x, 1 0 - 1 2 , 1 5 7 - 6 0 , 242, 262, 287 Isis 4 3 - 4 , 148, 171, 179, 184, 190, 203 n . 1 8 7 , 2 4 4 , 2 4 9 - 5 1 Israel, Land of see Palestine Italica 207 iudices 207, 2 5 2 , 271 n. 116, 281 n. 3 9 9 , 3 2 9 J e r o m e 5 9 , 9 2 , 149 Jerusalem 89, 1 0 4 - 5 , 110, 2 5 9 , 2 6 5 , 267 Jews x - x i , 7, 13 n. 2 4 , 2 4 , 3 6 , 4 1 - 3 , 4 5 - 7 , 5 5 , 57, 5 9 - 6 2 , 6 5 - 7 , 7 5 - 6 , 86, 104, 108, 122, 127, 1 4 7 - 8 , 151, 155 n. 97, 157, 159, 167, 172, 1 7 4 - 6 , 178, 184, 187, 189, 1 9 1 - 2 , 196-7, 201 n. 146, 2 2 6 , 235, 237, 246, 248-9, 251, 253, 2 5 5 - 6 7 , 287
Hadad 2 4 0 Hadrian 9 8 , 105, 1 2 1 - 2 , 149, 170, 179,206-7, 246
355
Index Josephus 4 2 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 110, 1 4 2 - 3 , 148, 150, 2 5 8 , 2 6 0 - 1 , 267 J u b a 118, 2 5 1 - 2 J u d a e a see Palestine Julius Caesar 4 7 , 9 4 , 102, 111, 123, 206, 246, 251, 265 Jupiter Dolichenus 2 4 4 - 5 , 2 5 5 Jupiter Heliopolitanus 2 4 1 , 2 4 5 , 255 Jupiter Maleciabrudes 2 4 0 jurists 100, 252 Justin Martyr 34, 47, 79 n. 22, 9 2 , 9 6 , 227 Juvenal 34, 114, 118, 127, 127 n. 13, 142, 146, 150, 159, 171, 177, 2 2 7 , 2 3 5 , 2 4 6 Karanis 165 Koprithis 2 4 8 - 9 , 251 Laconia see Sparta Lambaesis 166 Laodicea ad Lycum 5 6 , 113, 114, 122, 175, 189, 2 2 8 , 2 3 0 - 1 , 2 5 8 , 274 n. 2 0 5 , 275 n. 2 2 9 Laranda 9 5 , 122, 2 2 9 Latin language 1-3, 7, 10, 2 5 , 3 6 - 7 , 42, 4 5 , 5 5 , 83 n. 108, 9 1 , 9 4 - 7 , 103, 1 0 6 - 9 , 114, 118, 124, 133 nn. 2 0 8 - 9 , 149, 1 6 0 - 1 , 1 6 8 - 7 1 , 173, 1 7 5 - 9 , 1 8 2 - 3 , 185-7, 190, 195, 2 0 7 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 4 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 6 , 228, 233, 236-9, 241-4, 248-9, 253, 2 5 4 - 5 , 2 6 3 - 4 , 2 8 5 , 287 Lepcis 3 3 , 9 2 , 9 5 , 97, 170, 254 Lesbos 2 2 6 letters home 1 6 4 - 5 , 2 8 7 letters o f introduction 9 3 , 126, 146, 148, 150 Lex Gabinia 101 Lex Papia 3 8 - 9 Libanius 4 0 libraries 9 5 - 6 , 105, 129 n. 62 Libyans 3 3 , 3 5 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 3 - 4 Limyris 2 2 9 Lingones 108 Livy 2, 2 3 5
356
