Feasts: Archaeological and Ethnographic Perspectives on Food, Politics and Power (Smithsonian Series in Archaeological Inquiry)

ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND -

J,! SE JES ARC AEO OGICAl ~ O-?d obett \-lcC Aoams 5eoes Ed ors

..

QU RY

ETHNOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVES of pammJ.c ~.

ON FOOD, POLITICS, AND

"'I!·~d cdi~ coIkmons

Edited by Michoel Dlerier and

oi oi

Contents List of Illustrations vii List ofTables Ix Contributors XI• 1

Digesting the Feast-Good to Eat,Good to Drink, Good to Think: An Introduction 1 Michae/ Diet/er and Brian Hayden PART 1: ETHNOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVES 2 TJo h, I.. :001 l"~ z J,Zl

t

00·061932

Fabulous Feasts: A Prolegomenon to the Importance of Feasting Brian Hayden

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Theorizing the Feast: Rituals of Consumption, Commensal PolitIC and Power in African Contexts 65 Michae/ Diet/er

4 Of Feasting and Value: Enga Feasts in a HIstorical Per$pect vt' (Papua New Guinea)

lIS

Pally Wiessner

5 Akha Feasting: An Ethnoarchaeologlcal Per$peCII Michae/1. Clar.e )

Polynesian Feasting in Ethnohistoric, Etllnogr phI(. aod texts. A Companson of

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5.2. Akha Feast Types

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81 Cllssificaaon of the Combo- lup,bo Ce~~ C

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6.3.

112 Lue preluslonc chronology for the Amencan Bortom 12.3 • Ire plm of cenrraJ Cahokia

ArchaeologIcal Igtl.Jrure. of Fe.J. co 40 4 1 The OClal Components of Feasrmg .Jnd Com Pohocal Srrategle5 11 Z I

6. 1. Key Conrrasrs between Ttkopl'. MoI.rque... 'H . -.~. "nu .1\\"::Inan 6.2. Pru)Qpai Kinds of Feasts In Tikopu 1,/

11 0 emlen Creek Mound . o. 2. plan of feature

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In

1

Contribut un da A Brown. Dep'" Wlont of

'ulthropo\ ~ l'

~\Jchael J Clarke. Deparuo ent of Arch3eo1

warren R- DeBoer. Depa! ulleTIt of Aruhropol _ of New York ~hchael Dieder. Deparullent of Anthropol _ Briw Hayden. Depal ullenl of .>.rchaeolGgl. lngnd Herblch. Deparullenl of Aruhropolog) U Laura Lee Junker. Depa! oneot of "'nthro Lucr
De= Schmandt-&sseu!. Center for Middk ~ atAusun PoUy Wiessner. Oep;u Qllen! of Anthropo/ Douglas C. WIlson.

.tional Parlt &n,a.

CiD

DIGESTING THE FEAST: GOOD TO e T, GOOD TO DRINK, GOOD TO TH I( AN INTRODliCTIO Michae/ O'er/er and

With apologle. [(l r remral ~rgunlenr I tlu , lum the,,· 'hapte~ l"ollr<11 Iy cru(tal sen . In th liNt pi abuut least "0. nd mouL.i pn standIng t'ultUIT od AI Ilk lime I n niut fur ,ant I't'rh.lJ>$ nlral hu\Oo th I Ir I In I. h ,I lilt! n 11.


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, CIon . \\'e need to uunk senou. ly and nncall)' about what feast>. are. how they operate . and ho\\ \\ e can detect and mterpeet them Olherwtsc ' they nsk becOmUlg one mOre ul-digesred archaeologtcal tmerprenve fad One of the num snmuiJ for underrakmg Uus book. and for convenmg the symposIum that generated tt. was that both of the editors came to the concJuston o\..,r a decade ago that feasts are an extlemelv slgmficanr aspeer of social !tfe On a worldwide scale, and that understandmg them tS crucial for apprehendmg and comprehendmg man}" SOCIal and cultural processes m ancient socicnes Howeve r. \,,~ arrived at tIus mutual conclusion by qutte dlfferem routes and from very different theorencal dispositions . .-\S will be endent from our respecnve chapters and pnor pubhcations on the subject. Hayden's perspecnve (see Chapter

2\ IS

firmly grounded m a culrural-

ecolog) onentanon Furthermore. he was ongmally led to explore tIus iJne of research largely by Ius mterest m the evolutionary tmpltcations of feasong

In

the

rransforrnanon of sOciopoltncal structures m hunter-gatherer societies of the Paafic . 'orrhwest and Paleoltduc Europe Dletler's perspecnve (see Chapter 3). on the other hand. grew out of the domam of sodal theory often referred to by the ecologtcally mclined as 'cuI ruralisr"-that

tS.

a perspective that takes culrure sen-

ously as a hisroncal agent as well as a htStoncal product-although. because of Its determinist unpltcations, dus label IS one that few scholars would actually apply to them elves. Hence. Dietler's perspective actually has a strong social onemanon, WIth roots m practice theory and poltncal economy (in a nutshell. there

IS

a

central concern with the intricate relanonslup between culrure and power). Moreover, he was lDduced to Investigare feasong as a result of archaeologICal and ethnograpluc research among agrarian sooeaes In Europe and Africa.

Th.tS very faCT of arn\mg at a conjuncture of Interest and understanding from such smktngl) differem drrecaons strengthened Our convicaons that, despite our cominumg dialogue of disagreement over a number of ISSUes Isee below. and Chapters

2.

and 3). we had stumbled upon some dung of genuine and general

gnlficance One of the more rusconcerrmg conclUSions rhat we also agreed upon. howe\1:T,

was that feouting was both severely underrheorized In the exi ting ltt~rarure

and bcked sysremaac empirical documentation of a kind thar would be useful

for archaw\(.>glcalm(erpretauon Tht5 IS not to claim that feasting ha5 been cuntp ettly IgnOred In the earher archaeologICal and anthropologICal hrerarure, or

gnificant

IJWg\ltS h .. (' nOl been fnnhcnmmg (e.g .• see Fncdman t
'lf

as pcnphaal ob rrvatlom they dId nut generale .1

a ,y\lt·l1l.l l lC..' SlalOed ar

J nploratlon of the ubJ Cl and Ih,'y fatled [0 rng"nu"r J u .jU" a grllUP Ipu lofth rlmphc:aI1<,'1 IlenCl' ,W' uu I11 (Uwm'

of other scholars who b"ve recently ~ nety of both ethnograpluc and

10

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U srul proVtSlonal. undersranding of the Il.Iture 0 tbr and cultural pracnce. A> the chaptm In thi \ tuba a bealthy divemry of theorencaJ ooenu demand feasts . Consequendy. this bod mu oducton force these chapters into a
CATEGORIES AND DEFINITIONS Perhaps the most ObVlOUS quesnon thar nttds

I

be

-Are we all talking abour the same rhm " "" :e we are nor really talking aboul a"rhm at all. but scnbe collecm..,1y a divene set of culrunl PT H ask is rhe related quesnon. Is tbi, .. fuJ azuh clear thar we all use the rubncfo:t.tt 10 co. r a ~.k Are we agreed on the entena by "inch 1 gether and eIdude othCl", and d e.- rhe re. ence and speafiLit) to be useful' \\'e belt", · yes: with a few sopulaaom tS

Each paper pro\1de, at lea>1 a ,genn-al \\ moons sho\\ . ome \;tn.bllt!} ID both rh t rance of the partiClp.InL and.u of the phrased. and some are more aplicit dun these t> the Idea thlt fea itS are e' consumpnon 01 food anJ or drink I ID!: such food COn umpuoo ~\ nlS the >lmple o(h~ngt' of fooJ with IdOl dls[lnctlon> [0 m~tntlm I1 rh rcnr that on~ bel!m to, ooflale ~ [he oth"r ktnd> of Itans.al'tl fur elude, both wldecs[.ulmng /Co ... a [h" tmporlanr "ou U ..nd fun.'t1l o[h r klOds of pr~, tl. t' n,~tlcr f:hapt .. r I

ft'a rln • a

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DIG ESTING THe fE~ST

---------'---..:...:..:..:~~--.--=-. wbat Hayden caUs ' manguJa oon .~ The dulicuJee, of

· n. orawrieal dcsplays) the rit· . underline " feaslI ng (e g .. slIlg eng. danCI ng. m eb n'auo ., f t h cse eve I It. • T hey help to crea te lhe expe n enee of condensed UdJ natu re 0 m eanmg .. (C 0 Ilen 1979 ) alld render feasts such ideal stages fo r o the r impo rtant . I rranS3ClIo ns. sueI' as. prest' tlOnS o f va luables, ma k.eng allia nces. and, as oaa

to mark feasts off from everyday meals. and rho>e that are . cl I classes in "diacnticaJ " feasts (see Dletler Chapter 1 u . ...

Wlessne r (Chapter 4) dem o nstrates, the construction o f valu e. In. contras t, H ayden (Chapte r 1) uses a som ewhat broader definitio n, simply

gies of matenaJ slgoarures may not belp us much be) DJ the mere of the existence of feasung .

. Iatmg ' t h at any un us uaJ occasIo n accompanied sopu . . by an unusual shared meal sh ouId be COIlSl d ere d J 11Ceast , Moreove r• in hIS VIe w, nrual aspects mayor may not be Idennfiable arch aeologlca Uy a nd m ay no t eve n be overtly manifest in some _~ L, fo r the eu,nograpwc cases. Othe r autho rs propose ye t o the r minor .variations . f ' Howeve r. despite these differences. there IS still a very large . d e tiro no n 0 leases. ennfymg many kinds . of shared meaJs as feasts when d egree 0 f agree m e n t on Id confronted with emplricaJ cases in etlmographic contexts. GI ven these snpuJations. it seems d ear that "feasts" is a category that has suffi·

grounds between, for example. tile permUtaoom of ntlQ) pram

.

•

' . , _ • . t "Ut

.

IUlifonn

Whatever the eventuaJ resolution of this dLSClI>SIOn, wbat !.>.1 ;It ing beyond the basIC Identificaoon of presence toward undc!" of feasts were being mounted. what Iunds of nrual " or

~re

and what the sociaJ rarruficaoons were. req= complex m d nlWk~ recursive argumentation. However, even tf • bandy m!<rpn-m timately be unatramable for archaeologists , as

"en as for cultural amhro

and histonans). this does nOt mean tIlat we =or dC\'e!op a m

btttrr

standing of the matenaJ dimensIOn of feasnng Indeed al prCSdlt ~

c ent speaJiory to be analyticaJly powerful yet brings within its scope a signifi. · portant practices around the world and tIlrough ome. Hence cant range of un

precise informaoon on this Issue LS one of the bl~ r .mp
"feasts" LS a productive category. It is "good to think. " Withm the domain of practices that wc designate as feasts . there are many

icy of different archaeological mterpreraoons, For

pOSSIble ways to categorize the range of differences and similarities. This fact ex·

m

part.

do not yet know preosely what to look for The "cltlpbrv ~

subject by the autllors in this volume. WhiJe some readers may find the lack of a

by Junker (Chapter (0), Krught (Chap,er 1[\ KcUv Chapler Il . 8 13), and Schmandt·Besserat (Chapter q ) m tlus \-oIumc pamt tire profitable strategIes for Interroganng the b-

wufO! ill dassificaoon troubling or disappointing. we would suggest that this dl·

informanon (see also. for example, Bhrz 1993. CI..-k aDd

"er'lry need nO! worry us and is, in fact . a good thing-especially at this stage of

I996. !999b; Gardelsen IQ99,

theoreocaJ development. Classifications are , after all. sunply tools of anaJysis.

more primary ethnographic re earch

Dtfferent ones wdl be appropriate for different purposes. The criteria for select·

undenaken by Clarke (Chapt~r 5\ Ha>*n ( h.apccr ~

mg them should be sunply the effecoveness they demonstrate in achleving the

(Chapters J dnd Q), i urgentl need d

goals for ",ruch they were deSigned. the interest of those goaJs, and, of course.

by scholars already famibar WIth the problclIl$ of

rhe logICal COnsistency of tile classtfications. As research progresses in this rela·

cal COntexts. Again. it is the ynetglSbc dt.!.tcttcal domainS thar will propcllhe

plalns the conSIderable diversiry of classificatory schemes brought to bear on the

lTvely novel field . our various ways of characterizing and understanding feasts

wtll undoubtedly unprove . Bm tlus does not mean tIlat we will move toward rhe de\-elopment of a smgle typology of feasts. In our view that would be counterproduclIve' m the SOCIal sciences, classlficatory reification is generaJly the enemy

of undemanding Hayden (Chapler 2 ) has expressed the hope that eventually we may develop an

rion about ouallik ro de

la Chtpkr 11 are less langume abour thIS prosP~([. bclcevlOf: [hat the culturally UIOl tltUted natur~ "f fta IS m~ndatt"s that archac'ol"glCal Interpretam)n WIll ,11

these chapten

a nrhly lI'xtllu·d dnd

CUItUl

ally spenlir rontex

tuaI argum nt grflunded III a rhtore", al IJII<.J""tdlllhng 01 t IlI" rUlllp'I 'Xllle'. "I k ai ling 10 <.omparallVr "thn',grapIIlC pI I I'" IIV, III !)11ll'1 WII" I' .•1 v,' I'll III "I

4

, lams 19'9

fOcusmg

based upon cthnogt"aphic and tusroricaJ SIS Or indivtdual case Th

they discu

f/f

loore IQ

10icmcr this

As a final nOIC' on c1~ssili -.rion, a bi Kf of thIS volume IS a1 0 In ON r. Pan

archac:r,loglCal r1asSlhcauon 'lfftasts based on matenal remalOs. Others (c .g., DIet

rt qulr the (On Irurwm

-

proach all h.

to

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re

hclt hili- and 11 I

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lop a fuller

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DIGEST! G THE F£~S

-

Thus, IIJl'dcn (Chap l ~r l.) ex,lI1lllles feasung (mm .1 cross ~ cullura l and eeolng I(.d p,'rspectl\'e IOWJld Ihe developmcnt of a genera l framework for Ihe archJco logical delcown a"d IIlICrplt'I.Hl tm of fe.ISls Dlctler (Chapter 3) uses the Luo ,1I1d uther Afnc,ln CJSCS 10 ar!il'l' for the IIlhcrcntly politica l role of fea"s and to devdop J generaltheoretll:JI.1n.1Iysls of thc umplex relationship bClween fca sts, cnm m~I1S.lhlY, and pnwer W,essner (Chapter 4) provides a nch clhnoh lslo rlcal ,1t1.1ly" of the role of feas15 IJ1 rchglous cu lts anu strategies of New GUlIlea btg, mcn fi,r promOting thclr self Interests Jnd transfonntng conceptions 01 value Clarke (Chapter 5) shows how feas15 arc used by the Akha tlibes of Thailand to establish so iOeCtlOOmic safety I,elworks, KJrch (Chapter 6) uses a companson of three Polynesian cases to demonstrate how the magnitude of, and facilities asso. c.alcd With , feasting Increase with tncrcaslllg size and complexity of Ihe polities. Perod,e (Chapter 7) documents the range of feamng on th e Northwesl Coast of North America and Illustrates what advantage acc ru ed to hosts, DeBoer (Chap· ler 8) provides an Important example of Amazonian feasting with Its unique gi rl 's mluauon features anti compcntlvc male boasnng, and renects upon longter", hJStoncaltransformatlons and continuities, Pinally, Dlctler and Herblch (Chapter 9) use a comparanve exammatlon of the political-economIC dynamiCs of work leasts among the Samla of Afnca and other societies to propose a general Iheo, rcocal model for the crucial role of feasts in labor mobilization and explOitation, Part Two contains chapters that move m the opposite interpretive dIrection, That is, thty attempt to grapple with the detectton of feasting in the material record and to then make plaUSible Inferenccs about the socialitfe and culture of the people who were prodUCing and partlclpattng In those feasts . These creatively mgemous stucb~s Illustrate both the difficulties and potenl1al of t:lus domam of mqUlr>; as well as the nccesslty of a recursIVe dlalecncal conversation between elhnographlcally denved theory and archaeological data. At first glance, It may appear tan 109 rcas · h many r<'Jdees. wdl have nalr mams III a ~"Cldl and lultUlalcllmexl wllh W h IC IfJm f~mlhanty

I ·1 JI'(h,ll'nl ..~i(,' b (Jthl711 pI rs tn th. ("tllln "Il<-l a rJllg'" ,l more 0 Vl(lt" Y I f I he.· t'rnl1()1111t' .Im I I :a lUd" Junke, (ft.plt' or,) provldn ,I r('glll"J dlla Y'"'' I I I Ih" 1''' tl' poll .r.1 rol f,l feast (Jl 11 .. 'If Iy dyn.II"1I luhural "IlV"'"1I11l'1I1 "

11

Ines during the second mlllenntum 0 Krugbt ;ant role of feasting U1 the Cl eation .and \I~ 0 the the WooJland cultures of the southeasl<m l ruted nlum A,D .. while Kdly (Chaprer 12 document MISSISsippian Site> dunng the early $I~. of the u • (Chaptcr ' 3) presents an analysts of n,,,\\ e\'ldence for strUctures for Itn eage feasts U1 non-elite Ma movlJ1g to the anCient Near East, Schmandr. use of feasts by Sumenan ehtes to colleCl It IS worth emphaSIZing that, desplrc the tmp~ and temporal contexts represented by the dupter Ul was clearly not to prOVIde a comprehemt\ !obal tory. Hence, the absence of tudIes from certam taken as an tncbcarton that the edIto", Judp.-d th.t feature of the ancient soaallambcapt' 111 th areas r archaeologICal analysIS of feasts 1 le, good In rh rope, for example, IS not covered U1 IhL lume ~ crcaslJ1g1y recognized to ha\\.' been a praCt! e of nJa)Of vanous kinds or SOCial change through ut th one or the editors has prevlOu. ly undertolken , ent European archaeological COntext Dlcder I t Murray 19Q 5, ch mm Pantd IQ~2 , :herr,U{ I!N! ~ Simply to provtde a sdenetl cl of frto h blhtic for the IdenufieJoon Jnd tnlt'rpn:t tJon ~Jthau'!lvc, range ur ar,hJcol"gl'''!

FEASTS AND FEASTING Another Import anI qUl'stlon In f'<" Ing tn arrhJcologl(JI .-uI1I<"I. \\uh ut ~ j
,hJrwt,

II

'o"k 1'1 rh ~ IT'lu\r 11l III th.t ,,,I,, ,,' '. tll, nd th It "

• Ill. \'

r

m

.\ lld,.rr1 nl( lto Or1l1 IhllH1 1111 \'1 1",

- --

DIGESTING THE fEAST

-.----------.:~.:.::...:..:.~~---..

•

dl.~IU' " ( (11 1"n.1 .l Ie alld how 10 look lilt th em m rc"m n.,1 arc haeologICal da ta

ArchaeologISt> know q Ult~ well how W ' nln ou t trade and charactenze its qu an Illdll\<: anJ q u.lht J tl "" Jll nellslOns th rough the use or. for exampl e. petrog raphIc. ,hel\llea l.• nd , tyhstl( analySIs of cer.lJll l(S fo und III contexts o f consumption r~U t th ,' \ J Il ge nerJll y nOI yel fJnllh ar w Ith th e ways thar o ne can dcrect and r h .•ra( lc l1zC fcaslIng as " pro(~.!s llence. they are less alen to the possibihues and m ore , kcptJ ( al nf the cndeavo l unl ess o ne can produce a Po mpcllesque example

nons wbere they occur. and feasong locatIons are oftrn ritual slructures. In contrast, spea/ic rrade arnvltji area' are identify. and the act of exchange produce. lInte if anv Ji cally. because feasts often proVIde the context for e chMJ ~ of detecting feas ting m the archaeologJcai recotd ma~ e. n dersrand trade Methods for accompltshing tht.s Are s1iII bc,m

tt

the contributions by Brown (Cbapter 13), KeUy Chapler u .md 11 ) all offer exemplary case sturues shov.mg how the presen e o

of a k.l" Ju nkc l ' (ChJpter 10) analysIs o f reasting in th e Phillppllles IS of great Interest preclSc1 ) bl'c.lUse 11 IS an excelle nt example o f ho w the analysis o f feasting as a pro("css can be convlIlclIlg ly and pro ntably don e thro ug h sensitive eXam1l1allOn

be teased out of various permutations of pan.U. laW1al. anJ .utif.l

Ihr e

of Ihlll!;' uk" reglo ndl patte rns o f CeramIc Impo rt consumptio n. A Similar case ha> he en made fo r different teglo nal patterns of feasting III Iron Age Europe

rhese chapters also ably demonstrate. the mere IdentIficatIon feasts at indIvidual archaeologICal sltes ,s nOt the ulttmale .~'
".

to

know what they mean ill tel at, of the

ne

(Dle d er 1990. 1<196) w,th the subsequent Identincano n of an actual feasl event

them- and this reqUlJ'es Sltuatlng them WIthin broaJerrepona! p.1n Part of the pOtential vis,btlity of feasts demes from th act tIu t

(Dlelle r 19
once agam, they are ntual (or. as Hayden "ould qu..!, · 11 ThIS means that they are commoril - a centra.l elem m

rn butlo n o f ceramic types or wares over Ihe landscape . but undertakmg an

such as trutiatIons. weddmgs. dIld bunals. of w luch al It3,t Ihr LtLtt'r ha chance of bemg preserved as smgle-e\-cm arrha.d . al m I re means that the same kinds of wacntlca (e g . qualilJtI\

anal 'SI> o f Ihe quamnatlve, cOlllext·specinc d,stTibution of specific forms and Ihe patterns of .lssociauon where they arc found . It IIlvolves asking. for exam. whether certalll k.lIlds of lableware are found ,~t1lcments 111 a region , III

III

all or only some graves or

all or orily some domestic or ceremonial contexts on

r

ences m food consumed. spatial egreg.tion, architecr

tbe archaeologICal record -,f we know how to loo

w Ilh what lund, of faunal rem.ms. and so on II also requires looking at rrans-

will reqwre that we become sensmzeJ

urilv of the eXIStence of feastlng. bUI, more Importantly. of

• tnncal Slgl1lficdIlCC. Of cour,e. as

liS

forms and Ius-

h " I chmandt-Besserat (Chapler 14) as ruce y

demonstrated With her Near Eastern study. the po Slbtlines for understandmg I 'glOnal leasllng practices are greatly enhanced by the presence of contempo, ra ry plClunal and lextual representations (see also. for example. Arsenault 199 2 :

J"ff"

1998; S hmm Pantel 1992). But a greal deal is poss,ble even III the absence

of these 1.111 r klllds of data Hayden IChaptcl 2) prOVIdes a summary 0 f t h e many k III d S of malenal ~VI dm e thal ("an pOIt'nually be useu lor deahng w'lh feasung archaeologICally. but t •. t h 15 "SU e In onc way or an vtnually the c/JllInbu\lnos to Ih" VD Iume J d (rcss , h" d ' Ion I lhJI {easl om r Onc: of the ulleresllng I"alun' \(J cmcr"" ,rom l IS ISellS.· I h f .rchJl·ologlC. c:tluUy h an advantage OWl trade .lS a su JCct 0 In . ,able to Identify on 1fI that 11 ,,11, I murh U('IIt< pus"hl I1\1(', Ior h 'illS . r l n~1 ;l(lIvllll'S '1111 1 Irut', tIl pJrt. bl'l.IUSt' TeaS J ,., . .1 I tht In .... I 11' 1 ,,1 of dt 111l(lIVlff' list pro d ioU r. « Opll/US 111 "Ir \I ry llalU

.1

t

•

IU

maturgical effect. elc ) that may be used. oiten In comb mark feasts off from dJ.l]Y• meals as ntual e\ nt. ma..!l

tho',. sClllemcrm. associated WIth whal other kmds and sizes of ceramic cook109 "cs,c1, .md 10 whal relatIVe quantities III each of those COlllexts, assoCIated lonnauon5 01 the,e partems OVer time Such analySiS can be very revealing not

ntu.1!iz d"

e

them.

Ihen I t that we develop the theorencal comp<'tence to dui ..,th thar more sophl. tlcated m.lnner ThIS lask IS l.uge nd, • It>

whIch we can alr~ady s~e lOnsldtrablt produ

\

SUI

One of the ~ncouraging Sl~'Tl' to tmr.gt' OUl ut ~ the frequent aSSOClatlon l\1 I(-asung WIth ~rwl elaboration th.t may be rt'adll~ rt"~'TUUbkBrown' (Chapter 11\ srud)' 01 nun rill ~~. nng I la (Chapter 12\ stuuy ul ahokla. Kmghl Iwp( r I moullds. IWu out uf th ....... uf KIITh bap~r latches rcpone,1 by Pe ..."h.. \ :h~PI r .\. I na~ Illlponalll \(I ('mphas,ze th~1 n, I 1nl .tru
III

Ih ..

uf Ih .. r. b" h. ( haplt'1 In '.rtlS.fll

lit

"~Al I th I

l.abor

m

I

•

example. the Luo feasts tn the homestead repon ed by Dletler. Chapter 3) . We h re there IS le , arclutectoruc elaboranon o r small er feasts are held In or ncar do. mesne contens. the detecoon of feasting Slles may be consIderabl y more dlffi. cult However. under extraordmary cond1l10ns It may still be possIble to recogruze feasts In domestic contexts through analYSIS of permutations of fau . naI and arufactual remams (e.g , Clarke. Chapler 5. Dleder 1999b, GardelS en 1999). EVIdence for the presence of alcohol may be another usefu.lly WIdespread diagnosoc SIgn of feasts. In most small-scale SOCIeties, and particularly wtth pr" dlsuUaoon forms of alcohol , dnnkmg is not a pan of dally meals it IS some thmg reserved for, and indeXIcal of, feasts (see Dleder 1990 and Chapter 3). As Wtlson and RathJe 's (Chaprer 15) study shows, even In present-day Tucson there 15 a srrong assOCiation berween alcohol and feasts .

FEASTS AND GENDER One of me tOpICS mal we would suggest stiU needs much more expuClt treatment and futler elaboration is the gender relanons that underlle. and are reproduced and transfOlllled through , feasts. Of course , these are by no means uruform BUl one can already begm to discern a few slgruficant tendencies mat require further

research and theoretical dISCUSSIon In the first place. feastIng praCtIces almost always aCt to mark and naturalize gender categones (see Dletler, Chapter 3), That tS. even In soaeues WIth a strong egalitanan ethos. feasts serve to define and Inculcate SOCIal categories and gen· der c.tegonts are among the most common dIstInctions marked by these nruals Such markIng occurs through a w,de vanery of symbohc dJacntle. mal m.y be combmcd m dIfferent permUlatlOnS, The~e may mclude, (J) spatial segregation or po5Itlorung whIle eaMg (I.e., dIfrerences IOdtcated by men and women tollng to dtfferent 1(JC3ti(JOs or seated In standardIZed configurations: alternate ~cat1ng, op' pOSIte Id of a room. mner and outcr circles. ele ,), (2) temporal dIStinction, (I , differences IndICated by (lfdcr of servlllg), (J) quahtatlve dlstlOcllons (I c , dd feJOi( es m the nature of the food, dnnk, or scrvtng vc,sels offered tu me,' ,Inu . . d a , h· amounlS of InuJ or "m nl, ( 4 ) quantitative d"uncuom (L~, wcn""'" 10 l e , . . )OS (I (' dlfl('rI'mC' " I
,I

H wal"n [('Y.' r~. (ud(' r

10

.

I'

till); ('JII

<,

u.lrr;.ltUJIl

lUll I ..

I"" t'UIC"r I "

•

jx(du<e r. l i t ~ ' l'e'S[ "IS 0t .. , an al\1b.a ' f labor and ~ne ts t lerms 0 iea.
Iltll~,ta[

reultlr OInd CI!ln funn.u,on

I.h", n,1 h n ht ~Hord tu IAAu! Ih nd uodel I Ildt"

rlh n• t

'I

1,1"

I

J

t..

Ih I

•

In

a

DIGESTING

r .. E HAS

ECOLOGICAL MATERIALISM VERSUS CULTURE AND POWER Th ere IS an Intcrcsong on lologlca l tenSion underlying th is volume that also merIts a k\\ comments Indeed. a major part of the "'terest of the book. IS the dia logue It presents berween radically different perspectives on the same set of pracnces . Although Ihe m ost expitctrly articulated contrast in ontological paslnons IS that between the [Wo ednors alluded to eartier, the imp~cations of this debate are apparenr throughout the volume . H ayde n (Ch apte r 2) mak.es a force Cui case for an ecologically grounded materialist consideration of feasting, and thlS approach tS closely echoed in several other camributions (especially Peradie. Chapter 7. and Clarke. Chapter 5). Others find this perspective less compelling and approach the subject from quite ddferent theoretical poSItions (see especially Dletler. Chaprer 3; Wtessner. Chapter 4; Kirch . Chapter 6; DeHoer, Chapter 8; DlerJer and He rbich, Chapter 9). These perspectives need not necessarily be e nre ly III conIlict WIth each other- W,essner (Chapter 4) and Junker (Chapter lO). r example, d,scuss the ecological constramts on the historical development of panerns Wltlun mterpreove frameworks that are not ecologically deter;cc and that are qtlJte sensiove to the importance of culture and lustoncal . Moreover, a central concern with political power and the pronunent

a major role in promotmg and defendmg md!"dual or ",tuch IS why feasting becomes so unport.lnt ID tr.ld!1J ford to produce the necessary surpluses other perspecoves, IDcludmg perhaps most apliclIlv Wt J), strongly disagree with aspects of this ecologJcal m.).t n

ot all from preosely the same theoretical basi> \\ Ith ut

"Culrure and Practical Reason" battle (see Sahliru tQ"

constructed concept. To the extent that Haydt!Il and Pe benefits something like the proposlOon th,u reason

euphemIZed in the shared "sincere fictions· t Rourdieu

cede some common ground \Vhat then become the ,-runal rurally specific defin,tion of appropnate goal_ and relentless material accumulation is not a

unJ\

\en ber baron As the vanous chapters md!c..u "

Hayden (Chapter 2) and Perodle (Chapter 7) IDsist that a practice as ubiquitous and enormously "expensIve" as feasring must have some "pracocal benefits." WIth an understanding of pracocaliry rooted m the perspective of Marvin Hams. They acknowledge that idiosyncratic values motivate some people to use their resources and power m noruanonal, non- self-interested, nonpredJctable fashIOns. However, they argue that m aggregate, people do tend to make decisions based on their own self-mterests and the mformation or chOICes that are avail .ble In this respea, they act m ecologIcally (and economically) rational termsldiosynrratlc vanatlOns do occur bur rarely are accepted, supported. or perperuu ated by the communities at large for any length of time . In archaeological cvol uonary t rms, thC$e tdlosyncrasles become "background nOlsc" for the basIC r If nds (ru.t !',nn the arrhaetllogl
I

rh.u

the reproduction of the system. It is prob~ble th~t .ill of rh au

power while ultimately viewmg it as either a major rype of ecological behavior

editor> undertakes this analysiS from a dismterested position. Hence, caveat lector.

UWQ

"strategic." self-mterested poliocal acnon, whether c,_ Cl

death. In such cultural contexts , the

basIC ontologIcal prenuses that characteme the volume. Clearly, neither of the

III

calicy" is not a universal pnnople of borrom-hne maten.llt. m.

ground. One can reach agreement on the forms and importance of political

nuSS to the extent that ir failed to reveal and explore a few of the divergences in

IQ,)<;

several other contributions to this volume Me roored, "hi h bo

m many cases it will lead to scorn. 0 nolCl m ,

scnbes Ius approach as "political ecology_" Ilowever, a chapter clalrnmg to fulfiJ1 an introductory role would be sorely re-

".~

portant to signal the qwte WIdespread anwopologtc,u'11J

role attnbuted to it m all the chapters provide a very significant basis for common

or as a culrurally defined field of social action . It is for this reason that Hayden de-

na

S'_IUI - -lIed

qwte different set of rules and toward a

the feast

IS

not sun pi)' that

goods, but that It

IS

It

rs;U

11- t r e t ,m dtff(' nt nd

('a~h' : It!

enables the accumwlJ

a remarkably upple nruoll pr~

ulty and durablllry of tht' feast a ~n msntutt mallC ooal Ira ns,OtmallOns. C a IIIUStroltN III

m.:

DeBotr's (Chapter 8) Sh'Pibo,Corubo umpl P" There IS an addl · I th d b Oona dt'mem (If tht' pl'll<1hOll e e at~ beyo j (Ch n, (ammon ground Tlus Il dl~ "ad apt.er 2) thal. be,'all ' of 11. mstlmt' and apllve be havior" h ruVid I I al It must ha ua SlIrvival H Dietle . . e~ a numbe-r 01 th u rs VIew th · f dUslOn b ' IS un,llon,,1I logt ro see

DU! the I

m n n

'

pro

on.t

1.'11(', and bgruli an< of IIh r of th Sinularly r, oth .Ire I arl J I Il"n, . asl ,';an e 1I

,u of

w'lch~ a

reoprocal conversion of economIc and ,mix 1 CUlturall ' l;apa y appropnate polmcal ~al . ThIS h t

•

nOlI

alw

OIGEHING THE FEAH

health of the IS nOI to be found so much m the present cultural context, bm m che early genetic evolutionary roOLS of che human speCIes where ecstanc ntuals mcluded rhythms and mu ,c that enhanced emononal bonds ber,,,een mchVlduals and poup mtical for surv1\wg .evere pen ads of stress clearl) feel thar they a,r e benefittng handsomely. wluch their mulnmilltondollar contraCts amply confirm Hayden argues that benefits of comparable scale ought to exist for the pnnopal players ,n feasts that escalate 111 COSts far beyond Hawatian and Enga feasts , However, all-oul competi. Sll ch as the e norOl. . roval J

th

eve feasung undoubtedly ema,)s both winners and losers who risk everyching m

' and as m competitive bus1Oesses, those who are losers are nles b . th err econonuc a crushed so that it is nOt surpris10g to find families Impover· d d t)'P ICall y rume an ._ ished by reasting where feasting becomes compeoove, Much of this disagreement rums around different VIewS of culture From pecti - feasts like many other important cultural pracnces, have • le er s pel S O d bnle duect sIgnificance for "survival' (except occaSIonally m the negaove sense h

'-I

I

_

_

.

1jIiben pracuces sometimes have deletenous uruntended consequences) and the

concepl of -adaptation" IS powerless to explam either the generaoon dofhthe m~~ ' I 'gnifi On the other han • e wo lad [Ol'lll.> that feasts cake or theIr socla SI cance d th th of at daun WC fea'ts have a great deal to do Wllh pohrics and power. an, hl ::~.ble, what Harden calli -adapranon" LS Simply SOCial compenoon of hlg Y e for so.

unpredictable. contradictOry, and largely unvenfiable adapove~I!V;~~:;den and OdJes .oaal groups, and mdlVlduals, respecClvely, A]ternattv y~ eLS through • [dffi 1 power or soCta l s.,ery n oth('fl p'Jhu(s and the creaClon 0 I e,-entla 'd 1",,1 esS reproduction, an sUfV d {. astJng play cnueal roles m economIC succ , 1 f "pre,tt-" an d p des dismISS' 0 ~ Wlthln [),etlcf's peopcctlVt. Hayden an cro I h'gh!y conlennOu' I h mena ,s also I 1 a mCI)fl~qucnu.1 psy(h"I(J~IC. p eno 'f bolIe elF'" r Ih~ kmd 0 sym for 0 rtkr th v-vrcb d nbe «una I a'peel'" . ht'r of ,o(lt\)' a a n c. sary ,,,,dill'''' for hl'fr,mmg an II1nutnlt l mrm

14

the precondIuons for deveJopmg the moral auth I They J~ h .St ons ..,ert lea de" 'p, and w,dd po"er ~r to re the • ,-rOup cl eo g Th ). are the e ential elements of the PO' tb rv olhers e _" ase can be made that. even tn I~re-cap't;ili, I ,\menca re deed, u,e c _ mul. oon of econoouC capn.,] \S u1tJmarcl~ all ab ur From H "co . - an d · Status • tn on che other han d . ' presoge spero"'''' , . I euphemisms for economlC sucee . and pohoeal pow r

~mpy

,.

Fmally, !Tom Dletler s ontologICal pOSItiOn, I! t> :Usa LtnPOIUnI (Ufe lIor as somethmg that is destroyed by confrontation" Ith e tenal re or tbar Mchers away or can be abandoned m the face of oppol'tWUtJe advancemenr (cf, Hayden. Chaprer 2'1-. lund of opno~ <Xltrn.tl cl fa,ade covenng a umversal bedrock core of marenallit r.lOOl ah" dung mbenrcd from the pasr as a ratic bundle of traItS Rather 11 . a

cei,"ng and thmlung about the world. and of solVing the rroblem through the apphcaoon of disuncme C3regonl'al and anal Clnl Hence, culture IS not an .uremaQVe la a urmel'>.li very way chat pracocallly LS consorured,

pr ...roalit);

but ra u

OlttrnateJy. Hayden feel (somewhat more 0ruml n -.Ih Ih~n some of these contenoous Issues may be onl) a maner of cl

In

and that more common ground ma} be ""ogtl17eJ In th urnR' argue thar some of che agendas behmd Ihe h'\slmg of fo h driven by pollOcal Or nther selfmrere.red (OnstJerao ru .. \ proach sees cultural norms as Imposmg such srnn nl um.ut lor rhat no innm'aoon or change ev~r rake pia,. On r~ !her approach goes so far as to claLtn that culrur.lI IraJiuCJru do not Stramts on the behavioral and conceprual orm'us that peopl In Hayden's view, rh. empha IS. how 1'. more on peopl IUZe the .XISDn" co d " n,tumts an tll u -r culrural -on< er SlIl1plyas 10015 ro achlevl' Ihl'lr own

If. mItre t d

•

Or other cullural tools ~R' nor available h'''hh IllOQ taUy sel ab '"t' (Ch OUI rrYlllg 10 freale them . .t donunenred In \ 'pler ~; see als(\ W,essner and rum "- ... _ pends uI " u..-r I ,. upon the econunUl- COSI • rh.. tM any rh. corn I' penng 'clf-lnteR'sr 01 ulhrr mmUflI ectlon rom el'tn cs 'n, Whde Ihere m. be Idl cornrnunir h Pto I le. In I hurt I rm P r IS ulrlrnatelv ch pr"
- ,.---

-----

5~(Jfi( lultur.ll n)Ou:\ , .lnd the \un ,11 ' lt ll.H UII) (I f

both

lh l:

an11.: tinlt',

ud . II,I

t"Vtr h (: Vu:

S d!'l

IT\(ukJ I (;d

--" '-'CI')f ~ I I I

~

Jnu (C)J1 1111 u,liiy 11 .ln' « 11 l11C!d

(Ih rOlll~h . ,lllltI .W lIe) ,)Il' , .It

'"' le pr,IClltc, of Jnu lllu.1 1l"yuen .lCknowltuge, lh " I,.nor, hlll " ,," h h .J , '"' ts I . , wh. , 1 t.' ul\ t ornon pr f(' dl rt." et UHl Cl f .!otcl f 1111 c:rCM Ihro Ul'I'l . I •

J

h 1 l U t llr.l) va l uc~

.

"PP '" pnmallly 10 ' "U ,1l1 0'" where lh e pr,lCII al Im p.,·" lrc nOl • . • l'X trc m c. I I bt'!,nn a\ the '(Jns"q u. nces 0 1 (lI ltll r.,I va lu t, hl"('Om e m rC'<1 I cl C " ng Y ctn mcntdl to lI1u,v ld",II , df IIl1 ereSls, P" oplt- mu" ,·VC lIlll.lUy rc fu ,e l(>ac ·. I . c....pt va lI CS tha t aUlhu nLlt" pro mUl e, ('ve n under e.,re me lhrca ls o f rClribulI on It IS dlfficlIlt ICl ~l
,h."

. '

t

.mpo rtant that the rcader have" clear 'ensc o f the differences Ou"med aboH Th" IS nflt Simply an arc.lIle bone of fnendly COlltenllon between the edl tors. bu t a cruClal,<~uc thalls mamfesred Ihroughout the book Ul often 'lulle sub d e way ' W,· dre nOl, 01 ( Uurse, suggestlllg Ihal all of the chaplers can be Imed up o n t lthe r Ide of .1 b.nary "great divide " defined by the terms of thLS debate, and wc havt . 111 fact hc"tated to speak for other .Iuthors m specifYing their diverse, nd "hen Impllell , ontological premises What wc are suggcsung IS both ,hal s uch fundam ntal dlllercnces are Important 10 conSider m reading the ensumg ch _pte..,. ,ind, perhaps even more 1Il1portantly. lhal rile Issue of feasts I, tIOt tile pro.lIt

1«1 of

15

" partlO/d' tkrorrtlcu/ call1P. but can be approached profit.lbly from a vanety

'lUltc dJflert:nt Ihcor,' u(JI Onentallons. In fact, what IS surpnsmg IS not thal the vanuu authors of th.s buok have conrrasnng ontological pOSitiOnS, but that, gn"'n thlJ POSIlJOOS , we Jre Jble to agree on so much . Thai we all see feasts as an a tremdy Imp{Jrt~nt ,-uhur al prat",e wnh charactcnsnc SOCIal and pobllcal roles. d pile our respectful dtvergence on fundamental thcoretical maners, IS, wc belien-, a Hong l'Jldor,ement of the viability of pursumg thc exploral1on of 0 1

FEASTS AND SOCIAL C HANGE . u s iClonth.lI On of rh mm'r<- '>On fw e plonllg che subject of fcasts was Ihe s . p . _ as r . I -h IIlgc Thar '5,. It w I.btm IntllJwcly 1IlV(,lwd 111 processes 0 SOli" l • t n . f chJng~s In cu t at hey "'c,' "'" I",ply cplphtnUlncnal re ccnon, <) ' J "n avc . had J pTllloun I I1 • y but untral.renas lit 11(1 •• 1 flllln I1Jt Ch I'r I .. I 11 .'yd"n (IQ\lO, JPI ,( (our• ()fhutvn(al tran kUln .. tIIHlS Jnt..«(t, th~1 the Oft '. ..I agnclIh,"(' rn,IY Ile IICL1 I11 rhe P"" 1It» nu dill pohn ,11. a t JI '·11111" t., " .1 11 I, 1),,·lIn (IINU, 1\19

DIGESTING THE 'EAST

------------=.:.::..:::.:..:..:.:.:..::....:.:.:..:...:..:.:::~- - -- - -, - for the amollan n and en. ho> , hoWl1 how fca t \-aI~ and 01' colo nl3

_-01 owtr Ma ny of the papers m Ih" volume have COntnbuI~d other no. 1..~ Pelhng arguments fo r the role of fe,st> m 'oo~1 P

. n er's (Chapter 4 ) n ch hlStone31
These chapters offer a compeUlI1g COlleClIIe Jcmon,lr,II(lO thal "good to think" '" m,my \\ay' t-.loreo\cr, thc, a Ion " ~ t chJeologiStS how to thlllk about le"\[ Clc .. ;'" mu,'h IIlptnral work r<maUlS to be done 111 orJer tu .mprove t"1f Jbilir. t de I prttlve ,ubllcties of feastll1g 111 alCh,l,'"lngl'OlI "'"t I RUI t foundallon upon which !n bUild It " rHl 1"11 ',r po. !hI role th., fea·t h I 's .vc p ayed 111 lhe on"I. 1"11111 al. 'lI1d arOund the Wo I I d h r I un t rouj;hnut hlSt .. r \1\ hd .. 10 , n h I "and to dcvclo h k 11 P t C, I '1l,'n'''Jn t,l '1.; ",I 1nl rprt't BllI nul' chofl ' I cngc J I (11\ ~l.If:I,· " JI'(l to nu( , t th. I nw Y"t a h I liCit er III dl~"""u ,ugu or un e,,,1.> In ilICt·! 11 'h J (ll.·(.ISlnn~ 'I ht' d(,,!l", th,m 'I c ' aOOlnglr.1 r'· I dl nur" IS, \\ (" \\ ('1l1iJ ~u lJ\ 'I nIl' t, Ih.1I Il.Ust b. In I . (O\l·I"'~II1c.: hdol r h., "I t t Ill· 11, '" I n tl) I I,'

.. I' " I -"LJIIIl Ih 01 f. ' I t 'JI ", I hili I.. tht In l'I'lh 1111 h i ' J\111l1 .In~ ,it Jd iltOl'~1

I1

(.1

Ht I !llIll. hUE

nrn

1111'1

16

17

t

_ _-,,,\11. hMI I ht1ln QnJ 'f'fli" 1(".,,1,.,1 _ __

-

~----.

"r

lhan Iv •• I,n' Ihe 1" "nit le.II • • a I1 tl ... tr ",.:rllr.r.,"r~ wnc uniform and JClfc I'I.n.,'"ry II"wl,\ .. r '\( l·mr h .Il1f .• ll y ,,"III·I.W· th.ll. wlthoUt.n .,dloquol,tly theonud "nJ conrnlll.lhttd In.ilY'' ,./ Ic.I\I , n~. Ihc' mne d,wumcnl.',rm Ih, r , ,e"l e "I UI h pr .. 11< IJ WIll nUl y.rlJ Ih,' krnd "I UndtfSldlldrng o( prch" [011c. nfU'Ut· oInJ Ihl'1I )ouaJ. PUhU( ..ll • .anti (-C ()Jl t Jrnl(' dyn.idmJ('!I (or w h lC.:h rh,!

___---------------------O~~IG~(~S~T:.~:G~T:~~~~'~[~A~S~T_________

Ft'" u anJ Commcnnl PoLuQ

',f

SU(W

IIlhlT

d .ll d

Ilellu·, .1I,hIJugh ,h,· ' .Isk

IS

JWl Ill,v

nlurl/c5 dtin IJ YICIt:- t(· mOthll.l . Lt' ff')nt(~.x l(: du fesIlr,hrrdltJ Amrnndu1H1tJ tW Outbu litl5 fk1

1IIg P",

rm

fill(

sho' : ""asllng .• nd !ilOragt

III •

M"SlSSlpp,an CommunJly

11 .. I~r(tIl(t"'Y J:Vilin ton . Nurthwt..,{crn tJnavcr Hy PrC~4;

1984

TIrI/.;>g1t oJ I..,.ct,,< S,anford"St.nfl)N Unrvrr !ly Press"

M,'t
Tnbc:s. Stat... and Tran formaooru. In Mamsr """""' .... ogy. ed,ttd by M Bloch. pp 161-102. London.. Tmstrr\

Not.. toward an Ep'gmotrc MO
Decoupc et consommanon de nand" au ~bul Ju I\e slide nut QuelqU<5 elements de bouchene gaulol5e In ta",,'4 U lIMe"'... Innnt Sl
1999

F,,'O AJncm CI1Inms. In ,"l"" ... Qu~Jf' Apt Inrn'dunphPldry Pc 'Jpttuw. rdntd by P Ww 'Aid md hovel. pp 19\-2IR O.furd Bergh.ohn Books. Pood and the Swu. Que

I '"

Gero.J M

r.Iart..J /"• and M Ill.""

'992

nlr p",."., "f Prc:.lIge Compt"uuvc Grncrollly and ,h. Emergrnre of

IUnlLcd 1(1<11.,. In Lt,wland Mrsoamtrica" In Faello,,! Comp
I 88

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Carde""n. A

'996

".''''''n ~ IWIr 'n FLO"m"" /)rwIDpmrnr _ London ' IIII.n and Vnw," '9,0 BourdJru . P

1919

/4(1..,

Ile

Cann • . I de

ilOKrup, I

1Q94

Cattury

Fnedman. J

Jk ,hilnn.lO . P la nd I Roh.mnoan

1990

Jt

pp.

""'Tt

A mlTlt.dtt "rlll,/ully I5Jl "Ho C/f)

1068

300 \l/

R« hnclra Jur /r q"'lI'lCnc Slick """t! ~O" Lane." Assoc,atron pour la Rccbttc:ht O n eota!

Prtll1yUl" :.altmrnt..llru

J I~YJ

'ens

Re flect,o n. on L:IttOlS SOCIety dunng the , th

'978

!l

Iln

iSiltT

use

Fnedman J • and M . J Rowlanru

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..

comple x, We

I1rrJ 11) lurrhn Ill-v '1,,1' 'hI" t"'plorallt'" of fea,,, a' d row~r(lIl . Ye"a,"c. and sub tI,· ,UlJlpil'.,1 ",,,I, allahle of proYidlng. wrnd,)w of "mry In,o ,he d, verse array of ',,1111 \ " I !,olrll< .• I.rnd C(!Jnum,c .1 W'm Jnu sonal rcldtron, 111 anCIent 50 Clelit's" Tht 1"11,,,, UH df", I r
J::

Ritual. of Commtru.alrty and tht Pol"," of y • Pl,:""tl • Soc;.,~'" of drEariyd hlr,," Age Europe" In la rr. ... '" t< nncrgcnu QC tin •• C le YP Ruby. pp IJrlS> aplo cohla [re Jean Berard. In5t}[u( Fran~'s ~ ·aptes ("T-Cc ... nLo4QQ &- t&;:1Ie ~a!Se d" Ro m e 2 5 2

"I',-,.It"" III ' I',,,,,' i(" ~()l I("' '''"''l1ll f ,l)ntl'Kts ,ha l CJn he rn(nred (rom 3rr ll

' -r-

c:dJtc:d by P W" Bcrgluhn Books

c,hl n." uh " I p'f hl lonf fCd" III r Jlllcular 'J'l', and 10 ex pl.,n h(Jw and why

<1,.« .1" 11.1 Cl ma rn '

the: PolmaJ

Plc-hutone Eurnnr In Fr--..J __ ..J.L S '"'tcl@iJoUl,

Pn-JptJ:UVl.

d"",..n "I aCI "'11)" ),,,Ids $urn h, Uml"· I'fClnm ,' It " n un.'! ll) ,den ufy the 'pcII,,"y

In

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Feasu and ""m.l. Gondor Id"ol

wrp" A ,dl/U'~4'1' ..al Rtvrnv '5 IT 10

Cuyer.J '~H8

The Mulnphcatrun of !..abor I bston '" M......" III """

Agn.-u"u ..1Change rn Modem Africa. C'a..- A Haydrn. B

Pohuu! ymbolr m " and T $rudder

A""""I Rtvrrw of Anthropology R:87

7.,

'0117

IIj.

/", Pr.yn .>Id Profit , RitlUJi, &""""'1£. a>ld Sonal /"'portaru;, of B,n ( .........bt i)UtTUI 7.... otbia. 195<>--198. tanfON Slan(ord Unlvcn,ty Press"

,n

1990

I9\lJ

Or;vrn by Drink. The RIJ~ of Drink'llj! 'n thr Polillcal Economy and Ihe of Early Iron All/' Franc" J"',"III/ DJ A",hro".,.,,! ArduJeoJogy

Jolfr. 11 I\IV"

lion J~"r",,!.'1 nth •."..,.."'" ",...Iw""!<>gy" TIrI • nt«oJ Oroo . " " . . kohul 0"') JP

11

~\I

\U

1.1 complotty III

c:.m.

Ahr/lIlt! Of(llf'r 1IIIl' R" tl ll I //lyrlclI

March . " S '",,8 Ilospu.lhr)'. \Vom cn, and th e Effi c,lCY of Beer In Food o,ul G~ld~r: Idell/lly alld JldW(T, edu cd by C . M CouOIh an and S. L. KJplnn. pp. 45-80. Am slerdan, ' Harwood Academic Publlshers _ Moo .... ) 0

~ru Techn ology and SociaJ Context of Prehi s. lone ProductIon. Amcncau Alullropologw 9r:682- 6 95. Pre· Hlsp,lnj c Beer In Coastal

1Q80

Morns, C.

1979

MaIZe Beer

In

the Econom Ics. PolItics, and ReUgion of the Inca E.mplre. 111

Fm,u·pucd Foo/is ItI Nutrition , edlted by C. Gastineau, W. Darby. and T. Thrner • pp. 2..1- )4 New York: AcademIC Press. Murra),. M

1995

Viereckschanz~ and Feastmg : Soclo-Pohtical RItual Journal of European Arciwcology ) :125- 151.

In

Iron-Age E.urope .

Netnng. R. 1964

Beer as a Locus of Value among the West Afncan Kofyar AmmcaPI AnLlITopol_ .gut 66;375- 384

SahJlns. M

1976 1992

elll",,, and PrfICtlcal R
1995

How "Na.,I''' " Thlllk: About Cap"'IH CookJoT Exafllpl,. Chicago: Umverslty of Clueago P ....s. Schmm PanreJ. P 1992.

La Cui au banquet: JIIS10ITC dt.s repas public.s dapu Its cub grecque.s. Collection de I Eeole Fran~alSe de Rome. t5T Pans: De Boeeard

Sherran. A 1991

Sacred and Profane Substances: The Rtrual Use of Narconcs in Later Prehtstonc Europe. In Sacred and PrOfitll" Proc<edIHgs of a ConferfTIu Oil Arc/tatology. RI/lUll alld Rthgt.n. ecLred by P Garwood, 0 Jennmgs. R. Skeates. and J Toms. pp. 50-64 Oxford Oxford Umverslty Commmee for Archaeology. no. }2.

\\'ies:mer, P, and A Tumu

1998

HUlmUal VII"'S: Enga N.,WOTk.< of Exchange. RI/ual. and Waljitr< GUlllta Washington. 0 C. Srmthsoman In.tlrutlon Press.

In

Pap"a Nrw

ETHNOGRAPHIC PERSPECTIVES

FABULOUS FEASTS A PROLEGOMENON TO THE IMPORTANCE OF FEASTING

Brian Hoyden

Everything that is not given IS lost Hindu proverb

•

I am always a blr uncomfortable and .. If(oO> when I . ay Ihal I an, 'IUJ~mgfiustt people dunk that here IS ,,'meone who h .. , tounJ ~ ,,~) to ~ achIeve personal bit" Well, tr I' a glununou, thanll ~I scholars have "voIded, prrhaps t,lr Irar "t od; u1., !lUI l'easrtng behavlor h.1> b"en 1.11): h 1i:'IOrN b. I'(h~ lion of the d""pltnr. and b,' omh"'p,,lu I ~r rh I Ihar rhrlT " .lmu'l no bud ,,' a"h. ol'1jlI'"J tnl rl"'"' auol probably III pur Ju,' tu Ihr ItIllU J th , n nil<'" \11 n dr Ken«ol anthtOl,ol"IiV \\ hIlt Ih I

u

m

I

and

ht"< cthllognphlc,. f"" .Inlhropologls[, address the theoretical import ' . an~ of tc.lSong III .1n\ 'pen tic dCCd, (the orthwe,l oasl potlalch cOnstltUtmg a b nomic . ex':Cptll'" " . Sunl • • IQ6R . Plddocke 1965. Hams 1<171:248.394. Ruyle 1973). AIm o >! nu .mempl has been m .• de 10 e"m1l1e fe.1sting from a crOSS-CUltural Or eea. logll-'u per;p,xm'e (exceptions 1I1clude MJUSS 1924. Rappaport 1968 SUtt! . es 1968 D ...1t n ,,,~ l. Pcrh.lps ocadent.u researchers h,ve been biased In theIr v . , lews of the tmportJnce of feasollg. arrnbunng such behavlOr to a sybantic self-ind I u gent Jspect of human nature that IS w1\vorthy of senous attention Perhaps arch I aeo. ogl I' ha"e simpll- wnnen the study of feasting off as a frivolous type of ps h yc o. loglc.!1 self-granficJoon that pleasure-Iovi.ng tndtviduals engage in. but wluch IS nor parocularly tmporrant for understandtng adapove behavior. econonucs. soCIal m-uctures. or cultural change. especially gIven the assumed chliiculty of detecong t~JSung tn the sparse mJten.u remams of the archaeologIcal record \\ nether these or other reasons account for the relative absence of studtes on feasung in recent decade. we tntend ro change the perspective of the dtscipJme feasting behavior m rradtoonal socleoes

IS

not simply self-indulgent. SOcial. Or

gu tarory gra0.6cation on the part of pleasure-seeking indtviduals, Rather. as the followmg studtes demonstrate. feasting IS emerging as one of the mOSt powerful 00

'-cultural explanatory concepts for understandtng an enOfe range of cultural

processes and dynarrucs ranging from the generation and transformation of SUrpluse .

to

the emergence of soaal and political inequalities. to the creation of

pre_ nge technologtes induchng speaaltzed domesticated foods, and to the under...nung of ehte'

ill

complex soaenes. In the past. archaeologists have studted

:uch thmgs as prestige technology. reglOnal exchange. domesocation. and many other marenal domains; bur archaeologists have neglected the study of one of the mot cnncal callSal phenomena capable of tying changes in all these domam.s together namely, feasting. There are some good a priori reasons for considering feasting as being an un-

ponam wpm e behavior for human beings Cultural ecology maintams that behavton that are (t ...~despread. (2) persistent over ume, and (3) expensIve ID terms of nme, It sources, and or energy should have defirute adaptive values. By adapDVr value, I mean behaVJor that has some pracncal benefits for reproducoon and SUJ'\'lnl nther than the psychologIcal self-gratification. ego-grooming, pnde, pr« RIg!: or SI:!M

bendits that are usuaUy assumed to explatn feasung behaVlor

Although thest psychologIcal benefits cerramly are part and parcel 01- fieasong , rh · r attendingf and may exp some of the indIVIdual mOQvaoons ,or osung 0, psycholDglC2J factors do not adequately explam the magrurude. ; or othe~ bes.d ... the hosu agree ro contribute ome, energy. POint of le",', SI IS

tha t fe

ung IS

CXlt~mely wUk

A PROlEGOMENON TO THE IMPORT ..... C ~~

£ OF HAS

CO •

•

spread If not unlversal. that It IS extremely permren b . pro ably
!Ix,.

For the vanguard of archaeologIStS and anihropolo· .C _ L __ . gt>U .....1 ' ... takeo up the quest to find the underlymg SlgruJieanee of feason th rh,II _ _ g. e -~'''';<:

~~oCiI

y ·nnrn~

and p'Ctorial representations of feasts (as demonstrated In Chapter La lMtt_ unportant petnoples of mference prO\,
refer to the overall nature of the beh'''or thar

= Ii fiilg r

large-scale feasts. the conslruCtlon of masstw archilrCtW'e or the co dy Iterns tbalare me;mIIO =ale speCUtorreaCllOn501 to the speafic symbohcal meanmg emlcaDv alOlbutrd 10 I the creaoon of a partIcular object urn oote.rn uJd be !be attnbuted to the presentaoon of a pwotlu Ittnd r feasts (e,g,. to please iln anet tor) thuneaning ll%ial ber of other symboh,.....1 me.amng5- Prr srudift come bogged down m the m rud. cuJlUR' f thIS cultural or eculog. I und rSf ntlIDg task IS 10 th

fo,.",. Itke compelltl the.se. u". th

11

It

m~

'"&

pro!>kn" rc l.1 tnlto symhollcal n,calllngs, Many of [he .rncles '" thIs volum e, In f.ICI. focus pnmanl on que,uons o f form and fun cnon ralher than symboltc conlen[ o f

rCJ~ tlng

F1\'C key chaplers dIrectly address Ihe ba IC ISsues of the underlymg funCtions of f~a S L< The analysIS by Mlchael Clarke on rhe creaoon of pohtica! and sooal , afcf)' n ~rs VJ' !casttng among ,he Akha (Chaprer 5) IS an Important ethnoarchae_ 010glc31 foundaDon study of feasnng, Equally Importanl are Laura Junker's analys" of how f. asnng was used 10 pluhppme chlefdoms to creare polincal and miltlary illhances \0 controllun.nve trade (Cbapter 10), Mirnael Dletler's ana! _ Sl S o f AfnC.U1 fe.sttng m order to centr3hze political and economIC power ler J). and ~hchael Dletler and lngnd Herbich's documentanon of how work feasts can mcrease socioeconomic mequahties (Chapter 9 ), PoUy Wiessner (Chapter 4) adds an Important dimension by looking al sacred feasts in New Gwn~a meant to promote soltdariry and support for secular feasts where self. mlereSt IS pursued Ul a murn less resrramed fasluon , Then Ul a refreslung reexammanon of the potlatch. James Perodie also exammes the dIverse underlying morives for feasnng on the Northwest Coast (Chapter 7),

(Cha~.

ECOLOGY AND FEASTING To broaden the contexl for understandmg feasting behaVlor from an ecological viewpoml, I propose that It IS worth considering feasting as one component. al· bell a major component. of what I like to refer to as "social tecMology," SOCIal teciu1ology can be defined as the creation and maintenance of social reiatioD'

slups that are predtcated on secunng access to resources. labor, or secunry (see KeeslIlg 1975'122 for a general c:tiscusslon how social factOrs are related to ecol· ogy), Other facets of social tecMology certainly melude many aspects of kinslup (real and ficllve ). ntual (Hayden [987) . gIft gtving, and language , Indeed . sinc~ all these behaviors can have the same u1nmate goal. such as establtslung subsistence or defensive aUlances (e,g" Wlessner 1982; DaltOn [977), It IS far from cOUlCldenral that they aU teed to occur and be used tOgether in the same contextS, although the relatIve emphaSIS may vary from one mstance to another Development of surn an elaborate social tecMology (rather than matenal technology. com muOl cation. Or mtellecrual ablhoes) IS perhaps the most dtsuncnve aspecl of human nature that sets us apart from the rest of the animal kingdom Peasrs. unilke kmslup and language. have clear arrnaeologlcal consequences. wluch 1 wJ!i enumerant ate shortly, Cultural and behavJOral ecologists have been remarkably reslSl to exammmg the adapove value of feastmg and other sonal technologIcal bch.v' _L lor . woo mg In tea d to examme opumal foragmg choices 0 f resource>·anJ momlonng «1,1 benefit, of resource explOltauon Perhaps they have aJhtred tOO l ci'"tly to the ~col(JglCal model eSldbhshed by mam~trcam blulo!\lCal ecologlS '

26

A PROLEGOMEIltON TO THE IM'CA:lA

t Of

'EAS"

-

Mosl ecologISts tend to ~mph3SlZe the fact tlu.t bumm many others 10 the world ;md that humm bduvior. too. logICal models They are probably COllect In tlunking duI ablbry and mtelligence by themselves do not ~c < naru re of ecologICal adaptanons. Yet. the~ u. cnttca1 ' ~ havlor of other anunals and human beha\'lor ID ~~ • .. ...... "" COm t' thal dors create a vast gulf between bum.lns and IDlmah 1lIL extraordmarily profoW1d effect on bow people U>c ...,~ d logICal models can be appUed to human beha\'lOr, 1"llli dl!f.,r1.341 , -'';.I ; :tao1!h I 1976:242. Friedm.n 19:--<;; FnedmJn and Rn bnJ. I ner's Chapter 4) mdlcate thdl rh(J", r.·.,rlIln ably the smgl~ most Important lmpc:ru_ belund rh< surpluses beyond household need., f,'r ,un AI IS a w1Ique human abuI!). but on. nOt \\lth mates. as exemphfied by 1,)<'<1 ,hann 'r \' attd dn t"Iulrdy uew t'f"h'glcill J"n"Jtu .. th.lt ha... . J geomerncally Jnc...,asm~ r.lIt >In the.J-. 11 pres!1ge t«hnulogle, (H.l\,kn IvvS

.n.

NEW APPROACHES TO FEASTING IEHAVIOIt DEFINITIONS . .Irphl,t .. h t~l th, ,tud C,V\'llth" nt:\\ be J,k"J' . ~ \ 1 1Ih. \lUt ~:lt \\l" n IIhu •1 nUI1\p('r L of 10\1"'U nt 1 u

h

I

-. ---~==::.::::~~:..:' .;..;::.:.'~ dtfficult "sue IS ho\\ 10 mearungfulh_ categorize the extensive vanery ot rloam recorded etbnograplucalh- We should deternune whICh of these types may have had pracncai benefits and what those benefits are likely to have been U n der~ standtng bow dlfferenr types of feasts are related to sOCIal. economic . and ~uu' . caJ dVllarrucs of rradJoonai conUTlunlnes constitutes yet another m ~or .

theorencal undertalang. Fmally. understandtng how different types of feasts Can be recogruzed archaeologically IS an area that IS cntical for prehlston_ns but largely unexplored These are the major themes of tlus book. 1 would suggest that If wc are ever to get beyond the det.tled. myopiC vIew of many social anthropologIsts who see the trees well enough bur who have Imle Idea about the forest. " IS essennallO take a cross-cui rural and comparanve perspective . To begm With defuutions. I would Wce 10 propose that a feast be defined as allY e of foods m a nondomesnc pattern IS a recurring central feature (Chaplers s, 1<>-13 by Clarke, Junker. Krught, KeU)', and Brown). The tel iD adapllve valut Simply md.!cale.!> behavlor that generatl"

001,'

p""u,

cal benefit for SurvIVal, reproducnon. health. or st:llldard of h\'tng

PURPOSES Probably the most contenuou> 15'U< tn the study of feast' I wh)".1

r

d

Cl

tirllU of

nl"

lrd III lit rhl<

~,,'nlllllllll

.,.,mmt-

PRACTICAL BENEFITS

ar h, Id Ilt' [eally apc:a to gam pracneal benchts fiom evtry feast Ihal thn ho!.ll ll th, d ny JUdl motlYt:$, or are not cunsnous uC them, l. It p<»>lhlr ." <1111 unpUl<' .n a(bpuv.: val to $\I h tea m behavlOr' I tav, the on ·In.1 or bJn h IJ purp: bcml05t ghl "I .Intd trhl Iu ot IJ"fllng n.t "nho In thJt W andlzc:r pnlfllOlen ,.t f ~ t 1 11 [ I IJ • n nd nl

" pow r V(

To uk" an a.unple plam the IJV15h dmn.." anJ people would exp\.nn th= k= Ul buoons of the btrth of CJm:.1 most common to the ethno£rap for the safe JOum~ oC the ~. sou1.. etc heslure [0 ala lbure ,) morr: b c un .r senoally highlJ ntuahud f\'OltS!hal et hI( eram.., bonds ~tween fanuly mem _ and In order to reach such conclm ' I t nales. prete.tJhh -hed...n: ha I • .ut'1n of 'u(h behJ" r, and unde , rsill d mtu 1 ili f ctlcr, Clark and ethno'''phl, SU!;b--em'

l>

a M

I

11, Uht.

d

uur r nt t ur Impurt.Jnt pr tIa l lim nd u f'l. tt, I ~n fil t I I CI\ It

Im

----<-

I/ri.1II 1111\',_ / "_' ___ __ _ __

~

---~

-.

•

-

,onll s;roLlI'S (includmg pollll( ,11 ' u"

.' Ilh,1I1rt'\ h(.'rwlt"f1·

--

"f(IOp"I.tl IH •

I

..

'rJIC I,rnlil'i, 1I1"r"I I1anges bya d verUstng . the . I ""r'u.\<,·I , r II or wolth exc I!lH \, . J Ibor.•1 I("S,

~

Arrr.hf~

I"HI

~Utl

• ..

If

h ",\t'hrtIJ,);

fl,-,H ht'I\\CI'I1

«.

k~u .. I,k rlld"~, •

r" pr Ihe j:,,"IP, .• (-t

11I1r,1J 1"0"'( r l lfltrO

I oV('r r ~
k (1t'C1pro(011 debts, OIfllW {1f d m'rwcJr n . he 7CnCfJJ populace for cUle use; .'Irrlu .\ p",Jute Irom I g (').n.HI ~ ,"'Alr

pI>

:'I{IIJrJl /.1\,11"),

u (Ilrnl'C'n\,IIt" ror fr.IIl'gl'C'~sl()n~

. I"

I (, a,rs and sohCltaoon feasts. all other benefits CnJ If ,,,Irk /c,"I', r ty e. , . . I ,_. herp ( 'olno lrllund I,r I. or mamrrllance of ,mportanl sona rtUlnon. ocnfICm ,I' 1,.btrllS; I ' l l , . b portanr for dtfferem reasons (defense, marh' Th~'c rcldrlon,h,p' m,ll e Im , 'n.l~r, IJ.< weollth . Jc(umuhwon .•m do on-Dalron 1971'202-204) , but estabhshing .s . . • o

.

l'

the bottom line for many .. This . feasts . . IS feasts that has far-reaching Imphcanons . . I t·on oflechnology and culrure. Notably. m order to create a fa· for t hc Iran!lH)rfl1J I vorJ hi t' J l~rO~1 UOII amon" et guests • hosls generally try to demonstrate the special. 11('" anJ ,mportance 01 [he guests by presennng them with spedal foods. drinks, /:Ih\, nr mUdl displays as II1dleanons of how much the hosts value their guests. The morr Important the relauonslup IS, the more effort, time. and resources ,Iwuld be ,"\'olved 10 gl\'lOg an lmpreSSlve feast In porlatch·type alliance feasts. Dalton (1<1:;:107) 'trrsses Ihat feasts are made as laVISh as possible to demonstrate Ihe "
I!em'~.ln e.uremely dynamIC and powerful engine for the generanon of cultural and t"Mologleal change (Hayden (998).

The above benefitS of feasong, are, of COurse, not meant to exclude competiOIe a~empdt; 10 dl1l1Jrush nvals, However, I view such competitlVe feasting as subsume un er strategIes to obtam political w ' . (whIch may onl), make sense .. po er, mcluding displays of success thal there IS probably a tndi~mpentlve contexts). It should also be noted majOr uerence betw h .boYr) ro the hosts as a gro h een t e practical benefits (listed up Versus t e practical be fi h ne ts to t e promoter and orgaruzer of feasts who n t h . , I e most actIve cases IS U 11 . ( aggres<J"c, aggrandJzlve and I ,sua ya Tnple A perSOnahly aeCUmu atlve) OUt t . , Inlerest, wealth, and polmcal POwer!see H 0 maJUmize his OWn sclfare re pon"ble (or orgalllzmg Imea e fi ayden 1995). Not all lineage heads who gtf)u, frJf thelf Itnfage promOlt tht~ o~asls'lafnd malmalntng alhances advantJ n SClllleres[ OVer their I•.n ' eag~ s Intl'r. lO

est.

.

BUI

cJemogrftphlc ,hdT.H.: ten

ha.

th

en

"'r.

at some 1;....__ ............

anu communety head, w,lI be aggr",..,. d --se _ agg".n notable OnC5 worh the mOst Impact on cult I h12U> and t"._, -'" ..... '"' die . . . ura ( .ngo "Tnnc dlzers promote the benefits of fca,nng to th .... c:: comrnulUty or thar and try to get a ~ many people: lO produce. as h su~\ CV .... 'V bk ...... granclizers then assume as much concrol OV muc h SlJrplus "' ..... ~'IL .m:_ . er t C u~ of s~~1 ~ benefit as pOSSIble , These aggrandIZers .ttemp' h - r ..... Ut thm ow" • to 'Ct I c ag.mda .,,_ late war, peace , and allIances, and they create cul d '--, IIUmpu ts an ~ ecrtt 'OCletJ to funht: theIr own self-centered goals (Chapters 4 and 7 .1_ H d r . . • .u:.Q ay en 19IX . Wlule many IndIgenous informants and Soaa!4nth I ropo 0 st ctttpna\\U chologlCal reasons that people gIve feasts I would hke to th ..

d ..

...

'

a",'Ue

'\C nttpts such

as "status an prestlge, as usually used m WeStern soa
It, COl'

"

r.:

approval would gellerallv ourwetg.h dOII'C, for bemgs into economIc lemm1l1~ lo~o\ r, lt \, ht hI) \loll stants resulung from glvmg. pit, ," by Itself,

In

Conrempllr.\f\ ,,"ten I

'3>{,

.1

presttge Comf'ubl\'e gIlt gl\"r~ .\1' theIr b,\cks, as th", .m; w h, n·'"I ',\ longc! l.lsnn~ l'Ih"t" I1

b ,I I'
h, hh or .Igr,·ed U;"\1\ (\1 ,I, t.l, h' "'Ill \h.1I I ,1l1l.IlUlIk" ,\,,'1\,1\ ,11\1\1, ~I\)"'''''

l.(l". ll) " .. ~~h\'( \\

\ '9 . I,

d Ill' 1\\

I Ib

11\

llh

I

n

nh r n

htt

I'hll.lh. ~I" 1\ Ih, h,,\,O\ 1<". '" ,(, t \1111 I ' III( Ih H1lhhl

1,'nu,lU' 11

hum \ t

tll

I

,

n.l

tI(

11.1\ f

)\1 t

,\\,uld

'''[ "

1111"1

r rum m<"1 r '

H",Ht /I,lr.'''t. _ - - - - - - - - -_ _ _.

.---

'OUJlr.~ 01 WC'~lhh

order lO be able ro dtspc . nluJ.Ht.l.lIj!t .111 _ nSe ~'(ll1lpdkd I~) .Ill U f _ ' IlL' honor 01' pr(,'stlgc - cspecJJl1y perhaps Und I . t 1 "tt'~ (I IllqUHI C"' C:r 0 11 ""llrh HI I 1( 11 I • 11 e (r 1f • .~ec a.lhon JQ77:2. 7 on change!; In lhe POLI . Illurol Lt> .lr' <' . . ~. d [{IIld,utlll~ (I ,I j ' le (hat ~uch ,dJOsynerauc JI1wVI lIals wall Cl1l.er _ . \I'" ut ('h.we!" l l( 1.1 ge J.,.h·hl J he 1•• \ , cOlllcnd Ihat such pcrsonahty rypes arc rare and r nit' J lowcver, trom Will· [0 I f .I dtl lIs In aJl culrurcs have. and a.lways wiU folio • _ ' 1111 nnry 0 ,,1uJVI , . - W 11>.11 111< , •.,1 r J (. t.• '" lhe long run 11 IS doubtfullhat trying to e t .,rllelj(ll se l _JIlrcre.s s , ,. stlte-u- It\,,1 1 , _ . d nsolutions that are costly ro mdlvlduaJs solely 0 _, Iwr.11 (radII Ions ,In , n (,Ibl!' 1 CU d Widespread deSire (or honor, scarus. or prestIge would be I ha". ' of.1 pUI porte . bene fi rs lO back up psycho. f 1( . I v thou[ some real prowcal lriU((C'.\.(ful or long· Jsnng \ 1 , . . b < or olher Ideological prerexts (e.g .. paCl.fyU1g the ancestors, Or logKJ/

•

U1

encllts

Ctwrong Ihe (Jl'or o{ the gods). . kely thar Western conceprs o( starus, prestige, honor. Or apnlJ Thus. " ,eem> u .1
prunge dearly IJ1dJCare chat eradirionaJ usage of these rerms carries a very differ· ent mearong from the Western eranslarions. In brief, my impression is that while the Western terms status and prestige carry connotations of psychological gratific.oon steJTUTUng from the approval of others, equivaJent terms in transegalitarlan soaeoes generally carry a different set of connotations relating more to econoouc success. political success and power, reliability in honoring debts, and che ability to organIZe people for a variety of purposes. Citing Voss (r987: [31), !Aura Junker makes the pomt explicitly: in the Philippines, the prestige came from che creaDon of sociaJ debts through feasting. Dalton (1977=207) also clearly vIews [he laVIshness of feasts as statements of wealth and power and success.

A PROllGOMENON 10 lHl

embodied ~Y peop\t. who oln:. SY'Stc~t\ca,Uy ""'74 chers • dead skin or rubbuh men' ($C:C! Ch .lptcr T. aho"an "0100 "JficatlOn of such people lS '3 n:CUTnna.. th~m-,.1 f not>n~af -rhe vu .1.0 rnany traosegaUtanan cultures The, c.onsequ.nct.s 0 ( be:mg con ....! ~dI&ts . IIt4 her or rubbIsh man are that onc!) crerut Tatm.o \ . Lt a mooe b \S 0'\\: or nan"utmt for reaproca\ gUts. reaproca\ feasts. and other eventsb loans. e.ca"se. 'SUch n.onn,\ llable and unproductIVe In many cases. thcse neo \ ,--....... u..nre . r P e cannot m.l~ 'bc:uWC'

\(a rtan

soCtC!,~I~S.

lS

hese liabultles. They are the people who do not sunpOrt. ,,_. I r ggU.th.l1ztrs ~U-.J.U: . for generating surp uses The worst rear of . ~ gles \S to ".~ to J..bull Casting and other debts. Th.ts . precipitates therr fall to .'[ 00 le Ule SUms 0 robb -'man. a person to whom no one will "'nd wealth Or only at u 01V\tomt ntt a pn son who has essentially declared bankruptcy. Thev have no - ,utU> These are only my unpresstOns gleaned from the ethnognl'h.t.> .."d c,' t" analyses in passing. While a full exegeslS of .status and 'l'tt,tli,'- '" tnn , itarian societies would be extremely enhghterung. \ am not l'ttl'=d 10 un~ r take such a task here. Nevertheless. lt is perhaps worth noun.. th.1 a . argument can probably be made for this new meanmg of t:h&.! Lt, recognition) as having an adapave value _Evolutionml It ,h Ill.! he l' , imitate indiVlduals who rusplay dearly successful beh.Vlor, 'It ,h uI.! ,

of

t

adaptive

to

reproduce with such mruVlduals. In

men (

I

and Zahavi 1997)- Displays of ucces are vu"lh lmponan\ f able mates and supporters or coworker . both", the

mg tha t success

a.mong human., .mu ,tatu> "Ih

The st.mdard

in Lhe dialogue

I lO

P''''I,l,' \" ,"'" pI ad', \' for nwr' l Iht'n, ~ "I "h h

our I}WO sOCIety' (1977'207) . The Sta rus game d IS ' "h' . value' attributed to t e SOCIal

ers.

~~,iihllJ[y

Wllhout

11II'Miurhe

1

tl If,,!

fm Jrll!:lrl

I

& 1I1US I 1.1

Ill" '( (('dll

"lJrbJlIIJlJ~ 1"

' /11'11'

I al 11 '1-'

'

"

~("k, "'1"'1 ",lIy

. 1111 f ,lJ''''g,t!

away of we.thh

lbl'

wtulc

IIwoke the P,,\\ r , ,\1\1

lllhul,ll 11"11'" 11'-1\ 11\

plll\""hn~ pi rdll .,\ \ \I \n '\WII tllll1 111\ , I' 11 \h 11 I

"u,I,h\lt)l\ b,'\lI\,\ ,lIh,"

\"'"~\I\\" 11" '\lhlll I1

"lit 11 I1

I, "" \\ 111\ 1111 \\,\1 " ,

It

1'1"

"It

,\tU,'"

h \" I t, l

,\\1.

IlII

,\I

Ih'\ \1\,1\11\ It!

Ih

I

f

", \ rnlm

cultural realm Feasts con [ltute one of th~ m, ,( n mmen,

behefs In curtJilmg

fI m (flnt"rrlJ"".ry [,

r\d I tt

plete with ..'
SllTuJarly, Fnedman and Rowlands point out that the surpluses used to host feasts result In presoge, b Ut " a prestIge w h ose cuI rural content is very different than in tl) produce such wealth." In Chapler 4. PoUy Wiessner provides auw[wn.J (jbiervalltms along rh ese Imes. Sh· L e suggests that presnge accrued to 111',1(: wh() brtlugh[ btn ·fi h un f' . t ItS to [ t' gmup. h()wever this "presugc" was really a It If .ggf~ndl/.-ers t'/ prl}du(r w," hh ... . ...~n{J In a • mJIfY nlJny WOmen. Jnd n:IUlll se! I wlluld .f~l· thill . . Uldprutl a mill(' .lppmpll,l!l· [I,I((~bll()" of 11111111

~

fa". [he blQI.

\1\

8'1tln 1I1l\',frrl

-

01 repre <,; en r3 clons and are lherefore always open to tUD:Ot · rrocC'scs .Inu H r" I .~ . 6 la ~ tum . (lQQT827 e-mphJ SJS .1dcJed). . . SJITlJl.Jrly nlitz (J9Q3J ..2.J) argues mar jnruV1du a ls do not merely react to the so. ". r ",a] bur continually create, alter, re.mterpret, or manipulate Its ' Od 1 'wonl 0 n,... LO~ on tenr With dranlatic results. Jnd eed, if this were nOt the case w . e 1ormaoon c , '0'

THE

""

would be ID rure seraJts m rrymg ro explain how and why cultures change We would be wown back to relymg on diffuSIon or similar explanaoons In fact. '1 . Cultural M.renansm . post-Processuausm . Ecology, Darwirusm a d I~' ar.\Jsm, ' n Processualism all share a co mmitment to viewing individual actors as the locus of change and as rationally pursuing their own self-ineerests as a fundamenta l

renet of understandrng cbe workings of culrure. There is no more dramatic demo nstration of the relatively wea.k bold that cul_ rural traditions have over people's behavior tban the occurrence of noncon_ {Of/rusts and revolutionaries. In the tribal cultures where I bave worked, I have always been impressed at the large percentage of individuals who simply did nOt buy mro the traditional value system and who would be generally classified as agnostic or atheistic in contemporary terms. For example, in the very traditional Maya HlghJand villages where I worked, about ID percent of the household heads IfltefYIewed would have to be classified as a-religious or agnostic, while another 10--20

A PAOU
percent of households had changed their beliefs and affiliation from tradi-

tional community cults to more charismatic forms of Christiartity. Izikowitz (I95I:J21) makes similar observations for Southeast Asian tribal societies. It seems

that m all cultures, there are probably significant proportions of independe nt thmkers who evaluate situations on their own merits irrespective of hande ddown traditional WISdom or promulgated ideologies. It is the individual who is rhe locus of culrural selection (Harns 1979:61) . Cultural values or ideas do not fetter mruvIduaJ acoons to rhe point of acting against important self-interests

real

consequences from other community members do. It is the freethinkers who pioneer creaove new thoughes and new behaviors, and who serve as mode ls for possible new culrural, social, political, and economic configurations. rf this were nor rhe case, there would be no unions or revolutions, and little cuJtural c hange. To J1J~[rare rhe relative roles of ideology versus practical benefits , Il IS useful

parable of the shopping cart. Before 1970, supermarkel Sloreown en appealt>.d tIrelessly co the traditional cullural values of customers (neatness, COUrtesy, rtCJprr)[Jry. etc.) tf) rerum lheIr shopping carts to the store rather rh,1\1 leavmg w!..'TlI ID p~rklng Ir)~ I!OWtVI'r, appeal to rht'se supposedly strong [ul . I I)(' h"VIlli ,mIll slore DWnt'lS bCg,l1l addr.! (l/)fmJ had llUle cfhl {m P'" ' pIt, 's actud L -A n8 a practlc.al (.fin qUI'WC 't) rhl Tt ' I urn I, I SJlllpP'1I1,; t ,Ills tlu' IIlVnlllll' lll :t.i c n 1(, ofJurn a can • r dttma" 1I UP/Ill I I J(' It IUIII "I ,ilL' (,ill 10,1 pllll'l' I(j(;jllCJr 111 ch ng" In IJI 1IJV"II w. d'ilII'JW

values were. involved in tnlm" . I ,.., to P~nt to little avail until sUbstanuallines and hanl \'Cople: fio," eclL ...-A IS , moral of these parable!. 15 as 'I arvm 1-.t~rns e an dCo.#A ..-'~I"'tie thar while culrural values ce.naml d t919 ~ r'Qy 0 ellSt and >n "-& rual behavlOra.1 chOIces. prameal conse u an, IU4:d to Ix,tIJ. in behavioral chOIces. q ence. pi. ~ much ~up P

,

•

{'o

In terms of feasting. one of th

..

e mOSt POW~rful

ance of a contracrual debt whe.n One accepts a "OfolOl\g en, C. . edge the full range of Idiosyncratic belt. b . • \'lOf"5... Ut n !'o a.~

=

differenna re these from me behaYlOT of the ma major traditions and msmution; are based. mm.dm A number of the chapters to t.\u,; volume ~ ~ benefits. and strategle of feasung u'm, ethn ... Junker provides a broad overYle" of tb, economic power m

OUmcJ.$l ASIa

oJ. it

feases to cstablt h economIc and: :131

1

run

\Viessner e. ammc· ho" Cl -m~n n through fea.ts for lh~tr Cl\\ n h<'odlt In _'" ~ Itch., e!

vldcd

Dletl.:r d<).:um"nt th, h

on the

hlStl

n,

(DI(!ticr). In .m "'[\ll\,\{}\ ~lso dcmlm'olr,\I ,h<", ~IC'OpIH,\Im .ln

,,'rth

1

011

SI,II. l'
10 (Jn$lder the

J'VI'I1

II/JUgl' "

11"111.11

VARIETIES OF FEA T

,It ,\1" .I th, IjUt'\lhl\1\1 hi, \ ,\ \\ I,\. \ ( Itn

1l,I\IIlh

I

1\1\ \111

I

MPO""A.t
,. pROLE GOMENON TO tHE

r ..J.

Ij

0.

gC"J I~ Cl

r C reatinL"l'.eo soelJI bonds vs.

u d ab,e-cove.s;

JChlCvenlCnt of more Imrncdial e, L0,.

the use..: or presoge n,acerial~ or olher archaeological Jnchcators; p.lroclpJong. or core, SO~31 umes; .

I·

""ts that P 'ople are constantly tI)'Ulg "ut n r.' OVlty. e .'-_ . P

honzonral vs. vertical sooal relatJOnslups berween guesr and host; 8 the kmd of reciprocity Involved; 9 the degree or obligarion (social necesSIty vs. self-irutiated hOSting);

elling -M-.ese mdude feasts for m.u-nage £\mer P co!fl . .-vueS I " . ,. reot e(01c. " cevents. plantings. harvests. "or... tatus, oon _,r. !fl'W king peacc , oroals. ancestor ....orsl:up.. . and not f ."d rn' ",a aI events. In Chapter .3. Dletler proVlde, .. di, "

season
l'an (1996:441f) discusses classification in regard to the parallel phenomenon o[ gIlT gIving. The traditional ethnographic approach has been to classuy feasts according to their ernically stated purposes, based on the specific symbolical pretexts for holding feasts: harvest feasrs, ancestral feasts, marriage feasts, fu. neral feasts, puberty [easts, and others. For the undersranding of feaSting as a bebavlOral form (in con trast to the symbolical conre nt of feasting), emic dassi_ ficacons are dearly the leasr useful type of classification, although Some do rend to have spea5c functions and can be dassed wirhin one Or mOre specific funcconal types of feast (e.g., community harvesr feasts as solidarity and/or promotional feascs). All of the o cher approaches have much mOre utility for archaeologists, and in facc, many of chese ocher dassificatory approaches are used by authors in this volume. Michael Clarke uses che range of social groups involved, james Perodie

son or 5e. all theacncall)', and oroally charged Comu" n: e. 'on y, oo ero ring events. .ate for feas f practical purposes Or .' o;u pO \i 7la t. In terms 0 . w range 0 f ,mponant proxunate ~ t FILIIctio rO 2· fat! . \y nar These benefit nn ~ l!'O\l'
uses reciprocity expectations, and Michael Dietler uses a political function c1assificacon. PoUy Wiessner uses a secular versus sacred distinction wich differing parrems of refuse and special strucrures. My Own preference is to adopt a functional approach as an intermediary step to generating an archaeological classification based on matenal remains. Unforrunately, because of the complexity of feasting bebavior, chere are seldom feasts wich pure functions, and in some cases the same el7IJC

pretexr for a feasr (e.g., a funeral feast) may have quire different funcrions

to

different househoJds (eg., in a poor versus a rich household) . In order to deal

such dmlflC[Jons, It IS elCher necessary co add a great deaJ more derail [0 our dt-vriptlons and anaJyses of feasts or co create more subcategories of functional W1rh

(,r

cradirjrJO~J emlc caregones of feasts.

confu fj

a

jf",

However,

r am

·hment It nu

of pUnI' .

l4Igc

and

I

1(,

III "

" ) th P

(,I

all' pnru Ipal

rI'd SC/II S

nU"-" PI.'l'{, ,r

wh" I'H'llIl~C

i~ slJllln Its

why wc' h.lvc JSSt' lIlhlt'd thiS

.

. IUoltl

\

le 'llhn' t

'h,' <

I

I

I.. l\\l"t St'II'<' I

1l1a ....t '

thl' ""lIdh I,f th,

th

plusc,1)1 "th r ,

to

,,\ ltU1\tt\

.1\1

I

rt .IU'

Ih

I \: , I

N

hopeful [ha! this kind of

(rtare such a useful an hac'ologJCal typulogy

(JIlI

•

'hh:hl'11\Crgt.:1l\.4

,It i

1\

WIll Jargely dIsappear when we pass to archaeologica l classificatIons uf

Th end 'iN')!

\'t't,

ht}!fla" crea glvmg socially bmdmg gu,," ('ian 1996 60 \-I fea Sts or here find some Fretuts for hOMm {e l"g people everyw thers Thus, there 're some Ubem that than 0

7.

10.

[ se type'S ar< thco",uca\\! almost Ilnutk .. err"C earrugh t be used for holdmg {Uits .n: 6rf1l(

"2t'.

It

1,11\\

m

• . 1.1f I hh

J '" \UI\ \1 "

,

I

I

I I

I III IInl

I I

1

T

-

A PROLEGOMENON fO lHE

ALL FEASTS

cial feasts. However, one m1ght e.xpeCt!iO .our c m(' I.lIIU:.re-nCQ to Q( _ creasing SLZes 0 f ICasts, In genual perha h CUt wbh 1ft. ECONOMIC FEASTS (For g.ln)

A.lUANCE &. COOPERATION FEASTS

r

, ps t e. mC)re ~o , m more specialized and numerous food item C d P ('lYohe4.1be (hearths. roamng PICS. lutchens). food pre s, '00 prep.,....on (cih a l1a paratton and seNt architectural strucrures will be. Thus, irrespe' f ng VPssels,lNl · COve 0 funcnon Or erns ful f pose, one use way 0 classlfymg feasts for ch I C pur. ar Oleo OglCal purnn.r:.. be by sheer scale. Wlule tlus approach enable . ,--_s may S us to make some. k~ of the archaeologICal data. I would argue that IC might ob . 1di' , th at might be made Wi. h bSCUre some. unpor cant potentla snnctlons ' . t a n mOrt: diligent enqwry·

(Sumpluory slalus I display)

r- FEASTS SOUCITATION &

SOLIDARITY FEASTS (WithIn groups)

PUNISHMENT FEASTS

r-

r- RECIPAOCAl

FEASTS (Between groups)

r-

r- FEASTS POLIrICAL SUPPORT (To oblaln pollflcal supponers)

....... PAOMOTIONAl FEASTS (To display success & IIlfradlabor Of economic support)

COMPETITIVE FEASTS (Pro/lis 'rom 108ns & Inlerest)

FEASTS TO ACQUIRE POLITICAL POSITIONS (As a formal cnlerion for political advancement)

4·

r- FEASTS WORK PARTY

Sts ao 1996' prob.bl leave muumally distmctlve matenal remalDS. Work r-..ts h ,so Olanon feasts, punishment feasts, criSIS feasts. and su:rular e'-nts th I ........ art: tl tt re 3tively small, and I or are unlikely to Involve particularly speaal foods Or vessels. In these cases, we need to develop better tnteuon for dtsnngu>sh . ing such feasts from normal eating. However. M1chael O,euer (personol communication) has ohserved some work feasts where laVISh food .md prestige wares were used in order to attract mOre and bener-quali') boo, Thus, limited-goal types of feasts may be elther rrurumally
...

•

normal meals except for size and perhaps locanon, Or they m.y be bamt" distinguish from other feast types. There may be some usefuldt"nncnon, for archaeologists in this approach to classificaoon, but the l:<sue n < to

.

TRIBUTE FEASTS

A schemaoc diagram of the mosr unportant divisions in the ~s of feasts dlscussed in this chapter. Figure

2.1

be explored in greater depth and more empmcal datl are on-h needed 5. Social units: One way of adcting mearung to SlZe cI._ ltican" . of fe ...,!. h

\!du I Clarke. Social units range from 1I1dtvldual f.mil,es, 10 line'l' .. to I n. t,

hy examining the soaal uruts lIlVolved rure expressIOns should be quite different and because the consequences for

communlly dynamICS and impacts on reclltJological cllallges should be very differmt.

For lIlStance, solidarity feaslS, no marrer whal [heir size, should entail

rrurumal departures from standard daily foods or material irems, whereas compeotlVe and promotional feasts should represent major departures wlrh consequent pressures ro develop and change borh food and material technologies.

J.

SIU'

Feasts vary enormously in sIZe from the minimum of a two-person

tdyadlC) £Q11(ltallon Or fnendslup (soHdarity) dinner ro inrercommuniry

events mvolvmg hundreds or thousands of people. Clearly the smaller

ryp~$ ,,( fca cs will b(, dIfficult to Identify archaeologically unless the

re-

m.11IS of penal f"'Jds "{ sptClal servlngfprcparauon vessels are present. Evrn ch~'Il. it may bf dlfflCulr rr, dercrrnll1e w/wlh('f such remall1s an:: fj.om maD peel.1 me.b "I Wnt-Inrf Ihty WI"rt; 1'"11 flf 1d/'gt'I, me>ll' IJvt>h srI'.

