Facilitating Training Groups: A Guide to Leadership and Verbal Intervention Skills

FACILITATING TRAINING GROUPS

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FACILITATING TRAINING GROUPS A Guide to Leadership and

Verbal Intervention Skills SUSAN A. WHEELAN

PRAEGER

Westport, Connecticut London

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wheelan, Susan A. Facilitating training groups : a guide to leadership and verbal intervention skills / Susan A. Wheelan. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-275-93555-8 (alk. paper) 1. Group relations training. 2. Leadership. 3. Interpersonal communication. I. Title. HM134.W47 1990 303.3'4—dc20 90-30890 Copyright © 1990 by Susan A. Wheelan All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be reproduced, by any process or technique, without the express written consent of the publisher. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 90-30890 ISBN: 0-275-93555-8 First published in 1990 Praeger Publishers, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881 An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Printed in the United States of America

The paper used in this book complies with the Permanent Paper S t a n d a r d issued by the National Information S t a n d a r d s Organization (Z39.48-1984). 10

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To Jane and Renaya whose facilitation skills continue to support my growth and development

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Contents

Introduction 1 How to Choose a Training Framework: What Model to Use When

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2 Identifying and Managing Group Processes 3 T-Groups

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4 Personal Growth Groups

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5 Skills Training Groups

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6 Types of Interventions

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7 Deciding When and How to Intervene

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8 Practicing Interventions

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Bibliography

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Index

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Introduction

Rapid expansion in the training field has led to the application of group models and techniques to a wide variety of organizational and educational settings. Methods of group work are being employed to enhance everything from managerial effectiveness, knowledge of group and organizational dynamics, leadership abilities and communication skills, to self-awareness and relationship skills. Even this list does not fully represent the applications of group work today. The plethora of human relations training models has both positive and negative effects. On the positive side, the training field is in a creative period. Research on group dynamics, initiated by the pioneering work of Kurt Lewin, has generated great interest in the use of the group context to increase personal, interpersonal, and professional effectiveness. Also, providing growth-producing opportunities for functional people suggests a hopeful attitude toward increasing the degree of personal and professional satisfaction of the population at large. Finally, the provision of management and human relations training to many of the nation's workers suggests that, at last, U.S. business is beginning to take interpersonal skills as seriously as technical competence. On the negative side, however, expansiveness has bred confusion, especially in reference to the specific aims, goals, and methods connected with such primary models as t-groups, skills training groups, and personal growth groups. Their names are often used interchangeably. In fact, trainers often mix and match techniques inappropriately. Resulting training designs may manifest this mixture and produce problems for groups and trainers in goal achievement, quality assurance, and consumer protection.

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At base, the problem seems to be one of definitions. Clear definition of models leads to the a p p r o p r i a t e choice of a model to attain a particular goal. Clear definition of model points directly to the required t r a i n e r leadership style necessary to implement the model. While training groups are extremely varied, there are essentially three p r i m a r y training models. They are: t-groups, personal growth groups, and skills training groups. Other groups, from sensitivity training and encounter to consciousness-raising and Life Spring, all contain elements of the three p r i m a r y models. The t-group is a group established to facilitate m e m b e r learning about small group dynamics. A secondary goal is for members to learn about their interpersonal styles. Both of these goals are accomplished by studying the group's ongoing behavior. The theoretical framework underlying the t-group includes field theory (Lewin 1951), group development theories (Bennis and Shepard 1956; Schutz 1958) and social psychological research (Shaw 1981; Hare 1976). While group m e m b e r s do learn about themselves in personal ways, the purpose of the model is not to change behavior. It is an experiential learning model, in this case used to facilitate m e m b e r learning about how groups operate. Consequently, it is often used in graduate training programs, training p r o g r a m s for trainers, and in organizational settings where the intent is to facilitate m a n a g e r s ' understanding of how group issues affect the workplace. Personal growth groups are groups established to assist the normal individual to achieve further growth in self-acceptance, selfdirectedness, or interpersonal effectiveness (Weir 1975). These goals are accomplished by assisting the individual in establishing an attainable goal, developing a change strategy, and implementing and evaluating that change strategy during and following the life of the group. The theoretical underpinnings of personal growth groups are more difficult to describe. In some ways, it is easier to discuss the model historically. The group movement was started by social psychologists who were, in the main, followers of Kurt Lewin. The t-group was a way to study group phenomena. Clinical psychologists soon b e c a m e interested in the application of groups to their work. Group therapy, an infant prior to this time, began to flourish. Later, t r a i n e r s saw groups as a way to facilitate growth in normal individuals. Thus, personal growth groups were born. The clinical psychologists b r o u g h t to the group field new theoretical perspectives. Perls (1969a) brought Gestalt; Bugental (1967) brought humanistic psychology. Rogers (1970) and Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles (1973) contributed as well. This expansion of perspective occurred in the late 1950s and early 1960s and coincided with a liberalizing t r e n d in all o u r i n s t i t u t i o n s .

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By virtue of the many types of personal growth groups and some abuses and human casualties that occurred, personal growth groups fell into disfavor by the mid 1970s. Recently, however, there is renewed interest in personal growth models among professionals and consumers. They are seen as having a role in both personal and professional development efforts. There are still a variety of models under the rubric of personal growth but the primary goal remains the same—individual growth. Skills training groups are groups established to teach a human relations skill or skills such as assertive communication, leadership, or management techniques. While skills training groups are offered in a variety of settings, they are primarily associated with management training in organizations. The goal of such groups is to teach specific human relations skills that will enhance individuals' human relations effectiveness in their professional or personal roles. The theoretical framework underlying the skills training model is primarily social learning and behavioral theory. Other theories are utilized as well. As with traditional education, skills training groups rely heavily on learning theories and the tenets of adult education. The purpose of this book, then, is twofold. First, it provides clear descriptions of these three primary models. Each model's goals, theoretical underpinnings, and required leadership style is discussed. A description of the normal course of events in each model is also provided. Second, it focuses on what trainers say and do, during the life of a group, to facilitate the accomplishment of the goals of that particular model. The training field has expended a great deal of energy to equip trainers with design skills. Consequently, most trainers can develop adequate plans for activities in groups. Considerably less time has been spent delineating differences among models and providing a systematic way for trainers to conceptualize and deliver verbal statements to the group. The second goal of this book, then, is to assist trainers in learning a method to decide what to say that will facilitate the accomplishment of the goals of the model in which they are working. Chapter 1 provides a broad overview of how trainers decide what model to use with a given population. This is not meant to be a comprehensive chapter. Rather, it is intended to raise some issues faced daily by internal and external trainers. Chapter 2 discusses three theories of group development often used by trainers to understand the normal group processes that occur in all groups and their potential positive or negative effects on goal achievement. An integrative theory is provided as well. With the general framework provided by the first two chapters in place, Chapters 3, 4, and 5 outline the three primary training models—

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t-group, personal growth group, and skills training group. Each chapter delineates the goals of the model, the typical events occurring in that model, the required trainer style, and the role of verbal interventions in goal achievement. Chapter 6 and 7 systematically describe the types of verbal interventions or statements used by trainers and provide a step by step way to decide when and how to intervene. Chapter 8 requires the reader to integrate all the chapters and to practice intervening in these three types of groups. It is my hope that the book will help beginning trainers build expertise and confidence and provide a refresher or a different perspective to seasoned trainers.

1 How to Choose a Training Framework: What Model to Use When

The trainer's choice of a theoretical model to apply to a given situation is based on his or her assessment of the group's needs and training goals. Through data collection and subsequent diagnosis, the trainer arrives at specific recommendations and goals that lead to a clear choice of model to meet emergent training needs. The trainer may choose to employ one or several different models in order to meet set sub-goals. For example, the trainer may have established as an overall goal the establishment of an efficient organizational structure, but the attainment of that goal may be dependent on the realization of a series of sub-goals. Sub-goals, in this case, might include awareness of group and organizational functioning, improvement of managerial skills, and an increase in communication skills. Each sub-goal requires the implementation of a different model. The first sub-goal may require a t-group orientation followed by lecture and discussion in a skills training format to enhance understanding and the ability to use what has been learned. The second sub-goal requires skills training in effective managerial behavior. The third sub-goal, communications, brings to mind the personal growth training model. In employing one or several different models to meet group goals, the trainer must be aware that mixing one model within another model, during a given segment or within a given session, is confusing to the group. The clear use of a single model at a specific time in the group's life provides for more purposeful goal-oriented training programs. In choosing a model, the trainer can be aware of certain general clues that indicate tendencies toward the choice of certain models.

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If the group indicates a need to understand groups and organizational functioning, the t-group model should come to mind. If, in order to function more competently, persons show a need to become more aware of their own strengths, blind spots, or weaknesses, a personal growth group might be utilized. If persons indicate a need for training in a specific set of skills, in order to function better on the job, a skills training group comes to mind. Personal growth training may also be employed to help people become more aware of and more sensitive to the feelings of others in ways that allow for more facile and effective communication. Most training designs employ more than one type of model in a single training program. In order for the trainer to determine the group's needs he or she employs various means of data collection. What follows in the next few pages is an outline of that process. Often, the diagnostic process begins when the trainer receives an initial phone call from a person in an organization who requests that some type of training be instituted. Usually the call comes from upper level management executives or their representatives. Often he or she requests a specific type of training, (e.g., communications, management, or assertion). The trainer cannot necessarily accept the manager's determination of the type of training desired at face value. Trainers must utilize their own expertise and knowledge of group work in deciding which model and what type of training will best serve the client's needs. At this stage of the diagnostic process, the trainer poses a set of probing questions to the company representative. Some suggested questions are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What events precipitated the phone call? What is the organization's present situation? Are the employees aware of this phone call? Who decided that training was necessary? Were potential participants involved in the decision? Who decided that this type of training was necessary and why? 7. Has a needs assessment been conducted? 8. If a previous diagnostic process was utilized, when was it implemented? What were the results?

As a result of these questions, the trainer can further familiarize himself with the situation he will enter into as a consultant. He will have some notion as to whether or not the request for training

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emanated from a single individual or an expressed group need. He can also tell something about the climate of the organization and the amount of thought that contributed to the choice of the specific type of training p r o g r a m being requested. He can learn if the decision reached by the organization fits with his quick analysis of the information he's just received. Based on the information the trainer has gathered thus far, he can now make choices. He may either accept the client's request as is and negotiate fees, boundaries, and time constraints or p u s h for further diagnosis. If the trainer decides that negotiations are now in order, he should approach this process with finesse and a degree of caution, keeping in mind that people, like groups, may bring their own issues of dependency, authority, fight, and flight to the negotiations process. The negotiation of fees and time frames can be viewed as p a r t of the overall diagnostic process. It offers the trainer some idea of the organization's commitment to the training process in terms of money, time, personnel, and resources available. It gives him a clearer idea of the types of reality constraints operating within the organization which will ultimately effect his training p r o g r a m as well. A lack of funds does not always imply a lack of commitment to training. The trainer may choose to adjust his fee schedule if monetary problems are the sole hindrance to the implementation of training and he still believes that the training could benefit the growth of the organization. It is wise for the trainer to build into the negotiations agreement the idea that both parties involved, the trainer and the client, can cancel services or renegotiate at certain points in time, especially in the event that too much resistance occurs or a c c u r a t e data flow is not possible within the boundaries set. If the trainer decides that she does not have enough information on hand to m a k e a p r o p e r decision or she is not sure the client has arrived at the best training solution, she may choose to push for further diagnosis. The trainer should be sure to explain the cost factor involved in diagnostic procedures as his client is not likely to be a w a r e of the expense involved. If the client is committed to the diagnostic procedure, the trainer may then arrange to set a meeting with key personnel within the organization. The original contact person will usually be helpful in determining who the key people are in the given situation. The meeting should be limited to a small n u m b e r of u p p e r management personnel, one or two people from different departments, or selected potential group m e m b e r s . The trainer may pose the same questions he asked the contact person in the original interview to the people at the meeting, in an attempt to uncover more information about the general health, climate, and training needs of the organization.

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At the meeting, the trainer can inquire about the most effective ways to gain information about the organization. What written materials are available? Are there any current reports, handbooks, or organizational charts? Is there a charter or an archives housing materials about the organization's development? These documents may provide valuable information concerning the organization's inner workings. If the trainer decides to interview people within the organization, the initial small meeting may be an opportune time to determine how these interviews will be set up. Who will be interviewed? How will persons be notified of the interviews and who will notify t h e m ? How will you, the trainer, be presented? How will anonymity be insured, if necessary? The interview questions may elaborate on the t r a i n e r ' s analysis of the data collected in the initial phone call and the meeting and may be filtered through his knowledge of groups processes and his particular theoretical orientation. The same questions should be posed to all involved and adequate space should be provided for persons' additional comments. The key to the interview process is the establishment of trust and rapport, in order to insure more accurate, thoughtful feedback. The trainer may decide to employ a questionnaire format that has been developed according to the information he has gathered and assessed. Questionnaire construction is a complex process. Wording, phrasing, use of language, and open-ended versus forced choice questions are considerations in designing the questionnaire format. There are numerous discussions of this process that have been offered in the literature. (See Phillips, 1987, for a more detailed analysis.) Questionnaires can be directed towards a person's role in the organization. In this way, anonymity can be insured. A self-addressed, stamped envelope to be returned to the trainer is recommended as an enclosure. Another method of data collection for diagnostic p u r p o s e s is through general or s t r u c t u r e d observation by the trainer. For example, if an organization is experiencing decision-making problems, the trainer may choose to observe one or m o r e in-house meetings, paying close attention to who addresses whom, what the key issues seem to be, and where the power source lies. Bales's (1950) observational system of task-maintenance ratios in groups might be one useful observation method to employ. No specific observational strategy can be recommended as each situation d e m a n d s the trainer's creation of his own research methods to fit the circumstances presented. Depending on what the trainer is trying to accomplish with his data collection, one or more of the aforementioned techniques can be utilized. It may be useful to call for one or more meeting with selected personnel and observe, in both group and individual settings, the way questions are answered. It may also be enough to distribute a