London 1 7 - 1 8 , 2 3 , 159, 2 7 4 n. 195 Lucan 3 4 , 6 6 , 95 Lucian 3 5 , 110, 130 n. 110, 141, 168, 199 n. 72 Lucretius 189 Lusitania 119, 127 n. 1, 2 0 9 - 1 0 Lycia et Pamphylia 6 0 - 2 , 77, 103, 106, 112, 120, 174, 2 2 7 , 2 3 1 , 309-10 Lydia 120, 2 2 4 , 227 Lyon 5 6 , 9 2 , 1 1 6 - 1 7 , 126, 130 n. 117, 159, 193, 2 0 7 - 8 , 2 1 2 , 2 6 8 n. 17, 2 6 8 n. 30 Macedonia 2 1 - 2 , 4 4 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 77, 1 0 1 - 2 , 1 0 8 - 9 , 147, 174, 2 1 2 - 1 4 , 218, 220, 224, 2 5 1 , 2 7 0 n. 8 9 , 3 1 0 magicians 4 5 , 150 Magna Mater 4 4 , 9 9 , 106, 125, 203 n. 187, 2 2 8 , 2 3 2 - 3 , 2 7 0 n. 65 Magnesia on Maeander 79 n. 2, 137 n. 347 Malaga 115, 166, 2 0 8 , 211 Manichaeans 5, 148 Mantinea 103 marble trade 114, 2 2 9 , 281 n. 4 0 1 , 287 Marcion 5 6 , 126, 1 4 7 - 8 Marcionopolis 222 Marcomanni 106, 2 1 5 Marcus Aurelius 5 6 , 7 9 n. 2, 9 5 , 97, 108, 142, 146, 160, 2 4 0 - 1 Maroboduus 106, 215 marriage 1 7 - 1 8 , 5 3 , 6 7 - 7 2 , 7 4 , 1 1 1 , 124, 1 5 8 - 9 , 2 5 8 Marsacians 2 1 5 - 1 6 Marseille 104, 111, 113, 2 0 5 Martial xi, 2, 3, 3 1 , 37, 5 4 , 6 6 , 87, 89, 100, 117, 1 2 1 - 2 , 164, 167, 2 0 7 - 9 , 2 1 1 , 2 4 6 , 2 6 9 n. 6 0 , 2 7 0 n. 79 Matres Suleviae 223 Mauretania 6 0 - 2 , 74, 77, 82 n. 7 4 , 119, 162, 174, 2 0 6 , 2 5 1 - 3 , 3 1 0 - 1 1 Medes 101, 109, 3 2 5 n. 9 Melos 111, 192 Messene 9 3 , 102
Index Milan 94 Miletus 166, 2 3 0 minium 116, 2 0 8 Minucius Felix 115, 123 Misya 162 Moesia 2 1 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 77, 80 n. 3 1 , 116, 171, 194, 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 2 1 5 , 2 1 8 20, 3 1 1 - 1 2 , 3 2 5 n. 28 Mogontiacum 217 Montanists 126, 186 Mopsuestia 161 mummification 189 municeps 70 musicians 118, 1 2 0 - 2 , 137 n. 352 Musluvium 162 Mygdonians 227, 2 3 0 , 2 3 3 Mysia 120 Mytilene 1 0 2 - 3 , 123 Nabataean language 178, 2 0 0 n. 9 5 , 2 3 9 - 4 0 , 264 names 6, 11, 2 5 , 28 n. 4 3 , 29 n. 6 3 , 51 n. 8 0 , 7 0 - 2 , 7 6 - 8 , 83 n. 109, 112, 157, 172, 176, 1 7 9 - 8 3 , 185, 188, 191, 195, 2 0 9 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 220-1, 224, 226, 233, 235-6, 238-9, 242-3, 247-8, 259, 262, 272 n. 153, 2 8 7 , 3 2 9 - 3 0 Naples 1 2 0 - 1 , 167 Narbonne 116, 159, 162, 212 Naucratis 95 Neapolis (Samaria) 79 n. 22 Nebridius 82 n. 77, 123 Nero 28 n. 4 4 , 4 5 , 9 6 , 1 0 4 - 5 , 102, 1 0 7 , 1 1 1 - 1 3 , 177, 207 Nerva 146, 2 6 3 Nicaea ix, 5 6 , 9 5 , 1 9 4 - 5 Nicomedia 3 1 , 9 6 , 112, 114, 117, 121, 126, 134 n. 270, 194, 196, 229, 2 3 1 , 3 2 5 n. 16 Nicopolis 4 5 , 9 6 , 198 n. 50 Nimes 100 Nisibis 5 6 , 92, 109 Noricum 2 1 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 77, 116, 161, 171, 190, 193, 2 1 2 - 1 5 , 217, 2 2 1 , 270 n. 89, 3 1 2 - 1 3 Noviomagum 217
357