JI

(Y

"'
MATURATION FEASTS (Investment of surpluses In children)

~

Social bonds vs , llnllted goals: Many linuted-goal fea

111

feasts,

l>

ug£,C>lcd b

communities, and extend to reglons \\'!ule then- an- s,)I1\< di.Mctl that can be made at each level. the lugher le,els lend

I,' m,lud

els (e.g.. lineages mclude mJ,vidu;u f.m1hes\ anJ thu, pams) of feasung. ThIS

lS •

I " r

l-h I

unit tends to be assooated \\'llh • spec1lk ·,U ranl'c ,nurn

I

r f

produ(t\\c ",n ll.ln.h

logical purposes, although wllhm (.d, ""loll, nlup It m desirable to rry to disnnglllsh 1",1SI, hdd f'l

nll

solidamy versus promonon.1 ,H ('>1"1' Il\l\ t~ "I. IdeJllf we wlIld d,·wl"\,.IlI,1I h,I~,'I,

j;l' ~I.I

anly 1ll,lId\l'd l'lhlh' 'IJphl' 11\ \.tI""n ,'rtll I IlllW\'V"I, ,11 Ih" 11"', 11I1 ' 11"

0\ '1"'(IIi, 11" WII\

'1"\11

I

\11

nm 1\, 111, I, n t It 11< I

hi hi Imh I lh \

ll~lll~bl

Ihl ,11, h,l,'"I".:" .111\ .lIl Ill~ll I m

rut! f

J,ff, [('nt (u

6. Malenal bd.It',1 (fltdl .... ','",~1.-.d1 dll."'';.-'illh·'" In m

,

\1

lu

- .---

",1,," IIj"·.",:"_-------------

A. PROLEGOME,...ON TO THE

. n s between feastmg w dlstl.nctlO . CJ"CJtlllg ne . I10w past cultures . fune . I \,hCJhlr>. . ndm8 r 1111\ (., 111.1IC'1"1Il III r. 111' for und('lstJ useful simply (0 IJst the J /J b . q~'1'1I1C. bJy mOS L t '\'l'IH\ Ih.H \\ I c.;, ";JJJv 11 IS probil dhnrify feasang events from . <-'J 11110. " used (0 I 'fJflnt.'J ,inJ dlJnE: . s th .. r C:1n be • bm3 dons of these same nal klnJ . . 0' illJre rcmi1I~~nous values and COOl

IMPQ"TA.~C[ OF ,~,

TABLE 2.1 continued ruru;JUzed I{ems of eoquene

paraphernalia (or pubLe nruil~ Existence of aggrandJu.rs

. TJblc ,.). ' r1)(" p.llif (.,{to

Recordkeepmg devices

TABLE 2.1

of FeastS

.

A chaeolog;cal Signatures

. lane

or aOlmal spedes (especially

Pictorial and wnnen

~cords

of

feaslS

Food-s[Orage facilities Resource charactfriSo.cs

Stables. SlOrag~ pits, ~es Abundance ~ed kn cxP uno". 4 ..."", i ab]m to Ovt:i t ip10. ltiltion

factors should be useful In trymg to dJsnn"''' - 'WJ
Food·p~pilnnon

facWoes

Spto.! food-duposal features

8on~dumps

SpeaaJ refuse tires conramlOg feasting items Feasnng middens Feamog {41aU0e5

Speo.! loouoru

SpeCIal structures (temporary vs. permanent) for rughest.rankmg guestS and hosts. or for large numbers of people Speoal dtsplay fac~JtJes. scaffolds. poles. Or other fearures Morruary or remote locanons chac are dearly not habJCation sites feg .• ID &Ont of MegahchlC tombs. at henge monuments, Inside caves) LoCI as",eiated w.th nu dear households, res.dential corporate

hOlJS
'Pact! Prcstncc (,r .. bKnce. ,and rtLmvr .. hund.mcr uf prcsilgr Ilt'n'I:"I ryptally u.. d In dlll«rnl Iyp•• "I Ird." (r 'UIlLI. f~,'hnl, .hell Jt"Wrlry)

j( •

Thl' ckt"UNJlJO of w..... hh fir prr"'lg'" Hrun: (VIJ br••a... '" bunol)

rJludl
Undoubtedly. more types of observations can be add.d t the \i.,.r IQ T ' ~ I However, even at this early stage of theory de\"elopmmt ardu "I pro have more variables to work With than rrught b uuoa!h ; urn IQ thw" qIIe I to deal Wlth past feastmg behavior. Many chapters In !ume fI ber of specific matenaltocllCatOf> of feJ.;{l \\. o.n IX SIZe and decoration of feasang vc' ·el, III the:\nuz i the prelusparuc Pluhpplne,. LtndJ Brown for rh .. lau r If the Hill Tnbes of Th,tU.lncl. DeBoer al.o pro\ cl a usual example of cd nmal panph m m does Llnda Brown for pn:hlston, rur.!1 b\ .u with unusual Couch consumed to t"a.1. Th tS emphaSized by Kmgh{ 'llf edrh 1,'uudbwJ Junker tor Ihe earl' PhlltPPlllt' .hlt"fJ,)m Tnbes. Largt" g.1nle su,h as dt'rf, .!nd I~rg nemly to ull {ht's., l"\lt\t~XI.. I JJulg I feasllng in th., dUIlIt" 11, illlon , I

Ihe May .. hilI ts Jls(l hi I dt achlOI SlnulJrl. th thr t" (h"pl I' ( g. K 11

llnd RalhJ ' hllC'IIt1I1I1.&I

10

m m ill

---'

•

A PROLEGOMENO" TO THE. lM...-vRTA"t E

•

IIne'0!l'e ancestor worship. James Krught argues rh at

bl ",hIed 10 'itfUcrurt". pll~"1 y ~ d (he southeastern Unlred States constitUte specia l r moun' 0 I . . d . nnrm lht' CoIdv. r/a a: Ids while Parnck Kirch ocuments the sp rures with scallo . ce"cd IN,unl-! ,rrue I fc asting structures and food -preparation faCi/1t1 ~ Juon s of specl<1 e Cs lJwl.Ir cl.lbor I f polynesian cluefdoms. In the case of the SOuth • J I ('omple., leve 5 0 . . . '" ",ert'.",n!:) d rJ,e Simpler Po/yneslan strucrures. these may be I tfi nl mounds an . <."It'rn p a or . I. d ublic architecrure that occur In the regional cul_

. les of speCla.uze P . . . rhe fir5t V;.lmp -'-nk ' worth asking whether the IDmal appearance of es .nd I Ull It IS fUre sequenc . ' , nlany more or perhaps all, regional cultu ral se cd ublic S[fUctures III ' . . . . spcclJliz P I d feasting activines, PJJ1aUy, ill an =preSSJve tour de ce' may be re ate ro . quen . . mains Denise Schmandt-Besserat rernmds us that r. rec centered on Sumenan re ' . . o d I b gleaned from pictorial represemanons and early Written Ihere IS J great ea to e . ' . . me existence of feasnng. but Its dynamICS as weU . te.,ts. nol only concerrung . . . how mese various d In order to etermme , types . of . observaaons nught fit to, .. al a rchaeological classlficanon, It would probably be useful ~mcr tn a provISIon . . . I pa tteming can be gleaned .ITom a. bnef. overvIew of feaSting to see what matena lr. types of cultures. I will consIder this topIC next. I.fl severa I cL uerenr

THE EVOLUTION OF FEASTING: GENERALIZED HUNTER/GATHERERS There IS Lttle information available on feasring among generalized hunter / gatherers. Wherher mis is because it is absent or rare as Polly Wiessner suggests (1996. personal cornmurucation). or because ir may have a different character. or becallSe

If

has Simply not been reported in the ethnographic literature is unclear.

•

-

nornjc hosP,twty would be " and th C w if any m echarusms for deahng Wlth. Or transfomun, I le >; Ilrp u, , 6) Hunter I gatherers cenaIDly do IDVlle th'If' ... ~. t 199 82 19· . ...", 0 pOltU ~ ally desirable and abundant resource OC=nces when h .t, Iu bx in their terntory than they can use (Flood 19 But ID uw m, nn lies have a glut of the same abundant foods. and there" reall\- tlO re sharing between families . 2 ) In adchrion. the.re are few ways ID "'ruch generaliud hunt I create spedal foods by mte.nsifymg labor to procure or p •• ", ere ,ht cle need for deve.loplDg m ore mtensifi.ed Wa, f p ·c. S n~ grinding cereal grains may be one excepnon).. \ reo t. ...... ,

h

ogy needed for more mrensified preparaa rh '" highly nomachc groups itrularh It I' .;hl1kult to p even routinely used) species nught bc found
Sharp (1994) argues that all Chipewyan meals are solidariry-enhancing events by

rion these will be rare or dtfficu1t to get. and all

melf very nature and that no special meals are used for those purposes. On the

probabilisnc or encounter ba'lS .\> Rich rd l

orher hand. among orher groups there are a few incUcations that large game kills

IKung onl . kill about

and ntual garhenngs were sometimes accompanied by festive meals (Sandal 1966; Richardson and Ianzelo (974). Whether these were special meals or Simply logis-

yearly average per hunter

tically convenient ways of organizmg meals for a gathering of people is unclear.

ally bClI1g able to pro.:UI'\:' l r

In rhe elt1Sting literature. there are few indications that mOSt ritual meals had any

to return

.speaal connotation or mvolved any special foods or preparations, although large

impos 'Iblt, b,'< au.c "II.I'\.;. <)\

quantities of meat Wlrh high fat content seem to have been highly valued by rmny groups.

J) Th~l't' IS _1b,••1Il' U

There are also occasional statements that special Cuts of meat were. or could

be, reserved for men's consumption at special ritual locations (Woodburn 1966), This Lt ~rlups the closest apprOximation that exists to the feasts documt'ntl'd for more complex types of JOC' t I le les, am unaware of feasting an-aunts I11vol VillI-: 111 tetband VlllbIIg and aJliance bile ' h k. . ro nng, fIT t e rods of meals that may haw hl'('n krved at JUrn even" Nevenhel . d 'ffi I ell,lI

I

43

(U

I 10 Imagroe Ihal no ~P('( lal j(.lstl'C1

. ..

would be dl.fficlll!

nv!"

It 11\\(

tur sUI \ '1\ "I

\\

"'Ill

"1\

the Id",1

"t

<)nl)

l.

.11

<

I

,

I

\

'< 1"'

,

" I

m IT,

.h

I

Ild

I

,Ill f

\Ill

I

\\1

I h.

IAn.! .. ~, IIIlI

0

piJ.n.l ,·,1.t <'r an p..trn

.m.! .tdapm ,Ultlll I nun.! ,\ l\l

,

mc.iium or l.lll!

rOl.,1 !;!Ith nl

~u(h

tenz!"s nlLlst ,

tl)

2,'

uJ"

r

--

_.

-.

-'

1" .1\ III mu.II,. 'r'l It· ItI· r" 0 I J 'I1n,," . Wl10 gives ~1 '(·.l _~l bd~cd on hi.'; SlOlkptl' g of n all. looJ, or /olllh .•",J I", <"Unlrol O\'CI f,n1lly J"cI mhcr lobor. Simply sccm. 10 be h I III rllCl ro I Ilr n.'.\I" I· j:<°nr,.lJazed •. hllntc,'/ gatherer eXiStence. These rac(or~. ... "" ay ,I,'mum 10'lhe re I.HI"") I , J' perhaps even mechaOlc"l. shanng of fOOd bc. . I 01,Il1lrv I

rWt"tm hUIJ(t"r g~Hh('rt'r SOCIJJ ulIJrs-

In

.JJdHlon ( 0 t I1C.!liC

/..le lors . . Ihe besr·documented ex,'mple of speclJI", . ~J foo 0 ds

bClIlg l'on~'umeu. 1 (l h C h I nd le" 0 of 1,1
Woodbul n 1~66) seems ro represenl consumpuon ar remore and obSCure Tltual loc.wons. remove d .rOm n orln ,lllivlIlg sites. It IS quesoonable as to whether Su ch . r. 10caClons would be very VIsible archaeologlcaiJy. wherher they would be recorded In ·1I1Y Jrch 3eo log ical. surveys . or whether they . could f mearungfuuy if: be discin . gUJshecl li-om transit encampments on the baSIS 0 conrenlS.

their art actual Or feature

Thus. tf feasong did exisl ar che generalized h~nrer/ gatherer level. it IS not cer. r= thdr Il,e foods Involved were Significantly different /Tom daily seasonal fare. thar there would be any dear hosr or guest relationship. Or that the remains could be IdenuJied archaeologICally. While feasting certamly plays a pivotal role in es. rabJJshmg allJances among more complex cultures. it ~ay be that for generalized

A PROlEGOMENON TO

'Ii" ~ IMPORl"

-

"'Cl Of F(o\11'

re emphasIS on food Storage. ra.dmg ~'" I mo - . "-'ea th icC\J alliances VI' the consumPtIOn Or glVUlg 'w.y or rnlll.tIQn, ''' leas5 -.".,,, -~ •.. I""c<~ ...... ~<>f COS" ~
. of • n"", ho"", '-'j;.~ srallation of major cew wealth Iterns. the nStructlon death the: U1f "-'-' of ..., a~"trotOr anQ . stallation 0 a new a'-'Uwustrator. and mama U1 . . viewed as pnme Opporruruues to display successges Or manuanon ...~" Profit and investment feasts probably also erne wh

"".u

alternatJve social techniques such as marriage, the negotlatmg of kinShip rela.

. amp Ie enough . These mdude Work ~ ft e.. the tnn'e~ surplus base IS '.. "'run r high'expense maturation fi . asts. reQProcal ..... wealth exchange leasts. ''''''l tnd where there is a contractual debt to rerum the amoUnl ' compentl-oet fta, easts. and . . ' . recCJ\'td increm ent or mterest. Similarly. marupulauve Or calarru . .-.. .plUs Hubs~ti.1I

tJonships and dasses. gift giving, and participation in ritual cu lts (HaYden I987). A

occur in transegalitanan . . and more compte., SOQettes.

hunter/ga therers. the forging and maintenance of alliances were dealt With by

great deal more basic resea rch is required dealing with generalized hUnterl gatherers before a dear picrure of fea s ting at this important base level emerges.

~. Ie"ts probably OM Another key component of the new feasrmg ""'c th.t en th

itarian societies is the presence of specialtzed function IS

TRANSfGAlITARIAN HUNTERIGATHERERS AND

HORTICUlTURAlISTS With the emergence of transegalitarian societies (those between chiefdoms and true egahtanan societies), the full range of feasting that has been preViously dis.

cussed becomes established. A range of other developments characterizes rranse. galitanan SOoeoes. These developmems include the production of reuable

surpluses, storage of food and valuables, private Ownership of reSOurces and prod. Ucts. the transfo1/llation of surpluses into prestige items, economicaUy based corn.

petition, and the establishment of contractual debts. It is probably these features thar also make feasting a viable means of transforming surplus food into other de.

slrable currencies such as establishing alliances in order to reduce the risk of starvaoon, attack, and other problems of existence. In fact, there appears to be a major

./tiJi III the types of risk· reducing strategIes

used by generalized huntcr / gatherers

VfTSW tran.cegalJ!arian hunter/gatherers. Generalized hunrcr / garh('rcrs plil(c by

fv the greateJt emphasis on shanng and amanee (ormallcm vIa klrlship ,lIld Iltuals (WIftIner

1981; Hayden 1987). Complex hunter I galht'I"t'rs, III IIlntrasl . pilI Illurh

to

et· \\ltne'

ler, \\1 es Or re '''''1J..

ensure that none of the contra,nu1 debts Jre v._ Co

It'on.""" . e nL

-octt ar

lected, and to ensure that the full value of elevated m.\t"du ", J Ill.Utet f pub lic record. Because the amounts U1 these transaCtIons ,an nn I tI!nt . we frequently find examples of sunple reconimg de 1, , r, utI "ployed. whether m the form of notched sticks, n~m , or , < ,l cords. or clay tokens (Schrnandt.Beerat N' \\ lis ln 196 9:2 14). In fact. gwen the e ethnographl' ,',urren, ,

dlb

~ rth \ n ,I> m ~th numerous cases of "penodll' nOt,loon on b n':UI i lu,h Ih" rt'J'On d by Marshack (1997) might n')t bl' ft'.lStll\~ n I (lilt , 1 \ Ih countmg systems of erhl\\)gr.lphi, Iran • htalUll , th hun nature of European Upper Palcol!tlu, m. 1l"

dreds and Ihou ..lIlds. I:,r b, •"'",\ Ih' 1 hunter I gJrht'l'l'rS

num r n I !tm(1

worth t'ml'h.hi II1g J~ IU'. th~1 t N srrJI"gtt's liS".! IO,h h,,'\ 1'" 16, It h.,ul:l ml Iht, ,hftl'I't'1\t 1"<'hl1l \11". ""I 11 1 'I I nHxl'd 111 o1\kr hI m\1I Ih I Ih I 1\l1I~ INlli1 1ll.1!tOIl 01 kln-hll'lt· ,Ih ,I II sO'1I11 1111'1 1I1 ,111.1 h, 111m It

IS

8ndIT IljJ),..1rr1

f'~pCCJ.1Jh'

d to play Importanr subSlruary roles m feasts _wM. feastIng II I nrua a len h /un L.

. r suppornng role ohcn pJa.r s an lmporr.m central focu.!i

In

events were

sJ.JJP or ntual

IS

the

CH'EFDOMS AND EARLY STATES . There a.re" un d ou b te dl y additional permutaoons_ and developments of feasting _L che emergence of duefdom and state-level societies• I eventS thac rake pace WlUJ , Cluelaoms, espea'all~ are probably much more variable in both organizational and ' chan I had initialJy assumed (Hayde n [995:64), feasnng cb aracrensocs _. On . the basis ~ (.or instance i[ seems rhat an Important disnncuo n should o f Laura Junker's d a,,:>, be md d e berween -Le UI soaopolitical dynamics of territory-based versus Jabor-based I

duefdoms Ocher discincnons, especially those related to the population size of

J constdenng the cnteria In Table:t I th rd eo re _ . c. ~u u. 'ble [0 IdenoJ) the level of Involvement of pOSSI , ~cal record There tQ some _ _ ~ m~y tI\s:b umented m prelustory. espeCIally In the Euro~ 11 , doc . . .....>1\ eohthic ..-b , d remams of speCIallzed nature have been found fro en ,DO _ m nt () Or bs and associated Wltb causewayed enclOSUres th (Orn _ Or Q a nr .. tS (Bradley 1984: Hedges 1984) There are manv oth ' en rn • ~r "3mpl . this volume . The earliest clear CVldence ll\ world p \. ..• Ul ~Ul.:i.on: I'" HalIan Ce[l1l (Rosenberg and Davis 1992 ' -

duefdoms, are also undoubtedly importanr, However, the complexities of the iSsue (nor che least of willcb is how to discinguish between complex transega1irarian soaenes and duefdoms see Miller and Boxberger [994) require more derailed conSJderanon chan IS possible here. Nevertheless, it is dear thar major changes in

terms of culrural evolueon. Lt IS probable tlut r.,a, , ~ sO me Upper Paleolirluc rransegalitanan. faunallv nch -and dr; . S such as Alrarnrra Cueto de la Mma Cookev' Of e~ ~ Site • _,

feascng bebavior rake place with the transition from transegaJirarian

also occur In relacvely afiluent Ep'paleolithk rr>n~",llUnm Cemi (Rosenberg and DaVls 19<12) ..nd som< i~ 'U , However, In most of these ca e. feason!; Ius ~m doe

soaeaes. We may nor be able

to

stratified

to identiJY all these changes or provide coherenr

ex-

planaaons for them ar this point, bur ir does seem thar changes in the scale and funccon of feasts broacb new dimensions in many chiefdoms and early srates such as dIScussed by KeI1y. Kircb, Junker, Dietler, and Scbmandr-Besserat, In particular the prerext of feascing seems to be manipulated by chiefs and elites in early states in

[n

servation), If so,

I!

should come as no surpftSt that "vod

unusually large scale and someomes spea.llltX~n not particularly rlifficult whether the

e..X1

,dentil)' .lS felSb Tb rul

to

tence of ,maller S<:lle f<


t

order to collecr surpluses from the populace (alluded to by Pat Kirch [1984:263J and

eot lunds of feasts .lt sever.lI '(ale, of >tU .:an

dealr Wlth ID more decail by Laura Junker, Michael Dieder, and Denise Scbmandt-

posslb,ury that some Ic.lsttn~ loCI "~re epl

Besserat m this volume and by Urry [1993] for New Zealand), The feasts held at Mesoamenean ballcourrs and documented by Fox (1996), may weU have served a rurular function , This change appears to coinade with the holding of feasts on preVIOusly unheard-of scales of size, generating enormous amounts of speCIalized feastIng refuse The speCtacular 65,OOo-cubic-meter Bronze Age feasting I11Jdden at E35t Clusenbury near Stonehenge is probably only the first of rhis type of deposit [0 be recogruzed (McOmish 1996). This is a prime candidate for remams of chleny level tnbute feasts. The feastmg refuse that fills cLtches surrounding British cause. wayed enclr)$ures probably represenrs earlier versions of tribute feasts among maller Uue(df)ms, F(" now; however, I WIll umit my discussion fO transcgabtanan

(eastmg. wuh whIch I am m()st famtllar

cred areas, as with kl' ,b Idcnnh ID, wc

wul concrntr,lIt: (In S1(U.lU. n, \ th < rJ.~r

Intcrm"dl.llelz < f"J,ttll" \\uh

P"~

,.,'1

\f,

,dcnlJfy f"a

...

IIIlK I'VI'IUS III

1111'

aI' h,,,',,III";11 ,11

ut

I

klOd, or ICJIUrn, '(rtI(,lllr,,1 r nuln, Ilfir.l[101l of

g hlh.. I

(11

lion "IWlh"1 h,\tI"h"I.I,

,/I

the hllll,dlUld """llIhl.,· he tht' nlllsl

u

PH'''' 1.'."1111 I.

,p"(I,lllm.IlIl\t1' ,uch ,"

.t

11\\,,,1\

11 '\

'rc:-t.u,

there are no rooJ ",m.lIn, mp""': n d r

"l'p.1I III

la!; Iu

Ih llh

~r\ h~

I

Illhll ll\lI l (1'1'11,1, 1'1 \1> .1

ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSTELLATIONS OF FEASTING TRAITS l/l'Tt. I would lIke (I, f'X.m'n~ ,L .•., ' I c ",mt !}fll." ,,1'11111 tulm 1/1 "JSllng IIt.1I flllgltl 1'1,' Ickntlfll1bJr III thl! arch.. t( I" I ' d " I "'",1I11 rt /f,r .WVl/3 h.slI '1IU'MIIIIl' 1I<'l,d III Ilt' ,Id

La

III

It ~'(1Il

I

1

11 ",\U'-'h \ ~II.I ,1/1.1 lu<),1

['I

I allull 11\ p~I\I'

'I

I

Ill •

I

h

(l I

I

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h I

-

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o lcis or commun1Ut'.s md th~t the "s"hwhere there an: bN h' Iy CCTanu Uld hO'" g.lI oped w e W ould "-'Peet 10 find Nst<Jg1"ams of lOgs· atlon . and servmg vessds to ahlbtl '$ me: de ar prep (e g Cla rke s .uta 10 Chapter, FI dalIry " ,, O ro lZe b etween the mo.ie os wen ... u.., nee U1 s fere ch relanve SIZe of the feasnng group, and the neer e re [lIlg .or c the h ousehold, corporate reSlden« co~.~.. aS fe °t Haus'eh o lds that dJd not host "gmfico.nt orn" uTU ' w o uld b e expected to ha- e ununoo..a\ I vel feasts e " must b e kept Il1 mmd that 11\ earl 0 =.u However, essels m ay h ave been u,-""d for • ..,t prrp;on ceranuc v b ' Clark and Gos er I99'S _uch \CIUIl t" 1995 al' ssel-slZe cUscnbutJons as \\ cl! rood ye Where domesticat ed ammals are u, for u e n nes of vanou> SIZed and a, q fr tiona[e e

,< ,

d with a parncular household, aSS0C13re , 0 f vanOU' kinds of feasts, etch r and SIZe

F.gure 2 ,2 , StOrage of oversized food-preparanon vessels and extra serving vessels used for feasang ID the household of a Yao village headman , The Occurrence of large sizes and Iugh frequencies of serving or preparation vessels clearly .dentifies this household as involved ID major feasting acov"'es.

where cra rual and 10 " -unht.,. bone. l' hold members w ere guest, "here bon rrm ah reClpro,,1 tea:nn. " ul.! nate . aIth ou e' bones). Th<,oren~alh, th· f\! nh low-u till) I

che r.ea t -should be Th" relatllln,h,l' ca} obser\'anon~ e .g. h e had l r sus \\ J

On the basis of ethnographic observations among the Maya and the Akha. it appears thar, m general, only households rhar regularly hosr feasrs of a certain size acquire vessels and containers appropnare for rhar sIZe feast For mfrequent feasts of unusual SIze, the food-preparation and serving needs of particular households are generally mer by borrowmg the requIred materials. Of course. care must be taken to differentiate food-preparation and servlllg vessels from storage vessels,

but thIS should not present a major problem m most cases. In some cases, I he fine qualiry (IC decoratIon of serving vessels makes it abundantly cleal 111.11 re ll .ll11 wares were pnmarily used In feasting contexts, for examp le [he Peltl1 Poly chr(,mes (If the Maya , rhl: Kamares ware of Cret!' (Day Jnd WtlSOIl 1'I'IHl , III ,!ht'r

ca

1$,

Ihe ("(JlIIPXli and d'sl t ,buflfms of ren.llIl

W
' le IS

prol:>Jl:>h' a i"

(,{ (; it

f

CJ(t/f>fJ

nng v

d

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/I

11 lIly 1.\11 lI'd ,",1 Ill.

4.

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reslden(c . . the t «(urr.. n, of JtC ' ''l cJ 1•.\ I ' ,\\''(. ' -n n''''~l (\)fl\fl\\..ll\ . It n l t

clle' " lur 1<''''lItt ' Kc b.I'IS vi
Ii.,o,l w,,<·I, .11111, .11'pt.1I

III

011

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li lT 1\

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lor cx.101ple Iht Nt

I till

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till' 1.11111111

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.111 11,1\',,1111'11.,1

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III allY "V/Ill, 1"1 11 ,. MIIIII' IlIr III1W IIt ,II 1311

bl ,\ t

occurnng 10 ,' 01.\\1 , r 101
(,hr c r,p,(JVcd liar' (,f tl" H/llls), hl/· (';11"".111 l'JIW55J or l' lI'IIPt'.11l 11I'.lke" .,1t: {, ii ling

I'<

III

I

-

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Figure 2·4 The mulnple outsIde hearths m.de for. T. Oi ~ Note the locatton only a few mete", from the rur of tho \ n. guests were served

F.gure lJ For large feascs such as thIS Hmong funeral, multiple oucs.de hearths are [he 'YP.cal solution co prepanng large-scale meals One hearth nor bemg used occurs In the foreground; [Wo others In use occur belund .t No[e also [he very large sIZe of food·preparatlon and servmg vessels on the hearths. on the ground, and on the [able

by posrulanng tha, sohJancy feasts \\~11 olt(n ~ the 1-

just cliscussed serue, or that u mey do. their feasts probably most closely resemble what I Would caU ~olldamy feasts. In many (bUt perhaps not aJJ) sohdaricy feasts, there seems to be mlrumal attempt at expendmg large amounts of resources or consuming spc. clal frJods, there IS lmle ostentaoous display, and a/J partiCIpants often make equal (fJlltnbuuon5. Thus, these feasts should be minimally differentiated from daJ/y meals, and may only differ from them 10 terms of sizc Thesc characteristics kan Cfmmtent With what we currently knllW about generalized hunter/galh er 1 CJ,mmun~1 meals. Allh Iranitg
" " "'/0:

JrTUOIly

Ith

~I~(-,.~I h"lJnMI( pnIlClpl,.\ Ihal I1 I

,an 1)('

Ill" WJIIS,,, fJ wh" It 11'1)'"1<' I.If ,I'I\l'I mplJJ(ill d.illl, Idll" ((" lit. IC' VJ It 1.11 '"'' W,·, ,1111>'"1,':11'. lil>l,

~"d

.50

Second, there ,s probably a n:lanonshlr b t\, cost of presuge I d,splJY 'terns t)n th~ Oil han , compelltlon Involved In th~ [c,l.t"'" th, tb, r h ... levcl or at Ihe Inlcr(ummumt 1,·\ 1 \rn. n t

qllcntly seems

l()

b~

unl)

.1

It.,,,, fit

h

hOllschukl WCJllh "' \",111" .. 11''''' r In hIS .1Il.,ly\" nf th,' \1..1", Ih"" I \, u-,

,l11'Jnrcs (usu"I" h.",.\ ,,"l..ll\,hll' nl0~t IIllptH lit\{ \UHt

"I \ nlll

,hl·m'I'lv..-. "1\ I, h,,"

III

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/4. PROUGOMlNON TO lkt 1MPOR1AH' -E

-

_.'-

~

--

"Us

ual -household level (Hayden and Cannon I~' _ ,,~ d Indl\fl ~..... .... rut c 's the fact that such matenal. as the (oods d c portan ." PU-Op . h different levels and rypes of feasting e:ust.t.U '-d th Wit . ...... c:n. t ''''erentially disrnbured among the socnl uruts Wllhin • aw' d f th ~,;" t. b"-~dOtl initial perusal of the \jterarure indicating that the purposeful d~tructl n t wealth items (versus personal use) Items vu breaka~e bu C~ . . • ~~ll\_ ~_'bun'al (in offenngs or graves), or submersion mdeep \\aler, m., UIU):cur Inrhe context of competitive feasts. Thus. the Occunence of de'tro\td aim.,

-

Figure 2.5 A doseup of the food-preparation area in Figure 2.4 shOwing several hearths 10 use and the large food-preparation vessels.

ernptified by the burned Liangzu bunal offenn", In Guru \1I'nrn 1-191 th bronze wealth objects dropped in Bntish nven; Or bo~ SraJle t the hi valued Northwest Coast coppers dropped mlo the ,ea. ilnd nun other e pies, can probably be used to distingwsh sunple !,romon n~\ od t feasting from the more elaborate compeuu\'e rea rrng fO"'I> Th pre,,'o quency, and relative cost of major wealth Item, m.W I be ~ rn, a'ur gree of surpluses and competitivene tmohcJ m e~,tu\

poor or poutically isolated families could be disenfranchised or even enslaved or killed for minor transgressions or disputes with rhe more powerful. Thus, individual households generally seek alliances wirh rhe strongest lineage (o r orher) network open TO them, and it is in rheir interests TO see that the lineage is

A possible fourth pnnciple is relaled ro ;peculiz

feasrs can be for purposes of commuruf) .obJ.in feast-related actlvmes charactenze thl>
I

strengthened as much as possible. Therefore, they make substantial contribu-

It seems po slble that

tions TO alJ lmeage marriage, funeral, house building, and orher feasts, and they partiCIpate ID rhe many lineage solidarity feasts.

than erected only for smgle . t'nt' , rn,l\ n'

In terms of feasting, this results in rhe major promotional and competitive loci

tive or promonon.11 (Clr perh,lp. "

enurely dc,\t lll'lll Ih. "Ihll\"

phernalIa but not necessarily be the most wealthy or rhe most powerful house-

cnnstlll(tl'd Pi im,ml

hrAd

tht ,1Ihl" h.1II\\. th "I

dJHrcss sl)me archacl)logists. Yet, from an archaeological perspective, such

pI

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I

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((,rdanre r)f malenal wJth t'Cl)nomJC, SOCIal, and political roles of lI1uivldu,ll

pin

huu$(:hlAd IS 0,.1 '){ rnlJeallmplJl rann', since Wt' know JIlIOO wl'll lh,1\ v,llying

II Ill<" lIld 11\\\\.\1 11 I un.!, 1'1 Ilhllll • I ! I I

I

th 1 I t

11 \

\

rOI1-

and IIidlvldual ldll,SYII( raslt's 'It JII' ,I /.:n·.1I d(',11 of v,lIl,thdllY ,11 Iht'

Ih

J11mistrators of 1.1rg' gl mlp' 'u, h ,11Il

leve/. The faer that IDdJVidual households may exhibit elaborate feasting para-

clan or community (although this is often the case) can

f

n 11I,m,

Exactly how Itnc.lg< 1t',1'lmg
th(: hneage or

,

_trudurr .. ,

occurring at lineage or community levels rather than at rhe nuclear household

In

hn,

Uul

,.

r lh

,tru::t\lr(

m., UI

motion , or community compennon. 11

1

.111.1 \\"1\111 . 1l\\I, hill

1

I

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n

- -

'1/14111 1I.,\·,lnl

-~--• A PROU.GOMlNON T'J THE ~MpOR . , _ ~A~~ Of HA\1

occur as

J

rule- wlthm norm.!l rcstdenct."'S

• Wl

than perhaps shghtly I,rger ordmary prep.r.t ,

th

O'Ut

If:)n an

src d

p r

131

r

rvtng

is

Where surplusc!FI arc hmltcd. alliance feast b _ s Ct91cc:n Un 01. '" t ""m murunes may also be mm,maUy dlSUnCtivc m lh .. ' r , .01.1. p esl1ge UCrt'h ' t T" bt: used for dIsplay or for servmg, although amm.ls f o greater va\u.e could cl to accommodare the larger numbers expected h ID sue CU'cum!>tilJ1ttS. Another ~ seance where aruma\s of unusual value mIght b d e USe as part of sollJ.umo k.." . is the large-scale commumry meal m wluch all Int dh , creste o~hol~ nu. mbu tlons to obtam an unusually large domesnc arum I h ~ 'il sue a~ a w.~ p1.g T bull. The ammal can be lulled at a cenrrallocanon bu th . .. _ • t e. me-at,. often dl"J up accordmg to mruVldual household fmanual con .... bu · I th .... , nons. n _ou e
I I I

household members take the meat back to their house ' , . ~ lOr coo mg il.t'l onsumption wIth no vu/age,wlde communal meal , although con"dera I -Inn often occurs, Arumal horns or manrubles from such commun aI mt , .U-e U~u.w ,_" ·

FIgure z 6. A \ '.. mamese Imenge shrine used for lineage feasrs , Only Iugh ~ rankmg lineage men us. the mlenorof tillS scrucrure for feastmg and nrua/s, Women, chudren, and low~ ranking IIneagr members ear rhelr meals ou[slde the strucrure .

(•• snng evems mto a number of broad categories, Four such categories might conSISt of

saved and placed in pronunem locations such "" rhe ,'ill'ge p"<st, or he dlll,m, house m order to eltsp/ay the communiry 's abUlry to sponsor such nb F\~, ~_ and 2 ,8), As far as I know, beyond tIus sunpl. COrporate d.spl.1y, pn"n~ ,tem,.l'<' no t assooated WIth such sohdariry feasts Small- and m eruum-sized work feasts probably sh.re mol 0 rh- rn." n>l characteristics of sohdanry feasts~ As w,th commuml) fe"" man' h."" I'r bly seek to mmimize costs and mIght nOt u>e pre,n!=.e ,er 'ltIg., ,-,', I workers, especially if they dra" mamh on kmshlp n 'to "',\'UI! "'t f ' L • some cornmumry sohdanty feasts, work fe.1Sts ;Omeom , r a, III ,lllllSU.! locations (forests or spnngs) . On the other h,lnJ. . Itch., I munication) has observed th'l as the number

creases beyo nd the near km group, gn:.t r m.renal

1. MINIMALLY DISTINCTIVE FEASTS There are no archaeological examples of muumally cllstincnve feasts proposed in tlus volume, However. er/mographically, at least at some leve ls, solidarity fea sts

are mlfl1mally cllsnnctive . Most generalized hunter /ga therer feasts are probably mInimally cllsnnctive as well. In these cases, only the size of [he food -preparation and er\'mg matenals may differ from dally meals,

as

well perhaps

as some

food

sprCJes 1)( mmimally higher value (chIckens, ducks, rabbits, small pigs), There arc

usually hlgh -qu.lltt} foous .ithl set\m~

{~II par

((pr

ohm,won {ea

(5.

and pOSSIbly pUJ1JShmenl fl.'aSls

fur whllh .1.11,1 MC

Given the mgl< evelll and unfi"nl' I'1l n,lI ure of pUJ1Ishmell( f(',lst" ,IS

a rh or

pe(/ple) Imeage sl)lldanry feases of rhls type , as well as dyadlc friendship

likely

de

Ire

well

'Jr the g IV('! (0 111111111111.(" ("(ISls, hllle 'peu,11 foud prt'jl.1l ,lIlun

rvmgparaphcrnOllu wl)uld hI t'X1'Ct"II'd trIll(' lI\(' d fOI 11Illll,hll1t' 1l1 fr.ISIS," lhmugh borrowmg ' VrJllll lldt'l ,lI l' ~II.I IIJ){,,'W ' , ,,hd,llilY " ",,1. l"IOh.lbll'

54

1

du.

provided to artract the required number ,lr e. p< rt:

nu

'U\ t

Th,

un

'<'"

bn encercammenr or treJt; m.w be pn\\\,\ ,\ Thl' I I t , ' m hi classed wtth promotlon.,l k,tsls m It to" \

r mal

2, PROMOTIONAL' ALLIANCE f E A. T' Although mdl",lll,11 f.lImh,', 'r,II"'1 1\\ 1\ "",

many bmall-bcale (less rhan 10 people) household and moderate-sized (,lbolll ICI- 'j0

t It'quiI'!'d,

.\t\', III

lun

~"

1

I

f I

th I ,11\.1 11",,',11>1, l,b'\I \ I' n"I' 1\1111 III Ih Ill" ,1\ ,111,,\11, , 1''' ," ' 11\ 11\ t 11" h

r

"'m,, ,Inll,.'n.llll 11"

,IS ",",' I hI'" "'1,1,111"

~h\)\ll"

I

n 1\1 In I bt

son.11 gnllll' .11 1,1t ,,' """ '[,'1'1." " Thl'lc

nal

1'tl\

'lU n,

I

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h

'" P fW LE C. 0 MEN O_"_T..:O'-.:T'-.:":.::l..:'"';::P t) RT _

~(£ ..0' FEA\l "'le.

-

-

~

Preparation vessels, sc.rvtngc ves~tls. and pcrh~p. L~n t.mom-.~ ~ nmlcally ch.rocten>:e t h.se ,easts. Such fcas' ••1 d < ---, -I r ~ so t.." to b typified .... of assoCiated ntual paraphernal .. used to mdlCat h VI • c . e t at _Lp.nlapanu '!1c an4 derS(and the same ,e.sttng convennons and recoon .,. _12< Ule «mtuctuoln.tlUr\: debts mcurred by accepting ,nVltatlOns to feasts S h . . ~ uc par.phernalio1 loci tems such as pipes and the ntual .hanng of tobacco .. ~_ I smO""'g~,_ ~ ptaal, fur the consumption of alcoholic Or Other dnnks like cbo I . . co ate:, Pr..d.~ or coffee: c ' D ieder 1990) , and other ntuallzed n.rcottc paraphemal C . la. ommuml)' ..tlian.:. and promononal feasts are probably indistman"hable fr I b~ Om tnc-agr-. Or cbn~ sponsored promotional feasts In terms of size and mate I. . . na Signature a1
e: a~OC1ate Wlt some levels of this type of feasting. Large household-sponsored work feast' household or lineage investment feasts, (such as maturation feasts far duldren In u-

wealthy families), as well as diacritical feasts as discussed In Ch'pter 3 and o,.t1.r ([99 6 ), may be archaeologically indistingwshable from promooon..1feasts e\ 'ept perhaps for size. Several of the archaeological examples In tlus volume prob.bl~ represent promotional and alliance feasting, in particular, the ~laya hne .. ge fusting and ritual structure documented by Brown and
to

indicate other feasong compon~nt. 'uch a. mbllt

r

3. COMPETITIVE FEASTS These feasts have all the matena! charactensocs of r lOll t1 nal

,, , m

even more and more costly presage ltems. m,lre pn:'o " times inrenrionally destroyed hlgh ~,·"luc \\c.llth u\'rn • FJgure 27 (top). Water-buffalo horns from feasts are frequently displayed on the houses of the sponsonng mwviduals Here. an Akha village head has placed horns from communlly feasts on the walls of his house as a wsplay of communiry prosperlry. In other groups, such as Tora)an rommunltles In Sulawesi, horns are dJsplayed on houses to Indl ~te ho~hold (lr lJn~age wealth Figur~ 2 8 (bottom) Pig mandJbles are also conserved alit'r maJlcr r. uu and used to dJ~play hou,chold. lineage, and sometImes commlllllry 3ctJVJtJes, aJ m Irll Akha admJnJstr,1l0(·S hOllst

rate, permanent, specialized stru,turcs fo, IC,I>tIll!!

\

,t pt' " I I ,\ ,1tI '

.ll

Philippine feasts IIkcly IIlcllldcd (nmrClIII\ . r,'J'I . ~1'\" I th '1\1' [I,m ( nese porce\ollll W
10),

There IS bound to h< hlm"ng b,'I\\,' ')\ lh' Ib, \ pluses become .lbllnd,llll. \\ Indl

111.1\

I .1.1 hI III

cess III k,"IS Ih.11 ,11\' 1\11\.1.1111< \\I ,lilt pI ,\"

T

III

.\ 11\

son.11 group 111 t.h I, II 1".11\ 101 ill1,i I pilI f, l'\'\'11 tl1<' " ' 111 ,11 1" 1,,"\1 "'1\11\1\11\\1\ ",h,bll "'nll III hllll h." ", '\"I'\.I\ ",1111 lb. 1\\111111\11

t

,

1\

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Ilh \\

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A PA()l H,,<;,ML Ch T) Ht

-

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l.llncd through w(,I]k re ts f· - al~ m{"nt, to rnampul .. tc people: Gnd perhOlfK

I

.

:no.

r-

r

'lng IS prob.bly 'h< malO ~yn.mu: [.e'G. b. tcchnol"g"'" especaUy the dC... _IOPiUt:ht PrCSlI!!;C ,

4 , Fea

4 TRIBUTE fEASTS . I . II clllrancnzc chlefdum and early 'tatc Icveb of Th,,\( le"l' pro ,.1 , Y • f rh. . '" n'~a . . , thJn Jny other type 0 least. T ey MC held · I . . . at regu non They mJY be rJr a.gcr , I · cl shm.ld be as .ncluslve as poss.ble wahln a llr cJkndncaJ rnlt.'rv,l!i all . gIV(:n . , I k 'Iy .hJt wea lth cI.str-ibut.on would be common Since the 'JullfY I•• c,'m> un' ' I d gOal , , . • much surplus as poss.b e. an to sequester as I of lhcse {cast' IS 10 amass a. argo a .. ossrblc for elite use . These types of feasts probably gen .. proportron 0 f P .' ,rate rood refuse due 10 the large-scale consumpt.on of mOSt { J lar~c amounr 0 " . SUr· plus food by the populace .n order to motivate them to suppOrt the ehtes and . r 1i bute {cascs are Itkely to be tnttmately ued to ntuals hono . .nbuce IcaHS. n . '. nng many cases are assoclaled w.th monumental Struclures d In d polny dCIUCS an . an h chose delocs, Schmandt-Besserat makes a convinCing W C d spaces a!'iSOCh1Ce I .. .. case for mbute (easts 10 Sumer (Chapter 14). and s.mllar events may be represented by Kclly's CahokJan feasts (Chapter 12). rhe large ~ntJsh Neohth.c and Bronze Age (ea'ttng mJddens previously mentioned (McOmJsh 1996). and large-sca le feaStIng

<"".

rl."

rematns at Incan s.tes (Morns '988),

PRINCIPLES AND CONClUSIONS The major points that r wish to make abour feasttng can be su mmarized as follows : . , The lugh cost of some feasLS. rhelr widespread occurrence. and the.r per sislence over t.me rndlcate that feasts are probably adaptive in an evolutionary and cui rural ecological sense 2 Feam are techmques for transJormmg surpluses tntO SOCially. economIcally. and poltticaJJy useful currencIes that can be used LO further inulvldu,ll and

J

lhc domr..5l1C'aw)n fir plant.s and '",mills 5 Pcasong In lranscgahlan;ln and olhtl (0 . calcd qn the production and wc uf econr

'11.>u p~ type, I "" I , ~11Ue urp ence and magnItude of "oragc f.rrhnc:s should b.. nl t rntcO>Il)' of fcasllng The great« the SUTnlll .L • r- KS. w~ glQ coS[ and frequency of preslIgc ".ms, P'dllg<: foods,!>Tt

,eis, and pOSSIbly feastrng archltcctUn: A)"., .... Ul , ta ~ greater ,he expected promouonaland cOIllI< ~ n 6 Peasung IS probably not a prnmtn.nt p.rt of gen.:uhud h behavlor T The larger the feast and the larger the surplu5P$ the e et food and good. IS expected to be, cu1mma1Ut In tm, tion of weal ch rn compeuuve feasts . 1'hu se.: support d graph.c srudtes and srudtes of modern tnattrul ~ Wtlson and Ram]e Ul thIS volume 8 Peasnng may also be strongly ImplicateJ an th clal -funcnon archlcecrural structures in tTlt 9 As m most archaeolog.cal mqum . m, e!in behav.or or ~OCla1 or~alllzallon an: t U ~t craStes of pcopk. hlslOl'). pre "'dtlOn. .ull!' and InterprclatlOn How., r, It .·houIJ ~ the many contrtbullon, III thr, lum , not rCstn({~d III a rngle Itn of ,den h type, of data. both thl'Ort'tl a1 nd """-I.

,IOU rnvc'tl~al" the pf"Iu'1 n cndo,sl' the tt'" uf ,n m hn fe.l,tmg .. ,'d 10 metaphu. It " 11", , nil 1((1, IO~It:

and disttncllvc capabIlItIes Ihat distinguIsh humans from th .. n'sl of thl' an (ma) world ,

1Il~ to ' • •'ppl,' \\ IIh thIS I'd

III \lllh IIISh d"I'loUt,ll1\

mg malCJ, help in cmtrg('Il( I('S Jlld fJlaSlropht", ,lilt! III p"htit.d lIml.1I1

lit" 'tlll tl.Oll

and pCllpl1' I'easllllg III-l]ut'ntly "Ill'nllt' hy t"t.,hlt,ltlllg

Ilmg t('rrn '" (alIII" and drillS dlth'"lglt 1I1lttlt d.,llt' 1H'lIclit 'If' "lit,,, I,h

JI

\

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rth

01 It

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lit IUS 111\

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nn

'll~ru~

.11hl pn h,lP' I'

via feaslS rh"r gIve hllus('holus dnd Irnl'.Iges JdvJllIage~ 111 w,.rf;m', "ll)t111 over rCMlurtcs

UI

rn~

group sclf.nreresl and survIval. Th.s appears to be onc of the mosl umque

In rransega)ltanan socierics. clear adaprivc adv3nragcs (.In bc' c~tabltshl'U

l __

11

It

t

•

•

rhnograp hy have nor been of great Service t e J rhropology an 0 al'ch. In I ems cl,ar [he future development and validat ' eOlog,s In thIS respecr t se IOn of a Is . 'ples relared to feastrng must be undertaken by eth CClr rat .. nd n:IrJble prtna . nOarch • rh te ethnographers. There IS a great deal of lrt aeolo. 'lstS or s\rmpa e I .. . erattJre: !; cl' raplues. bur most of It has debliJtatlng gaps that rend . On the roplC III e wog ' . er It of . rchaeological purposes. For mstance. despIte the g min. fa Imal vJlue r a . reat ""eal .' New Guinea feasts. there are no published p lans of fi . th or descnpoons on ' . easttn s indrca rion of the loca tlOns of feastmg or food-prep . g trut. ny rures or even a ' . aratlon f . . -" roasting pits for fea sts. PoUy W,essner prOVIdes sOme f acu. loes suU' as 0 the f1r . ID ' tlus volume. The task for ethnoarchaeologists and eth se I rl usaatlOns nogra h t it is not tOO late ro launch su ch an undertaking T h P ers bu S IS enormou . . e ga the . . ampI e testJrnony . of rrunds represented in tlus volume rs to the interest and nng reooal relevance thar the future srudy of feasting holds for us all.

A PROLEGOMENON TO lH{ !MPORTA ... C.t.

or: ft"~l"r.

Byrd Bnan Th~ NafuJian Encatnpm~1 JUtb.nd Archa~Q\og&al

1989

Denmark.: Aarhus Uruversny 'Press. ohn and De:nis Gosser k J Clar • . . . 1995 Reinveomlg Mesoamenca s FtTSt POtt~t')'. In ~ ["Wigmu "f by W. BarnettandJ Hoop ••. pp. 209-UI Wa lun~on DC stiruuon Press.

Condorrunas. Georges 1977 We Have Earm the Forcst. New "ork; Hill and \"\'J.ng

conkey, Margaret The Identification of PTehistonc Hunu~.r Gathc.tt:t A.~ _ n~ s"u . . Case of Altlmtra Current Anth.ropology u:609 6}O.

1980

Po-

Cowgill. George 1996 population, Human Nature, Knov.mg Acto~. anJ Exrbmtng th~ ComplelUry In D
. .~\ { ond

[l.,.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My SUlceresr gratirude is extended to Ralana Maneepraserr and Cbantabo on SUtrh.i · . Chi ang Mat,' Tb a il and. as weU a (fOr_ mer Drrector) of the Tnbal Research Insatute In s to Professor Chang Quoc Vuong. Director of the Vietnamese Culture and Ecology Pr . ogram at HanOI National Universiry. Their unselfish sharmg of knowledge and help in ViSiting tradi_ r:ional Hill Tnbe comrnuruties was invaluable in opening my eyes to the realities of Hill Tnbe culrure and feasting. Funding for these investigations was provided by the SOda] Sdence and Humaruries Research Council of Canada.

DaltoD . George Aboriginal Econorrues ID tateless oaeo~ In Ex.."iI.4JI.~ " \tc'n\S '" 1977 edlled by T Earl. and J Encson. pp 191-=_ ow \or·· ."Cl < f't< Oat. Peter M .. and David E. WlIson

..

Corrsuming Power Kamares \\ =

1998

ID

!'n.',

r~btl.ll

72:350-35 8

Dietler. Mlchael

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e')IIS< lUll

f

\vUI

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,\ '" rt 11 .1"

u

I

/It·,s. AIJII'IuI'y 71 .HIO RIO

.",U I.I'~JI·1 '''1' IkVl'lol'tJlI'llI

I.,) ", [h" M, 'K' ,11, '" rtt k" " I •,I

(71,~ 8~

\\)\('\"

Shal p. I "'nry S 11,,1." If,1 . . "N·t

D

(.rl~1 r}Jfr""III~li'''1

"n ,,,,,,'1Il Ii.\~{".

,)h'~t

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The EvolutIOn of the PolynWQn Chlefdoms Cambndge' CambrIdge UniverSIty

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1997

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11

11

Ih14'" 11"",Ir"

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Theoretical PerspeclIve

'h~V'SlfCd

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L.lkc Tlncaca Ba si - n R. a.l sed p.

An,'q""Y 5:312-332

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\'1rn Abundance In Map! rllt Hunur. cruled by R L \1/.1.,.n(' 1068 oplng \: . ee and 1 Dcvo • C c

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THEOR\Z\NG THE fEAST

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n Master of ArtS ThesIS. Department of Anthropology. Univers,cy of Auckl 'bo , .

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Voss.)oachJm and The Pob[lcS of po rk and Riruals of Rlce; Rewstribuove Fe.sti 19 7 .. ng and C 8 mowry CIrculation In Norchern Luzo n . che Philippmes. In Beyond 0",. . er " An'hropology. edited by J Clamm . pp. tll- 14' New York.. St ', £Coll N""

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. 4V1ar·

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no 's Press. \\'tessner. 1977 PoUy H.<aro A RegIonal Sysrern of Reclprociry for Reducing Rlsk am ongthe K San ph.D. Dlsserranon. Deparon ent of Anchropology. Uruversicy o f Mlch Ung 198.

199 6

gall. Ann Arbor. I· 1 Beyond v-rUlow Smoke and Dogs' Taus. American Antiquity 47: ]1-t78 . . on che Starus Quest in Foragin g SOCleties Leveling che Hunter: Consaaints . In Food and the SUlCUS Quest. edited by P. Wiessner and Wulf Schi e,enhovel r .. . pp. 1]1-19 2 . Oxford; Berghahn Books.

•

Wtlson. N , and A Towne 197 Nisenan . In Handbook of North American [l1dums, Vol. 8. California. edited by R.

8

Heizer. pp. 387- 397. Washmgton. D.e.: Snuthsoruan Irutirution .

Wmterhalder. Bruce 199 Sodal Foraging and che Behavioral Ecology of Intragroup Resource Trans·

6

fers Evolunonary Anthropology 5 (2): 46-:57

woodbum.James

196 6

Van. Xuang

199 6

Tht Hadza (film). London ' London School of EconomICs . Tht Flow of Gifts Stanford. Stanford UniverSIty Press .

bhavl. AmotZ. and Av'lshag Zahavl

1997

Tht HandICap PnuClplt . Oxford' Oxford UniversIty Press

an.,lyuc.,1 ruhn, u' J I" ,I< n m' the commun.,1 consuml'n,'" oi i,l' \ h\ nil 1111pOftant soo.,1, eClllwnll, .. 1" htl,;}\ t wOI.1t1 As lh,' (h.II'I'·" "' thl> ,11111\ ' tt~'1

"Feast" IS an

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FEASTS. POLITICS, AND ARCHAEOLOGY rIltr" h,I\ h('I'11 II1l1ch WIIII I'11 'l'(I' J1tiy ,lbulIl th e m 'et! to deVelop a praClIce,

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I~QI1.I :

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cump" ' , ' •• SImple Or ,tn.ghtfut ' I rap"sl" on " requires ,IClJllcd, cartful and subll ,h. w al< P , c an_,,, t aplor>,,,,,, I arg um cnt ,Hlon .nl ,I (' I. I oled above, I uc me ca'L' exp lady as a form ,,[ pubt t As n le ntua .Ctl\~", c~ I aro und the com munal consumption of food and dnn" l ' lerce a... ct me tm..'"t\e.d.. I a l1l1 Cip Jtc 3 commOn t11lsUndcrSlolndlOu of thiS . I_Carc Y , eo , ~Qlru!J n b h eo logl
arc "aCtIon wrapped III ,1 web o r symbOhsm " \101\' \\ ill be '~Id. Ut ch., ~r Pa r rhe mom ent, let m e sImply assert that, as \\ Ith l1lhCT r\f ' 0 ntual. k prOVide an arel\,' iC)r bOlh the h1ghl\' condensed, 'mbob, repre, nt;)U n nd th arnve manipulatio n o f 'OCI,II rc lauons ~ l <"e'l\er. a, ,t p,lrtl(\Ilar I rm 'I nl\l.1 m which food Jnd clnnk constl(u tc (he m,'alum of c' pre" \ n and mm 0' I ,m sumptlon ( o nsnrul cs the b.l slC symbOh( Idltlm, '.'1 h., erucs (whIch , agoIll, WIll be dlS( ussed m m,'('t dl'l Ubt r I

In e.rher pubitc ,\tlo ns, IU" ' d (I1mp,lr.ltt\l cum gruphll d.u orellcal d'SCUSSIon o f 'c\,~I .l1 m ,ll "r polm, ..1 ,\1111<0 I d"lIIKt\OIlS h,lsed lIpon

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Is lI\

how Ihe ,11'1''',",111111\ ,)1 tills P""I', lIh"

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i.lll('ll'nt

sucic..·lh,·' (Sl' l'

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10:' ,lplll.

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t'

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-

_ ,,'.,!: I"frl nu't/(r

_ _ __

•

, 1 lht' t.·lhrulj.:r.lphlC rc:rr.lin thal rC:~llly gave birth h t "( Ih 11 ;\tnc.. '" to ('\t.', ' 'I I l' .Il • . "t,;ld l.""ll"dJe J9Q8.58 Moore 1994). Because so rtl Po. lHhHJ UlltJl1clr(l/o~)' .1"·1 h " fnl:lric,dly driven fTonl In t lIeh fe.!. I '(lJnn.)f cril ".1~ pi Jg ear Y dal w,lId, dU11I1": I ll' " f pollncs 10 both mynad Slat I " by d r'" IOU Ihe upcr.Hlon 0 e ess sOci .1I1t"n1pr~ lu un t . • , 'J ' that were encountered (e p Cll es ed kin"L"t 0"1> ' g" Ort Cs and ,lI1J dl(' 1.lI"gl" ~enLJ ,1 IZ fr' I , M d IIt'ron Jnd TJJt (95 8 ), the A Ican I[erature IS un h.I'" P.,lch,IN 1040, ' l , USUally " ,b Jno"S all, and IOslghts I1ll0, structures of power nch 111 ~'omr"lr:1I1Vt: 0 serv . b ' _ and th

, d iJ)' /tfe Moreover, desp.lte the 0 VIOUS cautious e npcr.HJ(l11 of po I1Clc.s 111 J " SOUrce 'Satiating much of [he carher structural-funct ' ,,:ntICl~n1 necessary III ne , ~ _, lonalist 'CJI1ISI' hove I'cmall1cd at the vanguard of pohucal analysl ' Afrl po I\lle.1 I \1'01' k, , S and ' of power Hence , Africa does offer an I [ht' [heoretlc.ll "'1' ora non " ' " especiall 'fc nvesriganng d,e poiJncal dimenSIon of feaSting, y promlsmg conrc..\:1 or I . c. is also of mteresc because It has frequently be Afn Bur [he..., IS more. . " " en Slo,

gled our by ,cholars as presenDn~ some II1tngumgly distinctive characterisrics to "ood and pohtlcs • ThIS IS, a feel' all, the connnent that was deSign ated t he red Im of II .. _. ... as d,e procorypic land without CUJsme , H,s book Cooking C 82) ( d G by oo}' 19 , , , ' I
the abilir)' to get people to do things: Schatzberg I993:446), and that it is inseparably assooated with metaphors of food and its consumption (see Bayart 1993; Lentz 1998; Schatzberg 1993), Agam, Lentz (1998) quite rightly cautions against accepting such broad generahzarions and remcarions, pointing out the cremendow dJversiry of political praCtIces, strategies, and moral philosophies of power In

Africa, But, whether one ultimately accepts these arguments for African excep,

{Jonamm or not, what such examples indicate is that African societies do furnish

,.1 TU I' l. 5

OF

CON

SUMPTION. COMMENSAL POl.lTIC\ "~' ..

-

v.i.'" _ • - - --::..::~~~~~

I tlons that bmd people together In v.no". In~ id\ re a I fr ~ 310 sOc WIde range of sea es, Om the 100.1 ho h" ( \tS 00 a OLQ f , I comrnuruty, For example, they are ntremel~ n
-

~ion' P , entS of friendsrup, kinslup, and COmmuUl'" t.~• sen~ -, "stuoS , bonds between affine groups and pohnc.llmIr., b"l',_ ce men ~g ds In this sense, they may b e seen to perform, at ' nE , s ktn " ~ 'UletV 0 nou , ' tegrarive functlon of creaong cornrnunltas, whICh", d tiIi v. claSSIC m f ' al ( ' >1 m cl the . nalist analysts 0 ntu see espeaally Turntr t9O.Jott\Uute ear\le ,ve I liroJted consIderations of feasnng bv arehaeol""t:st> lu .L., latl Y • -" \n\T.,,<'IltlOl the re much beyond this level until qUlte recently, As hter ~, enecrare '" w=mn to P a more productive pohtlcal analySlS of fe"tII\~ must aJ ate oostr , . '. ~ o~ dem I contradictory processes and tenstons sunultaneou, 0 camp ex , ' ' .-ntm, 10 the , 'aL However, tt IS Lmportant to acknowledge t\u, mte~ntr; fun tu In th

=

.1'

literature on Afnca But, Important th" a feasting must move bcyon,\ fUtKlll)nal ,-,1fl1,1 aO

n roles to examme the dYll.lnu<, n.lll\n' , t Cl l, t, ,pn l and economIC pr .Il'tl(l', III ~hl)\\ III ,\ tal! h, \\, J1nJ tI Ih strate how fcasts .Ire Imp",'aled In " ....'1 I, a

nr\

FEASTS AS RITUAL, RITUAL AS POllTl As noted earlu,or, I a,,' re \ 1111 \

FEASTS AND THE POLITICAL ECONOMY 8effJre underuking a more deralltd analysis of Ihe mlCropoilllca\ Jlnll'IlSIOnS of ft'altlngnruaJ, or what may be labdtd "mmmellsal politics," I will bl'glll WIth Ihe

~ral observation rhar In Afdra, as c:Ist'wh!'r1', f(OaSIS sl'rY<' ,I wld!' V.II'1t'IY of 1111 porlanl JlruClural role. In the bmadl'l puln" al ("

6'

OIlOIllY

Tlu-y , 1t',IlI'

.Ill.! 11101111

h nIl I drink consumpllon rhl III .In' Ih , I h f III sum~ltIon pral lI, t':, hUI .11 th .101 t '" th I I tut d thnlu~h \ ompl 11 and buth foil t1\ I It I mm,m ~tli\pt 11 I III 1'1 I 111\ \1\\ \\1 tI

,,\I

mmunal

'r I

n\

I

1

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'''1111

a challengmg context in wruch to examine and refine theoretical constructs concerrung feastmg and politics derIved from broader surveys of ethnographic data.

I

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.. ,'1,1 ell lilt; C.llhola n111S' 11 " nlpl" , I ,11 t III1HtlU ' • . I., Y.l ~ , .. _ " lllC 1" C.l~l '" 1dblllhul/tHl.1Il...i f(n1SlI rn r 'lOl1 ()j hrt .lu Jnu Will'· -'"1 111\'P IVIII)! t 1(' 11 .1 . , 'll.,11 ,-VC'111 hOlh d,' rlVl' S 11'0111 .IIltl pl.l y!-. lIl")",,... "'Ci\n 11l~ (I t f I" '" t lit I.. 1/ "1'1'"" t lis 0.' . "",'1'-:\' ,If (hilly 11 H.' ,I Is. hut 1.\. ,ll fhe ~.11l1f.; fln'I' 1 'glllal nlc.II"Il~ 111 11, l ,". _ . (. !',In,.lf . .( . .J by the syl1lholu: Iri.lll1lflg dl'vlrcs dUI Ulstlngul~h the..' In . 1C.:.lliy I

1t.II1:"ro Ilf Illl

.

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lhI!IZC.'"r' Irl

,

,h"I')(.' tht"

as

Of d)II'-'('" quolidi lln meals ,Ire also. to cl C4:rtlll' , a the ~ CXtc.:nt"· III t/1dl 1i'H.'Y .lIl' hi~hly SlI uctl.lfCJ seq . se • 11t · . 1 uences or J II OIl rl1Jt

,,' [Iclll

("\'t'/1I.\

g11ld,ng 1',.re

,I s~

.

'· h.lhTlu~"

<"I·

Jnd

(Buun.JicLI 19(0) of IIllhVI( uals .

",m1l ,,"

(InCl.llc~lllrh-'="r

tlI SPOS · rVe ltl O·

7.11'8 11", SOLlJ I orde") ., "cl the,r conSlllUcnl I .

n, e C"'enl

. I I ' , (.111 b,' 111.1I11I'ul.lloJ ,ubdy (0 ", •• k• .po .tI~., sta lcmelllS (App.,d',ra, '98. ). BU' Ihe) d,tTer from Illore lorma' mu." (casl evenlS 1n bell1g gcncrJlly I~ss c I ,nnus') publl'l'edonn.1I"cS The way' 111 wh,ch (casts .1re symbolrcall On· . .' d X 1" Y "'Jrked .1.\ d,'fTl1l"f from d~ltly pr.lculc JIC VJI1.1bJe .• 1Il . e l cn1c!y 1l11pOnanl IClr .1rchacol. <>8"[.' to u"dcrM.md Ih,s later. . More wdl be s.",' .,boul . 'Par the mOme nt , illS 1111 . ll

p"rl.1n( to rCCO!;TlIZe lhal lhls rcl.Hlonsh,p belween leasts .lncl dady meal, . cruCIal horh fO. undersl.,nJ,ng' Ihe symbohc Slgn(ficance of feaslS and 10 Our~r's

~rchaeologlcJlIy

,dcnlrly (eastmg y .Ill rillS po.nt. It ,s necessary ro exp.",d Ihe diSCUSSIon shghtly and set reasts . In a

Jir.l.r)'

(0

broader IheorerieJI (Onlext by saying

J

few words aboul the emerglllg a nLh ropo.

1
,111

InCOIlSCqLlCllll.tlly epiphenomenal aspect of the

. . VI'".w 0 I nlual supn,trucrure 01 SOCietY. rhc older DLlrkhclmlan runctlolllilst U

an adJPIIVl" mechanism

(d

kmd of JllpllrpO~c .ldhc~lve slIbslln •• 'C ") I"or the

rn,lmll'nann' of SU(lal solldarllY (or '\y\lClll equlllbnum • In . -Iv', t"rnl • ' lilt) Iogy

or

• . ont:" 01 the mort •• nhJeologlCally popular verslolls nf flIllCIl()111Itsl', ) I....1Iso · now

I; n r"\ly ,('wgn,zcd >

to

bt·.)

P.lrl ••ll.,lld flawed

or Ign'Jrt Ihal nrllaJs frt·tllltntly s,·'vc le) ut'JIt'

ullllnsl.lndllw Thl< 1\ 11 I III 11 1Icny " . ' "

,lilt!

. . 1)1 ((I"WIIl rl'l,rodllc(' • I \('ll\C .

"'flU (Curn' r t'lt,y, van Cl'l1lltP tYM) . BUI .1I11hmpologll"illllnLiel"'I.'l1dlllg

"r 111<"

ymh(JiJe W"f~ ut fltll"l h,lS ftlllv(·d well bl'YOlllllh" 'l',HUII', .111<1 ,1I11·1\llunI1.l, now rumcd to ,I,,' III ,"nrJlly lrl'tlllllH"11I.lll'(1ll· "' litll.d 111 (n .I\lllg. ddllll1l" and t r ' ". 'lIllg I flU 'url fJ POw!' I Int:" r

1~lIl1n htp

hl'

11111,11 ,lilt! 1'"1"11 01 I ""11 II"w,,1 tI" ,,1'1'" I. JllI"" """ 11111..1 WltillHI! i'"IIIII' J'\L Y 11 J' ,II' I fI It)I},) J 11' IIO\\TVI I , 1111 H tu 11 11\ o po/tile wult'JUt r1lU .. I (ILII .. · ~f IUI,llf t I fI t It 11 lVI , lIHI filii 111 fllltl 111111\1\. I (tlmpl I om Ih~1 h ,. I , I\IIttr JlI/L,'J 1I If/l/h, BIII( h IlJ U ( "hi 11 III " I I I n IIrl,wllol""y fr,

I

(WCIII

,

o

"'111 10

.11' IIltll'1.111 III It· III

l .. !1d Conl.1f O n 1991. '993. KeU it d IllJ(O I n 1'ur ncr IQOQ I \n ,hiS lauer \'em man '9 85.•nu
,-=

(1979) has noted. the most emotlonJ.!l~ com

and

Jre those thJI arc not o,"enl) pounol but ra~r

d

c.lhcy" meILtlflg Ifltcnst p<",on~1 e:qsenrn~

or

broader srrucrurcs of power B "COndCINn

n{lrn'~ and ,atc!'~on\'~ 'Ia."tm rill that tTJ,um ,lt\!.: hte: -e nSl!'> C\ nh ~u h ~

ISt11lnfWiCS SI.)o.tl rC.1S on

tllilJOr ntu31 ,11"<113 I", thl>manlru!auon emotlon.,1 power or nluals abo ,t m. nlechants m ' (0111mo,,1\ cmrl", J tend

HI

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oh

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r

rhe amrrol of rcprc~cntjlll()n~ ~\nd ,heir Inter _

prClatlQ

.d "It,r.' MC .111 Import.lnl "tc of hlStoncal chang . n t 1,Ih'n'l1uJIII "tl!.JI, • , I C I fo,,", '\ , ' I < ,
,•

parllcularly powerful form o[ rirual activil), thar also have the pragmaoc Vu"ru·, of bemg' potentially visible. ill the ardlaeological recOrd . Be. CJU e rhelr mherent emoove and symbohc power, feasts are very often inti. march embedded m nres de passage or life·crisis ceremonies, such as funerals; and 11 IS d~s fearure that often feJ1ders them archaeologically derectable as disrinct e"ems, tlloreover, the culillary narure of feasts generally necessirares rhe Use of contJmers for both preparation and consumption. Very frequenrly, over the paSt 10,000 years of human history ar least, a substantial portion of these COntainers has tended to be made of ceramIC or metal, whim preserve extremely welJ in the archaeologICal record even when broken. Detecting feasrs in rhe Paleolithic is, of Feasts arc

J

or

course, conSiderably more difficulr (see Diecler 1996; Marshall 1993; Per/es 1996); and the polmcaJ dJrnenslOns of feasting are somewhar different among forager soaeoes (see Hayden, Chapter 2; Wiessner 1996) than among the agrarian soei. eoes dJscussed here The pre"lously asserred porency of feasts as a particular form of ritual activity denves from the fact thar food and drink serve as the media of expression and

commensal hosplralIty constJrures the syntax in rhe COntext of a ritual of con. sumpoon Food and dnnk are highly charged symbolic media because they are uembodJed marenal cuJrure". thar IS, a special form of material culture produced speaficaJly for mgestJon mro the body. They are a basic and continual human

CONSUMPTION . COMMENSAL POLITICS A"~ f RITU~LS 0 , w POWER

reparanon that tend to amplify theIr "gnm f I <.ante on tht cans 0 p 111 I aspects of ntua (Dletler 1990), Mo reo, , h lca cr, t tS propr f turg J1'I" uasi.maglcal transformation of food 'nt rty 0 . n as a q 0 • 'ubli , D1'b cion and consumption of a bastc need denves added bo dis u , ')'m lit ,.wcnce . demonstration of confidence and managenal skill th .1_ from itS Ul ere""" "'£ pro. n More importamly, however, consumpoon is plaved OUI th ductlo . . . J In e ~\~m h L.I idiom of commensal hospitality. 1 belteve tlus fe.lUrt I ' powen ( l i • . . IS (fUO. to un. derstanding the political dimensIOns of feasts. and It IS for tlus reason thatl ha, chosen to emphasize what I have called "commensal poltnc ,• Anigbo has asserted thar "Commensality IS nOI e :. love or intimacy" (1996:101-102). because it IS clear th.t eo.-en Indmduat, a:~rb' sively opposed to each other may use commensahry to define thel1 reunom!ul' However, commensality is a powerfully expre 'Ive trope of Uluml, tlut erUlr, and reproduces relationsrups capable of encomp;! 'mg sm ta.Uled l~ ,1\ cam petition by effectively euphemizing It in a symbohc pracnee that enc un e, c I lective misrecognition of the self·mterested nature of th· pe,' od, Bourdieu has pointed out In the work of reproducUlg esrabltshed rel.nons- ell, , rem gifts, VISitS or courtesIes. and. obm" all, numagc, \ ht'h" n tence of the group thJn the reproducoon 01 the <':l'nomt, labour required to conceal the lunctlon of the t\ ·h.ln."", , . labour needed to perform rht~ function . (t,,<)O III

11\1

Hence, one beglOs to glllnpsl' tht· 'Imb,)h, fe' als. Feasts aCt a' " form or SI mbt,hc m tJI'f\ du,tl<

physJI)JogJCal need, wluch are also a form of "highly condensed social fact" (see Appadural 19111 494) embodying relatIons of production and exchange and link.

mizing bro~der on.11 rei.llt"ns 1111< t 11" ,'I th h Furthermore. commt IIs,ll htlSl'tl.tlil\

111.1

I1Ig the domesllc and pohtlcal economIes m a hIghly personalized way. Moreover,

gtft exchange Ih,lIl·SI.lbhsht' Ih '.UII r

IJn

although eating and dnnkmg are among rhe few bIologically essential acts, they

hosl Jnd guesl .IS h, 1\\ ,'CII ,h'l\
are llCVer Imply b((lllJglCaJ acts. Rather, they arc learned "techniques du corps"

durabll' Iyp,·s ,11 'Ibl" l\

J9JS,

th~l .tre hl'v('r.I~('s

culturally patterned t('ch11Jquc5 of bodIly mmpOrlmClll

In a (undamcnl
way Ilf Id, nllly and ddfelt'nft' Akohob(

ntfy hnl' a pnvl1egcd relle 111 Ih('lca~lIng unllt'X I hl,("lll ,'C' Ihc'Y .11'(' ('~Sl'1I IOod wrrh urlam PfythIJa(/lv fI'l/pt'lIU' /I'~llhlllg 11 '0111 .111 ,lhc'III.IIIVI'

1

slmY"J

III

slmy,·.!

hy

till'

.111

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'om

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,,1111111111

"ulnlll"Il.llltlll ,11 lit pllW

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pr

I

~ITUALS

'Il.

1.1. durable "aluables, rhe rood , consumed cannot be reclreul a ted rh un=e • re.l1l\'e.s re d ) In orher gifr-exchange relanonslups: food must be produ c e d an (Or eulrural and cullllary labor In order to fulfill reciprocal obl ' e", chro h ug~ 'Ptio ns. .• danficaoon should be raIsed here, however, because food can also b ,., e USed r. Or d tJ'UCtl\'e exchange in rhe same {asluon as durable valuables, In c noo~ on~St rh prepared food consumed ar feasts, this food may be either raw (e g to e , " Yarn sacks of flour). processed (e.g., cooked or smoked meat), Or even live p S, . arumals, . . particular, . Otentlal food (eg.. cluckens, goats, cartle), In the case 0 f bve m the ' 0 b VlOUS ' ; b ut even th e more perishable fOrpo_ tential for long-term reinvestment IS may be qLUckJy redeployed to a certain extent in other local exchange necw L ms • . . . Or", Or LIl subsequent commensal hospHality. The exchange of food 111 this manu , er may rake place completely outsIde of a cornmensal·consumpaon COnteXt th

would properly call a feast; or a feast may serve as the arena for such exchanat One , ges. In the latrer case dilferent kinds of foods may sometimes be used for the fcea ' Stand the exchange transaction. Although both of the two political uses of fOod descnbed above (commensal consumption and nondestructive gift exchange) may take place at feasts, it IS Important for the analyncal purposes of this diSCUSSion that the disnncnon between them not be obscured by subSUming them both under the general term ftastmg. They are not the same thing (Dieder I996) , Commensal consumption (which, to reiterate, is here taken to be a definitive ato lbure of feasts) places obvious limitations on the possibilities of rhe guest/ receIver to redeploy the food (s)he has received in the flllfillment of reciprocal obligations of other exchange relationships: it removes goods permanendy and tmmediately from arculation, It IS thus a more temporally restrictive use of food

in marupuJating SOCial relations than is the nondesrructive exchange pattern that mayor may not accompany a feast. Because of the commensal aspect, It is also a potennally even more subde marupulation .

The cnDcal poinr to retam IS that COmmensal hospitality cenrenng on food and dnnk dismbutJon and consumption is a practice, which, like the exchange of gifts, serves

[f)

establish and reproduce soaal relations . ThiS IS why feasts are

f)~J1 Viewed as mechamsms of SOCIal sohdanty that serve to establIsh a sense of community However, as Mauss (r966) long ago pOinted out, these arc relations

of r. crpmcaJ ()bbgao(JO that Simultaneously serve 10 create and define differences m

The re/
to receiver, or hOM

10

guesl, translates

111[0

a

~Klal JUpenonty and In(l'nonly unll'ss and until th(' l'qulvalelll Trl('d J\ (ht· Bcmba 11)1 Zambia] ~ay, 'You havl' l'atl'll "amba (Ihe n(

rh,. ",ulUI",ba trce) and JI kI 11, your SIOll1dt h' I l' , y"U d your IfImach wuh (ood (H)m IIOIC 011(' and 11 pillS YIJU IIl1dl'l J I'll whim IkJ h.mu 1919 rJ~) III Ihl IC'oIlur • !Ill' I"JII' lItJJI Clt ) .. a tool In cl f/rung lo( loll rclolllllll , Iu 1111 1111 lit (r(,m

-

NSUMPTlON , eOMMENSAl POllfles .. OF CO

-

olItlcs. The hospItality of fea.stmg IS, of co 1 a ,enS P .\.. co f1'll' . fields of poliocal acnon Ular may be: ~rub1v pOlenoal more detail in me later c:UsCUSSlon oi the Luo t sho","" lCa L!1 11 used by md.IVldual.s either to complement or to reg Y d d fr sera f resrige and power enve Om other dO!D>m, of [arms 0 p 'tal such as warfare , magIC, gtft gwUl publi ora bolic capl ' . fY..etc syrtl . Lemonruer 1990 ; Mod)eska 1982). Ho'\\e~l the lttl·",l, 0 . Itn: di u 199 , e . is mat, because of the momate nature of the pr"(tJ.ce 0 , feasOIlg \' power of me trope of commensali", of all t...__ c~ s mbo IC • '''''ID. _ the most effective at subdy eUphenuzing thee\f'101<_ . ' Yerhaps -L.e uo ~ . _ ... • ~ It IS P s and creanng a shared smcere licuon m Bourd.eu . I the proces . . rested generosIty. diSL!1tC

ES Of COMMENSAl POLITICS 00

AA rn to some selected Afncan empm· cam I will now tu . licare sever al preVIously defined theorencal co crun_ p d f commensal polmes. or "" nera! p.att , m th ent mo es 0 . . mbohcally m servmg as sue and rn_ trumrnt. of opera te sy . _ One can, 0 f course, propo e •a vanet) at more d upon J range 01 cnrena, ,u -h b fcastS ase ,_ . hb o hood nelg r , community, , etc.). specthc ttlrurul riage feasts, iruo300n fe.l.ts, el.:'.• funcoons (religIOUS

(l(

man' 'I.m

tca,c. . tabor fe.l>! .. .:mnm

vJnous ch.1pters In thiS lurn cl 6 199 an . However, the \ •llUl' 01 .1 d.l,_IIi ...lO,)U ~ tended to .oh,' The ,ilstinnlOl1s llutlin

derSIJndlll~ ot !h~ 'I' ,Ilk pn)bl m A.., Will b~lllmt' dl:'ill lO till' dJ. ,u h

t

th

enng ft'.lst " no 's,Uh 11l.l11\ () lh 1I hl~hlr~h" Iht' \\ a\ . Ih.lt ",Tt III PJr~ntly

I llIl~'

,hlll'n'nl t

pllt(\~y of • k 111<1: "I f, •

OIl

lh \

palll'l"lIl'd lit-pO'1I , Ralher, I III ,Ill nlplll

h

\l

1\

1

III Ih

Illnt

•

•,

11 "I \

I

Ih

I

h

I

"

T

r

M I.h.u/ J)1f/1n-

- - - - - '.:::::::..:.=--------.. . . . . . . ur ('I\:Jllon ot socIal (and econo mIc) powe r and tlie la l L rd th · mJUllCI1JnCe 01 etlsung m equa lotlcs In Po IC r Jut'(tcl.l run .l ( , w Cr reI

rJ ,1l(' 10'" \~ 0 ti ff"

:u.qW·riIOOIl

I rdlC rnmanly throug h .n empha sIS o n qu antltv a IOn' Th, hr. I '"'' " PC J. alld lh [ . on H)'le Th e Iirsl rwo wo rk thrOugh th C IcL" e IN vr<'r~lc\ [hr\Jug ..L In CIllph.", . . . . tnon'" 5ubordonatlon relano ns w,th,n an onc/us Il) pr do""r ...."" ..r, ,up 'J . IVc b'nd . d . d whaca. ' [he laner works through Ihe Idiom of diacrit on~ "dldn!!, .\ J . Ica l C~ du',o" on an I"",kr I OUI"dcr relationsh,p EMPO WERING FEASTS Th . c .. r of Ihc ' e fCJ5 t pJrterns. which I ea U the "empowenng [east." involve

h • '"' . st c pUlanon or commcnsJ1 hospllaJJly IOward rhe acquIStrJon and mainte molJ11 nance of .-
e~co\'Cness or tlu polttleal mechalllsm denves li-om the facr that it often enrarls ~ ~ 0: collectJ\e mlsreCOgrution or euphenuzaoon of the self-interesred na -

rd/!o t e praCllce It rnvolves what Bourdleu characrenzes as a "sincere fictIon r o "lntercsred cXchang c" ( .

mem abont h b th 1990.IU). Indeed. a major parr of Bourdieu 's argua IIUS 15 ar the skill and f th actor rcbe upon th t b grace 0 e genumely COmpetent sooal a actor elllg unaware of h aCOom Awaren t e ponclples that mform his or her css anses 10 the COntext of . ke raU(: unctrralml~' ab . rntS[a s. of alternative acOons rhat - ~ OUI preClSCly how h I of CDnSO(JUsness III
r"

r[>Jcrlrr I""'~'

77".

g t'lIars as a domam of mherelll sonal 996). rh,. WO d I h h r 31X1 aa Ih" pOle nriallo givl." r1St. '"

1

.

7,

SUM PT ION, COMMENSAl POLITICS. AND POWER Ih

~ITUAL 5 OF co'"

-

AUICA" co~

h1\ •

~. gs particularly m traverslIlg lmgu.soc &ono~ .. .Le dersranwn . . , ... In ~lUch!he C\Il",,suI' . f the term dJIfe rs Hence let me reltente that In USlng the lam tal odlflg 0 tIl C ve manIfestly nor refernng o nly to aC0V10es that lItV I . uu I am , . 0 ~an~th CO,"pf II ge to monopollze powe r, Wlth resulrmg expliat • C cha en --•• l> ~d OOlso somethmg more subtle 1Il mind than che Ideolocn.. f <.... " I have - b J 0 '«:. 'mukt "losers. football! Nor am I refernng only to feasts that IIlvolve absrn or . m .~ .... tJn£ (ap'c of osten ta oous reciprocal hospltallty (of che weU known , 'e... c Wn~ ' 1 sca e ee Le m o nnier 1990, (996). " tYPe: s ",an l ea n thar feasts are inherently political, but With an underst~Jm f Rather. m . _ th ake b0 sense it has acqUI red 1Il e W of work by Bourdteu (I""'" Fo th wer in e 7'7'1 . u. pO 80). and o rhers: phenomenon rather th.n as alunited ault (e.g .. 19 _ as a relanonal . ( ood. Henc the empowe.nng feasnog I' _, >_ III e symbo . " lic capttal realized through ' . _

""_n._

._1

gberently " co mpetitlve phe no m e non In that It descnbes condition; of rrL!1l\'t asyrnmern . that rnmem.es in relatio nslups. between people. and. moreover. . asyust b e renegotiated continually through symbouc pncuces TIus rn . not n ecessarily one that sm ves toward aggressIve donunanon md reI t cion" IS .

com~.

of marntammg less accumulation of power' It IS often sunply one ' . statu! amon peers or 0 f defining one's peers. No r LS It necessarily one rhat directs an exp crt . U. challenge to particular individuals or groups: It often involve irnrlr a po. I . r, firmatlOn 0 f the prestige of the host and Ius / h er group thAt unrlicate 0 . a re latlve , incUrec( ' general only III . sense . There LS dear! • . a .Igrufi ant between. rlor example • mamtauung fnendly reaproLa! obli 100no ~th neighbors In hostmg small beer paraes and the agorumc .m mpt Guinea big·men

to

crush theLT nvals ""lIh hospltality Th"re are

ally speo.fic behavlOral sanction and m o r a.I plulO'oophl6

I

that resrrict the escalation of such co mmcnsal pr.Kt" - and a" rhe laner extreme form are fillrly unusu~l But so m,' volved

In

(.ltUs

thJt

m

-h d n I

all these empowenng lea:( context . Tho

lund . Such practices a1way . affect (h~ rdol ll\

of

I

and mllu n

and the quahty of relationshIps In (h" srns( . o mm ...lb.lI

hm

pennve in Its effects. eVt'n though the p"hnl.ll lmph Ited. and thoroughly euphemIzed Consequently, It must al

0

hl' n'Hlgm zN thal.

Sincerely by the parIlClp.ln( . .l hJrm
gont' \ g., olld rit

political

I

an u

nOl mUIU 11 R Ih r

Ih unit

..

- - ------

•

mulr.Ull'Clu,,'\' dc..'fint' n :JJll n n.!'hlps ~lllJ houT1J ~lnc~ This feJ ture rn ~y \Veil . . ' n,..: UI' 111 IC'ICM. ' . b1I I II d o cs n Ot n cceSsa nl y resCl1lall c("rrJHl ~lrll ( fur.ll (onrrJtIInto ult

I

I

nml1KI. or (.""CI1 th~ pl'fccprion 01 II1Cong rullY. III the COurse or pra clice. If) 1'10.1111. 1<1 me Jb" emphasiz e lhal. ", Ireatlng lhe po li tical dimension I' . . 0 thingS such ,1\ n:l 'j,:j()lI, le,lsts, I Jm mJl1Ifesdy nOI Jtrempllllg to ",ake a Vu lgar r ' "pracoca I reason " varl(~ ty. I do nOt \.\Ilsh cdue. tt()lll~ ( .lr,guIllCnl of clle boftom- lIle '

reduce rhe polfnCJp.J1LS to ull ldJme nSlOna l cynica l manipu lators and de h la . . tional . ' .l nYlclr n!Lgwu$ slJ1(cnry ,lI1d the aRccnve motiva force of relJg beli ef Qu ' o lls -~ . . f d ' Ite , lht' ron rr.lry Ralher, I be IJeve UIIS J5 an Iss ue 0 au le nce : It m ust be rem e ....... b ' " ered thJ I ,111 mu . ls, mciudmg feasrs, have simultaneous mul tiple audiences. Religious feasts for " ,ample, J re dea rly dJl'ccled ar co mmul1Ica tlJ1g With gods ance '. . • Stors or spm rual forces: U1CY are a slllcere attempt to "bnng th em to the ta ble" . , so to spe.tk But they are simultan eously dtrected toward an audience o f li VUl h g u· mans. and perhaps several g ro ups o r ca tegon es o f living humans. Feasts are pol) sem ous. m terms o f audience, m o nvation , and form s of empowerment. Concentrating On an analYSIS of th e polttical should n o t be Inte rpreted as a denial of the Importance o f o ther dimensIOns. Symbo uc capital cranslates mto an ability to Ulfluence g roup deciSIons Or ac. tions Tlus mfluence denves from the relations created and reprodu ced in the process of personal lnteraction, In the case of feasting, those ate multiple relano ns of reoprocal obuganon and temporary sentiments of social asymmetry be. tween host and guests created through displays of hospitality. The "power" denved from tlus sort of commensal polmcs may range from a subtle and tempo rary affirmation of elevated starus (such as attirudes of gratirude Or deference) to demands for speoal nghts and leading managerial roles in group decisions. In socieCtes wuhout formal spedalized pobncal roles, hosting feasts is very often a m ajor means of acqwnng and mamtaining the respect and prestige necessary to exercise Je.adersrup. It does not create the power to command, but it does imbue m dtvlduals WIU, rhe moral auu,ority u,at is a necessary condition to exert per. suasive Influence . rn SOCJe ues where IIlstirutlonalJ2ed poutical roles or formal starus distinctions Cl:J t, but without fixed hereditary rules for deterrrunmg who may fiJJ u,em, host.

mg feasts lS often the means by wruch indiVIduals assume and hold these roles and sra tuse s. In all such cases, u,is kllld of power is conrinually being renegoti. ated, ustalll ed , and conrested through commensality. Tlus form of commensal

p
I f)

menllon the PaCIfic, Latlll Amenca, ASIa, and rhe rest of u,e

wf;rld) Amf)ng Ihe Yf)ruba of Nlgena . for example, men move up rhe SOCial hJer·

:iTchy by lak.mg ut! . Th"

WIth

l;i rg

qua nutJt'

15

anompilshed by dIsplays of prestige

or bel'r or palm ,wlIl(' (Obayeml 71

111

fcasts fur·

1976) Among the

N CO M MENSAl POLIT ICS . AND POWEft ,

Of CO rtJ ALS .

NSU""PTlO .

ia 3Ss um p o on of the mIc of bawk '. and", el",..tro

' . 0 f feas ts so taVlSh that there 1S e'en '''~ ~lucu.!Xe t orze of BthioP hosong e . procedure CHalpenn and Olmste.d 19" _ s (cq vlres lh ru t13UOn

o

",."d ertake rbe Ia of C am erOO n , rhere IS a formalized age-grade ~. em tbat' LI g the 1<0il [1'1 s fo r •mw ~ 'vlduals [0 become tugh-rankmg Inltlates and rt ",0 0 a h ' possib Jtle _~ . n the viUage as they progresslvel~' gam a.:ce.< to m ~ . [0 t " I'cy W1U.l . ,. rS of po knowte J d ge w ith each step. Movmg up through tlu> S) 'tem T't U1I't ",.,e eret religiOUShi of speo. a I feasts known as "carde dances" that an: held b · . mm r p an d are fue/ed w lth a g reat deal of mdlet and surghum [he sponsors . wife nor his h o [0 be h e Id by a m an o nly six o r seven runes Ul a hfenme, md the e can bee f. 'fhes Id such a e least 'IS decided by fellow villagers who Judge , wheth ran m. abiliey to ho . ed the necessary symbohc and economIC caplu.! for the ran Th e are of course, many other feasnng conrn'lS for _ di vidval has acqwr spues. er , a . tha t are nOt n ed du-ectly ro the .ge.!;! ade sttUC'tW'l' co which he onat presnge , hosted for gathenngs on market d.l), for c 'I. qairing. pers clude beer parnes These 1!1 . s ritual acovloes (Ganne 1996 ). u and for vano . an egalitarian political ethos, the self'mte",,,ed m~mr m . . Wlth In sooenes b concealed o r euphemIZed by [he bet th.t It b .u f the process may e h nature 0 the u h the soo'ally valued and mtegrated msn tunon of. n ro, ' r tied out 0 g b perceived by the parna p am s as a 1 ling . d it may even e !- _, onu taliey, an his apparent Ieve lmg is , Ul a sen e . mereh the ( om L 1 n _ However, t u ' aI In fact feasts may be u 'ed a, .1 tilt "1 tFU1h . al ' to symbo C capn . , . tan n caplt Ul all d " debtedness engmeenng' e''et') b a a: mu-h , th ( 83) has c e m h < re b th 19 Thi 's qulte clear m the cases \\ ere LCa 'nng , of valuables. sI _1 artidpants [0 b e ope nly aggressIve , as WIU, the e'louaM. h th P the Mamblla of igenJ \\ tt exchange parmers among . ... hfi hI III feast results 111 Jeenng and nd1Cul \ "~ yet more COpIOUS equaUy operaCtve in cases where compett~\e mJrupubn nuzed and where there IS no escalatton 01 pre'tan OIl Commensal hospltahry may be mampulated ID th . pllltllJ I 1 \\ r for econonuc advantage JS wdl .is tor

Iht In

stitution of u,e "work feast ", and tht · w . p.1rt1cuIJ m U'U past, As this tnslitutionahud pr a(t1ce IS nllll't' Ih thIS volume (see Ch.lpter

Q), ,

will SitUP"

practices, here ,'a lied .. ((lll

ork

r.

the "work e "hang " Th

rk

called togeth r

re- 1h

10

wurk

011

pot

·s UI\

then treat d tu Iilo.i lid or cl"",,"

h

t und

form of labor nlobihz.mon prJl' u,around the world) . It COl\stttut

I\ut

h

t ,

\0

n 01 0

Ih

u.-,I. S

ON (OMMENSAl POl,.lflC.\ ,.~o

~"~;~U~M~P~T'~~'~-­

'3

Of (

I I," I p,(, I I 11 · ~ II -H '1III'"lt-'1I .lIld ~1"1'.,d III I/w 1.11"11 •• 11" ItlOIHoLI!)' "lllll .• \11 'lhlll\ "IC " 11I11~ I1W.IIl' 11"'\:. ludlng ".lVl·IVl hv whlth ,\ Iltll). \11111 ( \\ I \\\111 •• I 'I '..-11t nllll I fluid hr lIlohd •../n,IIt-11 ,I prOWl I Il'llllllllh' •• I ,.;nlup '."~\· I 11.111 lne ,Ill l • •• _. a 1.II~t"I 1IIIIUtHII1.I , I. 11 tl' I

fh,\, .. p.Ulldl,.lIhIlUl Id

III I ' \'I '11 pl1hlh.1 I .HI' I 111111\.'1 ,11

StlllC:I1C:~WllhOlll'I,:IIII'll"J'l'd

l)hll,.:.I'I")' fnllll't l ll .lhlll«(fln'IIt')nr~. IIlI :rl·dh)'t hl~·h

"UI~' IIp,,, .''l \\ ,111111 IIU\ ,dl(1111

\\ ,11,., k."'" M1'

" 'It' IIU'' '' Iflll'tu 1.1111 III Ihe.: t"

POIlIl (",I'

n:Ollul11y ht.·c", tU S(· of fhe

",11\ 11.1'(,

111 I ,ht" d(lllll.,;I'HUI .lnd ('tlIlVCI.,>1\)l1 I)J ,ymhol,l' ,111\,,1 l'Co . I ", , 11".. lif'". 11Iu(.· 'HlIlll1 t.4pl!.1 • • ,h Wl,h ,1/1 ntht.'r tyres ClI fe:.1sI , they pn)Vidl,.' ,1n .1Ilt! ,lCqUIre: symbohl «lp. Hpr'" Il!lW) I,) I ,'Mkt· l'lIhhr \' • IIl·mem .. JIWlIl prt"tI~t· , t

(l'H'-"

L Inn

11 .. 1 \ JJ\'I'h \vtllk. k.l" .llI}o!Illt"IHs lilt: rc.:put.H HH1 Of the hus, 111 the ~.ln'e W.ly tha, ""l .. ",pnn~ .I LI """\U"I IJ

nfu;I' docs Howevcr,

hJt Ilt·s .. ,"~ Ilk" I.lhot ()I 01 ht'rs III on.lc.'r

to

It

.1lso prov ldc.!- .1 mc.lns 01'

JlqUI1C economIC c.'plt.lllhiH C.1n sub.

to \rmhol ,c CJpHJI by several me~lnS In t:llect, Work k.I\[S .It"! .f.!! .1 /1l("ch;ltllsl1l of 1I1utntt-' CllIWCfSlon 111 muln-centnc economics lh~H L.H, J'1(l\ ,Jr .. rOlen llJJ fJIJlysl Iflr lIll"reaslI1g lIlequ.l lt ry In SOCIal reiJ[tons (~ee

,t.qut:nth ht·

!."tlll\'(·rh.'J

Ch.lrrcr ~). SOCIOECONOMIC PARAMETERS OF EMPOWERING FEA ST S The (' mpowe n ng tc...... t pJuc:rn opc r~Hes o n J va n ery of sca les J nd In nu merous L (mr C\r~ \\'Idun J g ln-n snnery 11 nl.ly exte nd fTo m rhe priv
ot her c:o mmUnll)~ lO the sponsorshIp of major communlry life-cn siS cere monies .1Ild I't'llg'ous (esm.,ls Gu ~s rs may mdude m embers of the local commw,ity or people tTom other commUl1ltll' s. The extenl of the symboltc capital derived from thoc awvltJes \ anc, accordmg to the Contexr. the IJV1sMess o f the hospltahty provided. and rhe rJnge of guests convened Th e host may be either an mdlViduaJ ho usehold. J KIn.shlp umt. or .1n ennre commumty. In the latter cases there are u,uall.l cerram 1I1dl\'lduals who JCI .IS managers and derive presnge from their

ro k m successfully orgaOlzmg and c\ecuong feasts that represent the group to o ut.stdef>. hence presnge Jccrues to both the hosting group as a whole and to cerlam m!luenn.1 indIVIduals who can mobilize group acnvlties. Nthough most households will engage m some form of thIS kind of fcastlng behaVlor. hosnng large-scale least.> reqwrcs conSiderable planning. ume. and labor ~ for both agnculrural production and culinary preparatIOn). as well ,Is large surplus stoclu of food and l or dnnk. The ktnds of food and dnnk rradtnonJlly a at/able In most Afncan agranan SOClelles (dnd most prehIStoric ~ocienes) would generally have had very limited storablllty. espeCially once prepared fill' con sumpno n ThIS would neceSSlfate, tn mosl cases. a large I.bur force lor finJI preparatIOn and .. rvtng )U SI pnor la rhe INS! as well as fOmll1Jnd 01 ,I IJr~c

.0

A ..