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questionnaire and to integrate the data from this m e d i u m to formulate process trends and postulate reaction tendencies. Trainers must rely on their own judgments in these m a t t e r s . Following the completion of whatever methods the t r a i n e r has chosen to use for data collection, he begins the process of integration in order to draw the conclusions that will eventually become the basis for his choice of model and his design strategy. Initially his conclusions are formulated as hypotheses. They are really educated guesses as to what he sees as the major areas for exploration in the organization. A good way for the trainer to feed back his findings is in a general meeting with all parties involved. These can be presented as a series of summary statements of data and recommendations. The trainer offers these recommendations, hypotheses, and s u m m a r i e s of information gleaned to the large group and asks for feedback. He may ask the group m e m b e r s to break u p into smaller groups and to come up with their own recommendations based on the information currently being discussed. The trainer can then take the recommendations of the groups and the recommendations he has offered, compare the two, and begin to arrive at an agreement regarding the way the training will proceed. He should be cognizant of the idea that all recommendations offered fit with existing data and meet the current needs of the organization. Some examples of the diagnostic and recommendation procedure will follow to help offer a clearer picture of the way this process occurs. Example One You have been asked to come in to do a consultation for a large number of teachers in a certain educational system. You are presented with a group of teachers whose morale and motivation levels are so low that they are negatively affecting students much in the same manner. Discipline problems abound in the schools and a depressive atmosphere dominates the learning climate. You observe the occurrence of these phenomena by visits to the site and selected interviews with key personnel. Following the data collection process, you formulate recommendations that include a stress reduction workshop, a personal growth group for teachers and skills training in assertive discipline. The stress reduction workshop is intended to offer training in relaxation skills, outline the causes of teacher burnout, and discuss the skills necessary in diagnosing and treating a person's own stressors. You would include a personal growth segment for the teachers to help give them a better idea of ways in which personal and professional stressors work interchangeably and are causally linked. You would

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offer skills training in assertive discipline with the idea that, if teachers are burned out, you are giving them skills to practice which may reduce stress through reducing classroom management problems. Also, you're working on the assumption that people will be more highly motivated if they can continue to grow in knowledge and competencies related to their work. You present your recommendations to the school system in a general, open meeting and ask for feedback. It is the consensus of the organization that the most affordable, plausible solution to their perceived problem is a w o r k s h o p in stress reduction skills. Your knowledge of group processes and climates necessary for the learning and acquisition of skills tells you that one workshop in this subject area is not enough to implement a change strategy in the organization. As an ethical consultant you have a choice: you may meet the organization's request and conduct a workshop in stress reduction or you may choose not to conduct a single workshop because you know the implementation of the entire package would produce m o r e fruitful results. Either choice can be a constructive one depending on the circumstances you have encountered. Example Two You receive a telephone call from an organization requesting a workshop on team building. You pose a series of questions to the contact person and the following information is gleaned. Each year the organization spends one day working on in-house problems; this year they decided on team building. The decision to m a k e team building this year's topic was arrived at by a limited n u m b e r of people. No needs assessment was done; no diagnosis was performed. Various departments were having problems communicating with each other. People in one d e p a r t m e n t were making decisions that were not acceptable to people in another department. Communication lines were snagged and decision-making procedures were unclear. The trainer pushed for diagnosis and it was agreed upon by the organization that, due to limited funds, a two-day diagnosis would be performed. A one-day workshop was also desired on the part of the organization. More than one day of training was recommended by the trainer, but since potential follow-up time would be made available, she agreed to conduct the one-day session. The organization was a relatively small one and roughly fifty people would be involved in a two-day diagnosis, a one-day training session, and a two-day follow up. Two trainers traveled to the site and held group interviews with each d e p a r t m e n t where d e p a r t m e n t m e m b e r s were expected to be present. Some ancillary personnel were spoken to as well. Questions

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were posed as to how the departments get along; what the communications problems were; what their ideas were as to why these problems existed in the organization; and what should be done about meeting the needs in their own departments and within the organization as a whole. Each interview lasted about one hour and the trainer attempted to extract each member's insights during the process. The last interview hour was purposefully devoted to the organization's president in order to compare the other data to whatever he said. As a result of the diagnosis, the following information was learned. 1. The department that initially requested the training was perceived as being too liberal in their attitudes by the other department in the organization. The "liberal" department perceived the others in the organization as people in need of education to see that the liberal way was best. 2. The organization gained most of its clientele because of its conservative image in the field. This image was threatened by any trends towards liberalization within the organization. 3. The organizational structure had, until two years ago, reflected this conservatism. All communications had flowed from the president to one department and then to another department or from a department, through the president, to another department. The president had been the primary decision maker. Two years ago a new president was hired. He was an individual who felt democratization was in order and that more creativity would ensue if people worked out their own decisions. 4. Essentially, the company had moved from a system of autocratic decision making to one of participatory decision making without knowing how to function in the new system. Very little leadership was offered in guiding the organization's staff in ways to work effectively within the new system. As a result of the analysis of diagnostic data collected, the overall goal of team building was maintained and the following six sub-goals were established: Sub-goal one—Participants require more knowledge about the workings of each other's departments and need to acquire more knowledge of each other as people. Sub-goal two—A framework is needed to help group members understand changes in leadership style and how these changes may have affected them.

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Facilitating Training Groups Sub-goal three—Members need information about the types of communication linkages and decision-making processes that will be effective in the new type of organization in which they find themselves. Sub-goal four—A s t r u c t u r e and format for communication and decision making m u s t be set that is consistent with the new organizational s t r u c t u r e . Sub-goal five—The trainers will model a process for large group decision making that could be used by the group in an ongoing way to strengthen communication linkages. Sub-goal six—The president requires assistance in operationalizing his philosophical commitment to democratic leadership.

The trainers then decided to feed the diagnostic information back to the entire group during the one day workshop, which the president also attended, and then to recommend that the participants spend that day building linkages among departments. Small groups were formed with one member of each department participating in each group. The task of the small groups was to share information on the strengths and weaknesses of each department (sub-goal one). A lecture was delivered by one of the trainers on organizational behavior, utilizing group theory as a guide to understanding the fight-flight, dependency, and pairing stages that occur in groups. The idea was stressed that the previous administration had fostered dependency and the organization's present situation demanded cooperation and trust (sub-goals two and three). The remainder of the workshop day was spent deciding on a new communications structure on which all parties involved could agree to act (sub-goals four and five). By the end of the day the participants agreed to form a steering committee made up of various representatives from each department. The committee would help deal with any problem areas that were forthcoming (sub-goal four). The remaining twenty h o u r s of follow-up time were spent helping the committee commence operations and meeting with the president in role-counseling sessions. These techniques were utilized in an effort to facilitate peoples' reactions to the change in leadership style within the organization, to help them live with the loss of conservatism and aid the president in performing his role (sub-goal six). What was instituted by the training team was essentially skills training methods in the teaching of ways to communicate and group dynamics information in the form of lecture, offering participants a framework to use in future meetings and providing ways to ensure linkages among the various d e p a r t m e n t s that had not been provided by the organization's president.

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Example Three You receive a phone call from a representative of a small metropolitan hospital requesting a consultation. You're told that two units in the hospital, the psychiatric unit and the detoxification unit, are having some organizational problems. Though both the units have psychiatrists on staff, the remainder of the working staff has little or no psychological training. The contact person suggests you come in, do a diagnosis, possibly assist in hiring a few new staff members and work with existing staff within the confines of budgetary constraints. You begin by setting up a meeting with the director and administrative chief of each unit. As a result of this meeting, you determine the following information: 1. The majority of staff members, other than psychiatrists, saw their role in the unit as that of caretaker and guard. Low morale existed and most workers were unhappy with the leadership style of the head nurse. 2. Employees had been promised training by the organization that was not forthcoming. Consequently, they were suspicious of any trainer on the premises. 3. There was no program of treatment or activities for patients. Chemotherapy was the only form of therapy being offered. 4. A great deal of infighting was taking place among staff members. This attitude was affecting the patient population. Patients grew more hostile as the staff's continued hostility spread. Following the initial meeting, the trainer conducted a series of interviews and disseminated a battery of questionnaires to all three shifts of workers. Their answers corroborated the trends revealed in the initial meeting. This information was fed back to the workers at a series of meetings held for all three shifts. At the meetings, the workers' solutions were solicited and this information was integrated and fed back to them as well. As a result of this second series of meetings, a training p r o g r a m was established. The first action step taken by the trainer was to enlist organizational commitment and support for the creation of a new position in the existing career ladder for ancillary personnel. The position would evolve as an incentive for employees who completed the training. Thus, participation in the training p r o g r a m might elicit both educational and monetary rewards for the workers and heighten their desire to participate. The actual training program instituted consisted

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of a series of lectures, group sessions, and demonstrations in the following areas: 1. Training in the understanding of group dynamics was offered by employing a t-group model, in an effort to help people u n d e r s t a n d the workings of organizations and the ways in which group (patient and staff) climates are interconnected. 2. Training was offered in setting u p activities and therapeutic techniques in patient counseling. 3. Training in group counseling techniques and the use of a group model for facilitation purposes was given. 4. Training in setting u p activities for groups and ways to conduct activities was provided. 5. Lecture and demonstration on the topic of one-to-one counseling were provided. 6. Crisis intervention techniques in psychiatric emergencies were discussed and demonstrated. 7. The use of community resources in post-hospital care was also discussed. Along with these, primarily, skills training methods, some personal growth training in sensitivity and awareness of others was offered to the workers. Leadership training and counseling was also given to the staff administrators. The w o r k e r s were supervised, observed, and evaluated throughout the learning process by the trainer and the other staff m e m b e r s . Several follow-up sessions were also initiated to ensure the p r o g r a m ' s continued effectiveness.

SUMMARY The examples in this c h a p t e r may provide a guide for the t r a i n e r in his choice of a framework for implementation in an organization. Various models are employed to meet various training goals and different diagnostic procedures serve different purposes. It is helpful to remember, though, that as a trainer the p r o g r a m you provide will not necessarily imprint itself on the organization to the degree that drastic changes will occur in organizational directions. The t r a i n e r can expect that his work will have some impact and ripple through the organization effectively. Certain aspects of every organization are so heaped in tradition and fixed in stone that they may never be pushed off course.

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Training may not be enough. Broad-based organizational intervention may be necessary in some cases. While discussion of these m o r e elaborate organizational change efforts is beyond the scope of this work, many good references on organizational change strategies are available (Weisbord, 1983; French and Bell, 1973).

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2 Identifying and Managing Group Processes

In every meeting of two or more people, two levels of interaction occur. One is the overt—the play that is apparently being played. The other is the covert—like a ballet going on in back of the performance on the interpersonal stage—a subtle struggle for attention and status, for control and influence, and for liking and warmth. This ballet influences the performance by pushing the overt players into unusual postures and making them say or do unusual things. . . . The importance of these covert factors can hardly be overestimated. The productivity of any particular group is profoundly influenced by them. (Schutz, 1966). A group is more than the sum of its parts. Groups mobilize powerful forces affecting individuals. A group is not simply a collection of individuals working in concert. Rather, a group evolves into a systematic entity housing its own character. Events that occur in groups are not the result of one person's efforts or will. Events have multiple causes, based on a field of simultaneously acting forces. Members are mutually dependent and their behavior, decisions, and feelings are in large p a r t the result of these simultaneously acting group forces r a t h e r than individual forces. Horatio Alger notwithstanding, the behavior of individuals in groups is regulated as m u c h by the group's n o r m s , needs, and fears as by individuals' internal motivators. At some level, we u n d e r s t a n d the quality of wholeness a group embodies. We refer to groups as if they were single entities, speaking with one voice. The football team is competitive; the choir is off-key; the class is studious; the management team is aloof. Groups are

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perceived as taking on a unitary characteristic where individuals learn to blend in with the chorus and almost unwittingly sing along. Webster's dictionary defines a group as a " n u m b e r of persons near, placed or classified together." It defines a system as "an assemblage arranged after some distinct method, usually logical or scientific . . . a whole scheme of created things regarded as forming one complete whole." When viewing a group of h u m a n beings assembled with a tacitly agreed upon goal, the systems definition is applicable. Individuals a r r a n g e themselves methodically though not necessarily consciously, in relation to the group goal, their personal goals and both individual and group needs. They organize themselves in systematic ways to accomplish these ends. The results of these group efforts to organize have alternately been referred to as the development of a social s t r u c t u r e (Nixon, 1979), a group a t m o s p h e r e (Lewin, 1948) or a group mind (Luft, 1984). "Groups have a character of their own, distinct from the personalities or qualities of their individual m e m b e r s . And . . . this 'group character' can have a significant impact on how individual m e m b e r s feel, think, and act, both individually and collectively" (Nixon, 1979: 4-5). Every group produces a p h a n t o m spirit, an intangible force, a personality that is larger than the individuals themselves and different from their own single ideas. Channeling this force and guiding it toward productive aims are p a r t of the pivotal role of the t r a i n e r or group facilitator. Most trainers are skilled on the overt level of working with groups. They know the content they wish to impart to participants. They know teaching techniques (role play, activities, discussion, lecture) that will best convey a particular message. Most also know how to plan a stepby-step design meant to maximize m e m b e r learning. Many trainers, though, are u n a w a r e of, or minimize, the importance of the covert levels of group activities. Consequently their plans often do not produce the hoped-for learning. Their plans are t h w a r t e d not because they were poorly designed b u t because the covert level of group life interfered with implementation. It is important for trainers to become a w a r e of covert group processes and learn to manage both covert and overt levels of group activity. In order to view the covert level of group activity, trainers need a set of concepts that will enable them to organize their group observations in ways that clarify what is occurring at the group level. At any given moment in a group, myriad events are happening. Trainers need a way to filter out extraneous data and to focus on data that will offer guidance about how to proceed with the group. This chapter will outline three of the many theories of group development that provide concepts for viewing whole group phenomena.

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Examples of these concepts will be provided as well as suggestions concerning their management. Finally, an integrated theory of group development is offered as well. THE THEORY OF WILLIAM SCHUTZ William Schutz (1966) developed a theory of group development based on emotional needs. He begins by stating that individuals have three sets of inherent interpersonal needs: inclusion, control, and affection. Groups in this respect, are similar to human beings. These needs are always present in groups and their influence on group functioning varies in different stages of group development. In the beginning of a group, inclusion needs are primary. Individuals are concerned about their desire to become or not to become members of a particular group. They are also concerned about whether or not others will perceive them as worthy of membership or will exclude them from the group. Individuals jockey for membership and attention in the group. The control phase is characterized by leadership struggles, power distribution, and the evolution of decision-making procedures. The affection phase is concerned with building emotional bonds between people. Affection is usually between two people; inclusion and control, though, may occur both between two people and between one person and a group. Affection is the last phase to develop in the process. Schutz contends that every group, no matter what its function or composition, given the time, goes through inclusion—with initiation rites to gain membership and belonging, control for leadership—with task structuring, and then affection—where interdependence issues abound. All of the phases are continuously present, although one may predominate at different times, depending on the nature of the group. THE THEORY OF WILFRED BION Bion (1959) stated that groups operate on two main levels. On the work, or manifest, level the group is focused on the completion of the task at hand. On the unconscious, or basic assumption, level the group members act as if they had made certain tacit assumptions about the purpose of the group that differ from its conscious purpose. Bion called these assumptions dependency, flight, fight, and pairing. Dependency is characterized by an attitude of helplessness and an abdication of responsibility. The group waits for the leader to decide, take action, or care for the group. Members act as if they were helpless and incompetent.