Numidia xii, 59, 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 114, 174, 251-2, 254, 289-91 Nysa 9 5 , 161 oil trade 80 n. 3 5 , 114, 116, 163, 208, 2 1 5 , 2 5 2 - 3 , 2 5 5 , 287 Osrhoene 108 Ostia xiii, 26 n. 1, 74, 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 118, 128 n. 2 0 , 1 4 2 - 4 , 153 n. 9, 1 6 0 4, 182, 193, 2 0 3 n. 183, 207, 2 1 2 , 222, 247, 2 5 0 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 5 , 267, 2 7 3 n. 158, 275 n. 2 5 0 Ovid 117, 168 Ovilavis 213 Oxyrhynchus 25 Palestine 6, 6 0 - 2 , 77, 79 n. 3, 81 n. 64, 8 6 , 8 9 , 104, 107, 110, 1 4 2 3, 159, 167, 171, 174, 189, 191, 193, 199 n. 6 6 , 203 n. 191, 2 5 5 7,259-67, 318-21 Palmyrene gods 177, 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 - 5 Palmyrene language 1 7 7 - 9 , 1 8 2 , 200 n. 9 3 , 2 3 9 , 2 4 2 - 4 , 2 6 4 , 2 7 8 n. 3 1 6 Pannonia ix, xii, 2 1 - 2 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 6 8 , 7 0 - 2 , 74, 7 7 - 8 , 9 9 , 110, 130 n. 104, 1 4 8 - 9 , 171, 188, 190, 212-14, 216-20, 222-3, 270 n. 92, 2 8 5 , 287, 3 1 3 - 1 7 pantapolae 45 Paphlagonia 14 n. 3 8 , 7 8 , 116, 141, 2 2 9 , ' 2 3 1 , 274 n. 195 Parthia 2 1 , 3 6 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 67, 7 6 , 80 n. 3 1 , 1 0 1 - 2 , 106-7, 109, 118, 122, 174, 183, 191, 2 3 9 , 2 7 8 - 9 n. 323, 291 Patrae 147 Paul, Saint 5, 29 n. 6 5 , 5 5 , 99, 125, 142, 147, 2 5 9 , 2 6 2 , 2 6 6 - 7 Paul (jurist) 100 Paulinus o f Nola 149, 2 0 9 peregrini 1-2, 4, 15, 17, 2 1 , 2 4 - 5 , 32, 3 8 - 4 1 , 7 3 , 7 6 - 8 , 82 n. 82, 9 2 , 112, 125, 171, 179, 228, 2 3 0 , 247, 2 5 0 , 2 5 8 - 9 , 2 6 7 - 8 n. 4, 272 n. 150, 3 3 0
Index Praetorian Guard x, 4, 7, 13 n. 2 5 , 13 n. 32, 2 0 - 1 , 4 4 , 4 6 , 5 5 , 6 3 - 4 , 6 8 - 7 1 , 7 7 - 8 , 8 2 - 3 n. 8 6 , 8 5 , 166, 1 6 8 - 9 , 183, 196, 2 0 6 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 9 - 2 2 , 2 3 6 , 2 4 6 , 2 5 2 - 3 , 272 n. 141, 2 7 4 n. 2 0 2 , 2 8 5 - 6 , 3 3 0 Prisc(ill)a and Aquila 5, 4 3 , 47, 2 5 9 Proconnesus 114 prostitutes 4 5 , 1 2 2 - 3 Prusa 195 Ptolemais 54, 2 7 9 n. 323 Ptolemy VI 109, 142, 148, 2 4 5 Ptolemy X I I 1 0 9 , 2 4 5 Punic language, people 5, 3 3 , 157, 172,177,253-4 push and pull factors 7 4 , 8 6 - 9 1 , 126, 2 2 4 Puteoli 1 1 9 - 2 1 , 1 4 3 - 5 , 153 n. 9, 161, 163, 247, 2 6 0