F

". r

.1'1} ,bhp.

Itown, I

_

-

hur.ll pn.IJUCe. Thf:' InSlltutlmu.l Iilrnn

t Jgncu i:': ly tly S'urr 0 "Ye ... upP It cS of IJbor Jnd ,00d v• .,.~ • glu, duI r(·1 h(st.' IJl"g . he orgdnlZ.1UOn .1oJ neCUllon of ~ 1 I1g I 11 CJses l h/.I bll [ 11' .1 . gel" h IS. USU,1lly adv.lnta~ou.s for a b _ elY' od manJ "h O ~1 I." be 3 gOblc to pr OVldc • large pet"non . ,f not the bulk. or the b . "I t () be .1 n reserves, -and a high IndJco("c of I (c .1S rn \l!i aY! . rh,l, fro of ",formal le,de", " oli.n ated In tlus 111JtC her rypes rn l' ll 'u,d a t03. 7; G eSC h, re 1982.. Fned.m3n 1984. Lc:monruc::r 1990 erUP '97 k feasts m,y also be .mplo 'cd to ham . th r r ",ben rw~ . CJses w o r _ * In SO"1C ~ -nlly t11crea stn g the producnve base 01 certam hou. cl,ffe«n'" o f very large feastS. how.ver, the h ,1 mu I tnnbIJlr In e st C,l SCS re r 9)' In rncl an d I3 bo r- eon m b utions through p""'"nal n 11 foo on. 1I These ne rworks of support "'" e$ldbh,h.d b ad.:p' bul I r the years through vonou, areCl.l. I pn Obligation - capita ove SymbolIC I )entS of econonue caplcal. H.nc~ • . us dep oyn no J"J v. - olate d e\ 'e n t - It IS a m o ment of publIC nnul dnm.. 111 ' I mampulation that serves as.n -h rtl (11\ m Just .0 ISof po I(Qca process . hat J SOCIa l m anag
o h I _bever.ges and do nut Illd Ulno thlll'" III ethnographic- c nt I h uc measure S t"""bl.de ( 111111). !l,re.'. ampl • n \1 prt Stve - Ha~ I

sume 15- 20 percent of all the gr In pn>Ju of it consumed

In

work f('.1'" dunng lh

intoxicated mo t of th time Inul rl age household .mong th 8emb. o f Z.lm year in b~wing beer, OUI of ~ t 'lal P (I.e ., about 17 p !'Cent): and ~ r

part of their dutI

of haspll It

much high r N mng t964 40 gaUons ( I I

In ) t mill I non tOr Ih ell t tnclinonal beer r re belna In the tOrlll at

hI

nd

I r

-

-

-

I (' nL " (1nl Ih .1I J " H II1~ 11 . .1

01 ( ,lnH.' rnfUl \Urghlll ll bc(' r pr()vidcs .1bOUt .1 rhl rd 01 t ilL l' I I . ' '' .''Wilt:..! Llllnll to1' lIu' ye:" , I fl' lu rlh t.·r calc ul a te d th e I.lrftC,:! l (ll .lf.10lIt',' (I . ~ InVeSt ' 1 II I " 0 .,1,1"1~(' d ,ltt-rl' nt h.1I1d .. o f_ fC.lS IS . Po r o ne age ·g rildc cerenl C n y, 11lt,: IlI .. 111\ n I" Lt

nf bt't' r ( ~ QO lu c rs 1l1.HJ e fro m a b o ut 100 kg o f ce rea l), plus I n . l. , " I' •'I""llllm tlllUI fOr.1.1 porridge balls, r'us .1 number of ca ttle ( IL11 3 1 III I' l" 5 0 ~ ~ .,n,' w\lnh up III S·teo (' ,Ich ); fo r.1 (J ult.' J ance. o ne needs 75 POts of beer, 20 POr. I t ' 1.,. ,11 'I. .ll1J tht, m o sl l'rcSl1glo us ( :tule , and fo r the fun eral o f a WOOl an , Onc: nu1.: ",'cd, .17 p aIS of beel CC.mnl· 1090). Jm"ariy, Rc hfi sch (1987) noted lhar, among (he MJlll hll.l of NI~WriJ . one b{'er fl' ast III rh e COmpCl lCJve se n es h e Stud Ied mobl _ "zed ()"cr 480 POI' of beer (pIu> ·17 chicke ns. I sheep, a dog, kola nUlS, and la. h.1 co) m counrel'.1 previous lea, l In whICh 430 POts of becr (an d 30 chickens) had b.'·1I ofli!n·J In Manga (a MosS! lOWII of .,bOll l 7,000 ", habltaMs IJ1 BurklO. ' "Jso ). mc monal cercmomcs called bone are occasions for [he mOSt laVis h (111(' tlC'(' d" '0 pOl ...

, I I

me

!I"cr r. J"S In onc week. five klll1rr were held III one ward. consuming ' .900 kg of rccl ",rghum mJ de mro beer (With seven carrlo.ds of wood- I,400 kg- requJred (or bre wm8 Jnd cOtllung for one of these feasts alone), and, dunng a SlOgle dry .sCJso n , wlt hm dle ro wn as a w ho le. ro tOilS of sorghu m were converted In [O beer 101' rhese memo nal feasts alone, with a toral annual festive consu mpnon eStimated at W [ons of gra m brewed fo r beer (S.UI1 98 1). Fmally, amo ng the Luo of Kc nra, funera ls are the occaSIons for the most laVish feasts m ounted Ln thts SOCIet} These e"cnts frequently resulr ID lhe se rious Jmpoven shment of the hostmg (a mill'. and the Kenya n government has even attempted to in tervene legally to IJ mJt the sc" 'e of Luo fun erals. ..\11 of thiS represents a substantial Lnvestment of agriculrural and cUlinary labor Ln the essentIally political acrivlry of acqumng and maintaming symbolic caplral and crea ttng and susrammg SOCIal relano nslups, Moreover. conrrary to some pemsnng archaeolog ical concepnons of econo nucaUy autonomous do-

m e.mc uruts. It represents a substantial pOrnon of domestic agricultural producnon rhat IS regularly dedtcated from the begmrung to fJowmg outside the ho useho ld and belllg consumed by people III other domesnc uruts. Hence, It IS clear that recognizmg the Importance of feasting for both SOCial reproduCtIon and polmcal action m agrarian SOClenes should provoke a corollary recogrution of the scale of productive labor and resources necessarily devoted ro these crUCial fea tures of soaallrfe. Feasts are an Lnstrumenral force in the organization of pro. ducrion as well as III the StTuctunng of social relations and power.

PATRON - ROLE FEASTS The second m ajor mode of commensaJ politics that may be distinguished I Will call the "patron-role feast." This Involves the formalized use of commensal hospitality to symbQlrcally reiterate and leginrruze institutionalized relatiOns of

mCrrl cai soc ial power ThiS corresponds to 01 sP fi ~ .syrTl b utlo n · 1Il th e ln c.raru
cOrTI III e. the rtIaU,m."_ . cal obug.tlon engendered through hospltahry I .L. _ --"yof .. ( Ipro . , , . n UU!t C~e, howC'Ytt the [aUon of equa l reclprocanon IS no longer maLntalntd o-th Cl pe, conunually unequal pattern of hospltaltry , symbol eaU~ n , the ;CCtnr-",~ r -~' f o a n , I Yerp~~~l;S (he rortnal . allO of unequal relanons of starus and power and Ideol . -'I . 'z . . oglCoU y n~turalizcs It hra ugh repetition of an eVent that lOduces senomentsaf SO<;" d b • m the role of guests are sy IoUbalC: t On the- one: h[ nd those who are contmually a , . m ">Ill" 1n U1 a parron / ruent telaoonshtp,

TIus IS the pnnClple that lies be.lund the regular 1.V\Sh hospltal.iry ''P''C'ted of chiefs and lungs m almost aU SOClenes where they "-USl. and ((ITatn" th"", m Africa Tlus sense of obhgation for generosity In a commensal context IS rueehencapsulated in the Baganda definition of the essennal quahne of. good chref 'beer, meat and politeness" (Marr 1934:t83). Among the r- yoro, .wo of l gill1 of the feasts proVided by the klOg was cause for complamts Chi, undtt the lung were also expected to foUow chts pane m on a mOre 10ulle..1 &alllf t960 Similarly. among the Pondo of South Afnca. Hunter not..! th.at GeDemslIV IS I primary virtue and the mark of a chlef - II "'as pMDcularh- unponant for W chief to dtspense generous hospJlahry. iIild -there was IIwa much tlter It die great places." Indeed, the Pondo word for chief. lftkM, also W UI everyday usage for "thank you" (19'\1:,387-,388\. Dillon providts .. tnOI'< 4naiIed idea of the scale of such obhg.ltIons among the Mtta of Clr.KI\lOCI.

pt,....

The forcmo" dury or '/0" (,.,u.g«hict) In the nund of "" Met. reed hiS people. ThIS was done mOo<1lavrshly when he pn1'1
to

,",.-r..a

---a._-...IftftMW thrIO" .1_- m,"~ ..... 1 •• "P .u"u

-'--'iorhi ~,dtOMd'" lar basis. Each nme lhat the VlUagers wo... "" mM ..... Ill .... when they h.d finrshed thelt IAsk. and h. h. .,d W C111ft an annual crl.brOltOn tnvolVl"8 danong If die ..... _ fi'" ... had 10 proVld. th.... turrung warriors dI ... evtn if no uch activm. bad .,a- WI1IIID. lit "'~ct.d th. fp" 10 ~ Ihen•• fust slmpIy

,.km

u

,

-

-

N SUMPT ION , COMMENSAl POLITIC!.. A~O POWED AtfU/l l S OF cO ., IN AFR CA

-

h cl Lh e nghr (by Vl rru e of lme.ge ,onIon"') In coha a _J ......, • .,. un_ ove' tW S .. whIch secs the dare for eaUog new yaou 'M. . ---....dt'nt of yam , "llS (onfha ~,I_ "(ens d pure over who would host the Centrally ._ d In a . I~ "HPQn.\nt ~ ",re h ndid.te ended up holdmg tIus (ea51 On a dlfferenr ~_ )'. eaC ca h boycorung che feast of hIS . nvaJ "'y, \0; th the su,,(ea"crs r of eac . .

--Ul

PO~hicfs raise food suppUes for tlus laVIsh public hOSPitality In a vanety of

H unter '961.384- 389, Rlchards 1939. Schapera 19381 Often ~b , Ut.m .~ (eg·, ~,_,. F rnishes an important part, with mdlV]duals obh=ted u' I d d,;,", u . ,,_ 0 Pruv,Ue I~ ,n . h portion of che" Own prodUCtion For tJlample GUttn cl ef w, t a . ann ( 19"... }.I6 vred ch Chagga chiefs collected part of cherr mOute m tbe (arm of . no ar h a POrtlon of beer brewed by house olds. He stato.s chat the people ,_ L the banana __ '" ''Or!' 10 _c. rnbuce because It enabled the eluef to mamt"", a ConnnUul tlpt-n render u u s . L tat c'us residence, wlucl1 they IJ.I<.ed to attend, but aJso thar the d"ef h .... ka • • en,. Olen were constantly checkmg to make sure chat no household bee".d "1"wOUt aymg che beer rnbute. . .

.e

, I I . chief Was re• Ille Bt'mb. of Z,.mbla , R.chards noted that che ~pon\1 bl (.' n}r o·,lIlho,. who proVIded mbule work On h.s <arV/!, , J, r H! r ..(w'·n.· pro;eclS (OUrOc.' f " e\el.. ..... - , ' 0 · U('" offi",'I, "I""n" counaJors, and ochers She estUllated that dunng on. nmc·montll penod 11,. m.1Il chIef prO\oded food and beer for at least on,' JJ, for ,01 nWl Jnd ILl women who proVIded labor and, among others, ,lbouI tnbal counnlor. w.th chelr "o,'es and retinue at least lWIce (1939;147). As she nmed, rh~ cu"nar) labor for rllls IS provided by the multiple WIves of the c1ll.( under the d.recnon of the semor wIfe who was necessarily a woman Wich ~!Ill! ,Ir \', .lmOI ~

~~

good de.1 of orgJIlIZlng abu.ty, apable of supervlsmg younger Wives, arrang_ , '"~ for the endless gnndmg alld breWing requtred in rhe cap"al, and the stirring of huge POts of porndge 10 be served In enormous eaemg-baskets about eight time.' the SIze of an ordmary lope" (r939·148). As she furcher stated, "The whole of chlS system of dmnbuung food IS of course necessary to the chief if he IS to ,I

make guruens JIld conduct tnbal bUSiness through Ius counciJors. But

If

IS more

than [Jus The gmng of food, a, m most Afncan tribes. IS an abSOlutely essentiaJ annbure of dueftamslup, )USI as rr IS of authonry In the village Or hOUsehold"

(19J9"~8). Correspondmgl), the failure of a duef to prm~de food for Ius sub)ecrs conSlderabl)' weakens Ius presnge The rradmon of che generous king SurvIves a, a srandaru agamst whIch [he modern ruler IS constamly measured, and measured ro Ius dlsad"anrage" (Rlchards 19J9:2<>4). Ir" m'porrant to emphaSIze char rhls kind of practice is nor, as has sometimes been pOSIted tn (uncOonalist accounrs, necessanly a systenucally adapove means of pro\,l(jmg balanced food secunty for a population Rather, most

3

It

is first and fore-

polltico-symboLc deVice for legltimlzmg starus differences, and any nutri-

flonal bt'nelit, to che POpuJaoon at large are lughly vanable (see Friedman 19 4, 8 Hayden and Gargert 1990; Pryor 19n). TIus POlltlcal funcnon IS underlmed by [he (aCI

[hal

(haJ/~nge, ro chIefly authonry can also be launched through feasnng

AnlgbO 1(996) pnMdes an excellent example of such a challenge among the Igbo (Jf

NIgcna

In

[he

u"m
,

.

P The work feast (especally m the more obUg_tory '-0"," form . din,cr.,J to"-at\l S the exten lve fields of che chief, is anotber common mec1lam'm . for mob"~"""". foo d st000 for such purposes (see Chapter 9· Among che Bemb~ of Zamb" _ r examp le , Rlc1lards (1939) noted that chiefS organIZe che ll",,,,, I tabor gTou •

found In the country to work thetr Own fields' she e'flJllared, ~ r ...nlp! • th~ 275 men-days and 210 women-days per year were reqUired tor the g..dell> - ne smaller eluef for cunmg and dearmg branches, respecrr\'eh . \10= r, chiefs are very often ostentanously polygynollS m (omp.>O-'
rk I~

1f

DIACRITICAL FEASTS The rlurd major mode of commens.1 pohu,:, wh"h I ..iD feast," involves che use of differentIated nllsme.mJ -"Ies f acritic.1 symbolic deVICe to naturahze ,mJ reify ,'on, pt> f ranb-d the st.rus of sOlial orders or classes ,d Eh.,

I~

,G

~n rotl funmon t\) W (i.e., the naruralization and ob,emtkauon of m~U.Jbt\ In :iiI Although it serves a somewhat Similar

fen horn it in several important resprft . In the- finl pia.: force sltifrs from quantity 10 matt cs of

I in.!

sIufts from in asymmeln('ilI ommensal bond Slitement of e c1usi al\d Wl qual :onlmensal hOSPitality are no Ih bui I

This is Ih~ "luerltiC''' and

01

tilt

IIowdIeu I

DI

MlrlUlt'I nw/lo •

I . I1 K(-' nf

-

( 1I 1!' 1I1 C ,

According

10

Goody, th e devclopmcnl of

Sl le I,

,lnd ~ lgOlll. l , _ oftc n hnked ro the deve lopment of specia lized I'n " \I'" prilcUC'CS I~ I J I,ll"nuc:1 ell I • I (replac ms wives In thiS ro le, whobecome COrn nlo1 1ht,t'hrceJss • Inod pr('p.II'C· . sll cxcl llslVlry is often acco m pn l1l cd by class e s) .md COn'l l11 CJ1 , _ _ 11. nlc.'ns.d POfIl1Cf, . _ of the H awa ii an kmgdo ms descri bed by KJrch , r The" le.lsung pJ l tcrn~ _ JO~:l1I1) , 0) l re I clil!i:S!c eXJ . le of th iS , nnd of w ha t I m ean by the d Jaclillca l mp h le il pl cr . • h G dy 's di cho to m y m ay be an overly broad generaliz . a de . Allhoug 00 . . feas t 01 0 th l ce of diJcn rica l rcasrmg rransfo rms c ine feas ts Into .. dN r that c prac 1 " . 11011. It I. R6 ' ) has called "tournaments of valu e. whi ch serve bOlh to g ill "

I

, I

I,

I I , I I

.hal AppndurJI ( I Q

\\

.21

.

. .. . b rshlp llnd f.O chann el sacral compeollo n within dea rly

defi ne elit e SrAtU S n\c m c .

.,

.

- D la critJc •ai sly Hstlc rusall ctl olls may be based upo n th e use of J c.fin ed boundones. . . foods or food ing red ients. Or ra re. expensive, or exonc . th ey may be o rchestrated . thro ugh cl l e' use 0 r e Ia borare food·serviee vessels and Implem ents. o r arc!Utcclon. thar serve to "!Tame" elite. co nsumpa o n as a disttnc _ ICilJ1y cUsonguls. hed seranm: b~ .. nvt prJc[lce even w hen the food itself is not distmca ve . Or th. ey m ay be based and consump. upon dlJalertnces U1 the compleXJty of the pattern of preparation ." _ ..

oon of food and the specialized knowledge and taste (I.e., cultural capital · BourdJeu 1984 ) that proper consumption entails. B<eause thiS type of feasnng rehes upon style and taste for ItS symbolic fo rce. " IS subJecr to emul,Hlon by those aspiring to higher status. Such emulation consti. rur .. an artempred e1evaoon of srarus through representational means. which may focus on either (or both) the mrmeric development of styles of action (man. ne;I, tastes. erc.) or the use and consumption of objects (foods, service vessels, erc) thar are marenalized SignS of a particular social identity. Tbis can result in the g radual spread through a society of foods and food practices by whar Appadurai (1986) has descnbed as a "turnstile elfect:' Tlus happened in annent Greece with the expansion of the symposlolI (wme·drinking party) from its aristocranc ongins throughout urban society (Oentzer 1982. Murray 1990), and it was a common fea · rw-e

U1

the development of European bourgeOiS manners and food culture (Bour.

cbeu 1984 ; Ehas 1978). Junker (Chapter 10) offers another example among Plullppme cluefdoms Such emulanon, and the resulnng devaluation of cbacrltlcal SignIficance. can be thwarted onl), by the Imposition of sumptuary laws that restrict consumpuon wHlun clear SOCIal boundanos or by the use of exonc foods and consumption paraphernalia, access to which can be controlled through elevated expense or bmHed nerworks of acquISition. In the absence of effective means of monopo. lizatlon , the weakenmg of diacnnca1 symboltc force caused by emulauon may provoke continual slufts

In

elue tastes as they reacr to the process of imitation ,

The,. 'hlfLS need nOt be solely m the dlrectton of mcreasIOg claborauon In many Q .I:S,

rhl' rcaCUOn may be r<)ward ostentatiously SImpler, rather than more c1Jb

86

L.S OF CONSUMPTION, (OMMENSAl POLITICS

""'0 'QWU N '"

. Rl fUA

CUISIOC and /o r consumpOon paraphern.u. L._." te or<1 . a ""CPtmiln mularion bemg reacted againSt The nucru upon the [he e anng tt:JiJUton of d upon both the nature of rustoncU d (3 'blCh depel1 prece '''It, 'nJ lc stufts presented by invention and the OPPO"," U ior g srra tC mcorponnon of AfrlC3 IS an lfltcresnng case in the analysIS or the d!~nCil t"lQO( dC:hWitts . I)' bee. use. accordJ ng to Goody (1982) one sh uld fun p·ttun P
-

·-un .. _, ro\'.tJ Or

culinary cbacritica are expressed In the form of speoal iooJ ...,.~~ or leged consumption of cemun arumals of ntu;u " gruJicance rath \10"''''-., th· , were not allowed to ha,'e sexual mterrours. lusl bdot< or dunn, th oittnut ing penods of sel"Vlce ID the p;uJce ,Beam. ,_ \m", Cameroon, the f~" [village chief) has "clus"e ngh'" 10 t< pose of cermm prestigious md dangerou.., aJ\lm.tl~ Uhl\\n i,., leopards and pythons) from \\luch he WJS bdtc, ,\ 10 'quirr also share speCifically preswbed part, of thes< aruM " ,th tables (OLllon '9"0;1\)' I),. '5) ' I ~). Among Ih, lunr"" serves all the common food prohlblO,)n, 01 Iu., ubi not eat goat. black fish. or the Ilesh 01

,·.n ,,01 rh

J

earth·shnnes . Moreovrr, hIS JICI " (T,ln"rJ I bt

roar.

gumea fowl .II1U millet ",'rndg, prrl '" I under the SUpt~rViMon of th(' se-m or \\If(' ( an.I U Iq of Zamb',I. even when IU' hng . .1 hI f

,...,1\01

l'ubj('cts b('{.lus .., · pt'rl1d~r:: '-1'H..'IktJ

mJ'4ll'"'

I'm

(RIChard, 19N IINl Rather , ,~" (,,,..I m.t n JIl'

mukru hy onr 01 Ihr, htrl '" I

"chlcls vl"lmg

d,

h "Ih r will

n

,h I

at

tl t1wl

-

-

I

I I

I,

I

I

~"'l h~ 1

fhf" :.."_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _•

I ' f'" hcaJ w de cClldd !lend (l roya l viSllor di shes 01 , n .. hUf tUllv .1 t l ie h " I J. f 11"'o1'(' III\'l' 'i 1.1 . . _J I) ' 118 ). r lll.II'y, among t c gil .'I 0 Nlge n a tt, . J ·""h t R It.:h. II-u ,\ ,uJ I1 r ' plm·".I}.!l· .111 H J ~ be lieved to not CJ I al a . In laC(. th e king I . i J 10 ht" JI Vlll C .111 . I .
. d,l.ln1m:.tJ ( ull ,1I V pr. . r " ell t r. I ' I do eXISI eve n in Africa , Il ow cver, lhey arc by 110 ()r people:- r ( .1 r y (.II t.:~tm t', :r A(n c,1Il kingdom · and cnJcfdoms, Mo reove r, Lh ese ritu. •

• J

\

rn N II \ U/lI\'I.·r,"J I .1In o n~

I

focused .15 (0 be effectiVe. y n o nco mme.nsallO the lis IIT !'> o rn c tlml'~\OC: ,'(c ~ , ., h d fy rh e defilllllon of a feast, and they tend to mark cer, e\ lt"l1l IhJf lhey p e r J PS (' . '- d ,,,Ioncdl role, r.lIher than social classes, Neve rtheless, such f.l ln lo ,wulIOnJ uU f . . . , ,rfor", Lhe ntu.1 work noted above of relfymg asymmctnca l rela. pr,Kllfl'oCj u l) p c ugh the .symboltc m.l1Ipulatlo n of food consumptio n in a par. 11 00\ II ( power th ro s dIfference Jnd separation of at least a small elite segment of fe rll I hJI t' mp hJ ~ lZe . '

_ IUlril ve ly

OF CON SUMPTION COMMENSAL POLITICS . A~D Al flJALS

~OWU

-

FEASTS AND SOCIAL BOUNDARIES

To be an"lyucally useful, the concept of cUacntlcal feasts requ.ires some further ,JUIIOU, danficatton Tlus IS because nearly all feasts actuaUy serve m SOme ways '" define sO(l.,1 bound"nes while SImultaneously creating a sense of community, That 1\ nc"r1y all fe"sts 'erve to mark. reify, and mculcate diacritical distinctions bcn,een ,octal groups, categones, and sratuses whlle at the same rime establIShIng reldtlOnsrups across the boundanes that they define, Gender categories and age cUstlllctJons. for e,ample, are very commonly signa led 10 what I have distmgtll,hed ., 'empo\\'enng feasting practices even among peoples with a strongly egahtoman pohllcal ethos. For example, among rhe Luo of Kenya (who do nor have 'cUacntlcal feam an the sense defined above), categoncal dlSttnctlons between men .nd women, between elders and younger men, and between kll1shlp group' aIt' slgnaled at feas~, by spanal cnteria (le" who SIts where and Wllh whom). temporal dlStmctlons (I e" the order of serving), by cl.tfferent types of dnnkll1g "e. ,els and practlces, and by d.fferent types of beer and food (see the later dlSeu<s1on of rhe Luo case), S.mdar k.mds of practices, ill culrurally speedic mamfe'tanorl.\, are ublqultoll.S m the Afncan ethnographic record (e.g" seC Carlson 1990; Hunter 1961. Karp 1980; Pensl1any 1939; Rlcbards 1939: Sangree 196.), Such practICes can also be a subtle but powerful means of marking the SOCIal r.nlung of andlviduals m hIerarchies of prestige and mfluence. As D.llon noted fr,r Ihe Mc~ "f Camcmon r . I h " , Jor c,amp e, t ey wcre very sensitive to subtle cllS' (nmma,,'," "nrct~d III h,s 's atmude toward a"ot her ) p. IaI "y, dnd onc man mIght t". """,/lcdntly alter d cl, d h . b C , {pen Ing ''" w ether he had made a spen.tl dlcHt r'J serve lum (,r offered only I P I "m(" t"XC'US("S. t"op ". dttc.·ndmg Important gJth"rmg!'o

..

,

---

~~

. Iso no

red how vanoUS guests we re tTeated depen'"

'

wng On th

th the host" ('990:(]0), and't\a. U0 0 5 W l , Ilarly, soc.al groups or networks of vanous \un"51rT'~ t41ffinc.C\ , uendy marked by the same k.mds of pramc c. . , ·gqrw.., tIC arc

Ire q

'd

in Sl er

.

e:s tnat art \l.Std t

_

versUS stran ge r distin ctions. Conce:pts of ethru . '

tnlU other ror !!Urn 1 pt, ~ry In: I)

CIty.

I involve beilefs (of va nable accuracy) abou d quen[ y t 15unctl\;1: food racuces, The Luo love fish and know thOl 'C C• . L "'la IIld ry P eU II na UU3 "",ungulSn th J(jsii neighbors to the east who eschew fish TheY"'-be c, em mnll r rhel . OOQ bo e that th lsion at the idea of eaung caterpilla_rs sets them aport fr c.r OWh vU re Om oth", n".Loo I 'W' n north. Peasts can be a theater for the symbobc m h to t e '!Upu ' Oon of SUch cuIi distincrions m the expressIOn of sentune.ms of mclUSl . nary 0 0 and adUSton , • vano us leve1s. .Ias the situation is yet more compltcated for archatolog '" I •._ N' . I'uoo_b_ dence of what are here defined as ruacnucal feasts betaust nnular symbottc de s can be used to mark categones of events as

tht' 'i oCJery

I", A•• IC ....

"-"en as C'att\'{J

r

VIce . 0 nu 0 1"<"l'1< Particular care must be taken not to ffilStake the k.mlh of pr.ctlc" th.tt",.. be used to di.lferenriate feasts m general St, tlus former chs. nncrion (Le .• marlung feasts as ntual events) IS accompb'heJ >Imp ' b JdIer enees in the sheer quantity of food .nd dnnk proffertd ""J UllCtl 'IIUV rm ployed to dlStlngtJ1sh ntu.l from quotldtan practICe bl " I 'll> ~ Jr vices" that act as cue, es,.bltslung the ntual Slgntfic&n,r of t"\'tTlt '985'l81-(83), For example. lea,ts may be marked b, p nl>rnl,\U~ r<,([' ,d e ,Iu " tor I though accomp.m«1 by the SI,md.tN f Jn~C nt ,th r d.uh t special servICe vessds or other paf.'phrrn.h. tlO.luJm . Ionn' <'f or other bodily ,ldllrmnelltl, 01 spcClal ardut\dur.tl u mg m"

,,=

for tIllS markmg purpllse '1'<. u,,' the I \I,"

".U

an

amp) J t 'aoJ

UIlCUve paired sct 01 wr\' I,trgl' h«,t I".t' only at Import.lIlt I,·.,t, \11 rhllh JnJ Dletl T' b beer. beef. JnJ (t'rt.lln kmJ:\ nt lrit'rtlnu, \ as mual
of servtn' .. nJ \ I tal \Unpt\lln 1\1 Dollgla .~R4 \, 11..

~,,,

h "J

•

, tIt;It

__~'~"C~h~"'~I~"~~~fl'~"_________________________,-

I

I

- J I between " dl~l '1ucal reasts" and lh Jrsnnglll!"h I ('J I Y . ese Oth . •In'tMc.'Cl/ogl.I;' to (". Ihose 111.1rkll1g both boundanes ber-we er k prlt.:IICC!<- IC ., e nSO('i I nOlllh'"lrY -InJr 109 . b dones berwcen nrual and quotidian CDnte" a ·ones ,lIlJ Oun . ts). all I ~r(lup!i JIl!. r.llC'g · r . nbohc logic IS both possible and useful t 'tu - d ..enl.ll1ghng (l sy' . _ In lllan I hclu.'Vl" ( ~ I. _ re jJ careful and cnneal cvalu3uon of the COn > Y oach ose WIll requf , , teXtual Ilbf.II1Ct"S . f he evidence and a muJosrranded. thkk.ly l s ' onnl p.urenl 0 I .... CJctured and .1SSOClJn d . ro differentiate between diacntJcal feas ls" le 'rrgumcn[ In or Cl -. Illark. Inrerprftl\, d ,1.. J'ocnocaJ use of cuisine (0 mark other sOdal cate ' 'JJ dasses ,In (Jle UJ . gOnes 1f1g soo . cia l rirual evenrs. To take a lughly sImplified hYPOther or 10 nlark fe,lsrs as spe fi . lea)

. l)'Pes 0 r ce ramic tableware. lhat are ound only J.n funerary e.\,lmple speoal _. . COn. C nr)' contexIS are more likely Iepresentatlve or the latter (that I t'X[.) bur In a// J u n e . , fi . . I1le nru3 . I n ature or an event); whereas those IS .nll1rkmg . ound exclusively in lllaJ e .• 'rJve.$, bUl !O a11 male graves probably Imply both a .ntual 'and . ca tegoncal dist'Inc, g d la e bronze drinking vessels round only ill a limited number or very 0011, an rg . f "di '. al ' acnnc. ,easts." BUI th e wca Ithy bun als most hkely Uldicate the . operation 0 plJuslbiluy or such an Ulrerpretaoon will depend upon other eVIdence from settle. men[ dDca as ,,'ell (see Dlotler 1996 for archaeological examples). It IS Important to POUlt out that a general increase in, for example, the COIll_ ple.ul)' or elaborateness of the decoranon of tablewares in comparison to COok_ Ing warcs (or of ceramIcs m general J.n comparison to a previous habitanon level or archaeological penod) is not necessarily an indication of the use of style in the developmenr or diacriocal feasts. This may simply be relared to an increasing "comple.tilication" of food-consumption parterns (in the sense of Douglas 19i14) through more marked symbolic emphasis on distinctions such as that between ntual and quoodian duung practice. The diacritical feast pattern rests on an ex. cluslve sumptuary use of style in food-consumption rituals by cerrain social classes whal,,'er the relative complexity of food patterns within the SOCiety as a whole. More will be said about these issues Iarer, bur for the moment it is useful to open a brief parenthetical consideration of one of the most common categor. JCa1 disnnctlons defined through feastmg.

FEASTS AND GENDER As noted earuer, gender IS one cultural category of sooal identity that is nearly everywhere marked, remed, and naturalized to some extent through feasting practices In fact, gender IS one of the most common categOrical disrincnons made through food/dnnk·related pracuces In general, albeit in a wide vanety of culturally specmc ways IBacon 1976; Chrld , Barry, and Bacon 1965; Coumhan and

Kaplan r998, D .. der 1990; Crfou·Madlanou 1992; Herbich 1991; McDonald (994). As rhe Lu/) cX
.0

rUALS Of CONS UMPTION , CO MMENSAl POl

RI

ITlC~. AND POWEFt Ut AJIICA"

co

of symbol ". b ascd upon vanous permutations , le '-U;JCf10u ! ritlctiO flS (that IS, segregation or olh~r structurc:d dtft . Ulc udJng. I 'P'1h«l4u, d women whue eatmg), (2) t.mporal dIJII"_ siUoru~. Q '" ~ , '-.w~(~ -~-a. I .. ordc, of _ _ l su mptlOn). (J) qflaiflatlve dLSfJnctto~ (for'. CO l ......arnp e, 1I1 the 1..-..1 .- ... ~ or service vessels men and women aTe give ""lW of fOOd, ~.... _\. or .'. n or Ue aliO\\.'c:d _'" 10 COtls1.arne • a ttlitarive dLSttncUons (m [he relative. i&mounrs f r: qfl . 0 ,0Od Or dn • nd women), or (,5) behaVloral dLStlnCfJo'lJ (thallS ".... ok "'~ to 1l1cn petted bodIlv . s as permlssl . bl e SIgnS of UltOXlcation 1,11 g ..an .ft.r fusun g "",uduo ,__ • ch trung su . """"g ...lul. ' ~ od serving or being served. Wlthdrawtng from th c'ung, ".chlll fot

o

,

e Illeal fim and An Important reature to SIgnal here IS that whe nary practices, one often notes a sluft m the POSItion of WOlllen of dot cfut d.lu

from food servers and prepares 10 commensa] p'rtne", ",th. (Qm'poodin~ J., velopment of speClalJSt food preparers and serve", \\ ho "" , mcrun , .;,* This does not imply any correspondmg change ID gcndered pI,,·tl«, m el>llll among the non-elite classes; and one can annop.te ID ",ch (.lSe,. m.u:' dUf.r ence between the classes m. for e.xample . the spana] ;md bth .. oral JistJn:tlon., by which gender IS marked It is also tmportanr to telterate thal feasong pra(tlcn, altho"l:hnurk • IIndaries of gender Identlnes m the ways noted aho\'t, "mull;mco' "t'I't It tionslups of mu mal dependence acros< thrue b<'unJ.lOr; tiul III rum. rel""",1 and natural",e IdeologIes srrucrunng larger ,o,1
Il'l1

"r m.Jor

r

"

/11,, -/111('/ f)ft',/tr

j prc)l lie'101 I I ,.IIIhoUl,h et

-

rc/,1[.lv{' ge ndcfcd contribution in this dO IS bY rnaln • 11\ U01/orm (Boscrup 1970; Cuyer (088). However, even more co."...... no nlc.1 . . ''' on IS .1 1111 fCllllJC conrrlbun on to the e r-uoal , c ulinary and Serving lab Or thaa uOIlIJIl. • rr;l fl~fo rm:!i raw food mg rcuicnl.\ into :casts (FncdJ 1975; ~oOdy (982). Moreovert ••Ithough cases such as the Luo (descnbed below). In wmdl wornen provide th~ JgncuJrural, culinary. and serviJlg labor for male political activities are qUite COll)~ mOll (0 g .. see Bohannan .nd Boh.nnan 1968; Cla rk r98~) . examples of the lo. verse parrern (where men consIstently provide the agnculrural. culllla"" • J' and servlllg labor that underwnres feasts formally hosted by Women) are extremely ra!'t', if they exlSf at all.

,

(h e

At firsl glance, It may be tempting to imerpret tms facr as a sysrematic form of I"bor exploitation, Ul Ime WIth Marx's observation that women probably COnst/. rured the first exploited class (MeillassoUJ( 1975'7 8). However. the question of ex. plolt3non frequendy lunges upon a subtle contexrual consideranon of the quesnon posed by Clark for the Kikuyu : are women "controllers of reSOUrces Or themselves reSOurces controlled by men?" (Clark 1980:367). Although exploit•. Don IS frequently. justiJiable analytical conclUSion, this is by no means a pattern that IS uruversal or even general.izable in a simple way. For example. in SOme soci.

I

eues there is typlcaJJy a more balanced, or even male-domina red, pattern of labo r U1 the production of feasts (although this generaJJy does not extend to the prepa. raUon of daily meals). Moreover. women may share in the starus and political benefits from thetr labor by being members of an influential household Or line. age (In marrilmeal COntexts). Their labor (and male dependence upon ir) may also be overtly recognized and valued. and women may even derive considerable categoncal and IndJ\~dual status from the ... central role m the furnishing of hospitality Or III malntaming commensal relations with rhe gods (e.g.• see Cera 1992, March 1998). And, U1 many societies, women do host their Own work feases and Other feast events. although usually on a smaller scale than men. For example, among the TIV of Nigena. women host smaller work feasts than men. bur these "underscore the prestige of unportant women If a woman calls a big hoeing parry and supplIes generous amOunts of food and beer, she will be caJJed 'impor, tant woman' (shagba kwasc) for momhs afterwards" (Bohannan and Bohannan 6

19 8.73). Finally, the common tradlttOnal female monopolization of cooking and brewmg responSIbIlIties has, With the penetranon of the monelized market econ.

omy, frequently presented women With Opportunrties for gatrung a source of In ()me (e g .. through beer sales), and thiS has sometimes enabled them 10 acquire {()n.nd,·rable t'Clmomlc Independent'c and mlrafamlllal power under changing )l1(J("'(m()ml crmdllJIJns (c.g .. :lee Colson and Scudder 19HII. Netting 1964). The c.lalltm flip belween f.. a5ls and gender IS dearly a complex bUI analYl1

ully nch

~Ild Imp"rtdnr ('"l'

I'e:u"

~r Imirn.'~ly Impl" al"d III th,' rrl'rl'srnl.1

LS Of CONSUMPTION , COMMENSA.L POllllC

RITlIA

5,

,,~O PO'llu.

'" "'Flle"" c~

RELATING THE MODES. OF COMMENSAL POLITICS L~U

s nOW return co the conSIderation of the chffere:

'..

__ nt _ ~_

ofmmm~ po\. .' outlined eariler, because It IS also necessary to say r. J[1CS J. ew \\ ords .thou lh . nships of these modes to each other. The firSt thmg t h e rdo 00 0 emp iISlzt" tin! .h_ tld deCIdedly not be mterpreted as evolunon"", Sla.... ••• _, h S ot . ..._ uut can bt corrtt. N ·th for example, outmoded evoluoonary typologtes of " I WI d, cribe, cmefdom, . \lOuoQ! Or;..'>1lJ2",Qn state. etc .). There IS. to be sure an b(b

10~ ccrrdaOQn to me extent WIth mcreasmg sooal Stranficaoon and compl"",~ f so ~.' 0 )truC'tUrt'i. of an •

'.

.

0

olitical power (for example. diacntical feasts . as defined he",. are -~n.. .... p . " ..... _, • OQ. cure encountered exduslvely among state soaeoe>-bUt not:Ul "I1l M .It acritical feasts), However, rather than descnbmg a "'ne. of \U, '" evolutionary stages. these feasnog modes should be \1r\\·ed .. 'onsurunn l Pit). gressively expansive repertotre of forms of pollocal actlOn throu h t1n~ < form does not replace another; some fomlS Sllllply expand the r""!:t 0

SI"" ...

sal politics in operation. It IS true that there have boen. and "'" 00 . 11\" only empowering feasts are opemo," tIus IS the Ill">t b.." and fun,l"h
111

the p.lltOn rolc pallfrn '" ItgJturuz

thority roles. l.Ikewlse . both rmp"" nil!! ~Ild p.atmn operanve whc~ Ihe." lallcr 'YP<'

I.'

rounJ lht' u. f

stitutlonahzcd patruns (t·~. (hltf.

0'

I \ l\1amt~U1 t

h\l''Plt~hlY b • roles does Ilut predudt' Ihe USt' tuses below that uf su(h p.II",,\!., r Its u' b ,~

and defin~ tht'" rt'1~!t

<.. !\~

~

chll'tly amhon! \\ hat \u common huusrhul.h \\ tll lOmmuntty ,11\\11 I. ullal Hrll(r, Ihr "1< 11\ I n

H)lIlmU l~tI

1.1:Ih

III n

"

hoIJ

h~ h

III

• \ .. c.:..(( , III I l'Illnl III bl~ .1f 10 mind IS lh,H lht.' dl.slIllcrions betwee"

-

h l <: II 1ree ' 11111l1lCn:\ 11 pohucs art.' not preCisely of (he same orde r { of I Il1(Jl t" •• - and lh. (Jel has Import.1nl 100plicallons for the role of fcats In socia l change . The d,; emnowenng lea:as and pmron·role feasts IS really One 0 I' est b 1c.:_,T'en(....... b"'\\'l.'cn ... r

hshmg ~I Ir,m.smon.1i dJVISlon alo ng a co n tinuum of expeCtations. The S b· ' e ' , Yrn olte b d h 100lC or bOlh IS qUJtC SlInd.w bot opcrare y ennmg a smgle "consu .

rnpuon. co mmutllry " wlthll1 wh ich .1SYI11JllctrteS a re expressed and n a rurallzed to difTi <01 de"l'Ces b), the sh.1ling o( food It IS really the extent of inslirutio I er. et na IZed .trcep13nce. or expectJuon. o( a c~ nDnuing partern of unre~iprocared Or unbal. anced ho,pltahry lhal defines the ddference . As the example In the follow ' . .' . . . Ing sec. ~ o n "oIl ~. .how lhere IS ofren a subtle dlSDnctlon belween rhe two ,and 't . .... • 1 IS not dtfficulr 10 ,magme how the patron· role feast may crysralllze our of certain C . . lorrns o( empowenng (easts. Ir IS also Important to recogmze thar rensions and conflict d may. acrually be created when groups approach such feasts with diJferent une~ ..

standtngs o( therr pohticalloglC: (or example, when the hosrs view rhe feast in the parron ·role mode and the guesrs view it m the empowering mode. This is partlc. ularly a nsk with feasrmg across culrural boundaries, where, for example. hosts and guests are members of diJferent erhnic groups that do nor share rhe sarne culrural codes and behavioral expectations. But ir can also be manipulared Con. sClousl), by mdividuals or groups who are quite aware of the conventions but who. for example, choose to challenge chiefly aurhoriry by refuSing to acknowl_ edge a parron-role feasr as such and rteating ir ins read in the competitive empow. enng mode. This form of "fesrive revolution" is. of course, one of the many ways m which feasting can become a site of contestation and a dynamiC agent in pohocal change In comrasr to the other two modes. the diacritical feast manifests a symbolic logIC that differs in kind . It serves ro reify asymmetries along lines of class or social order by definmg the boundanes of separate "consumption·communities." It also. of course. serves ro solidifY idenDry withm rhose consumption-communities

~rTUAl5

Of CON S UMPTION , COMMEN S A.l POUTICll A.

.

-

NO POWER

I~

"Ut, .... CO •

Uo FEASTS

d to further c1anfy some of the more abSl ra In or er et po",,, m.d" •. _L . 0 rreat several aspects of feasrmg among the Lu f ~""r. 1 III brte Y 0 0 \V~~i It Kt" ore dera" than the other examples raised m th dt Y> "' ~ ",har m . t '="on Th L . spealung people who inhabit a re"'on of abo < no ~ • Nilo(lC~ b' Ut 10.000 kmJ. uno Winam Gulf. in the northeast corner of Lake Vict Th IUIdm the . . h ona ey have. p.tnhn _. . hi sysrem and live m omesteads scattered acro h <.. !Ons P ss t e eountry"J, hi e occupied by polygynous extended families w,th a patnlocal <, ch .. attern (see D 'letI er an d H erb'th I 1989. 1993' Evans p ch postm.nul rt" . dence P . . nt >rd 1949' Hrtblch . J-Ierblch and Dlerler 1992 . 1993; Slupton 1989; SouthaU _, 1987. '9,- , of their ruet. and rhts IS cam d b Agn' culrure provides the base . __ e. OUI \' \\'Omro m tered sets of small plots m the Vlarury of the homestead G~.- . r sea . ' . -. UOP\ mdudf. . 11 S\\~t ~ seve ral' varienes of sorghum. .millet, and ffiatZe Root crops . ."'" ~t_ ... aa es and cassava. are also tmportant. as are vanous kinds of L . taW lXilIh gieen\. ·'Is and wild leaves. In some areas, bananas are also grown Prot . en..... , em sources U\~ I

I..

HLUI

elude milk. fish (caughr in the Gulf and traded ",dely througllo uI the repon chickens. sheep. and goats. Beef IS also highly pnzed. but canle art an ,mporunl symbol of wealth and are usually slaughtered only for feasts Aside from pur chased fish and sporadic "rarget" buymg and selling of gram at the lco..-oil mu
repertoire of dishes. and there are regional and fa.rruh· rrt~ rto-e. fur rr"~ The main meals are constituted around a tluck. bread·like pomdg made from botled sorghu m or m:lIle flour Thts I' the ....mboli

6"'-

emphastze that ail feasting rituals involve boundary-defimng practices . Social cate· gories such as age and gender. for example, are very commonly marked in the ways

(kong'o) made from m!llet anJ / 0r nUlze. allh,>u~

noted tn previous sections; and It is Importam for archaeologists to be aware of the

e1lallg'an has .1lso become popular In

rt'c

111 J

are not Items conslIml"d \\~th J.1lh· meals. r.uh r. Ih

Wlthrn commcnsal networks through variations in food·sharing practices Whal

01' feasts As wnh many All-Koln

'0,.

n • Iht:lT

practIC£: based upon commcnsal exclUSion that I believe is suffiCiently dIfferent and

JUSt bdore Ihe nlam h.lr\'est ul Iht'

heunstKally valuable rt) mmt dlstlngulshrng carcgoncally. As pnor studies of pre·

mu SI be IJ't'lch"J l uu h. 101

hi Ifmc IJuropean ((JI1texts have she,wn

(Stl'

ducttv (3tt'gtlry fllr arrhaNllogtralanalyOls.

'4

Dlctlcr 1996, 1999a). II can b~ a pro·

•

r

-ht'l\

oil,.,

I'amtnl' rduseJ bv ,rup I .lure and

tll

by It.me all.! Ih,' \

uah

• IIlIl'Mt nl 11<

moo

~J

operation of such diacriocal devices. But these other disrinctions are establlshed arc ht':re called "dlacntlcal feascs" represem a speCial kmd of boundary·definmg

m

gredient of the diet. and a Luo who has not eJlen ~'" will , , thal not earen. Various stew-Irke dishe made from \'t~t~hle. mUI I I a mmun-i sentially as a condlmenr to klloll n..-ks and le . I' meals bean mixrurc (nyoyo). a thll1 nullt't or mJIU rom~ and sour milk. and olher such Jlsh s. The m.w\ ai,

through food sharing and the cultivation of shared rastes. Again. it is Important to

1\ '-an cl

na.!

AlII IlIId.:.":.::".:.'}:..:"______________

---

• . 'TU

J',LS Of CONSUMPTION. COMM£NS-'l POtlT1

CS .~O OO""l

-----..:

et' O Il'IICI ,lI1d Ilcrhl(h 19QJ). 01' Wh~H Sh'pl. on ( 1990 '

fo lk-rlln' I11l' !l10r-y (~ ... .375) hlMory I ' II I " ,I,,· h lldl lll,'; posrs of. IU S.ll't)Llt'l . d l I 11 elt.·mcnt nl Luo h ie. an I lCY P ay most of Lh e Va 11 re."" lIn.' .11' lI11port . " ._. _ l10us ." nlpnwrnng llll1dt., III lh e e.ulJ e l ,Lscusslon T he la. I rol~!
/t' ,tMS,

I

.:m d .

111 J cc.:

I.

1(

C'"

~ 31"e

,

.. "- ."",

a e

I T'I ' . cvenl S held", th" homesteJd or the deceased and p l'HX' .1 1 /uncra $. lCSc.: . • are . . or IMgr qu"n"tles of bee r and beef. along With the St a n _ m.lrke d by t he r' OVISlo n , .. , ods. They are accompalll ed by ntu al dramaturgica l p h tJJ rd kucJ/I an d o t t: I 10 . . ra c. u ccs .s uc I' JS' p il r.l. d'1119 of ca ,tie, danclllg, Slllg mg, speeches. and the reCitation 0 f , I 'ecotll1l lhe accomplishm ents of .borh the deceased and th e p r~ll se song:t l131 I . ofr en last for several days, durmg whi ch a large group of lineage ,ey TI k speJ ers. . . . rr: . • nd nelghbors must be kepr sa tl sned WIth COpiOUS amounts f m CJ11 be rs. ilJJlncs, ....... 0

food .1I1d dnnk. The presuge of th e deceased and his/ her fa mily are thought to be reO'Cled 111 the size of the ga rhermg capable of being assembled and Sustained JI rhe funeral fe ast and the laVishness of the hospitality provided, InOuentiai men have the most osrentatiously laVIsh fun erals, but every Luo is cOncerned about haVIng an unpress,vc funeral mounted for him / her, This concern is often voiced b older Widows as a major reason for joining religious groups. as these aSSure cl;elf followers of a proper funeral . As noted earlier, the scale of hospitality at funerals is often so great that at least temporary impoverishment of the famtly may result. and the lavishness of such feasts among the Luo and other west Kenyan peoples IS the subJecI of frequent harangues by government ministers and mem, bers of other ethnic groups (e,g., Mburu 1978), Less spectacular feasts are also held for marriages. harvesr celebrations, collec, uve labor mobilization, the founding of a new homestead, and a hosr of other things (such as ceremomes concermng rhe birth of rwins), Small-scale gatherings of elders or meetings berween fnends are also often marked by sharing a POt of beer In general, feasrs are dJsungulshed from daily meals by several fearures, Most commonly. these Include the consumption of beer (and / or challg'aa) and beef which are not everyday foods. They are also sometimes marked by Ihe localion of consumption and the use of special contamers. In the rermory of Alego, for example, homesteads have a speCial shaded area known as siwanda that serves as the place where senior men at feasts gal her to' gether to dnnk beer and eat· At feasts of some importance, these elders Will con· sum" unfillered beer our of a spcClallarge pot ca lled a thago (Pig. 3.1) , A rllllgo may be larger rhan a meler In dIameter and a merer rail, and It IS supported by beUlg partly buned in Ihe ground al th" >lwanda . The men Sll around tht, PUI III J Circle drinkmg fwm I"ng .traw. (olrkC) made ,,( hulluw vine stems with a wown tiltrr Hn th end (FIg. ~ 2), 'I he pO»C' sum 0/ ~ prl sonal Slraw, whlrh om' l'art1C5 In

I.

Figure 3.1 Photograph of Luo communal h<er dnn Ill!: "'"

mentation pot (dnkong 'o). on "ght Scale m cm . Photo m

on t o..d..

beer dnnks III a special bamboo case. I ~ d
,.uTU,AL

5 Of CONS UMPTlON. COMMENSAl pOlrncs M40 PO~[.,

AIR

-

•

Pi re 3.3· Ph 0 rograph of a mural on the exteno, of an . b.."d ed b«r 1W1 gu represen ration of a Luo feasr . Nore the eJd
FIgure J 2 . Phorograph shOWing how beer IS consum ed from thago through a long vine. stem straw (Ostkt). (phoro by M Dletle, and I H erblCh)

postcolorual Kenyan governmems ro exert state conrrol over alcohol : see Ambler 1991).

The consumption of food IS also done on a commu nal basis. A "loaf" of kllO.1 will be served on a basket plate and shared by several diners who will break off morsels and dip them inro a common ceramjc bowl (tawo) of the stew/sauce (sometimes these servmg Contamers are now replaced by Imported ename l dIshes). These serving contamers are genera lly not dlfferenr fTom those used '" everyday meah. Flgur< 34 is a phot<Jgraph [hal rather Ironically encapsu lates the ge nclrred r~' lalllJOs IJ{ pmduCllOn thal underlie LUQ fca sllng. 11 portrays a woman workll1g.1I

dr ing Sltloho (a processed gram flour produd re 'ulnn" fr,: an 10 Y , H rhe cltaille optralOlYe of the beer tem)ent~non pr ' h floor of another abandoned beer h,ill \\llh a Ii-a'[ll\, m

This is one of the many I,bonou step' n ( . an I p a suffiCIent quannry of grain to mount a I . t ~ culinary labor force thJt ues behind th .. piu, n they share In the ensumg prestige ~nd lh~r n [he generous host. ""omen gro\\ th , n'p. I' n , brewing. dnd ervmg Th" I' nn, "I lh havll1g many WIves I, nor ,>nl I I~ ,> , ,,\th. mount large fC,I,t' \,qllmng \\ 1\ ' r\' cause one nHIM g", .1 \.l(~ 1I1ll"lltll ,'I n:l form of cJnit .lIh!. 1111\, . "I(,'n"I\ n r. 11 ever. mult'l'it' " 1\,'" \\11",11 tclhl " It I.WlSh h<)'I'II.l),t\ . "hI, h, I, IlIrth r I II11plic.lI.tlm ( " ', .1,,\ n ... !l 11, I1 r I, rhe I UII .I" 111'1 h.I\, 11 11 01 Nt,\\ l.\l\ll" ,t 1 I

98

....

It"- n

i \

,h

m

I

h

,

-

Photograph of • Luo wom.n cngogcJ In Jry1n& """ho, onc 'lep In .he bo,. 0U5 duJfM t1pt1~14I" beer productIon I on I he 000r ,,' on .b."Joncd bll .. th. Flgun: U

or

liillT2l1bowul .an adeahud rc:prc t'n[~u(}n (A a I.uo It' I Dr
171:1

I In

the b~

fOund

Photo by

7 Yet generosity In comn,,'" al h" 1'11.111 nt2tnm a man', pr I1 C od Inllu,'" c, nil th fun r~J non of ltalUl Luo ~I 'J I"(wld~ ... pnm " awry whIch I1 a h'ghl ".IUt d IlIlh I I J I' 11 udes (orrru
n a form of Iyrl.' "yall/, n. rI 1<

I 1,.. "'oplu f il

or

I

--

, O f CONSUMPTION , COMMENSAl POlnlCS

-

.

L' un: I I"I ~ "lip r

I

[)C; lf l l' l nlory

I

Ulll)f Wl'lkc..-r

"

",iJ. III 1... '

( t e n ant ) I,nc.lgc groups tha t hJd

,

C.'IIW· !o((cd o ut o r fisslumng elsewhere. b fl cr .1 e">

.

Settled

.

III

1 c capItal I towevec the SUppression of sy"..bO I , major former arena for the acqUlS1.f1 both a on

' .. - \ \ 'lw.;sOI1 ( I Qb l :7) pOint e d ('lU I, the malO so urces of power th at "n . )b .. 'n · I ' Id nl',1Illul :IIC came fTom ( I cmg a sCllIa r m em ber of a llVlI. U.I (..(lll " . Powerf I I I ·sl.n •\1. Jbd"y '" ",.rlMC . and (3) ,he ca pacIty 10 marsh'n l a Slgnifj. . U Il1l'')gC. l. ) ( PCI I . • nUllr of .. upport 111 I he face of co nnl CL Skill m the use of magIcal l,lIl1 •• m ~ . Power (brlI1) was polrt lcularly Ul1ponJ.111 111 ~mOlng prestige, 111 the sphere of warfare .jo. (l1hlglCians) were fCJred and rc:>pccred. for t he Ir p~wers of dlVtnation and

mag'c on enemles. The ablltty to rally supp Lel " 0 . onde. b I ty h r~llJ an ule Jccumulatlo n of wea lth and prestige , and It IS U1 lhis d . pen de cl uP OmalO Ih. I f(,.song played an ,,"po l'ta lll role Wea lth 111 thIS con text would be reckoned 111 lerms of OIU C and WIves, both of whJCh were essential for the production of feasts AcqU lOng large numbe rs of catri e was greatly ruded by slUU in ra.ding (wh.ch was .tself a source of prestige). T hese cattle were used for prized meat at feasts. bu t also for the payme n t of bndewealth that was necessary to acquIre WI\'es. A large nu mber of WIves greatl y in creased the capacity of the homestead fo r agnc ultural and culinary labo r, so that wealthy m en were able create and use food surpluses to host feasts fo r the bneage leaders who assembled to ruscuss po. hocal and )uruClal m atters. As W1usson no ted , this wealth (in ca ttle, wives. and 10

u
crops) was used to encertain "the leaders of the clans and subelans fo rming the nucleus o f a council or court and m eeang 111 the home of the richest or most re· spected man. This man became ruotll , the lead er" (196 1:7). The strongest leaders would be able to draw upon all three of the rnutuaUy enhancmg sources of power noted above . But a skilled jabilo from a weaker line· age who had accumulated the cattl e a nd wives to host lavish feasts could even o\'ereame a genealogICal hanrucap by rallying the support of other Imeages and cre. nng pohtical alliances. The Bntish colorual governmenc attempted to squeeze this faIrly loose and OUld set of pohncal relations mto their preconceived m o del of "chiefdoms" operaang as a hierarchical adrrunistranve system . They Ifllposed a model of instirutionalIzed central authority with formaliz ed pohtical ro les and rules of succession upon a much more dynamic and competlnve set of polmcal pracnces sustained by culrural perceptions of authOrity that were fat more contingent. The process by which the Bmish "idennfied" Luo chIefs and the marupulanons that went on among competing Luo men of inOuence seeking to be named chIefs

t5

a complex tale . What is important to retam for the purposes of thIS dis·

OI55lon of feasts

t5

that the colonial sItuation under whICh these new chiefs oper·

ated created contrad,ctions that somenmes undermined theIr aurhonty. These nlN' chiefs were agen ts of the state, bur their ability to perform the functions that

the tate demand ed o f them d e pe nded upon maintam'"g the tradItional forms of

101

"_ A,. . --~=

• AhD POWU ''''

-

11 (IHt: ••IS

111ft)

ftlnJ,AL S

".n.,., and r

pm f the cattle that produced the WlVes anJ f source 0 . cast\ t\C:e 0

and an Ul the other major arena of pollne.1 • ry IQ <>,--.. sue ceSs fIJ Ily . ctIan Govt.ru a: ' t to compensate for tlus loss and the Stat man SLlJ lloen _ e. took. ~ dim . ome through bnbery. As m the case of an 1 VIft. of • ing Inc ear Y Akmbo .... ,~ . d those who were unable to keep up the I h h 'wd Odul 0 , . . aV\S 0'1'11.11 . L . of a tradmon.1 ruolh someumes fell from non, ty ..... PC:l1opl. n pecte d . .- .. er In thd rtllng by n vals from other lineages (\VIusson 196 . >et 01 f o 1 rh e 0' lodzj .rt , ,CleEm 'cuously m o re po ygy nous an the rest of theu ptonle F onsP' d . h ' or tumple on. tbid ur research area ha 45 WlVes w en we amved and 0\ er ,0,. • h en wdeft thrtc '" 0 yea rs later

""t

CONClUSION "'he Luo examples sh. ould. serve to give a bener seme of the ..:Xf< •.-",-riurnet ot mm I mensal politics that lies behind the mare abstract lheortnul d,,,,,,,,,,,, o!fm,d earlier In particular, one can begm to undersund the "'"\' In whi,h the tal ity used U1 empowenng feasts to acqui re and m,umam $;m Ii, APltal nil come rransformed mtO the tnsatutionalized e~cutl"n f tbe ~tron It and one can see how a failure to meet those e~c .. n)ns can . credIbIlity and underl"tlt autho n ty. One CJJ1 also gt:t a betRr ~ feasting either combU1es o r competes ,,'th other urcc' of (prowess U1 warfare, oratoncal skill . pow ers U1 m.l C. glvmg. etc.) to establish presage and mOuenc . ~ tl b arena of political acnon. but It i \'erv ~qucnd an xutm crucial. one The Luo case also Illustrates the ubt! 1~ Ul gones and boundane are symbo llcallv marked b~ ~ and why those operative among the <mpo nug

ntual pnroo;

re

IOr ~ "IClItKa!

rerent m the\! symbolic log ":- from th . de llus case also hIghlights the often

u~m

that support commensal politiC'. Tb dj, along gender Imes IS ee[(,unl not rhat among the Luo; but thIS

IS ;a}w

nzaClon nf fN Stltlg. For archa o loglSt ,rh tmpll a

u e several and Imp0rlillll In rh

a van ety nf
U

u IUt I

die

on

tdallON loIbor and

hk.nn.:a1

an tmporWII

nor

ut 'l'ldt dIf

PiNIIy.

O NS UM PT ION , COMMENSAl POLITICS . ""0 POWE~

-

rl C~1I th.lt f<" .lM.!- ~' n.' . ~1 p r llnl' a l'c n ~, :lI"'' d ""'t I .~ l'Un'"n t)hn (.I' Jf llllll b, IJ'I(:hVIJU .l ls ;.l nJ M l ( I .1 J gro up!' pur!'- lllllg econ o mic and . l of P Po llt'ca l I I h I gc).lh ~1I1J (O lllpe lll1g rn r II1llue ncl' Wll 111 l l e lr sorltl w o rd s. I lo w evc r. lhe \y • In which k,.,( \ \l'J'VC the Llcqul~ ltI o n .lnd tr~ln s fo r-m a n on of sYlnbo bc and cays I. ". •llsu

J rr J Y (,1 I <.;(ll."ll' •h• ."

no ml( ( apH .•1 .1Il'

...

' ...

"reme1y complex. Jnd JrCh " co logls ls need a we ll'develo;~

rlwo fC lIc.lll1nJcl.rJndlllg or th e n,]rurc o f rc as lIng mua llf w e a re to und erstand uhu c .' Itfe III ,meten. >oc.c tJ es Ifl so m e thing more that m echaniSti c rvn I P . . . ,,,.. oogleal , It IS entlc.1l lh.H wc bCglll ro rackle ISSUe.s of Sltualed 1"', rmS. In Ill\' \'ie\.\ . . . ' age ncy anJ .he role of rracn ce III .rJns forn,,~g s rructu.c .f w e w.sh to say anything of Iflsiglurul sigmncolncc JbOUI the h.stoncal development of dtffe rent forms of so.

n;).1 ",equallt), In Ihl~ paper I have tned co prese •." several theoretical constructs ba$eJ upon comrJr.wve analys.s of ethnographIC data lhat I beheve hold some prom.se

In

Jnalyz U1g feasting mu"' . and I have elsewhere tried lO demonstrate

ho" thel. m.,)' he applied 10 archaeologICal cases III ways that Yield frUitful n ew m"shts (cg., Dlctler 1990. 1996. '9993, 1999 b ). However. tlus .s by no means a de.

fiOlm-e ronnulJ!lon. Jnd I look forward co [he emergmg dialogue On these issues that" prom.sed by the convergence of perspecnves m this volume.

RITUAL S Of C

. N "Fl.C ... CONTLlT\

-

hcd wllho Ul [he host and guests actually e:Uuw in th omp IS '" t Ume spure s actuall y conSidered Impohte for the: ho'io\ to ~ 3e tU, IOttw:: " nce x{S Il I pte.~t 1ribnt. ha cO ume their rood (e.g .. see Rtchards ' 939 ' 35-136) H sLS co ns I)W",~ desputtbo gut k r bemg g round ed m a Eurocentnc culrural trope lh I1UrIor wbaC 0 t e ' Utn CDnunau.Jl doo drOc:utlOQ.l) And the game or mventmg neologISms. such as co,. I""",,, rob Iems. _ ry. ro-gtu~ P . umerable other posslbihrtes. seems a needlessly pedantlc t i t - • or~elM " . mparative echnograpluc focus of tlus chapter IS luruted to ......".0 The co , e-' SOOttlh lI\ ,. s this presents a more than suffiCIently compl"" arul' 01 'Tb Africa, 3 ' '' . L'\.SU( ~ d m the Issue of feasong among forager.; ."d "comple. hunt- th re Inreres . ~. P tIt) ~ mcludmg African examples. are directed to tbe works or \V,essner ( 1", • ."J H.n.kn

=

(1990. 199 6 ).

All unreferenced descripnons of pracoces among the Luo people III th" p'p
'9 80 to 1983 (see. eg., Dietler and Herb.ch 1993: Herb,ch lOS-. ''''I ~ Herblch ."d Dletler 199], 1993)· Thanks are due to the National SCIence Foun
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Kenya. the National Museums of Kenya. and espeClalh' our Luo ",d

My thmktng on lhlS ISsue has been evolvmg for over a decade, and It has greatly benefited from the opportunH), ro recetve chaUengmg comments on different papers exploring tillS theme from .lUWences m .1 '"anery of COntexts. mosr particularly the "Pood and the Starus Quest sympoSium at the Rtngberg Castle of the Max Planck Institute in Germany ('99'), •

OUt research aSSIStants, Rhoda Onyango.Momca o"er. .lJ1d the tue EhJ.b O.:uru 4·

I owe the "metaproduction" formulation to an InSightful commrnt b Te~ TUm"

everal Prench colleagues. m parncular. have noted th" the " 5 S

cd """'F'"lInun

evokes a strongly agomstlc struggle for donunane< \\ nh m>riled!) n'S"1I

the Les Pnnce, de I. Procolusco.re et rEmergence de rEtat" symposium at rhe Cenae

COMotaoons. Unforrunateiy. English IJcks , con''em.m means 10 aur\ the

Jean Bhard In Naples. /tall' (1994). a semmar while a VlS.ong professor at the Ecole des

distinction berween compehflon and the more JXlstO\d}' \,(\\c-d ."""... "c....

Haures Etudes en Sciences Soaales (1996), the SAA symposIUm that generated thIS book

my use of the Engltsh term 'competltlon' should be und~ t

('998). and a sympos.um on "Consummg Power Pe.stlng as Commensal Politics" con·

range of such poss.ble reiaoonshlps My thanks to Ptr= temo)nrutt.

"ened at Cornell Uruver.;.ty \1999} m wluch my work served as a keynote for "vely mocal

Andn! Tcherma. m particular. for chaUengmg me 10 dmf.. tlus u.ugr

ruscu>s.on I am grateful to aJJ the parnapants or these vanous seSSIOns for their cam·

6. For the sake of slmpltaty. I use term m this p.t~T that _

men" (mcludlOg those \\~th whom I dIsagree). and most parncularly to Mlchel Bats, Mau·

terricones of several Luo subgroups m

nee Godclier. Bnan Hayden. PIerre Lemonnier, Jean-Paul Morel, Michel Py, Nenss.

terms vary m other drNS S.m.larly. the

Russel. Andrc Tchernia. Terry Turner. and Polly Wiessner Speaal thanks are due to In·

homesteads of all Luo group .

gnd Herb.ch for generous shanng of data and mvaluable mtelJecrual collaboration

To avou! poSSible confusIOn, let me emphasIZe that I use the word commfnsaJ m origmal

$t:llSe,

ItS

ralher than .ts pecul.ar biOlogIcal adaptation The word denves from

Ihe Laun corn /IImJ4!u. mdIc.llng the shanng of a lable-hence, eating together edJess v) ay. many people around Ihe world manage to eat together qUite well Without uSing a lable

Moreover, m a number of cases the shanng 0 fCod.s 00

104

1

Hrftt."(' ~ tnllrt

hel

md • the

ID b
the not a f\~ de6ned

SlWclW I

I \,tatlons of the W1lf pomt OUI here thar Ihe h.stoncal ,"f"rmanon .n th fnIIowmg seleCtIve summary of puts of M.ch. I wtu n '91'1 Iknt..-.wr Asembo and Ihe Curse of Kak ••. "

8. I Use the words "he" .1I1d "man h re pu~1 to ~IC

of these leadersh.p 1'01 .. For one thang, Luo

_n ~ "ncMOl

mlo whICh Ihey marry 11 lie the do not lw

the

aUlhonlY .n maners rel.uIIII t th

bIle

..ya dJsml"t such

7- To avo.d c1unering Ihe texl w.1h nlulnpl

NOTES I

s.un•• 110",. ~

I Ihc

wdI.,~

n"

-

---------

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cu ar RUlla/ edited

by S F. Moore and B G Myerho tf. pp. 3-24 Assenl Am Gorcum ,

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L. Flondnn and M. Mum"nan. pp 29-46. Pans

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,11", ..\ rl

Afn,.n Pamlll" .10.1

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d.m 1~56

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PtTatlany, J

Age Econo,m cs ' Londo n T,,·lStock.

York WiJey.

1<)00

1972

Northern RhoJena londo.. 0

ree W. H nnkm s, ng . The soaal Funcoons of Beer D . g m Bantu Tin

Murrn y, O

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StOflf

IPI

'972

"tarns, J

1987

I1

AI., anJ

""mdnon

j6. l und.m

""tI)' Ollll

11IJv "

um

Il n

n

o,Jer 1'1' ~ 1\

-------

-

Tll r Foro r

106",

"1

Sy",/I(lh . Atl'feu

0./

Prt'!i" Til e H,ull1l Pro((s$ : SInKf'H't' dlul

Ndn Pllm R,tunl Ith aca' Corn ~ 11 A'lfI · SlrI4 Cfl4re

Un IVerSity

OF FEASTING AND VALUE

I[h:).ca Co rn ell

ENGA FEA STS IN A HISTO RI CAL PE R5PECTIV£ ( PAPUA NEW GUI NEA)

Pre5's

v.m Gcnn ep. A ". 1 ~60 Til t Rif ts of PIlssflgr Translatcd by M Il. Vizedom a nd G L. C '"ee. Chicago: Unlvers"y of C hi cago Press

Polly Wiessner

Vincent. ,

Afneall Ehl<: The Big Mrll of a Small Town New Yo rk. Colu mbia Un IverS1ty

1971

Pr~s~

Wh l s~on .

1961

M The RJse of Asembo and the Curse of Kakla . In Eru t Afneall h lJ l" Ult oJ.rS Onal

R,.ft~lIrcll Cotfftrcnu ProctedUlgs , no paginatio n Kam pala. Makarerc: College .

Wlessnt'r. P Levehng th e Hun ter ' Constra mts on the Sta m s Q uest In Poragmg SOcieties. 199 6 In Food alld the Status Quest: All /IIt
Papua New Guinea I at on c th !mol of III4l die mgue. I and the twO arc tntertwtntd inualIy compaOlcd by feaStIng. and dunng an AI.I The strong pohucal onentallon of Papua tributes to the tact that o~r ~.enl nallon of some thre nd • hAlf million f;,a -ts b the OCtal. on

or

frame . partlC\llarl fur th unfold per onalur gtll\IP pro) th proc\;um d pu r Non th I

114

-

.lCOVloes. coaJesce [0 form the final aceaSIOn, . 0.11 behovHlrs. anu~ proVlslomng . a

· . by thell' components' IS useful tOr understandmg when and why bre.lkdown 0 ( fccast> . . J re deployed Here I will bnefly outline the eSsential cornponents certtun strareglf~s . . suggesr some pOSSIble archaeological .correlates o( each. and rn entlo . o( (e.song. . n '' and pobocal strategies they facilitate. Tben. draWing on ( h some 0 ( e SOOw an eth. . J stu dy o( (eastlTlg and exchange among the Enga of highland p apUa norusronca . New Gwnea. I will outline the complementary role of secular and sacred feas'"~ 'g tn the developmenr o( the grear ceremonial exchange networks of Enga and go on to tOcus on the role of (easting in the constructi~n of the value ~d meaning of things. The Enga case illustrares: (I) how matenal goods are differentially valued in the context of (easting; (2) how the narural properties of things valued affects the course o( production and competition; and (3) how cuI rural conStructions of value are constantly tesred agamst the realities of the surrounding world. When

contradictions occur. as they did m Enga, feasting can be called On to revalue goods and redirect the course of change.

FIfth. and very Impomntly. t;,astlng ~\Un:. abun~ s nor go round or runs OUt IS not a good p cl food oe . arty. !"bun ost trnporrant factor ID detemurung "hich SIngle m . ,trat~ ' . a feast. Mere suffiaency pertUles • \muted an r dunng . .y 0 lru . hes many more In foragmg SOCeOe, ond 'Un I h furCUS . p. diao ns of abundance may be dIfficult to achteve or to Ilm con ail ab l' e. !ha' en food IS av e. consrrauung pohocal ~ t h ' ... e. , Dc\"
"""""-'Xl

in such an atmosphere usually makes

COMPONENTS OF FEASTING Of whar is feasting composed? First. feasting requires the aggregation of people. Aggregation in and of itself does not require feasting, though it is gready facili. tated by it; if no food is available, crowds must disperse before long. Aggregation should be detectable in the archaeological record, for example through the presence of unusually large sires Or a diversity of styles in artifacts found at a given site. Second, feasting involves food sharing and food distribution. Pood sharing ap. pears to have Its roots in the parent-child relationship and thus can be a way of expressmg affection and exrending familial behavior to distant Or non-kin m order to bond larger groups (Eibl-Elbesfeldt 1989). By contrast, food distribution, which often requires rerurns at a later date, creates temporary unbalance be. tween donors and reapients and permits the construction of inequahty. Food shanng and food drstnbunon during feasting may be inferred m the archaeologl' cal record from faunal dismbunon or the collection of food remams Irom a broad catchmenr area at one place. Sharing IS more bkely to leave remams ar the slle than food dIStribution. where a good portion of the food may be carried away fr(Jm the dmnbution site. 11urd. most feasts are held for a specllic occasion: to appease ancestors, IllItiate youth, marry. bury the dead, pay compensation, or assemble a labor force. The gCJal ture

(easts may be mferred (rom the presence of certam archaeological fea. (If an/fact,.

(If

F(lurth, (ealung u ually mvulves some form of display, whether Ihis is display ()( f(,rld (Ib)ecu, md.v.duals, or groups. Arllfacts or strut lures (onstru ted (or duplay .ndude 'Peual ve Jrl ,platforml,gravl", or huust's.

I,.

deer lffi!'n!.'l

,The

remforced by emotionally laden aesthetic e~nen ',. ;1= dance . The sodal components of rea ong beh,'1or, ben c IIlb.ncd. number of polmcal su ategles Table --I 1 brn ,cl wn th. e ing and relares them to speafic 'ooal or pobtl(,u tnT'

FE ASTING AND VALUE All of the political .rr.reg! s It ted m Ta e 4 feasts Here I wl\1 concentrate on th .... -0", tru, 111 anthropology that the ,~Iu of Ihm 1I1pUI. labor 1Oput. uuitt). ~hund.lO' r la value. 1Ocludml! rdll!loll. and pdlU at'lrnlfi Bloch IQ!lQ. Thomas 10)0)1 Ilh,'ugh th on the basIS l,1 ,',onoml,' mude\. constructed' Th .. ,ulruroll t tru lion r bOlh l!ltis .l11d ,uf1\lllodltl or uses m an ob),'n' hi hI

tUt

and then l!'V n.l .I gIll J tin p of objects lor .I num\>(or )f n f

ut" \ III and m rn 1".'lInl: sel ,I d It nil rUI In li~ul ' rrnmm III III ult J I'uhhd ,,'r 1'1.1, 1III '11 1'11111.11 ,h.l mUt~II()1lS

ul

gJIIIII'tl

I

1\1

I

_ ______________~E~ N~ G~ A ~F~EA~S~T~S~I:N~.~H~I~ST~O~~~~~~~ AICAL PEkSPttTlv£

-

"a

.

I PIJCable to matt ll 31 go"ds. T hird " the..... r~C" purp'»c of • re.., In g iVing the object> ulIlozed or cU.played . fi t Is ' ptO c tnearun "-- ...... 'V~"" the generated dunng the communal f" slIng . ""ng, and dan« tur "_ slon5 mtO lastm g o nes. n uc:~tingWitn

a a aa

tl

The subjects of thiS case study, the Enga, are tu""l d h 6'u.n ortJcultu,.hru n.. _ L - ing about 200 , 000 and well known m the anthra I I ~'""" . po oglo Illcratull: thro........ ~ works of Megglll ( 1965, [972, 1974 . 19nJ, Feu ('9'" ~ hi ...... ... . , 0 1 '978 l.4cOY I and WaddeU ( 1972), among many others. Thetr 5I.ple ' 97'; . crop, SW.e. potato IS culti vated on an mtenSlve system of mulch moundmg to reed hurn.m' and Enga population IS dIVIded mto a tgm •.___ Populatlons. The em.ry WlQgt m of . L~ , Phratnes or tnbes composed of some 1.000 to 6 .000 memucr>, anu thm COl> smueor exogamous clans, subclans. and hnea~es ) The nn'tJ, I I d. .. . ,_U "I> ~n oa>lnct works, and exchange occupy much of men's ttrnt and dfon whol.

aaaa

devote themselves pnmartly to famtly, gardtrung. and pig h band., mquent and destructive warfare creates sharp dJvts.ons berv.een clan "rggm •.,-, ~t arc penodJCally repaOTed through ceremorual exchange '0 ree u.bh.,h ~.

'"

men are defined as pOtennally equal, though tho e "ho eel m pu

a

tI

a

aa

The Enga hold a nch body of oraltradmons th" mcludr mYth

"0

spells, IOcantauons, and IuslOncal trJJltlons

c

&

from myth or 'toncs (IHUIo pll),

'"::QJ

ncssed events of tht' past HlSwncaltradJuon cuntolln uUOrm.lDan

C

.. a

r both

names for themselves as big-men Women e cn conSIderable mOurn production and exchange 10 the pnv.te realm

Ol

In

(ah'Ift( plI

that th~ are s
tCI'S as tnbal locatiOns dnJ subs'>!.n,c pram,

.. 8

c

wiu.h m be, IOundtd

m

som clgllllU t n of:ul

ago, Wars and migrations, agnculture. th

"0

~

cxchangc nctwnrks, leaJershlP. rraJ., cn'\J'tlnmcnt~

"'

01 C

In

'"

11

schcnw of scquennng or JJtlllg (fable 4,1 Tb mllteNt

"

comes from a study 01 these hl,tun,al rradioons ~

;:;

.t"' '0

lhfdi.

tion, organization of evenlS, oratory, dnd the mampubuon of ",ulth

VI

3

t

THE ENGA: A CASE STUDY

QJ

.--o C-

--_.-

song and drc ss Gcnealogles of e.ght to

lcague, Akn Tumu,

tJ

~ &

In

It

p<

wnhm tht, spoln 01 Eng.l oral h

~

vlden

'rh., penod 1Il I'\'d b

~

.Iultlon 01 th

th

1910s, "nd on

11

a

sw "1

p"l~lll

and l\amll

to Enga tnbe,

such 01 hWold Sl'all' nud verglllg \in • 01

t

lhi t

Identify

ndro

I wiI1 11\

TABLE 4.2 d ' 'TC t f Evenrs D,scusse In ,ex Chronological Scheme 0 Prehhlory ~O . O()U

11 P

11 ,DUO It "

-

Flrq II1Ull1g'''111t.'' .unve In P.lpua New GUU1ca by se", from A . "S13 .,he<" .:m:hacolog 'c.1] eVidence for Enga Yuku cave In e

-" " Enga. hlln[lllg .. nd gnt h enng site ar ca . 1,300 m

aste.rn

"lifer.) roc:ksheh er In western E!nga . hunting and gathering at I (J,1I0Cl

fl ,.

4000- Z000 B. P.

400- 2 '5"0 nr

l •.100 Ol po Uen eVidence Indic:lI es (orest clearance for horticulture to

castern enga In troduction of swee t lustorical [radlrions

potilLO

to Enga a nd begmning of Enga

Hi.slOricJ.l Traditions

Gll1t:TQtIt.tn hrforr pt1!.fcnt

8

popuJanon shift from hJgh alrirudes to lower vaUeys

Begmrong of early Tee cycle

-

KepeJe cult firsl pracriced by ~ortkulruraLscs of western Enga Begmmng of Greal CeremomaJ Wars

, 6

5 (c•. 18H-IBB5') 4 (",. IB85-1915)

Kepe1e cult Imported Into cen tral Enga, caBed Aeatee Tee cycle expanded to finance Great Ceremonial Wars Aeatee cult expanded to coordinate Tee cycle and Grea( Cere.momal Wars

Female Spi.nt Cu.it Imported meo eastern Enga 3(",. 1915- 1945)

Z l ea 1945-1975)

1 fa 1975-2005)

Tee cycle beglflS to subsume Great Ceremonial Wars Ae.tee / Kepele culr used to organize the Tee cycle First contact WIth Europeans in 1934

Last Cre.r Ceremonial W.r fought 1938--1941 Tee cycle subsumes Great War exchange. routes Am'scu!r 1941 - 1942 Colonl.1 penod beglns- Iale 19405 m east. 1950-605 In weSi Female Spmr CUll spreads 1975 Papua New Cuinea's mdependence

._." "--

DEVELOPMENTS WITHIN THE SP ENGA HISTORICAL TRADITIONS AN OF Descripnons from the earite.s[ gene . rallons 01 En tu. rufferent from that of mOre recent g. to<\, I"'Il"1' ._ tunes Ln the f, I • '" where most of the land lIes under a enl • ~.... f <"Ut.. . pprOXJn1.ltel " .Ul. ists culnvated taro. yams. bananas Y 1.900 m. ",J nurv a . . Sugarcane and :n their diet Wlth hunting. In central E . other CIa!", .upp nga at alOtudes b where taro and yams are not as prod etw.en 1.900 rn:tnd 1 , . ' UCllve. luston a l ' , ..:;."">om hortlcu!ruralists who cultivated nu.~ed d c 1111"'00"-< d. 'n gar ens and hu d t more rugged valleys of western Enga .L me . n the le < fenil. ond . Ule POpulation . .,. bile groups who depended heavt.ly On h '\as ...."d.d bv 1lI~ I

untmg and "..be ,_L. above apprmumately 2.100-2.200 m D.L • . rtn!: UUl.lbltrd re 1 . al h . 0 Ulese bunter, v. phys,c strengr and possessIOn of powerful . ere attnbur gleu ntuA1 and m. '1.,,"_ ruralists. who subSISted on faro and orher 1C 'Ul\lDg holU pc:1 ..>d o&m Ihnl around hunnng. trade. rrawtlonal dan(~s. or,,~ PIgs ~1Iv

r.

m small numbers. bur enter only penpheraU\ lilt the ani rrconi Acceptance and unhzanon of the et pota! ried b roncal tradlClons from all area ~port tufts III popu1a ~tII0l1lal

populalion growth. and the expaflSlon f and feasClng ID response to ID'~a

al md

and Tumu 19'1H). The purpo~es. structu~ .md :ontent

the scope of reliable genealogical dating. Our best estimate is that H arrived be· tween 250 and 400 years ago. releaSIng many constraints on productiOn owing to IU hIgh yield per acre. abrlity grow well In poor soils and at high altitudes. re is· tance 10 bllglll. and superiority a~ pig fodder (Watson 1965a. 1965b. 1977)· The par population of I:nga thal had preVIOusly subsisled by tarn gardening or hunting and galhenng WitS able IfJ (·xpand IOto higher niches. produce a t "I urplUJ and ((,re I1 "on Ihr: hoof " In pig populallons. Another ~OO-3S0 yeal1 ~f'lf'e I uWpt'iln gold prospeclorb and patrols entered Ih p~pua New

(

crn. (cmral. and western Enga dt~1't'd ~ath In sltpped

no

the ganden ~glm with bt* nott D'I

ID1pan was only an Imitreel

n '-10

higher r<'glons 10 th.· .outh.mJ e grants. who cam tTom

abb. threat n cl the

lans I ti

big mell )f th ul tinJnl'· Ihrough Iu h \( n.'SPUIlS".

pmnlln

I'Jrtll

IughbndJ

IIl10

I

11,

~Iun >

Ih

tahlillh

m pu

tM

r"lI"

\VtCHll r l

-

N =G~A~F=E=A~ST~S~I~N~.~HI~S~TO~.~~~~~!! __ __------------~E~ teAL PUSPEClIVt

-.-_.-

" liu J bl es on credit, ra ther than by barte r, and for tho i<.lr Ol 0 pigs ~1I I,.J ~ . . ..... rn to el).
j.

l'

As It grew, the Tee developed mto a th h ree·p '''' l") cl. Feil During the first phase, the saaruh pin<>, IJ]] I Mc: 0" tLlIO" gUts of U valuables were gIVen on a pnvate basIS by A. ' 'nu PI mWVldlUi f""ilit clans to thelr west, more often than not ad . le'T« partll«> . ~acent clan, I one direction and were mtended to ·pull· th Illll.to il • lu Plng. th· h When a sufficienc number of saandl irunat .,,-. ' < p. of trum ory gu'-> h.d m"'~ . men made efforts to launch the phase of the ".,tv.-.rd. b Dl4Ul guts to wluch full cassowary, pearl shells, and other valuables W L .gmwn ere ""'lnbuted b .h\ Y m ~du;d fanu lies during public clan festivals co partners wh h d o a gIVen Lnlll>tO ...... days or weeks after tbe westemmost clan Ln th '" h ry ~~~ , hI< . e ee .d held Its dNnb neighbonng clan to the east followed SWt and . th . llllOn. the >0 e 1« !'U\.(l "un. J wesrward, clan by clan, With the mam gtfts !la" th Its wav . .. ifr 'lIlg m e uPro· "e ~ t the woatory g s Tee pinK' festlvals were event f . o un.,u'P"" unlmwu. pomp, and ceremony Suspense and antlep.non w lu h .~ __ . ere g uuVUghOUI for I give and receive large numbers of pigs, goods and ",1 bl • . ' . ' lL1 ., was an mdi ..or f political VICtory m controlling f th. ..tn _. distnbutN . . the flow of wealth . Put o in cbe phase of tbe mam gifts traveled the enure Tee netv.'or", ~ . port as pulled out to finance local events. When the phase of the mam gifts reached the em«nm 51 clm 1Il W ott work, efforts were m ade to launch the final reClptocal ph= of the Tt<, I. W ntena yae pinK' or slmply yar The Y'" involved the dismbutlonof but~ pan. chat craveled In the oppOSite rurecnon of the mOU\ gifts. 1't'tnc1ng Its Donors from the phase of the m.un gUts I't'cel~d: 011< _ butchered pork for each pig chey had gIVen It W4S during the _ phur that tenstve feasnng took place, wealth m the form of pon. cooswiKd. and demands for production renewed Howe r. pork rec~ III W nDl

.....•

consumpoon only, bUI .1 0 used to pay a vmety of and am With which to lrutlale a new CV('le that would nd the m 1ft the •

• •• ••

..

o,

•

• •

. ,

dlfection In central Enga, development thal

sweel potato were qUlle ruffi:~nt. Wan ~d to take land III the lernie valley after the IOuodudl"C' 4 ,) and large segment.

........

• r_

•

""'££

~

(Ji¥

..

".C, "Wan

• •••• ht.t2tJl., ,'

$

•

of

•

•

,

3?5 1Io

,,\1""

;

•

Flgun 4 I

Hp'lIiM.an.

'rtw"rks I)f ,rr.. mumal <'X(hangt', w.r1art', and Mtual thal d veloped after \he introduction ,A th.. ""Cfl polal ..

121

of th

system of exchange mergtd tM

•

' I(

toO

,I

sent's (arefull

or months lought ~ ur~ntly

palfs of tnb. '0 n them with d banl 11 1.1. WUI' Th .. ,r purp haUllfs to

f Ih

tht

*

-

ENGA FEA STS IN A ~IHO RI("'l

I f p ( lpI,I.IIIOIl .\ 11 "

h~ lIddl\' ld J

.J I) )\1(: Al1I. lg nni s 11l W.1S 1II1llll' d to til .s p l ~lY" n h 111l' I1I1~Hlt .1 ( I ~ II I . ' 1 fled 0 1 loM St.·COIH.I. I hey WCTC fO Ll g h t to b ..

/lI1d

.•

nlll

liP·

t

'It~. 1

11'

h . ITlAf~ .tfll

I l h 11 followed the (';r<.: ;n Wa r s be l wee n " ow

'- . I ~"

•

Jew

11 c r ~

,ht' " .. ,,,.11 r\< I Ill" These '" ' ncd bonds o f brolherhood e" L - , .. Iht'1I hp' I ~ , .1I1f. .1 1 • , il l) 01 the hJ.! H. _ • "OIlC)l11ll' re J.t11 0ns of cxch .l ngc. PUlllllg d'spl a cl cc I • duo h~hllllA 111 10 C( h.,hl'< I ,u lI ng r ue ,nt! ,·x, h.l ng'· ,llld crea tlng nCtworils bel", .. h ·k 011 rh,- In.Jp 11 11 .1 • CC I) llo"" I,,·1t . . .S ( Wll'.,SIll" .Ind Tumu (99 8 ) . Grea r Wa r eXChanges. Sll h I, or 111"1"1' ,·.IHey 'Y'" 111 fI ' .1 C llS •, I . I dlc. n,lU 'l<' d.w lbullo 0 .ve p.gs anu valu abl es "n I I T 't.' -yd e..' 1I1 VO V(l • n ( ,l\ 11<' , < . k v Ih IJr"c f"l1SI~ occ urnng durong the lallcr. f

I n . I .,," l s who were (ormcl'iy dependent 0 11 hunting and ga lh In \\'l'SIt' ! n Fllgll. g roup , ~ . I ,"a 'I' Valley "1ll1 se lLicd on 1,lI1d ocquJred from rclalives rc. I crll1 g 1ll ( IVl ' J 1111 0 I H~ .. \ eo . I ' . . , . Slll-h move. In cll ed lenSl on. wh,c 1 IS ev,denced in a l.lIt'd dll ouJ:I1 mJIn.lJ:e . • . h m 1I1y ,nlall wars ,lilt! mlg rall ons. The peopl e of weSlern hl>I wll • . . .1 11 ufe lo r II1l cgrnll on. A large cult call ed the Kepele Was J·ngtl lurtl «:u lU ntu . ' Li," lrobe . rcn llirnl ul1Iry, ond draw allenuo n ,1way from local IT., (Il·u , ., JS , e lll bl c , ,- le r ulLl of difTcrenl Inbcs of wesrern Enga werc 'l1legl'ared 'nro a d "pUl es ,,"pc • .. rher by the exchJnge of ritual experts, cult procedures. II1no· Il C IWOI k boUI 10 log... 1) . DUring the five I II "JldJllCe b)' rclallves from otilcr rribes (Fig. 4 . \' JII ClI1 .\, .mu.1 .... dJ\' of K"rcl~ dcbrJlillnS, specl.,1 feasrs were held for lhose takJllg part 111 sa· ( I','d CWlm the mlll.HCS. ance lors. rirual experts-as well as for celebral1ls who l~mJoned oUlside Ihe sacred Jren women. children, and invitcd guests. !'unh('fOlore . as the populalion grew and connicts accelerated throughoul [ngJ. IVar oepJraoons, whICh were IradirionalJy paId to allies for men losl in bat· tie. ""R' extended 10 cnemles. Wlule formerly opponents had dispersed afler \\ Jrf.1!'l'. "nc oustong the other. as the population grew and the land fiUed , confllwng p.lrlll·' h.ld to sray put and pcace, a condItion thar was ach,eved rhrough wealth exchange War reparations II1volved an Initial payment of cooked I

·.1 hUl rh"r'd 1'0 1'

• ,

pork Jnd subsequent feastmg. followed by a series of exchanges of live pIgS, good,. and \'aluables. When successful, peace and balance of power were rc'(()r~d , former exchange ne. with enemIes were reactivated, and new ones created. Intllally. aJJ of the above exchange systems depended heavily on wealth other Ihan p'gs. The early Tee cycle II1volved the exchange of a small numbers of pigs.