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Fight is manifested by conflicts among m e m b e r s or between m e m b e r s and the leader. Often, the reasons for such disputes seem trivial or irrelevant to the task. Flight occurs when m e m b e r s seem willing to discuss anything except the task. Pairing occurs when two m e m b e r s of the group work on their relationship while the other m e m b e r s watch. It is as if this pair will work out their problems and, in so doing, will work out the group's problem. The pair will create a group solution. At any given moment, the group is either working on their task or being dependent; fighting, in flight, or pairing. These emotional states help the group to avoid dealing with the difficulties presented by their work task. Some avoidance is, in fact, necessary and helps the group work more effectively. Like individuals, groups get emotional on occasion and need to give expression to that. However, groups often get stuck in emotional states to the detriment of the task. It seems more important to fight than to work together, for example. In such case, intervention becomes necessary to restore balance to the group.

THE THEORY OF BENNIS AND SHEPARD Bennis and Shepard (1956) saw the central issues of group life as dependence and interdependence with power, love, authority, and intimacy as p r i m a r y concerns. They believed that these events move the group from one phase to the next. Group development, then, occurs in the following order: Dependency/Flight In the beginning of a group, m e m b e r s are very dependent on the leader. They seem incapable of independent action and have difficulty staying focused on the task. They tend to feel that their designated leader is perfect and will take care of them. Counterdependence/Fight After a while, some m e m b e r s begin to resist the leader. They seem angry that the leader is not perfect and seek to depose him or her. Other, more dependent, members attack these counterdependents and continue to support the leader. Resolution/Catharsis This conflict between dependency and counterdependency is, in some cases, resolved. The group becomes more realistic about the leader and its members. Input is evaluated on the basis of utility, not the status of the contributor.

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17

Enchantment/Flight Initially, m e m b e r s express how similar they are to each other and how like-minded the group is. Members seem to fear the expression of differences because these may cause conflict. Disenchantment/Fight Eventually differences do surface and conflict does erupt. The group members feud over different values, behaviors, backgrounds, and/or customs. Resolution/Catharsis Sometimes groups are able to allow, and even value, differences and similarities among members. Unique contributions enhance the quality of the work and accomplishment of the g r o u p . AN INTEGRATIVE THEORY Three theories of group development have been outlined in the preceding section. There are many others (e.g., Braaten, 1974/1975; Caple, 1978; Tuckman, 1965). While there are differences in terminology, there is a considerable amount of overlap among them. A synthesis of the various theories suggests the following view of group development. Stage One: Dependency/Inclusion The first stage of group development is characterized by a significant amount of dependency on the designated leader. When individuals enter a group situation, tension and anxiety frequently occur since the situation is new and, consequently, never clearly defined. Will the group be safe? Will the individual be accepted as a m e m b e r ? What will the rules of conduct and procedures be? Is the leader competent and capable of protecting individual members from attack and harm? Such questions are consciously or unconsciously on the minds of members. Since members have not yet interacted sufficiently with each other to establish relationships, they cannot rely on each other for support or structure. Consequently, the members are very leader focused. The implicit assumption is that the leader is capable and benevolent. He or she will provide protection and s t r u c t u r e which will result in a reduction in anxiety. The leader is deified in a sense since his or her actual competence is not known but is taken "on faith" by m e m b e r s . Thus, groups during this early stage are solicitous in relation to the leader and are eager to please this authority figure.

18

Facilitating Training Groups

At the same time, m e m b e r s are testing the waters with regard to initial a t t e m p t s to get to know one another and to determine w h a t the rules, roles, and s t r u c t u r e s of this group will be. This initial exploration is very tentative and polite since there is m u c h fear of being perceived as deviant by other m e m b e r s . Fears of being excluded or attacked are high at this point. Few, if any, challenges of the authority figure or each other occur. Reliance on the leader for direction and support are very much in evidence. Independent action, at this stage of group life, occurs rarely, if at all. H u m a n fears of a b a n d o n m e n t or punishment run deep. No one voluntarily chooses to alienate others during this stage since most of us have had experiences that lead us to assume that the price for deviance will be exorbitant. Members have not yet developed the relational connections that give rise to civilized, accepting behavior. It is m u c h easier to aggress against an unknown person than it is to behave in such a m a n n e r with persons with whom we a r e involved. Even if m e m b e r s have known each other in different contexts, this situation is different and not yet defined. Also, since m e m b e r s tend to be anxious and fearful, they, with some justification, a s s u m e that others may attempt to secure their own safety at the expense of others. Thus, politeness, tentativeness, and defensiveness are prevalent in this initial stage with regard to other m e m b e r s . With regard to the authority figure, m e m b e r s tend to be solicitous and to perceive this individual as all-knowing and all-loving. This hope, not necessarily reality, tends to reduce anxiety and panic to some extent. Stage Two: Counterdependency/Fight This next stage is characterized by conflict among m e m b e r s and between m e m b e r s and leaders. It also includes flight from task and continued attempts at tension avoidance. Conflict has been described as essential to the development of cohesion (Coser, 1956; Deutsch, 1971; Northen, 1969). It has also been described as a way to delineate areas of common values (Theodorson, 1963). Lewin (1936), wrote that the tension that conflict produces provides the opportunity to clarify psychological boundaries. This has the potential to create additional stability in the group through the establishment of shared values. Rendle (1983) stated that "group conflict is a group means or strategy of balancing or equilibrating the differences found between the extremes of polar differences. It is in the balancing of polar extremes that conflict may be understood and described as an 'energy source' which is available to drive the system of the small g r o u p " (p. 3). Essentially, the group's task at this stage is to begin to struggle with how it will operate and what roles members will play. The anxiety

Identifying and Managing Group Processes

19

and fear of the previous stage has produced an undifferentiated mass of participants dependent on outside authority for direction. As with individual h u m a n development, however, this r a t h e r merged and regressed stage becomes frustrating and confining. Consequently, individual m e m b e r s seek to define their roles m o r e clearly and the group seeks to liberate itself from the perceived control of the authority figure. In order to achieve m o r e independence, individual m e m b e r s begin to articulate their goals and ideas about group s t r u c t u r e . Coalitions begin to form that have similar ideas. Splits occur as a result and conflict inevitably ensues. Simultaneously, the leader is alternately attacked by some coalitions and defended by others for perceived transgressions or positive actions. All this struggling is, in large measure, an a t t e m p t on the p a r t of the group to define itself and to begin tentatively to outline the structure of the group and the roles that various m e m b e r s will play. The motivation behind this is to reduce anxiety by clarifying the goals and s t r u c t u r e of the group. Conflict is a necessary p a r t of this process since from divergent points of view, one relatively unified direction must be achieved if the group is to be able to work collectively. On a more psychological level, conflict is necessary for the establishment of a safe environment. While this may, at first glance, seem paradoxical, conflict is helpful to the development of trust. We know, from our own experience, that it is easier to develop trust in another person or in a group if we believe that we can disagree and we won't be abandoned or h u r t for o u r differences. It is difficult to trust those who deny us the right to be ourselves. Thus, marriages become more solid and real after the first fight. The same is true of all human relationships. To engage in conflict with others and to work it out is an exhilarating experience. It provides energy, a commonly shared experience, a sense of safety and authenticity, and allows for deeper intimacy and collaboration. We also know from experience that conflict can lead to the destruction of relationships. Many groups get stuck in this stage and cannot progress. Longstanding wars, feuds, divorces, and the b r e a k u p of business p a r t n e r s h i p s are examples of the potential negative outcomes of conflict. Thus, while this stage cannot be avoided since it is the only route to m a t u r e collaboration, most of us would r a t h e r avoid the conflict stage in group development. As with individual development, however, groups that avoid this stage remain dependent, insecure, and incapable of true collaboration and productive work.

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Facilitating Training Groups Stage Three: Trust/Structure

Assuming that the conflict stage is successfully navigated, members of the group will feel more secure with and trusting of each other and the leader. Now the group can begin a more m a t u r e negotiation process regarding group goals, organizational structure, procedures, roles, and division of labor. Norms, or rules of conduct can be decided upon. Communication, at this point, is m o r e open and task oriented. Power struggles, while always with us, lessen in intensity. Feedback is possible and tends to be m o r e related to the task at h a n d r a t h e r than hidden agendas and emotionality. Information is shared r a t h e r than used as a way to gain status or power. In a sense, the group, at this stage, is designing itself. It is laying the groundwork and planning the way in which it will function to accomplish its task. In so doing, the group is preparing for work. Of course, at the same time, relationships are becoming m o r e defined and role assignments can be made on the basis of competence and talent r a t h e r than fantasy or wishes for safety or power. Stage Four: Work Once goals, structure, and n o r m s are established, the group can work. In all cases, work begins as an idea in the mind and ends with a product that has real effects on some part of the environment. Thus, committees that meet again and again b u t never produce a report or a p r o d u c t are not working. Such groups are most likely stuck in one of the earlier stages of development. In order to work, people m u s t be able to communicate freely about ideas and information. If individual g r o u p m e m b e r s fear reprisals for offering suggestions or feedback, necessary information will be withheld from the group. Its product, should there be one, will be inferior as a result. Another factor required for work to occur is an awareness of time. Work occurs in a time-bound frame. Thus, groups that are always working are probably not and those that start late are not working effectively. This does not mean that groups will spend the majority of their time working. H u m a n beings and h u m a n groups need time to deal with emotional and relational issues throughout their lives. Efficiently functioning groups spend about 60 percent of the time allotted actually working. The remainder is used for g r o u p maintenance, dealing with interpersonal issues that arise, and the like. Workaholic groups, like workaholic individuals, are unlikely to produce their best products. For work to occur, groups m u s t also be able to use all available resources. Resources include such things as information, individual

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expertise, and materials, should these be necessary to the task. Most of us have been m e m b e r s of groups that refuse to listen to certain information because the individual who offers the information is somehow devalued by the group. Such groups have not adequately resolved the issues of previous stages (such as t r u s t and roles) and, as a result, are unable to utilize input necessary to their work. Stage Five: Ending/Task Completion Most temporary groups have an ending point. Of course, some groups continue beyond the tenure or, in some cases, the life of individual m e m b e r s . Family groups and institutional groups are examples of continuous groups. Even in continuous groups, however, there are various endings. Tasks are completed. Children leave home. Members retire or leave. At each ending point, m a t u r e groups tend to evaluate their work together, to give feedback and to express feelings about each other and the group. Of course, many less m a t u r e groups do not do these things. This is unfortunate since this type of processing is invaluable to individual m e m b e r s and can significantly enhance their ability to work effectively in future groups. Each ending point alters the s t r u c t u r e of a group and regression to earlier stages is inevitable. Some time is required to readjust roles, relationships, and s t r u c t u r e to meet the new task or to incorporate new members, for example. The preceding formulation of group development assumes that these stages occur in all groups. There has been considerable argument about whether sequenced stages is the best way to describe group processes. Bion (1959), for example, does not a s s u m e an order to his basic assumptions. Thus, dependency could follow work or precede it and any basic assumption could occur at any time. Schutz (1966) and Bennis and Shepard (1956) posit an invariate order. This author agrees, in part, with both views. Experience, logic, and some research suggest that some processes or stages occur before others in group development. Thus, dependency is less likely to occur after trust and structure, for example. Also, o u r knowledge of individual development supports the notion that certain psychological phenomena must, of necessity, occur prior to others. It is difficult, for example, to envision a rebellious, anti-adult newborn. On the other hand, regression occurs in individuals with great regularity. Thus, under conditions of severe stress, the most m a t u r e adult may become helpless and dependent for a period of time. Changes in the environment, disturbing new information, structural changes, new sets of demands, and the like affect an individual's ability to operate in a m a t u r e manner. So, too, groups may fluctuate

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widely, based on the circumstances acting on the system at a given moment. Changes in the m e m b e r s h i p , external demands, changes in the psychological state of a member, or changes in leadership can all affect the s t r u c t u r e and the work of a group. In work groups, for example, turnover rates, reassignments, and new m a n a g e r s or group leaders often produce regression and require a rebuilding of the group. Unfortunately, this fact is frequently ignored or unknown by m e m b e r s or leaders, wreaking havoc with productivity. Groups, like people, can get stuck in a particular stage often with s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s . F r e q u e n t l y , g r o u p s r e m a i n in t h e counterdependency/fight stage for extended periods. Such a group spends an inordinate a m o u n t of time fighting with the leadership or with each other to the detriment of the task. Other groups may get stuck in the trust aspect of stage three. Such groups expend considerable energy dealing with the emotional aspects of group life but fail to establish structural agreements that would allow them to work on the task. These groups are reminiscent of love-ins, in that they are concerned with developing relationships and good feelings. Usually, basic fears regarding performance and differentiation underlie the group's refusal to organize to do work. Finally, some groups remain dependent for extended periods of time. Thus, if the leader is not present, the group cannot work. These groups are, in general, avoiding the conflict that accompanies further development. One serious consequence of this is that such groups are incapable of collaborative, thoughtful work. They do what they are told and no more. Questioning, challenging, or constructive feedback cannot occur. Such groups are ripe for being led into negative actions. Some cults, work groups, classes, and families arrested at this stage have done quite destructive things. Jonestown is an extreme example of a group's dependence and the terrifying consequences that ensued. IDENTIFYING GROUP PROCESSES The preceding section outlined the processes that these theorists say occur on the covert level of group activity. These processes have a strong impact on overt activities and can enhance or inhibit group task accomplishment. Trainers, then, m u s t learn to identify these processes and to work with them to enhance the task. Since these processes are normal and healthy, it would not be possible, or desirable, to prevent their occurrence. However, their potential negative effects can be minimized by p r u d e n t trainer interventions.