Pergamum 5 6 , 6 6 , 79 n. 2, 104, 111, 115, 141, 143, 148, 153 n. 4, 167,227 Perge 97, 2 2 9 Persia 189 {see also Parthia) Persian language 177 Pessinus 4 4 , 233 Peter, Saint 4 2 , 5 5 , 125 Philadelphia (Egypt) 164 Philadelphia (Lydia) 1 2 1 , 1 3 7 n. 3 5 2 , 2 2 9 Philippopolis 2 2 2 Philo 51 n. 7 5 , 104, 151, 2 4 6 , 2 5 6 , 2 5 8 , 2 6 0 - 1 , 2 6 7 , 2 7 9 n. 3 3 5 , 284 n. 4 9 9 philosophers 8, 4 4 - 6 , 5 6 , 9 4 - 7 , 1 0 3 - 5 , 111, 125, 143, 1 7 1 - 2 , 225,229 Philostratus 9 2 - 3 , 111, 1 4 3 , 2 2 4 Phoenicians 125, 136 n. 3 4 6 , 178, 197 n. 6, 2 3 4 , 2 3 7 , 2 4 0 , 251 Phrygia ix, 14 n. 3 8 , 5 6 , 67, 7 3 , 99, 114, 116, 126, 176, 186-7, 2 2 4 , 227-30, 232-3, 236, 285 Plarasa 1 0 4 - 5 Plautus 2, 171, 2 3 5 , 246 Pliny, Elder 2 , 4 7 , 103, 111, 113, 122, 160, 2 3 5 Pliny, Younger 4 5 , 9 4 - 5 , 105, 112, 121, 144 Plotinus 5 5 - 6 , 9 6 , 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 126, 250 Plutarch 9 8 , 122 Poetovio 271 n. 103 poets 8, 3 8 , 5 4 , 6 6 , 100, 102, 1 2 0 2, 2 2 5 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 6 Polybius 1 0 1 - 2 , 1 0 7 - 8 , 223 Pomponius Mela 207 Pontus see Bithynia popes 2 3 , 4 6 , 5 5 , 1 2 5 - 6 , 173, 186, 202 n. 164, 2 3 5 population o f Rome, size 1 5 - 2 2 , 257 Porphyry 9 6 - 7 Portus xiii, 79 n. 27, 114, 121, 1 4 3 4, 1 4 9 - 5 0 , 162, 165, 196-7, 2 2 9 , 241, 245, 250 praetor peregrinus 41
Quintilian 9 6 , 100, 207 rabbis 4 8 , 8 6 , 8 9 , 1 4 4 - 6 , 1 9 1 - 2 , 2 5 7 - 8 , 2 6 0 - 1 , 267 Raetia 2 1 , 59, 6 1 - 2 , 77, 171, 2 1 2 13, 2 1 5 , 2 1 7 , 2 2 1 , 271 n. 115, 317-18 returning home x, 3 - 4 , 13 n. 2 5 , 22, 5 3 - 4 , 87, 8 9 - 9 0 , 9 3 , 9 6 , 9 8 , 107, 109, 112, 119, 1 2 1 - 2 , 126, 132-3 n. 199, 143, 1 6 7 - 9 , 185, 1 9 1 - 4 , 2 5 7 , 287 Rhodes 9 5 , 106, 146 Rio de J a n e i r o xi, 17, 2 3 , 4 9 n. 18, 63, 8 8 - 9 , 185, 199 n. 6 9 Sabaeans 117 Sabazius 4 2 , 4 4 , 2 3 4 Sabratha 163 Saetabis 166 Saguntum 105 sailors 22, 165, 181, 2 1 9 , 2 2 5 , 2 3 6 , 2 4 5 - 6 , 2 5 2 - 3 , 272 n. 150, 3 2 9 Salamis 125 Sallust 35 Salona ix, 193, 2 8 5 Same 2 2 4
358
Index Samos 34 sarcophagi 109, 114, 190, 193, 196, 204 n. 23 Sardinia 4 2 , 5 5 , 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 7 6 , 9 9 , 103, 116, 162, 174, 257, 2 9 6 Sardis 161, 2 3 3 - 4 Sarmatians 1 0 1 - 2 , 117 Sarmizegethusa 166 Savaria 110, 272 n. 128 Scardona 92 sculptors 3, 5 5 , 8 9 , 113, 2 2 5 , 2 2 9 , 275 n. 2 5 0 Scythians 3 1 , 101 Seceni 2 6 5 Segesta 103 Segisama 211 Seleuceia 9 5 , 97 Semnones 2 1 5 senate, senators 4 , 15, 3 2 - 3 , 3 6 , 39, 44, 47, 5 4 , 57, 9 2 , 9 6 , 9 8 - 1 0 1 , 1 0 3 - 6 , 148, 166-7, 180, 2 0 7 , 216, 2 2 4 , 2 2 6 