P! IUP( CT'Vt •

~ ---

lcns1hCd to meet new t.icmdncb. bUl lhclr v \ In . . • u, "'03 not h..... ..... Ourogc '" tc".oncallon A numbe r of hJstoncol t d

c

•

r •• IIOllS dtr.......

coplc wcre s.mply nOI ,"[cresled In the drudg r -wI le p cry 0 , . ...1/1 mar., b.g·men. who realtzed that thclr ambltlons as well h P>gs as 1 c needs or Ih pig prodUctIOn h er....." CO li Id onl y be met by Increased .. . soug l to en~ \h • th e p.gs. So m ~ took prom,slng young men Into th eor holUehol<4 to more aboul p.g husbandry or encouraged theor da u .~ leach Ihnn &,lcrs 10 d( m~nd 11 ber or p.gs as a part of their bridewealth. They aI rga num· o tUrne d 10 mo fIi means- cults and feasting. n: t ClCtll ENGA FEASTING: SECULAR AND SACRED peasting. which was so integral to the development of th T e cc cv le , \he Cn:u Ceremonial Wars. the Kepele cull. and other events w'" h Id • , e m two C'Ontrm the secular and the sacred Sacred and ecular reasts we L Iv re "",onct separ~ltd. though the twO complemented one another Most secular fcosts we~ embedded in exchange events composed of two- Or thre..·ph= wealth dlStnbutlons sepa_ rated by weeks. months, or years. s,milar 10 those dtscuss
(or fea mg BUl ll5 Ihe population grew, the land fil1ed, and competition acceler· ated, trade goocb, game animab, and land no longer sufficed to fil1 the needs for

taon long·term exchange rdanonships. In ular feasts were held to e<:ure interclan example. paymC'nl 10 compensate the and temIiMtt to enemies to camp os t fthe cook.. d pork m th final ph the Ii r ph as s nd t I

exchange PlgJ were the only form of wealth whos~ produClion could be readily

Acrnrdingl . lolrg

but emphasIS was on trade goods: salt. axes. cosmetic oil. plumes, woven net· wear, hcll . and other Items for self·decoratlon. Early Kepele feasts were heavily proVlliloned wllh marsupIals, cassowary. and forest products, as were the Great War exchanges. War reparations and compensation were paid with land and food

114

=

ul.ar

· :s' ('cul • l r c\(hJ n ~rc~ . t'"

.mu

were o fren timed to plan and fina nee IJrgcr unes . . Iy. m o
umpn on . VegelJble foods prepared to welcome guests were eaten on I hC spor. SOlllcn me,~ with scrap' of pork. but the substantial COnt n'b u ~ lions 0 f po rk 0 ' n,arsupials • were handled as exd,ange items. tn mOSt secular d'IStnbullons. even weddmgs. rec'p,ents collected their shares and SOOn after set Off for home before darkness reil to distribute [hem within their extended fam.ilies Or to tl,ose who had helped finance the exchanges. Public distribution permitted indmduaJ and groups to gain prcslIge. but the bonding of the two groups Was rruncated by eparace consumption in the absence of song, dance, and other feslIVlDes. Though nOt eaten communally with donors. consumption or meat re. cowed III exchange was nonetheless seen as a form of indirect commensaliey. for Bnga dtd not consume meat steOlm.ing from groups who were conside red to be enemies. Moreover, consumption of pork among the Bnga, whose daily dIet is one of vegetable foods. is an event of excitement and great pleasure that draws praIse, warmth. and gratirude for the food donors. And so. despite the absence of communal consumption ID Enga secular feasts. the addition of a round of exchanges ulVolvlDg htghly divisible foods that pleased many consumers added a sigruficam sodal element to secular exchange cycles . Benefits obtained by ambitious men for arranging excbanges and accompany. mg secular feasts were substantial. They gained "name" for their organizational efforts, and they gained wealth from successful exchange. Some of this was apto

-

"leA.l Pu'SPlCl

fCJS l S

I cOI" COOl mu na.:-

piled

ENGA FEASTS IN A HISTO

clan needs. but enough was left to pursue personal interests and SOcial

position-to procure the wealth necessary to pay bridewealth for one or more wIves. to attract allies in warfare, to recruic disabled individuals or war refugees to aSSISt ID production, and to secure trade partnersrups.

The largest sacred feases. orgaruzed by big-men ".there.! _•• _

or tnb.U 0)( u. bers for five days of communal consumption at the cult slte aM eote~ In vited guests from Other mbes. Unlike secular feasts that m, Ived ,,)In\,< provisiorung and dIsmbutlon. m sacred feast "'-." hO_hold ootnbutN equaUy and everybody receIved freely {O re.fIi, m equality ,f group mcm is said that even the dogs dtd not go hungry Food proJu~ r cult ieasts •

• eo

aUowed for strong bondtng at the group I d duI dad not As a result. enure mbes could be united Ritual experts who pr~slded over cult nte ings much

J

way as to WIeld po

h~

r. In

the ntrast. tilt

ganized these Impres..
fact that the food dtstribured carried exchange obligations. The absence of com-

the presnge that .le,rued ITom their ~bili

munal consumptton involving donor and recipient limited the potential of secu-

arion. and partiClpanon ne

lar feasts to generate feelmgs of unity. And maintenance of a certain distance

fcasts . Prestige brought mo~ Ihm ~fSOftoII

may have been intentional, for even though strong supportive ties were formed

In thIS ocie-ry whe~ all

(Juuide the clan through exchange, these had

defended, name wa onl

be suspended in times of war-

~

poImaal 10

group a a whol . !>re ~ stgn.a1~ a mM

all moves of blg·men

man ot

bring about changes were regarded as economicaUy

dnven and .rubJect to scrutiny. Such an atmosphere was not conducive to manip· uJalJ()n

of norms and valuei.

Nonetheless, the- inmrporation of a phase of feast-

Ing InW Jccu~r rxch.mge allowed bIg men to put IIIneasing numbers of pigs

u.

an

wr than

renuwn

marr, crv.mt h chang. 10

sld red I

Kl IIll

r, nl

dMn

ry

fare The: fact that economIC goals were embedded 10 secular feasting meant that (0

'- WI1

grown specifically for that purpo e and ne' r used to mcur Of rions related to secular exchange and feasting The rotnmensality

Iltlcal ends The one was the lack of communal consumption, and the other. rhe

to

-_c _

_'- cenrer of IDsrobutlons and actively demo we ll>~'e thc:u PGtCltiJ1 01 eco n omic cu rrency. Sacred feasts foUowed dlifetent pnnoples th .. 'n ~cular on t opporrunmes for rhe enterpnsmg. At th ., and If, Itd en . . eu Cort \\ as. co ns and che spu" world unHed through eel b Illn\cn..litv rna ~ ratlon nt in food shanng. Sacred culr feasts were beld 'os. t> d an . at man . 1",-.1 t 'on of a single p'g at small heahog eetemOUle ' nlm the COi', u . S to cul" for th drew together hundreds of people ill fesm'lues las . < an .tOt'> dut tmg up Sacred feasts were "neste d"-srn all er ceremorue.s. b to ~h-. d. 0 r ,_ IUiI1 II:t • . "ere cid ~t and if . unf",,,, ble conditions perslSced. ever larger ones were h Id a . e .ometnbtha toire of up to cen different cules and aCCOmpanym ~ . d. '4<1 g eb'{S du, could '--Id '-. che ancestors, "sky people: and other Spmts A mbe •• __ "" IV< . . d . Or u.m , re~nolrC of cuI was periodicaUy reVlse through the Ifnponauon of ne\> cul", fro · thr m other ....... b d thn who appeare to e vmg Or ough the m\'l'auoo of nCU2l ~'---r' other gtOUpS who mrroduced addIuonaJ mes

econonucally. although they dId not

Two features of secular feasting affected its potential for serving social and po-

,•.

11\

· ,. I II I ~C ) ( h l " lIt 0 1

-

,

,

11"

IMI...

" J!
mt l1lh ~ 111

~

,"j {) t

Hll1v \\ 'ir \\Iwl

----------

___-----.......:E:cNe,:G:cA:cF..:Ee,: A.:.ST:.::S:..:':.:.N..::A:.:H::I~~l~O:~~IC:!'':L!!'£ R.SPE(l 'VI

-

In~ I ~'!1l1fi c.lIl1 IT1 .1 soci ety wh ere apprOXln'''''" t eIY 2.s

" ,,,1:11<' (M cgg llt 1977).

PCr

lnCI1 throug h pa rtlcipatll1g In the orgall JZat lo \ st'n )l ".1 bCllt' Ii t " I'l'n tu hlg · n tuh I'crfi" 'IlIJnccs w ,,, the oppo rtunIty to altc r norms and va lues BIg-men pa~r . t 'u 111 ImrOIlIl1 " IlCW cult s /i'om g ro ups who appearcd mOre su [1ell',1 C " . ccessful . ml11onll1g chose n ntuJl cxperts from other groups, and rearra nging cult ' su . . proce. dures 10 bctre r comll1L1l11catc Wi th the ancestors. In dOing so, th ey werc able to .11t"" nOrms .1I1d \'.du cs wilh Ih cu' pe rsona l proJecls Beca use all cult-related de . b Id ' c,· .. Sl OIl< were m ade 111 [h e na mC o f g ro up e llcrment anc etached fro m eco , ' . . I1Ol11i· ( .llly o n cnl ed ,.change, th e m ot:ves of blg· m cm we re no t subj ect to the same . crutllly ,tS were rhelr ll1ancu ve rs m secul a r feasn ng and excha nge To g ive sOl11e C~Jmpl es thro ug h Importmg the p ra ise poeITy o f b ache lo rs" cul ts from Other groups Jnd m3iung addi n ons 111 th e process, big -m en could update the ideal fOr males, cul l.> expressing equahty of a ll m e n to the eyes of the ancesto rs could be ri m ed Jpprop na re ly to appease grudges e m an aring fro m e m e rgent econonuc m. equJltn e ·, and very Impo rtantly, goods and values w e re revalu ed thro ugh theIr promlJ1ent presentatto n m assoCIatio n with the sa cred . DI(fcrcnt tho ugh they were, rh e re lation be twee n sacred and secular feasts was J compl ementary one In a sense, sacred fea sts laid rhe groundwork of rules from whIch compentive exchange could proceed . They defined all males and the Ir family unm as potential equal competitors for exchange, they displayed what was valued before the eyes of the ancestors, and when exchange depended

ng site wlth shelters for the partta pams', er)mm.una\ COI\sum ,100 cl Icft exrenslve faunal remams on the fcasung lie,.' th golh.nn ptJO!> I S and guests called for dlVtdcd sacred and scrul bran or ar~ 10 ~e rn outsiders: and on larger Enga cult SItes, speaal . tru. fr o ..ruruWt l t ( r ,"cred nles. each of which had Its Own atea for f~~ > -rtn: lor ~ vvu pttpan. on ' su rn pttO n . slgnlfica~t also 15 the diff:renttal unpact of competll"" secular and ncompetltlve sacred feasung on food production and as . d Cnstingl no , . SOO4.tc utUZOltlOQ of th e landscape. Plgu re. 4 ·2 compares the number of Pt""' ..- gwen bl b Ig mtn and _'·r wives tn the m am phase of the Tee cycle with the num'- . t h t e v
feas t l

cult. As is clear in Figure 4 ·2 , the overtly competlO\" dlsrnbuoon of,."alth III ular events and accompanying opporturuttes for mdiVldualln~stmenl U\d t(ec::oo-

corpo rate groups. When these condmons were met, mdividuals could go out

nomic gain fostered rapid growth to (ompanson 10 th. mo", gndu&l growIb m the noncompetitive Kepele Although such growth rrughl nOl be """Itnt fNm

and pursue theLr careers m secular exchange to benefit themselves and their

the sparse remains left on secular feasttng Slt. , Its unpact

clans. In rum, success m secular exchange and feasting established the pracrical

and extent of land clearance and use. Rerurrung to the role of feasts to the valuatt n of ma!n1al

heaVIly on group partiCIpatiOn , they established a spirit of cooperation among

value of Items valued dunng sacred feasts and reaffirmed the importance of reg·

app '1Cl11 m palM'"

ular cult feasts to secure the goodwill of the ancestors for economIC enterpnses.

give one example of an elaborate cult c nt mi 01\ ~ W

Al ternately, failures m exchange called for new cults, new rites, or in some cases, ne w values.

duCtlon was arduuus. Then I will

In an archaeologICal context, secular and sacred feasting left different signa· tures. The absence of communal consumption m secular feasts had a profound e ffect on the remams. When food was distributed and carried home, only traces

em Enga, through which pigs we~ mad protnJDm\ ID III

struCl ever-larger exch~nge netwOrks, tht

subsequent efforts to devalue the pig r shift

po tho les lrom display platforms, small amounts of bone from meat consumed

THE KEPELE CULT

dun ng fo od pre pa rauon, and m some cases large eanh ovens near the ceremonial

The Kepete had it ro ol Ut" P

lbe fac t th at meat was not consumed at the distribution site caused the majority of faunal re m a ms to end up a round household steaming pits in other clans. Par aCTed

t

by contrast , prolonge d aggregation required the construction of a

121

W

complementary strategIc ' to ecular md S
of structures for food display and distribution remained at the aggregation site-

ground to s team pork. though much meat was prepared at individual houses,

go on to

~nd gathe nng tOl<>

of th high

the se n Tt ot lh

tht'se

tnb

~cql\l d t.md

hwulthl Ih K

pe'

dIM

I

of

_~ --------------~EN~G~A~F~EA~S~l~S~IN~'~H~I~ST~O~R~IC~'~~~~~ l PEIlSPECTI'I( __ . _____ _ 250 •

20

Tee Cycle c:

'"

E,

.D

1 SO

0>

~

Cl

a. (/l

Q>

a.

100

50

Kepele

o

Cult

•

7

6

5

4

3

2

generation before present

rlgu« ~2 Companson of me growth of secular competiove exchange and feasrmg WJm noncompecrive sacred feasong as measured m number of pigs conmbured by big-men Thrse figures are approxunate For me Tee cycle, number of pigs chstributed IS taken from me hmonulll'adltJons derailing che lives of major big-men from the Yakan, and Apuhru mbes of cenll'aJ Ecga It IS not possible to verilY the accuracy of figures for earher genenoons However. smce rrees were planted at the end of hnes of pigs dismbuted to mark the accomplishmentS of each generation of big-men. the order of magrurude .houJd be correct. Prior to about me fourm generaoon, only wealtluer clan members paroopated m me Tee cycle, after me fourth generation, most famules disrnbuted at least a few plgs.S a marter of po de and sign of econolTUc mdependence. Figures pre. $
ENGA FEA S

rS IN A HISTORICAL PERSPECltVE

the Kepcle ceremony. th~ Ounng . .nt fooclo e.se d ' a pyre e P , 0 JP place 11' mated . When cult me we", ron fe cl ",e nlaUy ere ]Jt< d and cererno d i[ was believed that the goodwill 0 th a ",00 were desIToye . . !if< J houses c ~ l. ry would prevail. CO [ cl and ,eruu f h [ e evoke foUowmg the introduCtlon 0 the '" t po ", Bd been eneraoo ns n h cl SO ,0 tion 0 pa r I The prepafa ch crure of Enga sooety. The demand that ,h affirmed e srru , Sloons re ch Kepele remforced equalit) of male mb", m n an ig for e duce one P . d tion The great feasts for the public tlut , pI . for pIg pro uc . ave ve a tangIble reward for pro du -n n to incen men . rhe sacred area ga SIde ho were not IDvolved ID the , au ed nte ' d inVlted guests w • . f K e1e s!les conformed to no speclnc pl U m r ,n Loca aon 0 ep . th h . s' were placed cenually ID mbal temt ri tt chaeolog!Sts. !les . . _ • • C mill'e - whose houses were wIde I) >< ~u red, r I I nJ cesSlble to la > , re n I . offered magruficent VIews. ,,\·hile other 1 ~eeslteS d epele s.tes were planted wIth a " , de ,l,,;l I trt"~ n K All races. shrubs-some of the largest and older trees In the FIl bll monial grounds or cult sites RemaIDs Id, on Ke I gradual valuation of p.gs ,,"d tht· mulnple nlt'.Il1l smlung for archaeologIsts would be the num

r f

of pIg bones on Jssoc.~non wllh everv une .t. pig bones, such as skulls, with . pC(lfi.:

tru tu

th

lrU , tu

of the me and hIghly dlfiert"nnat d area \\ I\hm 11 cation for a gIven SOClJlul1lt and the I glumJlan n

PROMOTIN G PIGS AND COMPETITION : TH The upshot of enhanCing pOI'\ In lu I that by the fourth to filth g 11 r lion em Eng. offered ,1\ rs o noml ntu I as networks nf C l't'tl1oll\~ 1 rur"'ory the ('IX full

" •• '101\ "01l11'<'1II'

In

,

ENGA FEASTS IN ... I1ISTORI( ••• ••• •• ••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

•••••••••••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

,

, . •

,

• •

...... •

• ,

•

•

, •

,

· •

..

•

• •

'.

,

,•

•

•

..

..• ••

•• • • •

,

•

•

,

• •• ••• • • ••

•

·..... • • • , , • , •

-

PUBLIC FEASTING AND DANCING AREA

FENce AROUNO SACRED AREA ~

TO PII(PAA(

WATUor urt

. ,0

xxx """",,,0

~L PEftSP(CTTvt

9

d for the Kepcle m song. The reason.s for I~ use ..r ''''po" In the «., tated but mIDal pe"ormances were 5aJd t b h WU1.~g! fe.st and 1.,--, . • 'ry withm. Par the second and thud stages wbe _, ..tl.....,.., un! . n Ult: ground Wi\5, prtP.,.dand th e cult house constructed, bIg-men from clans to th e east who ~ .... ~ .,. cycle were invited as Spectators and ""ests 10 _L -.~-~t
un.n ......,

J'"

...•..

TABLE 4.3

..

,S /5

$

, S'

l!.

I

If".am

)[ 0

•

, II

~ ~

.

,,

NEE NAPE...,. 11 OON:;

\!3J SleW. HQ! !SE

The Six Stages of the Aeatee Cult of Central Enga and Its Relation to the Tee Cycle

• RfSIOENTlAL

......

Feast

Stage

Collection of bui1dmg

Communal hunt;

mate.rials for the: cult

FIgure 4·3 Schematic drawmg of a Kepe1e cult site This diagram IS based on descnpflons of mformantS wlule VISltlOg Kepele SItes. nOt the measuring and mapping of a smgle Slte. Though KepeJe SItes vary. many have the features presented here. Large Sites may COver an area of lOO m by ZOO m or more .

em. cenrral, and westem Enga to craft rhe final Tee cyde. Specifically, the thin web of the early Tee cycle wlrh ltS cooperative chams of finance was called on to fuel the Grear Ceremonial Wars, removing the Iirruration of finance by home production Tbls began m the fourth generation before present around .890 (Table 42). As rhe Grear Wars expanded umder rhe forces of dramatic mrergroup compennon, bIg· men mvolved 10 rhe Great Ceremonial Wars constructed longer Tee chams ro rap 1Oro the wealrh of the easr and to reinvest the great mass of wealth that flowed our of rhe Great War exchanges. The Tee was thereby trans· formed from a relatively dIscreet stream of finance ro a network flooded with weal rh , The spheres of exchange carved out by alliance in rhe Great Ceremonial Wars larer prOVIded the pathways for the Tee cyde to expand (Pig. 4.1). The COSt, conflIcts. and complexiry of organization of the Great Ceremonial Wan and Tee cycle then became formIdable . Big-men in tribes straddling the Tee cyde and Great Wars. aware of the dJ/ferent strategies that could be employed in ICcular and sacred feasting and the benefits of their Juxtaposition, imported the K.epde cult from the west into central Enga . There it was called Aealee. a lerm

114

Urutes~

marsupial feast

house Trampling of the grass on (he buiJdmg site

Marsupial feasf

ConstrUcrion of rhe:

Major pork fe:3)t:

Aea[ce house

RcIa_ .. T.. c.a.

Urutt\ mbe. c:srf"tSsM tnbill

one plg per male lnbtsman

S.U\Kturt

Unn~ mb.:. ar'~I$U

tTiNl muctUft .and compkmmwlI¥ ot

oIppt.a," aoc:(31lln

C1earung of [ht: house Sire, redecorJ[lon of ,he

Commun.ll hunt m.u\"UpIJI fent

wJ.Us

Rues for

th~

ancestT.ll

solcnJ

Tnb< IlDltN

(...Jrg('

pork fuSl

"",.... 01_:........ .....•• bwWd. Ilib .. PftIIPII'lJ

~tones

........t

Burnmg of the i\eoItr"e hl'lUSC:

lolqtt'Sl pork fi:&St

--

....

•

I

crio'lllancc . •hey rrrli pII.", ( h . b'g·men, ro m t < e . " . P ase ... ) of rh e Tee cycle. In the fourth stage of the Aeatee. a larg . . e POrk of m. DJWry g ll~' [he oCC3
to

faolrtating their goaJs for the Tee cyde. In short, the feasts of the

Aeatee were used by big·men to mediate tensions, reaffirm old values. introduce new ones. reaJlgn feelmgs of tribal members, and demonstrate to participants and spectators thar the tribe was strong. weaJthy. and able to act as a corporate WU(.

Once these goals were achieved and all men prod aimed as pocennaJ equals.

indrvlduaJs were allowed to pursue theU' own inrerests to make a nan1e ID ex. change. Dunng the decades before first contact wirh Europeans. the Great Ceremonial

found that over 60 percent of the sweel'pOt.t .. . ) (197'E 0 .... ~ ...... <... n. mhc of eastern nga And now for the m .." to III Ar the u I) 1 Inltteu;n d accel era ted production cannot escalate cl fuu pan; cion an tn c tcl tn the eve of first contact Wlth Europeans a be: O . . . nurn r of n: g ive. n to [.tion were mlttated that IDvolved . among oth h compe
less fertile. rugged vaJJeys of westero Enga were the " __ h T e '1nl to t<>~ lip , . onmentaJ constraints. for the stuft from game amm,l J • enVlf ~ an tu",C' to the pig as the primary currency of ntual and exchange rmPD" 'd • hn, \\ . load on residents in western areas. By tbe early twentteth CtllIllrt \\.n~ iuti become endemic. and nutnttonaJJy related ruseases pre\";lknl Eldm IIlten d voiced the dismay they felt at the Urne over demand> On . m.ill hall hold 1 bar forces to produce large numbers of pIgs for ntual. '00.11. md pobn..ol 0",particuJarly for Kepele cult performances. war reparaoo . and I he finOUlC"r relatives within the sphere of the Tee cycle . Pressure, for pIg prod\lCtlon In tIIm incited conllict over pigs and good garden land. semng off a sptnl runp'nt and destructive warfare that took the lives of rna",·. o.hr-< ~ the QTCUIII stances that ir was said that tbe Itves of men seemed ID h.... Im)e m al than tbe life of pIgs. These perceptions cor re ponJed to p~dicnons m a erful cuJt. the Dmdr Camu. that em,ronment and SOOt!'; \\"tlt 011 a _-an! spiral and that the end of the world was m1mment \\'1e er ...d Twnll 11\ press). DIseases Introduced by Europeans .nd rum of Europun " " ' _ contributed to the mIsery and created a feelmg that ban Il\ all" In (be early 1940S a new cult was launched b~ a f~nu1v pens from the northwestern corner of Enga-I\ln :ult

Wars coUapsed under theU' own weight and thetr spheres of exchange were sup.

goaJ was

planted by rhe expandrng Tee cyde (Wiessner and Tumu (998). By first contact

1977; Fell (983). Among other thm~. the pig. ~J((",ed

w.th Europeans ID the 1930S the Tee cyde involved some 40,000 people and the

problems, was devalued by (ult pre. mpnoru FU"St

exchanges of rens of thousands of pigs. The Tee cyde recorded by ethnogra·

were decreased by abohshmg

phers and misslonanes rn the 1950s-1970S (Bus r95 1 • Elkrn 1953; Meggitt 1972, r974, FelJ 1984) was thus formed by forging three vast systems of feasting and exchange

and thus war reparation' and malor ulu su'h part of the pIg population wa' remo

rn the decades before first Contact with Europeans.

herds and rhelr sacnli.' .. tu tht' un

The results of Sl)me five generations of rncreased agricultural potential. the vaJuau(JIl of the pig. and the mergrng of exchange systems was that competition In

Engil accelerared at a runaway pace. with the sons of each generation outdo·

mg their fathers

numbt:r of pigs

dl~tnbured.

Mounrrng pressure was put on

to

stave off dIsaster through ntual IIlte

the cult, disn'sp et 1,)[ pork a praCtlCl' very at

1'1(011111

western Enj(J 11 took nn

pmducti/m. (Ir example:. whllt In rhe bl"V"nth generation pigs are said to have de

come 111 the lorm of 81 nt ("edse. lor Wr Ith .uld "'

pcndcd pnmanJy I)n fitragrng for thclr 5USlenance. by the late 19005 WaddeU

elfon When Ih 1'''111

In

,.6

nt. that rtquirN from

Thout1h

the

DllOD

and nI\III

the

-

-----------

/',,1/\' \\ ·,(.IIIIt'1

fort." Ihe grc;]ICI p~l r l of Ihl' pig p opula ti o n of weSler n Enga Was slaughtered Shord), .dte l \ .lrJs. p.lIro)s ~lI1d l11issioll nnes emered (he area. .

RESPONSES IN THE EAST: THE FEMALE SPIRIT CULT T he Imp.cl of occc leranng competillon and II1 tenslficaoon of pIg prodUCtion WJ:t nOt so hcavy

IJ1

e,lSlcrn Enga. w he re (he sou was n cher and enviro nment

more forgJVl ng. Il owevcr, on unll1rended consequence of valUing PIgS, rather Ihan " COlS WIth mo re lomited ava ilabili ty, was th at aU able·bodled Bnga Could produ ce p'gs, distnbute the m , and thereby become competitors in exchange. W, th a g rowmg popula" on and expanding nerworks of exchange, the number of competi tO rs became unmanageable- the pla ns of even tbe most powerful bi . men were foiled by competitors on the rise. In th,s context, big-men of the fO\lr~ generooon ,"troduced gold-lip pea rl shells cut into crescent shapes as valuables tn to m e Tee cycle and other exchanges as part of an effort to consoudate pOwer Pearl she Us, unlike pigs, could nOr easily be obtained by ordtnary men who did nOr have a long·standing conaol of trade ne cworks to me south and southeast (see Clark 1991 ). Furthermore, they did nor have to be fed or slaughtered, bur could be retatned indefirutely, accumulated, and passed on to descendants (Lemonnier 1990, (996). Pearl shells were gradually accepted as valuable by tribes of easternmoSt Enga because they were pnzed by meir eastern and southern neighbors Daughters of wealthy men began to demand these valuables in their requests for brideweaJth . 'o However, the central Enga, key participants in the Tee

------------~E~N~G~A~FE~A~S~T~S~I~N~A~H~IS~T=0=R~IC~4~l~P~[~R~S.~(~CT~I~(__

_-

'-'

-

re:p~sennn'"

mJI , and . It's cenaal m eme m at male and f~m~le must b.,

'd d 0[0 tWO m Olenes. one C dlV1 e l

wer s [he cu t prfS l'oked (Sa amern 1979a). 11us theme " as tumly f, r Ihe • lubly .I I ""change nerworks u.a! _L d epended on women\,. SO __ , eJ11o nt3&U\,I r ce . h ffinal and m a!ernalluo After a suspe!l>dul diIy of ce""" 'cs Wlt a , . n m o h se for which thirty IQ SIXty pIgs were laugh!ered rnll. ul[ Ou . dr • c d from the cult house tn a amatlc pan de. holdin~ pe~rl ' emergeI el with theU" eyes. Tbey danced ""m stampmg m~ment · ""'.. _, chern , ev WoN 'al grounds !O me awe of me crowds and men pJraded b. to .... cereOl OnJ . wt emerging wlm tbe ne! bags of pork for me conunun.1 re t \\ h house, re m over IIlvi!ed guests from central Enga talked Tee 1U't .> Ih had ~asr- S ' . ' tee performances. .No doubt me prorruneoce of the ,hen, III th ~·lt after Aea . ,~ their association wim fertility and prospentv did not e ".pe ...Iuan n shrewd men . As the Female Spirit cult spread through dans of eastern En. , m'n~
cycle, rejected the eaStern valuanon of pearl shells, preferring pigs, stone axes,

performance and mearung were lost or altered a5 11 was ~~Pted t n '" rions (Wiessner and Tumu 199 8). The parade , ...·luch pre>ent cl peMI coveted valuable with a sacred dunenslOn. was perpetuat~d Th . pead shells as "ems of great econorruc and symboli.: \'alue f't~d H fore meir trnpact on me sodal and political order could b.,
and cowry shells. Blg.men then attempted to mfluence the valuation of pearl shells by another

would have been accepted as the ulomate \o1uable h ther ~ rcul.I would have narrowed the field ot' competition. rtb iN pf't Im r N rrodIK

means- through trnporting the Female Spin! culr, which placed pearl shells at its

oon, or led to IIlsnlUtlon.lllZed

center and m assodation with prosperity and fertility. Initial motivations for irn· porrlOg the cult from non·Enga groups to the south (Strathern 1970 , 1979a), as

wealth remain open questions \ ee Fell 19

stared m h,stoncal rradlnons, were to enhance clan or tribal fortune as well as to

00.11

1Oequaboe through the and

By contrast to the case of pIgs 10 Kepele ~ 00 dence would be hke\y to be tound fOr th a1uanon I pe

"'* from t~

plc from near and far to plan the Tee cycle . HistOrical traditions tell of voyages

Splnt cult However, IOdlrect mfeft'nc . ,u1d cult slles with a new struCNft' at the me rune dwt

taken by big-men from eastern Enga, laden with goods and valuables contnbuted

plaques ot' hardened resm on which sheU.

by themselves and fellow c1anspeople, to purchase the sacred objects, spells, and

chdeologlC.1 record

host an event similar to the Aeatee cult of central Enga, which would draw peo·

ntes of the culr as well as the services of a ntual expert to insntute rhe cult

bnde but remamed a vll"gm WIth a closed vagina, giving men protectiOn against

the (I,ntammaung menstrual flUids of women but bnnglOg feruhty to them and

house~ were constructed,

onc male and one female, and seg·

regated frl}m pubhc areas by three elaborately decorated fences Male celtbran

n.

11\

greater numbe

10

theIr clans, The Female Splnt cult was rurecced at a sptnr woman who came to men as a

theIr familIes Two

10

ts

SUMMARY Wltl-un the sp~n of Fng•• hI tonc.a\lT"lldin value .nd me.lllng re ,on~r dunng secular un Ptg h.d

prlldu(ed hv all pt"rmllt d unhri 11 the ran that th

uI

IM

Pally Wu' u lla

\'c,red m.ldc rhem an 1J1.1rpropnate rorm of wealth ror the conso hd
anYlng fea we re lhe n sought by big-men to e.ehe r devalue the pig o r shift value t . Sts ""rh Hmited availability and greater durability, for exampl e, pead shells. 0 •te ll1s To conclude, I would like to make the follOWing points. First th , e eVent f feasong.s a composlte one and emphasis on its different components will h 0 ' .easting, r: avean I d out d unng effect on srrareg.es that can b e paye as well as th e strU crtJr of rem.ms in the archaeologteal record . By juxtaposing feasts that per e rnltted differem strateg.es, such as secular and sacred ones, complex institutions s h Uc as [he Enga Tee cycle can be formed . Second, a good portion of the value and . rneantng of material goods .s culturally constructed. Feasting, by combming a n b . urn er of social activities and behavlOrs, provides an optimal setting for breWing su h C COn. notations. Third , strategies couched in feasting, including the valuat' Ion of dungs, should be idennliable in certain archaeological Contexts. And fourth , [he

ENGA FEA STS IN A HI STORICAL 'tR~P(CT\\t1.

-

- ~-

use banana and bre.1dfrun In'\~ fo r ~r\'m 1Yod. I'IoL1t

vesselSd' es and ntes for the Kepde VUted from tnbe 'to ti:bt cc u f

7 prO o rtTHlOce

perfi

d

t

Th e one given hen.

1$

..

'mpaer on the course of sodal, economic, and poJjtical competition . Many SOCi~ strateg,es ride piggyback on [he narural properties of goods and valuables as demonstrated 1I1 the Enga Case. Accordingly, altering the values and meanings of thmgs through feasang can direct or redirect the course of c1hange.

th e maJon ry of cult bou=

mamag . aslung for speCIfic lIems to be p... d ~ poUt of th bn~e Demands of bndes can thus an Im",ct OD the 2 ) 199 . axes were requested by bndes of «ntral En. '" were requested In the east.

h.",

REFERENCES Appadllral, A. '986 Th' SOCIal L~( of TIling" Comm.-.lUlN III bndge Ul1Jver.nty Pre , Bus. G

mention a few ' Rappaport 1968; Young 1971, Strathern '971; Lemonnler 1990, '996; Kahn 1986; Knaufi: 1993. 2.

'9QI

le frn

.",.IIr, fn,u. both

PCJrlshdl S, "'h"I" ns In HI en,,- tn rhe \\ IrU IT I

1t,K)f'

h'.J,st .. nJ <. SUIU

140

\llnm

In P1ThH~tt 11~

1\"1 fl . dll B rglo lon 8, E1hl ~Ibe I !.It, I

... red and R, ular, would not be .15,hle arrh.eulll':"'Uy

th

D.rrier, M

Inbr a ICSJ preCl~ nOli on, m order to use a term comprehenSIble to the BngJ

4 HI Ilry portray' Kmup. '" the hIgh country a hunter galh",ers. apparcnlly 'hey malnt
~1.4

CI,lrke. J

of clans unlled by an ongm tradnlon and genealogy that link members to a common itllCotlJr As dISCussed elsewhere (Witssncr and Tumu 199~), wc have .hos,·n '0 use thcmsdvo

-\nthh'l"S.l(\ ' ,

Chance. M R.'I. Ancntwn Stnh.:tu~ '967

Exchange value IS an mrerestmg ISsue for 11 mvolves mediaemg between values placed on Items by those m dtiferent segments of a sOCIety or different societies

3· The term phratry, as used by Meggm ('965) is perhaps 'he must accurale anthropologIcal term for lala andake tn Enga-poiJucal un.[s composed of .AArega,es

,

Th. Te Fe'tl\' ,I or GIft GUIO~.l t

There are some excellent pubhcauons on feastmg m the New Gumea literature, ro

1

. uu.

erforme a p d stones used m Enga n rual "'en: fr-cquently ""'rt.lrs e The sacr 8. habltancs of Eng., pub.ps thw- du,.", fon:ban. form er 10 ancescors and morta rS fem ale ones. The .. ..1'''" 6gun: or""'" r -_ . to"'.~ from [h e Sep tk region. Sacred stones had been u.sc:d b .. SUrround. _ .. '\ ... ~ . fertile va./leyS pnor to the mtroducuon of the "'~el p.lUt • h<>"~:r C~, \oUn epele cull of western Enga. K (0 the ~ names. such :as clan o r cult nunts.. lw.~ ..t ~nn E M~y n~ . 9, cng Aeatee was the so ng term to r Kc.ptle tn S chem .. ' , Enga bndes reSIde IJl theU' future husb..,Js ~"drnces for . 0. es are finalIZed At th.ts nme they ; ID!; . 10 thar

'95'

NOTES

_.10

lteilaaJ. dCSCl'tpl 'KIQ

artnbutes of .rems for whic1h value is promoted, such as reqwrements for production, availability. durability, diVisibility, lifespan, and disposal, have a Slron

~

6 En.

NQ FI~IlI.

III I

uh

t b I' \\ I

--

ENG A FE. ASTS IN A HISTORICA.l PERSPlCllVl

• I'•• /h \\ .It'H"rI:..-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

Blool S

" '977 nd M Bloch parry.J . • and .he Moral"y of Excha"8e Cambnd".· c..m~

St Lucia

1\ ,1\'.' (11 J-,\I'"" \I.!'"

.9 89

68

I (' Iml md lh ~ Jplll OcrQtlla 48: I -25

. ,n . I'

C ull ro m .y • 1h(' 1\(1't: r' rv u • 01 the \Vcst c rn J lJ,ghldJ1ds. Papua New Gumea Afllhrop 0, Th ~

r·

,"_14JJ -~ •.

J J.lyJel1 .

8

.",,-

_. Pre-Iuliconc dnd TradJllonaJ Societies. In Food and rh e SLat '''l!Jliung In ItS Q I(tJ I Inrcullsnl""wry Prr.fpcctW€s. edited by P. Wicssner and W. Sch1efenhav \. pp I>C' ,.8 O \ ford Berghahn Books •.

I rnld. 8.

MOlley

.~ lfe n "on ·Stru C[ure and Ran k Sp.ofic Bchav to r to Preschool Chrldre n In . rh e ..~-·,.I "" S,n"", " oJ AIIO.'.OIl, edited by M. Chance and R Larse n La ndo .

'9

fior the Anctstars; R.t""l in the Ecology of a I ' " " G.""" PIgs yale Uruverstty Press

$
1979b 1994

Men's H ouse, Women's House' The Efficacy of OrP<"'OOn. R", or, PaIring in the Melp- Amb KorCul t,J.. mnl Dj Iht Pol)=" _ rut'¥ ,• Gender, Ideology, and Money ID Mt. H lgetl Ma" ~ )JQ-;.,' LU1es of power In Migration and TrallS!o. " Wh,,,.,. R<E"'II4! Pm", ·It,... '"

n

WHo.I AllI'dl's HI/llgry, Ntwr Grudy; Food . lId ExpresS.OIl DJ Gelld" ," Clfl)' Cambndge: C>mbridge Uru vers.ty Press.

0

Melo ll tStn ll So.

M auft. B. SOI/II. CotUI Nrll' Gill"'. Cl/Ill/ res. Cambridge ' Cambndge UruverSlty Press.

' 993

" .\'01< ....~ , and P Witssn" r IQt)2 Frmll 1r1sidt the

\VOtlltfl 'S House:

Enga Wom en's Lives and Tradltlon.s. Brisbane:

Robert Brown

Thomas, N 199 t

WaddeJ], E 19;n.

Walso n .) t965-

4.' 295- 30 9

10

of the P"lvnt>U1n • ''''1ltY ~

Hom.-ulrure tn the

PIgs. Fodder, and the Jone E~(/

Gktl'l ts t!

F(strll.!.' PalX, eciulnges, et comptrlClOtl dall.! les Htghlaruls de No.veUe.

Post lpom

Wiessner. P, and A. Tumu 1998

Food, Compennon and Starus m New Gumea In Food and rhe Status Qu",:

Huloncal Vln<$: Enga NrtwI>rIu ..f £xcIIA GUInea . Washtngton, 0 C . nuthsonun

All inuTdiSCIplltlory Pl!Tspectlve, ed.ted by P. WIessner and W Schiefenhtivel

1999

A Collage of Cult

Oxford ' Berghahn Books.

1000

Avernng the 8u htiJT Oil

(in press)

Engaging tht Anll""",,1osY Messer. Ann Arbor Uru

Meggrn . M

Tht LlrwJgt Sysrmr of rht Mae·Enga of New Gumea New York.' Barnes and Noble System and Sub-System . The "Te" Exchange Cycle among the Mae "ngot

1973

Hu"".. EcolDgy 1.'111 - Ul The Sun and the Shakers: A MrlJenanan Cult and lIS Transformation in the Gumea HrghIands Ocraniil 441 - 37 and I09-U.6.

PIp Are Our H earu' '"me Tt:: Exchange Cycle among the Mac: Enga of New CUrMa

OUQ"IIJ 44 165 :10)

143

1978

AgnnIrhl ~,

a .... no" I" rht thghwlUb " EcoWgy.

Young, M. 1971

Figh« wuh mbridF

~

C.af\b(lla

Wohlt, P

1972

C'W

In

6:57- 7 0

Gu,"fr. Pans.' MalSon des Soences de I'Homme.

tV74

The Slgruficance of Recent EcologJ(;ll C~

of the New Gwnea Htghlands. Unpublished PhD tbesis. Univers,ty of Lemonmer, P

1965

Th, Moulld Bu.ld""s; Agncu/rural PractIU" Em1r<'lmltn1, 4InJ tTal Hlghland.s of New G,u,,"a eank UM r'SIt\ of \\

From Hunttng

1977

turzcnhof« er PP . .. ,'" PI

Elltangled Objects : Exchange, Malma l C'tiliurr, 4InJ C Cambndge : H_rvard Uruverstty Press.

Oral Tr.dIrions .. HIstory An Exploratton of Oral Sources among the Enga \\ 'lSconsin

1990

Gu," , a, eruled by A. Stratbern and G burgh' Uruversity of Pinsburgb Press.

New Gumea Journal

L.1cry. R 1975

_ '" _

~.pp3port, ~.

c..,) u l,..c: I\ ... ltlI1J PIT "~

"

Tit'" A rgu m"'" . Palo Alto M'yli<1d

Am

of It

I

In

IM

Clltnl

AKHA FEASTING AN ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Michael J. C1arke

my research have been to doa.I ') f

cLS WI[

c

U\ m

tnd! f"

arenal correlates 0 leasnng OlctWltV that n-. ........ " , ~ ""l,;"llt SCE i t: arc h for m [Ose di rors of feasong acnvlry In the pasL fur the pu"",,-_ -r-~Q a110 ca

1l1ter3

10glC

any ntualozed meal that IS consumed b two 3 fea st a • Or mOft: define . I m ean that the meal is not eaten sol~lv for ~[~n' _ r ed .n,., .... "'a JZ d' only one facet of a greater sooal event. 5

'de re as ns1 co

ETlH'-.I 0

'

GRAPHIC BACKGROUND

I 0 known as the Kaw or E-Kaw) are an ethruc mm" " ( Akha as n,; ''lIl U\ III rhe ern ountainous regions of mainland SoutheaH .-\sl". thou.... th . orch rn . . all. 1::-:'" «:'11' t"\J.;:t n u1anon . ' not known, It IS .gener y beu""ed that the\,_ nurn IS

pop 00 000 Individuals (Tnbal Research IflSUtute 19<), . 'Tb around 5 ' . CL.- rh h ' . U1 . Yunnan Provmce. UlUa oug S1gruficam num W a live . sou thward for the past century or longer. and man . n ranog ID g M a.nmar, as well as Nonhern Thailand, Lao,. ;md \- tn.m 'Ill State. Y _ of the Tlbeto-Burman linl:;U1Stl me-m bers of the Lolo branch . '.. "- up and It fro 1i lim d rh al they (along Wlth most other Hill Tnb6 on':lOated • slowly mIgrated east and south tOward th"'T prt or h d plateau an . IS not 0 'n, utI!, exact da re of the Akha's first encry mto Thailand _ as reeen [ as the late 1800s Most Akha lfl Th.ulan.:lli, ID' ~ their tOtal population IS tn excess of 4 .500 people b 'Ul tn 1';' Tlihol search lnstinlte 1995)· The maJonry of Akha m Thati.m.:! snU prel<-r [ a[ approximately 1.000 m ele, Juon w h~re [hn an 'I' C of slufung cultivanon They grow Jr~ n, ,mill t , and a vanery of other vcgt'r"blcs for "lmsumpn )1\ governmental effort. [0 h.llt mIgratIOn dnd [ illa now tend sustolJnJble frUit orrh rd, t Crop production IS oltcn In.ldt qll~te r. r ,on, umpt men! their die[ by ~JthenJ\g ,\lId pl.lJ\t, nd h n workmg lor wa!(~s as (arm IJbon'cs Hunt! nJ Ir was m [he P,IS! They UI ~ .1 '.lnet\ f d ,,,... sacnfie<'S dnd ren'lll
I""

This chapter presents the results of rwo field seasons (1996, (997) of erhnoar. chaeologlCal research on the feastmg practices of the Akha of Northern ThaI' land. The mam argument that ( will present is that the Akha place great Importance on feasting In their sOCIety because (1) feasts function as social mechamsms that facilitate the creanon and maintenance of a life ·mm suppOrt nerwork, and (2) feasts provide arenas for competition berween extended family grlJUps for contml over baSIC socioeconomIc resources such as land. labor. dnd polwcal Influence. f will dISCUSS the nature of the Akha resource base and [he ddficuJlJe~ a~ 0 lated with 11, some of [he various forms of feast types [hat func lion

to

cop~ wnh these ditfirultle , and lastly, archaeologIcal indicators of feast·

ng actIVIty

I'oIlIi 1nl

rxtrnde,! (anlll

144

ilh th

-

famIly H e fu.n(oons .1S (.lI"d)' pnc.st In regulJr offerings made to h , t can The pal nlUle.1ges (groups of rel~1ted extended famd les Within a vula cestors,

~--

aJJ rdatlonsrups LOvolvlng km, hip tics, marriage. residentiaJ pane gc) t'l1 edl ace rn s, and ' of succession I1gh" Although the Akha are nOnllJ131ly egalnanan , there are InStitutton .

rrunlS[Taove POSIoOns in each village. A descnprion of these positio . allZed ad. ns IS ger to th]S ruscussJOn because the people who hold these offices are key la rnane . . r I. h ' r p yers In lh feasong complex. It IS theIr .avor w"C IS o.ten courted m feasts held b e . yless l nuenrial persons. and they themse Ives ' .re very actlve feast givers b n· . . ecause the' posloons are very ofren based on proof of sPJntua l poteocy which ' Ir . " . ~derno s[Tated through econorruc success. Ofrentlmes, theIr major role In offi . n· . . ' . ~~tob the focal point of lineage-wIde or village-wIde feasung. e Foremost among these administrators is the DZllma, or Village Fou nder Leader (Kammerer's [1986J term). Each Akha village must have a Vi · riJ li ' illage Founder-Leader, an d hi s ro I e IS pnma y a re glOus one. He is respons"bl r . I e,ord

\'l1.Iage-Wlde rehglOus events, of .w hich there ar~ a gre~t many. However, 111 Akha culrure, the realm of the sacred IS not clearly clisungwshed from that of h t e profane and consequently, ir is often the Village Pounder-Leader's duty to b' •

.

.

.

__--------------------~A~.~H~.~F~E~.~ST~I~NG~_____________

ar Itrate

disputes, to fine people for soaal infractlons, and to validate decisions made b the council of elders reg.reting secular issues. He is considered the 'Pather of th~ lfl

Village,' wluch bas both familial and authoritarian connotations. Ideally, the Village Founder-Leader is a ritually pure man who was the firSt settler in a new 10canon. Once his position is established, it is considered hereclitary. However, it is not unknown for men to be removed from this office by the assembled village elders. If the Village Founder-Leader is a strong-willed man with many relatives

m his village, he can be extremely powerful and mfluential . He is always InvIted

In a village, and thus. he was trellled wuh great =~ct and I Today. however. (he Akha tmPOrt theu t 15 fr ntu,a aed 00 om Th~1 ma.rLc role or the Blacksmith has been reduced t t tow o IU ccremomoll less. he is stiU an m1luential man, and Ln terms r &I.L mUllmu.rn o nAll.} (Osma\o h to [he Village Pounder-Leader in unP0rtan ~ . et'\' n ce .

All villages also have a less Important po IlOCou -, headman wh

more secuJar village·wide issues such as reI .

..a .

0

t~nu:) to dea!

.oons mrh the Th headman IS usually appointed by a counal of dders In W •• gQ\errunl e: age. over the ~ ~. r They, as grandfathers, are rhe paternal heads r 1;c 0 • >ut iift." each look out for the mterests of theu respec;' ~~~;Ie hou>ehold, .•nd th . _ . e \:s m t~nru. of th deoslon-makmg process. Par example. when th _" . . e 'wage must dead< to appropnate ill order to bwld a new scba I rh -'d .. 0 . e Q el'> will hold < ctl make the final deaslOn In rhe villages m wlucb I h . un anJ . '\e conJu.:te-d rt. arch. t h" noted rhat certam elders will fOtln coaIJooos and U . . ..' e mea ~. domm.ur iiIl 1. incs vIa rhelr Jomt . control of the majon'" -, of the po puI anon. The. etWiti po ..., formed and mamtamed through vigotous and ongomg r.. e.,un b"", n th nes involved The elders are also the figu"'heads of an, m",n •. J IUI s m.m upron p.tr' group, tbe lineage, As such. thm households are otten the \O"·.non of Imcidariry feasts, and It is through rhe elders- and thm mJuIgm . . c th ~l unl r mt:tit . bers may. move up the ranks of Influence and 'erun" ""thm th I~~ play a pIVotal role m the fe. tmg compl.x . .llId b n-aJinon. U el a come to attend any feasr that IS gl\'en ",thm the ilbg<- .Jthough ~ w only attend those feasts gIven by mends and ",1.0\ nu nadin I d lustrate the dynamIC relaoonslup be""'cen >O\.'oroUnl~ and Akha soaety

.

to feasts as it is in everyone's best interest to coun his favor. There are twO more quasi-political positions that are recogruzed by the Akha, both of which are religIOUS in narure . The first is a nrual specialist called a Bw

Moe. These men are Ritual Reciters (Kammerer's [1986] term), and they are re~ponslble for performIng rites for Individuals

lfl

times of Sickness, death, and

other such matters relanng to the spirit world.

Tlus posinon carries a great

amount of respect, and In any Village where a Recirer resides, he will be an influ· entIal man . Furthermore, almost all religiOUS services that he provides involve

the .acMee of animals and a subsequent feast. He IS a key player ID the AkhJ fea tmg wmplex, and It IS ()flen through USIng hiS sacred services that an Akha family Gin hl)S! a feast thal Will have igmfic.iDl social consequences in the srcular r aIm of YJUagr puhuu. The third offiCial Village pOalll/ID 15 that of the: HtI)I, the village

means rh.t, for the most pan. rhelt :OCItf\' ttWI\ rhat rhere arc SIzable dllfen-ncl" ID ~th .nd po famtly groups These nutenJI·n-sow and. emergence of sublle clas...Jlke dl nn base of m.ny tradltlunal presently) gcner.lll due ' nol a110\\ there are man mSI n t's, of tu h in,ll example, "here Ih re I .llId m,hVl,lual I equities Ihat

Blacksmith

Jp

uadttWnaJ 1Imt' , the 81acKJmllh would holVl' bl'cn an IIllp"rtanl person 10 haw

,...

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND DISCUSSION The Akh. are J rran,egaiJtanan SOClC". as.ill b

ISI NoI

m IIlV malll ,Iud

U\

•

TABLE S.l Comparison of Rich and Poor Families Il o u s~

Fil m,l), , Ic.. d..

No. In F.1 01lly

(m J.)

P rotiu..:c rs

Lan d Cm ')

,

Buffal os

Salts

(SUS) •

Rldt j\fc-n LJl chc Ca}

B

5

l.lI che Cb )

27

15

urche (c)

7

4

12 I 1

60 ,800

236.25

84.800

175

43,200

12 0 19

3'0 3,60{) 4,504

Poor Men LJl chc (x )

5

4

J4 .8

20.800

0

Lobu (y)

5

J

70

12.800

0

L.1tchC' (z)

3

2

77

II,ZOO

0

0 0 0 ,

J !'S" IS dIe number o f wo rkers an the hom e Buffiillos an=: md uded because [hey are the No, ..- ' p~ rvuucc . pinnacle of _,.. I,oon ' SaJe ~' only ~ ""' MS .1ommlll sales for {he )'e:lrs 1995 and 1996. Latche (b) has n b ~ W...... UI accumu . b~0 uuaJoSonl ~ausr hr sold.i III~ herd Lhe year previously. ,md he owns many carue . 'j

In Akha society, soo oeconomic inequiry, competition, and aggrandizing behavlor emerges pnmaruy between the lineages and clans as a Whole, rather than between mdiVlduals, and this. more than anything, serves to define transegalitar. iarnsm in the Akha case. Individual households in Akha sOciery, even if they are n ch, do not become socially dominant in the way that individual households be. come dominant in more complex transegalitarian or stratified SOcieties where power is more easily centralized. Particular lineages, on the other hand, Can and do become socially dominant . For the purpose of this srudy, [ follow Hayden and Maneeprasen ([996) and define clarn as patrilineally related families living In sep. arate communiues. and lineages as parrilineally related families (smaller seg. ments of clans) living m the same communiry. Clan , lineage relations among the Akha are strucrured m a systematic way

However. because the ownership of SWiddcn fi Ids . c hn lradillo I "..,.0. cemporary. and f amllies evenrually had to ch. tUt .. " , ngt rtsldmct' once longer fernle, the long·term (rnulnge.ncranon,u l mooopot.z..non ,L. base by one allied group was no, posSIble Funh 0 "'" . . crmo~ . beau of .L. _ Ity of neW land. sooaJIy weaker and rubdonun ..." . .nt group. ah." lud of movmg out of a village and farrrung la. nc", I~_,' ~c Co", quttl Ith I d tion of a wea y an -ownmg gentry class w", , not pos..-ibl c Pend on long·term econorruc serun ty. and evcn m~re II!(OnoIIUC0 un could precariouS and transitory thing for every farruly H ' \:01 a . ence, then:" , and till need for a structure d and dependable Ufe,cnSls ru " a pport nC''''or All individuals in Akha sOciety are aware of th . . e prccanou. ne , of tbc norruc SItuatIOn, and most people realize that th· h " . , e~ may .\~ to . . • en an fan eating labor. It IS unponant to maimalD these rc!.no L . n:'4~" . ru,~. There are many ways lfl wmch a drasnc chanoe of ~,_ " .. ~C can 0C'CUr The lile.. ture makes ample reference to bandits and amue robb

'.

-

--

aopolitical srrucrure, and the impliCit supraregional soclOpolmcal structure

surpluses. not .1.11 land IS of th.. smt tiveiy pnvJ.tl' property

IS

an "mstirutlon" (in the same sense as parliament, or the demo·

tOtal output: the econom

umque resource qualm -. rh

feet clunges m the sociopolitical sphere .

compl~x · sonery soo~1

traregte

hunteq~ather probl m ' \the

llim

practices Hill Tribe sWldden horticulture allows for a relatively high population

an: dedit With b

ciemny,

!l'asttng W1rlll" th.. I nand Is hu le nr nn pi s nl

compared 10 hunting and gathenng, and consequently, presents unique

organl7~tlonal ch a lle nges. Hill Tnbe villages , whkh may have up to several hun dred pe,,,,le In

Akh.l

In

cl factions b e lineag... / d an membership.

reSiden ce, a re, of n C( C)S lIy, . egml·nted into va nous aUI

SlKlery, rhe pnme diViding

hill' s('e rns

'41

10

!Or quaJi And IInd dIM

On the baSIS of the field !Uta roIl«t

crauc system ) that can be used and manipulated by mdividuals and groups to ef· The nature of the Akha economy affects both social strucrure and feasting

mS«b UheSlrovm-

are fields . In the past. famme Was not unknown among tM Hill stance. some of the nches[ fumilies m $am ng \ilbge lost almost All of to disease lfl the past two ye.lI'S; one fanuh' I I ~:ar\y I The Akha reSOUrce base IS lfl 'omr won suniIu t lbat • mg and gathenng people's resource N: 11 tlucnll..... predIctable. and not smcrlv• nudutN In other the resource base of more complex 11 traction labor does not make resOIU(CS vuInenbIlcrease

and as such,

Le

LeWls 1969. [970. Kammerer [986); nch mdl\1duals "'" etu· L.U <.., . . i h l kS lieu J\.J{ nnsant crops can receIve madequate or exceSSlW ram. and dtse:a.... r ._

through long tradition and cuI rural norms. They are both the explicit village so· (Kammerer 1986). Feasting is mtegral to the dynamics of clan I lineage relations,

me enlltt vill~

Ins s, th

mpIo

111-

/,d ll'llllrl). Clrukr

250 U>

en

-0.

-o

_ hunter-garher-rype sohdanry feasnng and Co I mp t:J.-!oOOcty compenuQ( Ulg-aS [Wo degrees. rather than .s two c.nego n cs 0 f r1 ~ .lStm KUVI nOt mutually exclUSIVe dIVIsions. A weddmg fe t r I . as . or eLlmp t: ,

200 1 50 Recently Dead

~

..

J:l

100

o Currently 0",.. ned

E

z"

50 0

..

.c <J

.'" III

~

-c

0 .III

cv

" cv " .c

E

()

.c cv

-C

~

Q)

"

~

.->E >-

"

~

cv

-

.c 0

c..

FIgure 5 1 Compound bar graph Illustrating the number of pigs that each clan in Sarn Soong ,oJJage owns. and how many of those pIgs recently died of disease.

Promotional . and therefore compeotive

ID

naru~ b

... . ut

.U I

\lot

a~o

lUId

lO

~\

•

certam degree of mtraclan sohdanry and alliance enh .' . .lnccmcnt A poor weddmg will emphasIZe mtrahneage soudanry ' most L __ . gue .. ts uo.nlt; trom the uneage) whereas a ncb family's weddmg ,,111. h th . mp.S\U e promonon.al aspects (many guests bemg fro m other hneages) Th", h ,,,,, __• . " tSW)1tb"'-&W~tt create feasLtng ciasslficaoon c.tegones based on funco'O I alth n J onc 00 h C';l.t.::h feas t category may share a structUral homogenetry It.• , all weddm h= er tain prescribed ordenng of ritual and food consumpuon \• mO!'t ,u!~ ~ h I.~ il .in cry of functions. which arc all maDlfested to va"'lIlg dog - lb .J ... rtes it~ to which any function is made marufest. whether It be soo~l bonJinl: r asement, or outright debt fostenng. is conongent upon many bcro" Th. pn ma ry factors seem to be the host's wealth. relaove sooopolm(~ po 10 n. OIld

"eaIth.

ambitio ns.

AKHA FEAST TYPES

Tbe ryplCal complex-sociery problems that the Akha encounter (the competi_ tion for labor, spouses, land, and polirical control in general) are dealt With to a great extent by feasring berweell the clans and lineages (e.g., feasts that foster albances between groups such as weddings, or which are grandiose enough to valIdate a claim to power such as funerals). These larger feasts serve to advertise the wealm and producnviry of the host lineages. These kinds of feasts exhibit Some mildly aggrandizing attributes (such as food delicacies and an abundance of alcohol and narcorics) and have the erruc purpose of being impressive. The more os. tentarious Akha funeral feasts fail Into this category. AdvertiSing household and l or Imeage success is adaptive and advantageous for at least two reasons. FLrst, because it attracts and maintains a large and reliable work force in the form of healthy, hard-working wives from influential fam. il,es marrymg IntO the family and relatives moving into the village Since village poutJcal matters (espeClaily utigations) are often decided by the vOles of the elder men who represent the vanous lineages in the community, it stands to any per· 50n 's advantage to have as many relatives as possible in their village. furthermore. hard -working wives Increase a farm's production level. Second, sucCC$S advertisem ent is advantageous because it encourages deference . Wealthy men are seen as both ble.ssed and intelhgent . Their opinions hold more Weight than an averagt per5l>D's.

Jr IJ more appropriate to «mct'ptuaiJze the above division of

110

acdviCY

Akha life IS rife wim feasting. Some feasts ~re small. mvolnn!! on! rle and me ritualized consumption of a ver), small amount of ti.lOct. WbrtN' tb r fea sts are enormous. tnvolvmg many hundreds 01 peor le and the ron.,umrnoo f several water buffalos, pIgS, and c1uckens over a pcno.! of" elu Th
oppO
In

simply as formal wear). It Table 5.2 IS a summary of most of the Important and more co mmOn '\kh feasts. Ir IS in no way exhaustIve (for a more detailed accoum See Cl ar ke 199~ . )• Man)' of Lbe feasts listed. such as punJicanon and penalty. feas". . hav c· a WIU. ery of possIble forms and functions Some pUrificattons are SImply <ma II Ctre van· momes meant to deanse a holy place, others are larger evcnrs lh I . . ' al~alet problems lOvolvlOg an lOdJVIdual . whereas ,till others. ope - lOUt" mOrt I0 sodal realm and are concerned with social evenrs such a cUvoret: an d aduln rery Furthermore. some of the larger fea ( 'ypes. espeaally the funeral . are aC!\J . ally a senes of smal.! and large feasts .pread owr a penod of time .

TABLE 5.2 Akha Feast T pe~

r ofknn

\rICC'$Z

('~bom

~ le kneSS CUI'\tl ~

\\ orkmcn '10 p<.,.J"

Punfinnon CJlt

tordJ of Earth tl.1"C1t

'('us DIUttU • IJ1D\W

\\
....,

Tb

m

." Irn

,

11. 11

I

I

SUl.:ht'n

Fun
, I

.,..

~

I

I

JI

r

-----_._-AKHA FEASTING

water buffalo, whICh they will take away and consume at home For the: Year festival they generally eat pork and dnnk (OPIO"," amounu of households wIll have many guests viSltmg them dunng the '"",. Y""r f. may be inclmed to spend a fairly large sum of money The anow! pounder-Le.der's fea st IS considered. payback to the .•" , • • . • v w ..ge .... lor the uppon they have g Iven him, and It IS also a time to thank the .1 I t b ~t a nd funeral feasts , tend to be the largest and most costly II'or IDwvt rhese feasts where obvious delicades, such as candy, betel nUl (a nan;:oo( anJ beer srart to appear on a regular basis. It is not uncommon \m recent "d'" for printed inviration cards to be delivered to guests. A.ll of these charact
White.Skirted Woman, and they are not given to even' woman. onh

I

I

d

few who qualify and can afford the necessary ceremorual s.lcnl1-c:, Menopause feasts can be very costly ' several large pI!;' , numerous ch•.: (ru.. nd in some areas, goats are required in order to perfollll the «rem, 0\ If the mony is widely publiazed, then the famil . m.,· .uso ha, to ill. buff.l

Punficaoons and penalty feasts have a wide range of forms . Most are smaU in

•.

re

I"Ikr to feed the many guests who ",ill amve. There IS no compul n t perlOtm tlus ceremony once menopause is reached. md. m ia,'t. 'amm rer I ' has 1\ Itd U\

size, and rhey are held infrequently. These feasts are a means of enforcing con.

that.t is usually the husband who mSlst th,lt th

forrruty to sodal norms and of asserting the power of the ruling elder males. It is

honorable to have a W\ute- tuned Woman.ll a m m

the council of elders who decide rhe size, and hence the cost, of penalty and pu. nficanon feasts.

also thought to bring great ble ing lnd I )rtun~, but m re unp: runt! from

There are five annual village-wide feaStIng events: the ceremonial gate rebuild·

be 'mpl tilt

cess, wealth, and demablhcy of affihatll)n to the.- peopl Akha funerals art' by rar the m"st ml.-alh Im

known as rhe swmgmg festival), the New Year's festival , and the annual feast given by rhe Village Founder-Leader (Yo la la). The first two annual feasts, the

The Akha people atta:h great rehgl')u Imporlan fill very pracllcal son.,l tun,

tIl'"' Th

gate rebuddmg and rhe offering to the Lords of the Earth, are small feasts that the

erful households Coin reoll"

rt

dders celebrate at the location of the ceremonial gate and the village water

are

$IJurce, re)-ptcuvely, The expense for these feasts comes out of a village fund, The harve.n and New Year'leSUva Is are typl filed by each family feasting . . m . t helt' 0 ..... .... home, With pOSSibly the elders IOvited ro a speCial meal al the Village pounderLeader', hlJu!IC For rh h C h of • ' e arvl'sl 11:5ltval, the Villagers will pur{hasr 5 are

114

lilt'

ethnoarchaeologlcal per pecnve. It i an opportUntt\ tot a fam

to the Lords (i.e" Spirits) of the Earth, the harvest festival (also

109, rhe offering

,f

t

,\11

,Wl'nu ... ,Illln~

th Ir l.um t

od I

hllh

lion. A \Vl,~lth t~n\lh s fun ral ti:,r \V,H,'f !->II tl dill,

pf\"l\hn~ IllUal

p'lISlvr

I

1,1lI

Il

'I'

nJ nu", ,I

'" th

It, nJ 11\\

are

,m

I

f th

"nl to th

r all

,emon"l

n\ bul funtt

nu It rhi h

.no!

Akh,. h .. r,,,"" "I 11",,, I'nv .... ly, hUI It... I\kh 011 I 11 ... (.In clr, hid k_~_ , Ihl'y ,,1t,' I1 d'r"lllloll Ih,' 1"',1l1 Jumm". r:.ahJr {flf'ptr t C ·"""'Ilt be (,III 'l1 .. (11 fllI/.t"I1'illlp ,\lKI 1.111<.1 n~hl ' If ,hi' .. 1.1 lhn tn r to 111,1111 I H Wt:uu,nl; hJU ht. " I I('SI,V<' <,Will , 11",,, Ill<' hosl would prnb.hl h en n'llSid
A F A Tl NG )(AMPLE 'I I 1111 n Il 11" "1 111 HilllltfIlIJ~.1 ~Jl4'I!lU A ld' ,1 wl'ddlllP I" "" I \\.,"'d 1111\\ 11I I If' j( . 1 I • • I III Id ,Ii,' 11I1h!! " tlldl I h ~ I VC I1l lul, ' Ihll ~ 1.11 " Ill " wI·t.h lulu \\hl! h \\/ 11 I11 11 '11 11 , \ It "of I ,., 1\1..1 'd'II't I dlnl M ill .'i •.!I ' p . "J 1I11I11( ' d tll 'l lI lilt My.lIlIlI.11 hilI H 11t~ I' I.111 III ,Ill I11 \ ' ' . ' I,II, -H'III .1111 ' If IlIt'\"lIlt,d III M ,u' ." ,dql, ,11111 till ICll.d vUl.1u" 1111 III )t ' 11 .111 I I \ • ,., I 11 - ,Inl Ill(' I ,IHIH' ''. ',11111,\ Ihl 1I1.I/IlIi1y lit Ihe ' p O I'III"I'flll ()", 11111111 I,I! I1111 I" itI ' I , . ' ""'III11I11y I'"V"III,' vlIl.llI" Ill,' 1111' 1,11,, 111' 1.1I1111,,'s I"v,' 1"11,,, ,IIH I 11 1,\ I IIh 1.1 " , ~ • 1111 ,. WIIII Ill(' 'I. . " tllld lIi(1 s l ptlplllnll \ CI. III . 1111 1."llu,. dlld to ,111 I11f11141 I ,I I I.,' I • • ~('''1I1 lilt' I Idl"l ' ill !ilt '\ I' IWIIII III}' dUI Ill/loll I" vl ll .IW· pnllllt' \ ' I 'III ~ .1111.lnll' W.IS 11I-.lInl 11\, ,ltall ' 11I ,lfllI ,lIl1nl hy, 1I ' llpJ (Jt.1I 11 '1I'11I1~ hC ' 1 W,' (' 11 I III V. II IOlIs ',1111111«"

lIu',,- ! \\'f I I 1.111 ' '111\ ft .1I11I 111.11 \\ll'ddillg ", .."I W.I' IH,ld "" I h(' \011 11 ' 1111' /I)lI:oI t pt 0111111('111 1.. lh" 111,'"111 till \ 111,,11' , 1\1,11' S"I<'p" Itllll,l l ltl" 111' 1 '1111'" ,I V"I Y 11 ,ldllll1n.t1I"",,,'hold, ,111.1 11", '\I'ddllll\ W,I\ w,IY' ,I VI'I YI I'" ,d '·X.III1I'''' II I ,I 1.lrg<' IIkh,1 1".,,1 \\ 1111111

'"'",IIIY

Lhng

,I~ •

I )ld"1 It I< ""k surh (' Or"Jll q ,lmOllnls "I roud 'h' f 1 11 , I ' k ' "nu y had (1) h" 0 bo 11."1\(' :," '" tnwnt (I [(If) 1nl; "nd .crvln~ vc".1 Th • r ) I'IIW ' ~ , c .nduucd Ollc 'cry ' " wok 50 (m ill Lh,11'I1l'tcr, anu fuu , rIm , one 55 cm ,. \1 1 g:c In \.llolmctrr onc: I 1'0' m "' ui"mCIC I (Pig, 5,4) They "Iso had "buut 5 ' ' 'Iscm, .nu Iw( , . , 0 \crvlng bowls 15 d It. I ,"aSS('S ~l nd 27 b ill,' ce l.III", whISkey Clips Whal,h Id b ,nn ng M ' ., • . ' • • ,. I' I . _ . ou I.: nUleO is lhat th r. ,ures olr I". In ex esS Cl I le averJg Akh. fam.ly ~dally I. I "14 _ COOr...lng crvtn" \ 'clllbln"c , NO"111a ll y, a 1'1I111 ly of t111~ sIze WIll need only not!' or t\\ 0 Wu ~ ,Is:r;: l" f boul 10 COl 111 d ,,\nl('lcr, and I wo or Ihree pm. ranglOg from 0 .1 , I~ cm 10 \0 Cm IQ dt I

.1I1W It' I', O n avcragl', .. they _ Will own _ lcn _10. filteen servmg ,<" ...... I anu' ilroun cl ti vt' rinkil'" gl. ssrs, 1 h .s ullh'rcn c IS significant bCC3U the rc!.I,'".. C . LZ .m J num ll l"J 1)1'1'

of COOk lllj.\ ,1I1d S 'I VlIlg vessel, IS a slrong J.rch.eologlc.u IOIllcllO. 01 r~. un'

1111 ,,",1'1 I,,"k 1'1 .11 I "' till' ""1111' III 1111' 1.11 1,,'1 III 1111' gllllllll ,lIld 1."1(,<1 I," till "I .1,,), (hllh.· d,IY1'11', ,'dlllg tI" ,"'III,d, 1'11'1" ,llIrIlIS. 11 1(' grOOI11 .lnd 1111' Imd,' 111'11 11 11'" d .1 hi "'I ,1I11,d IIIVIII" "lg Ih l' 1''''~ l nl\ III ,Ill "~~ h,lck ,I"" I," Ih 111'1WI'I'" tI" '1I1 Altlllllll!h Ih l, lill""" 'UI"id(' II'd tlw ,'1'111," hlll ill l 1011 ,, 11111' 11 ••11'11 ,,1.;(', it IS l!iI.1t 11 1,1t1\'1'1\, IlI d,' 111 11"111.1111 I' Nil '''11' Is "' IH" 1('.1 10 pay .111 l'.ll llll1 10 Ihi s ('(' I' 1111(11) Imlt .,.1, 11 ,,· 1111 IlIl lt,,, 01 ti ll' hO ll se' ,, " ld WI'I(' 11I"y " hIking Ih " pl'l 'p.II'ol 111'"

101 Iltl' 11'.1,1

11 ,,' "",,1 Il sllI I,' rll" sldl' I"'U tll(' p ll h l" .1I1111l1l 11" ' 111 1' 11 1 ,lilt!

(CIf,III"'"1 "I tll., 111111111 I lib III II\ " .I\I'S till' I11 le' Ih .l l "1 11.dl /l'd publl n)llS111I1 P

I.

111"1 "11",,.1 1'1.,)" 1111 111

r", III.tllIlI l " I Ih l' IIk lt " I ClI ll lllllll ll y Sll ll< 1111 (' ,

III 111.111 I" I1 1'111 111 glll', ls. Ihl I.lIlw ( h.ld

tu

1'" lVltl(·.1 1,lI gI', I.lt . n

l111

/l'd. I.IS

,i1 I It It k, 1l\ , 'I'h" ill .1 '"' 11 " .1 l 0 1l,id l' l .Ihl ,· " l ()IH lnll t Ill\( II1U'IlI IIlII Iltl ., ' WII!' .i1 ,,, I.II W' n l'l' ll l hllll '" Ill ,ldl' Oil 11111('1' , h' lk ,lri,·, ' Ill h I, JII .I h",1I ,/\ wltl ~"

\I

III

,1\ \('V('I

I dlld\' 111\.111 111", .1 ".1 "" sl.ll'k', sill h .1' IIn·. ('.lbb.IW·, .llld 1('.1 Th l'

\ """ 1111 ,11 ,111111 11111'" \.I,IY I'Wlll W(' 11 1IIII y .' ',, 'S, IV(' III lI' III1' 01 tilt' ,1IlIlI1l111 1111 11""".1 \dH'1l (1 1111[1.11,·.1 III d ,III 1.11'(' MI '.1l 11 ",' 11 IS.I " cll r ,1( Y ill /\kh,[

all.! III

"1\ I J" \11 dd11l/, ., I\(II'IIIVIlk'd 1'('01'1., wllh ,11101'1'11I111I11I Y 10 g ,lIl1hll' .111l11O oplUIII

rIll ""1 I d,oy • 1111'" Ih,III :'~ 1" '''1'1<- ,lIlt·lIdl·\1. ,Ihhollg h 1I1.IIlY dId

(I

nlll

p nil Iplle fl/l 1111 11111 .1111,1111111 fI ",Iglldll ,1111 10 '1111<' Ih .1l 1' 1.1,' " hOIll IIlltl'l vII

rn, ID

In

III

11.11I1I1,,'II' J Ill" 11](

I

WI 1(' II' P"'\I' III .III V" S 01 ((' 1.11 1'.1 Itll",'g ('s hv

,by ~III g'. lld 1\ W I 1I111 "H I,1It1 III 111.11111 .1111 rOlll ,l( I wlllt 11t1'11l ch Akha J)' rill dly I Ill' ,lit I V" ,II 11111(" dllllllg Ih(' 11 hl(' llIlIl', hi'

IYlorl!1 I

1\

Ih

dl

(L' ,,1111111111

1 I IMt., '1111 IlIlsl ,11 ,, 1 1ll.ld" ,I I'ohll "I

m, lIy h Itk' d I IIJI . 1t",,1 dl1l1ll1 11 .11'" Th",,' 111111 IlIlIk dllWll

"6

h fotUl

'\"''''''''

.. 1 ..1.1 "t t

,,\l\lkn

It,,,1 h.r I I

\,,'1

Mlrlrm"

J. CI/I rkr

har

f,lI111!JCS

who are active ly engaged in

~ I has delernll ne d r < ICtlVll Y t..fy rcseafL' ~ . ,ate an\ounr of these vessels. and that .' . a dlsproporno • ongomg fC.1 S [l11g vld.l own b d osi' led 111 [he mjddens surroundmg their . f I v<.s
lh (" f't" l11ams 0

I 1 se

house d ' o~dariry- re inforcing event on many levels. . Cc I ~erve 3S a S The woddUlg eas , niry support group, all of the elder males r the grearer com mu . . Firsdy. III rcr01S 0 . cl e village were ID attendance, With the excl VrlOOUS lmeages In 1 "prescnong le ' d ChristianilY and thus had opted Out of the h had converte co ceptlon of Ihose wo . ' Their absence was very evident, and made a . I 11 ooperaDve unit. . . tradmona VI age c . .' At the lineage level. It IS worth noting that _ lent of dlsassOCl30on . . very clear sraten d prominent roles as orgamzers, workers, and h cl embers assume Late e an m '1 dcling and t1us was a very symbolic act of friend_ Ul tlus Labu f.nu y w e , .' . . servers . tu h ' a reflection of the sOCIopolitical alliance that the ship and cooperaoon , W c IS tWO clans have formed lfl Mae Salep. . . 'd I I I this particular feast served to mtegrate the young On an LfldJ\1l ua eve , , . h ehold inco the greater lineage support group, and it also groom and hlS new ous ..r tuch his father the host, could advertise his family's sucserved as a plauorm on w '. . . sition as the village Ricual Reater. For mstance, at one hi cess and revaLd ate s po he young groom walked among the assembled guests and t dcling POUl[ m cb ewe . shared a small dnnk of whiskey with the men present. These men then made a small cash donation to the household. This is considered 'begging for bleSSing," and rhe money is to help defray rhe cost of the feast and to help the young couple

30 25 20

10

5

o 8"

I have alluded re a number of archaeological correlares of feasting activlry in the

18

4'

55

50 >- 45

g 40

u- 25

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INDICATORS OF FEASTING ACTIVITY

16'

65 60

grearer lineage and, as such, the people are expressing their cooperative ethos acknowledging his indebtedness to his lineage.

14'

70

ser up a household. However, it is also a symbolic act of inclusion within the IS

12'

Size 01 Woks

~ 35 er

wluJe rhe young groom

10"

~

30 20 15 10

5

o

precedmg sections, bur I would now like ro discuss them in a more sysrematlc

6"

8'

10'

12'

I •

16

11

fasluon Although the followmg observatIons were made in a culrurally speCIfic 01 PoeI

context, and no ethnoarchaeologlcal generalization can be considered a cross·

cuI rural archaeologICal rruism, the relationships that I present have been structured In a manner rhat is largely based on the marerial requiSites for feedtng large groups of people sunultaneously usmg traditional technology. These relanonslups are nor intended to be a checkhsr of eVIdence for archaeologIsts to consul! when rhry find sunilar data at their sites, but rather, it is hoped they WIll provide IIISllllns tlul

will help archaeologists explatn hitherto unexplained phenomena,

u weU as being cOlllplelllt'ntary to other data that IS used in 3tchaeolllgllal an~ly­ ~ of ftutmg The ay t • tmauc occurrence of large sral!" feastlllK 15 eVldt'nl to the mulumodal IIU dill 'b ( n uUtm U CIluktog v(,15rl. tn lall(" ~u"ll1blagl" such ~ Ihotc of enUre IPlg '5)

'"

"I~ure ~ 1\

Hlstogr ms h Akh. Vlll.gc SIU ,I balh "ornullooJ plT!,"ror\"1\

rrep"' """

" "r

ul

/IIu ",'1'11 Cllll :::kr_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

-

-

COOKIN G VESSE LS .1 r • wcddllw ", .1 I1(.' ,1 J )' 110ll' U ,1n r "

rhe size ,lnd number of cooki ng . vessels Ca n , •l "il - lng .IC(lVllY· Ve ssels g reater than a ccnam SIze are r c. b t' lISC,' l j ,1:> .1 ,n(' J ~ ure ,. .llIy un!)' pr.1(11(';.11 10 us,", when ont' IS cookll1g fo r IJrge l1 u m .b ers of people and Funhcrmorc.' cla dy mea ls. generall y I.lIgt" \ 'f') ItJ mC'S O ( lood mu". be produced . (l',H IS.

re

(] (: urtS I "i 1 O .

01 1\ 0 ro (hree dIshes (cxd udmg nee) tho ugh illS no, un • conslsl o r five 10 (en cl ilTcrcnl dis hes. In o rcler to be able t0

01 ,·'-""U .,

" rc ' .S(S 10 Co common 11 r 11 • • prep., re surh ., wIde va l"lelY o ( dishes .H the same (illle. sever al ~oo king vessels .,," IIccessary 10' CoIeh dJsh. The ave rage Akha househo ld cons'sts o f approxi. m.Hely lell people . •1Ild " r.,m ily will usually provide (or its daily cOoking needs \\~ Ih one or (WO ,,"11 11 woks. three o r (o ur sm all po tS and one large pot appro.i. m,HeI), 50 cm in d'Jmerer 10 cook pig food in . In all cases. h ouse ho lds that ex. ceedeu this norm III rhe cooking vessel asse mblage dJd so beca use they Owned. Or bl,rrowed. vessels (or feastmg purposes.

SERVING VESSELS The relan ve number of serving vessels per household (or other corporate g roup) '11") be mrucarive o ( feasting . .It would seem obvious that everyone would have a (unctlOn,11 IllllllmUm of Ih ese Items. bur families with excessIve numbers must u,e them for olher purposes. In tradittonal Akba villages. no families acted as merchants for such vessels. In some societies, special elaborate serving vessels have .1 speofic feasrmg funCtIon . however. thts is nor the case for the Akha . The only thmg rhat IS mrucative of feasting for the Akba, in terms of serving vessels. is their number

A.kH" fE,o\S,T "'G

-------------:::.:.:~~~--

_.._---_.-

ore common however. IS the
have as m -

\,

COOKING FI RES nve SIZe and number of hearths IS also .. !:UOd I I The re a _ In< '''3 r . Tlus may prove dJfficuJt to recOgruze arch.col calh- F try: .. .. .. 'pate In traclitional feasting often ha"" ur!e k,tch ".L rna pa ~~ ~ nd brazlers. It lS frequently necessary to. pan.! th s nng a . • lltt:lI tho t a feast . .I n the case of the Akba. very ttarubona! home, \\ ltb. th d! , and fem ale halves. have dc;crete ash dump, r. r .~ch L _ ..... I rna,e Ill.":61.Ulmtht ThiS is because wom en and men mamtam theu own ea woman have a separate entrance to the house E3Ch _0. Ju 1" .uh thelf tespeenve entrances. mclicanng the two ma or ( • In;:: ~ , TEMPORARY KITCHENS The constructton o f te mpo rary kltchen~ ma,

. ~

ble These would only be needed for 'e~ b.rg sometimes necessary if the exisnng kitchen I not

because most of the Implement: ne J,,\ f, t "

scls arc reqUIred NOt only are more vessels reqUlred because of the greater num.

or swept through the 'p~,

berof guests. but also because of the larger variery of food and dnnk available

aw,l)'. downslopt'. fWIll th ... h.,,!!, UtI

bowls and plates. 1- 10 drinking

No one ever owns me hundreds of vessels needed for the very large feasts . In stead. they borrow what holds rhal engage

III

IS

needed fi-om their relarives . However. rhose house.

regular small -

to

medIum-scale feasting always own an

adequate number of servlJlg vessels for these events, and thIS is always greater than me VIllage average .

Ihat seem

III

V~ry often dfter a feasl , the host will saVe the Jaw or horns of d large sacnficed an Im al (or dISplay It mU't b b d h . . . • e remem ere t at meal IS not a dally component of th~ diet. and Ih~ offenng' )fan expensIve · I < . . amma lor sacnfi"e IS reason enough tu g;uII prulige The dISplay of waler bufl'alo horns 15 paru(ularly preslIgious, as the crihce ,,/ 'lIle or more w' t b fr I < a er u.a 0 at a .uneral 15 a very ;auspkious l'vrnl

110

rh

JmOUOl of , ~st.· prlldu.:-eJ

fn m

corn tt" ex.lmpl ... The, tvpt' (\lilt nts. ptll..iIK , a gJrbJgt'

ti .....

I

whIskey buttl flllOl lit Ih hUll

FAUNAL R

rh

11

IS n I:

IN

n'lt'

ath

Id

n

men! th effiut of ~

.IlwJys (om.lIn ·

TROPHY BONES

In

t

~t

the two. and ilio b ecause the prc parau\lru

glasses. and 4--6 nce baskets. For some of the larger feasts. hundreds of these ves.

10- 15 servtng

too

the feasting prep.u-ation In the .-\kba C3' C. and 1 ' U! por.ry or extra k.itchens arc added on to ongma!

GARBAGE FIRES Garbage tires "1th m.m\" rN,nog rem~l1\s 10 m tn Ihe Akha CJse orm 11 . small bit. f Fm

An average Akba family may own

'I' "l'Mlr

It lilT

IM

t

Nllrllll~fj

Ch"k,.

--------~~--------I a mU.\f comr letcly consumed , The people chew and swallow the Well ~cooked

bOUt'S, .1n d m OSI of rhose ~ Ihar they cannot manage lO mgest. are general/ Y eaten b h "rouS dogs and pigs thar are always at hand . This consUrnpt. )' L e nu m.... " . . IOn Pattern. 0 f course • must change when people are eatmg large . anllna ls SUch as cows or warer bu ff.los . AlLhough I have never had the opportunity to Witness a Water buffalo being butchered, I am s ure that they would not have attempted to cOI11_ pletely dice up and eat such large, thick bones. T he rem.,"s of a small cow that was ea len at a new house fea st provided sOl11e mmor mSlght inca large-mammal taphonomlC processes. l~ was only at these large feases rhat an entire aJUmal was ever eaten aJI at once and In one location . Conse_ quently, these are the only times when large portions of the skeleton of an allll11al are ever deposited all in one dumpsite. In aU other Akha cases, and I SUSpect ' In many mbal soaeoes everywhere, portions of butchered animals are distributed among friends and family members throughout the village. Consequently, the bones are depomed m different rruddens throughout the village. It JS pOSSIble that the Akha might choose to butcher and preserve (i.e., Smoke or sa lt) a large arumal. and then deposit its bones all in one dumpsite, but I have never seen thIS done (although LewJS [1969J claims that in Burma they salt and

dry large game arumaIs). The praco.cal necessity of immediate consumption aside, It also serves a greater social function to divide up tbe mear. In one instance, a family caught a gopher and rather than JUSt eating the small animal

themselves, they divided it up IntO quarters and spread them around to their relatives 111 the vlUage. Finally, faunal remains

111

human graves have sometunes been cited as evi-

dence of feasong . In the Akha case, th,S seems to hold true. According to LewJs 6 (19 9), at dUferent POll1ts in the funeral, feasting food 15 offered to the deceased, and some sacnficed arumals are hung over the coffin. They are subsequently buned WJth the body.

SUMMARY

"KH~ fEASTltrtG

--------------~--------.nonmon"), OCQMrru", It IS _...... __ that ,leas ung can play m trad.tlonal " ~ J',.kha SOCIety. feasnng functions pnmanly as a sooal moch"""lll Uut au

and . trun s a life-cnsts "suppOrt group. bnngmg ~oplo to""th .L~ rn a.," e~ .. In '-1.IXl . g events. Slrrularly. feasnng can be used as an >rtJC\ll>tlOn ""utt enhanon r'" be: . d corporate groups (in tlus case clans and Imeag~ . The fe>.> prOVld ~ alhe .L . d . r',1 allies with a venue to express u,eu- CSnd nan;:OO( .m' .

can aIso be an ave nue for people to Jockey for power po"oon, 1tlun thw rearer support group. g Related to feasong as a way of maIntauung a SUPPOrt group" the _\kh.t u . g as a form of wealth and success advermement. Promotln th of feas!ln nonu c suc cesS of the household allows families to atruer .nd bold III qualit'i to . create. and maIntaIn tradmg (Ont.er, .. labor an d spouses ' . _ .>nil to on~rod ' · I deference Wlthin thelt commurury In tact. It " COL\!,Jtm!1It dopo Iloca r officeholders (those who make .speoal etum. b'.ed On 'l'U'tual sary lor pot~ry ) to constantly revalidate thelt sooal pOSItion throu h the__b, tin f In Akha culture. econOlIDC sucee -". ten to regular r.eas ts' . _ be: b.X\I _n III . an d power (sImilar to the Idea of man. m .rhe. uth P••-.f\ RI ruaJ punry . by the ancestors and Me • "go 01 ~=J COIUIC t1\~ ings are gIven Therefore , peOp le who make claims to offi",.l pabucal paw t po 1t10n. mu n nu e be ab Ie to d e monstrate their ntual potenc. through
I beheve that feasting is a sodal phenomenon of great significance that often

I

mll reqUired on th

pOSSIble

leaves recogruzable traces in the archaeological record . There is a growing body

of evJdence that suggests that promotional or competitive feasting may have been

of cemral ImpOrtance in the initial transition of early humans from simple

hunter gatherers to complex horticulturalislS (see Bender 1978; Hayden t990, 1991a. 199zb;

~swanr 1994, Llden 1995). The ethnographic record is able to lend

lnflghl Into the vanous ways In whIch feasting can play

ation and maJn~nance of SOCIal structure.

,.2

Altlll~ \'tolll G USiau. L "

Dt.le. n< of

,,,",

III Ilrgh......tm

a dynamic role In the cre-

Studying rhe Akha. a one .peciJic elampl of compl x horticultural oelery la.ring pranlU , pt
~.

REFERENCES

1'1' 1'1' ,Iur 1\111

'" n.1I·d.

KuaI Lumpar

I

I.

....It

out

IbM .,td'll W

......

.....

AI
M/l lltlrl}. Clllrkr

" rm'l ld.

J

I .••ho l .lI1d I Ill" ItI."1C 0 1 ~u l11 r ' (':\ I IU11I C! r Ca lher"' r s JO 1 ... . . I4rtlO or

Hl\ll

",dltlt(l14',~ 12 7 5 1I ~

'J

A 'It Ir rOpol

og,C41

Illllz. / n " n lllEt 1'0(.'\ for nr~ Shots' PC.ISI rn g .lnd S [ o r;'l~C In a Mr ,

r ~ql

Amrnrmr A llt U]IIIr.Y 1)8 ( 2.) : Ho· q6 .

nd Transfo rm ations 1n Mar.xul r\~!ysa.rn.d. Fncd(l'l. n.J Tnbes, sra ces . a Slo m . pp 161-202 London " blJb Prc. 1915 ".., edIted by M

on:Jlhan

.

. S l ssrr>p r3 n

C

o n"lrnUnil}

0", .

v. O. Re . S0o 14oI1 , rht' KachlttS .

Gdl.h t.'re r

11J7R

Ilunt ~r

to

Pa rm e r ~ A Socia l Pe rspective. World

1l1.lu. H I()~

E.,n:lrattgr mill Power lit SOClol Lrj't, N ew York; John Wiley. Blumberg. Ra e Lesser

SlrmificiHlon : StlCIOCCmlOm le dud S(xualltltqL4nltty. Unive rsity f C 1. o a Iforni a. San DIego Wm C Brown

PI ck rs and Planters The Emc rgcn(~ of Food Produ d piSca(ors, U e. • HOY 0 l'ilrn ro s. A hropolo';cal Archaeology 9.31 6Q 199 nalof lit o· . . 1_. .f "-'~, rion.}our I Hunter / Gatherers In A Camplc.. C....... J I ", u ,", and Compex C Bcology di d by B Hayden Vancouv~r . Uruversl<) of IInn , , 199" Co Iumu'·ut piLl"au. e te . lurn bia PresS. .. In TransioOltS to ..Ignrulrurrln Pr<"c
C"hd.m. B.

EgaJJ[an.ll"IJsm among Hunters and Gatherers, 8.2.

A '

Afflt'rlca,

Ulnropologut

1

JI 0- J 2.0 .

1995 a

Clarke. M,cnael J Feasting among the Akha An Bdmoarchaeologlcal Case Srudy M A h . - · (eSls

Deparonent of Ardlaeology. Simon Fraser UniversIty. Burnaby. B.C Cooper. Roben

Reso"rer Scamty

."d th., HIIIOlIg

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1995b

Respo".! •. Smgapore. Singapore Uruverslty

Press Crabtrl'e. Pam '990

Mtthod alld Theory. vol 2, eruted by M Schiffer. pp. 155-160. Tucson Uruver.

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of Anzona Press .

The Dynarrtics of Wealth and Poverty

Dnven by Dnnk The Role of Drinking m the Poutical Economy and Ihe 352-406

Janse,Olov

1944

The Peoples of Frrnch '"dodIIlW. Srudies Number Nin~teen, Washmgt n

Standard Uses of Food: Introduction . In Food and the SOCIal O,der. edited by M Douglas, pp. (-39 New York: Columbia University Press.

Kammerer, Comeua 1986

Earle. T

Gateway to the Akha World.

Kinship. R!IlI,I. an.!

landers of Thouland Ph.D.

Haw C"lifs Comt to Power: Tht Poltncal Economy of PrehLllory. Stanford: Stan'

ford Uruversity Press. Falvey, LInduy RumInants m

my of ChIcago, CIu, go. Keswani. Pnscilla Schu ter '994

rhe Highlands of Northern Thailand. Thai· Australian HIgh·

Chiang Mal

The oeia!

of A",hro",,'''ll''''' Ktm. Seung Og

Fiddel, NICk

'0\14 Mta/: A Nat.ral Symbol . New York Roudedge .

164

onte t

Ilrhnographl IlUIgh

land Agronomy ProJect, Tribal Research Institute, Chiang Mai Uruversity.

199'

Itpon I the-

search Counctl of Thailand.

Douglas. M

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In

Hayden, Bnan, and Ralana Maneeprasert 1996 Fea.!I1ng among the .~kha In Tho1llanJ

Case of Early Iron Age France. jOUrt1Jl/ of Anthrop%gtcal Archaeology 9:

1997

New York: Plenum. pp. 15- 5o rview of Domesocaoon . In iA.sr H"nl<'T>-FI"" rot"""'. ed! d , A New ve. Santa F<.- :ch I,' m n'an R 19 price and A. Gebaue.r. pp. 273- 9 T. O . search Press. _. hi . . P lustoric and Traruoonal oC!eo~. In F. :od " .... r .14t14.' Feasong '" re . I nary PerspeCllVe edited b,· P W,e sner and \\ lh\l An InterdLlClp I ' . ··~ord· Berghahn Books pp. 117-148 . O lU'

the Srudy of Trade, Social Starus. and Ethrucity. to Advances," Archae%gtcal

D.elier. r.,·lJchael

1984

FoUt1datlO~\S DJ

the TraIl! g~IANn. t>rne f .unonFT rtru Southeast Asia Unpublished paper, Dept "f

Zooarchaeology and Complex SOCJeties: Some Uses of Faunal AnalysIS for

SHY

1990

PresS . P ' 'ples for Creanng Soooeconoml, In< u.lhn , In ch ys to power. nna Pa wa . .r SOCUll Inequality, eruted by T Douglas PrIce and Can F<.-mnun 8

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19/1.j

~\.m~n ~

.a n den, Bn

IO:l04- U:1

1998

ew York._

510 .0 PresS.

Be nd er, R

J080

rh,,'

. C"~..t.oms and Trad\tlon.s

Ruriala. tll

r nd U\

n oon

M.dwrlJ Clmk t'

T 107:1

FC'II.W"g tlFhl Soonl O$t.,lltln'cHI : A \Mo,k,"g Papn on RdlgJon tlFld SOCi(ly.PI UPla~d S(wrl'C'MI A,rw Southc
Depl of ASian Srudle5:

Lc;.\ch , Edmund Icl5 h

POhllitl1 Sy.H('"t5 of J-Itglr/(mr/ Burma . Bosron: Beacon Press.

Lcfc,'re, E' loqs

TrtJ\'cls

III

LAos: Tilt Fmr of ril e 'Slp SOllg Patla' and 'M IlO'lg Sing' ( t894- J896) .

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Paul

1970

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1991

EtllPl ograplllc No/cs Oil 1/, (, AkJIILS of Bur",a : Vols. 1-2. Human Relation s Area Ptles, New Haven, Connecticut. Erllllograplllc Notes 011 ,Jtt' Akhas of Burma: Vol s. 3-4 · Human Relation s Area Piles, New Haven, Connec(Jcur. Tho, Hill Tnbes Pllfa.st Book: Londy Platll.: r Language Sunrival Kit. ViCtoria. Aus-

rralia Lonely Planet Pubhc'Dons. BasIc Themes In Akha Culrure. In TIlt Hlgllln"d Hmtage: ColI.cud Essays Uplnnd Norlh TIIQlland. eruted by Anchony Walker Singapore' Double.Six

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Press.

LewlS, Paul, and Blame LeWls 1984 PloplesoJ lht Gold"" Tnallglc. London : Thames and Hudson . lIden, KersWl 1995 Megaliths, Agriculrure, and Social Complexiry; A Dier Srudy of Two Swedish Megahrh Populanons.Joumal oJ Allrllropologtcal Archaeology 14;404- 417. Maneepraserr, Ralan. 1988 Ban Mae Salaep Akha. Cluang Mal. Report on file ar che Tribal Research In. srirute. Cluang Mal Marshall, F. Food Shanng and che Faunal Record In Frolft Bo"" 10 Behaviour: Elhlloarchae. aloglcal a"d Expenmlrllal Contnbu,"oots to Iht 111"''1'rerallO'' oJ Faunal Rcm",,,,. eruted by J Hudson, pp. 218- 246 Carbondale Southern illinoIS Unlverslry McGuwere. R. and R. Paynrer 1993

1991 The Arclto.(Ology oJ 1"eqUilhly OxJord Blackwell. Schrock. John Elhnographlc Sludy Srnes: Mlllonly Groups in TIto.,lalld Washington, DC. Cui rurallnformauon Analysis Cenrer. Center for Research m Social Systems. Schuben. Bernd [970

1986

ProposalJ Jor Parmlng Systems-Orilrlled Crop Rescnrch oJ WoW! Hlgilla"d Agn.-ul lural Ruearch Slallo" In Northern Tlto.lland Center for Advanced Trammg In Agncultural Development TechnIcal Umverslry of Serbn, Rcrhn .