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In this section, some signs of each process will be outlined along with ideas about how to manage them. Later chapters will provide more practice in using these concepts. Schutz Inclusion The group is concerned with inclusion when: •

the group is new

•

m e m b e r s are overly polite

•

members seem afraid to speak up

•

m e m b e r s ask how people became m e m b e r s

•

members want each person to speak (this is one of several possible initiation rites) a member expresses discomfort with the group a m e m b e r expresses feelings of isolation

• •

Control The group is concerned with control when: • • • • • •

members begin to initiate suggestions but are not heard m e m b e r s make suggestions that are rejected by others people get angry at other m e m b e r s ' displays of initiative people argue about what the rules of the group will be members question the trainer's authority m e m b e r s question or attack the trainer's plans or activities

Affection The group is concerned with affection when: •

dyads begin to form and share feelings

•

members seek the trainer's affection

•

members become jealous of others' attachments

•

discussions about the appropriate amount of intimacy within the group occur

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Facilitating Training Groups Bion Work The group is working when: • it is dealing with the task in constructive ways • task discussion is relatively free of hidden agendas • the group is using all available resources (people, materials) in constructive ways • the group has a sense of time constraints and is operating within them • the group has a plan to accomplish its ends • the group allows m e m b e r s to a s s u m e various roles in o r d e r to accomplish the task

Dependency The group is dependent when: • m e m b e r s continuously ask the leader to tell them what to do • m e m b e r s sit silently waiting for the leader to speak • m e m b e r s express confusion about the task after sufficient explanation has been provided • m e m b e r s express feelings of helplessness or incompetence in relation to the task • m e m b e r s express feelings of omnipotence about the leader • m e m b e r s attempt to manipulate the leader into doing their work Fight The group is avoiding work by fighting when: • m e m b e r s attack each other for offering suggestions • participants argue about form not content • arguments seem more personal than work motivated • arguments seem motivated by a wish to control Flight The group is avoiding work by flight when:

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• discussions focus on topics that are irrelevant to the task at hand • discussions focus on past or future events but not present ones Pairing Pairing is occurring in the group when: • two m e m b e r s are engrossed in intimate discussion while other m e m b e r s watch with interest • the group encourages two m e m b e r s to work out their problems Bennis and Shepard Dependency/Fligh

t

This phase encompasses Bion's concepts of dependency and flight. See descriptions of these concepts for examples of this phase. Counterdependency/Fight This phase includes Bion's concept of fight with the following additions: • the fighting between m e m b e r s is often focused on alignment as opposed to nonalignment with the trainer • many arguments or attacks are motivated by a wish for power Resolution/Catharsis Members have begun to deal with power and authority in useful ways when: • contributions are valued for their content not who offered them • the leader is treated as a learned equal Enchantment/Flight This phase is operative when: • m e m b e r s focus on similarities only • m e m b e r s seem u n a w a r e of differences

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• m e m b e r s want to keep the peace at all cost • even obvious differences (race, sex) are not noticed or discussed Disenchantment/Fight This phase is occurring when: • people become uncomfortable with the enforced conformity • m e m b e r s begin to express their individuality • a r g u m e n t s occur dealing with m e m b e r differences • m e m b e r s take sides in relation to a difference Resolution/Catharsis Members have begun to deal with interdependence in useful ways when: •

conformity is not encouraged

•

differences are tolerated

•

individuals feel free to contribute

•

group tone is supportive of everyone

An Integrative Theory Dependency/Inclusion This stage is the same as Bion's concept of dependency and Schutz's inclusion phase. Counterdependency/Fight This is similar to Bennis and Shepard's description of the same terms. Trust/Structure This stage is operative when: •

m e m b e r s d e m o n s t r a t e t r u s t in each other and the leader

• • • •

feedback and communication flow freely communication is relatively free of hidden agendas m e m b e r s are discussing group goals and values m e m b e r s are establishing n o r m s and roles

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• m e m b e r s are working to determine the s t r u c t u r e the group will require in order to do its work. Work This stage is the same as Bion's work stage. Ending/Task

Completion

This stage is operative when: • m e m b e r s are reviewing their experiences together • m e m b e r s are assessing goal achievement • m e m b e r s are giving each other personal and role-related feedback about their contributions to the group • m e m b e r s are saying goodbye

MANAGING GROUP PROCESSES Naturally occurring group processes can facilitate or obstruct participant learning. In most models, with the exception of t-groups, it is the trainer's job to steer the group through these processes to a positive end. Interventions and design skills provide the steering wheel. Trainers must be able to identify processes as they emerge. This chapter was meant to aid you with the identification process. The next three chapters will look at the role of design and the intervention process in the management of group development. The book is designed to organize your learning in such a way that by the end, trainers will be able to facilitate group learning by: 1. Accurately identifying group processes as they occur; 2. designing training groups consistent with their specific goals; and 3. intervening in ways that facilitate group goal achievement.

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3 T-Groups

A t-group is one that has been established to facilitate learning about small group dynamics and interpersonal styles through studying the group's own behavior. The p r i m a r y assumption of this model is that the best way to learn about group development is to experience that process in a participatory way. The group is designed to highlight group processes that occur in any group as it develops from a collection of individuals to a working unit. Issues of dependency, cohesion, power, leadership, goal formation, conflict, and intimacy are but a few of the dynamics studied by group m e m b e r s . The t-group trainer creates a leadership vacuum from the outset of the group. He or she does not assume the traditional, directive leadership role. Instead, she states the purpose of the group—to study its own behavior—and then remains silent. The perceived ambiguity of the stated purpose instantly creates anxiety in m e m b e r s and leads them to seek further clarification from the trainer. He resists their efforts to entice him to lead, however, since directive leadership would reduce m e m b e r opportunities to study their reactions to authority figures and mask the leadership struggles that invariably ensue. This climate of ambiguity and moderate anxiety are necessary to the task. Some level of anxiety is helpful and may allow m e m b e r s to become more alert to the processes occurring in the group. T-groups, as defined above, trace their roots to the work of Kurt Lewin (1951). Deutsch (1968) said of Lewin: His article "Conduct, knowledge, and acceptance of New Values" (reprinted in Lewin, 1948), and his articles on "Frontiers in Group Dynamics" (reprinted in Lewin, 1951) combined with the research on

30

Facilitating Training Groups group leadership and group decisions, represent the intellectual base for the development of the conception of laboratory training groups, (p. 476)

Lewin's concept of action or field research is epitomized in the tgroup in which participants study group phenomena as participant observers. They are not lectured to about these phenomena, nor do they observe from a safe distance. Rather, members immerse themselves in the phenomena in order to understand their significance from both an intellectual and emotional perspective. Bennis and Shepard's (1956) theory of group development is probably most widely utilized by t-group trainers. It outlines stages of group development that focus on issues related to authority and interconnectedness. This theory, in conjunction with Schutz's theory (1966) and research findings in group dynamics, provides the framework for trainer interventions in the t-group. (See Chapter 2 for a discussion of these theories.) The definition provided here and the description offered are not necessarily adhered to by all trainers. As was previously mentioned, there is great confusion about terminology in the small group field. Biberman (1977) found that many trainers who stated that they used the t-group model were, in fact, describing personal growth groups as we would define them. In practice, fallacious assumptions about t-groups continue to occur. For example, Campbell and Dunnette (1968) stated, in a review of research on t-groups, that their findings neither confirmed nor denied the effectiveness of t-groups for the enhancement of managerial effectiveness (an idea taunted by some trainers in the sixties). But, t-groups are not designed directly to enhance managerial effectiveness; they are designed to increase awareness of small group behavior. The effectiveness of a t-group would be measured more accurately by determining how much participants learned about group dynamics and group development. T-groups, as defined here, are most commonly offered in university settings where education and understanding are the primary goals of the program as well as the group. Other types of groups (yet called t-groups) are most often found in private centers and industrial training experiences (Biberman, 1977). These groups have personal growth as a primary goal and understanding groups as a secondary goal, if the latter is emphasized at all. Perhaps because the author operates primarily in an academic setting, she advocates reserving the name t-group for groups the primary goal of which is learning about small group dynamics and development. This makes research possible since groups with comparable

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goals can be identified. Also, it makes the training of trainers a simpler task by separating process-centered groups from individualcentered groups (Parloff, 1970). It avoids the confusion of mixing trainer styles and decision-making frameworks within the same group. Finally, it provides m e m b e r s with a clearer sense of the goals of particular group types. THE LEARNING PROCESSES IN A T-GROUP A group is a living entity. It grows and changes and group processes are the data for learning in a t-group. People often enter a t-group with set notions about the invariability of their behaviors and personalities but, as the group develops, they may find themselves behaving in ways that are not typical. Members begin to be a w a r e of the power group n o r m s exert over their behavior. They also begin to see that groups, like the h u m a n body, require certain things in order to function. An individual body is an integrated system of parts in which each part is necessary to the functioning of the whole. So, each member is important to group functioning. Members quite unconsciously assume roles in the group that are necessary for group functioning according to that group's particular normative structure. Through trainer interventions and members' burgeoning observation skills, participants become consciously aware of these processes and their impact on individual behavior and group functioning. It is through this process of experiencing, feeling, and observing group functioning that learning takes place. The process is, at times, frustrating, anxiety-ridden, and confusing. But, in time, most participants develop an understanding of and an appreciation for the dynamics of groups. A TYPICAL T-GROUP Because of the emergent n a t u r e of a t-group, it is not possible to provide a sample session-by-session outline. However, the issues that typically emerge will be presented here briefly. It m u s t be kept in mind, however, that each t-group is unique and, while the issues are generally the same, the order in which they emerge and the intensity with which the group deals with them may vary widely. Beginnings As we have seen, the way a t-group begins produces ambiguity and some anxiety in the group. People will attempt to alleviate this anxiety in conventional ways by introducing themselves. Once done, an

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a w k w a r d silence ensues (silences are expected occurrences in tgroups). Members look to the t r a i n e r to provide them with direction. When this is not forthcoming, one m e m b e r will typically suggest a course of action, such as defining their goals or picking topics to discuss. This tends not to be accepted by all group m e m b e r s . The underlying issues here are often trust and leadership. The m e m b e r s are still hopeful that the trainer will acquiesce and lead them. Also, they are too anxious to allow an unknown peer to lead them. The topic then t u r n s to a discussion of goals. While the goal of the group has been clearly stated by the trainer, the u n s t r u c t u r e d n a t u r e of the group makes the goal appear vague and incomprehensible. Also, for most people, the idea of studying ongoing behavior is new and seems somewhat mysterious. Often these discussions of lack of direction and clarity are not-so-veiled statements of hostility t o w a r d the trainer. Members assume that he or she knows what they should be doing and is withholding this information. Throughout these early interactions, norms (rules of group conduct) are being established. How one speaks, on what topics, and to w h o m one addresses inquiries, are being outlined by the group subconsciously. Members are simultaneously jockeying for position in the group. Whose suggestions will be followed? Who is safe? Who is powerful? The group is creating its own social s t r u c t u r e . Middles These early issues continue throughout the group. In middle sessions, however, the major issue seems to be working on authority issues with each other and the trainer. Attacks on the trainer become more direct and more consciously hostile. Some members will decide that it is best to ignore every intervention; others hang on to the trainer's every word. These two sub-groups tend to fight with each other about their relationship to the trainer. Some members begin to believe that the trainer is somehow controlling their behavior. (In fact, trainers only observe what is happening in the group, remaining consistent with the group's goal.) Paranoia is often the result of feelings of impotence—a sense that no one but the trainer has power in the group. This feeling often stems from the group's continued inability to reach consensus or to vest decision-making power, even temporarily, in one member. All of the issues are observed by the trainer and his or her interventions are helpful in clarifying the processes occurring in the group.

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Endings In theory, m e m b e r s resolve these power issues and move on to interpersonal issues. In practice, however, power issues tend to continue throughout the life of the group (as in life) but their intensity subsides enough to allow for discussion of relationships among members. How close to get? How personal? To give feedback or not? These are concerns that are worked on in these sessions. Some m e m b e r s want very close relationships with others and some m e m b e r s want very circumscribed relationships. These two sub-groups squabble until some decisions are reached. Often the verbalized decision (e.g., to be self-disclosing) is not implemented behaviorally. This gives the group a chance to study the power of subconscious n o r m s in dictating group behavior. Near the end, members begin to evaluate themselves and often ask the trainer to compare them to other groups with w h o m she or he has worked. When this is not forthcoming, m e m b e r s tend to do their own assessment. Finally, each m e m b e r is likely to describe what he or she has learned from the group. When the allotted time in the last session is up, the trainer states that fact and leaves. The group is over. Learning from an experience such as this takes time to integrate. Many participants report additional learning as m u c h as six months after the group's end. As a first step in the training of trainers, managers, or anyone who works with groups, a t-group is an important experience. It provides a wealth of information about the inner workings of all types of groups. Perhaps the t-group's most important feature is that its design strips away the veneer of politeness present in work groups and uncovers their underlying processes. This is a most helpful step in understanding group phenomena. The description offered here gives b u t a glimpse of the complexities that surface in t-groups. Other authors (Bradford et al., 1964) offer more extended discussions of t-group phenomena. ROLE OF THE TRAINER Given the definition of a t-group, the role of the t r a i n e r becomes clear. The trainer does not lead the group but observes and comments on group issues as they emerge. This requires a somewhat impersonal and nonintrusive style. Interventions are made at a group level since the trainer's role is to help m e m b e r s become more a w a r e of group dynamics. Group m e m b e r s will respond to the trainer with both positive and negative reactions. The trainer m u s t remain an observer of this phenomenon and not react personally to expressions of like or dislike.