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 6 , 246, 2 5 2 , 2 5 4 , 287 Seneca, Elder 2 0 7 - 8 , 211 Seneca, Younger 3, 3 3 - 4 , 8 5 , 9 0 - 1 , 97-8, 100,117, 121-3 Sepphoris 2 5 8 , 2 6 5 Serapis 4 3 , 114, 138 n. 3 9 0 , 171, 179, 184, 190, 2 4 9 - 5 1 Serdica 271 n. 105 Severus, Septimius (friend o f Statius) 3 3 , 81 n. 5 3 , 97, 2 5 4 Severus, Septimius (emperor) 2 0 , 28 n. 3 8 , 6 4 , 7 1 , 74, 92, 9 8 , 105, 1 2 3 - 4 , 144, 146, 149, 166, 170, 214, 2 3 6 , 2 5 2 , 282 n. 4 2 2 Sicca Veneria 97, 192 Sicily 6 0 - 2 , 77, 97, 103, 1 1 1 , 1 1 9 , 138 n. 3 8 5 , 143, 174, 195, 257, 318 Sicyon 34 Side 112 Sidon 111 Sidonius Apollinaris 32, 92, 9 8 , 111, 149, 153 n. 4, 2 0 9 Sigambrians 117 silversmiths 113
Sinope 68 Siscia 188 Sitifis 74, 194 slaves ix-x, xii, 2 - 4 , 6 - 7 , 9, 1 1 - 1 2 , 1 5 - 1 9 , 2 3 - 6 , 3 1 - 2 , 3 4 - 7 , 39, 4 8 , 6 7 - 8 , 7 3 - 4 , 7 6 - 8 , 85, 88-90, 92, 9 4 - 6 , 108, 111, 113, 115, 1 1 8 19, 1 2 2 - 3 , 1 4 3 - 4 , 148, 157, 160, 1 6 9 - 7 2 , 1 7 9 - 8 0 , 1 8 2 - 3 , 185, 187, 205-7, 213-15, 221, 223-6, 2 2 7 8, 2 3 3 , 2 3 5 - 6 , 2 3 8 - 9 , 2 4 5 - 8 , 250-1, 253, 256-7, 260, 286 slaves, imperial 6 8 , 9 9 , 156 n. 9 8 , 225, 227, 233 Smyrna ix, 14 n. 3 8 , 6 6 , 79 n. 22, 92, 9 4 , 9 9 , 102, 112, 122, 128 n. 32, 192, 195, 2 2 8 - 3 0 , 2 3 3 , 285 soldiers xii, 3 - 4 , 6 - 9 , 11, 15, 18, 20, 2 2 - 4 , 28 n. 57, 29 n. 6 5 , 4 9 n. 4 0 , 53, 5 7 - 6 0 , 6 2 - 4 , 6 6 - 7 5 , 78, 85, 99, 116, 164, 169, 171, 181, 1 8 3 4, 186, 191, 196, 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 1 7 22, 2 2 9 , 237, 252 Sopianae 99 sophists 92, 9 5 - 7 , 102, 1 0 4 - 5 , 143, 192,229 Soranus 111, 113, 170 Spain see Hispania Sparta 74, 101, 103, 107, 2 2 5 , 326 n. 4 6 Sri Lanka 102 stationes 94, 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 6 0 - 4 , 2 1 2 , 221, 229, 234, 252, 255, 270 n. 74, 275 n. 2 4 8 , 287 Statius 3 3 , 189 Strabo 32, 9 5 - 6 , 119, 169 Suebians 1 1 8 , 2 1 6 Suetonius 3 6 , 3 9 , 4 2 - 3 , 47, 51 n. 7 3 , 52 n. 9 8 , 177, 2 0 6 , 247 Syllectum 163 Symmachus 4 1 , 79 n. 3, 119, 153 n. 6 Syracuse 110, 117 Syria 2, 6, 10, 2 3 , 3 1 - 2 , 3 4 - 5 , 37, 51 n. 80, 5 6 , 6 0 - 2 , 6 6 - 7 , 7 6 - 8 , 81 n. 64, 82 n. 7 6 , 8 8 , 9 1 , 9 4 - 5 , 100, 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 118, 120, 1 2 5 - 6 ,
359