Srnnh. M I! 1987

tftJuS<'h"ld 1'05>. SlIms and Wraith m Agranan States Impl".tlOns lor Ar ch"r"lc,K}' journJJl of Anlh,opolagl(al Archaeology 6 (4):'\17 liS

166

-

---

POLYNESIAN FEASTING" (OMP""

surp

lus

ISOh 0' l"au, ~OC,t~

ill. n {both martial and ldeo\ogJcal)-were frUitS

o f productio n

extracted

nOm .\...

"

~-.­

-

P<'l'U4c.c: ....

... , 'UCipc:r (oerCl O PUt to won. fu • .' I aspu'a ttOns. To . Invoke th~ MarxlSt COncept10n of a SOO~ nh'nt:i& Uu C3 ccupies strategIc terram at the. unenoce L. _ \ feast O u<:twe"" mtn.uu act of f
D ..La. renn.1.nng f~," cc aru' c soocties. advances several criteria UlllI O dorn estic eating. First, feasrs are qlUlrtt' tallvdy dunnguub.,d h) la",,, ' from . . .~ a "ngle .h~ nunme of par riopanrs, incorporanng consume.rs from mare Ulan eCond ' feastS involve "larger . amounrs of food per lDfended e"tt.a_ha ....., ....d lint! S '~porrant qualItat,ve differences, such as the md f "~u., th're a re u,' . . USl0n 0 dtuQQCS rked foods m feasts. In PolyneSlan societies. these <no> Cl _. f or nnan, . rn · r - .. ood, mdurl. £or

-

a

.rnple, pork.. dog, or fo.~I , pnzed speoes of fish (such as pel~g1c t , -"cle "fancy puddings (usually tDcorpotanng an n.... • mt Suehgam·h, " In SOme PoI)rneSWl ~OOc.u~s. ~ . human n0 o r "w~U·aged fermented breadfruit t . as also a component of feasts. Fourth. there are sp.oal \.lWtrtn1".~~ •. a . 1n the: ... W d places in. which feast foods were consumed • funhc r ...ut .,a rc:nlU~ thttn . an from domesnc eacmg tn many PolyneS1an ,aa.nes there: 'P.na!h fint.d feascmg places, although these vary m the = t to ",ru,h th'1 w~rc:'t\: icaUy mark.ed by permanent scructure FmaU) the di. " lXl1"bt ~ trearment, for such nruaUy charged garb.gt' could ~ .h.n>; rou., t

~molli

:0-

"""re

-

came IntO contact With It One of the great strengths of the PoI),n e>l.n ethnognplu.

What could be more mually evocative of a "classic" Polynesian scene than a

fea"l ln the pubbc mlOd. the Hawauan I. 'all has indeed become a potent symbol of Pol)'neS1an~ne s Yet the (ntlcal role of the feast in Polynesian sOClenes is cthnographlCally and ethnohtStOncally venfiable (Bell 1931 ), noe merely a lace capnahst IO,-.ntlon of the mulnnauonal tOurise industry. Juse as che lase HawaIian lung. K.tlakaua. used the I. 'ao as a pohrical seage to entertain such meernational figures as Robtn LoutS Stevenson, so tus chiefly (and priestly) predecessors ritu· ally IOcorporated the fi~t European explorer to the archipelago, Capeam James Cook. 10 • symooUc act of fwlmg upon the eemple platform of Htk.,au (see Sahlms t995). For genmnons bt:fore Cook burst through the boundaries of K.tl!W. HawatWl tluefs had ea I bome d the fease as a social nexus wherem the

161

opporrurunes for controlled comp.lmon among fa terized as cltltfdom.l , yet displaymg a remarklbl ~ tuerarchy or stranficanun. m S1Z~ of r<' pubn.w artd the levels of producnon mtenslfi':.l(1<)" ...nd muut ' anve studies of Marsh.lI S.hlm · (t.:xs) nd I opporrumnes to denve from th Po lytlt,\
Polynesl~n S(I(telles. ca(h rert'(' ~l\lan so(topllhu(al dol: '11l U 'n hi t; I scale "Tra.\monal P"lyoc l.m. hI t\!.lI' r doge "Op n 0,1 11 tI.'" n I tlUIJt\ J

(hI fd,,", so '''"'pi

n.1 Ir tlh

r

11

\11

11\

-

-

TABLE 6 . '

.. Key Conrras(s between Tikopia. Marquesas. and HawaIIan Case Stud ies

Open

c.;tJltJmol ll " \·I.. \~ "J,tlltl MU ,km) lU1.l1 poru l.ll,on

1,057

u ••lOficol non

1,500-.3,000

l ,l50

levels, ma rkmg)

M lnlm !!1 (2

01

hnle

SIUU)

16.692

SO,OOO

I.lS0

Pvrul.lllo/1 t~( mUlm~1 pull lll ':u unH D(~n=c

Slrol ll fi~d

Inl erm e djate

-

TABLE 6 .2 . 'p al Kind s o f Feast s In Ti kopia Prl n C1 •

Indigenous '!A'DUot)'

.....1t.Jt;Ory :and ,,+

.n,w;,tifU

•

{domestiC feaStS SeCU I\1.

, lrutl,),tlon of young men I

_I/ chlefly feasts po I10, ;u

Ge.DC.ru term: Q"ga

Joo.ooo . . 30.000...' 0.000 High (cl.t5s endogam y bc'" 'ween

c hiefs a nd com

z. Munagc

I Mon ",a, fust o f n~ly dl!Cttd chlCf 2._ Pul\gallFnu (anga jiJ m ,..l- - - r~_ . ....~~r ~ of duer

fe.ut. u dutf ~ " Ft.t lt4f lllliiHa (IUI.,gtl JtmI) (Cut \:at du' . r:tn et ' 5. Fa'uurtlltwa. fuul fe ast of dud'

mo ncrs)

\ ReCl ~o.ng .mcestral tetnpks l.. Dance. to Quell the: \VmJ ,T04~",gw J Proclamilbon at RMokok.a

oUfIcai

complexHy. I do
TlKOPIA: FEASTING AND KINSHIP Altho ugh Tikopia qualifies as a "cluefdom " SOciety, it is governed mOre by cultur. alJy Illgramed concepts of kln.sillp than by the political pronouncements of its fourankl , Or heredltary chiefs (Firth 1936). "We, the Tikopia, " Matou Nga TikopJa . an tncLgenous slogan encapsulating this notion of a closely Icrut commuOlty in CO

everyone else through consangumeal or affinal ties.

The role of food m Tikopia was summed up Sir Raymond Firth

III

these words:

"Food serves as a most Important material marufestaoon of social relaoonsrup,

"'CS

Dom estic feasts typIcally celebrate key stages dt 1"'''. -Ill the hIt I. of members of ho useh olds. Importam feasts of t1u, kmd "..., th _ of Il( milt irutiates at th e urne o f a rcumasion . and tIl olffiage f...cs In both • . mo..., than a single ho useho ld uni t is mvolved, and the .,'chlnge 0\ fooJ holds is a key social fun ctio n of these e~n'" Maj o r auga feasts are also gIVe n b, c1uefs at p.roruJ.r I 'UI UI m.1l .", Of these cluefly fe asts. Flrth wntes that From the pomt of \'1ew of the- duet" the .J"-~"a muls ,} ~ m. me: reign It gwes an opporrunl tv to dlspbv h.UI fc.oJ re_ W(cs J secures for hlIT\ ceremoru,l1 e~ptt'ss1I..'r\$ of thln 'I. hum his alry from hIS cl.nspeople.• nJ ,n rh I.t« ' . ". gods a.nd thereby C:11 ure. then c!,.,nllnuc:J mf re l him. w

and through it k.inslup ties, political loyalty, indemruty for wrong, and the canons

There are. m theo ry. a progre'Mo n 01 ·u.h ~'I!

of hospltahty are expressed" (1939'38).

begmOlng w,th the It m,," ~~~ fi

The cover term for "feast" m Tikopia IS anga, mearung either the feast itself. or

reer fcas(s of

th

a,! held> n Ut r .1t....\f.J 'ft.'

rype known

;lS

the "speaJic assemblage of food for [a] stage in ceremony" (Firth 1985:11); how·

grated taro (Nn') mvoh .\,

tIl

~er. there are many specIfic mdlgenous leXical categories of feast, not all of wluch are called anga (Table 6.2).3 Functionally. we may subdivide Tikopia feam

when the chIef deternunr s that rh end. h hW

IOtO three malO groups: (. ) domesoc or secular feasts; (2) chiefly feasts; and 0) ril '

the COUIW l)l Ih mua\ \ ~r Futh \

tu.! fusu. The latter are associated with particular religious ceremonies that male up the annual cycle known as the "Work of the Gods" (Firth 1967).

the " [).ulCe h' Qu 11 th

170

~

Associated with ~ kty CottrpoMn~ of the: "\\ur\. of the ("-od="" cycl t, e.g.: ~

ch:uc .s rare -" I explore me ex renr re whi ch variation in traditiona l feasting Witlu titese three Polyneslan societies ctisplays regularities or signal dis tlncn Ons_n \\11th respect ro dJfferences m scale, stratification, or o rh er mdices of sociop ,

wluch everyone is bound

l 14"111 W", the.... ...,,' "m" l4l'4lbaftth &>UtcStn got re CW\llo(~ Ir ....

J, A roaronm.a (anga lOm),

•

IS

le

Q

th

f.

dlOWlIo4,

Feasts marked \1rtU~Il~ all "I th

( lIrd"g~ li) llf Ih

~

IIlJ

k long Tin\ 1

tt,

, \he

-

-

",p.l red. Jnd consumed in th ese va ri o us k" . d, J,ccumu l.nc.· d . p t:.... Il'l ds of '11 t h t' loo . " . ) dJStl nglllsh differe nces Jl o m ordin ary cl rhe Tlkopt3. 'vc:: l..1 1 ,. .' OTlle:Stlc ,,,,,:(1 .1nlOng I :1I11 dJsnn coon IS quan oraa ve ra th er than q " Ihhoug b [ l e m . UalH a COllsumpDo n. . d o [ keep dogs o r pIgs fo r food . th e re IS no pa· the T tkopJ.l 0 n ~ rtlcttlar e IJve BecJ US ' 1 I r. ads fo r t heir feast s. Ra che.r, feas ts a re charact . specHl1 I cs ' 10 . " eOZed e",ph,1S1S on r . I kinds of "fancy puddings. concoctions of aran o n 0 specln Starch b) the prep . Irenr usuaUy coconut cream or coconut oil .' 0 lxed w1d, all erno I , .. . ne sUch

s[Jplc m udding made from taro, breadfrUit or ripe b food IS the 1'0 1. a P anana (eas 01lg n d coconut cream , then cooked overnight" in the mu.ed \\'l m sago our an " . earth . ) ThiS 1'01 is a key component lfl many Tikopla rites Su h oven (Fu-th 1985.4°3 . 7 th ' c as . f R rokoka (Firth 19 6 70 280 ). In e annual Work of S the Proclamaco n 0 a . Olno_ IJ of the men who have marned women from a particuJ somo, for examp Ie, a . ' . ar us yea! made a gift of rOI to the clan chief. In quanti'" clan durmg th e preVlo . 'J' such diglOus as much as 40 baskets from a slflgle man requi ' tfu coul d be p r o , " . ' nng begun months in advance (FlI'th I9 67:393) . Archaeologlcall g "preparacoes . . . . . Y, these special foods are likely to be preserved, WIth little pr b f however, none 0 . . 0 a'vely distinctive signature for feasung m the Tikopia arch biliry f a qu illta C aeo-

°

. . . . logical record. Tbe architectonk context of Tikop,a feasung vanes depending upon the type of feast. Secular feasts such as those for initiation and marriages take place WIthin

POLYNESIAN FEAStiNG A COMPA,R

l';O!'ol OJ 'HIlU

-

v--

~'llU

-

'" other, rela ted po!ynesiao groups>, pouncally the fro ber of IIldependent mba! ururs. each ""'lColI "Ut ~ """. oum d -,r Y'''='N., ",dng several a Jaceot valleys (Hand)' 19 Tb n. most u . 23. o~ I were frequently at war Wlth each other Wlth m Thc.t llfU[S '. • acu 0 UI"Jo ......_ raiding to obtam sacnfiaal VlctunS to ._-......, lirrll(e d . _. m ott b:tc.~ 1 cOon of an enemy s producove resources r d destrU • t o OUtrl, t est (Thomas 1990:87 pasmn). ~ ., conqU . proto-hlsto~C Marquesan sooery falls mto • group ~on I esian soaenes as those of Mang:ua .md Rap~ III _ ~th Il
r...:'

-

sucb a lughly competitive sooety. 11 IS not - urpn the Marquesan ko'nUl me fe.1St-a.; a kmd

tlut

mm

t

the normal domestic quarters. Indeed, all food preparation for both domestic feasts and chiefly feasts urilized the same cookhouse facilities as fcr ordinary bousehold food preparation . RJtual feasting, however, was spatially aSSOciated

,,~th the lineage and clan temples, located in me sacred district of Uta, along the

bad no wealth thJt <mud be a.:,-umulol gaoons ~e} were owed b\' the J.i>ml-
marketplace All the t"oJ, .ul the nwnm non aD song were expcndecllO ~ . hc)rt onl~ ,

mner shore of the lake. In most respects, mese temples (which also had assOCI-

"holy houses" through generations of use and mrough the burial of ancestors

The M~rques~n co er term for deSIgnated by .In .Idle((I\ OIl" m for the dead" (Tdbk (0 1 In ddlll

wlrIun them (see Kirch 1996, ;/,000). Whether such ritual spaces could be sepa-

fedst," and hr<1t1<1, t\.lr

rately dJscinguished from domestic spaces in me archaeological record-WIthout possibilJ[Y that a prelusronc record of feasting ID Tikopia may well be refractory

slgtutkant kmd f Tlkupla, thel'l" \\.1 ID tt; JIt1 n.ll WJ'Slry of feast:, .. ' { uthn III

to archaeological analysis

qUl"san ""-I

ared sacred cookhouses) were like ordinary domestic dwellings, and mdeed, rus· tOncally they were the former dwellings of ancestors, wluch had become sacred,

the aid of the ethnograpluc evidence

IS a serious question, again ralSlIlg the

twO

t\

0I1t I Eu

IIlwmpl tcl" knll

THE MARQUESAS: FEASTING AND COMPETITIVE INVOLUTION In marltd contrOlst t() -r Ikopl~, thl' Marqut".sas Islands and tht'lf populatlun never clJmpnK'd a JlIlgk, IIlI graltd wmmulllty hnlu-d by bOlld of klllShlP, or even by poIJlj(~lIy Induced integratIOn Although tht, M f4ue~illl haR'd - Onl mllllllltlguilgr and many of I uhult' (all (If wit .. h marked Ih "'. dUlln I

172

;lnmb.thsn

gr aphh ,) fOil

mm

,!nn

n"1\

tru, t ...d , nl

Ma"!u

I

Ihl' m,)n lh

1\.1 I

U

I.S

l\

rm W

a

-

TASLE 6.3.

Prlncrpd l ~'ndS 0

(FeaSI>

-

h ~

/',rll h" \ ' I\..i"

~--

-

--::-==:==~~::=_-------.

ImhJo!(.'ntlu~ ( I ,c'tical) ;1{cgory .l"d ubtypes

...

I Bt'lro{hul (C.ULS (Jro" "j' Will)

M.lrri~lg(' fe.lslS ( lro 'uttJ Iltmollo) J T.trlOomg feo1~tS ("'(I'wn rI/Ill hit!)

l_

I l

ompc=nnve en l/~r1all1menl feast (ko'inn Itakaillti)

Mell10rial feastS (or deCc.3sed chiefs (rnllu)

J MCnlon~11 (easL.. for deified priests (ko'llen okt:, /(o 'ika •

)

'J

va TIOPII , a~d

ko'rlell (j 111"111 4 Harv~S( festivals (Jco ',rlO tapnvau)

Ko ' "Ul lu-o no \ Volf l (oIllnlbOlhs[JC

(castS

-

•

re hierarchically differentiated than that of Tikopia a d SI era bl Y mo , n ani d

.' we3 I-c " f: milies would orclinarily command the resources to carry Y u,y a OUt such < These included che households of chiefs (haka'iki) and other elites ,easts. . . ' such as pnes (tall 'a), warriors (toa), and vanouS kIDds ofexpe~,ts (cuhlllta) . ts Of greater significance were the memorial fesavals held in honor of the de. parted spirit of a man " (rarely were these celebrate~. for women), called mau, or 111 the case of festivals to d~ a deceased pnest, kD Ilea (Handy 1923:212 passim), Mall and ko'lka feasts were Impressive displays, both of presage foodstuffs such as numerous baked hogs, and of special starch and fermented breadfruit preparaoons, as well as of bodily ornamentation for elite participants and dancers Handy writes mat "the greatest of all feasts were the memorial festivals cele· brated long after the actual death of chiefs and chiefesses, inspirational priests , or ceremonial priests for the purpose of deifying their spirits" (19 23: 216). Another category of feast assoaated with chiefs and held under their aegis was the harvest festival (/to'11'Ul tapavau.), held after the completion of the breadfruit harvest and

rhe successful filling of the silos of fermented breadfruit.

-

OMP"~ISO

.. O. T".I( SOc

8

T '

------

ppar.nU \fte rirns were eaten by the duefS . warn ors andYnOt Marquesan feasting was thus dlsti . Pn.:.ts , ngtush.d W4i ri"e1y from ordJnary eaong. not only 10 th q llatlVdv .. dmgs (as in Tikopia). but In the emphas e prep't;ltl<>n of IS On p....., but also in the heana feasts. human nesh • _ ]ge tlt h f"""" PQ6. . . =else....h -...... ParDcula r .ssoclaDon With rank and SI atus and Cf< U\ Polvn~ \he riJy, if not exclUSiVely, for consumpnon b ' may h",~ ~ n 1't1-. il'tcl,. PlC . . y male~ . Turrung to the acchitectoruc Or Spanal ~ ... . rikin ' B ' Context of r. Tikopi. IS st g. egmrung On archaeoIogtcal e""no ,L_ - .... "'" cOIItraa si on period (ca. A.D. 1100-1400) . the M arquesans be"'1.dtnc.-dunn.. - -, \he 11_ laces calied tohua Essentially thes gan 10 cOIlsttuct ..,... , . e ConSIsted of \ '''"". P plazas. usually a leveled terrace , surrounded bv ~, rccl~ forms included foundations for temples ( , • platfornu \JICI<poIt "'-"'" 01< ,chiefs h ...... forms for spectators who wimessed the el abe rate- daOIl ..... ~ feasring. There were also asSOciated cookh lKcs lbal c OUSe snuct\lrcs pigs and other lood preparations were earned' die l..k.... ·th· di 'd al OUI, ToIn.a --, erabIe sIZe. W1 In VI u platforms of "mq;ali!hic' _ 1'1 Tohua Vahangeku'a in Taipl Valley \ ukuhiva dixiWII'K'A"; die

..

wide, and is surrounded by a complexity of 174 III ~ (Fig. 6.[; see also Suggs 1961:162-163) . Toll114anaIUry RiIlCIIGa . . 'lien: often t'bit mented with rellef or freestanding scu1pturt of • lAme..., some cases commemorating individuals who bad feasts (Linton 1925:85). An exemplar of Goldman's "opensan pattern of feasting displays important Tikopia. Despite similarities in C8tegoiKS of feasts), there are critical with role in the overall emphasis on aDd memorative, deificanon, and

ImJe if any qualitanw distincnon san feasts emphaSized the provisaon

Finally. there were feasts held at the successful conclusion of a war against an

the case of htana ~asts to

enemy tribe, "celebratmg the capture of human victims" (Handy 192):118), called

architectonic spheTe, the

lto'lna MIna , or simply heana. According to Handy's all-too-brief account, these hLana were rather solemn affairs, lacking the elaborate dancing and singing that typically accompanied other feasts Rather, "the ko'intl heana consisted merely of a fealt at the dance area Itohua I, where human flesh, pig, and popoi [fermcnlCd breadfruit pastel were cons umed" (rY2j:2t9). The bodi s of sacrificial vi dmllD

dopolitical competition feast place, the roll ... ment .

174

.

[Cn

In the MarquesaS --:_ _

POlYNESIAN FEASTlNCt A C

echaIU5n1 for assunng SO1). perceIved purpose In lh la ifl corn c r T gether rqUesa s , the feast had become an Uls1rum en f I' (be rvl a eanS of 'fighnng Wlth foo.i .-\" Th .. on a [11 mOl, ;nt pellO . vem en LS. and the dilfenng qualtoes and lIS m o quan d fao, ust have, as a tot altry, provlded an mJ' OOS rn Co { ;)rt sen[gO ""er o r dependence lIqQo:Q00 of pO 0 ua

,

•

-'

•

•

.

.... t

AI'I: fEASTING AND KINGSHIP tl AW . 0 the H awallan lslands. We move fro m th (Ilrfllog t . re.1 {o I of eluefdom soae,,· mto the stunti J In • " leve ' " «" n "open It ne. 0 f H aw ;u .I I .tre.un n' Ih to-histo n e po . the pro .. (' , , t [ena . hn luston call ' or echno gt J.Fhlcalh d :umem J. s et 0 ilI'.... m do tes " ln tbese Hawauan Foltue .. the hi 11 -b , \ " rchaJc st. . , a y as rune g rades of duef , Fracn -cd ''1rru I "', . to as Olan 10 . amage to m amtam the punty 0 1 the sibliog rn d m f land and other means 01 Fro u :t} n conITOI 0 . . tem of u ufruct nghts , ub,e:t t (Ilong a sys craft sp eClah , IS as \\ ell a, \\ am,,, an a body 0 f . Uy leglon1ate d bl" .l reh'::Il'u •• ' .1 m ideologlca _ Lono (god a t d n land .l~ncllltllre th war) an d , 1 · ,L. gene ,,-lo<'le thl t pr, cblmed I fice. W IU' • C' \ gods_ Indeed , go dhke r.1gln)!, bl. le th t whe the r \\ choth. tll d' , sern an oe I \ ers of H"wa, ·, as chI f~· 11r km~ I

,

,

Jnd refer ro [he po htlC,ll . ,

-,<"' <

p

qllesno n of 10101< b .ltl' 1'1<'"" nt th n that \Vc h.1W e,aIl1ml' d I r 1\ '1'1 .~

•

•

,15 HJWJll.m "Ollt' \1 III

Figure 6 . The main ceremonial plaza of Ta ·a' oa to/II
Ont' of Ihe Ill<' I . .111 1\1 ethnogr.1phl. Jlli 'Ihn. hI, dearth III rdo .,"" I< d ((1tnll.1tl1

histone record of the long· term development of feasting behavlor mIght be pos slbl.. (',r th,. Marquesas

11," key dlfTt.>rr-nrr's 10 Tlk(Jplan and Marques,1Il prJCII(,(,s 01 k.I'lIn~ It'lkcr (u nda rn"f1tal d,ff,." nu·. 111 lit( t WI) ~CJ( i(' II('~_ 1nl he sm.lil SI.111 11ll1lnlllllll y 01 Ik r'pla ""h'·n ~ II m1tnlu-r . cII III "·'Y .111 111Ikl-d by tWIl.!' III klllSl,,!,. lilt· 1,' .1\1

116

,\

nd1tl

I

l'l)n\lllnpl h'l\ , \ 1

.1111 I .1<'1111111

I\.

Ihllll \ ,11\

't \lI~II"'n

1\1

I

r I'~

I

1

\

---('I

,

-

.

Ill " ( lil JO: \/uJ J. •

. :lddcd). In dlCtr c ndomorphlsm , [he H a'" ' h J l'nlp ,H.b • "Val1 a .u. , the Wld csprcad Po!yn csian cllltu ral log " n n1t

"I { . d (t.) .In c -xu"C lA le th at hit"" hllJ ,.1' nC' h [hln I helr subJec tS. Bu t It appears they had , J r lily be .gJ1cr ' also - llJ~ [\ ,Illl ul n .• ru· - - l I fnyform of cmt.w mpL10t1 , yet One more T11 ~ fr p.[ as " d,.HH,d 'Y C 11 J ' . ca ns (1 opted U1C , . • , . ,- t he l11sclves tra m th e co mm on fo lk. ,. Ind ddTcre n naung dJ~ungtJI.-;hlOg. . sas do m esoc feasts su c h as t h ose accomp "

or

" J nd rhe Ma. que

I I I

I

I

J

I

anYrng In T. k·op·J OlJlg comprise a major ca tegory in the fun ct" . n arri.l,f;C, or r~lf[O ' . IOn al Jll,UJflO , 111 . F r H ~waj'j, however, such do m esti c feasts are but 1Ii .lions of feasts. 0 .ttle c1asS! lc, I I d' enoUS ethnographers as Kamakau ( ' 964 :2.5- 2.6) k d even by suc 1 n .g . Par renlllr e , r . tI e mnka'ai.IdIlD, were small feasts (usually focused on th o~

Jmpor [3 n[

10 1

,

h

1

'" ) clcbl'oce the curting of a new canoe, or t e successful h ,acnlice of "p'g ro c . ar. f . red ra ro terraces (Kamakau 1976 .II9 , 36--37) , both critical ve"' f of a ser 0 Jrr lga as· d bOtll largely male-focused arenas. n ecrs of producoo an . P The chJefS, in comrast, could vU"cually be found feasnng every day of their early_runereenrh-cencury documents p ertamillg to the cltiefl I",e. From many . . y '" . I a O'ahu !<Jrch and Sahlins (1992 ) chcocucle the ceaseless d esra re tal vvaJ3 U e· n the common people of that distnct for taro, POI , pigs , fish , and O m,Ul ds pur up other foodstuffs to support the bloated chiefly estabHshmenr in Honolulu . QUalirarJvely rustincove foods, which in other Polynesian societies might be reserved for spea.1 feast occaSIons, had become the daily fare of ali'i households. While only the male chiefs ate pork (on a daily basis), the female ehiefesses developed a great fondness for puppies, and hundreds of small poi-dogs (fattened upon the srarchy raro paste) were raised 111 pens for the latter's regular enjoyment. When the chiefS and their retainers were not resident in one of their principal I t

I

e

.

•

locales (such as Waipi'o or 111 Kona on Hawaj'i, or after European contact in Lahama or Honolulu), they traveled about their domains Hterally feasnng off the produce demanded up of theIr subjects. Thus m September of 1833, the king Kauikeaoub (Kamehameha Jil) traveled WIth his substantial household to Waz. alua, descenrung as the resident mISSIonary Emerson pur it, "like a company of locusts" upon the common folk. Emerson's wife penned m her journal : "I shall be glad when It's over. Pigs, dogs, fish and fowl have been slaughtered m large num· bers, and ever so many calabashes of poi have been prepared" (both Emerson quOtts ID Klrch and Sahlins 1992:145- (46) . In me proto-hlstone HawaiIan polities, and contmuing up until the abandonment of uadioonal religIOUS practice dunng the later reign of Kamehameha I and CraSUlg completely after hIS death m (819), the other great arena for feasting wu at me great cult templcJ dedicated to Ku and Lono (see Valeri 1985). Here me

te.... wert furmaJ componenl5 of

hIghly elaborated temple rituals. presid d over

by a cadrt or prlellJ (/UllIUM) and tht' rhlets, and In whirh ( ome) mal common tn allowed ILl parlJClpatt aJ ob '" vrl ~nd :1I time ..s (onsum r of rt.ln

'7'

,,eo S [foods • bu[ from wruch women Were "~....no11Y ..elUde complex maner of gender diJIerentiatoo d I [ he . n Ul H.l\\'ilUiin '-_ ~ [ co no[e tha[ [Ius was highly SYSle.manzed ....... . cep . and \Deluded the eating of such ntually markc:d "ems as t. "'" on por ... eerum \,j...._ cain speoes of fish. and so forth ..... The quantitative scale of such feases could b " .. ch I 0 ·d ' e gnnd .ndt.d, rury HawaJlan soar aVl ..Ialo descnbe: d fo r l fnst t cen . . tion of a new [""k,n. heta. , a [emple dedIcated h to con 'Iudo: th. 4odoca

to

t

e \\~r

Ku.:

Th", rugh[ a large numb"" of hogs, as many as loo tI.., ." tm. • "'''''' n ests we.re separate d \Dto two chVlSlons. one on lbu ....: t.. U!.t p ch~ ' . " '"",, and <me on .L __ che ma"a [house), ea wV\S,on [akmg part m th.5O.... -Iklo fVlce oLU't:tltu't

The po rk was also divided mm tv.'o pornoru, 4QC of the

che pnests seated a[ one end of che hwldmg md "'" '0 the prlb st.urd omer end (kala ). Th. pneses and th." men >." tholl. h f th. >ttbr [hel! prayers, wtChout sleep. unul monung ""'aD<\ The next mornmg. ",ruch was Kupau. th.lnub .L -t'" .aDd (0iiGbued \Vi th out Ul[erllUSSlOn all day. Th at u.t,\'. 400 nr. . 'At d . \ . r-, le ~l\t can l \.UIr pers, 2 00 (ehma kallaha [ 0 rhose at one end of the l<mplr and other end The serv.ce was snll kept up dunng the en.c rh.. end 01 me templ. anJ t end of the «mple "The
"'m,,. ,_

All this

p'gs. to be exaCt . m ore , r cails the ' gre~t teast " foil O\\lng th~ gudin cloth, at whteh the numb r of 'Laughl rN Clearly, tor twO "I' th three nnbut have focuscd- funcunn and th been ,-onsldt'rahl . tun for JII ID W SOCIety No long r.. 19m fi. nt mundane , Ub,qllllOu_ .I_ ::t I th ( t.-I-lO

were: csselln.!1

ttl

,hI

,1

f,

.Ilspla dunn ' t mp! ntu te,lOllll .. 11 , '\0 It 1~S1d","l' •

nd th

s "llh Ih

IT'Ol\l o lIIjt ' lit

t.

POLY'NESIAN flASTING "CO •

of feasLJng , .1nd refuse pitS associated wllh the se strUCtures sh the n!lnaJns of remplc fcases . LikewIse, chIefly reside _ nccs oughl [0Qub id Cont'\ln oaUy marked fTom conlmoner h abita ti ons by the prese f _ e dlffercll_ nce 0 prestige fa cl _ . espcaaUy the. bones of pIgs. dogs, and cerrain kll1ds of 6-s h (such as pcla0 . Items . fish). T, here IS lI1deed suppOrt for such differential- Ica; una I asse mbl a glc game lOCI

Hawa.u.n archaeologIcal record (Weisler and Kirch 1985).

ges

In

the

CONCLUSIONS I conclude this aU·too·brief comparison of feasting in three PI ' soci . o ynes13n \.vlrn rwo general observations. The firsr concerns variation ' u ' etJes . . . . . m eastll1g beha . on relanon to key structural charactensncs of these societies At . k Vlor . . . . . mof sOund like an old-nme Malmowskian structural· functionalist the ca se can b e. 3r mgd that differences in feasting between Tikopia the Marquesas and H ... gue . . . ' • aW31 I do COt . relare closely wnh such armbutes as sooodemographic scale deg f I

. '

.

'

ree

0

stratifi.

canon and hierarchy; and extent of aggressIve competition (war). In a small. . ' were h ki ns hi p un d erwrites rhe Durkheimi scale sooety su ch as Tik-opta, . . ' an sense of commuruty, feasts are largely orgaruzed ar the unmediate suprahousehold level and are partaken of by commoners and chiefs alike . Indeed • in Tikopia chi elS < afe'

-

ThREl \0(, t1

'''Ill

thr.n ",...'- . i

NOTES 1. The revislOIDS( stance of A~ns (19-:'"Q \, wh\ch 1lr:0lt:

2

sooery and with the involutionary emphasis on overt competition . In the Marquesas, the feast became less of a medium for regular social communion than an

for FIJI, the Marquesas, M.angat., wtet 1 lanJ ,nJ Dhver observes that for Decant. ~n.ralh. r. Islands' ethnographles th.n any othor lund "I ~ so-not because of the drJ.m.l USU,lU ~""OCUt relanons t( represented and n:\t"alcJ-

lflStrument of political competition . The Hawaiian case takes us the fardleSt

3 Elsewhere. Firth \\ ntt: ... th.u the

lQ...'\..:a.1 ,

lCl UI

N

aprbn

sent ideal stages along some kind of evolurionary continuum for chiefdom sorl

.u,o to the .c.! for IlllWO In 197 1 p.rlIop,tlc,1 In thc of tb. T,kop" Th"" onc p_1rt ,.r the \\ r ~!'Iuh of the ~\.,"\'("'Il'\n hl C.h~ tliUU the turmrm' ,1\' ". th. fo..., f th~ Nll'Jn~d me't all {'If lht' k.C'\
enes. None of these is acrually ancestral to the other, and all are ernnohisroric

l1umbrr

atlve of the mling class, less an mstrument of power than a pervasive, daily re· rrunder of the immense gulf of social dtstinctions tbat separated all'i from

4

malca 'atnana It is only an illusion that TikopJa, the Marquesas, and Hawai'i appear to repre·

messy realm of [he" archaeologIcal record ." In thiS chapter, 1 have alluded bndly to

the pocenllals for an archaeology of feasting, and I have been mIxed With re·

"r

!'Cople, th

p"'pJr .lIon .. ' l~' I~I r. J .pccIJI Pt"('(Ill
endpomts preceded by m.illenma of hiStory. To trace rhe real htstory of feasting m Polynesia requires that we pull back the ethnohistoric tapestry, and enter the

s Onr C"'pUlllI hI thl$ I> th (hlrll) si t\lS \\ h.n tunl b< ke\'t 'or

J.,

nr

gard to my assessments of these posslbllmes For Tikopl3, 1 frankly thlOk [hJ[ Ihe

ou. il:smu lht"lr fl

Iltt:lihood of developmg a mbusI archaeologICal record of feasung bchavlUr ovet

,hue lout

I mt

not very good 'rJ1uJplan rea IInl( has IIIIIl' to dIstingUish It '-!uJhlJlIvdy

from ord nary eating. "0' ther any Ira ttng 'J(( ur lnot..-d.

lahlll allon of Ihe.- archllcClOOl( (onlcxts hhough I ' 1"-111 tWO

110

I()II~ fi

Id sNSon. e

dut

Western constrUction of the indtgenous Oth~t dO<'s. not or archaeologICal records for ,""nous Paafic Is.ut'!' ethnograptuc or a.rchaeologic.u , Or both-for th.

Marquesas, some differences emerge, correlating with the larger scale of Mar.

from the Durkheimian mode, in which the feast was co-opted as a virtual prerog·

S

'ng lO T lkopian sites (Kirch and y ..... ca .... an _ '-u 19 2 '. 1 . S of anythIng specr6caUy Idennfiabl cannot.., tIu I rrt a III e as il fe.~l. For the Marquesas and HaWlU·i. and othu '" rypes,'" the posSIbilities for an archaeOlogy of r ""lyn<SQn ects both the emphasIS On qualitativcl ~".">Stlng "'US 0{ b, the Marquesas, or chiefly resIdences and t g pla~s ...-be .,. . empl. SItes Ut l-\ '" war I there are temanve archaeolO
expecred to give feasrs forrhe common people ar key stages in their careers. In the quesan polities, bur more particularly with the increased hierarchy of Marquesan

MPA. RI 30"t OF

~

Pi.,

1111 Ill,

nnlh r llul'

m.J

fuuJ

h I

• aN

POLYNESIAN FE~Sil~G

.. 'If the "rhe "!lcrt." d nc~'" (

depends upon ItS bemg used to provide 1 _ r I rlh \\r'lfC'!> rh3 s-I Import.Jl1l re JJo" I OU~ ceremon ies. It IS S3.Jd then to be made b (lfknn~ In dH~ moo envc deltlcs 'Each makes It for rus god '" (1967" 28) Y . IJ ·r" (or their respe II h . O. [he'Lh,cf( e t ~ cl ded more than vlf[ua y any O( e r POJynesian n , hslSlencc epe , I SOC ICty ~ l\f.lrque5"n su S eN Islands) o n arborJC\.l rure o r orchard "a d h ps rh al of the 00 "' . ' . b r enmg (,,-,(ep' per J . he breadfruir (A Tloca'P"s alnils). Smce the h ",- ' lie en1ph.1SIS on t . rea ......... llit \\'lch spea 'od [he vast yield of search IS preserved thr rs !O J short pen . " OUgh a ha rvest OCCU b' [fermentation and ensilage (see Kirch 1984 : 132_ 1 ) d of se rru -anaero K pi , .. 35 . me th 0 b) reports excavanng such an oven complex" (lQ6 r: p.--n, fig. 25 . at the Q. Suggs H Cheu VaUey, Nukuh,va . In a c. ' H1k o !.. "'U ·a tollllO Sire . J 0 imponan( in Marquesan leasnng. as Thomas po' Of urse quanory was as , lnts OU(, '0 cO , d d simply upon rerurning the eqUivalent of what had pre . . "Prescge depen e nor . Vlously oiving more and parocularly more than the receive.r been rece,ved, b ur upon b ' ' s Could

I

I

)

ear" (199°:101). . li " '~ h' C • compeong chiefdom po oes ID UJe arc Ipelago at the t' There were lour maID. , tme of enrered on the prinCipal islands of Kaua'i, O'ahu Ma European contacr, C " UI, and

I

I

nll

II

,

Handy, E S. C lQ23

a chief? See how big he is" (19 Z 9:J24), 15 Human sacnJice was also an essential aspecr of such luakilll ritual, but unlike the

1984

TIr. Evolution 0' rh< ~I , ." )'~" Ch·.bPress. ~1"'-_ C'

199'

Chlefsrup and Corn .... lllI\. re Involutron ...... _ Polynesra. In Chl.rJ 'nu ,' A0\\'t'T £;"" ..'" ~. \

1994

Marquesan Slruaoon, human flesh was nor generally consumed, other than rhe symbolic eaDng of the victim's eye (see Valen (9 85).

o

Brown. pp ''>·2-4 Dun~ cia! Pubh(~uon 2000

","'05. W

TrJditlon,11 Po"ne""" "'. .~ >.:'1 dUIo."thlU ltl

Tht Man-Ealing Myth New York: Oxford UniversIty Press.

10')2

1\otl
The Place of Food In the SOCial L,fe of Central PolyneSIa Ocroll'"

1

117

35

\,

Derung, C Ducol/ne 011 a Srlrm Land, Marqllf.lI/; ) 774 1880. Ilunululu

UOIver iry ()( HawaIi Pres>

,

I.LlllOIl,/l

I'll

fifth I<

I h n lulu

(9)6

Wt.lhr Illwpw

N~w YOlk'

Aml'near> I\o"k

C()Il1P~lIy

l'nmltt\'( I'olynr IUn !l101lOmy (",,",,1' H'Hllkd"t" IIJ Slim

19

TIv Wnr~ pI Ihr r;od In llkr'I'w NI:W Tj}gpllll ngl h /)Ir/)/II""", Aud I "d •

1'17

I

Itly fj (

I\ullt"tm

l "Ihurn IJIJlIldJ and Brachel.

1980

I

T'k~rla' PtrhUlo <"lllll

&/J F I. 193'

HrJu.u S\

m

{I

I' III h,,1' Mu

~Ial", [)

I",

114\\." ')t1\1 J. • U

Y"I k IIUIIIJlIllU' 1''''), AlII

kJ,lIld

11111

V"IY •

~I" ,I

t

I 1'1Ihlt, "u" /1. IICllllllulu

I

1

A

Ilrl y

(

1°fl

t

e tn

Lt d

...

PhllaJdrhl.1 l!rmct 11'\ of ~ K1rch. P \ .•m.! ~ 1 Sahhn,

hIS,

n.

Temples as Hel\' Huu'e,

\rr H of chI. K"ch, l' \'. anJ D ~ )en

REFERENCES 1979

pp. 11~45· Camhndge Cunb cl n Lnn Th. W.. an.iI rh< Drv. ImgiJlk !Id ChICago Uru"e",!)" of r-L. _ ....... uc~ 0 Pt~

Tikopl. - eClal P'c~ Re'''lled In of RogtT Gran, edited bv J D

IS

I

8isbap

Kirch, P. V

beireve )ustiJiably n the corpulence of Hawaiian chiefs in the early runeteenth century, see Kirch and IJ O

S.hlrns (1992.VOI. r,78-79)· 14 M one Tongan informant put it ro the ethnographer E. W. Giiford, "Can't you see he

\r..~r", ~ p

Karnakau. S M '964 Ko Po '. Kahllco , Th. Pt ,. f of''' 0 0l.I. Roan No. 51 Honolulu"losc. p '97 6 Tlu Works of tilL People or OIJ 6, Honolulu 8~11lK. p

.L-ographers Sahlms ( '995) and Valen ( 198 5) have used the term k' Hlstoncal euu, 'ng, I

rl

the

Honolulu

.

Ha~1

Th~ ,\lat1v~ CUlture 11\

J/iln' " III.~ '",,\'(J

' hu.:.1g(l SUI'.;:>' R C lohl

.. 1"'

k' Altout ell/HOW C(lok .jO r Fxnmplc . C hl c~go: Un lvers

1111 -

. lty

of

PI''C~-'

.r N k H"' J

MtHt]IIf'JIlS

/slmuls , French PolYllesla AnUir

J eologv (~ U If ( • 0po. Tile All: III f the Amcncan Museum of Narural Hls[ory. No. 49 . Ne

loglcdl Papers

\V

0

FEASTING FOR PROSP

York .

I

Thomas. N 1000

tvlanJ"c.
-

SOClCUe.s:

tJ/uy nnd po/med/ TratlSformaLion

1

tlfqll .

UI

Ea.stern PolYt1

A STUDY OF SOUTHERN

-

tslQ ,

Oxford: elarendon Press.

I

.~ . R rll al alld

KlIlgslllp alld Sac,,),a.

I

NORTHWEST COA.ST FE

)ames R. Perodie Society III Allci",,! Hawaii . Chicago: UOIvers'Iry

of ernc.go Press. , . " I r M and P V Kirch PI ' Chi Cd \,e15 e . , " f S nJemenr Space in. 0 ynesl.n e" om: Kawel. The Srrucrure 0 e , 1085 • .. 1 lands. New ZealandJo"mal of Archaeology 7:129- 158. Molok. I . Hawauan s

crgy. and reSOUN ~ood

art 01 lor Ir 011 I nit lit

nr Ih

!t\lllloltlon I'm •.1

Ih K

on

ERITY A.S T! c;

anal,"<15 because the,'~ are sufficend), slmliar culruraUy to treat as One the purpose of anah·zmg feastJJ1g behavlOr group fOr ,; . Due to the mcomple re nature en
,

Feasts and podatches can be differentiated by the naCUre of th e cLstnb . that occurred on each .occasIOn Accordtng [0 Drucker (1951:37 0, 372), feasts Utlon OCCasIOns when an mcliVJdual (the sponsor) would distribute fo o d to rlOUr Or were mvlted guests. whereas at podatches nonfood property was also cLstnb mOre ·) B . ul ' th "r Uted to vlte d guests' FIg. 7.1 . Y sop aong at lour or more mvIt e d guests 111· present, Drucker is probably more concerned Wlth d,srmgui Iun g podatch mUSt be

feasts from stmple nuclear family meals or tnformal VISIts than h e IS With defi e~ and ngld acrendance requirements. nlng

Becallie there" a

~ . of

ties \\,deh' trom ethno ~D . r< '"'-pe of feast h~ been c~ed '/ . • t' d1songwsh carefull} be~·~ n will be used as • .:omprehen' term p~tldl.:h wU! be ret~ re phers The dlsonctlon, bet\\een coocal to the ne" anollyn 1.1 tance LS whether th. diHnbu ed nut and when thl. occurred (any anthropoiD . tu Wide! . dtfferent Opml aeoe, For e amp!., that of [h<' mt~re [\ '3

the pnn pal m In n obtam _ :t 1 pre. \ cStnlt: nl~ B I~

Co-lere

urnl:" '"

011

I

r£ re

mgp t1u

.u{ re

11<1:",

esl hhshmg r I)ru

r

I

tr

ildd: th.t mulall n f

J

d \

~ I

In rf/ c.' . ...

,

C n .'-. and thal 111 addJllon to redistnbuting food and wealth multiple ,uncrlO . s were the poLlal h sponsor s Opporrunlty to secure buo·on . POt 'l 11 d larc IS n . . and v' . - I p"., ~' oge by demol1S[ratUlg hIS generOSIty (Plddocke 196 5'" hos socla ..... 5. 25 a!od at•' \ d Ro man and Rubel ( 1971:20 5. 206) argue that Potlatches We . 7,258). ' 11 . . '. re Indi y ' Id~al an d group n Ic.'. of passage thal occurred at cntlca l sooal Junctures Wh en . I10Id ers W ould rurl1 over prerogatives to successors. They assume l hat POSition p . reSt'&e and Harus were pnme mO[lvators. T h e1
own benefit. Numerous etlmo",,", h c' -p ers nor., ~ no free and wanton gIft' (Codere t. 19~69 J. ~.th the donor's own loterests (Bamen b ~u '9]8 ,;0 Kamenski 19'7·48; Mauss 196':3· Sp I~ .-_ roat 19~"- .:) this chapter IS to Identtfy the speCtfi ") On~ of the, c a" Yatl l.1l<'Ps .c_ from various types of feast gIVIng In ,,- ,,~t . . recent year" ,..._ awarded a Nobel Prize for developm . "" 8 g econoll\!c -, als participating In a system of excha '",,,,.Is 11\ . nge are a,. self-interest (Lewm '986:94 1). urn.d to iIq rot Ihetr .

ul

2.

Boa's ill that Boas acknowledges one practical benefit of SOme feasts . 0 . . illg wealth . Codere may have VIewed mcreased wealth and Control a as I11creas. . . beneficia] outcomes of warfare, and hence podatcrung. However sheS( practlca! ' .

' 1 9 6 6:118)

mamtamed that the podatch was an agent for mcreasmg social preStige and .

I

•

When mdlviduals systematically Invest StgmfiC'.lnt I illno Int, of titergy. and resources m an actlvirv. thev e ", ,~Cl to g-~ benefitS. This assumption extends the firs 'Pt -OCtlol terms sucb as status and presroge arc: too \ t a,.umptton Il\' gu~ to ~COutu fur ual's ambItious program of feast ""'Ulg • rh_ 010 b" '\.... ~ ~r"l benefits bemg sought must be Idennfi~J H -'

3· The maJonty of sUppOrt group memben I

.

~\"en I~

u..'uaIh linea

groups, or connmurutles) must at least LlOtly app activIties (Hayden 1995:2tl. Intragroup conflIct \\

not detail any specific practical benefits of this prestige in the manner that I :~ cuss in me follOWing pages.

undoubtedly dtd on OCC310nl. mhlblong the rOi:Jm There IS abundant ethnographIC e\lJen(' t1u1

I suggest mat ambitious individuals who want re maintain and increase their econorruc and political conrrol. control over labor. and wealth, need to achieve several speci1ic goals. In order to control labor, labor must somehow be attracted

a high degree of group COoperation amongmnn (e_g.. Barnen [90 :123. Boa. 19211341.

and held. Increasing econorruc and political conrrol requires a multitude of al.

seems unltkely that Jny InJI\!du~1 (ould

bances WIth other groups in order to mcrease access to resources, secunry, and

If faced \\,m ,I conccrted lt'''n

other supporr. AmbItious individuals need a conslstendy aV3Jlable mechamsm for mcrea mg meir wealm and political power.

All of these goals can be accomphshcd

with feastmg to create aJJiances, to mdebr others. to escalate the producnon of

surpJu~es,

and to dispropOrtionately concentrate control of debts. alliances, and

surpluses In [he hanm of the organIzers of feasts- In the hands of aggrandtzers.

Most of the rcmalnIng paper is dedi cared !
to detailing why these goals

art impor.

to ambitIOUS mdivlduals, and how they are achieved with feasting. Brian Hay

den ha devdIJp<:d

(he theoretICal feasnng model (hat is used in this chapter in

~raJ Wlpubluhed manu

(npt (('.g •• H.lyden and Manet'prasert n.d.).

·1

The clabor.mon (If feJ'nn~ on Ihe (nh reglon's cm·tronmentJI n,·hne. This n amJSSIng of tilod Jnd pruP<'r1) fi. r Druekcr I~o;t:p. ~\l)

S. An .lggr anJlzer'. maIn ubI ,11 In dlSclls:tng [h K\\aklutJ, \\.aIto t,lIned

ar fJl,r

undcrlYIll~ (he mod!'1 u

Th

Ih

I

III

Northwett

11 )UIIIIII .. WIIlS:1I

ggr ndl~1 r

h

J

lllg ft'tu rn ollhgallollS .II1J Str.lIht'rn (1<01 I 1

I il/t r (

I •k llIlJ a!Jkt •.-> 0/1

{ II' I Ill' .. (jug lIlVlIlr Jor tbtlr

,..

rt'sult.t

lIll

FEASTING TYPE 11.1\\1"11 \Ch pI r

/,1"1''''''' th I 11 I, ~ tl tlllUS '''UI h 1/1

t

onlv b

arllblUOus IIldlVldu,11 III ~

pt'111

ASSUMPTIONS

SU(lC. S

I

rr

11

I

I

IIh

t

d thc1r

I

• SOUTHERN NOATH

I 1101l11t .lIll

.,nl,lU ,,' ('0 11 1/(11.

J

. ,Ill I-!rll t

01 Iht'\' II~

1'"'' I

d ,11

,I

:o.1I1,l.:lr

. I 1bur .lnJ wt.·.l lth . by ~PfHl\(lfln~ f(' as • . nil (11 /IV" r· - t.\ CfI I ,),11 po .. e, uh"" ()V(' d ~lrr{'U or Wt' I"", C' 0 1l1

I 1\'1'«:\' .111 hCH1.Lt 'I I

. 1.1

•

C' \ll' l1l

. III
wllhll, .1 group (e.g., hou sehold Y I 01 ' 1'It 1an ty r, . I /lm l \,. h. ·,·\l.3 1""i11 "'f; .) (' ('onsl J c.' re'J 400 I CdM~ , S o hdar. .\" 'I . Il1 r vdl.l gt.. .11 l ll n"pnr. : WI11 (, ph , In C'e t'C()J,,,mIC pruductlvlty ~ nd secunt y, pro ,HH'' Il'''' r 11\' WllhIl1 •1 .':,"ULlP W I '. :TOUp membe rs 111 confli cts with Other . , ''!lUll bt.·t wc:<: nW , ""It<' ","WJI '''11 ~ . '!"OlIP leadrrs. In soltdanty feasts, h'cr",.. I

I

ll III f; ·",w c . , Uppo I Id bc tlI e main . product I " ,nUp.', dll< ( . I 11,lnyed food S 'ou ... , . . , hmllll be L OWl . , hleJI ",/1(,,,0<(." .I nil pllrllUpJntS frequ ently OCCllr, no debts cl . >JllllhUIJ O'1S rum. J,,'lnbu ll' , " 11 ' lit nnd parti cipation and allcndance

I

or rl'Ulrn

II

()bh~~HI()ll.s ~h(JlI ( I e~ L ,

~hnll"J b(' wldespreJd,

tIn" and ",allllnl" alltanccs between groups . I RcnpfOca llcJ'tS 1/11 1 ll(npr,'' 10 rcsources lICd' be Involved , and each group generally [nes to hI"li" represenlauves I11U,t .. I ) thout being overtly compctltlve so as to maintain Impress Ihe other(s WI MI Jl11l,lble JtI1lOspherc. . '. " fensts arc feasts give n ro sohcll favors or SUPPOrt So/tntdt lOIl .S0 JICllallon , .' . " .. I ,r J ·nd,vidual(s). SohCltanon feasts arc probably unldlrcc· from l110re powel Lt I ._ . I ' h . here the sohcited powerful mdlvldual receIves food lIt,nJ (XC anges w . Jnu or gift> Without incurring the expense of a spect1ic rerurn feast. 4 Promollollni Promotional feJsts advertIse group success and prospenry in IJrJl'r 10 al/raet deSIrable potcnllJllabor, alhes. exchange partncrs. and IIther supponers. Group success and pro~perity IS promoted by making public dmnbullons to IInpon3nt and speCifically mVlted Il1dividllals with whom J relationship IS deSired (eg., families with potential marriage pan· Ill''', or potennal sccunty alues) . Dlstnbutions are also made to other I11IS' cellaneou . guests and supporters m order to promote the host gmllp to as

I

I, I

I

Wld(' J nrcic as pOSSible. 5 Competition CompclItlvc fca~{s create material proi1t [or the least sponsor bCCJu'>C tnve~ted feast distributions are returned at a future [cast with tn tere t Competmvc feast arc large, laVish events where the sponsor en deavllrs to maXlfl1lZe hiS contractual obltgatlons and profit by distributing I,

cnorm,.,us .mounts 01 rood dlld propcrty. Pollll4ai Supp~r' P"ltllcal support fi'asts ,Ill' sponsored in order to obtain or 111(1"CUC p"hUCdI Uppl/TI

7 Acqullllwn oJ /'oll/ullll'alil/tms. JlI.JSts that /Ul1tllOn

101 mal rnu'ritJl1 r',rpolltlCal advalllrrnrll l ,lit' t:3lt"W>fIzt"d ~s f('a ts fllr J( qtllnn); l'0hm.11

P'Ii""Jt1 '90

.IS J

NE~T (O~Sl F

tA, _ _c _ __

8 work · Parry PrlJ.ll.! Work·parry feaslS " b\.;I1n ""-_ IntenSive projects such as hou'e bUIlding IIIdr,. VVf £Or exchange for participation," feasun . 'duaIs PI~ g aCUVltlo, 9. ChIld-GroWl I1 Prasu. A rumh rype of~. . 1 posed Ideal feast types. Chtld.grOWlh7 mlg1n bt aMed IQ ~ ca,1S are feo III children m ord er to Ulcrease t h e ' " lr wont. so t1", marnagcs will be m3.XJmlZcd, and alhan t ....·alth . ces bttWten ( poses Will be str~ngthened. .unili fo,

-.'"

separating feasts In thiS manner IS arti.fia I L . a uecaUSt the r, verlap, and a Single feast Will probably mvol ~ types nhu....~ O ve il Combtnan --""""'Y on of i""\"-.t ryp es. However. Identifying these speafic practlCill"~ U<:11'6u of t...._ this analYSIS by c1anfying the components ~"'U r.olJ!a1~

FRAMEWORK In order to slmpW'y the analysIS of feasting in the 5tUd)' rn Nootka, Coast Sallsh, and Twana feasts \\111 be se d the ",""NI!. . p~rall: IIUo three tDOt _ categones: (1) feasrs where the sponsor does nOI exptct tht It t gifts to Invite hun ro a furure feast wll.lch I "ill call CIpIC!I\Is IoocI or , nl}-Itturn ta5IS: 1 ~ where the sponsor expects the main reoptents of lm food or 10 tm-n ham 10 a futllre feast and rerurn eqUIValent amount. 10 bun which I ..,U all rerurn feasts ; (3) fcasts where rhe sponsor experu t It lW an 1IICIQscd at a furure feast. whIch I WIll call greater return (nS's. 11 size that Druckcr (19S 1 2.OD-2.ot. 11. Drucker and HClUf dorf (1960:332., 143). Boas (t 'l66S1 l. Bamen (Ill lOO). Sproar (IQ8780), and Btrkel' 'mlth IQ(> I~ I all ccrram occasion. potia!(h and leas! dlstnbuD the rurn the fea.t and gtfts. The r~turn cxpc(ted by ol least spoD r helps l~ eral purposes flIT hllkhng fat IS m I rtucb Ul t\II1I benefit sought by the ledSI sponsor H) !he framework, and how aggrandtzl"rs ustd !hem trul, wtll be dlsru sed mlh lonling In ()rd~r 10 under, land f, a I1Ilg th(· qucstlon 01 who Ih malO Ihroughuul Ih • ho r whclhl'r th .1ft: nu IU t\ highly nHlI1 ill d h dlt dll1asS th· 'lUll UI htgh I dllk lUul.! ~ .,1 I h Ihulk r t 1111\1 I I I I'

*

-----

•

J~ -J o5 . .•pO. 443. 1971 ·J61).

Barnett (19 , ,01-63. 55"" .0 l~7. U H. JJ 4•. JS. • ) re char elite mwvlduals were verbally t ' 19~" . 1"" •.03 sea raln~d ld EJmt·nJor«loJ60:,nJ. ~ I b 5 Barncn stares that the potlatch "e~ JI . . d 'e [0 be am Inou . ". . . " t"resses Jn101 In cdli) g . d O1b",ons (19 68 126). Boas ( 18 97.343. also In B . J lIcnnO n :o. an a Iu . ar. U . [S Although sponsors p l S sOmetimes . r urely' .r('r~ona J..es Ihe s:aI11C pOUl . . . arttib. nerr ,~6~:S) m' I J as a househo ld head. the pnnapal sponsor .,.Ie rndJvidua sue 1 can be I ult,·d £0 a Slnb In rerests. th e 1Il terests of the corpo r ate g • enung 115 own . roup'

,.u.

I

I ,

O>

J S o.

reprJed .1S reprl!S d lesser exte nt the interests of other free Corp S ,bers an to a Orat upper-class men ~ ett 193 8b :35 0 : Drucker 1939:64). e oup members (see 3fl1 ( B gr Id . herir "rJes and pro perry e.g .. am ett 193 8a :131. ' 955' Da ughrers eou tn dR b 1 ' ~51 : . Codere I990:367: Rosm an an u e 1971:135). but tlus 1 Boas 192567-69. 9 • 105. . oc· 25r; Codere 1990' f at all befo re contact (Bam e tt 1995 · • " .367). cu.rred less frequen rJ y. I I efer to feasr spo nsors and aggrandizers m the mag" .. ,_ I I For lhJs reason \",,1 . r "'w.une t1urd person

NO - RETURN FEASTS r No.rerurn leas es have been defined as those feasts in which the SponSOr does nOt feas t. Nevertheless, as will be seen . even on these a rerum ecr necessa nJ y exp . .. OccastOns rh e spo nsor Can be VIewed as pursumg his own mterests.

J\ggr,UldJzers ,"ckbt the member> of lhern. ce and 0 th er perks · sueh ;u g'I'\'lll .1..._ \JbSlsten . _ uu:.rn 5 d n ar feasts . glvmg them the" '" p dui re and Jendmg them ceremoru.U pnVll na rna . .~ s' puberty feasts so that th~ ;on: abl r d3 u gh re _ ~ • ta

orucker 1951:47. I4~141 24". 2.> .... l.~. 2- 3. '1. " • ( 1en S 1981:(3) Some retainers might ~ n "'- . Wa \.~ a wroch the re tamer mlght nOt be: .bl sef'l1ce. e to ~ . 73' Mozm o 197°:32 -33). In Ills
195\.2 . "'. dle Nordl west Coast and else",he..." Her.; 0"1:> h ~ suppo r ters of aggrandizers may be: W'-' d the tha( . '. ~ ." ~'Ut: ltb ~ yen asslstanCe JJ1 accumulattng thell' martu, gt oiling group members m these or other conO'

bers becoming the retamers of the group groUP members as ten3Ilrs or ...,tarner. Stt Drucker 1951.-13· 271-2-:2, Elrnendorf lQO.)

eu ,

sotidanry feasts w ere o ne wa~"W du. roductive .md supporm-e The t (en. P wul be citscussed under pro m ouonal "

or

I'> '

"were told that they mu.'1 'take care I

I

Solidarity Feasts

food . gl\'mg them feasts . "' nnm~ the ~>::.

In order to arrain their ambitions, aggrandizers needed control Over a supply of

for 'if your people don't llk~

labor. Resource sites were definitely privately or corporately owned (Barnet! 1955:59. 241. 250. 251 , r968:78 ; Boas 192J:I345. 1966 :35- 36 ; Drucker 195I:42. 43. 47,

adVISed "to 'be good to thetr p op ,\Tt t th

247.248.256-257.454; Suttles 196 0:300 ; Walens 1981:13. 7 1). Hereditary chiefs Who

And accordmg ro Bamen, 3 'hl'f

owned such productive resource sites needed workers to collecr and process the

member> of Iu, tan\ll) >:;rt>up t

resources ar thelT hunting. fishing, or gathering sires (Drucker 1951:279. 454; Sur.

there wer no guests from orh r

des 1960:Joo). The output from these resource sites fed the chiefs' families and re.

conshkrJtton. m.l) ha,,, \ n re complex chI< f,\oms .\Od J r\ .Illnker (Ch,lptcl 10\, and _ ·hn

tainers (Drucker 195)'244) and enabled aggrandizers to accumulate surplus food for feasung and exchangmg. Control over labor secured several other benefits for aggrandIZers: firsl. it m.

Du~ 10 Ihe

pm JI" lr

production of nonfood goods such as canoes (Boas [913:1338; Drucker 1919:/4),

glllur III "N"I Itl' t\

whIch could be used for exchanging or diSlribuung. Third. controlhng labor pro·

Roa,

I 11 1\

vided the opportunity for acquiring pnvateJy owned " hrn(hmcn" (BJrnen

pi",

.\ft' ,J1 ,\

onla,

1

1

hi

1

ordertoprospcrlBarnt'1t 1955247, 1968 Ill; Boas 11/21 .1111.1114. Dl'ul"krr 1<1\144. 280 , 323, 454. Elmrnd"rf 11/71371); and (l) thal dggrandin'l's 1l"IUII't'l1 J m,'Jns ,,1

lU

n

I

rh

I'nl!,<'r n hr

The two crucial points are : ( I) that aggrandIZers nccdl'd (lll1lrol uwr l,lb"r III

controlling thr mdlvldual~ who fisht·d. hUlltt'l1. ,:,lllll'lt'J, III otlwl'wl,(" ,uppnrt(J

)OU ' I.>U

feasts to make them h ,lPP' ,- Om

creased secunty for both the group and Its leaders. Second. it secured conrrol over

1938:1)0; Druclu:r 1951 :251; Walens 198I:3R) who enforced the aggrandizer;'

----

\\1

I

1,

t

re n

tT

1

n: t

SOUTHERN NORTHWEST

bc:ndll!' d1l'Y woulJ 1l'C(.'IVC . •

193; Druck· (l~:.lrllen 1111sb.J5 0 - J5.1. 1955 : . tr 1951 :71

-

rlrl1t:nJor( rc.,)7 1 l'i,~ lfiQ; Rosl11Jn nnd Rllbcl 1971 173. Walens 1981:39). Th

·2.79: mCllI rc"1')1l 1Cr~ rccc..'lvl"'d derermlned whether they remamed wn h the: treal_ house group. 01 .ll lgned rhcmse l ves Wit h another (Barneu 1938 3 .. 12 9. 19 urrent . lOb :4C:;. BO,lS 192.1 :1.1.13; Oruckc l 195 1:453. 454)· A n d as Drucker ( 55·~6.

,IJQ~40. fac to r

In

~.

r

1951: 131

454) an d B.lrn e n ( 1955:24 6 ) tT1 UJcate. ,east participatio n Was a d " 2.80, v.rhClher 311 in dlvidu al contmu ed to align with a panicular groupeCldlng . p

porOClp"non mcl uded the benefil s o f celebra ting g ro up membershi 'east r . r d d . ' p, access' abu.n dant or spen3 I leasnng 100 s, an e.nJ oy tng a parry atmosphere tng II1formanrs cold hJm th at mdl"iduals did no t mind workmg fo r a C.... · Drucker's ,uef bec they kn ew they wo uld receive a feast In re rurn (D rucke r 195 1 : 2 51 ). aUse The m ajo rity of the food distributed at solidarity feasts appears to haYe from roe ourput of g roup members (Boas 19 2I:l334: Drucker 195" ,251, 371) cOl11e B CItes several examples o f tribute amo unts, Salmon fishers and berry pick ' oas , might gJve 2 0 percent of their ca tches (Bo as 19 2r:t335), bear hunte rs gave one ers , ~ every three caught (Boas 192J:1338), and mountam goat hunters g ave fi ve a u Or . ten goats obtruned (Bo as 1921:1334 )' However, ethnographic ace Ounts do t of seem co detail specific cLstributions at solidarity types of feasts , 0 nteoth h not hand, there are more detailed accounts for larger. more conspicuous ,easts, c Maner

of the commonly known feasts such as naming feasts or puber tv '] r.easts WerY

I

I

I

I

COA§

'LA~ ,

-

bull dlflg , pos< cuving, and POSt ra>stn~ 0 hOllse fr d ~ et!!)b orkers were o m , illl the >mount> of fOOd "Ired W are mUl.lm at. I n the lOStance Bo.l.S ('91 and pWn-~\, ",b ured , nl) cu the . by one of the Fort Rup"'t septS (I< 'sub L bUII [ tnu'''->nd • rS of the other three Fort Rupert septS n . O1erTl be . DoUnen I were not from the house bwlder SOWn ;.t borers ' gro up Iilrn"n~~ that labor, and the distributed food and p ~Sts ... . '" traCO .' . u.o n,s. "'C~ prtibol house builder s retamers, A1ternanvel ', th w>tnbuted L t e e h accumulated WIth credit exchange traruacn been . 0"," l a ""," '" nan Clflg many types of . feasts. mcluding work.party r.e.1 Il loa mechanism for amassmg resources and mdebnng others J ...,no>. ... '" ~ the equal·rerur n section It seems likeJy that at least some lower·cla mem . f In . the feasnog acm"nes ' .1th~, f a.., • ""ult g","oup partiopated , for the constrUcnon project or as a result of he In h Sarn ett 1935b :35» , Therefore, some solidant\· a..>pem WIth large work·party feasts it is even po. Ible!hat alliances For example, the reheves or the hou;

but~;

probably nor solely solidarity feasts, Many feasts would have had s 0 I'd ' fea.e , I anry rures because the sponsor s group would have participated, lt seems like! feasts that were held for stricdy solidariry purposes occurred regu! I y that al 'th ank di.fli b ' d at y, were · C sma1J an d mlorm WJ r " erences emg ownp!ayed (Barnen 1955:246), For example. Drucker and HelZer (1967:37) ate an occasion when aCme c. f re-

been among those who provided labor anJ partl pott d ID the thus sobdtfymg relations between the (\\0 fanllli

rurned from a podatch and provided an mformal feast to "Ius people" who did

tions

not accompany him, relating to them the festivities that occurred Barnen

These teastS were probabh on

So/icieation Feasts It seems hkely that on oaa ,,'n mdl\1dau 10

order

to

eliCIt fa\"o,", c)r . upport

ers by making a small disrnbul10n to them the day after all invited guests had de·

r. m.ill expected However, th.· onl\' \,den, I notes th.t J fe.1st dlSlnbutJon ml hI h

parted These are probably typical examples of small household solidanry feasts,

'heart one wants III

1955:266 ) notes an mstance , ' , when ' a feast sponsor thanked his household suPpOrt·

~red

J \

e prep.1rat

feasts were eVidently not molJ 'r

Work-Party Feasts

other fe.1St types le g, re"p

Work-parry feasts are also given by wealthy elites without an expectanoll of a re

t.met' f()[ most ethnogr.lph

rum feast The feast sponsor provides the feast in exchange for labor on J speCIfic project such as bUJJdmg a house : "Buudmg a house [required] control of J ccmsJderable amount of manpower. which m rum depended on economic rr (jurCe3 [() support the pcople whIlc they worked. With enough surplus IU gIVe and {Jther dlvtrwJIls 10 l'nll'rLJIn them" (Drllckcr 1<)'P7l) ,

flarnc!t (Iyjllh JSl). Boa iI925 . ll9). ElnwndlJlf (1<)1>0152, Ill). alld 11'FIll63)

oh trVl"d Ihdt

/,' asl

Wl"11"

ll

,'xch.lI1g"d /illl.lhlll Illll'tlltr "UchJI

1114

EQUAL· RETURN FEA T SlllllC pl"t'lInunan ub
I~Clsmanand

-

I~asl

I~J'1

du. 11

m

SOUT HERN NORTHWEST COAST FE"

"~T'NG

•

, ' 1Ilsdvc~ hc.' rcllilary "' Iltc~ rather th -I'\',lIt" rc'llI"

Ft

l 't H1 " ,'"

I " .' .•"'"

IIIl ' 110 III 11· .

rP

•

•

.

.

r"

l Oad

Ulcr~

'11 ()If

\!lCfi..' It:

SOr s

g

Url1

,Q2n53 357. Druckcl ' 95L377: Elmendo f roup (s, "lCj" 1.00. (" . r '96 t .H'/I .~,~ . d 011 che occaSIon. guests m.ght have Included 0:337. J'" ) Dcr en .ng POw"'· ./.11 111 · re prospectlVC defen s,ve allles (Ferguson CrfUI e h CJJs who wC . 1984:31 ) Or pOIa rc I d CS of g roupS w.th prospecllve marriage partn 5 . f''''i1I. -orrO(JfC (" J C . . ers for h ~ Cl' ~ hId . (Elll1cndo rf 1960:441). or potenttal wealth excha.nge t e sPon so' 'c . ren d .. P" 'm . d cl by tl,e sponsors co be goo credIt nsks (Barnett 1968. ers Who wert· JU ge . .. d .81-82) . . W"h . . . s.t was impliCIt tl13C an InVIte guest could also b . IeJ,t ",VllatlO n nng othe ousehold or viUage CO che feast (Elm endorf 1960:33 ) , "'ern. ber> 0 f IuS h . 9 . Hence , often IOcluded numerous nusceUaneous guests ·111 d ' Inter. group .east. a daio 1y Inviced guests. The choice of whkh household memb n 10 the spcnfi Cl1 ers aCe 's ro these feastS was undoubtedly another coveted re o"'pa n,e d chJe" . ward thal ,e used ro controllabor and supporters withln their groups, ch & Furthermore, the dlsrnbuoo n of food and gifts to the principal guests at i Jlage feasts was given in ranked order and amounts (Bamett . nter· \~ . ' . 1955.255, 1968' . .17, Codere I966:65. Drucker 1951.379, I94 8 ,23 2, Elmendorf 1960:324, 341- 2 'd . , cl d 'd 34 ). lntravil Jage feasts, such as SOJI anty ,easts, apparen y I not have ranked d'Istnbutio · . , (e.g., Bamerr 1955:255; Boas 192PI9- (25). However, It seems probable that nk ns dIstnbuoons occasionaUy occurred (depending on the situation) if ta ed . . moreth~on farmly or household group was lflvolved . e In addJoon, as Hayden (1995:52) acknowledges, the return furnish ed at subsequent rerum feasts might not always meet the original sponsor's expectaQons . It'.", ./I.,ln '"

I

an I.eta

1C:.I'l~ where lht: malO reCIp ients of It III . ' I . l'lnl1C1pal reCIpientS of equa l-return C) .

le.:

and rJHJ .", I le . r g r'C!at () ts . I ' rcdllJI Y clues Ironl outside th e spon" er· tCt

~ " wcl'l' rt.'I,lI llt r I lion'"

I

werc" I

.

fJ '"

Drucker and Hetzer (196779-80) write that a difficulty (at least in aboriginal tunes) assesslflg returns was caused by the exchange mediums: no rwo canoes. slaves• native blankets, pelts, or olachon containers were ideotical (also see Barnen ill

1968:84). Consequendy, an exact comparison between what was given, and whal was rerurned, was impossible. Therefore, an individual expected

to

provide an

equal return must have been obligated to return an "apprOlomately equal" amount.

Promotional Feasts Promotlfmal feasts on the southern Northwest Coast can be conSIdered eilher31 no-rerum or equal return feasts . No-rerum promotional disrnbutions included

the inCldfnlal food and gIfts given to miscellaneous guests and pdrtiClpantS who were nI,t pnnnpal ~CSlS, such as rc-lamers accompanying the prinCIpal ~l\Iesl' Tb e dlstnhu/lfJn wert' pari of lh(' flVl"rall expense of sponsonng J fMI, aud to ured ch I1 a l wa a "g,/,/d hr/w," dlsstpau·d t'nvy. guaranleed that every"nr flit I d F rXJ01plr. mw, v

,T!."WarJ,·d

5UpPl Jltt

r ,dllJ ~t'

1f6

/Ill

(Ildydt·(\ tlJlJ~4to,

nHJ .

or

1960:324, 342) noted that commoners recen-d odo rf ( ... 10kn el"'<.fte r t he ranked disrnbutlons to the matn guests (al.so ec 110. of v.llIe' 8'231. 1951 :299, 438). >192 :.1 ker f94 ' , orllt many equal-rerum feasts (mduding m However, _ _ aturanon and re equally. tf not more , unportam as promou .1 , asrs) we ~'b ' on ... °!'P<>muu • .e alsO involved ",srn uoons to speafic prospect ."e all se they IV< 4.U.le miln1 • ( ther important contacts. For example pOleal Ut ,5, or 0 , • nil StutOr!; fro ne c II ge .nd from other villages, were invued to h \.. m a ~ .,n yw' , . . . er pU""rt) Fe o d f her availability for marnage (Elmendorf 1960. ..lSt llnd m. for",e 0 . b nh . .<\.\3-4.\4. ab" V\-ere mIen;! d t rtl: OUp success and the benefits of affiljaoon (see Barnerr 19'~, Ij." t.n In man tf gr not most cases, the sponsors of these maturaoon . or nlh er promon 1\,\1 . , would themselves be mVlted . to sunilar feasts hosted b' th gu t \~h wiclun the group of potenoal future m·laws or alue lu.:h of th di. m costs of promotional feasts would be recouped al uch . ub qUnt I> 1955'134. 255,257)· Barnett does nor speafv.. a nme ·p.lO 'or u"" I1 l:U Ctllln'l relUi 11 but rerum invitations were probably received \nthen 01 r. the above conslderaoons. I have dended to e amme rional feasts in the equal-rerum section . Promotional feasts were opporrurune for a~'nJl prospenty, and the benefits of group OIffiilanon, en onicr t skilled labor, allies, marriage and e 'h~ngt' p~Il[l d cnncal abilIties (Hayden 1995:52). Thl go I 183) who observed that some fea t. (r93 8b :353-354), too, reported th.1! nitlon ("prestige" or "status") required to achie theIr atm. Barn It how pubhclty helped th ggr ndl

:~lpCd aggrandlz

r to IIr t I bt r PPOrters. In the m nn r uti in d SkIlled and n po ertlll Kt situ31lOIU

Th I k

01 po

rtul

Ill' m"lgt.~ ..lIld "pc-r(c1vcd wCi:lkness II)V!lcd att::lc.k " (P

r

,

erguson '984b)OM)

{Olt:. promotmg lhe group
.",d

~

attract tndivldual

""l' g roups" (1984"-49).

ollowers

an aggrandIZer's g0:11 was "to attract I OWer rank peo I hIS house . . [whI ch] he dId by good Irearmen! generos ry ( " . pe to As Drucker PUtS

It,

I glvmg man r. and potlatelles) (1951:280). Promotion.1 feasts demonStrating th b Y easts e enefits r b group mem erslup attracled the labor that aggrandizers requ ' d h 0 · Ire to arvest sources at s ites rhey owned or controUed. to produce exchan e 0 ds re· < . . . . g go, and to support rh elf ,eastlng .ctlvln es. Some aggrandizers also sought to atrract follow ers for .mlitary campaigns (Perguson 1984b:271). and promotional C . .easts Would have helped here as well. AggrandIzers were sometimes even willi · " . . _ ng 10 accept slothful retamers because rejecting these mdlVlduals ntighl provoke th . elf mOre mdustriou relatives to also leave (Drucker 1951:280). "

•

Pamilies of desirable workers. hunters. or craftsmen "would be COurted [b clue/) to rhe extent of giving them econontic and ceremonial rights to entice ya I

them to assooate" with him (Drucker 1951:280). And prospective tenants took advantage of their position to promote their own self-interest. Residence "choices are made on the basis of a type of strategy involving rank of seat obtainable • rank of group involved. and its size and power" (Rosman and Rubel 1971 :173; see also Hayden 1995:66). Aggrandizers' promotional displays of wealth and prosper_ 'ry miluenced tenants' and lower elites' perceptions of which groups were most successful. most powerful. and most likely co support tenants' aspirations.

195. 198). Maruranon fea,,, for chtl~n ~,-L . . 11 puber m.de ... _ do )9 . . . !UK: tTl eo . of increased compensanon or levels of "Gith ec~oon al~ n. ~ . and perhaps funer ex anges •Hayden 19<>5 44.- \\',....VU' ar nage C cluld th . . . . . <..Oh tTl _ rn 3 tuf3 tion feast Stven ,or a . _. e le"cl of ....ealth e:\\.-h~ ~ at s.ve e UJ1doubtedly increased. proVlding a means of recoupm. ~ nag Barnett (1955:<80) reports thal wealthy [aJllili.:, tnlu .'.L. enses. . n t~ UIC ~ ~. biliry of girls by seeluding them 10 the e"rnl th" th could ra deSl I Drucker (1951:143) makes Slm.lar observanOn> Proper y. s of LOveStlDg wealth -m clul dren through m.lruunon t In term e~, f marriages serves the needs of ~ggund!ze" b 'tun the cost 0 . ' . ·urr 'on and creaemg mcreasmgly large debt rebn [l'\u ut pro duC tI 'ry (Hayden 1995:44. 45. 54. 55 ~a topIC 10 be Q u\"i:lln romm wu 5 I unlizlng wealth 10 control others la IQ(>prosper a ompetitO rs . Rivals also engage m productlon of 'urplu. '" m, ~ea1th aVallable for mampulatioD and escabcmg th ,l -ootnml;l srnan and Robel sa)' I! suconcu\' - on< n ed, ~'m Ro oons. •

·_0

Tha< IS one reason "lazy men are desplSeJ Bamett . 28' Ha)·den 1995:46, 48) . Lazy people th\\ rt th 1951.3 . nOI producing surpluses. by not exchJ.O"m~" th. surpluses when In need Ctuld·gro\\lh In'~,mlen

Wealthy hereditary elites sponsored the most lavish maturation and life-crisis

and eventually. YIelded a surplus return . h""., r returns or compulsory returns tTOm Ih full whom Jl'Ught 3cruaUy enter InIO ml're f,u nul l'CC'lp

feasts (Barnen 1955:134; Drucker 1951 :139. 141. 143; Elmendorf 1960:388. 410. 443).

more uncerr3m nature of Ihe return,

Maturanon and life-crisis feasts were probably primarily promotional opportuni-

here under equ,ll·rcmrn I~~'l. Previou Iy It wa: mcn!loned that p

Child-Growth Feasts

ties for aggrandizers to advertise themselves and their groups. The leading guesls vaned WIth the famrly's wealth and ambitions (Barnett T955:255. 257. 261; Drucker

wluch food amI prop"rl\ \\ re method IIlvolvcd ,n'dll ex, holn

1951:14 1.148; Elmendorf 1960:385.386,443.460). Poor families either kepI these oc-

west CO'ISI culture, l'x,umned h n'

casions private and did nor have feasts larger than the nuclear famrly. or held very

IOJ8aIJ5. 19W l.l~. 2~8

small gatherings where they invited the chiefs of their household and delivered J 11110111 gift (Bameet 1955:132. 143; Drucker 1951:124- 125. 14 1 , 149. Ellllcndorl

Dru(ker loMM :l\1. Elm nd
who were mvued from other villages and the amounts of properry dlstnbuted

1960·-409.410). However. the puberty and naming feasts mentioned above also CJ(cmpltfy

other upect of maturation feast) : "child·growth" mveslments (1lJy,kn 190\44. Imt Rub'" R -45. 5-4 SS. 59. MautS 1967:6. Ui. Oberg 1973;n. J5. KI. 121, o~n1.l1l'

,••

dtslnbut~d to uppnrl~ ~qudlllr !:I'\';\It'r, lu

JII

l ~. I~

gr~ndtz~r

wUhm 11 I

lhrn repaid "h 1\ Ih purtrn. ~t hnu

h' Ih

htld-

I

[11

, rI I

D\

8c:

I

IQ

a.J

- 14'

'

-

SOUTHEf'N NOA1HWE.\T COASt 'LA. l

-

------

qUlred dut 1I11L"n.."Sl bt' p,llJ on Jonn~, The northern C" t S I I va~ a IIJ 1 grOllps ask d 100 percent Interest on ~1 loon ( B.11 nClt 1918 :135. 1955 :2.58 . ) h. e ror 2.59 . l e sCJlIthcrn C .. JiJ:-h ( B.lnlctt lQ55 ; 1.5~ 2.59) ~lnd the Twana (E Lme:ndorf 960' ) dd 03\t , . _ . . , I ·330 1 not rc:qulr llucreSl. Jnd lht" KwakJull hat.! vJ n ab lc I.OtCrcst rates that depe d d e _ n eon the ler ' 2.0 percC'nt ror less th a n SlX months. 40 percent for six months a d lll . , , n 100 percent ft 1:1 Or mOre months (Bo.,s .8977341. ' 966:78-79: Codere 196 6:69-7 1). Purth Or

an IndJ\,iduaJ's "credil ["aong" (i.c ., reputation, "sta rus." pasI perform crrnore, . . . once) alletted I11S borrowmg copablb ues and the mcerest he pa.d where applocabl ( _ . , , ., e: Barnett ' 908.8 J, Boas r897·341, ' 966.78. Elmendorf '960:330: Rosman and Rubel '971 : Q dividu als burde ned with poor credit had to pawn their name fo r a ye 3 ), In· a r, an d paid exOrbtlan CmtereSl races, even ove r 200 pe rcent, to get reestabhshed (Bo 8 as . 97:341 1966:78: Codere ' 966:70). A H ayden (1995:52) states, ic seems likely that loan . s We re n Ol always re turned accordin g to these specified rates. Even witho ur .nteres! on loans, there were obvious advantages m this s YStelll fo r borrowers and lenders. Bo r rowers w e re able to amass pro perty and indebt others WIth the ir secondary disrribull ons. Lenders mcreased their c1a; ~ s OVer others, forcing borrowe rs to actively engage in ongoing production and wealth exchanges. Lenders who w ere faced with defauJting bo rrowers might have been able to "foredose " on resource sites or o ther prop erty that belonged to the bo . r rower either m /jeu of payment or until late paym ents and "late charges" were patd . In some cases defaulters may even have been enslaved , or served with sOllle other potential penalty su ch as being forced to direct members from their house. hold to labor for their creditors. Purthermore, lending property and distributing

- 0 _ _ ~_

-

Ith (1948

\.)>.0.

11:)70. F
I

·'cll",rJ n_ r,fe I" up destroyed a ",.er, lnJ~, "''''mul! s ella gfO Bell J ~.n g debts Boas (t897:3 60 • '966·54 an o cl atO~ ' theIr p 0 her.lD-Ia'" who was rrymg to e de rq> rO 3 lat ea1 thr d ",ned a wooden effigy of h w,k Pu a _la'" rO IO ,onk nd droppmg It m the sea And Om r t 's nee a In,·ge h be "seiZed If a debt v. as nOt p~"j 19 9 (\ mlg t me n. dering that an mdiVldual 's name repre_entrU all Jry cons. pen. ' . J gh ts (Bam en t955:134. Drucker '91<> 61 ~ m onla n cere I ved wben it W lIS ius nolffiC. not has f'<''' n. t nor ens a ",as h have vaned accordmg to the amount .nvul c. rnlg t "uS maUy lost the valuable ceremorual , n , ._.• I he rruIU ....\I ab y. eCled with ius name. as weJl as own",crur of pt\: leges conn all bestOwed Thus. poteno " a peT. On. po tt he name t d oyed by not fulfillmg ius conrracrual fea. " been eser

04 1,

wealth at feastS enabled aggrandizers to maintain full production of food and goods withour worrying about storage, security, or spoilage (Hayden 1995:45). Lmponantly, an mdiVldual 's ability to lend or borrow, his credit rating, the inter· est rates he paid, and the network of borrowing and lending contacts he had, were all undoubtedly affected by the promotional feasts he sponsored. his past record of transactions, and the degree of support from successful , hererutaty cor· ~rare~u~.

. . . The contracrual claims created over an indiVIdual by mdebnng them vIa loans

Reciprocal Feasts . ocal feastS were ongomg reaprocal alth Reapr . . d and mamfamed alltances hem een gmu for inmate e and economIC benefit. e g • a u t' I ~ ag rnarn ' ~ The ongomg nature of reaproca/ le ' IS fullill d self-interest of aggTandizers (Har den 11»; ,u--"" of," cenrrano n of wealth and power 10 t he h Wealthy and powerful group, lendt'd to p le further rusrancmg rhem'ch from I was maIntamed, Increasmg Ih wealth continuous exchange pro''lded a pt'rpctual tracrual obltganons b ~en elltl~ .and debt less wealth mdmdu,ds -h establIsh type of Ih.m. thal terest

or feast distributions were exacting. An mdiyjdual who falled to repay hIS debts al·

Intergroup mama~ ~

most certainly lost allies, supporters, the chance fOf a good marriage. and his

good e ample' of re..'pn

credit rating or "prestige." More seriously, warfare or t he threat of warfJrC was often the result of defaulting on oblIgations (Hayden 1995:35,4 0 ,60; Mauss 196TJ,

lm ndorf I southern 0 I 1i.'Ih hild and Como (north m

"

.e ., r eputJtion ) fora yeartoas 66' ) I'tl's mUSl have hauslln· sure repayment (Boas 189T341, 1966:78 ; Codere 19 ·70. Cl . . .. I d(.'bts In cxtrrnlC wcs. ilar liens on each other to give force to t h ese comractua · " ' .. .. . .. 'h m"t' ,'tint bad (Ft r VIOle nce could be uKd . Perguson states that wal IS .111 eXl • ... ... I wJr g"'on 1984a 17 18, 41), and that unfulfillcd "SOCldl" obll~.lIttlI1S n'UlIVJtrl /I). If ordinary tenants had to pawn t h elf name

100

" (j

t

195n~, 186. 191 llU;

ffasts wtU ~ 107, Bou

In ~ts

Plm,

~r

and the ~

It

SOUTHERN

pnltCl'lmg onc or bOlh groups rrom auack and slave raids (Barnc[( 19 '

55 18:>. 18 270; Druckel 195 1 302. Elmt:ndorf 1960:349. 561. Pcrguson 1984b:>85), Se' 1. m,ITnages wilh slgrlln c.11ll wcalth exchanges establIshed resou rce allia eCnd. nees th cnJbled access to ano th er group's resource sites (D rucker 1939:59. 1951 '26 at , 7 268 Elmcndorf 1960:267-2 68 . Pe rgu son 1984 b:288; Sutdes 1960 :299) D' ; , rUek.e (1951 '>..l8) Cl les an example of a nch sa lm on Stream obtained by a duef h r . ' trough marnage T hIrd. mamage feasts with wealth exchanges mereased ercdJ change opportunities because the spouse's relatives beca me additional t-elt_ Contacts for lendmg. borrowmg. or other support (Barnen 1968:50. 51; Drueker t l ' 95 '430' Elmendorf 1960:361-362), Barnet[ notes that if a groom 'S father did not h ' enough property [or the marriage gift to the bride 's family "he ca lled upon ave wl[e's brothers , , , for their contributions to swelJ the total of the marn'ag" ,his " eglft·, (1955:185), Fourth, marnage feasts wIth wealth exchanges forged aliianees that exPanded an mdividual's political connections and helped increase political co ntrol wlthm and berween groups (Barnen J938 :133. 1955=182; Jewit( 1987:19), And fifth marnage alliances secured the transfer of titles and privileges from the bride'; famIly to the groom and his family. Among the Twana. Nootka. and most Coast Sailsh groups. these titles and privileges were intended for the couple's furure

ORTHWES

C

states that group exogam~ noe ) 6055 0 'dorf (19 '.1 concern behInd eutl:: m .. rna, , Th . t/le prtll dP an ces ",th other Vllla "'. elite manu. of all I vaf1 e t)' 0 allies, labor, and oth",r up rttt , d access t crease al h rnarnage e~ch.lllge th~ groom ~ st S IS a ern co h 20 I ndian blankets, ;-0 u ...k f S200 cas ' gift 0 I ter the bodes l'anuly returtlrd I 000 e years a e 'fhr ,2 00) The rerum was eemmgl 1,., __ ,h." ett 1955' , (sarn I illustrates that In reall£)' .10 return ange a so ch v: mal gift. or equal to It, or lin\( m the oog chan the subsequent reclprocatin· fe \!amen changed to 1'296-2 97), 195 . b equent reaproca\ feasts c ut.:! on

The

SU 5

(Drucker 195I:2.9J), However, despite the claim that the titles and privileges were

rOom WIshed to remaIn m.tm r bnde an d g ., • h to remam allled_ It ,eerru 1_ rh t groupS \VISrder to affirm ties bem en th, years 1[1 0 , EJrnendorf 1960:35-), fter each ~ '" 194. fr to 'dIvorce ~ me omer 1th ut furthn' was ee pnvileges that reverted to the bnde r: 1 NI, JO- Th ~ , 95' Drucker 195 t 1955-I ' had to ~ IJUD.lt neW cyd e of exchJn~c....

solely for the couple 's furure children. it seems likely that the groom or his fam-

(Sarnert 1Q55;195, Boa, 19"" ';4---

ily controlled the titles and pdvileges at least until the couple's children reached mdependent maturity (Drucker 1951:266, 269; Barnett 1955: 251 ),

A groom'5 m,lrnJg.: gift nll hI Drucker 195I.l
children (Barnen 1955=189. 1968:31; Drucker I951 :291; Elmendorf 1960:381,384), If no children resulted, the titles and privileges reverted to the bride's family

Kwaluutl. Pentlatch, and Comox marriages contrasted with those of the

example after the btnh ,'I .. htl

Twana. Nootka. and other Coast Saltsh groups, because the groom himself

Elmendorf 1<)(>0 15S

overtly receIved and controlled the titles and privileges given by the bnde's fam -

mdlvlduals, .lOd \\ ,uld pubh

ily (Barnett 1955;189, 290. 294. 1968 :31; Boas 1966;62-63, 71; Codere '990:367; Ros,

ing the return. the hnd

man and Rubel 1971:(73), As a result, the ereauon of a famJiy was often a

retumlll': Ih m.lm.t

~econdary consideration compared

Jmung hIS ,,\\ n nfew Irk

[0

acquIring wealm. a lHes, resource nghts,

n Imn dl.l

pnvlleges, and titles (Boas 1966:5 1, 56). Multip le (sequentia l monogamous and

Oru(ker 1951.:191

polygamous) marnages were sough t in order to accumu late m ic, and pnvilege!

The groum or CmU w(al w alth It every th t h 1'I55 1'11),lh hrtJ

(Barnett 195s:r94: Code re 1990:368; Drucker 194R:177) Sham marnages between

two men, a man and a household dog, or one man and part of ,lI1other\ bad),. were practlced I>Olely for acquIring tHles and pnviJegcs and presumably ,IS J prt' rnt for exchanging wealth as wtll (ljarnl'll 191Ha IB, 1955 203; Bml~ IH\j7l5~. 1966~,
-.uuvt

"_,_L_ Lfluuu:r 19.81711.1'151 ;Lt!,;, 111Ilt'lIdod :l02

l\lf'(J.I~I, Ihl

. ) I'IlIll'lI 1,,1,1/,11"1

nJIIV

I.

P

SUIIllr ~

,I !-oil lIh [Ih hnu nlC'm

n

ItIl

rh

,uh r b

lid

IT

SOUTHERN NOR HWI:ST COAsr '-EA 'oIonl'., R J'rTo,JIt'

rurn lh4ln hl~ r.llht:r-m -Iaw could Or would d .Jj d cl h pro", e Ulllmately the ~c proVl e L father -m law wllh the reSOll ak ' groom hUll 11 rees to m e an enorm gl return . These Sln1anons do not seem to fit h OUS marnag t e typICal pattern of t a procaJ wealth exchanges berween rwo groups h ongoing re . Owcvc r. It IS dea r th b e n t: fi cal alliances were c reated _These t.llust _ - at mUtually ran Ons are good eXam 1 bemg_ bem 10 accommodale pr.cncal benefil co nst'd e ra n o n s. p es of norms

DlSrnbucmg the receipts from the m arriage g ift accomplished I " . C al east Inree ob. )eco'es. nrSt. th e b n d e .s father paJd off an y eXlSrtn d b D . . g ets omg so perp hIs reputaoo n as a good crerul nsk. ensuring he could b . . et\laled . ' . orrow agam. Second bnde s father crealed adrunonal chums over IIldiVlduals b db ' ' the , . y III e ong them VI hIs discnbunons. And tlurd. prod uction of surplus goods clo r t h e marnage ' ift lth rum could proceed Without the burden of storing the mania "'.. g re· . . ge gUt Items. Th o pporruruty for both the bnde s and groom's families !O create e . . contract\lal obh. gaoons was pro bably a pnmary reason for the lavish naCUre of ell . le marnages The feasl gtven by a groom when h e distributed the marriage gtft b pay ack Was 'often the greatest of his career" (Drucker 1948:279). Considering the numerous b en efits that resulted from reciprocal f.

.

.

~asrs. It IS

easy ro agre e With Rosm an and Ru bel (197T: I 73- C74) that mar nage mvolved a

srrategy in w!ucb rhe resources. rrui)[ary stre ngth. credit rating. POSIOOttS. and 1Il. fluence of a prospective spouse's family were scrutinized in order to maximize

\ul

""'3' less fot tnal .lllJ. 1~ I like y = I' seem< hoUSes or COl puntc

tS

01[<> frO

rn dJlferdl I

_,.o(S·

tlOIf '-

. I positiOns and supperr ~ politiCO FeOsrs or ort feases and feases to acqullllll:eC polmcal pohocal supp they were sunilar (although no because J lOgether [ was so ngbdy connect" ",th m·n . al suppor i/lg pohoC reap rocal \ that It is difficult to di; :m .. . proroonoD. Id•."'!)" purpose . feast that funcoo ned as a fot mal c din ']'he roatna! < I Funeral feastS occurred ",-hen:an c fune! leas . is the .... pOSlriOClS and p roperty 01 the d . over u,e raking " ' Drucker 1951:1.1": Drucker anJ Hetz .t th ,g6, .10. H Sfl1l ~. and debt obliganoClS (Dru .,r d's crew! cease H den 1995.65). Thus. the funeral fe #69 ay I . . e!J es thal he would keep the eb lIIg other I '65) ImporIandy. the hell did n t nc:c den 1995· . . ~~ ncracrual relanons!ups b ..fumb specu'c co H mer exchange p3rme~ \Drucker olDd HC'1Zer 1

rhe practical benefits that would accrue to the participating fa milies (Drucker

girundtely affirm hIs mtenoon

1951:287-288 : Elrnendorf 1960:335) . The faer rhat marriages were arranged for

destroytng property and b ' dJ.smbunng p

elite children. frequemly of a very young age. substantiates the mference that this

ent at the funeral least \Dru.:.k.~r nd H nOI speofy whether or not the ( omm n

srrategy was bemg followed b y families (Boas 1897:362; Drucker 1951:143. 287; El. mendorf 1960:353) , Moreover. polygamous marriages enabled the wealtfuesr, most ambitious mdividuals to multiply rhe advantages of t!us strategy (Barnen 1955:193: Drucker 1951:301 : Elmendorf 1960:36 7-3 68 ; Hayden 1995:43).