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The trainer is nondirective. She or he does not attempt to direct the group or to create group dependence or independence. She does observe these behaviors as they occur, however. The goal is to study group processes as they unfold. Therefore, the trainer remains t r u e to the task—observing and commenting on these phenomena as they happen. She or he a t t e m p t s to increase m e m b e r awareness of group issues in this manner. Since the t-group experience is, in and of itself, anxiety producing, the trainer's comments should be low to moderate in their emotional intensity. Even the most mild intervention falling on anxious ears will be perceived as threatening. Excessive use of obscure references or psychological jargon can be detrimental to the process. At the same time, interventions that are too straightforward may be seen by group m e m b e r s as mandates for change. The best t-group interventions are clear and simultaneously contain enough ambiguity to generate discussion of their meaning among participants. Obscurity generates unnecessary confusion and hostility. Straightforward interventions may place the trainer in the position of doing the group's work. Good t-group interventions represent a balance between these two ends of the continuum. INTERVENTION STRATEGIES In a t-group, as in any group, the first step in formulating an intervention is to filter that intervention through the group's goal. Therefore, each intervention that a t-group trainer makes m u s t in some way be toward helping the group to increase their understanding of group dynamics. If the intervention deals with things that are beyond the scope of this goal, it should be reassessed prior to implementation. Occasionally, trainers are required to step beyond this limit in order to protect a group member from other members' hostility or to protect the group from interlopers. In one instance, for example, the a u t h o r was working with a group when a participant in a previous group wandered in and sat down. The group asked her who she was and she said that she had been in another t-group. Participants saw an opportunity to gain information about their group and asked her how they c o m p a r e d with her group. She began to expound on the differences and good and bad points of each group. The trainer intervened quickly and directed her to leave the room. This behavior goes beyond the scope of a t-group trainer's typical behavior. However, two reasons are offered for this deviation. First, t-group members have the right to expect confidentiality from each other and the trainer, unless an initial statement has been m a d e that the group is being observed for research purposes. The previous group's right to privacy would have been compromised if she had been allowed

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to continue. Second, groups tend to feel competitive with other groups and want to be evaluated in terms of their effectiveness. Whether the evaluation had been positive or negative, it would have had a detrimental effect on the group by the introduction of an extraneous variable into an otherwise nonjudgmental environment. By allowing this to continue, the trainer would be perceived as agreeing with the evaluation, whether or not he agreed in fact. Situations like this do occur, but infrequently. Most trainers tend to rush in to protect individuals or the group much too readily. It is rarely necessary. Our wish to protect may have more to do with our own needs, in many cases, then with real group or individual needs. The second step in determining the content of an intervention is to filter it through the theoretical framework. Most trainers refer to Bennis and Shepard (1956) and/or Schutz (1958) for this purpose. This process has two beneficial effects: Theories present us with a limited number of propositions; groups present us with myriad data. Trainers could be overwhelmed by the plethora of information and wonder what issues to address. The theoretical framework focuses the trainer's attention on a limited n u m b e r of factors. This makes the decision-making process much simpler. Also, the theoretical framework helps the trainer to remain true to the group's goal. Since the framework deals with group development, it helps the trainer to focus on this and to resist urges to comment on personal dynamics. The third step in this process is to formulate the intervention in a way that emphasizes the group. Statements beginning with phrases such as "The group seems . . . " or "It would appear that the group . . ." help to maintain this perspective. Fourth, trainers should rehearse the actual phrasing in their minds before delivering the intervention. This affords the opportunity to rephrase it to decrease intensity or to increase clarity, if necessary. The fifth step is to wait. It is always better to intervene less rather than more. Also, it is better to wait and see if a group m e m b e r will verbalize the observation first. They are working at understanding the process, as well, and often will offer accurate observations to the group for discussion. Finally, wait until a n u m b e r of-instances of the process to be commented on have occurred. If there is enough evidence of the process's presence in the group, participants will more readily understand and be able to profit from the intervention. In general, t-group trainers intervene with less frequency than personal growth or skills trainers. This has to do with the task of the t-group. To intervene frequently might be construed as directive leadership by participants. It might be considered, or actually be, intrusive and thus the trainer may precipitate events rather than simply observe them.

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4 Personal Growth Groups

The primary assumption of the personal growth model is that people choose to participate in personal growth groups in order to effect some changes in their lives. Consequently, the model must provide an environment conducive to change. Personal growth is a group technique that facilitates in participants the acquisition of a change strategy. The strategy is developed, implemented, and evaluated by the participants during the life of the group and its aim is to enable continued self-initiated change after the group is over. Personal growth groups are established to assist normal individuals in achieving further growth in self-acceptance, self-directedness, and self-awareness. The emphasis here is not on understanding the group's behavior but rather on members' understanding their own behavior and implementing small behavior changes to enhance their effectiveness. Teaching skills relevant to member goals and teaching about the change process itself are inherent in this model. Areas for exploration and implementation of the change process for individuals are explored extensively. Discussions should be centered around issues of goal identification and concretization, examination of the internal and external factors encouraging the maintenance of current unsatisfactory behavior patterns, and the development of personal change strategies. The implementation and monitoring of the change strategy along with discussion and evaluation of the effect of this change strategy on goal achievement are also important elements for exploration. Essentially, then, personal growth groups attempt to provide an environment that helps individuals become even more fully functional, personally aware, and interpersonally skilled. Setting a change

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goal, then, such as "self-actualization" is unrealistic. Individual change goals must be focused, specific, and attainable within a limited time period. The c u r r e n t interchangeable n a t u r e of the term personal growth with other model names creates confusion in practice. N u m e r o u s designs exist to achieve myriad goals. Personal growth groups are often called sensitivity training, encounter, t-group, h u m a n relations training, or simply growth groups. Back (1972) suggests that attempts at definitions are futile. Parloff (1970) has drawn a distinction between process-centered and individual-centered groups, placing personal growth, self-awareness, and encounter groups in the individual-centered category and tgroups and Tavistock groups in the process-centered category. Individual-centered groups, according to Parloff, focus attention more on the behavior, feelings, and motivations of the individual g r o u p m e m b e r s , while process-centered groups are more focused on the understanding of group processes. This suggests that the goals of these groups are different and, consequently, their theoretical and methodological framework is also different. Parloff would define a personal growth group as one "primarily concerned with the behavior, feelings, fantasies and motivations of the individual" (p. 177). He states that the goals of these groups, in practice, often include: "assisting the individual to achieve selfrealization, fulfillment, peak experiences, body integration, peace, unity, joy, authenticity, love, openness and honesty" (p. 177). Rogers (1970) uses the words "encounter g r o u p s " and "Personal Growth group" almost synonymously. He defines the encounter group as an experiential process that emphasizes personal growth and development and describes the goal of this model as improvement of interpersonal communication and relationships (pp. 4-5). John Weir (1975) has developed one of the few clear models for conducting personal growth groups and defines personal growth as "the process of m a t u r a t i o n whereby the individual moves toward the fulfillment of his physical, emotional, intellectual and spiritual potential" (p. 293). Weir suggests some generally agreed-upon goals for such groups. These include an increase in self-acceptance, self-directedness and interpersonal effectiveness, more efficient use of personal biological and physical data, and discovery and actualization of personal potentials (Weir, 1975: 293-94). He goes on to say that many institutions provide personal growth training and that differences in the types of personal growth training are found in the "theories and methods used and in the results obtained" (Weir, 1975: 293). The broad scope of these goals has been problematic in terms of defining what is actually done in practice. Also, it becomes very

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difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of such groups when the measuring stick is self-actualization or achievement of personal potential. Such goals may lead trainers and participants to seek Utopian objectives. Watzlawick et al. (1974) state that "most schools of psychotherapy—have set themselves Utopian goals. . . With goals such as these, psychotherapy becomes an open-ended process, perhaps humanistic but more likely inhumane" (p. 56). The author would argue that some personal growth models fall victim to Watzlawick's criticism as well. Possible consequences of setting up broad and unattainable goals for participants are: (1) feelings of personal inadequacy and failure when goals are not met; (2) procrastination, since the goal is so far away; (3) denial of personal responsibility for growth and blaming others for inhibiting the individual's ability to self-actualize (pp. 48-52). People cannot actualize their personal potential in a weekend, two weeks, or ten weeks. However, they can achieve concrete and realistic goals. For the purpose of consolidation and clarity, this book utilizes, as a working definition of personal growth groups, those groups established to assist normal individuals in achieving further growth in self-acceptance, self-directedness, and self-awareness. Since the goal of the personal growth group is to facilitate individual small changes and to learn about the change process, it is relevant to the discussion of growth to consider the subject of change. THE CHANGE PROCESS Information about the change process provided to participants at the beginning of the group is gleaned from current psychological and social psychological theories and research. Personal growth groups may have a wide variety of theoretical underpinnings from analytic approaches to Gestalt or behavioral. The assumptions of this model are presented next. One kind of information that can be presented to participants and help lend clarity to the total change process is information concerning force field analysis, which is derived from field theory (Lewin, 1939). It was Lewin's idea that individual and group behavior occur in a psychological field, containing positive and negative forces which facilitate or inhibit the change process. Field theory is based on the notion that there are certain forces within the individual or group that drive toward a desired goal and other forces that restrain the individual or group from moving toward that goal. For instance, an individual may wish to change careers because her current career is not satisfying. The driving forces in the field

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might be unsatisfactory work relationships, dissatisfaction with the level of challenge in her current job, a need for further achievement, or a desire to increase her salary. The restraining forces might be fear of failure at a new job, loss of a sense of security in leaving a familiar environment, a sense of responsibility to her family's financial security or a fear of not being accepted by a new peer group. In order to facilitate change in the individual or group, an understanding of this process is necessary. Careful examination of the positive and negative forces associated with a desired goal is an important step in developing a change strategy. In one personal growth group a woman came to the group with some very rigid normative s t r u c t u r e s which were interfering with her functioning and her family's comfort. She insisted on serving dinner at 6:00 P.M., on the dot, every evening. No deviations were permitted. The driving forces for changing her behavior were: increased flexibility, positive family reinforcement, breaking old patterns, and loosening up her general attitude. The negative forces were: her past training, adhering to rigid rules and schedules, and maintaining her working turf without interference. Lewin (1951) tells us that change occurs when the balance of opposing forces is altered to allow for change. Thus, when driving and restraining forces associated with a desired goal are of equal strength, a state of equilibrium exists and no change can occur. In o r d e r to alter the balance, a careful assessment of the opposing forces is necessary. Once the forces have been determined, a strategy can be developed to neutralize one or two restraining forces or increase the strength of some driving forces. Altering the strength of the forces disrupts the state of equilibrium and facilitates movement toward the goal. The balance can be altered by the individual and/or group through the development of a change strategy. The individual, mentioned previously, whose goal it was to change careers, may decide to enlist her family's support to neutralize her concern about their response to her, thus lessening her fears of nonacceptance. The entire reality testing process is likely to increase movement toward the desired goal. In a similar manner, the woman with the rigid dinner schedule had to examine the driving and restraining forces in formulating her change strategy. She was able to change the balance of forces by increasing her family's positive reinforcement. After explaining her goals to them and enlisting their support on a daily basis, she was able gradually to produce a change in herself. Her family readily adapted to the change and encouraged her to implement the strategy of greater flexibility in other areas of her life.

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The idea of implementing change in an individual's life outside the group is the important element of the change strategy. Personal growth group experiences may produce changes within the group. However, when people return to their normal environment, they may be met with less than a supportive response. A p r i m a r y concern for all participants must therefore be the development of ongoing naturally occurring support groups. Individuals come to a group as members of several systems—they are part of a family, a work group, social groups, and community groups. After each session they r e t u r n to these groups. Alternatives developed in the group will be m o r e likely to occur in the natural environment if the individual has developed strategies to continue the support and reward of the group in his or her daily life (Rose, 1977). It is important to remember that in the limited time frame of a personal growth group experience, individuals typically do not make major changes in their lives. Consequently, goals should be set that are realistic and achievable, encouraging a success experience for the individual and continuance of the change process beyond the life of the group. Small, concrete changes are easier to see and experience, while more ambitious, general goals are much more difficult to assess. The goal of the facilitator is to become dispensable, not indispensable, and to encourage independent individual actions. PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP DESIGN Since personal growth groups are often based on diverse theoretical designs and varying schools of psychological thought, it seems useful, for the purpose of clarity, to present one type of design that could be implemented to achieve the goals of the personal growth group. What follows, then, is not the only way such groups are implemented. It is one model for facilitating the change process. Session 1 1. Introductory Exercises. Any n u m b e r of exercises to introduce members of the group to each other and the trainer are available in the literature. It is suggested, however, that the activities chosen have a team-building focus, since the building of a supportive and trusting environment is crucial to the success of the group. (Pfeiffer and Jones, 1969-1989). 2. Discussion of Participant Expectations. As in other group models, it is important to discuss participant expectations. The following questions might be discussed: (1) What brings you to this group?

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(2) What do you expect will happen here? (3) What personal goals do you want to work on during the course of this group? Discussion of these issues has a n u m b e r of purposes. It provides information to participants about other participants' goals and expectations. This continues the inclusion and support-building process. Such a discussion also provides the trainer with diagnostic information about each m e m b e r and the group in general. Another important reason for the discussion of goals and expectations is that it begins, for each participant, the process of goal clarification. Most of us enter into such an experience with, at best, a vague set of goals and expectations, such as increased self-awareness or the development of new interpersonal skills. When asked to state the goals, we attempt to be clear and specific so that others will u n d e r s t a n d us. This helps us to be clearer and more specific within ourselves as well. The trainer can facilitate this process by asking participants for further clarification, when appropriate, and by encouraging other participants to ask for clarification as well. Trainer behavior, at this time, models for participants clear and specific communication and supportive questioning which helps to establish these behaviors as normative within the group. 3. Discussion of Trainer Expectations, and Theoretical Assumptions. In many designs there is little, if any, discussion of trainer assumptions and skills. Participants, in many cases, are buying a "pig in a poke." However, it seems important to discuss with participant trainer goals and expectations for several reasons. Such a discussion acts as a consumer protection device in that participants may decide that such an approach will be useful to them or not useful to them. Consequently, they may decide at this point to continue or to opt out. For those who choose to continue, such a discussion provides them with information about what to expect during the course of the group. This tends to lower unnecessary apprehension. Also, the t r a i n e r is modeling openness via self-disclosure which builds t r u s t within the group. The discussion places responsibility for personal goal achievement with the individual and increases the sense of individual responsibility for the achievement of group goals which should enhance the development of cooperation and support within the group. Finally, it provides information about the change process which tends to demystify that process for the individual. Thus, it is useful for the trainer to discuss his theoretical assumptions with the group. Finally, the model's format is described to m e m b e r s . 4. Feedback Activity. Participants have been made a w a r e of their role in relation to each other through the discussion of the model's assumptions. They know that they will act as models for alternative

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behaviors and that they will give each other feedback on individual goals, change strategies, and interpersonal skills. They are also aware of the necessity for feedback to be given in a supportive way. Therefore, at this point, the trainer initiates a discussion of the rules of effective feedback and suggests an activity to practice this skill. Again, there are numerous feedback exercises in the literature and one relevant to the particular group might be chosen. 5. Beginning the Goal-Setting Process. Through the discussion of the model's assumptions, the participants have been m a d e a w a r e of the need for concrete, realistic goals. At this point the trainer suggests an activity to help individuals focus more clearly on their goals. In dyads or triads, participants listen to each other's goals and help each other begin to narrow and concretize these goals. Their progress is then reported to the whole group and issues are discussed. 6. Homework. The necessity for practicing and planning outside the group is discussed. The need for seeking support is reiterated. The trainer then suggests two homework assignments: (1) Continue to clarify your individual goals at home; (2) seek out three people you are close to. Ask these people to list your strengths and you list theirs. Also, ask them if they would be willing to talk about your group experience with you, and to give you feedback on your progress in attaining your goals during the group. This begins the process of transfer of learning to the natural environment and encourages participants to create a supportive environment for themselves in their own sphere of activity. Session 2 I. Discussion of Homework. Feelings and reactions to the homework are discussed at length. This serves several functions. It continues the group inclusion and support process by encouraging self-disclosure and group approval of m e m b e r efforts. It also helps individuals to clarify further their goals. Finally, it encourages participants to do their homework. If members know that such a discussion will take place, they will be m o r e likely to attempt to try out new behaviors at home. A word of caution is necessary at this point. Trainers should avoid commenting on undone homework assignments. Judgmental statements should be avoided. Homework provides participants with opportunities to try new things, b u t it is always their choice to utilize or not to utilize these opportunities. Natural group processes provide enough motivation for participants. Also, the trainer is attempting to encourage individual responsibility and not dependence on or deference to an authority figure.