Index 128 n. 32, 134 n. 2 6 6 , 135 n. 280, 143, 151, 159, 165, 171, 1 7 3 - 5 , 178, 1 8 2 - 3 , 1 8 5 - 8 , 191, 193, 199 n. 6 6 , 202 n. 171, 2 1 9 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 4 45, 248, 255-6, 258, 262, 265, 284 n . 5 0 0 , 2 8 6 - 7 , 3 1 8 - 2 1 Syriac language 177, 2 7 8 - 9 n. 323 Syrian Sanctuary 2 4 0 - 2 Tacitus 1, 2, 18, 3 4 - 5 , 4 3 , 51 n. 73, 52 n. 97, 164, 257 Tarragona 121 Tarsus 32, 5 5 , 9 5 , 129 n. 86, 161, 2 2 9 , 2 3 1 , 234 Tatian 92, 9 6 , 177 teachers see education Teos 101, 195 Terence 251 Termessos 130 n. 116, 191, 228 Thabraca 258 Thagaste 94 Thamugadis 194, 252 Thebes ix, 14 n. 3 8 , 112, 118, 187, 285 Thrace x, 7, 2 1 , 37, 5 9 , 6 1 - 2 , 7 1 , 77, 80 n. 3 1 , 82 n. 70, 82 n. 74, 83 n. 9 3 , 101, 107, 117, 119, 153 n. 4, 171, 174, 1 8 3 - 6 , 190, 2 1 2 15, 2 1 8 - 2 3 , 2 3 2 , 237, 2 3 9 , 2 4 5 , 262, 2 8 5 , 287, 3 2 1 - 4 Thracian language 177, 1 7 9 , 2 1 9 - 2 0 Thyateira 5 6 Tiberias 161, 2 5 8 - 9 , 265 Tiberius 2 0 - 1 , 4 2 - 3 , 4 5 , 51 n. 8 5 , 1 0 1 - 4 , 106, 122, 146, 201 n. 140, 250, 257 Timagenes 85 Tiridates, K. o f Armenia 102, 177 Trajan 9 8 , 105, 107, 112, 114, 118, 207, 213 Tralles 3 4 , 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 115, 134 n. 2 5 8 , 161,228 Trastevere 20, 28 n. 5 1 , 9 1 , 149, 1 5 1 - 2 , 182, 2 4 0 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 5 , 2 5 0 , 278 n. 323 Treves 92, 126 Tripolis (Asia) 114, 2 5 8 - 9 , 265
360
Tripolitania 252 Tungrians 2 1 1 , 2 6 9 n. 53 Turris Libisonis 163 Tyre 9 4 , 9 6 , 100, 115, 126, 161, 163, 172 Ubians 215 Ulizibbira 252 Urban Cohorts 22, 4 6 , 6 8 , 82 n. 82, 116, 166, 193, 2 1 4 - 1 5 , 2 5 3 , 3 3 0 Urban Prefect 4 0 - 1 , 9 3 , 122, 148, 188, 2 2 3 , 2 6 8 n. 29 Uselis 103 Vaga 252 Valerius Maximus 2, 4 1 , 43 Vandals 106 Vatican region 1 8 9 - 9 0 , 192, 2 3 2 , 2 4 8 , 275 n. 2 3 9 Verus, Lucius 109, 118, 122, 247 Vespasian 2 0 , 4 5 , 9 4 , 105, 108, 150, 160, 227 Vienne 1 0 0 , 2 0 7 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 2 , 2 6 9 - 7 0 n. 64, 2 7 0 n. 74 vigiles 13 n. 32, 2 5 3 , 3 3 0 villages 72, 7 5 , 159, 178, 1 8 5 - 6 , 188, 202 n. 171, 202 n. 173, 2 1 8 21, 230-2, 234, 237-8, 247-8, 265, 272 n. 157, 275 n. 232 Virgil 127 n. 14, 144 visitors (temporary migrants) xi, 3 4, 8, 57, 81 n. 57, 9 0 , 1 0 5 - 6 , 114, 117, 121, 123, 125, 2 1 1 , 242 Vitellius 45 Vocontia 118 Volubilis 194, 253 wine trade 1 1 4 - 1 6 , 162, 2 0 8 , 2 5 2 , 281 n. 401 Xanthus 130 n. 116, 2 2 8 xenophobia 3 5 - 6 , 2 2 6 , 2 8 6 Zberthourdos 222 Zeno o f Aphrodisias 5 5 , 113 Zenobia 108 Zeus Keraunios 2 4 0