The marriages of commoners conrrasted markedly With elite marriages. al· though of course . there was a concnuum of intetllledlate marriages (Drucktl 1951:2.86.288-28 9 . 2 9 2 • 293 ; Elrnendorf 1960:370 ). Lower·c1ass indiViduals typically did not marry outside of their own commuruty (Elmendorf 1960:353. 404. 5)01 Some commoners "jUSt woke up m bed togemer" (Elmendorf 1960 :370) mdlc. 1

to

m.UDt

"ere related to the deceased but the h "hether the (ommone~ w re relat ed (' n tractUaI obhganon \\'.1 not UllUa tcd IIh soli be more or le relmbu d guesl at fUNre fun ri fe ts r ha 161: Havden 1995.t>O) Th re l'C' fun • Rosman and Rubel ( IQ"I

~

10 other cases me parents made an informal agreement. InVlted a few guests 10 .

.Among som llOftht:m 10 the outh ( g. K IUtl thedunng the \ifeum ut th

1 21gq 2 8 meal and distnbuted wken gifts (Barnett 1955.192; Drucker 194 : 79. 195 '29 ,

But the pot nn I

mg little or no formal marnage ceremony. feasting . or ongomg wealth e..~ch3nge\J

Elmendorf 1960·370, 1971.361 ). Th d ' unhll f ' 1fca ts I 1" us. I Mamage feasts were not the ooly type 0 rCClproca , .' lfJ, of d d U d thno!(rJphl< rw focuted on the m becau e of the abundant an eta cc . h lhl Vt'f mhcr IeJ,1 ,Ul ~ I1 marnage feasting and wealth ex< h ange~ owe . . I 11" It Jrhll' VCl \im Twana Inu:rvtllag billng h ' II val ( I!lllwndlllf l'IilO 1\11 I·P )

-

of

rr aweu Rosman ,nd

lion for a '"'phe that heir' In

I

,

SOUTHERN NOftTHWtST C

- ---.lnd pnv ll cgcs unul lh · . d .h CII ca l ( Bal'n e tt 1955 ' 2. . IlJt; l l,Clh , .l. r·H~ ). 11 w,!.' onl y ,Ill e r th e fun e ral ~ 'J.s l'.h I " ' 5 1, Dn.lck l.: ~ :ll l'le apprenu h er ~lI1d lilt' hl' lI 1lt'~.lIl ~ · .\(.· n': l :; lI1 g co ntro l ( Druc ke r ) Ccs ,p" cndc'" 1 195 145 . In order to 4 l() hI/ill) (·'I .•hll, h llwlI nelwo rk of credit and d b At · permit hei e t , e a e luncral feast rs Cl ."') twld Ollt' 11' I wo years Olftcr the actual dealh of h· f S were ge" c"(lnlltll (lV(;f

th e."

, of lhl' hCII"!\ 1951: '48 ' 49 ).

.. In addJoon to tn...t c ~ m of property. e the scal" of thel< con"" u I

" <.' 0 1..

a c 'e or Iugh-r " alth""gh ""c"m funeral feasts m'ght also be held to _ anktngeUte IIllCI1UOns

reassure nvals and .' and capabilities ( Bar-nett . creditors '955 .2 ' 9, 220 ' D ' rucke,

At the funeral feast the heir needed to prove he was wo tl f . . r ly 0 succeed' deceased . Sponsonng an 'mpressive feast inrucated that he I d h lng the . . 'la t e necessa ' dustry, ambition , group suppOrt, wea lth, and resources to do ry 'n· (192575-89) CIted a si ru ation in which an important Kwakiutl r h' f h so. Boa, · . ~ 'e ad died his nephew was to replace him . n,e men from rlurteen Kwakiutl 'b and · tn es Were ' Vlred ro ti,e funera l feasr, fed . and then 2,000 blankets were ruSt .b lJl· n uted amon the 658 sear holders of the thlrreen tribes. Sponsorin g this feast Wo Id b g . U ave bee an enormous w1dertaking for anyone, and the heir must have had C .d n . . ons, erabl e aSSIstance from his supporters. The stakes were high . The heir's unci ' . . esseat.a house , rwo valuable coppers, four feasong rushes, and various Other s · . " onp~d pnvileges could all have been forfeited if the heIr had failed to ruspla h yteTe. quired control over the economic and social resources of the corporate grou Depending on rhe deceased's influence, guests might be from Other t:bes (Boas 1925:75- 89) or strictly from the deceased's village (Blmendorf t960:459). A claimant to a more powerful or contested position needed to sponsor a more ex. travagant feast than a claimant to a lesser position. Drucker (1951:48 , 49) reports iliar for lesser chiefs and wealthy commoners rhe heir invited only the local chie& to a feast and gave them gifts. Por lesser individuals, funeral feasts probably Or.

curred shortly after death, and they probably exhibited more traits of solidarity

",eJ'j(

.J .... efS

n.r3"'""

eas to 1f\cr

I 2 es (Haydeo 1995'5 .

''''' er eX c.ha.ng Co cs were SPOl15-0~d b ,. I,rg ove ,eas OUS prop.:r d "olved enOllll ompen C ).n Ul 6oj38, J4J I III attendance . E"n, C.Lrue I~ , ,9 . d of peop e ousan s pIe attending rwo 5pcofic a,· th d , ~oo peo .

manze 10 ned seems obscure be, u_ e th erry recur oas (1966:;4) ..s. un~s readcr that th However, B . gegtftrerum )is farme~ce . , r"h tth marna sponsonng a comperiuve fi: J.'I n~qUlred

Boas 1898 .682, lQ25 2}(\-.I'> : Ehnend rf years or longer generall,· bemg ale.:! aggranchzer spent the:e ,CJf. "mOl.

feasts at all .

(olleered 10

fin~n(t·

on l"nr.. ttI

of the most common strategies used for extending personal power and wealth .

rew ),e.", until bemg relllnl. J 347, Codere 190(t '~O\. Surplus relurns nahl, d to addmon to m(red mg I h IT I~gcs, ,lnd th S{.lle (lf their m motivJle,1 suppon t

(onl the Northwest Coast" (Hayden 1995:58-59) Investments and wealth

(lIuld mampul.t ,anJ attr.l

quired on mltial feast distnbutlons, thus creating material profits for sponsors ,nd supporters alike. "Competitive feasting mvolving interest payments 's clearly one

changes were necessary to

el

cl surpluse, prov,ded I h d b mcrease wealt h eyon t e Im,re .

by retamer labor (Hayden 199s:59) Boas ( t897:34 1, 19

.

...

lymg pnncipJe of the potlatch dlstnbuuon 's I

206

h

,I{

66 '

) taleS Ihal rhe under· 77 s

f h

0 t

C

• 'CSI

II1tel •

bl'aI1llg

,ni,'"

I

0

feasts for nuclear or extended families . Ir is doubtful thar slaves had any funeral

Competitive feasts were the only feast type in which greater returns were re

u

eople an . f the common feasr OCCa51()n,.s. "u~h P . Elmen J rf I !T1Jghr be any 0 crer society lrutl.lOOn~ 55:257)' se Barneet t9 '26,), or spnng mteJ utb.1 mcetm~. Barnett 1955· ( feaStS "'9 70 ) Boas ([ QTJ-lJ, 35" • Jnd B.lm n , (1966:6 0-'" ' Codere eative feasong re turn_ "ere" pct d to [e rhat comp aU st. although short-term loans \Vla"n la h u. b Oon . ·bu I to . reres r rates as O\V as 25 p at . h[ carry ID fIllg . le of a highly artendeJ compcutI\ As a.n examp erry being rransfet td, Boa, am oUllts 0 f pro P rh exchanges InItiated b) a mama, of we al ~ ,cr F .u cl f: nulres from rwo UlUerenr on u KWalo 3 . d ' Rosman and Rubelr,,-I 'IOJ II>J

and feasts 1 Barnen 10:;:; 2;;S.-'l:;~. plus proJucnon iTom ret~tn f. t

GREATER-RETURN FEASTS: THE COMPETITIVE FEAST

~f f£

tldhll"

In ~dJlIl11n. b ",dl1

H.IYu -"' n I It

U

Ith

It

1

I

lu

\

n

•

•

C.

SOUTHERN NOPTHweSl COAST F(ASl

TABLE 7.1

. the Kwaklud [Ook compeonve t"easnng to el\.Ucm~ f InallY. h sums to be gIven baek and rOM wue n era "in

",llIes

Properry Dlslnbute:d Invlled Guests

Groom's marriage gift.

500 b lankets

12

tribes

GiOom amasses bl

by calling illl\c.Cts 10 oUt.s~ loans. nclmg

Fa ther-m -Iaw's

300 blanke ts: a

unrnedialc reruro

cere m o ni al tid e; the great copper" nam ed Sewa

Groo m 's second

1.000 blanke ts

cUstnbuDon

Groom sdI S cOPper years later ~ two or 600 tJ. o f gn:asc C os . fease used to finance: a least t: fo r several l1ibes.

.

Occurs _ _ fou r ye ars after

[Q

the lOltial och angtl.

facher-m-law

Father-m·law·s rerurn

300 blankets; 50 shawls;

10 tribes

zo pairs gold eanings;

Occurs four years illI:.lcr In

zo gold bracelets·•

distnbuuo n Bridc's

25 stJver earrings;

father amasses

25 silver bracelets;

propert)' by calUng h.

50 pair abalone shells •' 50 silk kerchiefs •'

outstandmg loans.

10 phonographs.

distnbutes the goods

35 sewlflg machmes;

[0

250 wooden boxes;

chid's of the 10

40 dressers; 50 masks ;

mVI[ed tnhes.

Groom immediately the Important

a box of crests

rcached and

1925:236-357 Presumably [hIS exchange cycle cononued unttl economIC hmll,S or IncrUst Wt l't'

It

became tmposSlble

lO

exchange escalating amOllnlS.

tunlty - the massIve quantIties of rerurned property could be distributed 10 wealthy and powerful guests from other villages wirh whom (he aggrandiW wanted 10 mdebt or establish a relationship for purposes of resource access. sccu

nty. or poliucalsupport In Boas's (1925:236--357) account of the mJrnJge between lhl tWO high ranking Fori !tupnt (he groom used Ihe pro(ccds frOl11 fathe r In law'. return to spon",r a for scvl'Tallnhcs (Boash IQlpHQ). f' 01 Iht· Jnd I'll

famlhe~, ft'a~l

\Illaw'~ )Nond n'lUrn 10 th,' rJllkllll:' .. I' . IcllIC IQ~P\~' 11>1'· I CVl' nl (Boas l\llS: ISI 457: ,I '0'" ,atl Elm ndorf 1\IlIO m. WI)

M dlJtribul d th father tribe att ndIn" Ih ' 968 'W

1nl

feastS ., (Druc.ker '95r:J8t) and slgmficant pro~rt) d
return feastS were much more common

CHANGES WITH CONTACT Ar thiS pomt there is no eVIdence to mdKat by ethnographers are fundamenrall~' dJ.fferent III pnn ing acovities. except perhaps for the more extrem suucnve feasong \ Bamett lOt> 104 . I - . Oru.: er I

codere (1966\". 61 ) who Jrgues that po t nt:t denCles m Kwaklutl culrure Thu . . thl Il.lN the \IIillgenous dcvelopmc!nt of :,)".11 ID t European'Induced adaptations m , 'orth Many dIlferencc!s between preel'llIoI t n d d\l Before European amyal ( I' Ih

25 canoes; 15 boats;

Sou

•

Croom ·s second

Z50 danang aprons;

Source'

wtu c

201

\Bamen 19,51;(>--1~7;

CoJere l~ 904 . 1 often and In maller amuunt Jut' t live good.~ (Bamett 1\16 .10 . od (j) fewer !:\le. ts ITom oth (Barnen IY5;:~5(>-­

ehtes (Uuld ~lfonl hI

t .l

Depopulatlon
rs

~n'

" Worn n . t 1!166 115. 11190 JII Hun

~nd

IT"m r

I

D\

I

SOUTHERN NORTHWEST COA.ST H"\lING.

CONCLUSION Pt" ..lSlS were

I

~pOnsorcd

on rh IIlteKeSt d e southern No nh wc . s ~Hl ambition- Th s t O:.'lS I l o sen ·c rh rOr promotmg: selr" nle res ' v ey . COl1
vated by thelT own selt-IDtettst, but , 11th r'{>l. ""ere roOD ·cipants L a: ntiate the soUdanty, pro m o uo n>l, tn~ lment and-'-IIr[l d Oll, ere "ux:r p d n(lCy an y fea sts and podatches. E:q>lanaooll> b...,d on .._ to I C cl U1 man lve s ",vo fi ' nr because they emphaSIZe vague psychol , I vca peer .. re de oe . soge a acknowledgmg p",cocal consequence Thu, OX" " p~ I ~th out . T , r .pprov, tlge h erechtary chums. or IDVe <menu. offer IDcomnlctt 10 cf. re pres ' r 'og wa ' hich by the m selves create truSleadmg unprc " on. CID . a n sWer s, W • spec:iJic I m o tiva tio ns, su ategles, and pracocal goals a ",,-,.t J .... n U cholog.ca h t the present slll1'lus·b ased model of self'\I\ltlt,tcd ~ . g rhe psy .n I suggest t a fe.sting. much gre ater variety of theoreticall) and ethno'nphl(all . egrates a .' diZer' Iflr d observauons to a m o re sausf.etoT)· f...luon than P"'" nt facto rs an . nI egrenable that even m ore derailed ethnognplu.: ot>
<=

'm

can be defined as cooptrati~ group, tlw ""' rndu=~ C ~Maregrou~ . o. d esponsibthties la resources o r propet\' o\\'t\tNhlp 0 1.111 nghts an r rilm J . I I tionsh.ps WIth other groups or tndmduab Ha, den onJ soo opobtlca re a

NOTE I

19 8. ).

potennal e xchange partners, p olitical supporters, and security aDies. One of the key founda tions underlying feasting rusrributions was contractual debt A . ggran· dize rs' fe asrmg rus tributions indebte d retainers, allies, exchange partners, and

REFERENCES

WIth dJ1ferent purposes. Therefore , .t is illusory to search for a general meaning

Bornen, H. G '938a The Coast Sahsh of Canada ~", m(.n 1Il" '~ 1938b The Nature of the Podalch .~ mm.'Iln .tl".rct:. Tire Co/Ut Solu" of Bntulr Ct,lumb"" E\I",,,,~ Tht Natur( tHld Funcu ll lI l.1} lh( f\ltlnt\ h E );: n~ \.:

beyond that of promoting the pracncal self· interest of organizers and supporters

Blrkel·SmJ[h, K.

o the r reciptents with harsb consequences for unfulfilled obligations. Many proposals for the "function " of the podatch exist, but as we have seen, there

LS

no smgle podatch phenomenon . Rather, there is a wide range of feasts

under conrutions of extractable resource abundance. SodaJ Structural explana· tlons such as Rosman and Rube!'s approach neglect the practical benefits that proVIded the Imperus for the Northwest Coast feasts . Suttles's argument that the potlaIch was a redistribution mechanJsm is Inconsistent with Northwest Coast

1967

Baas, P 189' .898

ethnographic data documenting that mdivldual motivations, competition, group sohdanry, and the control of surpluses were important aspects of potlatchrng.

1911

191;

110

Clr(1l»1r,J~'_ti4'" ,41n.rr RrLtru",~

Th(' SOCI.l l OrgJ..OIZ.lttll n l nd.

I;

1 t

I~bb

, :'1 t\ '

NcllumtJl MIB(Lml ..\tmu"' R''J''rt IS r PtO.1 Report l>n tht' Mth" · ,tt'm 1\1 \ !\tI

Ethnology ,;1 th~ "'" ,\\..1\1tl Thlfl filpt Ethlh1ltl1'\'. 1~1 lll,)q 1 nd II \\ • C(lnln"l4thHh hi

Ih E l h'hll~

I

Prt."'-'

practIca l benefits or goals of feastIng. SimIlarly, equatIng feasting w.th warfare .s mulcadmg Equaung feastIng WIth warfare may .mply that at least some feamng

If1

A,h'dJU"orlfull.'l ',1nllT I{q ,,1 ft\r

Explanauons that focu s solely on the Investment aspect of feasnng prOVIde an rn· v ,mplete analym of feasting because they do not address the numerous other

Snuh(.~

K"'",kJlH!

f"l hn~

m'rn

"

rr

,

t

c:

Jfoll/("·.

P. cd Tilt" J"dltltl.\

IU8S

PCitCt'

lif Pl/gCt SO l4lld

\V.-lshmgton Prc.s~

1.,,1<.). anu M 131.1kc 100...

Codere. H. 1966 1990

The Po\Ve r of Presllge - Co . mpetmve Ge nerOSity and h oClcnes In Lo wland Mesoamerica In r,o r C Emerge nce: of n ,.acllottal Comp et Ihon iltlri Poll "atl~ I l't' ol'ml."tlt H. tilt.' N(w World d d b. ' e n e y e. Brumfiel and J po heal 0"

bndge . Ca mbridge UmverSlry Press.

. ox, pp, 17-30, Ca m.

Fighting with Propt'rty: A St"dy of Kwaklllll Potlalel S In1g alld Waif< I ea tt e: UnIversIty of Washington Press. are 1792- 1930.

Kwaklutl: Trad'tionaJ Culture. In Handbook .r N I oJ orrlAmenca 1.1 N ortll West Coast, edited by W Surd '1 tI'llan.s, Vol . . es. pp. 359-377 Washingt . 7. soman JnstltU[ion . on, D,e., Smith.

Drucker. P

1939

Rank. Wealth. and Kmshlp gut 41:55--65.

In

Northwest Coast SocIety A . rnmcan Anllrropolo+

Self.lnterest U1

polInes Earns' . 'obcl Pnz

CI/ltl/I? El",",,"t DutnbutiollS XXVI: Northwest Coast An h i ' t ropo ogleal Re . Vol. 9. No. 3· Berkeley: University of Califorrua Press. Cords 195' The Northern and C,,"ral Nootkall Tribes. Smithsoni.n Institu ' B Am . non ureau of encan Ethnology Bulletin 144· United Stares Government Printin Olli Washmgron. D.C. g ce. Drucker. 1'. and R. P. Heizer

t " .

To Make My Name Good. Berkeley: University of California Press. Elmendorf. W W 1967

The Cultural Setting of the Twana Secret Society. Amenean Antllropologut 5 0 : 6 25-633.

Tile Struen
Oberg, K 1973

Tlu S""al Or'a",~dn,'n [On

4

PIT!'''

Plddocke. Srnm

The p"tlatd, . Wt'srcTn}t1ufrwl ~l' .~tUhf~l'"

'984a

Introduction In Warfare. Cltlnlfe, and Envirolllnent. eruted by R B. Ferguson New York; AcademIC Press .

r9 84b

Rosm.lO ..\ . Jnd P G Ruhd 10';'1 F(d.)tmg \\1,k \11"( Ell""

A Reexamillation of the Causes of Northwest Coast Warfare . In Warfi"" Cui.

Schulnng. R J

and EnVlron"'''''t. eruted by R B. Perguson. pp.267-328. New York: Acad. erruc Press.

1005

rUTC.

Gosden. C. 1989

8:355-,187.

Hayden. B. 1990

8I1rn.b,. 1\ C I~K'

~r

·h.

Nimrods. P15carors. Pluckers. and Planrers ' The Emergence 01 Pood ProtlUC'

A,c/latoWgy Th. SCUna of Dna dnd Futu,( Tllulg' N,'w YClIk. "rceOl"n

I h( , ...... tka \ ,,", 11

SlI "hem. A I~ ,

uon. Journal of Anth,opologrcal Arcluuology 911·69 199]

M"'t.a", IJn.. btbr,

Sproat. G

Deb!. Production. and Prelusrory. Journal of Alltllmpological Arc/lllc.log)'

rltc

Th( Ho/'(

SUlll ... \\ I

tlil1a11\

nJ

I

JJ1U

11

/",tln

\\ .tlcm..

I I

-

~

lUl'!l

•

R rrrllllu'

F{,d.ft1rI,~ WIIII ClltHll/mlJ PnnCC'lon PnnCClOn UniverSity Press.

\.VohJl. P 11178

licolog-y. Agn(uln..II'c Jnd Social Orgal''IIzaoon The Dynamics of Croup Composlllon In the HI~hJands of Papua New CUUlea Unpubl.shed Ph 0 dls~eJt.ltlon. Unlverslry of Mmne.... ola, Mmne.apohs

THE BIG DRINK FEAST AND FORU M IN TH E UPPER A

Youn~. ~1

Flgllrwg \VIr" Food Cambridge: Cambndge Unlvcrslty Press.

AZQ

Wa rren R. De80er

- d theKwa ki ut1·potlatch"doesnotseemto~~ dew. 849 peno , to Th 1 he) pfeh ' a need for a distinctive term r It. ~ Sn In It that t ere 1 an institutIon. 9 of 9''ft 5 or even of ceremonialized giVIng In huma ~ bout the gl\/l11 t·, 09 s wi th othe r Villagers or outslde{~ are so f.tQIJ a f e and mee om1ngS·o ·ag , K klutl practlces seem less particular JUt t (

for gifts that wa

Cod.", 196':445

The feasf-or Ifs SrJntsh '-"gt'lJI<' encompa ·smg connot~t1'lIl - h h n Yet feasf have be~n \ le" ~ Itn d'nrr

Jccumul.nng we~lth IOJ r,'" r, lion, or for rt'Jffirmtllg "" loll t promonng sohJ,lnt\' Uf Inr III mg Or lor Jsmg ni,', (If • llgt IS OH ntt.l , IIJ rh JI1.' OXI''' rJ .111,\ Jr III I J tu br 0 drhghtfulI rr,rmbIJn, but .ch I

Z14

or

FEA ST AND FO RU M IN tHE UPPE,'" AM~lO

•

-

cou ld be likened to the category "game" (Lakof!" ' 987:16). C odere's ob rv on rhercfore, 's appos" " se "' , However am biguo us a general category, th e feast may p rovld e a Us r 10[0 the wo rk1Ogs of spennc cultura l system s Irs ver y unbo d e ul entree __ . _ un edness a ty mg nature res.sr interpretive closure and may thereby open a Wt'd e WInd . nd ram•• what ., revea led and concea led In hum an behavio r , the stru ctures of 0 ", .nto that sca ffold such behavi o r, and, as will be argued , an:haeo]oglcal ' meaning res.d borh ' t h e m 'ucs of . H ere I attempr ro m arshal the ava,lable evidence conce r mng dwo nal fi esta of rhe Conibo and Shipibo, demz ens of the centra] .ndajar tr.

I I 1

Ucayali basin in the Amazon region of eastern Peru . This fiesta t h e an, shupper " • 'b Ig dnnJu ng .. m . C om'b 0 - Sh'P' ' 'b 0 ) , was practiced as recently as h reati ( , t e m,d'19 (d Ans 1994: Heath 199), Roberta Ca~pos and Joan Abelove, personal comm:~~ ca tion, April 18, I975) bur, as far as IS known , has been discontinued . . ' . . smce tha ame . The eVIdence LS of three kinds: (I) mterviews with Conibo·ShipI'b0 mformt an ts who remember the fiesta (the "memory culture" approach)'' (2) a .a" c , Iy large. . I

j

bur unevenly reliable corpus of references from missionaries ' explo rers, and a z. few early ethnographers; and (3) material correlates of the ani shreati th at can be tracked m the archaeological record. In pursuing this project, I will focus on those cemral themes proposed by Hay. den and Maneeprasert, namely: "(l ) the purpose of the feast; (2) the group in·

.. n wasa ciltOndec are ".no\151 cl !)' n " tera ' . f o the SpanlS (" godmothers"), or s.ucrJOI4.I pn t~, tn ",e '.), " ad,1IuU lex and leads to a cOflS.deranon of Corulx> o ~o o.scomp .... operatio .' ecanOus gender roles and. bv utert>too. !),e 1pobtlCS. pr • seJ{Ua an ' 9 6 9 ' Roe 1982' Gebban-Savcr IQ og,'l[Ilf (Odi oo Romrs who often ' seem resIStant lO or at least "'''U'i e (\I chaeologlS For ar . . ' let m e pOtllt out that much of the foUow\I)' osibuloes, raphiC se " b themselves. Tha t LS, It is not totaU • ·dc~p-:ru g 0 ch e eoru'bo-ShiP' art of fore lgn observers. A fundam~nul than . on the p . b .. al _.t , C ( 0(000 . the oppOSlOo n erween m e cw= an" I' m . o thought IS " b ings of nature, females are regarded 0 " Ship.b Th eaO"ve e . J\S proer alli S females with the drsrupnve fon:e: of tUNrt In ee 'seen e (OOCllpl ardians of culrure . m oderanon . and order . s are the gu d " _ t .... ",al e ( 82 1988'11 8---120 an m ore spealL~" tar d by Roe t 9 · . ' oose . ) thiS theme has bo th concep~1 and .w.\ rt n : oven (1996 , . /V( • s of concenmc circles FIg 1 An um r . uallZed U1 term . vtS f culture and conslsrs 01 h ou: e. fl ale domaln 0 to (b women'). The ome.mosl a rde c larelY dean< Y les and male hunnng. . An tnt<.'rlIl 3tt' libidinOUS ,ema

,,,rea

u.e

volved; and (3) [he amount of surplus that can be assembled for feasting purposes" (1996:18). This tripartition, however, cannot fully enfold the complexi· nes of the ani shri!1lti, and various sorties intO orher aspects of Conibo-Shipibo

HMAl [

-

culrure will conmbute comext.

PURPOSE OF THE FIESTA The manifest purpose of the ani shreatt was

to

mark and celebrate the penod

when a girl or cohon of girls reached, or approached, maInageable age. Th,s straightforward statemem, however, needs clarification. The fiesta, although techrucally a "puberty rite," dtd nOt necessarily correspond to the onset of pu· berty as Slgnaled by first menstruation. In part, this is due to rhe custom of arranged infant betrorhals, today rare but formerly more common, gIrl as young as six years can be promised

[0

III

whIch a

an older, usually adolescent male

t Eakin , Launault, and Boonstra 1980:80- 83). ThIS practice possIbly accounts for rhl' gcl'a t variabIlity noted for the timing of [he ani sh rea ti, rangll1g from six to ten (f "Alg ' Hrre 'I ,

192~'2}4

236) through the more reahstlcaUy pubescent agcs of eleven

ff' ,rteen ye ar. rc-p(,rred by

I'IO~ 1<)0'1, Y no, SJbulc 111 IZJ~Ulrrl' loll I~l~, fu~ IJ, Iltn. f,,,.', {/·kIJlil!t,J Indl /laW'dhllilY /lIOn' th.ln puhrrtY l hr tn, 1I "vrll

( alvo '" J... rraburl' JI)

l'il\ 19 } ' 111

~{'vcral nln(·ttl·nlb "ccmury observc" (Pallare' ~nd

Tht w(((d ( rit/'falr

I

C'lff/'a

I I" Iltap

'"IWWIt.tl I/It. IHJIIIII

;216

~IVI'I11

I

I,ll

I

'

I

I

I

f I

FEAST A.ND FORUM 1"" THE UPPE.R AM.-'lC:

=--

• "gnrJen huntong" (Looarcs 1976) IS P urSltE!d tu; ... ht're.' rJ·IOC~ r~e bOLh conjuga l and il1lcit, takes pi ap,," , d 'l'xual I/lrcrcOU . , aCe:. r 1 tllnl SI eJlly ..1I1 . b ul It has [0 do wtLh co min g to term . I Jrure IS J 0 , S With v \Vh,lIe cr e se ell se tammg both. As with othe r Amazo ' Ilatlltc d 11 snmc sen . nJan ,)Od hlslOf)' In ' I , 0 cf Bamberge r 1974), COlubo-Shiplbo group, d Murphy 1974,23 " I11Ylf); (~IUrphy .n h women were on control, pOssessed phaU' t h" . s n rime w en . . le OUl lory recounl, S Por the Corubo-ShipJbo correctly eS' "r 11 had pelllse ' sensin ' more hfera y, f!.his hIStory- the clitoris is a vestige of an er g lh, ' I correlates o · " , a When In:1I0n1ICJ versed Periodic eXCISIOn 15 necessary to n,a1e: d rc laJe roles were re . . reverse ,In en f female control and the conconutant reversio th, f I resurfacIng 0 , n to n. nds Tills is not a worldvlew without angSt A "'re venge U and dIsorder tha[ If porte , , " ' cCordi" I b I sm and castranon aflXlety are nfe among the Co 'b gy, vaK'"a nelltala sym 0 J , , 1lJ o'Sh. ther Panoan-speaking groups (e,g" Kensmger [995' P 11 Ibo as we as 0 , " ,237- '-16 hese are ancient Sourh Amencan, if not pan-huma b ' ' Th 51Slund 1973). a[ t , n, e"e(si! a(res[e d cIearIy rn Chavrn Iconography of rhe Andean Pormative (Burger .• c U!cl\f,ne d . .lIt:

I

I

,I

1992:ligs , TJ8-TJ9, 207),

PREPARATION A1J sources agree chat hosting an ani shreati was a long and arduous process Prepara Dons could begin as much as two ro three years before the event and en, railed rhe clearing of gardens and rhe planting of manioc, camote (SWeet potato),

.. ",TATION [Iements range from smgle hou holds l ,,tu ibo set S bo ' P ru ne a domtole. the other a kitchen to (OnUh CO cures , 0 c . ,en[ S[rU hun d re ds ' Historical and .m:JuaeologlCol n:l re III • . ch roen[S we d dirrunurive versIOns of (y.mt In the t .... · ste , ho fi UJlloes rTl 81) estimated rhat a est. acrnet.d .... " hundJed l 8 (1980 : <>d ac.mpo Corubo-Shipibo uUOI UlanlS >at that tllli , a t'i dfed guestS, MrhY large Shipibo communi", of an Fun. de YoUUU

g Ate

,

.. theon ·'"ed fr om as far as rhe PisqUl to rhe norrh an..! the l'adut • to guestS .m f ~ w hundred kilometers b m'er R~! _ tCtun ent 0 a e • ca , ( t969A~0) furrushes otherv." bdido Roman ochaIU cs 0 f ID'""tanon Speaal heralds. called .:baJUtl In _ ' e rTl d wnsueam to announce rhe up.."()mm~ t Th and 0 scream , d rh nrualized hostility Thehor-ehne Im < receive W1 were orher women, to v. hleh rhe dw d t o go see our w.n t necks cut' (as "iIlix em, not an I e I will get your gor" by of IDvltation llTlpbcatc; anorhe. c P' oal Tbe geogra p _. at although Cib! as con. nm, an rh u1 Ship,bo c cure '

b-

and sugarcane (Samanez Y Ocampo 1980:80-81, Karsten 1955:156-[57, Ra. 1982:97-98), Prom rhese cultigens, prodigious quantities of manioc beer and cane liquor were brewed' As the fiesta approached, many additional demands had to be met. Men hunted in order to proVIde meat. As meat storage m the humid troptcs il Short-term, captive peccanes, monkeys, Juvenile tapirs, and curassows were raised and farrened as pets in anridpation of the commg feast (Odtcio Romin

'969:49~o,lllius 1985:586), Even manatees were caught, penned, and fed a speaaJ diet of water plants (Heath 1991:7), New ponery vessels, especially large beer sroragejars and beer-serving mugs, had to be manufactured (Samanez y Ocampo 1980:44: Tessmann 1928:206-207; Roe 1982:97--98, [00- 101; Heath t991 :5), Women wove new dorhing and beaded new ornamentS, as protocol demanded rhat hoSls and guests alike be dressed appropnately (Sabate 1922- 1929, 10:269 271). In addJlJon, a large guest house was often constructed (Dial Camrirda '923:407"408, IIIlus 198n84). ObViously, the core sponsors of an alII 5/11(1111 «lid to number

frflm /Jnc l/J five men, rncludmg fathers uf Ihe girls

unJergtltn~ Ihe

1)(' ablt· If) malshal and orchcslr,lIc nlll"dl'l'abl .. labur IJh," h.d h,,/.. u dlld M'I vr-d Iwi'r , Iht.lldS;! lunll(,1Il1 "I CIIllIb" Shll',b"

'f'n'rntJOYJ had 11) Ihat,

Jrl

rurn,

r'r ,.111/,

"I

211

.

h

\1eWe d In rumS of n Yer msranee The nng of cxtraloeal mvitation encomp asses poteno aJ dilln es and allies ThIs prmamate, "neutral " zone can be contrasted Wlth a more c:iIsranr penphery mhablted by 'WlilUl , tbe genene Panoan term for "for. eJgnecs" or "enenues " Thar locality and the gr,aments of mstanee, both spatial and soaaJ, tbat surround It should be so parnnoned IS not unfamiliar, Siskind sketches a parallel model for the Panoan Sharanahua as does E,,'-> ''''50n (197]·4,.~o)

-=

(199-1 26) for the Mayoruna , much farther afield, comparable examples are legion (e.g .. Cole 1945:131 for the Jfugao ; Boddy [982:694 for a Sudanese village).

Feasts can be viewed as drama (Goldman 1964, Gregor 1977). The arnval of canoe·bome guests ro an ani sltreari certainly resembled an act ID a well.staged play. The reception of guests was steeped in etiquette, Hosts, bedecked in finety, wenr ro the shoreline with mugs filled with welcoming manioc beer or cane Irquor. Afrer this initial encounter, visirors, amidst a chorus of drums, flutes, and panpipes, were escorted to the newly constructed guest house where more Ilba. tions were served. Confrontation was now choreographed. Host and guest males formed facing hoes, each male bearing a hardwood club (called macana in local Sparush, hu.lno in Conibo-Slupibo); light head taps were exchanged between the contestants (Sabate '922-1929, 10:269-271; Roe 1982:98-99). Host and guest ID

a parallel case of ntualized conflict, wrestled (Heath 1991:8), Such an.

tagonisnc "opening ceremonies" are a widespread feature in South American ethnography e,g ., Clastres 1998:225-226), ln the Conibo-ShJpibo case, It

IS

mter.

esnng that such publicly acted hostiliues Involve females agaInSt females, males ag3lIl5f males. Intersexual berating and bantenng are evident but seem to play a less focal role than among the Sharanahua (Siskind 19n105) or the Cashmahua (Kensmger 1995'57-58 ) who have elevated such nbaldry to hIgh art. Guest males then engaged

ill

an archery COntest 10 which the targct5 were a

",'hire· lipped peccary. a curassow, or a spider monkey tethered to a large cros~ of balsa wood IOdicio Roman 1969:49~o, Roe 1982:99101, er Eakln 199012 Il l, Some of the older accounts state that the best arcbers had first claim to mJrry the

guts to be arcumdsed (Diaz Casraiieda 192]:407- '408, de Undrre 19R12.10) In contra Heath {J991 6-71, who acrualJy WItnessed onc of rhe IJ'I ani ,hrfdlt,

places me Iu1Jmg

(

rht:$e animals raised a pets laltr ID the lit"ld In JdJlllon, shr that 11 LS me ht) t m.les whl' ~p('.an'd Ihe caplUTl'd g.lIn .... Iht lirul kllhng n don by lh very wI}men Will, WCft I" 'IV' r "" Ih,' (IIlolld,'d(UII) '1 hi IU by th animal wllh f1ule , "till IWI "IIIJ!. III Irllll1r.lll (, unl'JI'I" ()f

., r IS/1l7 154 lW)

of h

tars . ca d r 1<ss fo (1l 9SZ22J) ' I~tee>.m t'f Roe I (Roe 10'2.."I-'i' I women . ri>Ul text of the ants bathlog . the con d mOrc, 1Il d been dome,oeared an chat IS, they ha aroma! .. ffin _ t . It 15 th ese of ajfiolt)' en ",e1din~ ph Ule tbbyWOm dea w . al' symbofue: rh 'u

H

ehe wtld aIlJ.IIl

(199.:8 ).

FI RST ENCOUNTERS

women.

p..-o:anl!' ~ cl.., c

I m~ In "gun 1l2, Ih. 111111011 ,1111/'11 Iou nlU I , Mc" y I' I • Id I I" III I' with ,,'ll,

ING AND DURATION UL ...... h SCHED ;l[ th .... , " . . ,.,u" . th Sources state conve01enl 01, t li ch ho\\ SU . ee Roe 10 .2 '104-1 8211 ~·,

195

respect

,to

duranon , there are

I

tuft (con IJered to be the rn. re eheu' Imgul50c and rulrural b lhren IS

said to hJ\c la.-red

rught (palIare. and

Cl hI

al

102

1~2 '206 lO~. '"

d

Frth

-3-4' 1 \\1th the clltond Cl lzagwrre

I

•

",ten I

I

Heath 1991 ,.Im~nez ciJlmrd

DANCING

loa

1

AND FIGHTING

The ~"I h't4n ~ctfi to th rem n lertd (, nh Call tn I be t't" vgIlll

Clrel ,th I

t

a

FEAST AND FORUM'

~c k for read), access. IS called IlIIishall (Samanez y ~..... I, ... d e d .HOUl1cl 'Il~ Or.lmpo IQ80 :80- I; D,dz CastJiieda 19 2):4 07-4 08; Karsten 1955 ' 157- 158; Roe ( .L. .' unau/, 1952) IQlb . IOo- 10 1, C . . Accusnuons of adultery were said to be the pn.. m~n mstlgJtlOn of these confronta nons. Watchjng women at first encou raged l hese sell mes b u r the n Jttempted to Intervene before mOre serious, but rarel . y IClh')J. outcomes ensued (de Uriafte 1982 :242 ; Karsten 1955 01 57- 158; Odicio ' 9 --u~o) • As an aside , J sho uld note that in the ea rly 1970s, when COn _ ROn1J. I1 1069 .4 du nng archaeologIca l work o n the Ucayali . seve ral of my older Shipibo work_ m cn bore muluple nuchal sca rs, proud tokens of their virility, remembered Or Olhenvise. While men anempted to hold center stage in drunken histrionics atrendanr to the 11111 ."reall. things were happening among women as weU_ sll~pt:n

H.( UPPER "MAZ

n a ocarn p o got It nght by plaang beer tmt saf11anez y eo (Goldman 1966:83-84\ dnnk. n t <>od. f -he cub . I ~h, ~Ike L" panoan-speakmg anw.cape uggm k at the we 100 nio beer tends nor to be produced among mtcrl u c that",a Yarrunahua (Townsley 1994:2 0). or C ,hi h,~ahua , li d th CaSI~' the Iane r, for UlStance. meat s ce tmm e .:arm h Afllong f the major feast. In conll ast, among th Coru ward 0 d ,'-._1_ . I era re ,th a
an P _I named Cubeo "dnnkingpart)' the apuy CLITORIDECTOMY The 3Crual operation, the nominal purpose of the fiesta , deserves a separate paper. whIch is another way of saying that details are sparse when it comes to secrellve aspects of Corubo-Shipibo culrure, although both female and male anthropologISts have considered the "problem ." As indicated earlier, the Operation Was performed by women skilled as surgeons. Called shatoti' (lllius 1985:586), it took place III a speoal sa-ucrure situated weU away from the main plaza filled with danc109 and otherwise hysterical men (the "culture" zone). This removed structure was vanously called quiJcltiqllepiti (Pallares and Calvo in Larrabure i. Correa 1905-[909, 9:60) or pllsllllva (Karsten 1955:155-156; Girard 1958;240). Note that this

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNATURE a1 aversion to understatement. the late DolUld Lathnp With typlC the average sIZe of each of the fun:tl nal cl survevmg ,-Tropical Forest group, one, I J t the vanO us ~'~"VlIlg ,~ .. seI Wl th a m axunum ruarneter of more than 40 cm , . ye SS_I 000 t::i. The presence of such la~ COnt= i'" m llI\ be [aken as evidence cbar beer was present and th~t On

full swing. (1970:55)

srrncrure (essentially a medical hut) was situated in the "neutral" zone. In this

Lathrap was dearly ba -ing this judgm nt

sense, I[ resembles the taupo (a term of possible quechua origin), or poner's shed,

connnued by several of Ius rodent;

where raw clay and other materials are converted into cultural form _The young

Lathrap 1979, DeBoer III pr~_ .). the

gu-ls were anesthetized with ample draughts of cane liquor, a bit stronger than manioc brew. Surgical tmplements were heated and presumably sanitized in a speaal day pot, of which more later. The excision of the clitoris was done with the

re four funcoonal cl.l:sc _ .md three

sharpened nails of the sacerdota (Izaguirre 1928:234-236), with a sharp cane knife

(Eakm, Lauriault, and Boonsrra 1980;79--80), or, as one of my male informanrs averred, WIth the metal lid of a discarded tuna can. The wound was washed in a heated soluoon of pm-pin (various plants of the Cyperaceae family see Tournon 1984, Eakm, Launalt, and Boonsa-a T980;63--64), and then a fired clay object, the shirvi'rumli (males call it Irnshl, or penis), was inserted between the vaginal labia [0

prevent acacnciaJ complicatiOns (d'Ans T994 relays some typically out-oC-focus photographs; also see

Kar~ten '955 " 57

'58; Roe 1982 gIVes a differenr slanr),

THE MORNING AFTER (.onduid(J rl ma53t() y los VIV"f(''s, ludo

()C~IIIPO

19!1rJ 80 8'1,

Wh~n

Iht bl""

t·1 1l111nd" s(' JISP('[ Sil" (SJI11.lnt'Z y

dnd fooJ .trl· gO/1(', l'vI"yhudy It,.lv,',·

222

funcoonal cia es are cooklll • (Xli and therefore unp.Jffit d I. hqUIJ st

r m

"I.

mugs The SIZe mode' .1["( . tt' l.ll'g mg") yes 'els th.1t arc typl(',dl . bm n t dmary"'sized yes d· lsometlm and Qnllama) us('d III quotidian 10 small vesseL t VIlOl, or kid ers The l't'suh.1.l1t I man:ze

reI

nt

ar(hacoltlgl< al IRJ\ llIond, [) B

nJ h h

Ir I

I

I

t

h

I

FEAST ANO fO~u

- kenli ani

iku

Food 80"\ Irctt~.ftJ

- kenti an lcha

• • • • • • • •

Sf1l 3Ufor (nJlSPor ken l l an i lama I

t

OdlilO ror quo MedlUfO

na..-"

O'

II

"""""

1'

I .

•

'. .. '

ken,. vleu .... .......' - _ . / /

~ for 6es'"

- c homo anI

-' . ;",_" -

... ..:.;., . "

-

..

~ " \-

' ~~ i··"i

ern and archaeolog lGU come;b Th

-

--

-"

'.

_ehomo anuama

mo nd , DeBoer. ~nJ Roe N->; fi, H th [ary "ems that .He a([1v~teJ ~1'<:lfi .ill tn a Notable ar~ {he h'"'' ,H,' th {' r< beer from [he bortorn oi l , l' lint kegs as they ~pprl1Jch empty I .1 eled as dolphUl. \ rll! ~ 4--\).... n I n

or, as ,hown chomo vleu

kenpo . nl

In

I~o)'ill

{KenslOga

kenpo

kenpo v.cu

4

ke nchl VlCu

kench.

u npdlntr d cooltlllg pUIS ~n' at IUp. p.IIIII,,1,rl v

\lnlln,

pott,'r\ \c.,,'b \R, Par ~rh(·rn~h.l IIh'r .h,' r~n(' klllk lo( Ih rhe n« k 01 ~,(U d dull sl'Il r J IIHo

.,.~ 8 I hrJuw Corubo Sluplbo v~.. d forms log

lill

tone arch.leol" 'I('al . He Ou, featuf< at

Peacu. ktnchl

Tc 111.lI\n

Th ..

IJIIl'r

ton" un

ll.h

th gIrl h , Ix- n

~

r.,

Ihe lIt,llllfll

<1. 0 1\1\11> III

III

t

b

I

I

••

. .'.. , ,(

"', ,~

,

"

I

,,"',,", "" , - • 1 , '"

. . ' ·,

,

•

•

,

, . ,

, •

"

,

'., ',..

.....

D

•

\

cm

o

•,• , , , .

. ,.,.

I~'

·,.

_ _h

,:'.

•

, •

o

cm

em5

Pigure 84. Artifacts associated with the ani shreati. A. Toltcoate, or suspended beer dipper. 111 me form of a river dolplun . Amencan Museum of Natural H.istory, Catalogue Num. ber 40.0/ 4770. B.}obosko lOneoate, or beer dipper modeled as testicles. This specimen, un. paUlted and unfired, was recorded in San Francisco de Yarinacocha in 1971. C. Para kO"IsO (Roe 1982:327), orcane knife used U1 cLtoridectomy. Specinnen formerly on dJsplay anhe Amencan Museum of Natural History. New York. D. Traditional huulultl, or men's loufe Wlm toucan beak blade (after Tessmann 1928:fig. 14). E. Clay plug, a probable SllCn't. M"n, found at the Cumancaya SIte (after Roe 1973 fig. 63f-g).

wluch a por pJaced over a fire should nor be so decoraced. It can be treated as a standard case of sacred reversal, as widely artested in world ethnography (Iht "contraries" of the Cheyenne-GnnnelJ '923, 2:79 86 and the "opposite talkers" of the ZUnt TedJock 1979503 come to mind). Another ves~c l form, J small, JhaJlow bowl called IUInr all III Shlplbo, held the blaLk plgmenl L1scJ III painting the facts "f girls undrrglJllIg tht· cJllorideClOtny I~Ol' (197l171 1'4) h,l\ Identified wh~t i.ltkd y trJ I,.. ill 1 :H d IJ('olilgl( ,I I I: X.I ntplt' ,,/ t h 1\ lor III .11 til( "I,' "I ( umanaya (JIg. 11 ~HJ-

226

Fl~'Un: ~ 5 P,l(tn

'<

I, u,cJ [or hc.llIng ".,el lor the hI 19-1. B ·h.III"" h"" 1\\ uh IT, d buwl Frunl the uon 11" 1Ie

Clvrn Ih" 'a

n

Jbu\(' II,t 01 .Iltl .. I

blJgn ~lId Ullput rJltl~ h"'e.\ Jt

1".1

I .. ,

hll\\ ""

r, b

I

nt 1111

AU AN D rO rE AST

- ---_.-_.

-

~.

( I ~t-I C'I : ""O H , ) l' ~IIIll.lI t.' d lh.1 1 fO ICl 1° " ' n n fTn o u ~: ' be . . h~ld I n 1,,-, II h llHlI .l l lUll' d lo t IIH' fil II sh" t,If' F.lI .lhcc ( IQ22.:85 R6) !l Ol r d lh~llt lal ~ IlHllh l" pI Ih e ~ lrllIIHJt.'I~()II1~ tlll' () P C I' ,III O IlIl1 .h.l l' .II,H'ge J.I!' ho khn n 2. . the .' i .111 t.1I It

\

ClrllllllW

~.llI p l1~ ( ~O lilt' '''' ./.ll

\lI t h

,.If. .

,

0 O r 11''1 01'

e"I

nl. whlll' Rot" ( ll,I S.L:Q7 10 1) ""0 1'111,:'111( $ indi ca led lhll e . J t YPll.l . I our S II/"If,. I AI 11lHlg I I, ,emphaS iZing th' e oS15 10 w (' rt' II('c dt~d tnr {1t ..

( 1 987: ~6 91 )

hulir 1I1IIh' I lI"Itll1 1hI..' vn /ullll' lnr. C cbh.lI'IS,ly c..' r

ih

glVl' 11 III

1:1hlc

foil .

!Ill'

volume

01

'~lrgc

yrn.

bte.r Jars (dl~"~: VC~_ IlhIIH.lf.ll"nU"l' d by Ihe Cnnibu ·Shipibo 1J1 IQ7' WJS about l OO Iners. Thus voltl alii ) '" I I' mel, I I n l '_' Ulll.lft':' 01 ht."t'1 PI'OdU(l'l of ,111 aUl S 11t.'rJlI n11g 11 r.1ngc -ron1 1.500 to 4 " dH: ,\

1I1(.'~1I1

c as lS S"",

Iuer'. figlU'l'S Ih ,ll wITe,,,ond to Alv.lI·ez·s ( '970:50) comment thnt 3,000 lilel:: OOr 111,,""" bl'l'r could be (nn. ltl1lcd re,ldtly ,H •• Piro festival WIthin a few days (er. ~ IllI' . o~s~RI ) . In size ,lncl volume, I,\I'S and servmg vessels from Ihe thousa d "n _ Il'Jfold C UI11 ,,"l"••)'J ,lOd Sonocheneo S/lt' S con fo l' 111 10 the.r 1110dern desee d 11 ants (Dl'Ilol'f 10 pr~'~ l. Nl' lo,,,hzed a," .,Intl/I/. needl~ss ro soy. has been "dug up"; however, eeremo. "loll depmll;, 10 J.!,hllon to com1110n 111.ddens, have been sampled in excavattons l\lntlUltetl •• Iong Ihe U "y"II Ceremon.al depOSits include linear arrays of ,mJ,hl't! ceram.c vessels, conJotnJble uHO whole pot, and urn featul'es Conram. 109 e.ther pnnhlr)' or secondary burials. Table 8.2 presents the OCcurrence of beer w"el, (kt'l1f'>' cllO/110 alii, clOd Ihetr prehisrol'ic "cognates") and "orher vessels" in J range of ethnographic and .lrchacologicJI contexts, For ontemporary Conibo. Shlplba JS well JS for prrhllon mldden and bunal contexts, beer vessels con sorUle aboul "nC' 'lxth of all cer,I111IC containers In "smashed vessel fearures, "

hll\\c\l' r, rhlS rJlIO " essentially one A1lhough Ihese smashed vessel fearures

of Beer and Nonbeer Vessels and Archaeological Contexts

In

EthnographIc

Otill'r

Il

llU

I I

~y

(J.,

I

7/11

i. I Z7

I I

II

171

I \

7

is

. 1Id

d en< , It.

~

WIlh"UI ", h 11'1',11 allJ ub) lU'1 I ~ la, "

III qllr>lhlll ,

I I ,

DISCUSSION AND

Ih

I

I

u.

I I

111 '1< III Ihlll1h I ,

., I, IUht, "" hI I

n Ih I

N LU ,

\\'hrn r ~UI' Ih I t 14

(0

enn'

~

mortuary r , , r preted as .C ID supp<,rt tlu~ UlteTp lo(C. v,deol. rI tfl be eluSive e _ .. 1 m.1ru~ .: c 1,1" rrrle ( 0 0 "fhel r ce ram. L ,~ Iher<' ,5 ~ RaC .975:59)' d vessels predomlDat~ BO,r, aO .h beer-relate d o the r " e, , d- 'ce ~' , , ",hI< r mugs an st. •., os,I .0 ~'ng of bee tlf thro uC.ho ut Con • 3S a rno r -n1aSI u -rhO 11 ,hr I 'IS" VlSU. h h and at er" h d de'l.m appli J t t the other .In, ... th (98 1). On duced [0 dot: and cm. , 'd eromy was re h cliwn e ' an or PJ!n1 no\\ l. r I lOll I . 'or of the IUlll( , t mIen , ) De,.gt1 "mphfiCJUu"I11.1 ,. ,.. Ih llol klloll1ercr> mIrth III ,>\lth~" fig Ih IIll' clhnu!:r,lphll, "thnohl.h'nl.al nd 01 k.hls TIllS lIllllblllC,1 J~I t \ how rt\\I!lllfiv w1lrk J IIh lilt nil 1\

TABLE 8.2 DI~\rIbution

.. IN n<E U PPER

11

nJ Ih \ till

m

FEAST ANa FORUM IN THE UPPER .. M .. ZON::......_ _ \\ "" , /1 R Prt/ tln

--

•

i r.ll1y I1H:hn e cl but wo uld It.'ewe t )lo~' r:" lln.ld .11"'HI Ih.,t w(luld r1c,••\ t I ,,11 ,\ /rH'III' r.lkcs, ,- I I nl I h.!I I l C I JI'.,......~d tht' ..pt' l'I le n . J ( (OUIl I • I1 IS I11 srfu cnvc t o cite a casual ,. .. III,fJ{I()I Y fi ,-on, . 'n pUI.,UIIIJ.! .1 Inore _. " [hl\ competitiVe lcs ra emerged rUture Icad. Ol LlrlllliC? Pro J . Crs J 1I1('nl ollrrcd h)' e I _ If rhe hosrs ,!JJnlL' 10 3llran skdlful so • . the

I

"r(lu~(',"

,I

I I

J

IlIrurl~ nVil S

iIIl

'

fished all

II

. '

,".

,

\

IlS' 1I1

on OblJII111lg WIVC!) ( OrllZ 1982.;240 • weI"C
,

.

,, , / '~~

.''1 0l I n)lf

un

nllenl

,

..

,

-.

PROPER FEMALES ,

SEXLESS

EXTRA-

~ -

. and

111'\ ·men \\ )0 . the next generation of altI sllreatl. Yet another factor i . \\ ould fome w SpOI1'ior n

ren",n.J d os [he COl1lbo-Shlplbo were aVld raiders. pilIag U 1,he 19JoS all even 19~ . 109 nU ch as [he Amahuaca. Isconahua. Campa. and Cashibo fi ch 'din backwoods groups >u Or d " cs Al least for me Coru b0, su nu g was already co", . .. IJ\l~.s boory. an \\ IV ' 8 ) W. I '!'nteench cenrury (DeBoer 19 6. Ives captured In the monplacc III Ihe ate ses ' . se ous extepoon to the otherwtse general pracOce of m b d rJlds ('onsorule an 0 V I · _ .. at· nJncaiJ , Thai IS. men not only ",.med-m, but also made up a military corps that could a~d did abduct Wives from the outside. Even today: genealogics record the ,recrUlrmeor .. 0 f such foreign women and can trace therr ped1gree to living de. scendantS From rhe Corubo·Sruplbo perspective one shared by their mestizo neigh. bors-these foreign women, although orren created as second-class citizens and drudge labor. were nonetheless exotic, untamed. and decidedly sexy. 10 Whatever sc,-ual fancasleswere mvolved. both inside and "recruited"' forms of female labor produced tbe prodigIOUS quantities of beer needed for fiestas and gave birth to cluldren-preferably females- who attracted anomer cohort of sons-in· law. Our. mg tlus rephcative process, ideally timed to a full moon, females lost their coUec. o\'e clJtons for the effort. Something has gOt to be missing. These ethnographIC addenda force reconsideration of earlier schemata in wruch male culrure, cenrered on the house plaza, was concrasted with an outer female zone of narure and WIlderness. [n quotidian terms, the reverse situation holds! Women ruled the home frOnt and were part of endunng resIdential units of related females. while men were In·marrying strangers typIcally lacktng sup· poruve km. were obhged [Q observe mother-in-law avoidance, and otherwise oc· ruplU! precanou.s sOCial pOSItiOnS, As Brown (1963) observed some ume ago. matnlf)cahry (an be 3 f31her formidable nre of passage for men Warfare and the fema!!'ht,(ltYt!pmvidedwtrt:, a m 'lOg morr prtd!C2m~nt as It a rrndl"t<.-d In Ftgur(" H " 1I

HO

[oing~.

mall' palhallvcs

In

Figure 8.6. Schema for marnage .,"d "-, Dou
TABLE 8.3

Synopsis of Schematic Polarities: The Contbo- hip. Inner I CIVlhloluonl house

nlhurt' trir",1

n

thiS

,

t

Lt I't'

t

m I

WIlrH"fI I(.

erp"lrato' P

I >r8(lrr

or raplIle? Such amb'gUlry,

however- anathema lO Iog'e"n '. Ob'l~COVlli:t nonons of sClcnce- LS [ hc way In W h leI1 hunlans work d s and to . . d an ~. by ",ruch human phcnon,cna are playc out. Trus would seem to b l11annCr eparti , I representallOn, gender- is c r lhe C3>C whell sCX or IlS eu Itura cUlarlc . " on, ranted 1 olic,tcd yet unttred verdKl, G,ddens pur Il rn,s way: 'Oon'r lOok r. ' In Ius e tlons soaal practlces fultill , look for the contradictions they embod;'~ rUne_ 9 One only has to reread Naven (Bateson 1936), or tltis essay for mat 1 79:[31), , , r matter rcmJIlded mal human boeLes an d b e Ilav,or are 1I11ected by trans6 ' ' to b. , gunng and erwtse queer propertIeS, oth, Anomer macrer that needs ro be raken inw account is me seernln I " f di f g angevity r me a,1I shreD/I, a f ull mill ennJum lour rea ng 0 me archaeola ic 0 ' C 'b Slti 'b ' g aJ record ' 001 0pI 0 soclery and enviro IS correct Over rhis mill ennJum, , " nment have dergone major changes mcluciJng tJle wrenching dislocations effected b a un, pean coloniaHsm in its various sequent forms (San Roman 1975 prOvide Y Uro_ reVIew), In face. whemer one can speak of me Conibo or Sltipibo sa , " thni U ' h a thousand )'ears ago IS qUIZZIcaL As c appe anons t at mark real -world enrmes, ' , rhes , . e e labels are clearly lflVennons forged, developed. and negotiated durin rhe . vtJ ' " ' dh . g penod 111 que non ,et le alll s !reall survlVe c ese storms until rhe 1970S Th ' . " . . .. . e mterest. mg Issue, merefore." IS nor the evolunonary potenoal of rltis panicu Iar IrlStlCU' ' ,

t

oon so much as Its perdurance In me face of worlcls being remade, Th remarkable srasis of the ani shreati suggesrs an institution rhar is allchored se.e curely to me deepest values of Conibo-Sltipibo culture in its becoming and malO· '

,

. d UlcreasUlgly embMrassmg V".sn ' b of the . enog·n g Ite.chers or poLmcal acm'lStS , mO" .. m>:lv rum ~o a5schoO nal econom)', me mternanonal mukct lib the naO o '" , ' art and e"roUations of me nam..: pomt of vtr-., >.L n"vave '~~Ule P 'ch an onslaught of meddhng VtSltors, mclude: deal W1 hers If not all-purpose fuio:! for welo:hmr. Ibe cou f nog r ' p .. . ~ ' e me all' shrean prm,.de gau-, r feastS lik "., d 111 me special moments that agglegate human ge.Ie , char accompany human eXlstence, and Unde oOl es ' "world always In danger of gmng off COllne_ , I tl't bodies and brams behlnd mem-Iea"e derecuble tn way of me Ucayah, as mey do elsewhere,

NOTES , Also known as pUhloJ (Odleo Rom~n I~Q and evident in o[Ooons. che pc
tenance Perhaps srasls and replication are as much evolutionary processes as change itself The ant shrea/I remains somewhat fllzzy wim respect re me driving themes of thiS volume T1us fiesta surely played a role

In

l

social and bIological reproduclion,

not have been produced (although such "surplus" was dIssipated

111

m~ gorman

~

dum of the fic,ta). attracted labor essential ro the planned well bClI1g of hosllng wmmunme6. but les~ clearly acted as a crucible Icadmg to Increased (uiturJI mmp!<:xlty, hrJWt'vcr measured Other thart promised bodIes. CXch.ll1gr of gllt,or

I)

11

other matenal gr,ods wa, nOt cmphaslzed Valued Jnd mcrcas1I1gly e,senll. fUc.h a m~fhe!l~. ax"~, chamsaws, or oUlboard motors SImply Wnt

J

JOt

nlll

h1

alii

IIfTlUtlV

h of

olJlhrr Ih hflu/ ~rJ" r I.. haVl h.ld pIIIllJllly lilt t"IUII IJUIl" • _I , t IIII,III,JIII' H,I/ I I ( 1/1 I\' .. Shlpll", 'U/(Ult' I ht' ut'lIll" II

, anl/'lIt' W

I f

l1!1U'$ /Ill

ylfll'llIlll

"I

r 11 r wh(, Iq'J" d 11111 1.11

t illllW'lll "1'1'''1 III

Ifll

WhJt p"mon "I ,Ign.-ultural pI u. lln~nn\\'n rot the: Cuh \l I lJnl n (rt)p (uuld he;- dr~llllrJ h.\r hrrf nt'" I h..uh uh't't\("J "1.1I1WI\ 101 \,-ijl ,) I\d".... III • I'll

,,"h Ihe nl;UIJlc I r 'h dnlrlllll hr. \I 10 h.llhut

l'Unl('\t

lalltlattrm by whIch \Ich I rJIlSJl' I lom r"\Ild be purSUt',j in ,"ht"

~

I I I I ~tl,j!l htl 11.ldlll"ll~ "'

(I

wlthout

Clat)

'Ill! ail,

\\J

d1(l\\I\II1~. Jlhl Ihen .Iub

enpl "I Ihl' Ij('Sld, Jhhough till' /Hlll/m'tlll may hav tilrlllcd (or

n IOW Ih rted/

Wl'ft'

(\fi:~n

what appe,Jr to b on~II.. 1 JO\."mmt: bul. 10 construct a dcr.ukJ ph, I" n , I In IQ:";, RobulJ ,mp" ..nJ J n amon~ Ih Sh'p,h.... 1 tor 1'1 ut. I I pertorm.,1 th"" ('.11 h
r ,"dc,lIr.,")

prompted productIon of dnnk and other material goods that otherwise would

SOUI\:<.· .. .

Ill t

ut

~ Ulhllg

dUul1d

\)0'

,t

"' II

h

1

n

I

i.

t'

• «'It

FEAST AND FORtJM

7 In d -Ans·s '970 rt!15SU~ of NaY~rro ·s 190) dJcoonary. the entry fo r cl nOnd nt4.JPlJQnA dUl'41 or, when pa~td. m4Jpl (,· female gerurah.il" )'Jana (f
15

weU encapsulated by Lathrap's

dtagnOSl> of TropICal Forest fea.5tlng:

genera]

thrDl"'~-

.......". BruD° symbOlIC Wau ruIJ Glencoe The Fiee Plus 19">-' soddy, j. womb as 0'9S: The 5) rnbolic Con~en

!l'ttC>"

Northern sudan. """"""'" E~ " 4

t!l'l3

cwues' PIe""ChnmrdL of th_ Go"y,..ri IltdralU

15

1985'592 ). In 1968 at the combllled Campa.conrbo mISsion of Shahuaya • Pancho • a rnesuzo patron who had several Campa "WIVes," remarked chat the latter w ere .muy ardJente" In contraSt lO che Corubo who were "muy mo." Whalever the case, Ius

te.snmony IS of nouona! Interest. It is nOl my Intention here to expl:un why che Corubo·Shrplbo practice matnlocahry. One mIght ale the scauslIcally framed hypothesis forwarded by Ember and Ember (t971 ) chat such a residence rule d.tsperses fraternally bound males and thertby dlS(;ourages mtemal aggresSIon, while favonng externa! aggression One could JUS!" weD argue that male absenteeISm-promoted by mercenary acav,ucs dunng the rubber boom era, employment In lumbenng or other extraCtive Industnes, or, more recently, military servICe could encourage "mamfocal" lendencre, From. Darwuuan per>pectlve, however, one can assess consequences WIthout 'pwlyrng ungms. G,ven matnlocaJlty, Murphy (t957) snll provIdes onc of the be't ac"ld br "pplred to the ConobuSh,plbo.

coder<, Hden KwaI
I'»'

M"unaU. ""ra rI rs",.i..,drl~ M.wr de an ~blco • !>en. • L !ruo"lon et I e,ct>lOO de, formaaom Ethnogupluqu ""8"'4p/llt

9" 19

QC) ( .

lkBo
1971

rch eologtcal Explora .."on, D p~ruucnt /In Ruffu 7. n m the ulcunl IOncal ppm h. IftLI'V P,1I.:t~ nd I'rodu U n m m

In prC'

(nml(

A ,dt.U\!Wgy ( BUrgt'r

Dum

0,110<,. """'ten R. nJ

\

It.!

REFERENCES Alvar

I.

Ham

/.0,

I~ro,

rg...r. jI,.n 1'174

Ba

"

f.!,r .. rdf,

IWr,

I"1f_m. (At

'9l6

/lo" Ayt! (,(

ald'/~nd II,uJ

A,"la ••

IJy In

I rllph,

If ,

Womml, I

u".'I", ",,,I ~"
I

IIfflt

1'h RH

PP L6S .l.Hn Slanf,,,,", ,-..ldl1torJ lJrIlVr ,\II'!'II'

r. Jry St flff/.d I hllVI ~

filly

4

I'll

•

199S

custom adopted from che Cashlbo-a people . whom chcy otherwtse regard to bt• abject s""'ges assumes some comprehenSlbrlrty, If not hrstonaty (C ebha n.Sayer

11

IIJ96

asped0 de b dlaI~cnca ".a" lIn l.wnr~ L4 - 1-IC1J Pon0..6oa U nJtGSid y4

JUcbch K. Br<>""'A cross.Cultural Srudy of fooma\c 1nl

CocktaIl party may be a bll anaquared as a convmctng alluSIon. but the dta rnJl rellrng gnoSIS IS

10.

set"'"d-~ .

19~

""C cruaal mechanum by w hi ch o ne Tro pu:;aJ r-orest Village could acni-' .... e Qr matn po", IJ,," dut would Impress tU nelghbon: WaJ to gIVe a flest.a wruch lasted Ionger b;Lam a pc.ndcd mort' ~er, ,and unJcoilhed m ore d runken brawls than any other fi esta III mcm . ' The drunk.m brawls dun ng th~ fiesUls affo rded a cuJrura.1Jy 5aJlctloned 0 CJry_ . PPOrtu"' ~ ~ duc.h.argmg alJ tht tensiOns and tn(upersonal aggre.ss1on wtuch had bUilt Upmt - h re" Or of cby.to-day bVUlg In 1[.$ fo rm and fuocn ons. the TropJc.aJ Porut fif.Sta p a n~...... m \\'U OUJ'It no unlik e eNt o f the modem cockall party. but 11 lastc~. d far lonP' \ o "cr and . o n ' he aVeragr aockery and hc.ach gal broun '1970:54 ) • more

9 In tIus Irglll, the cIa1m made by some Conrbo·Shrpibo rhar che clllond eaomy

o" .,..eI1, P

n

o l

• ,qiI>

.

dt' Un~nc Bucn.J,,·cnrun L 10 1 LA Mantaiio dtl f'tn Ann oul.Cd by Fr Droms!!) Oniz. Lima· Crafic. YJ " 942) Diu C.ut.ilnedl. '92)

ern r b

I

.

CiJ

Kunl O. n

.

.

/lrvutIJ ,"mm Tal de ..uulio. anLT"P.l.g.c.J .

.

1

(2r J9~. 4,:J9 t."....

M~o de Arqu appeared .. Sabre 105 Indlos ru",~_. same m _ '.1fJl '" 11...

gwrre

19l1- 1g29. 1 JOI- J20.J

W in. LuaDe

TIlL Life St"'Y./ a Shll"bo Bilingual Educator. Oolla•. Inl(Jn;. 00031 M"",,um of Culrures. Summer Instlru", of Lmgul>uu. Will. LuaDe. Erwln loun.uk and Harry Boonstra 1990

X.LW>

/Ja/inO

&"f1'q' nnogllijico de Ios Sh'l"bo·C",,,bo del Uatyalr Lima Ign.Of) h .dr, Pamr Emb
1980

r97I

The CondmOJU P.rvonng MornJoca! versus Patnloe,] R<:.,dencc . .\~ Anthr"P"logur 73 571"'594

td

Enci:SI)n. P/uJ'PP< 1..01 MayoTUoa In C"i4 nhJIDgrafim de la alfa A""'zoni4. ed,ted by ftrnando Santos and Fredena B.felaY. vol 2, pp. 1- /28. QuiI/) FlACSO.Sedc Farabee. Wilham C.

1994

the Pcabody Mu""um f,f Amtm.n Arclueology and Ethnology X. Harvard Univer>lty. fTan!:. EdwIO H 1922

Ind",n Tnba 0/ &u1C>! Pm. . Papers

()f

Lt" Urn In G..", anogrlifim de la alta Amazoni4. edited by Fernando Saruos and Fredtnco Sare/ay. vol 1 pp. 129 237 QUltO FUlCSO.Sede Geblun·Sayer. Angc/Jh 1980

'919

r'/lS

I~

nu.

K.Md.III

r

t!19j

Madchenbeschnerdung b... den Sh'p!boCf,rubo. Oft Peru In IN B,awl. GtI,tbl·'W.iuJ.fi gflllludtt'JI",aubl Z., RJJU, d", Fra. Im K.uurwrg/tido. 'OILUn rur

er Kmneth

Edu"d by G Vf,l~r .nd K. Wm Wel, k Spec,.l" ue f:thnologrca 11 I., SIr' '591 Die Sl"tu del &wit1SIU't1U Unu1Hu:h.ngtn z. Wtltb.1d onA Kw",t d" SIt pi» Cr>mbo jf',hen>ehafilarn YJau.l
Ct'>1l1aJ hOb"n SOC",'Ihtory Mllon, StrlU'f.rc, and ContraJ", Umvermy rl taLf", TU. Pr GIr.,,!, r-.fad 1Y79

In,.,

"D. 8crtLky

'1lle trucw. III Wtua/ln ,I. fJrthwm Ama."1I t I and '.h" I "'IJ In 11""", DJ /011". fn.-"rd, ~d" d hy Kabnt It M 'U t~~ ( I AJd'I

".un 0

(It

•

la

I'J'

It

FE'"


,'I t H E UPPO

I

I I

Murplw. Ilo b('rl P S I H osnhry Jnd Qe lJ IQS7 Inu.' rg roup

O h CSIO I1 .

American AntllropolOO'l r

0-' S9 (6)

IOIR - 10 .IS

195 A

\\'o",r" oJ tilt Forrst

.. · 0 w(JO

"

I

hi

d . MJl%gin Cllmna . Lm1a, pnV3[e y pu Ished.

y LcYt:1I JU . " .. rnn ndo . :md Vi CCIUC Calvo PalJarcs. Fe . 'I SI Otl(!S del COfl VCllfOde SOllta Rosa de Ocopa . Jose Amich 196Q

MIlOl

Q75

HUlonn r ( (JJ /Ill

rl 870 J yContinua I

d

ores

Lima " Editorial Milla Barres. (AJso appear s .

to

La

rfa

b

Ure]

Correa 19°5- 19°9. 9 ;1- 105.) W n R DcBocr and Perer G. Roe

Raymond,j. Scorr.

arf"C

CumnrtCdYd

1975

•

·

A

1"1

'

PmlVUlI1

.. . C~amlc Tradltlon . Occasional Papers No •

1

,

Depan.

menr of Archaeology. UniverSIty of Calgary.

Fred. andJ .. n Thomas Nelson "'PP)·193 ill : U ruve.rslry ' . 0 f N or th Carolma Press. CruSll of rllejutlglc. Chapel H drrs 6 n.

. J.

Roe. Perer G

Cumancay. ' ArchaeologIcal Excavanons and Ethnograpluc Analogy III 'he PeruVIan Montana. Ph D. dissertation . Department o f Anthropology. Urn.

' 973

versiry of 11I1nots-Urbana. Tilt Cosmic Zygote: Cosmology

1982

In

the Amazon Basin . New Brunswick.: Rutgers

Uruverslty Press

Saba,e. Luis '922-

Via)e de los padres misioneros del Convento del Cuzco alas tribus

'9 2 9

salva)e. de las Campas. Pires. Curubos. y Shipibos por el Padre Fray Lu" Sabare en el ano 1874. In HlStona de la.s misiones franciscanas y narraciofl dr 105

prograos de!Jl geograjia : Re!Jltos ongHUlles y prodllCClones ell lenguos ,"dig'"os d, vanos mlSIOrleTOS. ,6J 9-192 1, by Bemardino (zaguirre, rO:I9-304. Lima: Talleres Gr:ificos de la PerutenC13na. Samanez y Ocampo.Jose B. 1980 Explorac";,, dt lDS nos prruanos Apurimac, Eni, Tambo , Ucayah y Unlbambn lluha

por Josr B. SamalllZ y Ocampo en J883 y J884 . L,ma Sesator San Roman, Jesus Perfiles hlSLoncos de!Jl Amazollla pcrua.Ul. Lima Ital-Peru SlSkmd.Janet '975

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To Hunt in th, MornIng. London : Olt.ford UruverSlty Press.

Tedlock. Denni. 1979

Zun, Rehglon and World View In Hm.dbook oJ Non!t AmeYlwII 'ndlllllJ. vo19. pp 49'.1-508 Washington Smllhsont.n In''''UIlOI1

Tt moan". C;unrrr f!;:UI

MnUlh"" ohn' GOII Stullgart Strtckcr ul1d Sthrllutr

T'JurntJO, }.uqut-, ICJIS4

InVt-

flgol' U}'WJ

(JhJf·I.I~ 1,1..111 .1", 111('du Inlollc-S lit' h)~ Shtplhn lumhl ' JrI t l("~'

»11 A,"~ZU'"lll'"ualftl ')

CII

flK

:ue

1994

~LSch0plk. Harry < r 'ndUl" MUSt< of ,hi Lf'PCT""'" Notes 10

, d nd Robe" F. Murphy MlIrph)'. )01.1" il . ;) Ne","' York: Columbia Unlversiry Press. 1974 RomJIl Pr.m c.seD

l'own'

abu, In Gu", gT.ifi.:" d< '" 4It4 LOS Yarrun d Fredcnc. Boo',. vot. - . rr ,..,- < Sa.n(Os an

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8 New York: Folkv---avs Rc~ord.!- and - ~

No . FE445 .

FEASTS A 0 LAB

th~ tCa t tz3 .

. . H"" ",-er. t<juali[} th nzed tl ode

;oaalt aI1 ~ of a (uIIy tb

DISSECTING A FUNDAMENTAL ECONOMIC PRACTICE

Michael D,etler and Ingrid Herbich

.

he lllobo'm"d

I.1bor to " "bor explOlUoon inhero m

'"

W")'

ble vo1uD ch>' enabd![}" for ...

b)"

FEASTS AND LABOR MOBILIZATION

eo

0

. cbe pasS! feasoog o~r.ltes as ha" ....s that S1~ aall", che W_, [ "rogumnuoc statt ctU . Despite frequen. tb n.s f cbJS reaJ1n. of unde~din '" e m ce the lJ1Ip"rtaIl a(temptS [0 do such tbm_ 199") and

,.an:ofr('\'\.. 19, J; Tngger 1990

roJeet' (eg I ' <" 3 theoreoca1 aplm;; P to deve opme betn gJ,-eo h slavery. Ho",e\"tf. it: e5

ocher

LaIl

•

praCUC pia and momate dllI of che corn

sran

g"[hat IS because, a though feastS (]1Jaal n socieQes th .. dO' 5

among agrana " mWl ... .me fashion or that th exactlv uoe III 'Hence the d~'Ooon of a chapter tn aD (.leeS. • . of this fundamental n w a1di COO S3JS

The followmg discu Ion I' based castS denved from both th (he !t!lllllal "Iorks of Eras;mmus I : ttbnograpluc and hisloncal m ~mp( (0 define a working ~blllan IIlg !he reJaoomhlp betwttn "coDeem-e work n<mts that mlOn functions of f, and thar from IhU more abstract t (he pomts .. e devl:lop Final dutology, and cspcmUv the ~Iopmenl of 5OOaIIIlf'quaJ The use of feases to mobllIze collective labor has been a widespread and funda· mental economIC practICe of socielles around the world. In fact, vanams of (he pracoce are so stnkmgly ommpresent In rhe erhnographlc and historical htera ture that a good case can be made far acknowledging It both as vlrruaUy a UOl ' vcrial fearure among agranan SOOCtlCS (e.g., sec Erasmus 1956; Moore 1975. Uchendu 1970) and as the nearly exclusive means of mablhzmg large voluntary work proJecu bef(Jfe the 'pread of the monetary economy and Ihe capJlaiJ5I ClJmmodlolatlon (,f lab,,, and creation of a wage labor market. Thu faa IS (,f enlJfm"UJ p"lenual Iglllficance [0 archaeologists 10 thrIT al temptS 10 under I
COLLECTIVE WORK EVENTS • "orlr /wc !he IC:I III fUs! IIlOdc or hosplulilV

IIltd

fUs!1S MI hell! In

afic",,*u Ihtfwluch~ le r In


t

d

a

Work Exchange

++.

I

-

-

Lebor ReciprocIty Obligations

>

Temporal Finality of Exchange TransactIon

<

La .... lshneSs 01 Hospitality

< Size of Work Group

<

Social Distance 01 Labor Recrullment

< Parentlal for ElCploitaHon

<

• • •

+

+ +

+

+

+

+

+

+

+

• +

F'gure 9.1. Schematic representation of Collective Work Events (CWEs) showing the correlated inverse-trend reiallOnsrupS among work-group SIZe, the degree of reciprocal labor obbgaoons. the scale of hospitality required. and [he sooal dIStance of workers capable of being mobilized.

Several analytical points need ro be established in order to understand the operation of eWEs. Most Immecliately, it must be emphaSized that, from a Comparative analytical perspective. work feasts and work exchanges are nOt binaty oppositional categories, but rather terms used to describe polar tendencies along a conrinuum (Moo re 1975). This continuum is defined by several factors (work· group SIZe, redprocal labor obligations, scale of hospitality, social clistance of workers, etc.) that vary U1 a fairly predictable relationship to each other (see Fig. 9.1). Perhaps the most important defining characteristic is the inverse relationship between the degree of recIprocal labor obligation and the scale of hospitality reqUired At the exueme work-exchange end of the scale, litde if any food needs to be provided (ofi:en Simply a little ordinary refreshment), but the moral obligations to reaprocate by partiCIpating in the work-exchange events of those who have parnClpated U1 one's own event are very strong and explicit. This recIprocation may be either in person , or by sencling a member of one's household as a substitute At the extreme work-ftasr end of the scale, reClprocallabor obligations may ble very weak (and vaguely ImpliCIt) to completely nonextstent, but the laVIshness of Ihl: hospitalIty expected IS qUILe SIgnificant )n ')thtr w(Jrds, crudely stated. the dIfTerence IS baSIcally onc between an ex chwge IIf lab()r f(" I.bor vtrsus and exchange of labor for hnsplldltlY. Thai IS,. wrJrk cxrhangu r,p.. r.t<· thmugh a kllld 01 delayed lCClproCIIY., where till' host of h~ n-enl assurnt 5 .I.hr" ddH 1<,.11 t11t' p.rtl( Ipants Ih,lI II1l"t bt· ,ep.llt1.11 J 1.111'1

142

n the other hand, op"nt" m tt ' k feas lS • 0 . _ r d.e< . wo laVISh hospItality IS dlan e nsacDon between host .mJ gue _1 In, ch ange rrabligaoons -,ust ~ further 0 cknowledged by the parno('QOt· . a 'kiI leas< parnally ~'- ualin: and quannty of the t>c,er .mJ bout we q -J (11en[S a k done and the 51?e of the group tMf paro of wo r . amount 9 Donham 199-1 Goldschnudt N:"e colson 194 . 1967a ; However. as Karp bas noted for the he. f E er 1961 ). Hunt essanly consciously envtsage this JS ar ts do not nec ipan r may be seen simply as ·the ,ellld~ tbrou m d the least . stea. .. 8 '88). In other words_ labor relanom are c ' chieved (19 o. a . e d as relations of commensality euphe1J1lZ • -'k I changes the sIZe of Ule wor . glOup a to In work e x · . , collectives of usuallv less thiUl We() all fatrly srn • , to ft garuz ' ed through kinship or fuen.hhir n very 0 en or nored the rather pre=eh a e bas ) ( M~relm' • nns Cleate certam chedllhn\! (1)n,tnUlt. m;l,( both bligao labor 0 _ the oups and generally result m one ot t\\ . gr non In what he calls the "indlYldual eproca paraopate 1Il several different "ork·e. mm, n ople l11clividual obhgation With _everal oth l' p<' sets of obhgations that onl - parnalh Ult r' :-t In th r a conslStenr group of inrunduab ,nil \ ( 1 the projects of each of ItS mc:mbn. :\.- 1 rutionahzed dtfferenccs 10 Sllc,al rank of work-exchange event· "nurm 11 ( IUS WIth comparahle bndholJmg. r,~ With work f(a.t'. on rh .. oth rh J scale (UP to . ever aJ hundred I'<' pi nOI be po,,;hl .. with \\ork ..,lun CrUlOng w(lrk~rs from J \\ IJ r borhood affihdlltln, tlr 'tl(;l1 t ru. h lh I and qUJhty uf th., dl111k dnd h'Od p Vldtng these thl11g 11\ ahun.l.ln, Ih I do,,· sOCldl rt'IJllunshll Furth rnl Inounted tUI 'P"
r

l

FEASTS AND •

.

!

11 d IIngu"h IWO vananes of [he work fea st, onc vol Onc: can .1(cua Y " I Untary I c voluntary work feast, peop e are drawn to the e and , on" obiJg.tOry n t 1 on of [he host for provIding . . . vent SI laVIsh feasts Tb b rnply oy the pnor rcpUIJl1 . ' . e 0 "gat r., referred 10 as (Drvee labor, elOst, on ly where lhe ory form . which I~ O,lel1 _ re IS InStl . I authonry 111 rhe form of reltglous leade rs, chIef k.i tu· l,onahze cl ccn cr a 5, ngs e appararus. In lhese cases, people are drawn 10 pa . ' Or other eypcs 0f sta l . rtlClPate b r publIC IMmuno n has rhe m oral authonty to requIre h e· cause a rU Ier 0 .' t Cif pr r. m of labor cnbUle. However, as will be dIscussed in more d . e,. cnce as a o r , etatllater I fad to orchestrale CDrvee projects rhrough the same work r, , rU er!) W 10 . - - east idiom I Vldlng a generous quanuty of food and dnnk for the workers II ' by pro mbhng and resista nce. Rulers ca nnot rely on coercive force t ,WI '00n meet gru 0 motlvat . arion' any stable long·term system of labor robute must rely h e parllop . . On t e COn. unU aJ roduction of consent- whIch means operatmg .through and pi aYlng upOn P the same practices that have symboll c resonance WIthIn the popul 3tlon as a , . whole Hence, there IS very good reason to VIew corvee labor SImply a . . ' s a van.ant of the work fea t tn which the co mposttton of the labor force is pred etermtned by an Ideology of obhgarion and authoriry. In fact, approachtng this rei auonstup . 1T0m the oppoSIte dtreCtlon, Bourdt eu ( 1990 :n8 ) sees the voluntary work feast as Simply "a coven exaction of corvees" a perspective that will be better apprea·. ared after the discussion of exploitation below. A second important POtnt Lhat needs ro be made about these CWE modes IS rhat they are not mutually exclusive and it is not possible to characterize particu· lar sooeties by one or the other of rhem . Rather, in most societies both modes WIll be employed 111 dtfferenr conrexts for different purposes. For example, work exchanges may be the normal pattern for smaU groups performtng routine agn· cultural tasks (e.g., weeding, harvesting, field clearing, transport of crops from field to home), wlule work feasts will be employed for projects requiring a larger work group (e.g., house building and repair, fence or rampart construction, road bUlldtng and repaIr, waterworks construction and maIntenance, mtntng, agricul. rural work on very large plots of land, mounting trade expeditions) or onc coo· vened for an urgenr task . Moreover, withtn given local COnlcxtS, these dtlTereot forms of CWE! arc often categorically marked : that IS, many societies dlsltn~\JIsh

ncl dtlferent ktnds of eWE! by name and conceptualize rhem as disrin(l calcgo (ite btk,w) In olher cases, the dIfferences are more cltnalthan CJtcgo ncal (e.g, .... Chlbnlk and dt Jong 1990, Saul 19R3)· An",I,,·, Imp',nant rdared P'"nt that needs

lO

be established IS Ihat thl' spC(lh(

("rnu ,,r CWh ("und In real .·thnlJgraphl tonrc,'xrs do not m'frs'Jrlly ,km'I)' JP I"',J( h th,. 1',,1", I "In-Oll VI'rMI)n, 1I .... d h.·,,· 11> ddim' th.· ,lh,1t ,In ,JIl,llylll,11 ,(1" ttnuur " N I,IIJ/I'u.1 1I I1 J/ I ""lily tW')t,II'·g"III·~ . ItllIlht'1 WOHh,,1 I(11,1I Vl.",,,11 "I W'

I

Id I,' I I f a

II It ( I :1

.. W'"

k.

f",1 1 UIl utlt •• 11,,11 .lIt

l44

" rlllHlhH ."I\l

\

I

•lit-

II,,~hl

A8D~ ~O

-

•

volve some Imphot reoprocal b s i r oil n "m )' and, In rht: oppoSIte IhRcoon • Wf'le ~L LPg"" • ~.n lhe work·exchange end of the ConllIl WI , ILU' UUm "uganoos and decrea5Ulg sIZe. For ex,;"""lt: .L~."t' ,U,", I~ of egones of eWE ,he dabo. the "",1:0• ..".1 Ibt: lid..... The large (uP to durty people) ad hoc work fea. 0 , roVlSlon of much beer LS mandatorv and .L 'J weq~n of P length. of the workday, but at wlucb Ibe h .tal a cal work obuga nons The mol?o LS alarb.... ""'tcll a rotating work exchange with a formal Or ~n,_ , -~.anon which some beer IS usually pmvid"d lbut . DOl small work exchange (three to four !",ople f, which beer IS DOt necessary; but some bt:er ro extend beyond the standard half dav• 195 1: Nadel 1942:248-2 5[; Tosh 19;1>",1 for a ran Hence, from an analyocaJ perspeCU't, It I . culrurally specific fOllllS of C\VE mav be mact conttnuum accordtng to local labor reoproory obligations and sal of glveo sociery, there may be 00 fOllll. tlut cremes As Wlll be dlscu cd IJtcr, th~ f. ("t Iw srancitng the potcnn.ll of thes<' pr~ moment, let us Stmpl) es!~bh:h -.enuno as work frll.t> where the Impl muln I to bear on J t... k I eIT.-,1t m CCrtJU1Il'Jt, (su,h J' th structures 1 that, uuld nN bt: Tasks tilr whll"h th. ope,10l1tz J the mulltph,,,nun , th num ""'Jns 1 ht' Jt I1I'rl~ IUuMr·t • t hI J nn tl n l"a't \\It h t ht: ,on, I"ndll
r

""lIIn I

In,lIly

1h•

1'11.111

'thntlllr I'ht

-

- ---

ok IcaslS IS genera lly less good Ihan al W I _

cr((>rmc..d ~I I l111V of W(,lr~ P lS worse as t he Size of the feast ex.pands th.u the qu o u Ihry often ge t:. ' Jnd Ihe q ',[ to the c 11-'cC IS of the alcohol Lh. LO.len .ccompanie S wurk e\C 11.11""" ~ . t 'quendy due "' Ilow('vcr pill I 0 SI ems fro m [he different sense of recip. Thl~ I~ re: It a s h ' 'ork ,11 work fcaSl s ' 11 work exchanges, as well as the lI1ereasing [ C \\ on Lh Jt .11I Jchcs ro 5m3 . for,t/ obJlg;W ' I 'ncreasing size . • V1510 n wit 1 L d h , [ should be nore L at, contrary to older dI flicul"es 01 .uper obscrvallon. I A '' ,1 lil1nl rrelllnlllnry I' d "dOl11es r'c I ",ode of production" composed of selfof " CWE.. s are f un damental ns COllccpuo ',n Idca Ize . d conSUl11pnon unJts, I Id roductlon an ,, conl,,.ned house 10 P . conomy because they mobilIze the essentia l in-

f Lhe 'granan e !O Lhe opera non 0 I b nows Lhat, in fact, sustain domestic units (see . c Id communal a or , I
I

WORK FEASTS IN ETHNOGRAPHIC CONTEXTS At (Ius stage, It IS necessary to ground thiS schematic discussio n of collcrllvc work evenrs, especJa lly work feasts, U1 some brief ethnographic exomplts In

order bmh to g,ve a sense of lhe everyday lived expenence behtnd rhese abstracI c(mceprs and ID expand upon the lheol'ctical pOlo IS made , The Importance and ublqutry of work feasts can hardly be doubted by Jnyt)l\~ farmliar WlLh th,' l'lhn<:1'0 u< h a ()mmrm f"atu,,' of ag' "".," ~()ne ll CS Ihat Lhey h.1Vl' often bL'l'n I,lkl'n (',r gtanltd il pJiI uf till' /'xl"" le d ,"Itural ha, kgrolllld .1 sl'lf "vld"lIt 1".11<111' mtl1U<,n. cl In a V,flllUS p.8~.IK"\ hlJt 11111 !)lIt fUI d,·I.II'I II ,111,1 Iy.'" ' (w llh

"fig"'"

146

FEASTS

A~O l~BOI

MOl

:"

e forrunate excepoons l. However _ m SO '--m_~~ reveaIJng, Goldsc~dt. for e.urnple. "TOte of ~ fEast Afi,ca that no In.oruoon IS so cent< 1 o .1 to modo among me Kotyar of Nlgen. the concept of Co.! fi weal my farmer who dtstributes beer m "'turn fur ~ As nOLed earher, work feasts were,
I.:"

....-

What IS more. the moovational effeCt!\ ne 'of C\\"E5 In partiCIpate U1 workmg together IS e",dent m th~ important effects on such prdcoces remmmg from ~ . rhe transfol'lnaoon of labor mto a mark t regimes, work feasts and work e.\chan c> wage labor m many areas (Colsnn anJ SUJJd~T I ._, Saul 1983) Indted, dunng the COlOnIal pen an indigenous economy h.ld been acc,'pted value, there often pcr'lsreJ J Iinl!cnn> 11 , for money (as _1 Iso was lhe ca. ~ \\1Ih bnd among the Fur of the -ud.In, g",mm ru cessful tn rc(rutlln~ 1<11-,11 \\('rkef' to wages \\cl-e
run

Cook Uand, of Lhe: [>J(ll1< , I '" ,'n UIIII,-U for a~n(uhur 1I \\,lrk nn pbnt or mr.. "'Ill ( ><1nwthlll' III '11 I, work IS dune: ) '\<1111,11''''' Id~ a utli 1 Ilul\tl-r ', dc" tlpt'UIl ,,1 PUlld" 01 S'IlIlh \h h 111< I III l\.lIl'S nUh:d In till' l H lJ I la \.I

"n'd rc"pll- 1,,1 • I rth ul r t 11"'101 \\ III h. h Id 11\ I" It. I lhllllt 'h till It 111 I h • I I 11\ Ip.lh , hut I'l "pI hI!

I Ih

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beg.n [he bl~<>1 done< of . 1I Yilru n fUttusb.d kill ed tWO ,mdll go,,,, They. "U1 d.anccd &r pot da nced lor . Imos, twO hours ."h.loaJ rrw::..0 dw

11

-h Ind how m,m y hJrtc.: I"I/ of hi" rI hJve ' b"cn • . I PIIIII U IIIII Y Ilf.,1I . pn .11 \ , II, .. rd If' till I . le- 1\ I n \ ol1lf w,l y~ t(Jmn"l(' !1 1ri UT . Il c: With Iht he lIuOlh("'" pt /J p r .11t·J , .1IId \0 I I Ihn dUW Ic.ln,IIU H1 \ ~uc: h ,' \ the S(
J

1111' 11111«:' 111 I

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,

the.:

lf «< -IllI l.llIon n II I ,.m I ' II U"l1 d hlA (I l l/nil"

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A... I lunl t'r d,,!,,:c nhr.\ 011(,' \ur h event k ' m ' nlle.' S nil liw enh. fi ve

b Ol rc ls

o f beer

WC l c

prov ided and iln

b ' li me, the I' um er nf men and w o rn !!1 Ilvr l l l1-;!' 0 1 flm y . 1 . I p(:nph.' [J ln t." ,ll1U wc: n l , ;'I~.s I!1t1ng In Ihe work ro r as long J S they bl' '''~ ,l b o UI C(IU J . ed muml ,11 Inu:rvil ls. su the ,Im m.lnllhcy gO l depended upon A I WIt' tfmllJ 10 1.1 ( •

\:

, . Wl' l l' pc: op t

present

.H OI1 C

\II,Yf'J 1\r(.' 1 W,lS " .I.\.s ,"e lell):!" ,,/ lim e Ihey ,l.lyed (196 i. Hy)

· nOled people work hard at sLlch events. bUl lh ey come lO them b A., \ hc furt IIt; 1 • e· CJlI>C' lhey enJoy partlClpa ll ng, ')\n i~ a party, The crowd of people. rhe miX· 109 of Ihe sex es . •LI1d Ihe rcfrc~h mcnrs, give evcn l.~ hard work the atmosphere of pl.IY. There I> convCrSJlIon , and songs. and Olfll ng (1961:90) T his means also lhal "UsUJ lly an gel.l lh rough considerable amOLlnr o f work, bUllhe qu ality of Ihe work, parllcularl y in J weeding parry. IS apllo be poor" (1961:90). BohannJII and Bnh"nn an (1968) provide another illumina ting dcsCI'Iplion of a

",ma

",,"a

a

WOI k frasl .lITl on~ Ih e T, v of Nige ria : l1,e bIAA"" Iy.l", I ",oun,ling parly we saw was aJl ed by a ma n of abo ul forty,five. rll.lun of Mb.IDuku i Mb,Var I le ca lled hi ' beM fne nd from the nelghbonng lineage who ga lher.d abou , Iwcnry of hIS own agnatic kinsmen abo ut hi m and came to MhaDuku I.re line evenmK They hroughl drUm> and hoes. a hu rnca ne lamp. and Ihelt b.,l dO/hos They dJnccJ al ,evcra l compounds along the way. to songs com· po«d for Ihe OCtaSlon .,"d to we ll known work songs Whcn lhey gOllO Vilalln', compound. they J Jnrcd lI l1111 .lbOUI "o0 A .M They began work Ihe next mornlllg Of d.ybreah ThIS gm up WJ' Jomed by Vi lau,, ·••'gnali klllsOlen all the .1 ~1 a l lC dcsecn dam> "I hIS fa ther\ f.llha .•1I1d •• f,'w yo uths wll h more all cnuatcd 3~l a u c I",ks, 1J•• W I1 by d.lI\(lng and Ill(' PI"UOl ISC of ne h food. seve l al yo ung mCI1 01 YIi ,,,,,,'> mmhrr'!; iJ l'lt.'agc fJmt, ;'l l,d t wo hi S wives' brmhc rs 1111'0 ~lrrI Vl'l1 1111> j(II1Up 111.lde ya ", mounds 01 .1 fcve fish p'lch fOI' abolll ftltll hOllrs They w," ,h,'n It,v.. n f"od. pl t' parrd ,lI1d brl)lIghtt o lilt' lieltl~ hy ,,11 01 th," wo",. " of Vi I",un's rlJmpou nJ "n wy J t c: in g roups ut' ••bo ul hJlr .1 do/.~n . '.Ich g-rlJup WJ~ ~1Vl'11 .1 tIU~:I' I .ldh.l,h of Y.Il11 PlJl riU),;t. wlIh Ihn'(" ,IIHl'n.'rH S.lU Cc" S. Th eft' W~I ' sO nUllh ,,)Od Iht")' /I,uld ""t.'.1 " .lil WOI" w.,. ' lI spl' nded dunng Ih,' h" ., l "I' 1I1l' d.IY,They bqyHl tlY.iUII 'UOUI lotH Ifllh,· . d l l· 'llIH Hl ,\Ill! WlJl kt"'d lIntll d.llk, .1nLl wen.' fl'll .I~Jjl1 Ihilllll'~'h' Ihtoy ,lJntt J UII II I wdl .l hll II1 Hhll~hl I ht' IU' I d.IY tht, 1'1 (I(('tllll f w,t\ rep ,1,,.41, rld ••1I till f,tl lI l /,1 YI I,Hl IJ 'I I IHlII Hl tIIH.I wc It· fllll~llt'd rh.lllIl~hllhr y

or

248

pot

1U>d

II>I!