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2. Continuing the Goal-Setting Process. The bulk of this session is spent further clarifying goals: exploring feelings about these goals; discussing fears and resistances to changes; discussing plans to neutralize negative environmental forces; and assessing the realistic or unrealistic n a t u r e of expectations of self held by participants. Exercises may be helpful during this process and, again, are available in the literature. 3. Introduction of Force Field Analysis. By this time, there has been much discussion of goals and, hopefully, each individual's goals are clearly specified and realistic. At this point, it is time to begin to develop a plan to achieve those goals. Force field analysis (Egan, 1975: 200-29) is a useful tool for developing a change strategy. It requires participants to specify clearly what the current situation is and how they would like it to be different. It also asks them to discuss who else is involved in the situation (e.g., spouse, friends, employer, etc.). Participants are asked to analyze the forces driving them toward changing the situation and the forces restraining their efforts to change. Finally, participants are asked to develop a change strategy that will reduce the potency of the restraining forces. In this session the rationale for using this tool and directions for filling out the force field analysis questionnaire are provided. Besides the development of a change strategy, this discussion teaches participants skills that they can utilize beyond the confines of the group and enhances feelings of competence and control over their own development and the achievement of their own goals. 4. Homework. Each participant is asked to complete the force field analysis at home. The are also asked to share their goals and plans with at least two of the people w h o m they met with after the first session. These people may help them to further clarify their plans and also act as an external support system for participants. Session 3 Discussion of Homework. Each participant is asked to share his or her plans with the group. If necessary, further clarification takes place. Also, participants discuss the reactions of their external support group to their plans. This discussion may alert the t r a i n e r and participants to potential problems in their external support group. It is possible, for example, that the external group is not being supportive. Some participants choose nonsupportive individuals for naive or unconscious reasons. This needs to be explored in the group to prevent unintentional self-defeating behaviors.

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2. Skill Assessment. Once each individual has decided on a plan, it is helpful to assess the skills necessary to carry out these plans. For example, an individual may have decided to investigate new employment options. Specifically, he or she may plan to set up appointments with people employed in three different areas of interest to the individual. Certain skills might be necessary to ensure the success of this plan. Training in interviewing skills, assertive skills, and specific communication skills might be needed by the individual. Another participant might have entered the group feeling isolated. As a result of the lengthy goal-setting procedure, the individual may have decided to seek out potential friends by attending weekly meetings of a social club. For this plan to work, however, the individual may determine that he or she requires practice in initiating conversations, a p p r o p r i a t e self-disclosure, and relaxation training. 3. Group Goals. As each individual assesses the skills he or she needs to carry out a change strategy, these skills are being recorded on a chalkboard or newsprint. After this process is complete, overlap will surely be noted in the skills each participant requires. That is, several participants may want practice in self-disclosure, initiating conversations, and listening to criticism. These overlapping skills become group-training goals and will be addressed and practiced in later sessions by all participants. 4. Sub-Group Formation. Even in a relatively small group (eight to ten participants), it is advisable to set up smaller sub-groups (three to four members). These sub-groups might be formed on the basis of overlapping goals and desired skills. The sub-groups will allow for more skill practice time and will also serve as m o r e intimate supportive units. (It is extremely helpful to have two facilitators per group if possible.) In remaining group sessions, the group will spend part of its time as a whole group and part of its time in these subgroups. During their first sub-group meeting, each participant is asked to discuss the kinds of support that would be helpful for that person. Also, home phone n u m b e r s are exchanged. 5. Homework. Participants are again asked to meet with their external support groups to discuss what happened in the group at the last session. They are also asked to make phone contact with one member of their internal sub-group to discuss their reactions to the last meeting. Session 4 1. Discussion of Homework. By this time in the group's life, a curious thing may be happening. As the participants discuss their

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homework, they may be reporting positive changes related to their goals. Just the act of observing yourself and making plans for change often leads to change. If you become a conscious observer of your behavior, that behavior begins to change. Also, actively discussing one's plans with an internal and external support group is rewarding and encourages exploration of alternative behaviors. This process should be recognized and supported by the group. 2. Skill Training Segment. Work now begins in earnest on skill building activities. The skills that the group has determined as necessary for goal achievement are addressed one by one during subsequent sessions. Skills dealing with effective communication, assertion, decision making, anxiety reduction, and the like might be included. Which skills are attended to and in what o r d e r are determined by the group. Role playing, behavior rehearsal and many other techniques may be employed by the trainer to facilitate learning of desired skills. There are n u m e r o u s source books available to facilitators on various techniques and these will not be elaborated on here. The basic assumption, however, is that people benefit from practicing new skills and getting feedback from others on their performance. Modeling new skills by the trainer or another m e m b e r is also useful. After a general demonstration and discussion of the new skill, extended practice in sub-groups is desirable. Trainer facility and creativity in presenting material is important at this point. 3. Choosing Step One to Implement. As a whole group, participants discuss the first step in their change strategy. Their readiness to take this step is assessed. Potential problems that they may encounter are discussed as are ways to cope with these problems. Also, the support they feel they will need to enhance the likelihood of success is discussed. The trainer and other participants should monitor this discussion carefully to prevent too large an undertaking on the p a r t of any individual. The goal is for each m e m b e r to be successful at this stage and every precaution to prevent failure m u s t be taken. 4. Sub-Group Meeting. Final negotiations for individual support are carried out in the sub-groups. Support might include a phone conversation to encourage a participant or an actual meeting of the subgroup between sessions. 5. Homework. The participants are asked to implement step one of their individualized change process. They are asked to let their external support group know what they are going to do and to seek their support and feedback when appropriate. Internal sub-group support has already been negotiated.

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Sessions 5-9 These sessions follow the same format as Session 4. New skills are introduced and sequential change strategy steps are undertaken. Continuous assessment of group progress m u s t occur during this time. Additional skills may be determined necessary as a result of this assessment process. Also, renegotiation of goals may be needed at any point. This is encouraged if, after discussion, the participant decides that such a change will be in his or her best interest. The key to a successful group and individual outcome seems to be a nonjudgmental and supportive atmosphere that encourages the individual to engage in constant self-assessment. Rigidity of any type is not usually helpful. The model is not intended to force change but rather to provide an atmosphere that is conducive to change. Trainer and group flexibility and skill in assessment, constructive questioning, effective feedback, and demonstration of caring are extremely important throughout the model. Session 10 The last session begins with discussion of learnings. Assessment of the level of goal achievement should be undertaken as well. Another important issue for the group will be how to continue change process in their daily lives. This discussion is very i m p o r t a n t in that it will help participants to integrate their learning, which seems to facilitate transfer of learning to situations beyond the group. Closure activities may occur at this point to help participants express their feelings about each other and about the group's termination. It may be helpful to give them a final homework assignment to meet with their external support group within a few days of the last group meeting. This seems to facilitate transition from the group to the natural environment. THE ROLE OF THE TRAINER The trainer's management skills are highlighted in this model. He or she must merge many individual goals and design experiences for the group that facilitate each member's individual goal achievement. The trainer uses his knowledge of group dynamics, interpersonal behavior, and individual behavior to facilitate group and individual goal attainment. In facilitating m e m b e r goal attainment, it is important for the trainer to attempt to set up the kind of supportive a t m o s p h e r e that encourages self-exploration and risk taking by group m e m b e r s . The

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trainer must create an atmosphere that encourages cohesiveness and mutual trust in order to provide m e m b e r s with the safe environment they need to risk experimenting with new behaviors. Throughout the process of the personal growth group, the t r a i n e r m u s t be aware of emergent group issues and intervene to enhance the positive effects of the group. He or she m u s t encourage the kind of positive transference in m e m b e r s that will increase the possibility of behavior change. Since the focus of the model is on individual learning, the trainer also a t t e m p t s to increase personal awareness. He or she models, when appropriate, alternative behaviors. Throughout the process, the trainer acts as a model for individual responsibility, openness, and efforts for self-improvement. This role is u n d e r t a k e n diligently since leader behaviors impact greatly on group outcomes. In this model, it is the job of the trainer to create structure for group m e m b e r s . He or she should be a bit directive, teaching skills and setting u p relevant activities to help m e m b e r s learn m o r e about the change process. The trainer provides information to the group about the model, assumptions about change, and, when appropriate, about individual and group behavior. In teaching specific skills, the trainer also teaches a method for instituting a personal change process. INTERVENTION STRATEGIES In the personal growth group, interventions may occur at a group, individual, or interpersonal level and should be of low to m o d e r a t e intensity. In the early stages of the group, the trainer's focus is on encouraging exploration to allow m e m b e r s to choose the behaviors they wish to work on changing. The goal of all interventions is to facilitate personal awareness and the planning and implementation of behavior change. In coordinating ten or more personal change strategies, the trainer becomes most directive during the middle sessions of the group's life. Toward the end of the personal growth group experience, it is the trainer's job to facilitate the transfer of learning by group members to their individual environments in the world outside the group, moving the group from a dependent stage to an independent one.

5 Skills Training Groups

The skills training group is a group established to teach such human relations skills as assertion, communication, management, or leadership in order to enhance personal and professional effectiveness. In skills training groups, people may contract to learn to develop skills relevant to their job (supervisory training, decision making, problem solving, feedback, brainstorming, consumer relations, group function), or their role (parent training, family living, family conflict resolution, role of the teenager), or general interactional skills such as communication, assertion, or negotiation. Since skills training groups are often conducted with people who work together or share the same job description, issues of trust and safety as opposed to competition and fear often occur. The trainer's general attitude and demeanor may have drastic effects on the group's willingness to learn skills. If the trainer models effectively and handles group issues well, members will be more likely to learn and practice the skills advocated by the trainer. Setting an atmosphere conductive to learning is of utmost importance in skills training groups. An atmosphere of supportiveness that encourages experimentation and skill practice is essential. Direct activities relevant to the teaching of skills and the transfer of learning to the natural environment outside the group should be encouraged. Increasing member awareness can be better accomplished through experiential learning than by lecture. Conducting a skills training workshop for an adult population requires far more knowledge than is readily found in the proverbial lesson plan of the teacher. Attention to group processes and appropriate interventions in classrooms will enhance the teaching of any subject matter (Schmuck and

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Schmuck, 1979). The trainer, though, m u s t pay close attention to the aims and goals of the specific group he is conducting and have the ability to use natural group events to enhance learning. Presenting information to a population of adult learners in a skills training group can be a creative process. Information should be communicated in a variety of ways since adult learning styles vary widely. It's important to r e m e m b e r that adults are often independent learners and may need time to digest, experience and try out new skills and behaviors. An organized p r o g r a m that includes some combination of lecture, role play, group discussion, and the offering of case studies as vehicles of learning, is suggested. Setting aside time for practice and discussion of strategies for implementation and transfer of learning to the work environment are important factors in the skills training process. A SKILLS TRAINING DESIGN Several authors have directed themselves toward the design of curricula for skills training groups (Goad, 1982; Mayo and DuBois, 1987). It is useful to have knowledge of different types of designs. No single p r o g r a m design, though, works for every group a trainer encounters. Each group has an individual personality and each p r o g r a m design should be tailored to meet the emergent needs of a particular group. Some suggested areas for consideration in designing skills training groups will be offered here and may serve as a springboard for extrapolation and expansion on the p a r t of the trainer. Prior to the group's actual first meeting, the trainer formulates a needs assessment survey in o r d e r to develop a profile of the group to be trained. Who are they? What do they believe to be their needs? What are the issues to be examined? What skills are they seeking? What kinds of previous training experiences do they bring to the group? Have they come to the group voluntarily or were they required by superiors to attend? What is their level of sophistication? Do they enter the room with hidden agendas? Once the trainer has an idea of the group's needs, he then determines what skills are to be taught. From the needs assessment data he has collected, he also decides what the best methods for teaching these skills might be. Is it lecture, role play, audio visual, discussion, or a combination of several techniques? He begins to create a lesson plan or design, keeping in mind the essential elements of experiential learning and the allotment of practice time. As the trainer begins the first session he a t t e m p t s to build r a p p o r t and ease the communication process. Warming-up the group, just as a comedian would for a stage show, he tries to create an a t m o s p h e r e

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that is relaxed and open. A supportive, in-charge demeanor is essential. The trainer states his credentials, building respect and trust. The development of trust continues throughout group building activities. Creating a sense of togetherness in the group in ways that are relevant to the skills being taught is suggested. Having the group divide into smaller groups, become acquainted, introduce themselves to each other and to the large group; choosing significant questions for them to pose to each other; all may help facilitate the trustbuilding process. This is an opportune time to try to discover just what expectations people have brought with them to the group. Inquiries on the subject of what members hope to gain by participating in the group or what they might feel bad about not having learned when they leave the group are salient issues for discussion. Once the trainer has a clear idea of the group's expectations and perceived needs, he should review the agenda he has set, comparing the group's learning needs to the skills he wishes to teach and the agenda he has set. Although it is the trainer's job to direct the group activities, it is helpful to be flexible and attempt to integrate m e m b e r suggestions into the design, when appropriate. While changes in the agenda to meet emergent needs are acceptable, the trainer maintains a tight rein on the proceedings. Skills training groups may dissolve into rap groups if too much deviation from the design occurs. An example of the degree of flexibility that the trainer may give to the group in agenda adjustment occurred recently in the a u t h o r ' s experience. She entered the training room, expecting to teach assertion skills to the participants on hand. She inquired about the group's needs and expectations and was informed that the entire group had just been fired from their jobs. Instead of altering her entire program agenda to meet the needs of this depressed group, she altered the agenda slightly to teach assertion skills in job hunting and coping skills for joblessness. The trainer still created the climate for teaching skills, while simultaneously establishing herself as a somewhat benevolent task master, without ignoring m e m b e r needs. Following the completion of the agenda review, the skills t r a i n e r describes the content of the particular skills to be taught and then specifies the format in which they will be delivered. In formulating the design, he allows for some flexibility and plans for practice time for the group m e m b e r s . The trainer also r e m e m b e r s to set aside time for discussion of the transfer of learning from the safe group atmosphere to the sometimes resistant world outside. Planning and practicing for the transfer of learning may strengthen the endurance of the skills learned. Assessment has occurred throughout the training process but a formal evaluation should be included in the plan. It is important that

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the evaluation utilized be tailored to the specific skills taught by the trainer. The results of global evaluations may be dubious conclusions. Following evaluations, the trainer allots time for closure, making sure people have finished their business together and said their goodbyes. Follow-up sessions, whenever possible, are an important technique to employ. Even a phone call for probing reactions may provide useful data or feedback. One or several visits back to the training site are more ideal. It is wise to try to observe a random sample of people using the skills on the job. This process is beneficial to both the trainer and the group members. It may function as a reminder to the group of what they've learned and act as a catalyst for further skill practice. AN EXAMPLE Let's imagine that you have been asked to conduct a four-session workshop on assertion skills for foremen in a chemical plant. Here is one way it could be done. Step 1—Needs Assessment As a result of interviews with the plant manager and a random sample of foremen, you discover the following information. a. The n a t u r e of the work at the plant can be dangerous. If workers are careless with smoking or handling certain materials, a serious fire could result. b. Foremen are chosen from w o r k e r ranks on the basis of technical skills and their perceived ability to be tough with employees. Large physical size and a macho image are considered assets for a foreman. c. Recently, workers at the plant unionized. Now, when foremen act aggressively toward workers, grievances are initiated by the union. This is b o t h e r s o m e to top management and they want foremen to continue to get results without precipitating union actions. d. Foremen feel angry at both management and w o r k e r s . The rules of the game have changed. Being tough disciplinarians used to bring r e w a r d from management. Now, it brings recrimination. Also, they are concerned about plant safety and productivity if discipline slackens. e. Foremen have been ordered to attend workshop sessions that will be held from 9:00 A.M. to noon, once a week for four weeks. Because of their work schedules, this means that one

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quarter of them will have worked from 11:00 P.M. to 7:00 A.M. the night before a session. They will be tired and resentful participants. f. Foremen have not participated in any form of h u m a n relations training before. They are skeptical about its value and suspicious of outsiders. Step 2—Creating a Design From the data generated in Step 1, the trainer has learned a number of things. a. Assertion skills would be useful to foremen. These skills could make their jobs easier and could lessen tensions between workers and foremen without compromising safety or productivity. b. Foremen will be resistant to the training for a n u m b e r of reasons. c. The relevance of the training m u s t be m a d e clear to the foremen. d. The trainer m u s t pay careful attention to group n o r m s and climate in order to create conditions in which learning can potentially take place. e. All activities must be perceived as down to e a r t h and practical by the group. The design outline that follows is the result of combining traditional assertion training strategies with the special concerns of this group. Feedback on Needs

Assessment

The trainer begins by sharing the results of her needs assessment with the group. She discusses the bind in which the foremen find themselves: issues of safety and productivity, how the rules have been changed, their feelings about this new situation, and how this training may be useful to them despite the fact that management has ordered their attendance. She empathizes with their position and stresses that she wants to work collaboratively with them and not simply as an extension of management. This is done in a straightforward, factual way without condescension. The trainer a t t e m p t s to join with the group by demonstrating that she is aware of their situation and understands their feelings about the training to some extent. This way of beginning the workshop is chosen since the trainer expects the group to be resistant to her and to the workshop's contents.

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" F u n " opening activities would only increase resistance. Joining in with their resistance seems m o r e helpful and will potentially defuse some of the resistant posture. In fact, the m a n n e r in which the needs assessment was conducted has already created a bit less resistance. The trainer chose to interview a sample of foremen on their turf. She spoke with them in their d e p a r t m e n t s instead of in an office. This gave her the opportunity to see their working environment and to share her reactions to their situation with some of them prior to the workshop. It also provided the opportunity to speak with some of them privately and to sell the benefits of the training to them in a situation in which the group norms of resistance and skepticism were less influential. The time spent developing a personal relationship with some m e m b e r s will pay off during the training. The foremen who were interviewed will act as allies of the trainer and will m a k e inroads in changing the group n o r m from one of resistance to one of cooperation. After the trainer shares the results of the needs assessment, she breaks the large group down into smaller groups and asks them to react to the data presented and to list their expectations of the workshop on newsprint. This is not done in the large group for three reasons. Smaller groups allow time for every participant to speak. Also, smaller groups may feel freer to react positively, as well as negatively, to the assignment. In the large group, the n o r m of resistance is still operative and might squelch individual positive reactions and, consequently, increase that resistance. Finally, in the small groups, individual anonymity is maintained. Members write their reactions on one sheet. No one individual need own what is listed. These reactions and expectations are then discussed in the large group. The trainer is careful to accept all input and not to try to counter negative reactions. She assertively listens to the feedback and suggests ways to alter the agenda to meet group concerns. The agenda is then reviewed. A brief description of that agenda follows. Agenda 1. Definitions of assertive, nonassertive, and aggressive behaviors. 2. Nonverbal and verbal components of these behaviors. 3. Video examples of individuals using these three types of behavior. 4. Group discussion of likely outcomes of using each of the three styles. 5. Summary of that group discussion and the potential benefits of using an assertive m a n a g e m e n t style.

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6. Assertive techniques: broken record and fogging. 7. Trainer demonstration of these techniques. 8. Group discussion of the potential benefits of these techniques. 9. Sub-group practice of these techniques with trainer feedback. 10. Assertive techniques: workable compromise, negative and positive assertion, and negative and positive inquiry. 11. Group discussion of the potential risks and benefits of these techniques. 12. Sub-group practice of these techniques with trainer and subgroup feedback. 13. Generation of typical troublesome situations that participants encounter on the job. 14. Sub-group practice in applying these five techniques to actual situations and feedback on m e m b e r performance from the trainer and the sub-group. 15. Discussion of ways to support each other's attempts to utilize these skills on the job. 16. Discussion of a follow-up meeting one month after the training. 17. Formal evaluation of the training experience. Those seventeen agenda items are spread over the four sessions. Exact timing of the issues is not included since it will vary with each group. A discussion of why these items were chosen and how they are implemented in the group is provided next. The definitions and components of the three behavior styles are generated by the group. They are not told to them by the trainer. She might add components or clarify certain points. However, she assumes that resistance is lessened when the group generates information, as opposed to being given information. The group also generates the likely outcomes of each behavior style. Again, this lessens resistance. Members will see the logic of an assertive style quite readily. There may be a few cynics, but in general the group will buy into the notion that they are more likely to get the results they want from employees by using an assertive m a n a g e m e n t style. The trainer then summarizes and augments the group's conclusions. The videotaped examples of the three behavior styles should be relevant to the group's situation but not identical. The t r a i n e r asked two colleagues to role-play a situation in which a manager is stating his

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wish that a worker's lateness cease. This situation was role-played in each of the three styles and then videotaped. Showing video examples has a number of benefits. The group has the opportunity to observe three examples of the different styles. They can also begin to pinpoint the specific minute behaviors that create the total sense that an individual's style is assertive, nonassertive, or aggressive. This is very useful to the learning process. They can also privately compare their style to the tapes and begin to make adjustments prior to actually working on their own behavior in the group. The actors on the videotape are unknown to the participants; so, the participants can critique these individuals without concern for their feelings. Finally, the videotape provides an example of how role playing and behavior rehearsal are executed. Later on in the workshop they will be asked to participate in these activities and the modeling effect is helpful. The trainer then describes two assertive techniques and role-plays examples of how to use them. (Readers are referred to Lange and Jakubowski, 1976; Smith, 1975; Alberti and Emmons, 1974; for indepth discussions of this training model.) This training design, like others, requires that the trainer be expert in the content being presented. In this case, the trainer must understand the theoretical basis for assertive behavior. He or she should be expert at using the skills and be willing and able to demonstrate their application in planned or spontaneous group situations. This requires considerable skill and learning. Groups and courses to train potential assertion trainers are available throughout the country. This section can only touch upon the potential contents of the workshop in order to elucidate design issues. Much of what occurs from this point on in the agenda is role play, practice, and feedback. It is helpful to elicit feedback on a particular individual's work in the group from that individual first. Then the trainer and other group members may add their comments. Feedback must be kept constructive. The trainer is instrumental in setting the tone for constructive feedback. Once skills have been practiced, it is important for participants to practice using these skills in situations that have actually occurred on the job. This helps the transfer of skills learned in the group to real-life situations. The use of real situations is delayed in the agenda until the members have developed enough trust in the trainer and in each other to discuss personally problematic situations. To introduce this earlier might be detrimental to the formation of trust and a sense of safety. Finally, discussion of transfer of learning occurs and planning to support each other's efforts to integrate these skills on the job takes

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place. This is followed by evaluation of m e m b e r reactions to the workshop and summations of learning from this experience. THE ROLE OF T H E TRAINER The trainer's p r i m a r y job, in the skills training model, is to engender trust, respect, and positive feelings in m e m b e r s towards him. A supportive, in-charge demeanor is essential. In the initial stages of the group, concerns may arise as to the trainer's competence. These concerns may manifest themselves in resistance to the trainer's plan. The trainer can use these initial reactions both as evidence for the real existence of these issues and as a springboard to a discussion of management and leadership skills, if relevant. The trainer's familiarity with content as well as his ability to organize the group to increase t r u s t and reduce risk are also important behaviors to practice. If the trainer models effectively and handles group issues well, members will be much more likely to learn and practice the skills advocated by this design. The best designs can only be successfully implemented by a trainer who is a w a r e of the role he or she m u s t assume in order to facilitate a positive response to the design. The list of nine recommended trainer behaviors, which follows, is offered in an effort to help skills trainers better define their role as group facilitators. The role of the skills trainer is to: 1. Be supportive. Skills training groups require that participants identify personal areas that need improvement, practice new skills in these areas, and then receive feedback on their behaviors. This may be quite anxiety provoking, especially for participants who work together on a daily basis. The trainer m u s t be a w a r e of this fragile situation and m u s t not criticize participants or appear judgmental about their behavior. Since resistance may occur, even unprompted, the trainer must concentrate on maintaining a calm and encouraging atmosphere. 2. Create safety. Skills training groups require participants to reveal their skill levels to the entire group. There are risks inherent in this process and the trainer must create the kind of safety necessary to encourage such risk taking. The trainer m u s t try to control his feedback and that of the group members so that the feedback encourages sharing and is not seen as evaluative. The trainer m u s t take an active role in directing the communication that occurs. Skills training groups are usually too brief for the trainer to rely on a n a t u r a l process like group cohesiveness as a safety mechanism.

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3. Be directive. A supportive, in-charge demeanor is essential for the trainer. The skills trainer has an agenda and a set a m o u n t of material to cover in a certain time. Groups are notorious for diverting even the most experienced t r a i n e r s from the task. Off-task time should be considered and planned into training designs. The trainer, though, m u s t remain in charge, keeping a tight rein on the group. This is to be done gently and politely so as not to upset the atmosphere of safety and supportiveness that has been set. 4. Create positive transference. The trainer is the p r i m a r y focus of m e m b e r s ' affective needs in the group, and as such m u s t present himself in a friendly way. People, in general, learn more from a trainer they like and respect than one they do not like or have little regard for. A trainer's gentle, accepting m a n n e r and vibrant presentation style facilitate the bonding between the group and himself. He m u s t be willing to share relevant personal information that may be similar to the experiences of group members. The trainer joins with the group by including himself as a person who also wishes to improve his skills. 5. Increase awareness. Participants m u s t have ways to assess their c u r r e n t skills and evaluate the importance of the skills being taught. They must be able to see the benefits to be derived from incorporating the skills into their personal styles. This "buying in" process may be aided by administering questionnaires, offering information, giving feedback, or any n u m b e r of strategies. The trainer m u s t pay attention to awareness levels, though, before attempting to teach skills. If this strategy is not implemented, the trainer runs the risk of his teachings falling on deaf ears. 6. Teach skills. Teaching h u m a n relations skills is dependent on far more than lecture and teaching aids. The trainer m u s t be willing to demonstrate the appropriate use of these skills for the participants. As the trainer risks self-disclosure, participants are encouraged to do the same. These behaviors serve to enhance the reality of the skills being learned. It is this interaction between trainer and participants that is at the heart of the training process. 7. Provide for practice. Demonstrations do not convey the total message to the group. Participants need an adequate a m o u n t of time to practice skills in the safe confines of the group. Role playing, behavior rehearsal and frequent feedback are essential ingredients here and should be planned for in the skills training group design. 8. Provide for transfer of learning. While the safety of the group may facilitate the acquisition of skills, it may also create a false sense of what it means to perform the skills in the work environment. The

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real world is neither as safe nor as predictable as the controlled environment of the training group. Trainers, therefore, need to provide information concerning the road blocks that participants may encounter in the world outside the group and ways to s u r m o u n t the obstacles they may meet in that environment. The trainer may help group members establish ways of gaining support for the use of their new skills on the job. 9. Encourage independence. The trainer m u s t avoid creating an atmosphere that fosters dependence by group m e m b e r s on himself or other group members. Members' individual initiatives and comments m u s t be supported. Due to the limited time allotted for skills training, the trainer cannot afford to have to wean the group away before the sessions terminate. Participants must feel they own the skills when they leave the group. In short, the trainer m u s t m a k e himself dispensable. Once the trainer becomes more aware of his role in the group, he then is able to decide when and how to intervene in a constructive fashion. He m u s t be cognizant of the developmental sequences common to all groups in order to lessen or heighten events to enhance the learning environment. Schutz (1958), Gibb (1964), Bion (1959), and Bennis and Shepard (1956) all offer systematic analyses of these stages which are recommended reading for any trainer. A detailed discussion of the various theories is offered in Chapter 2. Certain events commonly occur in skills training groups. In the beginning of the group, participants often test the trainer's competence, the group's safety, and the limits of acceptable behavior in the group. Later, m e m b e r s frequently become junior trainers, helping each other too m u c h or becoming competitive with each other or the trainer. They resist learning new skills in o r d e r to save face. Near the end of the sessions, m e m b e r s may seek to extend the training period because it is meeting some emotional needs. Or, they may challenge the relevance of the training to real life situations. Some groups may emphasize their competence at the end of the training, feeling that they are way ahead of people who haven't had the training they've just experienced. Trainer interventions m u s t be built around these varied events. INTERVENTION STRATEGIES The first step in intervening in a skills training group is for the trainer to keep in mind the goal of the training group, which is to teach members a particular skill or set of skills. The trainer filters