By hosting rh,s large work feast. Yil.un Ver< bud un "'''~d ",.. treatment of the relatives of hlS best fn d .. " -~t m dunn th place, hiS name was On the hps of aU ' ~ B 1. _ _ .. e , . Q'
Washburne 1961 /.40 ), In malung this gen.~ ~ cOUrse. some potential danger In USl/lg CObC fro ~" ma ny instances "duefs" were created b . d ID mlom.' eo ec III llClt'tlt$ previously elUSt (e,g. see Chapter J I, He . 1. . ., n(e:~ U\..ll nt'c>c continued the labor·mobilizatton pnctlc.s u.-eJ did not previously have the authonry to comnund la danger IS mItigated by the fact that even ca"., ith see m to fo llow trus panem As noted earuer. Sou voluntary work feast as Simply a camoun.ged men! obscures Important d,SttncnOtb \\ lthtn rh work feasrs (ourhned 10 the Inlrul J",·u. IOn of C~ POlOl to th e pote ntIal fo r 50nl( \\orl. feast< 10 exploitatIo n SAMIA WORK FEASTS AND THE ISSUE OF LABOR EXPLOITATION

Lel us now turn tu J bn d mn. IJn JI1011 nl al irOn productIo n (I1nJ uLle,1 ~mo th mea n, of locuslng p.l rllr ulJrh up"n lh" I tht' d nsc ly rdJl cd n>m,'r" "ll fun tllln f agr.tnlll sm Icry '''lh .. Ir.l,hlllmJIl They spe.lk .1 IJl1gll.l~ .,1 lht IIJotu I SpCJI..llg I.tll. 11\,1111: ""Jlh .,f lh \\ m m V' C(()ri •I U nil I ll\ I IlIl I u , ,1 I un'r<' 11'

"I,

I Ih bOlh 'SI"'11'.1 .111,I 1.1l " !,.Ill ,I Ih 11 \ilwk '" 0 1" "Hlh t 11\ lh, ' J.Ot ... hil 111 PU\kl" ,.1 ,ht 'H C l11et I lhi :n 01 Ihl' Iroll t"t'd " "'I I l

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u

nJ h

t

th.!1

FEASTS "NO lA80A MOIIUZAt Q

l quann oes of Iron slag found at the .• lI In both the co . r he pnna p.l object produced from thIS rdkdc.: me tor t o d tio _ 1. After spending the day gathenng ore. w.s nO0 b " eroUS hospltd.Ury. f the hosr for gen r fter which rhey would rerum home and rJOon 0 d a g reat least. a nsu:i crJb C

Olen were create to I f iron ore . No further compensation was th.se h large supp Y 0 • _L has< was left WIt a 'd d to own rhe proceeds of rhe day s labo r A UlC S conSI ere · .. ~d and the host warhen calle d to convert the ore first into blooms and then req~ - . fumen was compensated for labor by elrer and a sn"th were SOl el E ch of these era mro hoes. respecnv y. a duced from the ore. f the h oes pro bemg gIven some 0 which srill survive as heirlooms in Luo and Sarrua homes. These hoes. some of h d cor utilitarian agriculrural purposes. ble Althoug use l' were exuemely valua ' . h f exchange in a multi-centric economy: f resuge sp ere 0 tbey formed parr 0 a p . . f li estOck. and they were even used along ... wred the glvtng 0 v thelt acqUlSlUon req sactions So important were they to . Irh in marnage tran . with cattle as bndewea .' I re exempt from atrack for fear of en· the neighbormg Luo that Samla trave ers we

rus

-d.ngenng exchange lmks.a.nd gJ'"lOg . d.tuj:h,.. to ~ ~ considered Jughly destrable beouse of th ........ _ was . '-'Wll. rcU dered. Furthermore. the soli tron-nch slag (the smeJlln' fio enr) was often coUected by those SJ.ou.a who could not work feasts on their own. and small chunks of tron Wtte enough to make a hoe While this work-feast method of engagmg III tron PrNum pie. open to all Sarrua men . ill pracncal terms It> effem, !l .Ire d [0 those wealthy enough to provlde sufliaentl I.'h_ _~... a"t.;, to work groups. As noted elsewhere (Chapter ; \. the ~'"ncultUn.l. d required for such an eyent I.S fal midable, and Ul • ~ >od lu quired many wives. However. acqumng "lve, "'q~ • wealth (i.e .. cattle and tron hoes) for bndewealth . 101.0\ r. rr link between subsistence produCtIon. mamage. and iron rodu insure tbat an irutial posinon of advantage Ul a(ce." I tiu., ~ have a sptraling effect in augmenting weillth and p""n F wealth in cattle was necessary for the bndewffitb I

feast and engage agam

111

tron producnon Th

tar- (tn temts of cardc. crops. and \\'lW. to r r all

con\'erslon betwee1\ sph."" 01

r

economy (FIg. Q.4). "'uch c, 100nll '. In d1Jn~ tt"j!\me lated III .epJr.te upon the cultur ) anJ '" "h\,h lh vemng bc{\vc,'1\ th,' 'rh(tt" .• \\ 'nnomIC sYSt,'l11s th.lt ,II,ln"t ha\ 19~7.1. 80h.l1\n.1I I'; ~. PI< t I I thl'1l1 a,

I rcv. ton I hey UlllI"- . I hll. and •.le, h.n,,"·d Wldtly Ihroll~h"lIt tit ,.. I k (I'hlll" 1) Ix.. u J .. bndj~' dhh tnd tu ,':) r h.JIl~(" rOI lVt Situ M IJlt In IlId I I ,,·rill' It)

HO

III

transactions); and the increased productl\e '~~CIIY re could be used to more effecnvel)" and tn:quemh

Trus example serve' to lllu,trat h \\

unral f Lhe precol fIgure 9 2 Ire.," hQt blade (]c nl1l h ~6 cm ) Tom I S 11111. cra In we If'rn Krnya .lnt~l hot' hi aJ c:"!i wc'n: m,llit 111. t It' .' . 11

~

whose labor could produce a large n,a t BUI on, 0 through the 1I1snrution of rhe work f,.sl .:culJ be (through converSion to stock used ,,: bnd<\\eJlth r

exduded from the cyde .nd were ",du, j I work feasts of rhe wealth,•

I

.

.1 111\1\<'\,.1 1

alii

\

l\ In t

tll~d "\·~trtn Kll\\., for" .uupI Ilr",h'-I ".Ih 11 III 111.\ '(,11, III \.11" III I \I, ulJ du '\ I {'\l h I\~\' It, th

~ {'I\\ I

h

'n

IUft

I

l\

Ih

tuch

"n"

• 11\

-

fEASTS ,,~O LA,IO. n

1001

A rlcu lUJra I P-"ucllon ,.,..

..-r" WIVES

"

attle

Brewing. oklng

Prestige SPhere Iron Hoes Bnd

h . .Il

arid

FEASTS

••lIh

Labor Iron Prod

I

tlon

FEASTS LIVESTOCK

Grain

IRON HOES ~CMng

______( ____- -

Common Sphere

. represenrao on of the lmk between .subsistence Swanaoc . . . production, marnag. ' Figure 9,3 . S et)' shoWIng how an uuoaJ position of advantage In .cand Iron producnon m anua 500 . . cess to dus process wo u1d ren d to have a spiralmg effecr Ul augmennng wealth and prestige

both acquiring prestige and mobilizing the labor by which prestige-sphere ex. change objectS could ultimately be obtained. A nrua! form of commensal hosplrah (the work feast) was able ro perform the apparently impossible function of lowly grain inro valuables and prestige. of linking separate spheres of exchange via an indirect rOure involving me mobilization of labor (both cuhnary and producrrve). The Sarrua example also demonstrates me way In which work feasts serve al a condwt for reaproca! conversIOns of what Bourrueu (1990) calls economiC and symbolic capita!: People are drawn to participate to such cvcms by the repUlJ Don of the host for generous hospitality. This reputation IS an aspect of symbnhr capital acqUired through che expendirure of matenal capnal In prevIOus tedll' But through rhe Insorution of me work feast. th,s symbolic capllil l 's l",'d 10 hJr ness rhe labor of Otntrs for the acqu'~llion of further m~tenJI tap"JI, wh,)~ ,11 the same time augmenting the symbolic capital of the hoSt by gtnt·, .1I1Oi: IUrlh,', preSllg~ _nd cmbell15iung nJs n'putauon for gCl1c,omy fm"Uy. this t:'xamplt .ls{J diu trat('~ hl)w thc n1.lnlpul.Hioll of Irn' pralllle ,JII Y,m1:tlmt:J le~d 11, 101 re. 'Ilg 'IJ(I~ I and ("o"orl1l<' ,nrqu.lllly l'Y<" In Iht' (IInl' I r,( ,dt/,)',gtrally .llIar",,, P'(" pn.I"1 Ut II'""S Whl'll .,IIl' " 'W"t'l1l "I ,1111111

con~erting

rr Oily b!:<"JrJ .d, P' .lllId"dgl"g till 1' ''1 re 1'''''" IIlIdl tl<'" 11 C ~JlJ "1');"' ", ~ll L unJlJIII I t ,I ya rv. (,I J.'E:' w,,,~ "~I ",f"l, "till 15 II"d tlIIIJI I hI "." "C",

hrll '"' i

till

IU

11I.'IrIlHII~' f,l 'I'JIIt

Cl

II III I

1.1"" r

Pots Figure 94 SchemJllc "'prexntallon f!he roIr ~ rea com'trsJOn btf\v~~n ~heres of a.ch.m U'\ I SlITIphlied rendJOon of on pc ..,bI. "" surveys shO\\ mm po. Ihlt' pt! mut.ltlons of n"~u

and e: rncI wealm .!Od m Barm (1<)0 a, 1Y<>~h nOI J a mular pot mounlalO Fur nll.1 <- of Ih~ udan .ill)' eparJI<'d 101<' I '0 'Cr ta

le , 10I1un.1It" guest "u,i.. r, ,It Ihe It;t I mun.· W Jit h} .sum,' llf th mcnr Ih"1f 1 IJII\' JJ, III <."h ([(II' f1UI". t hl1S(,

Jnd

,I

lrnltt rl\'. .In lUll

"Cl llvur!.. 1""1 hit I d \\ Ih n \\('.1 11 h"'1

IHell

","lnl,JlIlI.,!: 1>«1 I'a I

I

"ut

'""1111. 1I'''h

, J

I .t f Ih

Ih 1 r f tHII~ IIIH\ ut put Ill" 1111'"1 11, I\.In 1111,,..1

t

IUI I

I

I

Ba

fE .. srS AND L"80~ M08Il1Z..TIO

-

I

I ' I InHlI1 J: Ihe M ~l .ll c.· o f Plhl OP1,1 by l)o nhJ'11 \ ' " 1U/ 1I \ ' IIIIIII P Il W.I' no n . I I r ' . I I lilt' co nl t':.. 1 ,aho lll t wO l l ll'(~ 0 lh e Il (' l ,lj llr f't 1 J) J It' l.l It"IIJ .Il t.'L I 'u ll 111 « 1

h 11 m . h e l vlll.lg c.' I.\ l'ni oyt'd (".1Il"lC fro l11 people "' th e llll' 01 \-\'(li k fc: .tM 1.•bu l I • I I Icl ' I I . l / I hl' \' 1II ,Il't.' I1 ,c,·~,,"chy, Thc~c wen; HJ USC H ) S l 1.11, on a Ve r M cl f h n I I I'lHP rl'''' ' t. ,11 ('~t In "'" ' (j .... 1t .1/1 dudllg th e e ntIre r e 11 0 0 IS l e CWo rk. k 1(.' ' fH 11I 'O H' d flP \\101 c.: .I ~ I . .. ~ . ( ,\1\,11

1

S

J~ , f\' n n ' lw l' r

cl

"h,11 hl' I

r J ""1I
.

(I e. Ihose

r

the mIddle cco k rib

111

' n "e (, 111t)yc:d " Ml1 .11111 t' 1 surplu s 0 WO I' -,e ast n o r, but 11 (H1l1 f ~ lr.llllm ) t)Jl .wc: • g 'J . ' ' " . " , , IdlUI 111 (()OperJII On wllh ri che r VI agers ( D Ol1hanl " ~IIII ., hoWl'" .1 ne.l:.llIv<: l

lu" I

I~ B) .

.

Ilcnee,.1 P U I CI111l1 I I·or Ire tJ or

What becIJmes ImmedIately clear is Ihal those events which, by local cultural cnn~cn[J(m, wnform most closely (D Ihl" eXlreme work fcast pole of the conlln uum (Jf CWI. pO~\lbilitles are the most suscepllble 10 cxplnltanon. This is he· ca C 1/11" evtnt " Irl'dled by Ihe partIcipants as a finile exchange transaction wh !avl hn III h"'pltaitry f/'plares any delayed obltgatlons for Il'Ctproral bbvr Hen«'. ,,, h" I I I1IJIIIJI11lcd hy Ihl' Ilm,' ,Ind energy conslraints of lJklng on rm !Jp!I' lal"/r d, bl'r1/II~dll(m~. M'IIl'{JVI'I,lh,s (cum "j work ft',lM (On1('S c1o, 11" fln(l pi /,j ~ I.IHII 1lI_lb'I, whtl( .11 till' "Wl/' !tIlW Ihl' fal I 1".11 Ih" ,.•

154

re

r

cxpIOIl,1110" cle.lrly II1hcrcs m some lorms or the resuit wo rk ft' .lM I1UI .1 nlJrk c'LI pattern of exp/Oltallon IS by no means a unIversal . n"ts uf rhe: opernr1ol1 () ( wor k I... ... nor do JII explOItative form s necessarily result in cS(.lI.llJl1g II1 r quJ II t Il"'s"' Consequently il IS ImpOrtanl to ask whal_ condilions . IJ\'or f Ile' d~ve Iopm enl or ·urh .an .asymmelncal pattern and what kmds of Con 'trJII1L, nllghl ,"hI bIt ItS spltnlmg expa"sion? . Olll' Il11meWJl e potenaal conSlramt slems ITom certam speCific organizatIonal arrJnRcmenrs of Ihe reianonshlp berween workers and food providers. In some conte"s, certaU1 pubhc projects may be undertaken by groups of people who .IhJre nor only Ihe work but also the provisionmg of the feast. Por example, among [he Wamlra of Popua New Guinea, Kahn (1998) nOtes that all men must work logether to conStrucl and pcnodical'y clear out common irrigation ca nals. Th,s IO,'olves work feasts of perhaps thirty men for which food is supplied jOil1lly b . the WIVes or all the men. Hence , a potential for exploitallon depends Upon the
hro ugh a ntu al of commen ",I d te che,rra t nge IS or ' of the frJnSKtlOn Ihe h C , he nature hc",ize [ de palatable "ven 111 . OOcO , ""th • euP and ma enerOSIty f: that recrwtment o f the b bur pool of g . _11 the act Ihos, p,n" Y, k nd fnendshlp netwo rks m ean du e local JI1 a . .. k d Impliot labor obllgauon. !TU •• t acaue rh Yond very orl1 e wea an where s th host and a large number of mw ~du.U. il betWeen e occurs I relationshIps and wh.o tand oue lde th m n1 d by close soCta Itnke . ch obhganons mlghr be recogruzed ( ce ~ I _ ·.•U'n whIch su WlUAs the cu1rura Uy consrrued proper form of the rk olar type (hence as reoproal labur obli an th way ITom e p a I 'cly and precisely calculated ), such 01< mm m ore exp la m difficult. The aCCfUlJ1g labor obligation re<mi:llh fu comes more • and the size of the work group d or the "ost . that can be ." noted earuer' the preclse locanon on th~ C\\'E feast. ",

I

local version of the work feast IS d~let tUrned b locil can, of course, sluft over ume a pracoce re pon.!, 10 lOrical contexts. But what IS Important [0 not~ L< lh~1 a is inherenlll1 the upper range of [he workfe.1st nd of lh tential can be powerfully m,lgnlfied through «'n.1rn link are used to produce gooch or m,lIen.u. Ih.1t can em change arcuits to mcrease economl" .lI1d .- mhoh" al case of produong Iron hoes tor c~lIle ex.-h..1n .: .. or Ih duce cash crops).

r.

.1I100h 'r ml a more vanable ~. pect of work 1;:3SI that L, .m InlT h gender In very many cases, It " wum. n who the agncultural and culinary labur Ih.11 und rwnt • yel have little or no d.um 10 the ben tits III Ih III bers of the hou.chold l For e .1011'1(". In Ih • n the multIple WIves of d w".1lthv m.ln w h I I' l labor n"ec"S d • ,'. Jry to pro ure. I,'~sl , I 11 fmm rhe m· I b . Intn!: J or orgal1lud Ihrough Ihe- kIlgc generated Jnd Ihe ubs qu III U Ilh iron lie and m Clre WIV s1 . H('n< • rh re °P.'ratton A· I ao . . Strlll .Ir PJII,'nl 0' rh ~t,lnan "'nett s ('SI' II ' e, 1.1 UI In, 1111.111, one .1 h ' t ~lIrJ, 11011 uf I " I hIt''' . In patt Ihne.1 \,1I1 n 11 IIlh"f Inrn It is also necessary ro bnefly .lIS< u

u;

cl

DI

-

--

,\1 11 J11/1

-

,lllf" , /rt ."ul hl.~._"lf I kt/'II~Jt_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _

FEASTS AND lA80R

M08111Z"TIO,

I

to 'lli'IlCS:1 th." Ihls IS a universa l pa tt e rn of I ' fill ' huw(' ver. ~,-.n 11 \\·( ,uld ht.., J111!- (; . II.~ ' I ' ~ c m 111 )' , .ISCS 111 w h ich m e n arc responSible 11<.' firsl pl.Kt'. I 'CH.: .11 ~ 1 (" plllll .lIU 1l Jr11 " J "l"hJr~ more rarely. culin ary labor fo r lh e lr OWn

I,"oJm l "",.I" · I e 1I I Itu . 1~n ( II IIII ,I I n of ag rl cul ru ra abor IS m o re bal• - ''' s 10 W h IC I"I 11,1>dJv"Io •

d 'b 'l . 'h ' . . Irt' ] IM) l.I "" I k.I"'~ lit:· • • ,. f "rftp ow n c rs hJ p a n resp o ns J 1 ltIes ca n , in fact f 'cnJl'I't'd r.lf( C II'I~ 0 ( . ' I J nu·~ . ,1114 g , BlrL h 19673 ,15 1). Mo reover, In son1e in Slances ' . m'I, llc.lIeJ (eg. ,ee ' I be r.II ' " .•" I "blc of ",ounung work fcasts o n rheir own and have pro pri etary W(lmt' n .lIl (. f· "d ' r he cve nl. It JS ve ry co mm o n that w o men orga nize -h IS over , he procc( S O l h ffi ' n~ . vh" less C0111111 0 n th ar they are r e o clal hosts of v,lurk ~xch .mges. but som e, . . 1 large r ty pes. However. It does ha ppen m Some COn. 11 work rl.'~I S[ ~ , espcCl.l y t le • , e W E f va rio us ryp es can be rurned lO novel uses that actually tC\IS . l\ 1orcOVl:r, so .. for mcreased econo mic mde pendence and power'. ' b']jry gIve \,."omen l Ile passl I 8 0 s women began to expand during the [9 enya fo r example. K f Jn1 0 n g [h e LUO 0 ·· n3I w ork ·~,"changes fo r ag ricultural tasks intO new kinds of coopera. the rra d lOo Live wor k·c-xc h an ge assocIatio ns (am o ng some potters. for example) that enabled them lO poo I re sources . b uild collective capital, and ameliorate individual risk I

•

I

t'''. ""'ph."

•

(see Herblch and Dletler 1989) . Hence, work feasts and other CWEs cannot auto· n1.lncally be VIewed simply as a mechanism of gendered explOltanon of labor. However. one can observe tllat gendered exploitation, where it exists, does tend [0

,

Involve CAl'lOItation of female labor, whereas an inverse pattern (that is. in

",hJeh men provide tile bulk of the agricultural and cnlinary labor that suppOrts women 's work feasts) is rather rarer. It is extremely important to recognize the porenoal permutations of these various mtersecting patterns of exploitation in understandmg the labor·mobilization practices of a given society and their po· tential for creanng and transforming structures of inequality.

1985' Ca r/an 1988; Ko pyto lf 1982 MetIJ • • assoux 199 though . to date . thIS has been o f far I I. ~h ... Ond • . e.ss COnct.rn to ceptio n [0 this patte rn o f neglect has b arch• .., ..... _ een ar h er .~ of .... . -rOses t e made _ that have gwded archaeological interpretan' qu.o.. of '''110, • _ On lD the past relations between the existence of large'Scale ear . . such as c..' - I thworks and tht centr aliz e d po li nca organization The ide th ~C' "ICY 01 . a at such project> of tributary carvee labor is Simply not Warrant d must be the . e . as It IS dear t1ut '01\ <...._ mobilize voluntary work groups on a sirrular aI < ,. O
I

"I»

.

.

.

A theoreucal dissecnon of work feasts

n

reveals how th

rm

\\OOik

_ .... _

~~­

prestige for the hosr. However. they also ha\~ the advantage 0{

ru.u.

CONCLUSION

evems or to produce goods that can be used to .cq~ other bwof

A!J archaeologists become increasmgly mrerested in pursuing questions concern·

capital or enlarge the household producn~ b= \e g

~~ of

109 the transformation of sodal relations, the organization and institutional set·

tions). As explamed earher, rrus

nng of labor IS a topic thar demands to be explored in much greater depth . In

conversion in premonetary multi-cemn,· economr

parncuJar, 1I is extremely important to develop a theoretical understanding of the

tions against ciJrect conversions berwe.n SP~1'r of

practices that enable the mobilization of voluntary collective labor.

precisely because it allows goods of lml. valu 10 lit used 10 Uti"" valuables and presnge. 1t prm,Je . a \~nu tOr bu~dmg. career ". mvestment."

dassuy, and understand "craft specialists" and systems of "specialized produc-

IS

an e.'tJem Iv unporwlt

tion' (e g .. CIuJde 1936; Clark 1995; Clark and Parry I990; Costin 1991; Herbich

Such an exploranon "f eWEs .11

1987; Peacock t982). However. they have been far less engaged wirh exploring the

forms of work f",lS[ to
f'Jl1I1S of collective labor (voluntary and Involuntary) that underue in a more fun-

text of Sone!I," wllh an gahlanan pohn.-.)

damental way the operaMn of rhe agrarian polincal economy. Within the fields

ology of a

tJf iustrJry and anthropology there eXMS a considerable literature analyzlng

tTansal'tlon wllh n" n""pn"allal>t,r tire . III '''Vllllll\·tn,ull,Il'>Il' uhth"

fnrtns (,f InwJluntary labnr claSSified under the rubric of "slavery" (c.g. Pinky

256

'

tant role of operating as mecharusms of (om'rrslon be~ eccaonuc md".. bolic capital . Like other feasts, they convert agncuIrunl produ~ IDIO harnessing labor that can be used to generate funher Imn:nak b

ArchaeologISts have expended a good deal of energy attempting to identify,

law

SO(l< t I'.

larg

",cl.

n,,".

It'

0

ne th-'

~

Wl'r It

....

fEASTS AND LA80R: ••

"",oell

-

I

f

h rs Tlus fact has profound Slgntfi_ he l,borO ot e . nl "'IWC (ro (' I e1alions and eCon0 n11 ( strU Ctures. d • ! ' 1Ith.1n prc. ~ en l of sona r . rne \\ C. I -term JC\lclop!11 r. archaeologists attemptmg to under_ . . tor tht' ong I c wons Jor .

. II

dramJl1caiJy

y, Il .lr(h 'H~ologIS(S I1J

10

UI1 erS gnlZC the

"nce of fcastS in soo Impo r ,

I

u c.

reeD

OWLEDGMENTS d previously a[ various sy mposia an d se rniCKN A I vc been presence . f Llll~ diSCUSSion lA

I

) We beneficed particularl y from discussion at

poruon$ 0 . ' . 6 H crblCh 1991 . " Dlet.1er 1989. 199 . S -ales m Marseille and the UmverSlte de Paris I ( eo n.lr5 r -Eden SCiences OCI

rhe ~cole de!> Haurcs tu cs due to Aruck Coudan. Jean-Pau1 Demoule, and theon). spec,.] thanks are Pan (Somo nne ' Andre Tchcrma t. search In western Kenya. thanks are due ro the bl our ethnograplllCre . For malung POSSI e W -G ren Foundation, the BOlSe Fund of Oxford FourtdaClon, the enner NJOonJI soence f Kenya the Nanonal Museums of Kenya, and esd rh Office of lhe Presl cnr 0 . UmverSI()'. e h d our research assisranrs. Rhoda Onyango, MOniea pt'oaUy our Luo and SamlJ os[s an O)"U, and

the I". EtiJah Oguru

NOTES , . . b "work feasts " and "work exchanges" corresponds I TIle dJSOnCDon etween . . . s with slighcly different. names approXlmare Iy to carcgone . developed U1 several earlier

1

constructed power poses cerum ~.",.., _ '-" -~<.... not le"'t "'" t..._ misconstrUed as advocanng an nte L4q that DSlOD of the neoclass ical eco norruc perspective to the. aJu1 }'ru of """I ...d as naturalizmg the cultural lOgIC of caPlcaImn.

theoretical program for the analysis of symbob do5en>e .

econOffiJCS sense or ranonal actor theory ~ I

case, "elders appeared to be transfemn I.bor 10 n support and deference (Donham 1""-1 1<1 )

Arnold, B

Eguclu 1975; GuiI1et '980; HerskoVlts 1937;70-76; Kahn '99S ; Kenyarra 1938:59-60; Lornrutz 1976:183; March 1998; Moerman '96S; Provinse [937: Salisbury 1962, ThIS IS, of

count, merely a mtnuscule sample CIted in ordcr to suggest the geographical eXI',,1 of the pracuce

All unteferenccd descnpuons of practices among thc Luo and Samia peoples

tn this

paper an: dmvcd frorn restarch conducted by us

III

In

western Kenya from IYSO

198)

e g, OteOcr and Herblrh 1993; Ilerblch 1987, '991 ; Herblch and Dletler 1991 , 190J). 4 B<,urdltu'. (19901 Th, l.ogu DJ I'rawu IS d tl1('ol'o[\c.1 rcCormlll,I11011 of COllet pI" Mh (ltt

.. symb',]lc r'p",I, pn'''n1.d

1"I'ltel 10

hIS ( lq7HJ 011,11",

or a

(,I"MY "/ /,,,,,, If'

mmlUon. and

Dol:

n'llddle-aged men's households (the eld.,. senl un," IIKntbe households to the work feasts of )uruor men rollh .. dun

respecnvdy; whereas Moore (1975) called them "non-reciprocal co-operative labour"

,ddmon to the works cited elsewhere in this t.. t, see, for example, Canclan 1972,

C

5. For example, Donham (1994·46-1)1 prn\1des on . th ' . ~ patcerns U1 e same souery In Etluop~ Tht Bob bct.o.. labor exploitation by the wealthy is desul~d .J._ H • C'.,,~t. CAliuu group, there was a very dUferetlt flow of work r.a>t bbor pohncal scroggle by elders actempnng to prt~ thtlr WIth a few excepnons, the most pohocally mllUdltu! bote flows U1 work feasts and thert was a net cran.
Slavery m Late Prrhbron, EW'OI'"

1988

nw«u ,,%

Iron \ge ,'0".1\ In D. B Glbson ,mu \1 . G.· 10 rurr

In

Barth, F 19 67.

E,onomlc , ph.""

from European peasants to North Amcncan colonists and their barn-raismgs, In

l

-

REFERENCES

Work fcaslS were / are found from Afuca to Latin Amenca, from the Caribbean ro Asia,

ft

. th e t erm symb.01le - capttallS used h~ ~ Hen,... al'\'misglvmgs, II.iOU\: crope we have found for illuminatIng the 0 Iy bea"",,, tIto , . pennon 0{ tit< issue the eau non that It 15 used lD tht speafic ~

corn oraDve analyses of collective labor praences. Por example, Erasmus (1956) den:rtd these pracnces with the terms "fesave labor" and "exchange labor,"

and "reciprocal co-operative labour. " WhIle owing an obvious major debt to these senunal works, we employ an alternative terminology in order to signify a particular analytical focus on the role of the feast
<er

to tnnsl,Jite

f conditions of sOCIa l lOequality. Fi. Ob\10usly. 11 .1 . d CX.1cc rbanon 0 . . . J eJopmcl1 1 an lore reason why It IS essential fOr 'OlJnd the e" d corcs yet one n 'a1 "f< 1(0 h.15 cruClJ l101P I .

fMllC

Although [he lacter text IS becter Itn own III 11>< co mmuntty, " has bem largely sup..""
R. hn h, pp

In

I Arfur In

1.1

1967b Boh.nn,ln, P IQI:i«;

("lOll"

Pn'''.lplt.· ..

tl",l,'~)I\):\lH

1"\'

:-"7

Boh.um.ln. P, Mld I f\"h mn.Ul IQtI

I'n ,.', '

th'm

I\

U'h

SourJlru. P

In

hJ$~

M~.Jhl'"

.lit

~I

Uu

I

FEA ST S AND L A- BO R MO 8 Il1 Z"TlO&.a

UI'11\\ 11. I Tr,lillflll

"M

8 CJlllbn

thl1C'olo!!,V 1 , EtOlt om lCS

(1 /1

d

cl

g~ ,

/rItl),fJ COt1lt1l1wuy. Prffllgt "' (I

Sranford: S{anford Un IV

-

.

e rSlty

PreSS

, ation in Rrbereno Communities of the Peru . b k. M "nd W deJang Clu 1\1 ' Orgamz vlan Ag ncUJrura I Labor < £tlltl o!ogy 29;75-95 . Amazon.

,,,,,0

Cluld<. V G. 1936

If New York' Mentor. A1tHI Makes HUllS' .

/.

Cldfk. C M d ' "

l.J.nd and Foo , worn

,080

en and Power, in Nineteenth·Century Kikuyu . A"-

'jIICa

50:357-370 .

as an Archaeological Category Research IPI EcoPlonllc no'. . Craft Speoa. loon IZ..a Ihrapolog)' 16:267- 2 96.

. . Clark.) E.. and W) Parry ··~ Speaalizarion and Cultural CompleXIty. Research In EcononllC APlthropol. C"w 1990

uft

amoPlg lire Calt/e.Ow"'Plg Platea" TOPlga. livingstone, Zambia: The 1949 Rhodes·LIVIngsrone Museum OccasIOnal Papers 6. Colson, E.. and T Scudder For Pray" and Profit: Th, RItual, Eco/Jomic, and Social ImpOTta.ICe of Bm

In

GII'''''''' Dumct, Zambra, 1951>--1982. Stanfoed, Stanford University Press. Cason. C. L 1991

c.,,,,,,,,,,,,,,"

Work and Power In MJUllt, £tlllDpta. :'-le.. York. r.c __ ...

'994

~wnp

[1979]

Crafi Spedahzaoon. Issues

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Definmg, Documenung. and Expl:uning the

Orgaruzarion of Producoon. Arclraeologu:al Method and Theory p--j6

Eguchi, P. K. Beer Drinlung and fesovals among the Hrd.

'975

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Culture Smrcrure and Culruce Pr<x-.", The IXCUtmlcc and of ReCIprocal Farm Labor SOllrhw(.,rmt j<" rnw 0

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Finley, M l. Tire Ancwtl Economy. London . Hopnh

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Garlan. Y

S/avtr)!

1988

The Early Development of Akamba Local Trade History, C.1780-1820. Kfflya HlSturual Rtvlew 4;85-110 . DaublgJ1ty. A 1976

Relaoons marchandes mediterraneennes et proces des rapports de depen dancf (magu. et ambacres) en Gaule proroh,srorique In Modfj d, co"taCl.< ,I

D••tkr, M

proms"" de IratU{ormaHoPl dapu fran~al'" de Rome

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Vtllage

1982

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er,,«

CtlnlrtlunUtr.\

tQJlrru C"rnt'h'~l"

Ith.lC~

t.",J

.\In,'('

chi' ~f.1

flit Ccl~1ftwl

Keg.n Paul Goldschmldt, \V 1976

tl/'" Hrh~\'M t'

C,dtur(

the rM

Il'Y' Unrn""t\ ,,1 ('.• hlorn", P

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Colson, E

1988

Feasts and Commensal Polrocs U1 the Pohoul Eco Status in Prelustonc Europe. In Food ., L. m.. Ftool. a.~ ' .. S"'1lu Q. Perspecti ve, e6Q. DilJon. R. G. 1990 Ranking a.1d Resrstance: A Pr« olorll"l PoIiJy III StanIord: 5ranford Uruve.rsity Pt-es.s. ~ l\iSft\h ___ Donham. D.

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r I

,~

,

PT..

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of Dnl1k

In

Ht'r~IC

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db . L I Ktrlyon Pots and POtL(1'S , c Ite y J Ba rbo ur and S. Rlvcr-Lake NI/Olle uo n . , 1 - 40 NairobI; Oxford Uni ve rsity Press. W,nd. bb•. pp 7 fK I ~ · .r. ' enya n 0PJ~C1 Imd KN'a rnr k Aspects 0 r t h e Cera mIC Sysrem o f th e Lu o 0 ji'NcJlllng. 2, edILe db y 11 LUdrke and R Vosse n, pp. ' 05- ' 35. Bonn Ilabele An Ethno. Sp.H:e, TIme, an d SYmboilc StruCture .n the Luo .. Homestead . 3r{haeo Ioglca I Study of "Selllemcnl BIOgraphy m Afnca . In MIC.! du Xllr

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•

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P

1'"" tllk

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an Amean Society In ExploratiOn.! III

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III .~ppfWl

HMSO

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pp. 530-558 London Duckwonh RI chard" A I umd, lAbour, ami Diet HI Northern Rhodcsln . London: Oxfo rd University Press.

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ahlins. M 1972

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364

ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

10 E EVOLUTION OF RITUAL FEASTING SYSTEMS rH IN PREHISPANIC PHILIPPINE CHIEFDOMS Laura Lee Junker

Spanish, ,'h III I 11, n Ih 'CJllanJ'CJpt' lOIllP" ,'J 01 num'·flI'IS, a t.ll s(ale and mmplexlI)' Ih.1l 1111<'1 U, h J dener for SI.IIIIS rd.lt d ,hI! I '1\, ' " \ hUI d tndle.lle thallh",,· "'\ll\plt'~ ", I 1I I Allhe tinll' 01

Inltl,ll

ropt'.1Il ronlJl"t \1 lUll I"t'I I"

,J<'

'lIAAcst IIt.llh""

"" 1"11

I

11111' popUI.III"".t

1\

Illl"lllly

Ill"

hl..:h v.lhu I'I~" d

,

dn

I

Itll It> h I

I"t'I

II

\llIhlll" 11

..... '.Ill, Ir\l,IUI .,Ily drhllrd ""I 11111 Ih \

Ih I

thtO

\\

RITU At

1.111111 I IT 'ullkr.

-

lldd U\ln ~l' l - Iq~ N, Kldl' l IQ7"'2., ,1lso St' l' Ilcid I(NFl 0; Wl11zclcl' IQ7t> W I _

•

IQ~h I ''' ), Fthnohllrrilllnr .1I1.11)'~IS sho""'s Ih.lt .Iht.'se pnllll c.ll co.' h ll(')n~ were

1.1IIlt'U thn1uJ!h tht: ~rl".lll'~I\' n..·UISlllhllllun 01 n ,'sou rces obl~lIn cd lhro ug l, 1110I:Hh, .lrlon ,

m.lrIlIIlH.'

lrudll1g, '·,III.lIng, ,ll1d sponso red ernft

,

pl'oduCllOn

0 le

rs

111 a 111

' tnbU1C

b to oth

oj I"Hlhtl!zcd cxch.)nge and COn'petltlVc . , ft.' .lMlI1g. BCC,lLISC of th e lel1\'I(')U ~ Il,llure e r POhllCill lie!';, cOlnpctltion rOr Wc 11 a ,lnJ lollowcrs w.s papctu,11 ,1nll fil' I'CC. wtlh chiers continually StTlving to b t, _ ' . 0 l ~'Hn ne, .oUI'ces 01 polltlc.tlly m.lnlrul.,blc wcnlLh. clllc knowledgc, and POwer, .,IJIC:'S ..lIld SlIonrdlll.llCS m Ihc C0 I11('xt .\

St1me Illlle ,lIlhe cnd 0 1 Ihc nrst nllllcnniuJl1 A. D . • and tntensilyingJ'tlst . pnorto . .. . cJrlYJ\tcenfh-cenrury raJlJsh com,lct. Phlitppll1e chiefs became Involved In long-distance marinme trade for pl'cstigc goods with Lhe Chinese empire and othcr outheasf Asmn politics (Hun erer '977; Junker 1994), Chtnese poree Iam ' \llk;. metal goods. and other exooc luxury items iTom olJ[side the archipelago be: c~mc key s)~nbols of socin.' status and policical power for. Lhe Philippme chiefly cltre Arch,\cologlcal anJ hlsronc eVidence sugg Sl that this foreign luxury-good Lrade reached ItS heIght In ferms of v Iume and inrerpoliry trade competttton in the tilieenth nnd sixfeenth cenruries. with increasing use of foreign imports as "wealth " objects tn eltre households and as grave accompaniments to high-status bumls (Fo, 1064. J967: Junker t993 a . 1993 b ; Nishimul'a 1988). HisrOric sources in, cUea1e that foreign porcelains were in high demand as status-enhancing serving ,lssemblJges In nrual feasting and they were circu lated as valuables in elite exchange aSSOCiated wlrh rirual feasts , Not surprisingly, the emergence of larger and more complex chiefdoms in 3 number of regions of the Philippines in the [WO centuries prior [0 porush conraCt tS associated with an mereased involvement In the foreign porcelam trade and an expanded cale of rirual feasttng (Hut·

FEASTING SYSTEMS I" PREMIS' ..

-

and lOJcpenJem 0'colon.al control m cM t Iy ,nt.le tt e I.til Wtl.J Tnbes af ,h~ DJ1""~ Di.s'n..'t. ",!hn hiS 19tJ a In lI('ulady VIVid descnptlon ot hum~n. cnfi "and dedJp·r ,'.' f n Jnnual harvest feast .. mon!: the & oft 0 ;I ,1S P F' ,lIy archaeologISts have recentlv be~ t I jan oo . In, . ~ I " the long-term evolunon of ntual r. 'Iln~ UI Ih " relevanr to 0Id eer,lmlC assemblage and sub. nenc", renu at hoUse h0 n nrers U"oker, Mud.!r. and ch ... a.1Jer 1"'14 luihr I""' e , hie y' . rJ'~

n

"ISTO",

•J

o

q'

M

mform w,n "n rttllJI •• hJngt· .1Il", •. it-llt.HIIIY 1",ISts ,If" t'thllllj:l.lph" o of i' ppln. dlfl Id"lIl III till 1.IJIllI 11111'11"" (,," it .1' Ih .. 1\,II:"h . L d I I wrl!' ,tl1I an d IiU,.J IH,,. 1,1 Mll1d,IIIJ"', c tllllplt :'IU' It IIc" l lot

It:tm I 111"ltl III

I

pOl.llIn

I

I

1

•

Im

terer 197J. 1977,Junker t999). Here, I focus on the role of nrual feasttng m lhe evolving political economy of Phlhppme c1uefdoms between the tenth and ninercenth centuries. Because mar, tUme trade for porcelruns, silks. metal weaponry, and other mall1land A. i.11l pros, ugc goods became an Important component of chl~ny poitucal econom ies In m~ny Phlltpptnt 1~land polities by the late firsl mtllennium All. , their litClJle hi nr.se trade partners hJve provldcu us With nearly a millennium of hbtotlc "'I'll on PluhpPlflt culture These Chlllesc soul'ces lflcluuc J few rciercl1lcs 10 mwl f IUlg lInk"r 1998), Ilowcver. lhe ne hest documentary CVluemc lor 111 uaJ lea ling and I1 rolt In c11ltfly pnhllcal c onomlc (Olnl'S from COIIIJ el l','I1I,,1 ntury) panl h l< XI>. fll"ny of which proVide comidcrabk d,'t,1I1 UII rttu 1· pall 1,1 ( 1111 11,111 ,·v.lfIgdl/lng
... •- , .-..-.:

N

~~

*1 L \\E L

T

,

I

I

. f elice f~asnng pu-ap ooenco d ,an' camP t the same ome. e.xp= pOr .an cootact A uJao on of elite

"Feasts of men,' In preluspanic Plubppm e chiefdoms, like rit\J I r . relations. Both coa ICaSts 10 ll1. · compIex soaelJes, served to reprodu ce SOCIal . mmunlty ny cOhe. Slon and sOCIal rank clifferentl3lJon were reaffirmed and continuall t heough exchange of valuables, chiefs ' oral narratives, animal Y renegOt . "ted ~ saCnnce prestaaons, and ancestOr-invokmg ritual What is parricularly sign 'c 'ood the Philippme case IS that nrual feastmg was highly compelJtiv '''cant abOUt " . . eand~ transformaave. WIth each feast reabgnmg soaal and political pow Cl.lly . Cr relah within alliance and patronage networks, Chiefs, nobles, and those w' h Oils . . It ehte pretensIOns created the soaal debt fundamental to expanding power asy . mmetrj dtstributing increasingly more elaborate starus foods and valuables to an es by ' cl e 0 f paraclpanrs. ' . I n many c.ueluom~'C.J I eve I Societies ritu I C ever. widening or •

•

t

nre

toroP che em be ned to ess to elaborate forop po m'Y have acc chaeological d.ir3 docum n ho did not W h the ar ' . "thOUg _~ rhnohisronc e~iden ~ IV to u.e e

ut develop more speafic Id il ru rn once agau' easC Asia to '" south mIght relatc [0 bro der {la tirive feasang of compe grating archaeolog'lcal and ('rho no mles. [nte cal eco 'on of how nrual fea", tIn u~ t I a dlsCUSS th er VII pap . al.nng compeonon overe ,t strategJes. ese oon ti warfare and 13\'e-raJdm ~ 1 ~ asang IDterpo ry . erethe fifreenUJ _~ and sixreenth eenrune \Vb t ID . d th nrual fea ring are central to

a leasrin

tends to focus less on overt starus compermon and negotiation of politic.1 g ' al reinfiorcement 0 f exJStlng " tlonships than on id eoI oglC pOwer hiera hi rela . '. re es berween hereclitary chiefs and their constlruenCles. ill the Philip p tnes, and . elsewhere in island Southeast AsIa, the development of strongly centralized 0 ' ties with powerfully integrated political hierarchies and relatively perm P lianeOl territonally defined power bases ~ay have been constrained by certain eeolog : l cal, geographic. and demographic faaors . In these weakly integrated polities

p

a

aSSoa3[e W1

Of ciuefly pouocal econom,,~ on expanSJ . .. . lo!:,caJ analySIS of nrual feasnng 1

Tb re to

processes ID the prehispamc Philippme_

,

political power was transient and relied, not on control over fixed territorial bases

or well-defined unilineal descent groups. but on cultivating ties of personalloy_ alry and expanding one's power base through frequent and elaborate gift-givang and ceremonialism. The first section of this chapter examines the complex role of rirual feasting in Philippine chiefly polincs through an analysis of histOric and ethnographic sources.

In the second half of the chapter, I consider evolutionary aspects of the feast. ing system and how it relates, in a dynanuc way, to other components of an ex panding chiefly polincal economy Archaeological evidence for ritual feasttng al prelusparuc Phibppine settlements documents changes in the intenslry, scale, and social dynarrucs of these ceremonial events as more complex c1uefdoms emerged m the millennia prior ro European contacr The distribution of fauna! and floral remains that might be associated WIth ntual feasting, the presence of specialized ~. ' set tl em ents., and Ihe ar· food· preparatIOn and serving assemblages at prelUspanJC

.spanal , contexts assocIate ' d chaeological study of speCific

WI lh

feastUlg suggest .

which these feasting sysrems may h ave tram f,or med over ume Ind , water bu/lalo , Jnd mr, ~n crt:
5(,me ways

In

fifteenth and ""UCIn In lea rLJ

r

lh century rhu-lIy t

(,f rn

n!' and ilfl IIlfJ,lwlII.,ry

J\rl'h gn

CI'IIlCIS

cl.II"'f(~I/Vltlllll "

pllll'

1Ilfl

"I'VIIO' I

no

suggt•

\('Ik

WI d<'nlllg SOCIal p"IIl'd . ' JI mput rump'"~I'" () f II1JUII I I (hl..fl~ (Clltcr IS

flllfll.IIIUlIIJ(' I O

1'1111,1.1"" "

1a/'IIIIIIt'

.I"nl

~Il

"

11

rr~\an~

RITUAL FEAST IN G IN PHILIPPINE COMPlE THE ETHNOGRAP HI C EVIDENCE What the smeemh-centun p.ll1lards vaOlty" or "feaSt' of ment Cubn IQ", economy of Virtually all Phliappm by Sparush JnJ IQ9o.7 7 -,J, Ethnuhl$llInl VI.iclll iU I,ransac!c.] \'"Iun III I lllpolu anon and !:clIl'r~ILz d h nJIUrall\ rr" I I 1't \ "l' cl l 111I1In I uur, ' I I h f'<J • 1\
111,111

Itd

I

Il'"hlit

ojnd lllfUflhUI r Ut t

t

I

h

It

th

t

SOCIETIE :

•

/,nlJ/ (/ l.cr ./rutlur

RIT UAL

li on . Lav ish gdIlIlg of va luables such as porcelain bowls Or met I . a gongs parnclpanrs served lO both ma lnlalO polirica lly sign ificant reclpr I to elite oca exeh. IJuonsh, ps (th e maten al glue of all ia nce building) and lo sy mbol "ge re . . , . OVertly a ular chief s rank 10 a SOCIal hi erarchy Vis-a-ViS olh er eutes (as m e parllc. a'Ured lh rough hiS control of wea lth). Altho ugh contact-pen od Phi.lipplO e chiefd oms diverged widel , ' . sca.le and complexlIy. ceremo nJal feastlOg wa s ubiquito us and WasY hIn ter", S of c araCte . by cerram pan-archipelago fea tures. Th ese fearures include (I) nZed (though nor always exclusively) by elite individuals (most lTequ entl spoh"sorship y, C lefs)· (2) rhe performance of sacrificial rites using animals (usually pigs, chick ' ens, and l o w ater buffalo). other foodsruffs, people, and l or manufacrured goods . r COntnbuted by indJviduals in a tributary or subservient role to rhe sponsor; (3) elite h " . exc anges of valuables (e.g., porcelam , silks, gold Jewelry) as part of ongOing re ' . clprocal e•. change parrnerships; (4) reallocanon of meat and Other feaSting foods r, . accordin g to kin shi p nes ' an d soa'al ra nk re Iations with the spo Or COn· sumptlon . ' . nsonng elite; and (5) the confemng of soaal prestige on the feast's sponsor in accordance with the feast 's lavishness and the sodal debt created through the sponsor's • prestatlons.

FEASTING SYSTEMS I

manenr repre,eDtdoon 0 polm as a pcr scapc petltlve ce rcm omal r!\i 'nu \\;f!rt: 1999). re (j~nkcr wcr asymmetnes /JZ 11g po "on a I IUry Sparush source. anJ early een . eenrh· SIXr cl s perSiSting u1(O rhe moJem en hler. om . e plfl c held frequ endy through our rhe vcar m a '-ut I'< ",ere ch alend n cal and ufe-crl5ls nru..1 Ufe-= , "'nt d d bo c d~ e f ntual feast by rhe km group In luded th hip 0 a sors of puberty. m arnage , ilIne, . or death a h u enr hievem aC n 1990a . 164, Anon . 1990b:uo; Boxer m~nu clf" 1\1:'; I Ano . 2 . Loarea 1903.149-151; Pla eno, 190Jb 1<10- I • .m 04'26. - 71. )9 ' 8' S'aaanchez 1617:387). Tbe parush un:e. 316,336-33. . h Id rh W' kin groupS would 0 ese e·m. I nnul non·e ~re esources, but for duefs and oth r elll necessary [ . al meanmg (see below). Other ooncalm cant po lItIC th t cerne d W1 more ad hoc cute ende..vor., ch resl'dence or war canoe. and rhe UllClatlon of mantunr . • • discussed Ul m ore deraIl below, calm n Clons. ('U

FEASTING AND THE RITUALIZED NEGOTIAT ION OF SOCIAL-POLITICAL RELAT IONS

In an ethnohistoric analysis of the use of food in rirual contexts amongst the na. tive American Oglala, Powers and Powers distinguish "feasts" 1T0m mundane consumption as "a food event which is somehow commemorative or celebratory of perhaps a historical or religious occasion . .. [rhe feasts) haVlng some intnnSlc sodal value which rranscends the nutritive function of eating" (19 84:83). Feasts are thus generaUy aSSOciated With ceremorual or ntual events held either penod!. cally (or on an ad hoc basis), they generally involve commensal umts larger than the usual domestic units, and they are often highly strucrured Ul terms of wharlS served and how It IS served. Often, the most sigruficant aspect of a feast IS ItS nt· ual COnteXI, within which are generaUy embedded spedfic social goals, although Hayden (1994) pOints out that feasts do not invanably Involve religiou. compO ncOls or social competition (e .g. , work feasts) . Rirual feasts arc occasions wh~n $()oal relauons arc negotiated and reaffirmed (Rosman and Rubel 197R). BeCdUse ritual feasts m the Phlllppll1es were mosr ofren sponsored by chiefs and tied cJ(J~" Iy to aspt'cts of ( h Icny political economy, they were a Iso Im Portant 10 relO . ' t alcJ "Jrnn~ the Idt(Jlogy t)f chlt:ftall1~hlp. To be eflcclIve Iy promll Ig , 3 ruhn~d • al "vclllS all cl.. ld"(,I',~y mu,t b,' matc'l\dlizt:dll1 wlddy wllness,' d (nemo", pu /'hrly d) playrd sy'nb"Il< (,bJ'"Is (lkMarillS, CaMI II u, .11llI I' ,I rlt- IVyt>, I'JrkI 19'17 141 '',IL ) S,," ~ "h,IIrl'll'"

(1"1'1.1,,,,,, dILl n',1 l7l

,umlllH I J 1111>11

harvesong agncuJrural crops at 0 tm II d intimately tied to ducfly mbute-moblhzan n n SpeCIalist pnests. known a, bahaylaltS ID \ often elite femJ.ie , performed rht" reil u nt ous necs of pas age, a well a. the ably pigs or water bullalo) ro b< later ed An cxrended dJscu-,>slon o f lh, "m 1 nees are beyond the SlOpe o t th peT.rnt 233· 2.j1 · and De RaeJt 1<) <) or m However, we not .. here that tu I n ill gesl that Jl11m.tl Jlnli« .lO,\, n, m 31 warJmg utt ,ml(tlll pi nt h sage of mdlvl.!lI,tl, thwu h rnn

109 and

I\nt"III.II I ,I\"

were Ju'm~ ,Hnl'" In ~lIl In nd romplellnn of ,,'mlllunU, n

'PCdlllun .. Igl\. ult u Idenec 1 h, r I

:lu

Ill!;

~nuJIh- In" tnl 'h pr"pl'l Ill. " I r Ii I, n h, IIVIII!;, .lIhl I' tI 11 rl 'lh h ., III

, l

t1 •

J

r

h

RITUAL FEASTING SYSTEMS I~ 'REM IS

-----.-- -'

•

h ' kill group ,mod ror I <

[0

regam the benevolence

h

hId '" hc rcr Cl' I "plnl. w,LI nOI cross t c threshold " I he ,.h:n Il (' • h H 111;)lcvo t.,1'I re ' fill' or ICJ ,,'n,lI I • h b lllll~ '" their vanOUS endc3lr1ors , An

III Ih ... \c .1Iue' pf 01 hull"!;'

for the

(lu\t' rnl,je)(lllI'lc." I" • J'

J

In

J

\Olerrne

I.

.

d Jne~ bcrwcen the human and J

Sptn t

•

I r'l-"" \\e'" VlewC ' ,ahry" to the Ind,v,duals sponsonng IlllJb ,Ut' J "f h\/(lS 10 bnng "I • hn c"h.n~c the conl cc g. carJ sacnficial ntual and m payment to religious be u,ed 111 the Jccompanymg , These contnbuttons tneluded gold. cotton. metal Ing,lo spcClal"I' perforl1l1ng It d th 'tu hall " b \\e.' ons. other prestige goods. rice. pIgs. chIckens. a,n 0 er g -gu su b d II 990 '334 ChIDno T904·262-271. Cole T9 l 3,l1I- 120. P \1~ICmcc Items l Ao a I a J • , t 1975'201 San AntontO T990:314), lt IS clear from 19;69~ If"'. Bo,er manu.cnp '. , antsh sources and early ethnographic accounts that d 5 bOlh the conlact 'peno P , fr b rdmates were exacted as a form of robute or enforced conmbutlons om 5U 0

0'

?

I

•

•

IJbor. whereas the prestanon. from members of the nobility took place in the context of aUlance-butldmg reciprocal "gtft" exchanges, Those feasts marlung mucal POlnt5 on the agricultural calendar. m particular. were suffiCiently regular to have been the key context in which tribute collection. communal agncultural labor. and amassing of duefly surplus rook place (see Cole 191J:11t-120), It IS probably not a comcidence that the largest and most pro' tracted of the Bagabo fea tS (the Gm Em feast) occurs Just after the annual fall nce harvest, when the grananes of subordinate duefs and village commoners are full of avallable nce for large tribure exactions, There are parallels wIth the Makahlkl fesnvaJ and other clueny agricultural rites of contace-penod Hawa" IEarle !9n'll5-226; Peebles and Kus T9n:425; also see Kirch. Chapter 6), Ethnograpluc descnption. of these ntual events among the TausLlg (the core CUltural group of the Sulu sultanare). Buktdnon. and Bagabo of Mlndanao Inw' catt chat a ~ignrficanr component of these events IS the remforcement of ehle alliances 'Clavtr 198574-75: Cole 1913: JJ r-t 12, Kiefer 1972:26. 97) Alternately spon' ""red 10 tht'1f own
274

'A~IC ,

metal gongs, gold Jewe1ry and or other PI"Ut!. at any sIOgle feast represented Imk.s 10 ~ ~oods ~ ng n , tnlem..1ntd c rocal exchange partnerslups between lun-r-.lat d f ctfi' e and ,DIed untque state 0 spe c soaa! relaoonslups at an can be made with the alliance-based systems of • ~ i'OlIII for other areas of island Southeast As,a (. PB"'Stl~!:
.u.

Despite obligatory conmbunons from subordinate ' • encrru as a faun of uiI> ute) and from allied polttical leaders (framed In tertru of alh.utc~ rocal gift exchanges). the Sparush chrorucler.; su e>1 du, th <-. 1«<\ the expensive burden of finanang the feast (80\(r manu....,,,, 1 1904:262-271; also see Clover 1985'2-; De R3cdt IQ~~:11Q; Pn1I-B.~tt 1 financing presumably depended heanJ) on stored", UK' the long term by socially and poltncall) promment In tenslve marriage nes and exchange nerwork.,

=

SOCIAL PRESTIGE OR "MERIT" AS A TRA

A HO VALUE

The presnge-enhancmg aspects ot" the '.' at. In the by Blernarzkl's (t985) and Cll\er"> \ 1,) , "thn mplu ndh t nul Bukldnon. a trarunonal chlen, S0.:1 t\ r north m tinJm1 19S6:94-1t 7), At ceremorual feast, nlar lIt'tb u n fI politically slgrufieam evem" th.' '1'<"" )no", lu tv}'1 m tc-d from neIgh bOring d"tnct, and n'~I' n, ,~ , Ibl ro I"'rth: I"'tr In tilt k.uh (Blernarzkl IQS5 ,11>-'~l. 'rh.. 1'<1Il>t'nn I strateglCs, Since ' Ih~ 'as<' '" nh '" hI h ~um~~ and the ability tll I",ISI ~u<"t, 11.11 ,pI lenee of a 'fi"t,da ' .Iilt" [.h, , In hIS 'Iud), "~I th, t" ""fOUp, , ( " mft"rHH Ih\rth fn I itJIIll'd h'

"Ill I'lI""",11I1' , It,h .11111>1", I h .. ' I " 1'''''1,1 ~t{ rh

tU

I

In

•

, many of whom did nOl have the rc' I C ;l ~ I , II,c I Clll t·e... • b f I 1 , III 11' Irc:du 1ot I le ,111 '" , . I Sl expanded the num er 0 people Irl an Wl.1 1 1 kll1J J 1('.1101 S 10 .. •• _. . .. to rC(lp, O(.:,IU: 11 . II . . ~ reinforced the debt of eXlstmg tics .. uur- ( , ' 10 h1n1 . ~ .. vJC ., , • ,"ll"IJ'j(. d 1I..·I;IIIOl1shIP

of 311 indi vidua l a nd of hi S lIl1med lale

.," n

c', ,h.1I the prestige , , III 1''hlll'nflJgr Vo ..... nOl , ' f I ~ ~ ]ccunlula[ing debts or oblIganons that re. I .J 111 I('rms () I 'le . C < b LI kill ,:rollP '\ ~.lUgC I 'de 19nculrural la o r o r 0 lcr serv ices, as "ubsrq ucnl YproVl' , . q""" "u' d,N"r<. \110.11l0n~ s lid on by thc fca sr s sponsor. Spanish SOurces . when ca c . '.

"cll ." relUrll P'C ,

1lh.cc nlury

sugAC'st Ih.1I \IXlcet

d

(lfl/of

oncn II1vestcd their surplus wealth •

to •

aiding

. lcd with marriage rites or death ntes, thus

')t')n~or fcns ls 11SSOCIi'l

"

Cllhel m<''' 10 "'I ' . d',VI'dllals •as core supporters In the riaL11 s alliance lhcse III II~hll~ llIng dU.' lr gllP on I IQ6ob:76 -77. 180- 198). '. . network (A Cl no . h'ef or kin group increase thelf prestige to the rcI dd the sponsonng c I NOI on Y I . s supplies of food and srarus goods disbursed at . 11 b providmg thc enol mou /:'0 Y b I occasion provIded an opportuniry for all the arrending Iouch I nruAI C:VCIlI. ut t'le ' .. .' I' k - roup leaders to arrempt to Improve thelf POSition .111/11-' « hlCfs) and ni,' c m g . . . 8 · 1 h crarchy of chlcny aurhonry. Slernarzki (19 5.36--37) deI d k wltlun a ran c po Illca 1 . '. . . . 011 of power relarions ID the traditional boastmg COn.'Icnbc~ Ihts overt ncgon~1l . 'c." accompanymg Ceremo",al fcasrs among the ethnographicaHy .known of northern Mindanao. In these feasrs, each dalll m turn I . r~ lJubj non C1!eluoms climbed J ladder 10 a lugh ceremonial platform laid our wirh a lavish meal. at each rung of the lodder rwnng Ihe genealogical history that supported his inherited d,"m 10 chieftain 'hip and elire starus. However, he would also present an even more prOIl.crcd rccital of his personal exploirs in trading. raiding, and other "wealth " prouucmg acuviacs • • llcmpung to out-boast other arrending chiefs and wm J pl.ICe at lhe lughesl-ranJung ceremonial table . These public recitations and symbollC movemenr of chief, up Ihe srarus ladder allowed the communiry 10 compal'C chleny and to r,lI1k the multiple disrrict chiefs in rerms of appropriate Itwl\ of dcferen e AI least onc comact-penod Spanish teKt refers ro similar public "'CII,llIon, of st,1tusvahdallng genealoglCS and herOIC aCCountS of trading and rald"'g e~1'lolI' as pan of feasllng 11rual 111 the sixteenth cenrury (e.g .. Sobadilla IWO:ljl). Oral presentalions of stalus-enhanang genealoglCs and personal achievement,. aJJowmg pubhc Jssessmel1l of [he relauve starus, wealrh, and power of ,11 Icndlllg rhlt&. was assouJted wllh ceremonr.ll feasting il, olher areas of Southeast A"J Jnd m Pol)'l\t"'1 (Goldmilll 1970:522----536; Schnltger 1964; Volkman I(89). AIllOl.11 (mcl\! commol1ly (arab.lO. pigs. chIckens. nnd dogs). nee ,Ind orher pl'nl loud,. Jnd Jlwh()1 beverages were oncred for sacnfice 111 the ntllul compontnt fir PhlhpPllle I cremonlts. I\orh the quality Jnd quantities of ,,)(rll1(1,11 oncrm' rtOcch J Ihl' OCl,II r,mk, Wl'.lllh. Jnd poirllral rowel base of rhe Sp!ll1\llrlng du,1 11111 rrtallk, NHS lli 17; Chlflno 1<)04 loC) 270; i.wcr 19 H57.(. S.II' AI1\(lI\\Il 1990 Br JI~J A In 1111,,·,. om)'l ... '"CltIIC' uf SlIlllhc.ISt A",I. Ih,' n1.\lI1\('I1,II1"" "I

276

al srarus quo or soaal mobility de nd d -2-, l. "ea Ith a , draft arum al WIth a slow teproductI\~ rate ~J as a r t valued arumals Ior both sacnfice ~J (x :b~n S
11\

Dozier 1966:84, 149. 194; Hart 1969: o. , . lend Lol 1 ReI'd 19 88 '32-33' ' . Scon 1984-196; Voss 19 - t2.S Food delicacies were served ro high-rankin' guesb n collection of valuable imported matnland _-\'hm pon:dalQ n eoware (Pigafena 1975'59: also see Btematzki 1<)" C It' ooe of a number of OCCasiOns when duell~ bou,~h J ui displayed, and the lavishness of meal pre.senunon fin delicare bowls (preferably lffiporred porce1;un, .Ir 'u<; to facror in derermining the a!Dount of OCJ,u P~_t!~ (e.g .• Alana 1960b:133-136. P1gafen.I t9:-;-,.)

,,,r

The imporrance of gauung presnge or ment thro ~ I slup is echoed U1 ethnograpluc and hi.mn.: 3(, un!. f in the southern Philippmes. uch a.! the \IanU\'U. T (see Claver 198574; Co le 1913·11I-120; \I.muel rm I ,.;r Warren 1977:255-257). PTestige or "mem tun_tu un cal alliance nerworks that were .u the 'o~ 0 cielies. as exarruned to more detail bdt'" Tb legitimating [he pohticJ.l order ha_ be"., ical econom' U1 other Besserar. Chaprer '-I).

,,,=

FOOD APPORTIONMENT

11\1

I L

tt 1

-------, d

.",<1

"'J'he •• tOR 'IC"'r'1k;r rml ilitn ~.J C{Jn. P"""_I_.ft. ocher cl
on hcM!,nd m:rr .... -..--rbc' of po ual.aumc"nuc

of rank and ;mo!" pi I

~

';;e P'2}

q

M< .. r 4ulf tbt ldttut H'1< ~ the lxDy and nde 64 . .,.",•• tountll or "".up L._ .L. nm ,.,ar,!', <1-", mvldlc
could

,.

a\s-llWlg O1le= of age, geoea!ogy, ..

rh< ,,"k .nd ~, 'pprop, "'" e l k ! U. dut ,I U~ beLie. 1O ;:'Cl a mall!"c« hr, ( the L ,.m nfU' In .L. till< - (.me ((Juld uy I a[ I r", ry mb<,11C r~ 1.00 (r"'" ",mc.-mere "Ut ,.,..., chm' bo,kd in Ih~!"I: .nd In t1><'K n1D~ 1987 '29 the ___ I mdn .. em . (

...m.

f'D("fttIwm G

UI>Ulcd It) prn fi r I nd,v,duah and kJn groups were carefully scru i'l>c pe/rtl,,n. d J pc-rcClvcd ImpmpncLI I :) m m"a[ dJJLnbullon were rJpellly cnll. unl""d an . ny led by Vu'" cud by Ihr fe.Jf .Hcndres A. rccoun kcel " " ","t u!"tahru( old men who I d r Inlt"TYIt"a't' l a ...If r d (me ITlJn J u un I~r ~s:.t :m d prestJgt ' by ShOWing up.' .11 km"" 0 .. an [0 tmand upn.. rr man ,hrrf . Jure (} ( m~t .. In such lO.RancC'J, blltC'f argumenu can result bc:. mo thnr (,Id men .wh0 (cc I ch"" (wren ~I ,(1" gelling [htll proper .hare- a.nd tho.e who

(ulln<"), 01< hUl'J!mg Ir", much of rhe p'g. " 987 110) SJnn" h wurce.\ .uggC!l Ihal [he chief's Immediate relauves and other eliteS . with

..I lhrd were commonly served Ihe chOicest meat dish,eesswhom 11, wa~ mooNY' Ih,,\/: cons nog " f ca,abao or domestiC pig ralher than smaller game arumals 11y. Ihe meali e I ammal paru (eg. the forebmbs and , secondarily, r ~ n d ptc,'I"Ol'" . l. rne vt"n t br ;,t;: 41' nd nb, • Plgafena: 19756y--66; San AmonJo 1990:313; Santa lnts 1/>4878; .b', sec: B,ernatzx. 198536-17; Barton 194974 - 75; Pnll·Breu (989). Pig and c.,.b~ " kuU. were ahr, preferred body parts in some soaeues (Plasencia 1901b 191 ), pmbably fnr reasons olher Ihan meat qualIty. Glbson's (J986:158/ analy... I,f th~ symbolic aspects of anrmal partluonJng among Ihe Buid, a con. Icmpr".ry upland tnbal group of Mmdom, suggests why the pig head might haye betn preferred ovu even meatier arumal parts. The head of the pIg IS vIewed by Ihr SUld as Ihe locus of Ihe anrmal SQul or Vital SPlnt Thus, by pos. ng rhl porurm of Ine 3mmal. the ",nsumer. are able to Iransfer Ihe "vlIaI· Iry" or plnlual power of Ihe animal tc, thl"mseJves l<J ward off the weakening all"~.s r,f prt'datc,ry pints (Gibs'm 1986:157). I'l<,.) apprJlt"mmcnl as the pflmary public meawre of social slatus dlflcrenu .""n ha btt'n J,. rnb~d In SIgnIficant detarl Ii}r complex SOCltllC~ engaglOg In nl ual (, .• ling 'm Iht Ind'ml'~lan Islands of Nlas (Scatty 1991) and Sul.wc" Iyr,lkm.1h 11I1is)· (m N,.,. slaul:htl"rcd pIgs wert rradltlcmaliy divided 1010 carc· fUlly WtlFired mC:;,1 pOflllms. whrrh w!"re: dlstnbuled aCCCJrd,ng to remgrllzcJ "n~ In 11-" Iot,( 1.1 h,er." hy, ,hc' h,>l'JfY (If rnCH ,'uhangc relalUlm between the hi I nd gum, and bn IlIp ~nd er, "'~IlI"IIII,rI IU" ht'lw!"'n till" "",I and I:ue>l 'r~ arty ''J'JI 1.:.t4 ~1.5) J ;lIllJr~ tt, rl"rt'lvf' 11u- t Xpt.( It tJ nlt.~t po. WJIl, III n"o';IlIlIon

17.

qom rly r~hed through CGbJ&hIancls of Sum.. eg, public :Tin , memon7~ Ult:

f,,-

complv.iUtd

COn)uncocrn ...mh the md"iduaJ s Pi$[ _. ~ 109 and pamupanng In fe ..;, to,ieq, .. ,,:.., cuts olkman 1985:96 103 . i>cllm~ igbts qwooy escalate mto a .mt;at 6gb." Vi Y.Xec~ paroes made inflammatory .. a!

fhngmg meat and c.a.rabao eXf I tUlenr ;n u~ cion of food delic.aue. ar POI)ne>'M kaq,

sou.aJ rankGoldman 19;"G:, ,"--j02, 501 . • r nm."zed food dmnbuoons woe oc 9Opt "ben feren oals wele CJ\'ertly played om by played the feam ng game weD. public confrontaoons about therr post In rewarded M th upward m olnh£\. , Q

COMPETITIVE FEASTS OR ' CH LLE GE-E

A SlgruJicanr ISSUe is "'heth.r !:he PhJ1,pp_ • Sparush records and early.thn " 1991:232- 233 refers to as - challet) m m -challenge' feasr c~n be defin.d as polmcal dommaoon thrau h an e\ r..... • and publIc displa . of >enennty hostih pie of o\'ertly competJn r ea tin IS ~ Amencans >uch ., rhe Kw uti ~ In Sponsonng a fea. I , . 10 an mpl to ,u hueal nvals [0 am.l. dr pla\ ,mbure sponsor', penOlll1,nCe re'ldr d tn lion or humrllJtion, JnJ pohtJ al 1950; Druckl'r 19<' )

-

Howc\'cr, 1<<<'111 anth 'pol I aI the ,oCla"~ (llmhJ!J\ nalu I ndlng una~ nf' \\ , th 19NI ) Iml J.l. Idlll
i", 'hldh

I.lhl'l1

,.h

11\

,

•

. •

-.- .

m c: rOU\ 'I

---

-.

• fill , hll' r '" .1Ilt.! o:..t Cl1t .lt IO U"I g ill s nr gold o r

W""V'· I" ~ ,.

Ulh t11\ ( Il l' I I'le:: I ' .'

~ Iy

. • ut the ",(ru ng

eo mpc UW/t

Cl

I'l)~

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( N I~l S fc a ~t . .

l,)n J'i c;vltlrn [c . IQ64 ) Ilowcvc r, m h C..' r e thn ographe rs n ,H" t"Tl IJl • . " , , I q . SC hllltgC I (~I",ch'lI 1970. $u7llk ~S " hallengc "" (N '" were hlSLOncJil y rJre 111 N,J; so . . I IJ lfOI1l Sll C L I Ch en Il a n ce'd S IJtu ~ was _I " , 11131 " vCII )'. 111 C" I pl-oeJI ethos III Wll l .11 ,d J h,gh YrCCl ( IClv, Ih.lI m()!il rCJ~rs h. . . . . . Jnd polillC;'" Icgtllln3 CY we re ga lT'l ed onl y " I sOCH)1 O1c.:fll • . ,,,"Slwry. and' 1-lt . of an 111 dIVIdual ',• lifellme o( cc r<mom. 1 exchanoes I 11 over the (our c ,OW) SI lfl_vc!sink '995-'30 ). •• f ' (Beany 'Q91. In h ' "cornpclIlIve nature 0 rea'lIng cvent ~ In '. 1(>I1U0 I1 abour l C Some 0 f IhlS con d" S from" lack of clanry in distlngUlshmg (ca5t· .d elsewhere CrlVC Southeas, ASI' an I "merlt" transacted IS of a tranSItory and rea In whIch rhe SO(la men ll1g pheno heno mena rhal .tternpt ro accumulate permanent I arurc and fc.,ung P I a proca n · orary srarus ddrerenu.l s mto ong-term and even I h nd to transform lemp .. .. wto { a p sts that confer values of sOCl.1 ment but whICh nh lable political power ea . I en .. .. are charactenzed by cycles of balanced rcclproclry. art not overtly competitive, I Ion and slatUS enhancement for any smglc md,v,duJI on whIch surplus aceumu a I . . ry and eventually negated rhrough the necessity of rcor kIn group are eransltO . . .. . the" partners m a feasung cycle In compeullve feaMS. lurnlng prestaoons 10 . _ I . f labor mobilization and surplus needed to finance future there IS an esca aLlon 0 mro long-term pobncal power ranslating feaslIng' success t (casu an d {e h aIm of and economic profit (e_g. Priedman 1979)· Hayden (1994:25. 64) has suggested that competttlve fea~ls aImed a(creatlng economIC tnequalltles and negotiaung political power dJrrcrentl.ls are pnmanly a srructural feature of what he refers to as ··lran5eg.blanan·· or"" B'g Man" societies ,uch as Ihose m New Gumea and Olher areas of Melanesia characterized by In S(;Ible (I eo. whoUy achltvernent-based) cotena of social ranktng and pobllcal ,uc cesSion Hayden and others (cg .• Clark and Blake '994 . Pneuman ,1nd Rowl,,"," 1\178; Ro,man and Rubtl '978) argue lhat compctlltve f~a~lIng ,~ onc of a nllmbt" of evolv,ng strateglcs among "b'g men"" or .. aggrandi:lc r,' fiJr t rall,fo, mm!: It 'n !'tory. achJevement·ba~ed political authomy and diflercnltJI w,·.lth 111111 ,h .. '" htntablc poliocal pnwer and wealth. whICh Me kcy tt) tl1<' cn1t"'~""'l III ch,,·fd',m·I'"Vtl $onCLJCS_I fayden ~UAAe'ts that cl,," net·d ftll ltJIltPl'l 11 'v,' it-.,,'" largely (.Imaled 111 chltfdctm Icvrl 6()ci'-lles. Sill'. Ihe (ClIl1pQ""'" fill polllll.oI IUr:U\M(.I11 and trrJnClfnlC" ~urplU5 hJ!I tWl'Tl ff'soJw'd 111 Iht., '"OH . gt'lH.t 01 IlIhrllt an! (h, ft.on,h,p and (·nf",,,- .. bl,- II,bul( 'Y>ll-ms rna,nl.llIll1lg lW' ,(\.11'<1" 1.11,," po
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RITUAL FEASTING SYS TEMS IN PRE

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- 11.,., .....1.. ,,,( pnhlles. III e l'ypic,Jly decentralized, had weakly 'n., t" O( IC..' ncs \Vcr • h .u"'t>. \\ ·IT.1" I"f Iq RI)· lhe,e•s d wcrr particularly vuI nera bl e to SOrt-term cy_ hlCs . an . I hierarc I I th · d . I le.'rollcd 1''' ,11'·' d dISII 'tcgratlon. Po ltl ca au omy tra .tlonaUy r . 1-I\C ' I1(e an ,b ,,/ .llcrn••llo g co." ' _ d ,I bases or well-defined unilineal descent . 11"01O\'l"r hxc rernron. ., I'll I

I"<'heJ. nOI on lon f rsonal Joyalry and eA-panding one s power base InvJ(U'g ocs 0 pe . ~("(lUr'· bUI on cu f .glvmg and ceremorualism (Wolters 1982:6-15). , I JIld elJborate gl1 Ihrou~h ''''quell olmcal Slrucrures by Blanton (Blanton et al. ,'ork on compardllve p Rccenl , h . gges,ed that these ubiqUitous fearures of Soulh,J Fell1l11an (1995) as,U .. . ) l<Wb JI ordll1ary 111 stale-level and chiefly sOClenes, bm 10_ ~ polJlles are nOI extr.1 e. ,I · SlJ haslS on "'network" strategies of political power Slt.cl reprc,enr an eAlfeme emp '" . I my a strategy for mall1tammg rulershlp that IS prac· I"<'IJI1ons and polincd econo . . . degree In many com plex soaenes. Blanton and PemuCl'd to .1 lesser or grearer .." . "' orporatc-based"' and "network-based or excluslOnary" d man havr conrrasre c . " . s d1/fenng bUI not murually eXc!llslve, ways of achievmg politpower .stra le:gtes J , . Ical dOll1mance m complex SOCieties. They suggest chat these strategies are part of the polincal dynamJl:s 111 all complex societies, but political actors in a partICular sOCiety and histOrical context may emphasize one mode of control more than

Ihe other In the CAcluSlonary or network power strategy, political actors try to create per onal nelworks of political donunance through che strategic distribution of portable wealth Items and symbolic capital (such as rirual potency and religiOUS knowledge). Al"ances are typICally created and maintained outside local groups through "preSlatlOnal events" (Blanton et al. 1996:4), Involving exchanges of marnage parroers, presnge goods, food, esotenc knowledge, and labor. Often these preslallonal events occur m the context of rirual feasting. lndividuals who can mOSt successfully translate the exchanges of foodsruffs, prestige goods, labor, and other resuurces mto parronage over a large network of aWes and followers, gaIn poilucal preemtnence m the communlry. However, as noted by Blanton and Pelnmitn. m $OCICUCS where a network strategy is the predominant mode m the polir· ICaJ economy Icader>hlp IS generally highly confliclIve, unstable, and prone [0 rdauvtfy hr,M cycles of expansion and collapse. ('VfTal (011("5 may have been sll.,'TlIficam In creating the highly fragmented po' huc.alland.capt , Iht rt I'allVI" Iy weak I!1l1"gl alllm bl,tWl'cn vertICal . Iy a11' InI leaders,

282

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d the lughly personalized nature of p I n a 0 ltlc-al pOw sourheast As.an polioes. A number of hist ' er rdaUons eh.r;, onans and a " ctensuc of ro the fragmented geography and dJverse e re aeologuts h... nVIrOntnent.! f l'Oulled moting diffuse centers of political pOwer d <-.. 0 South • ..,.'Ill" . an "u.srf>Qn is PI<>olitical ,nregratlon (Andaya 1992:4°5' C g attempt.! at lar P. . ' eertz 197):J31-~. ge tale Winzeler 1981 :462). In addition, most ofpre l ' ',"" R.e.d 19<11.60co orual Southe 06), sible exception of Bali, Java. and parts of Vietnam ha ast AsJ' lWlth ~ postion densities relative to land and resources CR) d CJ on .lholIl...·bui!dmg mVl ties such as gifnng of prestige goods, the creaoon 01 r>tens" 0 ntU alized [easung. and religious pageantry ',"led at S(lClal (Oh 'all. The srrongly compennve narure of these concal alh.IKr t-wIJing ...-o ~IJ<S undoubtecUy related to rhe fratlry of heredltan n!!ht' tl' f'l'iltI,a1ltaJt..tup. In most ethnograph,cally and hisronc"lIy ko""!1 ,,'mrb. ~ n .,c: uthtast Asia, kinship is gener,tLly rcckon~d bd,lt<'f .1111, (<'!I",ut< d " nI gl\)"l" OR' mg. postmantal re Idence IS olk'(al (11" Ilt(lh'.I1. alld anJ \\ .l1th.1t ited along both the n1.ltel"l1.11 and patl·rn.1 "11<' \ H~lI.oN Il ~ Winzeler 1976:62N) In the Phlltl'rllll"S, .1. '" nu'" __ 'UI~ I eues (e.g., AndaY.1 I~Ql .40~. ~I~. Ikld I -. I 1'. \",h nl amongst I ul"l"s ,lIId lllh" ""hlllll \_ .• 1 0 hI I . ,,'t! I heirS Jnd tlllllwl 0' .1(<,. h,lIl1l~ «",lit.. ,\\ -I ",h ntoIl, "I tht Addlll g IOlhl' rh,,,,, ('I ,hl.-I1I SIl« 1<1I11H' I' lIlt'U"'

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I ptllhpptlH' due: l ( . • " !l l ed )11 el11pha sls o n coa llll on.bLIIld1l1g t1 trll,hic 1n l tOrs ( Il. ~ , ll 11\' 0,,11 ,1I1d dt l ";; , I' II,ower, L.lsliI'A pO" lIcn l co nt rol wa s probpl ,...' . _ dl I b il SC..! p c> IlI C~1 _. . ,'. • .1Ihl'r ,h,111 It' ll 1( ('1 111 ) " I cl , CI1SIOll o f pohll ca l (l Lll h o llly cont mued t o I I hll' Vl'I11 CII I b tUa;l In , I I . 1f' IW111 t" ,Iod t w ,IC , , ' ,J sphere of polluca allL 1o l1ry were not 'hj~f'~ socl.11 SI .l l L1 S .H , hl' 1Il1llOnJI\I A, ' . .. Instcad (ontil1ually renegotiated lhrough lh c ri13 I1 CC • hut WCI C , _ 11 ,, ,.1 Ihrc>ugh 11 I ' ilh1l1 the nl'cna of mu"1 fca stmg. The cre.1 C' Ih.n look P JC< w . malcn.! exc hl11g , J > "n oe of parl lclp_n ts In a parllcularly laVish I J 'hI Jmong 3 WI ,r, " ,111 0 11 "f s "CI ,1 e ' 11 ' > network. whi ch could be caJl ed upon fOr 'J the sponsor J 13nce kN enI,Irg< . I h.gcnerallng nctivi ries, Allhough mOSt of the j ~ Jl1cl oth'l wea t r,,.dlllg, IrJI 1I1" . .d' nons of rirual fcasts do nOt provIde enough de. .. J " hnographlC cscnp , . I I . h semllent of sOClery was most Involved m the h," tl11< ,In e I dcrcrll1111e precIse y w \tC b· , I,ll 10 I'r. 'S 11 IS likely 'h '" compentlve one-upmanshlp was

. mp~utlve ~~pect$ 0 H:~ .IS[ll • , ,0 I -rnnkJ11g' chI efs nnd 3mbioous wa rn ors ra ther than the 1110st fierce ,lInonS ower d,.elll' paramo untS, ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR COMPETITIVE FEASTING IN THE PREHISPANIC PHILIPPINES ".". The preccwng wScu 'slon on the poli ticS of feasn ng in tradi rional PhilipPine ,hlddom has largely focuscd on srr ucrural dy namI Cs and no t the long-rCI'm evo· luuon of these fcasung systems, whIch often reqUI res rhe use of archaeological
alone, In Ihe absence of any ethnographI c or hisranc sources, EVIdence for thAer· ennal access 10 certalJ1 ntua l foods o r IlJgh-q uaury subslstencc commothucs, and parncularly lhelr concentra tion 111 clll c habitation cont exts o r 111 assOCIation wllh «r<momal strUCtUres, i. onc approach in idenll fy it,g d tLtal fcasting acnvllics In Ih •• r,hacolnglCal record (e g., Crabrrce 1990; J Pox 1996; Kim 1994: MMClIS Jnd Flannery '996115 116, Poh] 1994, Welch and SC,lrry 1995) , In add'llo n, arehal'olo' h,,'c mlen,'d ntual (ea~llI1g fro m th e norurc o f cc raml ,1ssc mblJgcs lound at ctt! mcnlS Somr Jrchacologlsls have nOlcd I, rgc rth,m nOll11al r ookmg and rvlng l.s 31 prCJltllllCnt reRUlIl,11 , 'I1t,'rs, SLl AAl'SlIng IMgc S~ Jlc ItlOd or dnnk p p:IrOlU(m I, g BI II I '9'11, IJ,U"" IIIH<) , " )1/0) I\ rr h;w o log "" hJve ,I"n "

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cups, and plales, a"crnblagcs [hat vary Sign fi food prepara[1on and servlOg as'emblages le I cantl1 front g Scarry 1995) Reprcsentauons of wh.t , Ct.r\r. all"'cd ogt~<s ol$ de ritua l fe. stlOg (e.g., Cero 1992, Hlgha." I plCUOn f po I d ~ ,. , 990 1.l3, 15H; ,, _ · elhnograp hIC an I""lonc relerences 10 ntu.1 r. ""'Plt(:tht . I d ynamlcs 10 premodern S th ~tll1g "' P~n 0 t iral an d socla OU eil51 As, •• d li mi ted archaeologica l research on thl h n Chul.a thtr. ..... _ S P [ nomen ~ High. m 1996;J unker, Mudar, and Schw.lle on Do \ '< una! placed under contemporaneously occupIed 1'<5 d , , . . 1 en t . tIl m::an Philipptne complex sOClenes (Junker 19q)b In othu I'f: o . r Asia, ea rly hIston c acCOunts suggest that ceremoOloil fCl ~ loca les WIth "mega lithIC" monument> (mdurung III nmr,. dolm , arrange mem s of stones, lamet-\ dsmk N~IIJ \lthoug\l record of megaltths o n Borneo. [he MJI., Pt11tn.,ula, d berween IS eXtenS ive, [heIr J"OCl,ltton "llh mu.1 fr n III SOCletl. hJS nOt bcell c. ,muneJ lnJ in fa.l , their chronology arc poo rly " nO\\11

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Ac nru,ll ICdsrs In [he Phlllrrlnt'. , ,>:llt"t. ,'< household collc(tlo n "I line '" nuJ,- "~lfhrn" and bowls (I\klll.l II)Mb 'lN 110, Pt!:J ~!t~ IQ C,lnt CC I' Jml( ,lsst' l11bl,lgl' [hJt " ,I JI'nn,1 li' I ~IM (' I": c.' n: nl.llllS .•Ul" "'l u kt'U s r ulg dCli

Ihe hOtlst, y,lrd I II tl lld"1 llit' I1I 11, u "1111', .".-h",'oh 'g l,"II" I', nllil.kn ,1t,',1S W\' I" 111111\('.1 I hdt n' p.ltt 11) n 11111', rh I ", I' II II h, 'tI h"l.1 lh [ 1\"1I"ld hre , p \ t \ I 10 \ llH Ul

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.11 JS 1"l'!1lI1,lnrS of fc as[1ng foods. in CO n_ d -hc' ~l" \\I t: • . " .Ire . ,,(' I VII''': I!" . . . . ,d fl."a sts Of spo nsored rhcse events On a ill) o llh( 11 11 I h,H r J "" IY .'11(U1S0IC ,1""•' I hml.' l,ho ~ .. 11 1\1 (( I . 1 I . • J Itrcle afchaeo oglca rcseJrc "t In the 'lIhll1n so c I1 n O IC' th.ll very . ,,'I we ~ ht.lU L , f! Iss ue of I1tuai reastl1lg . and to reCOn _ ,'I !lw c)U ~ • -d ro I he speclIlc . .

, h .J!~ ht'(' J1 dt:'\lfl rC ll1e h . rhl pr I

c ncral. 1Welfth- to siXteenth-century o n Ol1llCS In g obut . , ch,eily r .' cC SIXlcenl,-cen I ' rury Ccbu are the unly prehispanlc :;1 nit rl11g . .foWIJ)' ~mJ (oun ecnth 'ch10leolog1c3 IrcsC~ ' o I'ch has been carried out at the house_

'ill' centerS where ' IdcncC ' re Icva 11 t to evolution o( ritual feasting has been h e have to say here about the material cv iI10 IJ ",,,cl .1IlJ where C"I luch of w :lr w ~ . . recorded. Therefore . n d (corroboration by archaeologIcal Investiga_ I best and In nee 0 I 'Y • . denct:' IS sketc ' , r prchlspanlC sites. nons Jl a \.Vlder range 0 CIll( .

,I

EAT DISTRIBUTION

ANIMAL SACRIFICE AND M PPINE FEASTING IN PHI LI h oastal chieny center of Tanjay have yielded ar. . f ile houses at r e c Exc.v.oons 0 P r d . t elite and non-eUte reSIdential zones. marked by I I eVIdence lor 1SOll( . chaeo ogiCa . d densities of "prestige goods" (foreIgn porcelains. d f!i. In house size an I erencc d I ods) Although these household wealth differenf. earthenware. an meta go . Jncy . . hases dated back to the twelfth to fourteenth Centials are found Ul occupatiOn p . and complexly turies A.D.• rhey became even more pronounced. ' graded at the Site . · e th centuries as foreIgn porcelams and other exotlcs In the fifteen th an d sLXte n . . higher volumes and local prodUction · increasingly flowed IOtO th e se rtl em cnt m . 1993a and Junker. Mudac,. and Schwaller of presage goo ds expan ded (see Junker . . at l'aniay 1994). Excavanons , have YIelded a large sample of antmal bone from middens and rrash pits wIthin the rwo distinct residential sectors, which have been analyzed for status-related dIfferences In daily meat consumption and differennal access to ntual foods Uunker, Mudar, and ScbwaJJer 1994; Mudar 1997). Archaeological faunal assemblages have also been analyzed from several excavation locales at Cebu. spanning the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries (M udar t997; Nislumura 1992). although the complexlties of the site make It much more difficult to separate out factors of socioeconomic status, ecological change, and SpanISh Impact on faunal use than at Tanjay (M udar 1997:96). At Tan)ay. the faunal assemblages recovered from both the early second mil· lenOJum A.D. Sannago phase and the firteenth - and sixteenth-century Osmena phase contained a number of demonstrably domesticated species. II1ciuJtng Bubalul bubalks (carabao, or Waltr buffalo), Ca/hI! gill/liS (chicken), SIIS m~fo (pig).

Ca~u Ja~lIhllnl (dog). Wild lroplcal rorcSI faunJ Included Phllrpp"W spotlcd d,tT (Crrvus alfrtdl), m(Jnki-y (Macara jiISCII/tlrlIlS). C1V"l C.II (Vivrrra ,plo flUIl n.lI . and

and varu,us "pull'

MmrH' fJun.1

(fi~h,

lunlps ••Ind rays) (,
286

ubslstencc assemblages (see Junker ludar _ •. Id ho s ....... ch.., 1997 (or quanntanve data ). A slmilar range of "1'<'0., du la! assemblages (Mudar 1 99~ ) . Quanntanve comp""" ~Iages from the twO reSIdential zone at Tan).) ,"11. to _, co . . mQllUrrt. \ rd animals Ul thetr illet (pig and chicken ) but YIelded. ""d
-

by the Minimum Number of lndiVlduals (~1~1 ray, bone \\ !.. 4nd '
.

There IS also some evidence to ugge t mat mh blPnb r th < t no zones at Tanjay and Cebu had greater ace. - t{' mcaOrt arumal parts. Th! pattern m.w rellen nrual'a" ~. that accorded the best meat CUtS to chiCI' md th u: n t Erhnohlstonc source dctJtlcd earlier. u ~<,t thJr were Jughly pnzed In me.lt dJsmbutll'n, to rh water buffalo and pIg for then ymbohc \~u" d 10(1

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-

.. ..

-------------- ---- -- ----------- --- --- ----------- --- ---- -

~

C. 7 •- . --1

~

In . . . . . .

0-

flU'"

own

=--

20

-

-------

L

o

'c ,

SERVING PIECES

,

B eAts

Ploas

Large Btovm Sung

W~. J.ar

!

..

Ja&

16th and 16th Century SiIBs

m. E2rty Ming

OTHER FORMS

.. L..o ..... .J2t Sow2tIkha/oIt (Th>I) MI6-fouJ)z.n" to urty SiXl i an" C4ntury

"

'-,* S':O • .,.....CoI'

(Th",

o

<

.~

I..,-

--------- ----

20

-*""

----------- -

- ,- - -

Q

w,.,droFFlr BOI

.-t, w..n" ~a.>()'

yu~ Period

o

,,,I.,"DO -"""'"Ulg- ."",mblages found at Phillppm" mes

IO.J- Tyl'.al Oun~ parc_ .u",J ID tht <1c\n1d1 through suuoeo rh c""rune<_ Frl;un:

Q

""

/,

S...... (Th.a/) MI6 It ••• ,,1'\ ID

------------- ------------------- -----.

..hu:h funCtIoned ID dtsplaymg food and dnnk at ntual feasts . ConslStenr With ~ra's srud)' of the eebu porcdam fotUlS. flfteenrb- and sixteenth-century pc.rcdoms r",mered from che smaller chiefly center of TanFY sbow a strong bw 10V0-mis "'bowl' and pI.1[e" fauns (Fig lOA). suggesung tbac household parrebm! lIId}' have been used pnmarily m servmg nroal foods ac ceremomal ('CIIU. Banal ..",mblages With Late Mmg porcelam also tend co concentrate On a1ughly IImdardtzed range of places and bowls. which may have contained nru.l foods and an: less Wcdy co YIeld the more diverse porcelain )3r5. ewers, r:;:unnrs, and boxes of the Tang. Sung. Yuan. and Early Mtng penod cemccene

eg R. Foz 1959, 1964. 1967. Hunerer 197J; Legaspl 1974; N15h,mura 1988, Per· alta and Sal'z.ar 1974) Quanouove compansons of the frequency of pOr(t/JID (,mm from the Jugal of these cemeccnes. the Calaugan bunal mes (R rox 195> • confirm the quaLt4w.e l)bservatlOns of archaeologlsl workmg at other bu mo that cups . Jars. c1were d b/JXCS, and figunne~ In' ~ay r~n: J' Im parted g...e accr,mp3mm f en Ig 104). 1I<,wt:Vcr, porr<:lam howl uU' mm

BO del

Pia...

Figure 10-4. ~n:wcagt of POICtWn and ~rc(nld

of pt:lrc~b.tn

lIliS

cwdith to founel"nth centunc:, and

common ch n the p r,-dml may repee _ ut. h~t di

a

embla~e.

l>r ma ItIlp .re u cd m cOIl>umpn of [he "ha .',emhlJ·

III

Ac 1 an) 1\ (h.l~ .10 I, I

"h"

"3

011

IJ n

e p nhn'

dn

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I

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t\

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t

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--

. / .111, / " / ,1'("

rnt'.slil

C:llnle't~.1I

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,

fUllk" ,

l e~s rt.'~lrictcd 111

lhelr range of

r

'

h ' • . . unctlOnal I IS c.lrhl'l· ph" .. 01 10reJgn tr.ldc. Wllh .1 comparalively high p ' IYPe, "I

st'C\'lng pieces ,uch JS JJrs. ewers. figu";ncs . •Ind boxes. Un fanI oponlOn of no". ' I,. Ih onl} habltauon Sill' where we have quanti lauve mfo rm "1unale ly. 1'0 nJay IOn on Illlp orled por,dun asscmblnges prior lO the fiITccI1lh ce ntury. Howe ele,"cmh· to fourrcen d,.ccnrury ce melery of anta Ana (near rnVCdr. the I.rgo Yielded even larger vo lumes of po rce lalns lh al wo uld nOl fit tho ern Man,-I a) e Category serving p,eces (lI1 c1 ud ing Jars o f vanous sizes and forms, fi gunn es d ' of boxl's; Locsln and LOCSlll 19(>7) . Th e dive rsity o f fo reign porcelain a,an b!,dd ed . sires , or bo lh serrl em enr and bun,,1 suppOrts th e obse rvati on lhat laSSem I lage S , wares had nor stro ngly affec ted th e impa rl market C ence fo r feastll1g ya prefer. pcnod Cl In lhls At Ta llJ ay. sra listl caJ analyses show thal rh ough porceJain was heavily co rrated 111 the ehte habitation zon e with large houses in lhe twelfth. to fourteneen· h ent r.. century an o ngo phase, It was m o re diffusely scattered in borh elire and non.eU

habiranon zones by tb e fiftee nlh and sL~reemb centuries (Fig. 10.5). By the later p hase. fo re ign po rcelains may have bee n availabl e to a significantly larger pardon of the TanJay po pulanon. indudmg those Outside lhe chiefly class who could at.

A. Fo",lgn porcelaIn densItIes

C. Decorated earthenware densities

On kg/m3) 400

On kg/m3) 100

3SO

eo

300

250

60

200

ISO

40

l OO

20 ¥

SO

o

0 ..lL11 th- 14th centuries 15th· , 6rt't cenlunn

n

o

fble zone

Elne lone

~

Non-elite Ion.

B Soutt.east AsIan/ChInese porcelalns ''''00)

012

0'

ODl

otA 001 001

o

i'111,"

I'lgure 10-5, omparison 01 cer.lml'- .' ,embbges ID 011 dd en .lI'e.1S. I11 dlt,- v'. non ehte h.lbllollon Zlllles at drvemh 10 10 '" fUlIrlcellth «nrury an "llel'l1Ih I ) "Tllth et nlury ranl.1 YIII terlll' ,,1 (' . b ' 1 -ht ) 111 [,,,el/oom flVI IJII ""n,ltl'-s ( y w, I: '\ n(,ln I s ullw 1\1 . "IJ pOll (' 1.1IH , rh ) I JIIO 0 n I' III ( lunC~f . t') pl"~ r .111\ I ,IoII1H c· ,Ull .'\1 11Ir:~ h ' ",r,~hl l l'f

1''''

f

~ hlfll

I1111 . • l ..

lid

( l I drll\llU"

d,
( )

nP the The k b,' a~qum '" SOCIal ran fi,.>;;nnlo! c et t onsonng _ ove the,r ..... pr od for sP al proro~ll n. , 10 , hJ.nges a st Idenac ;I e ,,~.p Ce a b rh Ta.nj3S an es have alrno I al,,"fl , ..... blng Howe\'er, at 0 r CT\I ca "ci,ln ,sse ng vessels as measured by 0 pO nonservl househOlds ( d d to ha' a hlPt ,,(Sus er r3nklflg oods) ren e her presnge g I' made awankhL \ 'rh 10W · ,VI poor) 1\ . d ceSs to ot d .c laJIl s (e.g·, and or 10':.1 , m ,Ill poree forms _I. ese foreign f Chlll Thw;, non·"",te. It)' ese Oples 0 (Fig 105)· I rn e se sryles . f lirt'< "hen IX ,.1 • n' ChIne hOKes 0 e .. rall inljcklng ulnted the c h did nor f:enc rn . event el11 e Becau e I ey fe,stlflg I In assernblag f poreelains as.ill ble to orce a d uah ry 0 I gious P uantiry an q ,\nname' e poree JIO' utre the q $1ai11eSe or • or 'CqrherieallY Utfen th Lr rirual food dl.."Plo} . s ,e d eJrthenware 111 e Iwano n for rhe begmrun _. f r,te rt aceepted e:q) rhe long· e/ams fo r PhilIppine e f poorer.quahry pore . e..-nOrt por.:e1 In roaml o theas r ASian .. ~ rnainland Sou . Chtne, . produm n m on changmg J tury focuses . Phlitppine ITJJo: m ~ rmano ns In I than trailS 0 f direct Chtn~ bu . th the advenr 0 gested at d~) the In .. ,I rc\ nu , Malay {t.1 c" . termediJry . Jnd the remlul\~ t' .tabl! hmmt Ann.mes. klln . hi, m kiln sites Ul sourhern Chlnol . \cJ to t l U and the prollferatlon 0 I· corn p.1,'(, m ol . n thieny centers, r.1rtl(uIJrI~ ptlt< and b t shift In foreign lra.k volume .1nJ I. m ptOIl\,< t~J nn" s ,rt'm III Ph1ltrplO presoge·rnh.uKtn" 1"n' lb'11 . er III Late Mmg mJ-"pnIJu"',1 b'l\\ I .Ihl I of \'Jlytng SOUJI r.lnk at ( (bu I'd brond~t\lng 1'.11 tKlp.UUlII 11\ Iht ma. Wc drlll.lllt! tOI t;,~ t m ,\ "lll1,fi, ant ,,,Ut III tht' lun " whrthn th da!>"r I I fuunJ at Phlhpl'U1 11 Ir I Noo; h~. 10 ~ l Illl ' ht h P< 11 1r/Jtn tr .1 I h nl.~r 11 t!1;nt 1111 h the f kllhl III 1I Il1l1t\ III It t I

rh

•

-_._._..

Uto" Ut "'.""~_ _ _ _ __

-

-

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pedes ta led

p'atea

r

. -,. l... -.

~

.

bowfs

•

•

Jar

CL"rac["nsur pedeSlaled and decorared earmenware "servmg assemblages ' ILt ~ , (mm Ph,lippIn' Sites of Iron Age and I•• erdate (fi-om Solheim 1964 ). < , IJonu rt '0 11.

with no clear hab,tallOn (ea tu res (Solhelm 1964. Tenazas 1974; OlZon 1996) In whIch Jars. lidded pm;. funerary boxes. and amhropornorpluc forms domtnale. Ahh(Ju~h there .s a general ImprcsSlCm amongst archaeologIsts who have excavated prc umed Metal Age ;enlements lhat decorated plates and bowls may be m'JfC c"mm'm

than

mortuary contexts (Olzon 1987. Junker 1993a. Mascunana 'Slk6. Solllt"lm 1964). nonc o( Ihese SItes yIelded adequatc samples o( pouery bl"lds 10 qUdnlltarlvely assess dlfTercnces 10 household versus bunal assemblage, S,·r<mdly. thw" are s,"nlJus problcms wilh site chronologies pnor to the histone to

p"rlf,d MJny archa"{JI')giS(s haYI' assumed that earthenware bowls. plalcs. Jnd J"" wlln cl.h,,, arrly Itlmcd. Imptt·sscd. ~tampcd. dnd apphque decordlllJn Jre al

IT"'" tldu, 1V< Iy "Pit" p"m·lam" or "Mt'wl Agt·" 111 dale (Pox 191>4. IQ67; Solhe.m I~). a
RlT lIAl

~E"'S

ING S"I' S

e'ts

H""'·.,.-rr· • recenr restudy of supPo5rd Mttal A.":"p' Gra"es (.996 b2s .., been mr:hodor." Jay. eebu. and other loaJes Junk.er t99]c; ish",n:.. that mdigenous producoon of slIpped and deco. 'red forms assOClared ",th food ser viog. P"'su",d and 'Ob! b" b<'lt> pe nod of foreign porcelam ITade. I ,ke the n...S!D"' -- .. popu._o unporrs. the steady and even tru:reased local pr~ of ware vessels m the fifteenth and sixteenth Cenrtmes ~ ~ O cipaoo n in. and sponsorship of. status r-~ by 10 ~ '-> "ex had lmuted access to the mOre valued furelgn polCd .ca] l!ns as sei \. I cause of the chrono ogt unceC(;!IOQes and probje, i os the Philippme decorated earthen"'a"" illS DOl the ba515 of pottery assemblages. thar nn,.IrzN k c1uefly pohtical econonues pnor 10 the bre fim rrade. THE EVOLUTION OF THE FEASTING SYSTEM The archaeologIcal e"dence from the Plul:ppme, su • lrive feastmg may have become mcreilSill \ ., to

Ical alhance buildmg m the fifteenth . and . Uleenm . assemblage. at clueD)" center such~, C.bu distnbutton of water buffalo and p'~. knowll foods . to whJt are Idennfied a prob~bl tht~ millennIUm A. O. (n addition . meat'. Ix>.:!, pan. p mammals are found m hlghc.-r frequenac In cM where (er~mol1lal me.lt d" "I n hk" and Slxrecl1!h cemUrIe,"" bOlh an tOar 109 food< \\ Ithm rhl" (h,dl rem r ,~ rhese prl"s"gl"·(·nh.ln(1I1~ "" d I) IOha Serl"mg as,cmblages .. I" ,ho" an WIder ""{rIb"""n or t h l~Ont,l(\

le.,

IW I

r

ling p.irolph mall III dle-

rr

The,,· In'",1- 111.1 b 1111 I cl ID I e'p.1I1JlIlg '.-al,' "I l '0 .. 1p.lRlllp 1100 tn .10"\\ wh".-, fi· .. tll\ \ I III h.a d"l11\ h.ld " 1',,1111' "I t Id" 1I1.'"II.lln. d thlll" ·h. '""nu I m I'IIIltppII1l" l hI 1,1",\1,

.. -

1("-'_----------___

1 I"WI,I f "./ . 1111 _

gn( u lruralll1lCIHjfic J llon and " I ' .. //llenl III a H , . fill.IIKl' ( II1 . . E.,rlc (997). In a ch iefly Society .1 1'1rlC IQ8'5. .. I n l I 111\1,ljl (: , I ) rJlh r I h """Alllv)' .lflU "11 dc(cl1trauLz c:d , where C1JC y, coaltuons ,Iotp(lU" (111, 1.1 -

I Hr' I1lOtll/l1.HI Ir.,Jlllon.' JYft." groups. and where ch iefs vied ror con. In)\ ,)OWl" W.I\ < hen" rt)hllt' .l l I f It'rnlO flJ1 JIIlC. g , oods at '1rual feasts were key to \\ .blr (lUe' 0 of preslIge g 1.1lkt·J Iht:' ,\1. . l e nrclIlaflon ks / argue that, even as paramOunt .

11"'/ r,f

(' IIl/ml , I 1

",,",

) nc.~ rwor

hllc"I pJII""age

.

,

moni,I feasLs became increaSingly

I ' • ncrgcd. cere . I dll' C.\IM .'t fir '"" sCJ c er clition ' parllcular y 3,no ngst lOcal 1 . , c' "f Sign' d Clal comp , 1r rhw ;1I11l . fur poliricaJ an so . 10ners who were filLmg the lOwe r Imparllll1' Jrt'nll~ d u w.lrdly m o bile com~ J SSt.'r dHCS• .m P 1 31hierarcJl' CS. nlOn oJ po

,hi."., I,gly (omplex po, Incsysre m s appears co be Itnked to the develop. 01 e, II1t.T('.l~1 tlcrThr cxp,ln.\ Ion of nIUJ' feasl1ng le rca rer pOSS! b'IJtl 1 es it offered for aIliance.buildlng . g has developed an evolutionary scenario menl 0 J' r.0rei"" o· rrade and I rIn Pnedman . , re asting system ro foreIgn trade wealth , \,'ea II I1 Cl ",U1300n jonan3 ( competJtlve I1 a f 'eties With more permanent hereditary Ih.1! 0'" Ullrial growLh 0 voluno 0 SOCl n d c,,,,nrually led ro the e , f B a as an ethnographic example, Friedman ,n , the Kachln 0 urm , rranficJoon, USUlg , h an ad;acent more complex soaery (the ' (, contacts Wit , , ,, ( 1979) nOled lh., ore'gn , Kachirt Hneages advantage over tnltlally Id rovlde cenam . han kmgdoms) wou P " tual feasts , This is due to the tnnow of d i es in sponsonng n equal,rankeSh mea~ wives an d IowIan d prestige goods ro Kachm lineages strategl. hlghSlarus, d for an !Oteracoon , art d tra de , Through their greater control of foreign canyI hlocate as, well as at. K chin duefs couId h0 Id more elaborately financed feasts, , wea tfurther , a lucraave marnage , ties, thus creating asymmetncal Iracr ' .alliances with s model, eco. other hneages through, thelr greater control of wealth , [n Fnedman , ' 1prestige could then "be translated Into supernaturally nomic, advantage an d soca , ntual " remforced supenonry 0 f the wealthy lineage, smce success m sponsonng , , feasts ISCO nfcerre d th rough Successfully placaang powerful "ancestral SPlntS, Even. ruall the enhanced ntual potency of [h15 elite lineage rrught engender a qu3S1 Iust;'caJ Wage to these ancestral deIties, creating an ideological Justification for a heredttary eltre class. An mJlux of eXQtlc forms of feasrlng foods and / or feasting paraphernalia can also resulr In spiralmg inputs 10 [he feasting system by already compering eliles and, In some cases, emulatIOn of elire starus behavior by non -elites using now , devalued local goods. 10 an analysis of ceremonial feastLOg among lhe Ch,", a TibetoBurman people of lhe lndlan·Burmese border, Lehman (1989) suggest' thal the availabdlry of external sources of wealrh can set olf an II1n~!I!lnary cycle III an already SlJClaJly comptllllve feaslIng system Onc(' forl'IWl servlI1!( vessels and exChangeable gW1d, ('mer the f"a,nog sY,\lem as presugr ~ymb()ls of rx .. ep "'maJJy h'J:/t valut, ')th('r (I'a\l glv"rs

mu~tl)btaUl "mild\" "XOtil' gooJs dnJ/ur 111

RITUA L FEASTING S ~ STEMS IN

PREHISPA

".- buaoos of now-devalued 10QJIy helr=m naIf rrelative ranlung m the feasnng $} tern In ad,;h [hetr th dJverslry of socal group pamcpann In . ads Pands e eJI of exooc presage go aace.,.t." a l'A1>tl~led . ablltry goods are more WIdely a"allabl" fur 1 calluxUry I ,o eute· em u1aong ceremotual feasts,

In In the philippmes. forelgn porcelam trade reach." its ~ before Spa rush cooract. at a time ",'hen many PhUippm • d manifested more complexly aered s)' (ern> 0 an porcdams corrung LOto the Philippmes 111 InCil~a 1I1' eign , riod have a narrower range of highly 'r.>n.urd&z~ . ds . emphaSIZing the plate. bowls, and oth r n; peno ritual food presentaaons, We may sugge t that for control of foreign trade through strate, sore d "trade rruSSlOns" to the Chmese (oun. d n craco've port facwaes gamed an advanra In tb~ CJIculaang the presage good> necessar. WIth resrncted access ro foreIgn fea 'nn who hoped to parlay rrullla!] prow!'., and bans augmented thelr small porcela1l1 a~,em th rare" decorated earthenware that allow d them feasts of the trade·conrrolltng p.Ham unl.\ Th eign porcelams. decorared eanhenwaft' and p the wealthlesr reslJennal zon at M . . nth and flecr hlgh 'lntenSlry statu om~U(j n own patronage an I ~Ihan<'t· n No rk,

or

The development umlpcotl changes III other a'pt·, t, 01 .tu 1I became mol'l: compl .... x III rh scale, wldcnlllg SOCial p.lftIClp.lU n should bt· eVident In (h~ngUl phasls on roliSlng I.ugc illS h tion (eg. agnrultur I asst·mbIJ!(. . s lrom hllU huld nil Such as ranJ~Y .IIlJ bu rJIS'"g larg.. PIg h nl5 ilnJ ntu,}1 tU 5 tUIl! lhr "'aM I \ nr r Ildllll' ( I

RITUAL

F

EASTlNG SYSTEMS IN PR[H ISP

__ - - - ' o

d c/car.:lOce, tor agnculrure Lfl rhe fifteenth "f,onded 1,1/1 .1hed nce produCtIon may be partic_ dent"£' t(lr t . d hJr U1ren.s '. _

' '11 IUnl',1t. ''Pt noce

lu ,n e IIre ho use ho lds. SIn ce n ce IS an irn . anJ ..;p,I((·olh Cl: I cxpJndJJ1g surp eunve feasting eve nts . H Oweve r . . ..d \ , , [ 1 ' d 111 comp chi < ' rc ul.uh .1'~llCJJ d dtstnbl1 that PhJDppme e JS n eve r made . ,I (00 d nce suggesr . i1i ptlrlJrH nru· h roncJI C\'l C o ther forms of mtens canon typ. I lie," and IS " systems or . .. . J!'ChJeo o~ nl'lO IrngaTlon d S utheaS[ AsIan politIes emphaslZlng l1C J' , rcsO c1uerdOrTl~ ~ d nlan 0 J.l(!-!t' ~(.1 t: In . 3n I11 ~U •lrt' I

nJII"l"CI

t' \

r

(PollneSl"n ker 1999)· , . I(J/O . ' ,, ( ruJershlP (Jun 8) has suggesred that a splraling syStem le /in,wc< (1 ( 9°'87-10 Sl,lP M rqurs.s, Thomas 19 d' 'th increased inrerpoliry raiding and war. In Ihe J oare WI . . 'r (easting IS .sso d especially foreIgn captIves to use in O of (ompeO \ . tic resources an . . ' . . . cJuefs v,ed for eJ(0 th phjjippines, feastlJ1g IS strni.larly linked fJre ..1> 'fiaJ rires. In e . _LJ.l1ang saen 0 human sacrifice was a common compo. elU starus· ' ead-ralung, SIDce . . th sl.re-raicling and hd WIth cIuenY mortuary rites, chiefly succesSIOn, armual \\1 . oare neor of feJsrs asso . s (such as th e Gin Em feasr amongsr the Bagabo). and per. mcuJruraJ ceremorue . (Clurin r904 :]0]-305: Cole r913: Keesing o Jt; mal occaSIOns haps other ceremo . 1 ) Warren (1985) has suggested that the 1 . . unker r993b' Scart 199 .5 . 11162 I 9: J ' . slave-r31ding by the llanun (specIalized sea. alanon of manome rrernendous esc d by the still ·ID dependent Sulu sultanate) in the seventeenth ralders supporte s relared to an expanding demand for "foreign" gh runereenth ceorunes wa throu. to trade [or nru . al sa cri1ices in the Philippines and Borneo. Although es. capOl es compeonon . f< raiding or starus in feasting may have predpita ted increased . aJanog .' and other expendable. resources, chiefly feasts also obtaJO sa cn6 0 ·al VlcnmS . 1 conflicr between competlJ1g groups served ro me di are sooa . .and " create ar leasr " . I sou"dan·ty. This is most overdy remporary soaa . manifested ill . peace pact . Or 10

'blood oath ceremonies carried out at some ntual feasts, marking the cessation of hostihoes and newly fOl1l1ed alliances between formerly warring social units or polIces (e.g, Keeswg 1962:274: Kiefer 1972: Loarca r90p6o-r63: Plgaferra 197>56,77. 79. Scon 1982:190). In archaeologIcaUy known cases, such as Iron Age Europe, the MISSIssippian cluefdoms, and Formative penod Mesoamenca, there often appears to be 3 strong correspondence between archaeologIcal indicators for intensive ehte fwtwg actIVlfles and material eVIdence for escalating imerpoliry conflict (eg., Blirz 1993, Dleder 1989, 1990; Marcus and Flannery 1996:12.0). Both historiC lOurce, and archaeologIcal eVIdence pomt to an upsurge in lhe scale and Inlen·

,lIy of InttrpfJllIY ((millet among PhJlJpplOC chlcfdoms In lhe twO cenlUrIeS JUS! pnfJr If, SpallJ.\O (f,ntaC[ (Junkt·, 1997, 19'19). Air houl4 h Chint'SC an'ounlS 01

t1C'Venlh rh",ugIJ (',unecnth (('IHUII/'S dl'\cnht Phihppint c()J'I~1 porlS a .r nr)O(f'rtiIled ~nd n:-adlly Jr rt"~lblr' by Ir Jdt'I§, 11u- t.•lIly Spdl1ldrJ> ,'01

read use of both home fortI'e .. d P . the "" es . lexesl and mrenor refuge loc:Uc. PhaSlZe di h comp d an - (Cd adoptIOO of foreIgn milirary rec. the rapl ons 5"'lVel guns, and bronze n(" n I Iron can . sry e rOleSSl conal warnor class ( m"harh a m of a P ve emblems ome ame aner th with dJsrU1cn 5 ott 1994)· cArchaeo I0 gical mvesngations of CO" ral =drn ohiscoric analySIS ill suggesnn expandin un chn upport e s th and sixteenth cenruries .-\n:.haeolo£1ca1 roun tifteen terS and refuge locales are almOst m, al coast cen . of , elew re . o 1994', Junker 199~).. AnalysIS Sanaag '. tnkm U1erease in the illadence of VIol nt d ath s g burial accomparumen:s ill th e ,u,ee '" "- nth heads as y

1993 b' r997) . Male burials in fili:eemh· and· e Calatagan, and other sites (Fm, 195>l,Junker. G m. biblt standardized "emblem " of "amor ,'atu teeth. animal·cooth Jewelr'): trophy hea . and b evidence for expanded merab produL-oon at and TanJ3Y Uunker [9991, and the appearan f Sulu (ScOrt (994) suggest that coO[rol of m t.tl importanr ar thrs nme The relan,m;lup N power is alwdYS complex In ch,cfd'm le I pmes. compelltlve a ·peel. of 'c.'retnoruaJ as a straleg} lor OblJlmn~ ,[,UU ave aspects of cercnlOOI.ll f .1_ It I disputes between tj.-tion. Figure

10.,

is

.1

s.-henull, pre man n

ture, sOCI.11 .Ir.1tlti, ,H Itlll ,

gn, ultur I r

of speci.1lisl prodU(Il11n, the rnl ntual

fNSl1n~

In

I 1

Phihl'pmc' ,hi .1 m

Com,lCI UnfllflUnJI,I. (lur und IJOn in Ihe Phlhl'l'lIl<' I hJ

lal SI\ld)' 01

/l'a,rlng

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ACKN OWLE DGMENTS The .rchaeologlcal 6ddwork In [he Philippines that provIded much of the empuical sup· port for ml analysIS of rttual feasnng was sponsored over a number of field seasons by the Fulbnghl roundanon. the Soc..1SCience Research Counal. the Wenner-Gren Foundaoon. \'anderb~[ Uruve~tJ Research Council. the Mellon Poundation. and the National Geo· graphIC SOCiety I am grateful to Karl Hutterer, Mary Gunn, Karen Mudar, Marla Schw.oJJer, Masoo IShtmura, EuseblO DlZon, Angel Bautista, Wilfredo Ronquillo, and countless others for asslSnng in or faClI"anng my investigations of the animal and plant re· molins and ceramiCS at Tan)ay. My Interpretations of the SoutheaSt Asian histortc and archaeologICal eVidence, as well as the more general analYSIS of tbe role of nrual feasung In cluen), pouocal eCOnOmies, benefited enormously from diSCUSSIOns With Brian Hayden, MlChael D,etl." PoUy WelSsner, Patrtck Kirch, and other contributors to {hiS volume. I

.uo _pp,tO", .he comments of histonan colleagues a{ Bngham Young UniverSity (In' dudmg usan Rugh, Lee Butler Tom Alexander, Jenny Pulslpher, Mlchael Murphy, D.",d Wnght, Ign.oo Ca", •. O.vld MrJOtgomery, and many others) when I presented a version of .hisl"ll'tt., th. f.(uhy "mm,r

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ar-

Pn!·o.; ..

Ulls · All Essay Fr,utlllg "'It /I Cmull ' Unl\lers1ry prc ~ ,

Itl

K",nk1l411 Cos mology. Pnnceto n: Pnncelon

FEASTING AND TH E OF PLATFORM MOUND EMERGENCE CEREMO IN EASTERN NORTH NIAllSM AMERICA

.

SI/Ill' Soutllt!asf ASlfI: Ethnograpl1ic SccriOtl 4: Till! P/lllipp' p:lla . n I" tit'S, edwan I ircd by P Lebar. pp. 229-290. New H aven: HRAF Publications.

Vemon lames Knight \\"rr
wden. M Searry Van. '9 p; . andSrarus.Rdared oon In roodways 1I1 the Moundville Chiefdom . AlIImcall 0 A"nqUlty 60 (J): 397-4J 9· \\"nzder, '97 R Ecology. Culrure, Social Orgaruz aoon , and State Pormation In Southeast 6 As.a Curren' AII'"ropology 17:623-<140 J981 The Srudy of the Southeast Asian State. In Tile Study of the State, edited by H Claess

eo

and P Skalruk. pp. 455- 4 6 7. The Hague: Moumn.

\Volters. O. W. Jg82 HtSlory, Cuftl,yf, llnd Regton in Southeast Asiat1 Perspectives. Singapore: Institure of Southeast Asian Studies.

Freestanding

Slles

In

pl,nfurm

Ih.: SOlllhc,lst"f!1

1001l.C .111.1 ~oo

h

l'"1 ,I

\" .. !'h'<

r e plJdurm 1,'Pc

\\ , ••

")1lf\,\1Il Ih,

In lhe "'I,'rt'sl of ~\I'I\

run",·" upnn " '11I

nr

m,)lln,b !l tdl

Ilnd ,ut r

th

1 .. 1 Ih

hI

rl

top" 01 th" \,,111111 /1 hJ, h .

1

,,1\ "'" .\\ 11 f

r

11\

11\

\\,,",,\1.111.1 I " ..,Ill "1\, 'tll'l11 th I1 11,11 r '-Un, 1 ""U

11 rh. I I

Jl0

,

-

----

-

~r_~~I~,,,~,,~.~~,,,~or~"~'~ I ~~.j,~,__------------------______ r-vn tf'lcd by (he occu rrence of SUn1I1'l l l bulldlll

.

-I ' n. 10 0 0- ISSO. ,Ire ' J I ,t'. _ '" • gs o f pn \ Jn1.!t l ~ " h ' con(ext of Chl C IO O I1l rype sOCie ties As [0 h ' l t, These oCC Ll r 10 ( c . l Clr \ .lnO :" kitH. I)'pc 11 appea rs. IS fo und In the sbghlly e~ rhc I ll _ I l11!l1cJlar{' pro lO . . . .. r p at· ,IIKC,II) , n c 'CI . I C cek cultu re of the Lowe r M,ss,ss,pp' Va lley (ca . cl' 0 1 Ihe Co cS r A,O. 10 1 ",cu n _ I s of Coles Cree k pla tfo rm m o unds at the C 111 ) e '''3 ,cJ examp e " . reen_ 70o-- IlOO . XCJ LOUisiana possess large , circula r builrUngs On their I ' j Morgon lies m SUm _ 1 8 ' ous< an, bly chte residences (Fo rd 195 ; Puller and Puller 19 7) B >

which ,Ire ' Y . " argu· , dJand platform mOun d s th at pre d a te A .D . 700 seldom cxhib' CO ,IS1, those woo ' earUer peno ' d of transegalit ' It TI e ma)'oriry belongUlg to t h JS ntr " ., urnnul buJ d U1gs. I 1 d on and seem to be assoCJated wIth altogether diflian an ' , . erent soC/eDes were nOI ,ve ' ctivirv at least partly of a rlrual narure (Kntght '990' Main' k.ind.~ 0_ 11f su.mmH' Jefferies a ~J' 1994; Lindauer and Bhtz . ' Ion '997; Kohler I997). and Wautng 1992 , ronological shift U1 sumlntt use, the mounds themselves sh Desp'te th.IS ch · . . ow mo in their formal characteristics through time Th nalitles Important co m . ese I. 'es Uldude rounded quadrilateral contours, muJtisrage constrUCt' comn1o nau o tOn and tnlentional use of contrasting fiJls . Specifically for the Mississippian case; ",11 .. '

FE A-STING AND PLATFORM MO UN D ( ER[M O ,",

AlIS M Ik l

·s

ea rl y center of such activIty OlheN. \Se. th « ut. The sertlngs d 1fIier as well , ~~ l1U1n~r .-< - "!ha --~r~ln o such as Ma rksvtIJ e. Flo rence . and PlnSon po g Ol1lc:th", f• la

vacant cerem o rua l centers. sometun es enclo",d . e,s b rt\ounds ,. where, m contrast , pl atfo rm m ounds l.eatth. Ye~ e settleme nts. It IS m t ri gum g tha t a m ong the lan« ~guu of pc: defined nuclea ted VIllages, as COntrast e d to ~ea.s are I1lc: 0 f ... \.Ot: It is the examples tan gent to pe rmanent onal b.nt "''''PS. In ~ n ,~--ters tbat have spedal importance to the goals age rather th .. of th W""", It

vill

As Richard Jelferies noted m hlS recent SUInm • pre. nt:>.l • P
'99°:172 ). Por e."ample, e."cavated sumnu _ 0 cl . affi t . urt.ce, at ~ sites (R erry 1990; Mamfort and n~. . ,aII__ mg 19 9 '-',

= arc. , h

those reported elsewhere . Data are still -c

ought to be decoupled from mound building per se, and that mound-building ac-

overgener ali ze IS etter reSIsted .

DVlry IS best considered Ul itself as a repetitive ritual process. Some years ago I developed an Ulterpretive model using ethnographic analogy, drawing from the

Nonetheless, despite dllS vanability. t h ere I~ a t I " moun d -sumrntt configuration that . at Iea.'t . to m '

languages, mytholOgy, religious beliefs, and ritual practices of historic southeast·

.therefote

earth icons, the "navels of the earth" as the Chickasaw called them, periodically reburied Ul a purificatory process of world renewal (Knight 1981, 1986, 199 1). If

. b

commands artentlon .,\ g 00 d \1"" to Ult mg from Wilham Sear 's first encounter "', th It

the Kolomoki sire to southwest Georgt ID I ologtSt wnte . as follow

MisSlSSlpptan platform mounds. Fundamentally, from that point of view. the entire lustory of plarfOl III mound building in the Southeast may be seen as a conserva· eve, long-reI III complex of world-renewal ritual. I will return to this point further on The known rUsrrlbution of pre-Mississippian and pre-Coles Creek freestalld·

109 platfolIll mounds is shown ID Pigure

ILL

This map is accompanied by a table

(Table Il 1) givlOg the site names and basic references, Although there is uncer· tamty abour the datlOg of some of these examples, parricularly those excavated

ThlS

wa, the mOst unlt'lt ,,1 mounJ 11 h., < trcnl·h (ut Ult II ID lbc

counter :h 3 rc!\uh ul

Sized th.1t IhlS ,mall 'trU\lUI , tlfn 1 till repre"nteo th~ "'m~II1' 01 have bt"cn mo~ tn rrr"r colleelton were

"r

I,;'(\'C (t"l

J, Il~f'

ffi arth

It ·.r pust h,)\c, \"f) I.

I 'U((t' , 'il\t'"h

m.lIns of C'.ullrr l'IW, du("t'd (~l'.u, t~ C" 10

'0

III lhl'

t

m.illare

lh 'Ul 01

'I \

early m the twentieth century, other potential claimants are excluded for shon

a~ of evIdence

Desp'te this uncertamty there IS no longer any question rh at the

SCJrs gUt's

'ltl

h' .I,

platform mc)und bUild109 tra d I!lon m t h e Southeast extends back ID lime to thc

from IIIh' \1.1"

Mlddk Wr)l)dland ptn(1d·an d t h at sue h (onstlucltons were very mudl J part 0 I

'nt"t h.I"- hl C'I\ 11

wthta TI.t:I'

adp

t:

rn 1I1)J.>.-w~llJan and P')st IllIpt·Wl·IIIJII IJntlsr~pl·s. '10

Jt trr"ill' -g " h lit pl'l " 1111 I11'

tll~lt liJUlI!JIl

NClnhwl"1 I'IOIILIJ ,Ill'I I" I'

(;h:ma\'(IC" hi' 'l,ve I Vallt:y ,,11 I h., ""lllwI n (;ull COol,t,tlPI.II" wJ' JII

au

,"l

1\.1 h.

I'

.I It I

Pl'rt,lltllll\ .1"'1' t I1 (, ll1\

,Ilt" I"'" ,I, I Ir II II tu ll\hH1h Lt it) h

In

'

dus model bas merit, the continuiry of formal characteristics [ have mentioned suggests that the analogy might be extended with equal plausibility to pre·

In

activities chlfered from those proposed for It,-", .'u "C c u DOt that a great deal of vanabiliry enS[ d - ,.lrpQl1 platfonn " e among th ['" selves (1994:83), Thts vanobility 15 ID d ee d worthe ..foodlat\d

have argued that, in a[tempting to understand mounds-as-artifacts, summit use

ern Indians, wherein Mississippian mounds were conceived by their builders as

t

I

,

th

tr=

-_. OIJQ

m

TABLE ".1 uncated Mound s In the Eastern United States. 100 LC..Tr

-

'0

,Iounds

Stte Name

-

I

Marks vtUe

I

,

Z )

3 4

5

..

5 6

7

4 •

8 9 10

11 12

lJ

tf>

Truncated mounds in the eas<ern United States, 100 8.C.-700 A.D. Figure

It 1

bu~dings. Here there were none. just a surface resembling Swiss cheese from the repeno ve emplacement of large posts. The McKeithen site iO northern Florida 15 closely related to Kolomoki in its matenal culrure It was excavated by Jerald Milanich and his colleagues and that· oughly reported III 1984. Like Mound B at Kolomoki. Mound A at McKelthen also possesses a plarform mound surface prominently marked by randomly SItuated. large postholes having overlappiOg post-iOsertion ramps (Figure 11 .2). AssOciated wIth this surface were other pits showing a complex intrusion sequence mrucaove of frequent reuse, numeroUS small fire pits, a central hearth. tWO de· pOSits of red ochre. and twO refuse deposits contall1i11g hundreds of potsherd!> and pieces of dter bone (MilaOlch et al. 1984:94 105). McKclthcn Mound A IS SItu 31 (JOe Mde of a permanent village that. like the Village area al KoloOlOkl. rn lhe form Cif a rmlphapcd mldd('n .nd addlOonal mounds. At Md(fllh ond the (Ither mounds fCJIl",!(·d (/f a ClInICal buri.!1 mound and a S('f plJtlorm mound supporting. th,' laltl·! pnhJPs tl1l' "MII"'1 dorly ,\(1(11 menv:d d(JlnlcillAry u to (If a plaIt,,! III 1I1111111d 1111h(' (',lSU'1 1Il)11\ll'" Sldtr'

~Ied l.~n

~mJIl hUlldlfl~,

1

Troyvul.

I

LW 1

I'

Pbilltpol

Ingo m~ r

1

R.l!i ny 1

)ohnston PtnSo n Florence. Fo rkland Graveime

l

116

; I

I 1

fyhtcheU

I

Duranl Bend

1

\Valhng

I

Pierce

-

Wodd.11s Mill Pond

I

14

33{)

'--'-

Trunated

.,

15

Kolomolu

16

M.ndevtll.

I

17

I

18

Shorter Annawake:e Crttk

19

Ginlher

I

20

Ma.ru~ttJ

21

Gmen C ... ek

I

22

Cold 'pnng--

I

2.1

Swdi Credo

I

2'

Blo(k · :t~m ...

I

25

11,11

20

\ent

,'"

27 IS

·\u(lIL. River

I

C . IJ.I R" r

:

\ t \.' KC'I t h'-°n

,

ID

I

11

~lufJ'h'f

\Vorks

Jl

H

lOll (t"IUC'r

'0lit' UI "loR" ulounJ.t

11

\\.1

~I

a ~"""I

'"• I "

l ..d

part I, uld

~lIl'

,a

I

lrt'\ln

hl .. lhl 1"1, ~ j,1 nJ

In Ih,' K"nhrn n">sr,' \

I

It

I

"r nOlth"

1\\1

n

~

,I h lh

\ ... Ind

, 11.

-~

-

-~--

f(~ST I NG ~ND PLATFORM MOUND ((R~MO"I"LlS"1

_HHr l hln~

r (J

1

H".t lhon ~

_

CllIIrutO POl l

r' J

"eo OChe'

o n" PH "ONorr"" 'WOOd O n,. Q!I

.... d

t.J

c::>

o

Removed c hfU f OO PO., PU In mound

,,.-"

.'

......

, '--

A - Mlddens B - Surface Heanhs C - Large POSI Fealures

-- -- --- --' Plgure

re nlUrc~ [' ram Mllaojch el ,11. 19B4, rcponled ,IJn ,,( I A, 1 II I 'IrK"lIhcn Mount ,. 1~IJrr" f ll · d j I h,' University l'rcsS' 0 r Oil a. wllh thl" rwrm Is~tO n D

3.

o

I

m

5

WaUlng Plarrorm Mound, p);," or C•• ru"".,

Knight 1990

rllt ro liOn the OpPOSIIC side of lhe Village Slle from Ihe IJlUUnlI MJn dl ng 11Ilg • r cl Iyrng Jt a dlSlancc are tWO bunal mounds. one of which has rIJIIOrrll moun • t " , • • . cl . l ' c'llbll~hl'S a connC(ll(Jn berwecl' the habitation arca and the Ilern t,:X( av;)"." Jt u ..}. - . Copr".} mOrluary ((1l1lpil'x (Webb and DeJarnetle 1942.). Olllh<" '<"c,,"d stagc 01 thc Wailing platform mound (Pig, 1 [.3). labeled Pill No. l W('Il f"ul1u Ihrel' ma~slVC post holes With diameters of approlUmatcly onc , mtlCr, all proVided wllh post mscrllon ramps Onc of thcse monumental POStS had, III ilddlllOn. a '''parale pOSt exlraCtlon ramp, On the same mound SlImmll W(" dOll'I1' 01 additional, randomly scanercd poslholcs of vanous sizes and lill .hJraCl<mllcs ['OM, frcquelllly Intruded 111[0 other postS and pit I(:'llurcs, show· Ill!: 1Il}('f01ll1tl1! rcuse of the .\urfacc Somc of the larger postholcs had peculiar fun",'1 ,"apt cl pmfiks. With wld,' pits al the top IransllIonlllg into a vnllcal·sided p'JsthfJI< at lh. bUttJW 'If prt'Vlou~ly Impl.lntl'd large post~ I() faClhtJtc thetr re mllv.1 'Iugethrr with ,ht,S,' POSIS wert' .Ish laden surface htJrths. small pits, and dnl

conn'lllr.lltJII .. I urfd'l I1l1dd"1l Ylddltlg pOlSlwrds, slOllC tools, and abund IIIm~11>< me ·d~durll La rgf',lunntl h.pr'd I'" Ihol.· alld p"~IS with p'''IIIlM'HUlIl I dillI"

116

11

I

cared at Mound A of [he Cold Spnn!" Slt~ In nortMm Suzanne Fish and reported by RtchardJetTenc 1994 found a pl.dOcn. mound at the northern end 01 J vllla!!c of _\\ t'(e aiIili non FIsh an.i.Jd fenes esnmated that th.s Village po e J dwellings (Fish andJcffenes 19 0) _01.111 r west of Mound A had, at least In part, a mortu;ln fun
FEASTING AND PLATFORM MOUND CERE MO

• (!) p @

o

Ph Fqll.ll'tl

•

•

.---.

.. . .~ ,------=-~ ....

••

-,

tE) ~~~Cl,~

•

8aclthoc Trench

1

1

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•

POItlflOld\

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A ,I~

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--:::--....

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I

f features associated with Floor 3. FromJefferies 1994 (. C Id Spnngs. P an o . '. m Figure 11.4· 0 6--1986 edited by DavldJ. HalIy [Athens: UruverSity of Gear · On"ulgu Arrhaeology: 193 , gla

'.

•

Press]).

~

siruated on the margin of a Woodland village site (desig. d another low moun nated Hw B). At least the first twO mound stages at Garden Creek No. 2 are at· rribured to the Middle Woodland Connestee pbase. Of most interest in rhis thoroughly excavated case is the well-preserved summit of the primary mound .~Il 6) . This surface is riddled with hundreds of postholes of various sizes. (p many LIltruding into others and indicaong a protracted period of use . Despite Keel's assertion that these postholes must mdicate the presence of a strucrure. he was unable to demonstrate any definite structure ourline. Indeed, to Judge from Ius map. postholes appear to be haphazardly distributed across the surface. Keel classifies three fearures as 'large POSt holes." The largest of these, with a dlame· ter of 88 centimeters and a depth of 149 CentlmeLerS, has a characteristic funnel shaped ontice, in common with ceream large pOStS at Walling .1OcI Cold Spnngs, that In my view 15 probably a post-extraction pit. Other features of the pnmar} mound surface were a large, central burned area covered with ash. surfate hearths, ceremoOlal deposits of scones. small rcfuscfitJed pltS, and J d~p(lsll of dark mlddrn 5f)il pJared on onC' sldl' of the mound whICh yldded OWl' fivr hun drl d p')t.~ht-td~. Ammal hrll1l' w~s IItJl well rn'M'rved Jnd IlO SPl" 1.11 Jlllly IS ,,/, tt made ',f thl pnrnary 1rl',lJlld fJUnd . •,Jlh"ugh gl'lwr.,1 fllld uhsnvJtltlll' ,"dlll d· t a th fl1~m JWI" II1(O(lIlII ' rl'" III 11",,,· dt')IIIS1lS (K .... I,..,71l1K H~. 1.j~1. 1A I ~ plJti(11111 10•· I ,

IIV~ r'''''lfld

Kul""'I'~ I M'flllld I1 • M,

KI'IIIII'II

MIIIIIlL

10-

-

,

'OR

-'0

' _ . ..,. 0U11.Jl«

A'.ATtJa.E 121

FfA1\aI tI t

Figure It .5 Cold pnngs. ero ·. t
H

mound at waUlI1g. <,Id , pnn!!. found d suffiClcnr to Illusrr.ltc [hl' "':",[co. f narure of rh,s phenomen'>n ,: th pr<' 0. holes of VJnOlls SIZe .. ,'m \'1 \tu h POSt'lI1sernon ramp', l'\[rd",,'n r 1nl these posthol~.,. piu, (he Cl Id '" In reuse of rh~~e surf.I,·," ,)\ r , lib; ( nn are po '[hole .Ih~nn ..'nl. ,lr \ n I rour .I .1[(h""'(1I1< In' 11, I. ttu I I fi1i,iltlg hrJhJ\",\I" lt'P It ,I "\' I Il'kb. r ... b . .111,1 I "I [ .11,:(1\

It,

'''I,

h.lI1d \\ h

\("'111

h\ In tu

I

.1111,11 \ ,h.1I11 t [ ,

/1 ..

1.111

r"

I

,

"lit

11

(h

1111

,11 •

, "

,

FEA5TING AND PLATFORM MOUND CEAEMONI"l 5...

surate to their girth. requmng ~oal p~'-'-' men '~'UU~ ~d rake down Upnghts of tlus SOrt were meant [0 Impre Assooated fearures on the mound sununll.. Illdude nn..Q d mIddens. Hearths and dense midde.n depo an !th.~. m p.lrtll.. dic ative of food preparation and consumPOon E

•

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h

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m..t

long-distance excbange. and speoal-use pou"" ore ,,' Co . '" . uod 11\ a these contexts. pOinting to some SOrt of .:eremomo! U,e In th" Walling platform mound and Garden Creek. MounJ 0. 1 both Hopewellian-related artifacts m thetr respecuve mounJ summarizes the associations so far disCllssed (see ~o Kni S=b , The fact that these mounds all stand "1t1un the boun~n'~ nenr setdemenrs is sIgnificant Access does not ~em [ L

1-,

o uc restncted

portant way. and whatever acuvlties OCC1lrted on them p · full view of villagers reSlcting only a rew mete" .,. ID

h

.

presenred by eVidence for a curvmg. pme pmt screeIIUI' ",.u found west side of McKelthenlound A Iilaruch et al IQ seems ill-placed

to

lffipede elmer vi.w or ae.; .

Utnmit

have been perfectly VISible from me VJO!~ e poUlt of th Owen Lindauer and John Blit2. (19Q7J believe thlt publio

o

variables that rustingwsh uch \Vood!and plltfullll mo sissippian counterparts To use melr temunolo' mounds were pnnopall . commun.1l. '"rl'S'al'J\~ fa:ilin emphasized sooal tl!/TI'T(nnmjon , In summary. nunor \'Jnaoons lSlde. me

m un

naoon of behaVlors As I Interprel them. me. em tivity involVing m.lI11pullnon ot

o

and monumem.ll dJ pby of pok.

o

•

0

" ,

o

.

0

,

° '( ,I

. ,/ '" ,l

riodically renewed

o

,

•

oo

I (;

"

kr.. Id hl.lnl:h

Mound AWls .1 rh.lfIwl SlflItlUre. on

his hh:h w

!1d

were I'edu(cd III t-.l1ncs, IJler I) \l('

tcrmcn! III Ih,' IW.1rhy hUl1.lll11l IInd

o

o

o

o

Ihe SlIllInm l>. /\InunJ \ jarl'lll I.ll'~

.,\t.

p,hts h Id .. I fl

"gu,II·J'.lns· \ 111.1111, hili I WIIlP, 111111:

r

.md connect d" mtx.u,

use of Ihese mOllnd.,

o

t

Ul' tJu,

Up 10 now I hJW .'ld,·\ll'pp,·,1

o

o

drub t

food preparation Jnd con. umpllon. &tqu

• o

o

C\O!1('

I

I ht .. JJu.

/\I. ""nh 11 \Ill dl,· bUII,II, III 111111 1111111

r

r< I

t un.-!

In

:.al.

e

-

fEASTING AND PLATFORM MOUND (ER

, harn e I structure, whIch IS supplied b '\'"'_"" ~- ... ram RIchard Jdfene III og ary pr to slmuantl"" between che cd pOInt and McKelchen ,toWld A nd Mou ' Mound B contamed a, least one hunun OC;UI. on. br la11lch's McKellhen m odel as an anal Jea; es I cras t , II1terpreted the pnmary and, condary IJIOUnd No, 2 as each suppo rung some type ot buiIJ III sippian platfo rm m o unds. This Ulterpretanon as regular burned area w hIch he fdt \\. a, 0\1 lUrt ublqwty of poscholes. w hICh . as noted nHe structure pa tte rn ( Ke dI9~6.,' 6, 1Turrung agam to the Wallmg platforlil m I nonmortuary and also nonresl,knual aC WaJlmg were nume rou .• a at Garden Cre-e

" -g e 0-130

,

~

~

s

" "

aJ

part of any buudIng As to any potenti.ll funcoou bunals nor human bone scraps "'eR und Walling plarform mound I except fOT ob which IS also the ca . • for Garden Creel 0 1 tlon , This observanon

IS In

fact

case are buna!s or scraps of hum.lll bo Woodland plarforms . e\'en for I

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menc But In gencl1Il , m standmg cxampl .

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mound SIte' lhat "
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asserted re be a charnel platfo iln C

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fall 6

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For WJIltn~, I

I

01 the "'(ond mound lIag,' on lh~ m(lUIl d unmut Jrlll.« , L_ 1.... 1 n lilr ntlla! dil'l nd

btoJJ I 1'" IIl~ nldry .. t ! It I't"nlJ11\l I III • III

t t

Ih

11"

1

I I

I , I'lIblilihro

I

h

m

-

,

-

pnwlLlc w. w ith l h.' l. lIl c d d 11' 0 J 1h ''' 1' ' f I ll I (or M c- K c llh c n Mou n d 1\, we .11 (' 1 0I 1 UI1~It(: 10 have.' In In I . IrlWl"",., • , d Y'i l \ of lh • n1.111 l.... I..orn lll g pnfl1 .1nly f ro m Ihc.' ( WO n ' II d d CIl d {'PO~I1 S (j 1 h C fdu l)al ' • ' l C cu , . rt form ( "m ed OllL by Arknt, PraJ klll alltJ lepOrL eu III MII h /te ,,[ Ihe pi Jnl C l' t - I at Bon<: WJ, only mnu<' r,Hcly we ll pre'c rv,'d MlIt h of lhe ho ' h a l~a4 I C

1I d(: 11 ~

Crc:c k No

1

d. I

11 0 1

,

n e,

()\.vev..

... rt"'~' aI d

(I ~.J.

tlfiablc and thIS sa mple w", reSin Lctll argcly 10 thaLof a 'I I tr, "''' I''YCn > ng '~ p ec l l"lied dee r, lhe only excep" o", bClIlg Lmy amo unlS of duck c"sh Cs, the 'Nh ILt 10 peedie skelelal clemcn" oJ the deer bone , "lh e elemenl '. , and rabbit , . , al COve h 'fl,! fro m the haun ches o f deer . Whoever wa s ealing deer 0 h rw clll)lngl I) L C Mo Y form mound was recelvmg alnlosl solely the haunches p und Api" . rcsumabl h were butchered elsewhere " (Milanlch Cl 01 1984 102). Y t t de e, For the WallJllg platform mound, an ethnobotanl cal anal YSIS of nOt pIes waS made by Margaret Scarry and two separale analy ' allo n lalll. ses of the r: mams were made by John WorLh and Gweneth Dunca Of aUnal re n the b rematns Scarry (1990) says that the assemblage IS an unusuall d 014nIOI y IVerse 0 spIte the small sIze of rhe samples Some cultivated plants J ne, de . re pre'cnl amounts mcludtng maIze (stalk and cupule fragments ) cu b In illlall , Cur Its sunn chenopod, maygrass, and little barley. Besides these, Scarry re ' OWtr, POrts a surp dJverslty of seeds from gathered wtld greens and frUits IIlcludl I nll/lg . . ' n g p ants that generally uncommon In archaeologIcal deposits 111 lhts region N h I are . Uts e I rtlllaln, ordmanly the most abundanr component of botanical assembla ' r ' . . FSlorthij~ nod, are relatively scarce , Scarry proposed Lhat this unusual specc I 5 compOSItion IS the result of seasonahty of use . Feasts (or offenngs) prepared In the summer mIght contam a high proporuon of early garden products and frUIt, whLIe a fall or Wlnler feast nllghl IOdude nu" .nd (aV ·npenmg graU1S. The Walling assemblage 3S a whole (onl,un, few nUL renUIIU,' vaned assortment of seeds from 1ummcr·npemng fruit>, ,Ino mmp""llvcly ,bun dam gr.ms of maygrass - an e.}fly >ummcr
\\

LI

mUlIn.!!"

cuhamy IS plau IDly

hlaF;" d",'!

ntJl

1I1l1l\u.li,

llIu(h ullhoPl'

f"f hy thr SCJSOI1 of U'(' MornMf. Ihr .iltm p .. nlCularly h"spl'Jk ()/ fi',J\tLn~, .lIllong tilt' IOlllhluli, lIulhlngu

ovtrr 'pn' r:nlt d ~~ III 1I~(' I I.lIg(· SI ,I I(. !'IJlI\llltlllllflll. 1111 I Imkt''' Ju lIul and 11,1 "m" p"naliy w(·1I slII,,·d lot bulk ,ICI Utl1I1IJIIIilL Iwl Jilfr II Th f~uruil /1'lIlam fr""1 till W,"IrIL!; pl,Hlurf1llllllUIl J II' ~ ortl'" I Ihr l.ulIJI UI!D I m Jf} 11 P' 11 I I "IIL.IIK 1\Jly Idl kIll); Ill' IVL" I Y· I IJ III~ 1111 ",ul~ 11' I I I Cl rrwl III/I,J hy h'Jllc ,,' !I/I IN I1111 iI" I(, It 1 ' 1 " I"' ' I till cO r I.\ rl .,,/11111 t~ III I(JI 11,1, W"llh dl I IIVI I \ I IIL~I ItI ntI d III Ih ,,",1 nL U I I uf I I 1111 I rll I WI I 1111 III (,,"l I "JIt

mUIUIL n

On" I'Oml of I(,III[~ Ir I

th •

\'Irw ilLlI rv1J

IJ

n

h

. and

IJ~r P"pul

R

OffimUfUt

'u~"(]"g Ih t

3("[OlHlICU

r

nu U

ff

'nI.l11 vdb Thus, alrhough ,he pl.lnl foud dsscmhl.lgt I~ relJtlvdy

ndm

t

In ~1~.II11 h

m

b fo

Ih

h

contexts. IS not parocularly swt~d to Stor.~ Or b d ~ oun f a major feast. even \\I·h en dn e. d As • hunted PlOduct. dn ~o .. M . . umited at any gIven nme o",over. It th~re L_ a have been d me . f social gathenngs an the size of aSSOO.ted ~C __ g ~eSlzeo . . --. . n that average vessel S12e ID these mound deposits d~ tO 'rnpress :'> Ihlt t I ~'-ary domestic contexts. Standard coolung ,-.:=h, at th ". frofll onu,-, ... e" shon jars WIth orifice diameters of about an I . all are srn ' . mu.:. the kinds of srudies necessary to con6, Ul uch unp-t h ever t a ~"~lon~ . 1. been, d 0 ne at any of the sites. All these factors cOllSldered It l>, po-.;;sll~ to , . pracommunity festivals hosting no mOre than 10<>-100 ru.-.. 510n SU r-- ........p.lnb these sites; perhaps they were smailer Gathenn - ~t '01 m . a most of "'-mder ·~l' .1.1. _ center, co nceivably could have been at a somewhat ".. '. _. ~UIQU,p . "es site u within a sparsely populated teglOn and Its scolfuldIDo ,:. f.I-~. U1I .. _ b Mound B, were quite small. YA principal funcoon of feasong in these soaeoes ma ha'-e ~ n thr ment and preservation of intervillage alliances A Sl'cuory .:1\ lIllll. t L! '" be conferred to the community that could rounneh host fbt" " \I , dent that the period in question ID the outheast IS one m -ruch strife or warfare is depressed. However, tf the nexus 01 ft~'tllk rween neigh boring commUOlties. It "'as not ennreh reapn: J ,\ mm In, Most contemporary sertlements "'Icbm
,,-20

•

••

rr-..,

Plgure T1. 7. Timucuan method of smoking meat on a scaffold , sixteenth-cenrury Flond•. EngravU1g by Theodore De Bry, after a painting by Jacques le Moyne de Morgues. From Loran. 1946 midden as reporred by Sears (1956). a resident population in the low hundreds would be a reasonable guess. On the question of whether such villages hosted supracommunity festivals as well as gatherings at the level of the local commu· OIty. current consensus weighs in favor of region·wide involvement (Walthall r985, KnIght 1990; Milanich et aL I984; Smith 1986), particularly in view of the

strong evidence for external exchange at many of these sites. If so, the size of the largest gathenngs might conSiderably exceed che population of the host village There are other lirnitmg factors on the potential scale of feasting at these mes. One IS rhe small absolute sIZe of the facilities I have been describing, possesslllg we·surfaces between 17- 34 m 10 djameter. Notably, Kolomokl 's Mound B. al· thfJUgh illS at the largest SIte, has the smallest use ·su rf:ace 10 rh e samp le . A second lumtlng factor is that sYStems of food produCtIon were on Iywca kly developed h10 rh fJOtIWJ. D" splte the ust' cA some rulllgens 111 agard enm g complex. t dr h I "onlC,tlC.lI< mam SiJure I,f (drhfJhydrd(t·s was stili wli" gathered plants. w le - Ih,' "Iht'r than dllg5 W('fI' ah ('nr VI·,II"III,t·vldrnt Iy Ih,. pn' "I ( ("" IU(ld III

~J6

,"

•

-

n ,, 5 flN G MI/ O P

·d Il t lP H 111 t Uit t"::"II , 1.\ 1" ,11 ( " 11 .sUllll • /\ ' ,11 ' " .llllll j " l l l l l t ' t.: .l ~ I '1I1 1,11'10 h I\h.. ~l I . II h ",II t'd III \ 111.111 ql1 .11"I111 I t:'.\ III J"l' V Ir Ill.• I I I , 1I 1l ' 1.1\ C 'C ' ( 11 I rnlt )' ( If IIIII(' /nf .11\ ' _ ' ' ' '('( \ ( .11'1 \ ' ' ''-'IJl l. ('(' I , '"tn" Ip l ' pc'cI I I . • / C' O!lIIlI . , I1 I till''' I'.IP'" t' ,llIhll . 1I t', L\ ( :0;0111(" of lh(, lid _ Ilf\

,II \("I'''t'(

I" .",,, •

"J!""'"'' I 1 (111 11 11 11)."

I1

'

\

IIl11d \P, u- lIe "

J,! t HI! I

IV."

lit . \Jlll0

tI

tW/'llnI\ .1 prOVOl'Jl1l'C

WIl.HlIl' kill'" •• b"ut

mod'" th,'f h;ls the p()tcnn.ll to exphcate nUlcn of

,md 1,.",,, 0/ ren' mol1lOlbm ThiS second kmd Centered on World renewal .'od t,·,.,t",);, ClI1ph,lSIZlIlg ()Il1IllUlUt)' integration, vcry slI1,d.lt· in type to the Gr~eo ' om (,'rernOllIJh,m p'''lmced throughout the E.1StCrn Woodlands 10 the hiStOric

Gr~en

om

t't'~molll;1lt. m

WJS. and III several cases suU IS, a major Native

Amenc,lll IndJa/' nrual as -ochtted WIth the npenmg of corn. It was (and IS) per. lornlld \lllh", d wn,eerared ceremonial area Chat IS a world symbol, renewed by

S\\(·t'p'n~ or the addmon of eanh (\I,'ltthon TQ4Q). It IS Lronic, therefore. to "'n.\ld~r hO\I oltt'n hIstone Green Corn ceremonialism has been Invoked-awk. the

\I

arJJ.I- ." .1 model for MI

GJ'(~n Corn

I. SlppI,ln

nmaJ pracnces, wherea to fact the hIstOric

prdCOces. With theIr emphatically communal ecruc, may be much

I1wn' do'eh Jkm 10 deCldedJ)

P,(-f,lISSISSIPPlflll

forms of rimal expression

. TI,( CI,iI/IColl" Confuencc. ed,ted by D'Vld S. Br_

ogy·

I...."9

-

Anommuu

U.ril SWlh C",d.. Indian Mound A.c/",,<", .111.1 Hura,..,' New, 4" TJU.h.tS>Cc' • nond, D"'I Ion 0/ Ar,·hlVes. History. and Records Managemenl , Httmond A •• nd Hunter B. lohn,on \';IlI"n, .r th{" H~rmcc Mound In Nonh.rn AI.bml. Report ,ub mitt d 10 th" Alaham. Il,slOncal Comm""on Jnd the City of F/oren«. AI abam,;a TU5Ca/oos.:; Un"n fly 0/ AI.hJtnJ DepJnrncnt of An!h fOPO log)'

rt I

u.

0 0 .1

'-

K~nt . OhiO : Kent Stare UnlYe.rSlty Pte.\..\

c_

'L

oa u Gitu u .

R'pky P I '"_ B"Jlc" . The Pamous Crystal RJver Slle T" ""'n
.en • ~& Dlck . , 197'

.

.

A Processu.1 Approach to MISSlSs'pp'an Ongms tn the Georg,. l'Jedmont SOla IIt'a.sUn! A rdltlcologtcal CO'tfiTrnu Bulkun 18:)1- 42 Gwen.th A.

Dunc,n,0

A Supplemental Vertebrate Paunal AnalYSIS of the Walltng Sue (

t.~

In

Exc.vat,oll of tI" Truncated Mound at tire WaU'ng SUt: MrJdJc II0000LtllJ C'II//lnr

'99

""d Copena ill 11" T.,,,,,ssce VaUf')'. by VJ. KrughtJr. pp 1I4-IS2 Re""n of I". vesogaoons 56. AJabama Museum of NatUral HIStory. DIVIslon of Arm.eo! ogy, Unrversity of AJabama, Tuscaloosa Ford Jomes A

"95 1

Greet,I,ousc: A Troyvtlle-Coles Cruk Pmod Mound S'I< '" ,~""rllt; P.",,,LOUisiana. AnthropologIcal Papers 4-1, Pan t New York. -\men"n MQ",um of Natural History

Fowke, Gerard '9 2 8

Archaeological Invesogations U. Forty-Fourth .{n""al Rcpcrt 01 d1( !tv..... Amencan ethnology, pp. 39!r4J6 Washmgron. DC. FuUer, RIchard S.• and Dmnne S~via Fu/Jer 1987

/i"(cavatiOllS at MorgOl" A Cales Cr
leon 11 Cambndge: Lower MISSlSSlPPI Surve)'. Pt,,,bQJ,, . I"",un>. H~"Ud Unrverslty GreenwelJ. Dale 191Lt

The MJSs,ss'PPI Gulf COJSI In Pmp«rl\',> "n Gulf ..... Pn-

rdilt'd try

Hall. Robert L.

An ArdlOeolagy of Ihe Soul: NIlrrh "mm,a" T.JUI" &btt """ RIIM.t L Unrl'erslty of /UmolS Press. Jelfenes. RIchard W

1997

The SWift Creek Ite md Woudland PI~tfutril founds III the United Stares In OC"'"t~t't A.,'h.!".,l,'g\' 10 Nu..d pp. 71-8J. Athens UIlIVerSlI)' uf Ge
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rhe ~"dt1le \.Voodl,1I1d cultural curnax .

The thru" or the pn'''' nt ",ll'er I to >uggCSt. howevcl', that In parts of Ih. \\-"o"/,lIld. outh~J". bun." mound cercmOIllJilsrn was segregated n'om a set.

,·r.1

0

",,,,ut.'

. \I',."

1h" "

,07

•

'lJl1~~ tl "g \ ( 1lll • I ~ Ih 11 WC ' lil1J If CO IlIlt'Cll' d 111 tht.· pl'e~el1( inSl;'l . 1,), 't (~ 1I1\ IfIlPP' LIIII H"l.' I • .. • nee \\o'lIh _ . ,I 'l\t'l,lI, . kUHI (I (1'1111,11 .lfunIY. onc: h ~lYlllg 1(' do with pknrOI' 1l1 moulld blllld/ . , I II'IIr1d ,1.' ''''11',11 «('I('mony Rcccnrly Robel[ J I~II ( ng .'IlL/, .1\ / 1" '" Oil" , ' . .• • . • ' 1997) h,l\ ·1 I 11 "I""" ,,/ IlISllln( world ''''<W,ll symbol"m tn I """/,. Ih,' , 1111" I" " , . . I,e PI",O\ 111." . n.,1 'el11all1S of Mlddl C I"'VOo(j _",,/1 ",,' 11' '( ( •md, ,,"l he I",ked 10 th,' . . / 1111'<•.\ ••, 11 , j "It,"nd blllldlll/ol ". p.II tit ul.II Hall '" 1.1CluggcSts I"at L the 1,111.1 (lI / I n and Intene8 011/ \\ U' (' ~ '(>IlI/'/"\. Woodl,wu bun,II mOUlld lradlllo . 10 of 11111" '\\ rllI,II' (',ch.lI1gc pi gt10ds IS bc,t thought of In terms of J Combination I I 1'1' 11,'dd n·ne",.,I.lnd 1'('/I1c.lm.ttlon cerelllony as practiced L"to . ,. ell"'II .' • n .. ncall)'. I 1,"

0""" p ,.,d

''It-'olo '''''d hI" 11 .•) .kn (Ch'll', r l 2). 'I'he,.,. 1.\ ""Clw,,, glc,'1 Ifl

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"l('

,

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Woud/ dnd Phd'e ul rh .. menl ul mhlUl",lug, \\

rt

:

I

-

•

,0-0

}

I rv ' A Stllt/)' of tIle

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Knoxvtll

e

a.

I

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0

9"")1

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Kohler, Timothy A. 1997 Public Architecture and Power in Pre· Columbian North Amen'ca. paper p sented at rhe symposium, "Power. Monuments. and Civiliza [IOn, ' .. Nara re· Japan. December

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KurJack. Ildward B. 1975 Archaeological Investigations in the Walter E George Basin In A '-- 1

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Tl~ G AND S FEA

~~~

Salvage In the Walt.,,- F George BasIn of the Chattahoochee Riv.,,- '" Alaba mal edi led

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1986

.

f1 ' 29-4 1

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I997

Pt.""

of rh< Acd.t"ny of S.,t1<,,,1 .-:t~rl 1976

198J

Uruve"""•

Ralferry.)ane[ 1987

The (ngumJr \founJ., _lie ht! nul

r"/)"um.,, '1 .~n-h.J(", Tts{ E \L" 1\ J.tlt)n.

t In'" nl r

SeaITY. C. M.rg.rer Plant R, nUll" frum th

\\ ·"
I

ur.,ll h,[,tn, PI\ I I n

,o'n

VIII.to,h" l i l t , 'ng In Ih E ItnI 1\

llnl\( t

It",

P1 t )

"" t uh mltt hJ I,.

o

0.14....

Q01 - to~ .

tlU

I 1
Bea..-h Abb"ma

P!ullips. PluIJp 1970 Archdeol"gt,,,1 Sun't"\ ,n rite Lower 1 rhe PeJbod\' ~fu,eum nf ,\ml'Tl,an

dtDt'JlloJIJI 17 11 ~ I jlI 1"),1

2 Oran~

Pubbcaoon

1.1c;"'./((,n.t I'll! (,11 M(Illlld, OW'r Mound MIlIr"'!llIIrllwlJo"rnalo/ M

M M Iud.ld".td V 1";4 Vrra nu. the

t1

The ,~rcha(ol'>gI,'aJ _
S<.I'I. \\ tllt .. nl I1 nJ

Malnf',n I!""'/I <-..)1. _nd i(JrhJrd W;t!llOg

;t

Nanee. C. Roger

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10.44"

Certam Aboogmal Rcmatru of th

Km/:hr h • pp

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B J s,gler.LaveUe. Gamesvllk L'ru tI, " p.., T . A. S Corddl. V) Krught)r.• T ,.. 'ohJ
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Jou"",,1 of ArchaeoLogIcal Research 5'J69-207 · Lorant.Stefan.ed 1946

~

Mao re • Clarence B. 1894 Certam Sand Mounds on rhe ~ John, Rt.'tt NtJl1ltal Somas of PluwJdl,/rin tQ:t)t>- ~ Certam RIver Mounds of Coun~

1900

LUldauer, Owen, and John H Blitz

I~

M,lan1cb .) !>ArK"t"'" Wetdm Is........ ,- I r, h C--'-..... ,,,... oJ., • • mlIn10 Po

1990

The Johnson S'te: Precursor to Pmson Mounds? T"""eJsee A"thropologUl

Spnnghcl.:l: IllinOIs "'~ I

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MJarllcb/ T~face In Mchuolog. of """'''' n !'l.md4. ,99 ' island Culror<. by) T M,lamch. A. - Conkll. \

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I 11

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r

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Smith. Bruce D. ,QSb .\rcha
10

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.4n:-I,iJroloiCI' 0,"1 Cr,.",,,:., al 1/" MiI rksvll/< S,,<, Anthropolo'"c.J Pap . . •. e~56~ Arbor· UniverSIty 01 Mlc/ugan Museum of Anthropology \'esce!lus, GJn _. IQ<;; Mound 1 Jt Mark>\'l1le Ammc,1I1 Alltlqutty 22.416--420. "'~ker, \\"m la\\" ~t I~JO

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'942

An ArdllU"logual SUI'\'<')' of /'l,k\"ck Ba"n III lit( Ad)ocntl Pornon.l o} Ih,SWlne{ A/aM"",. Mum."rr', an,1 Ten"r.'''''. Bulletm tlQ Wastllngeon. DC BurtJu 01 Am
Mark 19!n ArduJtologiad IIIV(JIIgar",", "1 Imtltu[~ Publi UOn J W~lktl1 MuL nd P Jtarru

ShrincJ

0

(he Pr

11l.IlOnl

I>ulh

IU

LIJTUl

P~I1('rmng In

'oodbnJ MoUnd MI JJI < .. W'

A CASE OF RITUAL FEASTING AT THE CAHOKIA SITE Lucrerio S. Ke/ly

THE

AMERICAN BOTTOM

ca, 1800

•

Mound Group

,L

•

_~··:.!''''---'

,

. " .... to"

,

-.

Th, 11 Or' ahuklJ I>.n edrh ~lIss"slpP,an (..In. 1050 1]50) center located In th~

•

ROl!om rrglon of the centr .11 l\1\ssISIPP' R,vcr floodplJtn. JUS( ,'ast of I 10uI on (h, northern cdlt' of I>hs"s. IpP,.\O development. The Mlss,ssipp,an cultural tradition ( D. 1000 ISOO ) extends 'PJlt,llIy over ponton, or the Midwest and Soulh, a ( Unll,·J St,m's (Fig Ill) IIlclud'l1g SOCll'rtl'S thut dISplay JlSnnfllve c ra/Jll, t hn ,lllgy.pl~(lonn mUllnd" Illtcn. lfic,1tI0n of ,lgl1culturJI (nIpS, ,mu ranW sodopolitlLal sy "m, C.hokl.I" ,h,' IJrg"SI M'SS''''I'PI311 sne, wnh ,IVer '00 mouncb, and rrpr nI tht mo't r"lllpl, x 01 all M'''''''I'I',.lI\ wnHllunllll" [' M'$()II'm Fo\o'lcr ''174. '975. (978, ''1~'1 . Ml'Ilrl'l 'IjKII, ''IllS, M,lm'r lINO, ,'Iq R, ."rn, moan

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T he (.1Ulhll assemblage. In particular p . a okia . ·d sub· ~I()lIIl 5' , ,' , . rOVrdCll dt'~lgt'
CAHOKIA 's SETTLEMENT SYSTEM NO POLITICAL ECONOMY ' . 8 0s a large number of s'tes m the American Bott A d 19 S Dunng the '970 an • . Om we" f the PAJ-27o highway project (Barers and POrter '9.') 0 J!);cavaled 3S part 0 . "" . "Csulb regIonal chronology (Ba re,s . . ns include a highly refined' of these excavano . and · J 2 . 2) • and a better understanding of changes 10 the reglo na I st, Porter J984 . P,g. Period A. D. ,-------'--"'-'==-_

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D (~ . 800--,052) •Beg tn rungs of sOCIal rankIng app...r at th.. tun. U J{eJly '99 . • fuwre comple;",,}' tJ KrUy 1990. 1992. P~ukeLlI I

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rOots 0 rial MISSIS " pp..n epISode ( e Lo ann p asc . D. 1051>1100 'The ,nl major an d rathe r rapId changes 1Il the regional landsape E cd b nat . y wn populatlons that were aggregated ID large nucl •• tw \1IJ.. . thn M,ssisSlPP e ro sm3 II fa rmsteads and Clv,cl cer.moma! nodes Or coal re wo mound clisp.rs (EmorSon [995'. J , KeJly 1992. MehroT [995: Pauketat 1991) t Caho It ters cen' there .'s a fi ve· to tenfold populanon Illcrease (Pauketat ""cl Lop at I se cl'. statuS dlUere .", ntlation 's evtdeO[ (Powler 1989; Pauket.t '994 The "taliOn an I (Powler r973. '989: J. KeUy 1996. 199;) lS centered upon h site .span t e . theGr and plaza (Holley. Dalan. and SmIthI[993; P.. uketat and Rei Mound . P aza was dC!ll.1rCated d sever al fl a nking plazas (P'g. 12.3)· The Grand ' . anarrant area 0 f the site by major R call , .earthmOVUlg public-'.'ork> pro) P I investigations 1Il tIus area have revealed th.u a mett'!" chaeologtCa "'ere smpped and for depos'" overlylllg a ridge .and swale topography '. t. 'I raw, pass l'bly for the mlttal consrrucnon 01 .lonk.! . lound mound) to the north This area was then reclaImed b} liUm, m th and raJSIng . t he plaza to about ItS premocWied level to forlll .. cl nand' I mf~ (Dalan 1997: Dalan et aI 1994). This proVIded a larg~ cemT.lltz d 'p e to m modate rirual actJvines attended by the Cabo1ua popullnon D n There 's now fundamental agrcement that the \h.. I.. IPP n tern in the northern Amencan Bottom was hicrarch,.:-aI J Ih.lt ils center. Other smaHer mound cemers (WIth either lIIu1nple and numerous nonmound commumn~s that ma, h3\ n d complere a proposed three· tiered settlemem h,crarch, 1993. Mehrer 1995. Mllner '''90). EmcL"lm \19<>" b<1l mound communmes can be d,flcrent'arcd from ea h have funcrioned 111 the overdU IT)o:,on.1 , [tkm, nl H nodal centers rhat served 'pcct.lhud polmc I. rehi!! u. Members of [he rwo schools of [h,'ught on [h d , amy at Cahok'J dlsagre(' ,.bOllt h"", th, small farm d ,h,rdscttlcment ner wer,' tll'd \,1 at .1111," rt relS (e.g., about how mu(h "')0:1<111.11 «'Illll" t

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SOCIAL AND POLITICAL DIMENSIONS OF FOOO 'rrt bule or tnbUlary 'yslems arc u~ually comldcl1!d mh tft.r.. <. ,c of lht Mls~""pplan Southt." (And.",," ,on_ r_ h l O. . . ""'""t ........ rnc'lrO t I 199' , Service 196~; SlcpOnall15 197 8 1, but. tnbUlC c.n pohlical and ,0cl.,1 dImension wIlhm. tnbuI.rv lern Tht however, mcan. dllTerenl lhlnS' 10
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c BIIIZ It.)Ql;jackso n a nd Seoll 1995 • Hwee , I h

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1()~-'I(:lJ CXCJvanOI1S, u nde rr aken as part of lh et • t 0 lcd earli er, have generarcd a n cnOrm • ,)I'O)CCL(. men!! I _ , DUS md -,rH' hlgh \\ J) I . I cl ;1fChJ eobo ramca l daw (or th e Ame ri ca n B hneo l o~llJ .m . Ol. ,1n'"U '" 1,1 znoMC 88 9QJ L. Kclly ond Cross 1984: L. Kelly 1997b' .... en 1084. 19 . I - , _ . I 10111 (./(llll n nc. n. dos mdJohanncssen 199 1; StOlon and Parker ' 995) ,11

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In: 10l'O

d . ! "1'11101 '001, '. . I d t. b.se con be used lO ad ress the role played b n/lnary blolog'c. 0 . • y Th,. <\".10 of C. hokl.s populooo n JJ1 food Prov,sloning a d nked segm cnl n Ih" Il1gher r.1 VI, s the chleny class JUS[ a temporary caretaker of I b Id ry systems a a p""Ib < rn U I~'_ t for Ihe benefi. of all soaery. Or was It coercively ap' U . h. n es. ho Uti ,g , \1 al!" S ' I 'd uSlve benefit of the elrte? In other wo rds, by exanun, nBung food for t le ex . prop f dIe population relates to another to the provisionlng Ing [he WJ ) onc segment 0 • .. • . b Iter understanding of the articulation of sooal relahons of "lod can we gam a e . . 1 segments? To examme alternative hypotheses about am ong •th e ,'n n.OUS 5003 _L ". e muSt take uno account several factors regardmg the na, mbure •• CoW OIU. , on , rurc of t he J rcJlaeo I0g ICal evidence, and how food Items rrught fit lOtO a tnbutary 11)..,2 I Q94 . 1'\.111

"

system

FOOD AS TRIBUTE For mstance, conSIder fresh meat from game animals (e .g .• deer), Unlike domesOC aroma Is in other areas of the world. deer may not have made good. regular sources of [ribute (Zeder 1996), AcqlllSition of hUllled wild game is unprechetable. especially dunng cerraUl times of the year Fresh meat would also be difficul. 10 transporr long rustances and to stockpile for future use because of spo~age problems Uaclcson and SCOrt 1995) On the other hand. dned meat and Iuns probably dId emer Ulto a mbutary system (Zeder 1996), We know these \\ ere common rnbu[e items ethnohistoncaJiy 1I1 the Southeast (Clayton. Krughl, and Moore 1993), but arumaJ products 1I1 these forms would be almost imposs.ble to detect archaeologJcally. It has becn argued (BUrz [993) that maize and other native grain crops may

ha"e been chfficul[ to control or redistnbute by the ehte unless or until they were centrally stockpried or stored in large quantities. E!lhnohJStoricaJ information iJlWC4tcs [hal large grananes were cOlllrolled by the cruefs in the Southeast (Clay, ron, Knight, and Moore [993; Barker J992. SmJth and Hally /992) . Above-ground grmanrs are rufficu1t to ,denllfy archaeologIcally, but those that have been recog· QIl,cd at r.ahrJkla are located rn domestic or residential areas. They arc Interpreted as havmg been Cf)mmunal resources rather than havrng been under chIefly

)40

Por Dons of deer belongmg [0 the Iugh, mid, ""d low Food Unh,,· InJu Plgu . nes . Reprinted from Cahobn DOmllUll1o. orulIJeol"&Y I. W Murun__ PUll , atego . . ,,-(M~ edlted by T R. Pauketat. and T E. Emerson, by p =on _ 0 / the !;Mernty of S copynght Uruversrry of Nebraska Press ' 199.). Nebraska Pres, . re

1.2 4 .

ollins 1990 1997; Fntz and Johannessen 1996, Lopmot t99.l) It b.t:. al (C I co n t r o ' . . been d0 curo emed ethnorustoncally, however. that chIefs gnn""e> , re, m _ times located in areas nearer me producers (Srruth and Hall) 1\I9! th.n chiefs tesidences, Therefore. mterpreting control solei} On 10..010 n nu, No problematical (Muller [997)·

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE For the Amencan Boaom and Caholua, dJ.l.Terential .«e. 10 lllUltul based on starus has been II1vesagated hy the emplovmelll of '" of faunal srurues: taxonomIC dtve"'I£)' and bod"p.rt largest vertebrate speaes reco\'ered 111 an) .bunJ.f1c 1997b), Deer body-part Studies, paracularh th,,,,- m.J on hokJa, mdJCate a flow of mealY portion. of Jeer Into rh t 1 1997b). However, the studtes of fJul1.l1 ... ,cmhl.!: ,n,lm uu, do not yet pl'Ovide the dot'l necess.H'· 11' Jl'll'tnllnr \\h th rth deer meat to Cahokia. Falln.11 .ISsrmbl,I!:"S from thes t, ficult to dlslmguish t:ILJnal rdue 11.·'\lllIn~ fnlm J 11 UN t ", suiting fi'om hUtchenn!: .lmm.II, 11' 11,- us.t , t"hut Plant products slIch .IS ,11<'11",1 m.\I " r~Jt h h , component of rnhut" "th'hlh"tlln, III b,,[)n n I Id and Hally IQ~l) ,Ill.! thl"I"'u< ,111\ h(\\lI.1 h I IhI

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RITUAL FEASTING AT THE

-

I ,' \ldl'IK(' h)l U Ihtlu' '10111•. du' I\l11l"'(,,111 BmlCln1 I hl\\('\ 't" ,1I ,-h,u 't l I'tl!,Hllt.1 il )- I hl.' d .H') du lUll n hlblt '1'"1(11 I')'," 1\llIkl'f, 1I IQI.,)7 u' mh It\ lw l ' '-IIIt\lll ,l 1 ( 1 t • '11' 1\'I1l'.' ,md hl~"l lll'lll :-', bUI 1,111"1<:1 th ey mdl ra ll' thJt :-.lltllI":: dlt1t' I"II~ t' :-. .It llPt1~ ( , . 1 . ' 1'\ '\t' le ,,,own .lnd (',1Il' l1 "' ~11l p,lI'L~ of the ICt110n the ' ~ltlll' , .lIlt' tll" (\ ,It , t'" ~ ( 101'"1\\1 1\0111"\

caSI 0

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·" 1'1"'" (LOlllllOl 1\)9.' )· Thl\ ha~ bctl1 1I11l'rprcred as. movement Ca hokt3 ( e '" g lTib . UI(" ; lnlrr':';("IlI IQI)C; , L~~Jrcy Jlld P.llIk(,(JI 191)2. P.luket.n 19Q..l ). Fritz and Johan. rll· .... (·11 \ 1\01...,. • h""" .. '-r .. , do nOI lhlT1k Ihere- IS convltlcmg eVIdence that shelled O1Jllt' \\ .IS bems tt:msu1l1l"d In grc~Her qu:mttnes by hlgher·ranked social groups, In I~I<'I . s(Jbl< C.1rbun >solOpe rudre, run on hlgh-stJtus. Lohmann-phase bUrials 111 MounJ -1.11 CJhoiuJ UldrCJtC Illghranktng personages may not have eaten as much (om J, uLher h>s>ss,ppJans \ BUlkstra. Rose. and Mdner '994). Bec.1Use the JambJ>, lor the Amencan Bonom area is so large. Fntz (personal 'I

'11'111.1., Il) ,. 1!o'I~-" • . L 11 I 1 ,.,1 oUII)110\) (If ~11(' c"~ rmu ze 11. co' IlfodUCJI1tl' co commU llllt CS [0

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cOO1muruCJtlOn. I9OS) drmllsses rhe a'bTUmenr that preservanonal problems asso.

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JJRrreno.U, along cI.,ss lllles. Fntz andJohannessen (1996) do not see evideoce for cluen, manlpulaoon or centralized poutieal conrrol of agncuJrural surplus. espe-

01

eVldence. however. that other kinds of plants-such as to-

baceo and red cedar-mal' ha"e had more restncted use by rirual specialists (Fritz •

02

The above ruscu_ .on demonstrates that the zooarchaeological and the ar· ch.coboraI1lcal <"dence from the Amencan SoCtom are somewhat eqUIvocal "htn u. cd to exarrune broad quesoons concerrung food mbu!e. If the focus IS narrowed. howe\'er. mecharusm. chat

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culn- ated naove crops " 'ere part of a tnbutary system of foodsruffs being ur:ilized

...ndJohannes.en .096; LOpU10t '994 . Lopinot and \lJoods (993).

Elevation 121 00

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f Monk> Mound . the SIte's largest mound

. _Grand plaza (P.g. '~ ·3) . The run removed from tlu.sbo e north..., tbiy cl use In , SSI Y evt:n m th •__ Mound . and for the levclmg of the Cra d PI e <>rty U 0( rvtonr-..;J n aza After Lh , as a borrow pit. it was left open for s-- _, e ptt cQJtJ. ~ __ [lon.ng . '". Tb. four .dJ, oonaJ units. excavated lJl '967 and 1968. were dug by cultural _ . stnta. On. 0\ th. four units was only paroal\y excavated (Pauketat 1997b).

I " ' I( · lIl1ur,tllIlll' n~dl ..... IlIt}l1 for.1 SllltC o t nJrtvc cultlgens. Ll .111,l'rl\S) ,lJlJ tlhll ZC (Fru z .lOlI ./Oh:tllllt'ssc.:n IQQ"- ' l"-Ilnr\\ l't l I lIl('IHlpCll . '("'. , v, ~1t~:-I S't PPI,l1l 10 "fI~SIS:-'lprl,1n And, there IS Some I PI'Inl11 Iu.,),j ) IU I I1t:• I' n,"'rl'clll ... r. ·..... IS~ 1Il1l1.11ze kl~ rncllO - ruh I aliOs from IIldn'Jl1Illl (,1 1 .1 J c:t..... , the Emcrgen l Mlssis. ~

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CAHOlla~ ~IT[

help duo.!"e bro.der quesoons regardmg the .roculanon of sooal relanons. Re· ceor analysIs of matenal from the sub-Mound 51 pIt is providing strong eVldence for large pubuc events held during Cahok.ia·s development that may be ltnked to

G

one such mecharusm; nrual feasnng.

H

THE CAHOKIA EXAMPLE: SUB-MOUND 51 or ."rJJnary

from a urg

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~mblagc of cultural material was recovered

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the late 1960s

preh.5\onc bollO" plC. revealed und:r Mound 51 when that mow1d

wu n:m0Vtd by rhe owner for fill (C hmurny (973). It IS located 175 m

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I t·,·OI1l th iS plL 15 lInpJr::allcled for lhls a rea 11' 11(.' 1'" ~ of t11l~ pb n t remains bc 'lI1 g preserved In an

11 h 1 porUOIl

u.."","" ' H1on.11 conditions resu lred from 0 UOlUIIl rrc.\cn, .

an anaer. lIt ( l( - rb(lflllC'd ,(JIC P h pld burial of t he depOS its, whi ch were subs . e Ur'll.J ':lIed b, I C rJ I I ~1I\· II(lnJt1cnl at:· _I \VtlhJn1 hmurny an a yzed 3 arge sa m ple of h «Jlll ,thlhcmou nu . 1 (nth ,eJI(·d bene. the 1966 a nd 1967 excavation seasons for his _I r. 'Ill . .a I rrcOH'reu .rol11 h' ~lI-gJIlIC m.lI cn I fi ne-gr ained a nalyses of addi tiona l sa m ples

More uon 10-1 JI<
t;

y. very kj I f TImothy Pauker"s Early Caho a Project.

rece nt

ken .< pari 0 d wert' un erlJ ·

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AL ANALYSES : CAHOKIA AND THE AMERICAN BOTTOM FAUN _'- (; al assemblage from sub-Mound 51, one must Comrder ro JOte rpr~[ Ule a un , In 0 f neral subSIstence for the Ameocan Bottom dunng " to fa unal patterns 0 ge .. pal'<' _. d early MISsissippIan peoocls. Fauna1 data from AmerEmergenr MISSISSIppIan an . _. I _ . di te mat Emergent MISSISS'PP,an popu atlons were selfIcan 8orrom sites tr1 C3 . ' , . on ' J resources in proJUIlllty to th= settlements to meet suffiCIent, rd ymg ,auna 84)_ They were apparently . qwrements (KeUy and Cross 19 Ihetr anlDlaJ-pro rem re _ _'- . laun , aJ exploitanon away from the procurement of large arumals, dJrecDng weIr such as deer, ro srn aJler animals such as marsh birds, . .medium-sized _ mammals,

and fish CL. KeUy 1990, 1997b). This localized exploitation panern IS also present al Caholua However, there IS a major difference in deer body-part distribution' for the Emergent WSSlSslpplan occupations at Cahnkia _ Elements representing me hIgher-utility' porcons of the deer are represented in much higher proporDOns man they are at other Emergent MISsissippian sites (L. Kelly 1997b)_The Caholua percentages IOd,cate that complete deer carcasses were not brought to me me. ThIS may be a renecaon of Cahok.ia's dmance (4-5 km) from the uplands adJacent to me Amencan Bottom where deer would be most abundant_' Because of t.lus dIStance, I proposed that only the fugher-utility poroons of the deer were transported to Cohokia (L. Kelly 1979). A rather dramatic shift '" faunal composition is observed at Cahok.ia dunng the toltlal MISSISSIppIan, Lohmann phase and IS interpreted as resulting from political and social changes. The relative quantity of mammals jumps from about lO percent NISP (number of Idenafied specimens) in the Emergem MiSSISSIppIan, Edelh.,dt phase to about 67 percent NISP '" the MiSSISSippian, Lohmann phase The m;un reason for thiS lOcrease IS the concomltam mcrease m deer remams (6 pttcent. J$P to 63 percent NISP; Fig 12.6). Fish remalllS decrease from 77 per· um I" 10 ptTC(-m NISP and b,rd rcmams gradually mcrease (L. Keliy '997 b).

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Though" " Imp h· paper I focus on the faunal remains. A full acr mJlenal), U1 t IS •• /TOm ,tU classes 0 J erformed by all the partlopants of thts prOject e vanou, ana yses p 2 h f ro unung 0 l I-Iml nary results have been presented_ e bUI pre hil5 not yC L bee n ma d ,

344

RITUAL FEA1)TING AT THE

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Deer body-part representation does not change ~.tly hov.'n~ o.,tt parently still being procured at a distance from the Ite. but deer m~' .ingJy making up a larger portion of the faunal chet :\ po. ble Wuoon mcrease in venison IS dIscussed below Unfortunately, the bulk of the faunal data from both the Ulk pian and Lohmann phases at Cahok.ia dfe from non-elite dam Lohmann phase assemblages from pureh ebte Conte. t> at"(' assemblages from the subsequent orlm~ ph.,e o\.D 11 t may represent elue sub ,stence refuse l Kelh l~ ~ may have been ch tribured .uong cia -, hnes \\ Ilh the lugher ~ population rece,vmg more hmdquarters. but 11 caon" bt rrus was also the ca. e m the carher Lohm.mn ph.l!

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SUB-MOUND 51 FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGE Before analysI' of the marroJI rcw,,"n-J from the taken,1I was postulJted thJt 11 "'p""ent .1 hI refuse (Puukelat Cl al. I~"I) • h,\\ , r rn, IITIm Mound 51 faunal ,ls"'ll1bIJ~( \\ J rh III , , semblages elscwhcl 111 th,' ,\I11<"n, n o.,.. )m 100pre'Slon wu, ("unli, ",,,,1 b, uh qu nl

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RITUAL FEA STING AT THE CAHO_ ", lA SITE

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, .. P,lI I of I he..' t lu n,,1 J c bns reCOve red from lh c. ' . I \ ' nO lc,'J ~l bu\c by W,II',lm C hmurny for hIS '973 r"k ''''n' ,d,',",II<, . IV l' lo n !ool' dsnll:' \ V,I ,:, J n,l l'7<'" J l4Jtltt ,lnd Juf'- t''\l. , I ' ned • no overlap e Xi s t s In the marcrials In • In ·h I.11 .l~ C•In be (. C' t C IIllI l

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zone 02). a bone harpOon ab unusua . one e'rspool and I b ads and spoons. Bone harpoons and manne sheU b ds . n,.nn. she I e ea "on: abo d · lay of exotIc goods recovered from an elue Lob pan of the ISp72 . maon pha.,; bun.I III Mound Th deer bone stood Out <mmediately from all other as bl di ed It made up 99·7 percent (NISP= '253 1 U57) of the Iden sem 'ge, d rhat I h'" hc sW e . 'd u.Ltt. 'n s in the assemblage I • entJfied (Fig. [2.7). Elements th I rema'' 'es-vertebrae, lfinommares, ' . "" 0" structunl and scapulae_that are fr

hmumy

., '(.' 'C Il!"tu Y ,In . I . d ud J In t C , 'J .' IOn . Chmurnv rep o rl ed th e fauna I matena as a Single Unit , In h" ill» . . He d.d th.s because different sample b • •J'Jl ' POS IUOll.U z ones. . h sizes were

~slng

r.1fher thJn J bC Juse he was J dd re" ecological questions rat er than social reeo\" rt'd, .111 ee.che I11~Hena . I sepa rated by zo ne was not. thought to be nCCes. . k g .ssues. so 'ecpmS lnd tables not pre sented In hJS dissertatIon Included mforma. S.1l") Some nOte. but, he does nOl p rovide proven.ence data other than ZOne

non by , zone. . year g ive n . I do not know what criteria he may nor is (he excavatlon . deSlgnaoons d ermJne . ' tIons for the 1966 mate.n a l. Hence. I repon zo ne d eSlgna . have used tob etone bur canno r ve rify the accuracy of that mformanon. hiS tindmgs y z c!JscusSlOn, ' . 12.5) I presen t data from o nly one zo ne- 02-{Fig. . For the presenl . nee urnt In t h e upp er half of the pit. Faunal remams were re. a "ery nch all ones 0 f th e su b . m ound pit ( Fig. 12.7) in varying amounts, but fr proverue covered om f Z b Mound 51 f:aun al remains CD2 NISP=8666) was tecovered the m'Jont), 0 s. u . ) This ' . zo ne a Iso J-nelded an array of Lohmann phase ex. • from zone 02 (F.g. 12·7 . .. . s that can best be termed "sumptuary," ds in addinon to Item oncs and craftI goo : arrowbea d s, axe. head debitage., and sherds from exooc . engraved such as crysta s, I (Pauketat 1997b) . U n usual or unique fauna I remams that can and pamted vesse s include a drilled alligator tooth (the most be placed in t1us sumptuary category

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denslD . Or nau, . nt in many assemblages, were found relatively Wholeagmenr.,), L eXlsre su..,. . found _, b t ~ percent of such elements recovered from zone In are In h' A ou , ....Ie ormo~than half complete. Many elements with unfused epIphyses were ",cO\"",d 10 such close association Wlth thell" epiphyses th.t they can be readily "'fined. The",.", a number of deer bones from my zone 02 sample that apPear to 3J'tJcubte. par ticularly sections of thoraac and lumbar vertebrae. Chrnurny 1 9:1 ' notrd mu1

lar articulations in his assemblage . A number of bones from the fo"'hmb ....

whole or nearly so, including two radll. two humen, and three ulnae The ~mo.. and tibiae do have broken shafts. but they have nor been shane",d. Long bone

fragments are not abumdant. ChInumy (1973) suggests the b",aka~ of Ib. hindlimb long bones in his sample IS a product ofbutchenngrathtt ~ of IIIM row extraction, and I believe this to be true for my sample a wdJ

,I

It should be noted that PUIs (Food Utility Index) for the sub.Mound d~r .... figured on percentage of minimum numbers of skeletal elements M. E !e-

ta] element here is a complete element, and. where applic.ble. nghts ~d lefts ~ summed. I calculated deer FUls for Chmumy' data, even though I am IlOI c0mpletely confident abou t his zone deslgnaoons The M 'f c.ucul.oons IQ.

3

tentia] problems. the resulr

.re remarkable The deer Ftl

Chmurny's data were almost .denncal to those for the

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a1cuJal'ed rh.tll

mpl. This oidl..

Each zone is stmilar regardles. of the SIze of the

1

5

cuts of mear Or portions of deer unlrzed were nlnsISl nl throughoilt NISP

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The articulation and completcne: of molllY bone probably

873 1549 c·-- --

which the meat was brought to the art'J, olIld th