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her proposed intervention strategy through this goal, making sure it is consistent with her aims for the group. For example, participants in the group are likely to challenge the leader's plans and competency level in the initial stages of the group's life. The t r a i n e r ' s n a t u r a l temptation is to gently push people's comments aside and try to proceed with the business of teaching skills. This strategy a p p e a r s to be an expedient m o m e n t a r y placebo but it does not create the kind of safe, supportive climate necessary for skill acquisition. It is better for the trainer to acknowledge the person's feelings, without dwelling on them, and suggest that the subject be entertained and examined in a future session if dissatisfaction still exists. Thus the leader illustrates flexibility and openness to suggestion and encourages group m e m b e r s to risk further disclosures which are consistent with the group's goals. The necessity for filtering intervention strategies through the goals set for the particular group may surface in other aspects of the group's life. For instance, often the group will mentally and verbally wander off into side issues, excessively discussing problematic issues that occur at work. The trainer recognizes that these issues are merely tangential to the learning of skills. Although discussions of this nature may increase the level of comfort for the group, they are also subtle ways to lure the group off task. It is the trainer's job to pull the group back gently to the task at hand. This might be accomplished by the trainer interjecting commentary about how the prior discussion could relate to the skills being taught, tying in the group's need to vent with the trainer's determination to teach the skills. Often group members will try to discount or devalue the techniques the trainer employs. An activity involving role play is often dismissed by a skeptical group m e m b e r claiming its value is minimal and not relevant. It is the trainer's job to try to bring that m e m b e r into the activity, engaging him in the ongoing process, even if by surprise. The trainer, in this situation, may instantly assume the presumed counterrole to the one the participant is playing, speaking as a boss or a colleague might in that situation. Most participants will respond to the trainer's ploy with dialogue or feedback. They tend to become m o r e involved in the process and their resistance wanes. The t r a i n e r realizes that people tend to resist practice and experiential learning. She enforces the notion of experiential learning, though, knowing that this technique increases the e n d u r a n c e of the skills learned. Intervention strategies, then, should also be filtered through the goals of creating an atmosphere conducive to learning and creating a climate that facilitates the acquisition of skills. The creation of a learning atmosphere is dependent upon the existence of supportiveness, safety, the creation of positive transference, and the encouragement

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of independence and individual initiative. The actual teaching strategy revolves around such trainer behaviors as directiveness, increasing awareness, the trainer's risking self-disclosure, the trainer's providing for practice time, and the trainer's willingness to offer information on the transfer of learning to the natural environment. The combined impact of trainer behaviors and the creation of an a t m o s p h e r e conducive to learning will facilitate the acquisition of skills. In formulating interventions, it is always essential to be aware of the stage of development at which the group is operating and what group dynamics might be in motion at the time. The trainer uses these natural group processes to enhance the learning process. For instance, in the initial stages of the group's life, participants are still testing the waters for safety. This is not the time to have group m e m b e r s demonstrating competencies. It is still too early for this. Likewise, this is not the time to offer feedback; the group will not be receptive to this type of commentary. The trainer m u s t allow time for trust levels to build before leading up to m o r e directive or intensive intervention strategies. During the middle stages in the life of the group, participants may tend to offer feedback to each other in ways that are not effective. Often one m e m b e r will t u r n to another and say, "Hey, you really do need to take this training, Buddy," or something similar. The trainer must recognize that the group is still struggling with issues of oneupmanship, power struggles, and positioning. The trainer anticipates this phase. Rather than putting one member down to protect another's development, the trainer could r e p h r a s e the commenting m e m b e r ' s statement and offer instruction to the entire group on the subject of appropriate feedback techniques. Again, the t r a i n e r utilizes her knowledge of group processes to enhance the learning environment. Ending issues in groups often emerge as desires for the continuance of the learning process. Members wish to arrange further meetings or muse about how nice it would be if the real world were like the group world. The trainer recognizes that the group is dealing with separation. She a t t e m p t s to turn the group discussion to the subject of transfer of learning to the environment and discourages the discussion of continuing the meetings. In this way, the trainer may direct the group toward examining their own separation issues and move the process toward closure. Before the trainer delivers any intervention strategy verbally, she should rehearse the comment's actual phrasing in her mind. The rehearsal can involve the filtering of phrasing through such general aspects of the role of the skills trainer as the creation of an atmosphere for learning and the facilitation of the acquisition of skills. The filtration process may cause the trainer to decrease the intensity

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of her intervention or increase its clarity. Interventions may be m a d e at the group or individual level. Individual level interventions a r e made to facilitate m e m b e r skill learning. The most common reason for employing group level interventions is to redirect the group to the task and diminish the effect of potentially disruptive group issues that may arise. Examples of ways in which interventions are phrased and formulated will be further elaborated in the next few chapters. The final phase of formulating a skills training intervention strategy is connected with the actual delivery of the commentary. The trainer must be certain that the nonverbal attitude she expresses is consistent with the w o r d s she says. Several micro-behaviors should be kept in mind. In addressing a public of laymen, it is wise not to use a lot of academic or psychological jargon that may well alienate participants. Phrasing an intervention in as neutral a tone as possible, without transmitting hostility, is a difficult b u t necessary skill to practice. The trainer m u s t express an attitude of group involvement and downplay the impression that she's just there to do a job. This can be accomplished by her active movements around the training room and visits to sub-groups to offer comments, when appropriate, to bolster discussion topics. She should remember not to be too forward with her interventions throughout the process. Even mild touching may be viewed as condescension by defensive group m e m b e r s . Once the trainer has delivered the intervention, she can assess its impact on the group. This strategy offers feedback to the trainer about the effect of her comments and will allow her to adjust her technique, when necessary, according to the group's response.

6 Types of Interventions

The trainer's role is to monitor group processes and to alter their course as necessary. Monitoring group processes is based on the trainer's theoretical knowledge and understanding of group processes. In order to alter the course of these processes, the trainer must have a clear idea of the group's goal. The needs assessment and diagnostic procedures that the trainer employs prior to the first meeting of the group lead to the choice of a particular model. The chosen model offers a decision-making framework for goal-oriented group interventions. To intervene is to enter into an ongoing system of relationship, to come between or among m e m b e r s for the purpose of helping them reach their goals. This simple definition, although accurate, does not do justice to the complex n a t u r e of the intervention process for the small group facilitator. The trainer m u s t be cognizant of the total effect his group guidance strategies have on m e m b e r s individually and on the group as a whole. He m u s t know how to deliver his words to the group in an effective, nonthreatening manner. He m u s t process, sort, and filter his interventions through his knowledge base before he t a m p e r s with the delicate process of channeling group energy to meet group goals. The trainer needs to be aware of the intervention options available to him before he can decide how and when to intervene. This chapter offers a guide to the types of intervention options that can be applied to group situations. Chapter 7 will discuss the t r a i n e r ' s decisionmaking process in determining when an intervention is appropriate and how interventions may be delivered in group settings. Cohen and Smith (1976), and others in the field, suggest that there are three major categories in which all types of interventions can be

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classified—conceptual, experiential, and structural. Conceptual interventions are ones "in which the group leader a t t e m p t s to a b s t r a c t or conceptualize some significant idea or issue" (Cohen and Smith, 1976: 91). Experiential interventions deal with "direct reflection of c u r r e n t ongoing behavior or a reporting of direct (personal) experience. . . The s t r u c t u r a l type of intervention is the deliberate use of planned structured activities" (p. 92). The a u t h o r would add that structural interventions also include any trainer interventions intended to direct group activities or alter group s t r u c t u r e . Though these three categories of interventions are generally accepted by leaders in the small group field, the types of interventions within each category have not been clearly outlined. Consequently, the author developed a listing of seventeen different types of interventions that fit into the general categories originally outlined by Cohen and Smith (1976). These interventions are intended as a framework for trainers. F u r t h e r subdivisions could be made. It was thought, however, that greater n u m b e r s might prove to be too c u m b e r s o m e for trainers to remember or for researchers to utilize with any degree of reliability. Also, these interventions have proved useful and inclusive when presented to student or experienced trainers. The following sections describe these seventeen types of interventions. SPECIFIC TYPES OF INTERVENTIONS Conceptual Interventions All four types of conceptual interventions attempt to help participants to u n d e r s t a n d and reflect upon their c u r r e n t experience. Groups can be very emotional gatherings. Members can get lost in a sea of affect that can impede their learning. Conceptual interventions are created to help m e m b e r s attribute meaning to their experiences. These tend to help m e m b e r s organize their learnings in useful ways and integrate this new information into their lives beyond the confines of the group. Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles (1973) found that attributing meaning to group events was one of the four trainer behaviors that contributed to positive group outcomes (i.e., high learning and low casualty rates). And yet, many trainers neglect this important aspect of the trainer's role. Concepts of experiential learning have been misinterpreted by many trainers to mean that m e m b e r s will make their own meaning. According to this view, the trainer's job is to be a catalyst for high energy, emotional experiences, and not to help m e m b e r s u n d e r s t a n d or organize these experiences cognitively. This is a very exaggerated notion of the Socratic view that everything that can be

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known by a h u m a n being is already present in the individual and the job of the teacher is to help the person to become a w a r e of what he intuitively knows. All education, then, is a process of recollection. Socrates p u r s u e d this goal, however, by questioning individuals—a highly cognitive method. Some trainers try instead to stimulate recollection by stimulating peoples' emotions. While some degree of affect often helps the learning process, too much emotionality without cognitive inputs can lead to disorganization and a breakdown in the learning process and, in some cases, can produce unnecessary or harmful psychological stress. In fact, Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles (1973) associate a high degree of emotional stimulation in the absence of meaning attribution with a higher incidence of group casualties. They define casualties as individuals who are psychologically h u r t by their participation in the group. Trainers, through their experience and knowledge, are great resources for the groups with which they work. By sharing their theoretical understandings and practical knowledge, they aid group learning. It is not necessary for every individual to reinvent group and individual psychology. People learn in a n u m b e r of ways and one important way is to learn from the experience and knowledge of others. In essence, then, the goal of conceptual interventions is to share with group participants the knowledge that social scientists have gained about h u m a n behavior through research and theory development. Sharing such information has an important democratizing effect in that more people gain access to different ways of understanding human experience. As a result, individuals are empowered to take charge of their own lives rather than to rely on professionals to solve their problems. It also tends to normalize individual experience by demonstrating the commonality of h u m a n psychological and social processes. This often has the effect of reducing feelings of uniqueness, difference, and alienation. Sharing information about h u m a n learning, development, motivation, social behavior, and the like can prevent the development of psychological problems by reducing misinterpretations of individual feelings, behavior, and experience. Types of Conceptual Interventions A theory intervention is one in which the trainer notes how ongoing behavior fits with psychological theories of h u m a n behavior. Theories of individual development may be cited. Learning theory, cognitive theory, and personality theory are examples of sources of information that help explain c u r r e n t conditions or concerns. "Concept formation is our tendency to place things or people together in order to simplify our thought processes. The good p a r t

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of this process is that it allows us to generalize; the b a d p a r t is that we all stereotype things and people." This intervention provides a cognitive reason for stereotyping and may lead the group to action r a t h e r than to self-blame and recrimination. "People seem to need to be somewhat anxious in o r d e r to learn. It makes us more alert," is an example of using a learning theory concept to explain the current group situation. Theory interventions are useful when a group is struggling to overcome a normal phenomenon. They help m e m b e r s to u n d e r s t a n d the ongoing process that can relieve excessive tension. They can also be p r i m a r y to the accomplishment of the group's goal. Theory interventions give meaning to events and provide participants a framework for understanding these events. A perspective intervention is one in which the trainer talks about the c u r r e n t here and now situation in a more general sense. This diffuses excessive emotionality and produces reflection on the p a r t of group m e m b e r s . It provides an opportunity for group m e m b e r s to gain a perspective on c u r r e n t events. "All people resist change, John, even when they want to change," is an intervention designed to help John see that he is not alone in this process. "Groups tend to develop social s t r u c t u r e s , " is a perspective intervention intended to facilitate generalization by participants. "Most people feel uncomfortable when they begin to role-play but they get used to it and find it helpful after a while." This statement may reduce resistance to a training strategy by letting members know that initial discomfort tends to pass. "You two seem to represent the liberal and conservative view of this issue," is an intervention intended to help the individuals understand that their argument represents the argument of the larger society. This perspective may decrease the tension in the pair and facilitate group discussion of the conflict at hand. Societal interventions point out similarities or dissimilarities between observed behavior and cultural n o r m s . "Jan, you seem afraid to state your objections to this activity. I can see the reaction on your face. I bet we all swallow our objections when the boss is present. I wonder if that's a beneficial thing to do in this situation?" This intervention brings up for discussion o u r typical reaction to authority figures and challenges this societal n o r m ' s efficacy in every situation. "This group seems overtly hostile toward the trainer. It's not usually that way at work, I would guess." This intervention may precipitate discussion about the kinds of n o r m s that the group has established.

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"The group seems very supportive of each member's change efforts. What's different about this group versus a work g r o u p ? " This intervention may precipitate a discussion about ways to make work groups more supportive. Societal interventions are useful in increasing awareness of the effects societal norms have on behavior. They challenge the notion that all of these n o r m s are rules with which we m u s t live. Group process interventions are those which point out the developmental stage that a group is in or connect group behaviors to particular theoretical concepts in group dynamics. (In effect, these interventions are a subset of theory interventions. They are given a separate category because of their importance in group work.) "The group seems to have decided that it is safer to fight than to work on its task," is an intervention based on theoretical concepts outlined by Bion (1959) and Bennis and Shepard (1956). Groups sometimes divert their attention from the task by fighting. Often, it is less tension producing to attack each other than to work at changing personal behaviors (personal growth) or to learn new skills (skills training) or to work at understanding group dynamics (t-group). "Intimacy takes time to develop in groups. This group seems to be trying to force intimacy before it's ready. It's like trying to drive before you've learned to cross the street." This describes the stage concepts of Schutz (1958) and Bennis and Shepard (1956). Both theorists state that intimacy develops later in groups and other conditions have to be met prior to the development of intimacy. Group process interventions are useful teaching tools. Through them the trainer teaches group development and theory in an experiential manner. In a typical classroom, the teacher explains a concept and gives an example. Here, the group experiences an event; the trainer relates that event to theory. The group is, in general, m o r e able to u n d e r s t a n d the theory because of their experience with its effects. Group process interventions can also be helpful in groups where the main goal is not to teach about group processes. In personal growth or skills training groups, the effect of group concepts and group development is, of course, operative. These processes can be unnerving to group members, especially if m e m b e r s are uncertain about why certain things are occurring. For example, a skills training group may be eager to get to work and impatient with the trainer's efforts to build support and trust. It is useful for the trainer to intervene briefly with a statement about the relationship between positive maintenance (support) and task accomplishment. In general, group process interventions in personal growth and skills training groups tend to ease tensions and reduce resistance to the training design.

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EXPERIENTIAL INTERVENTIONS The experiential interventions that follow are designed to highlight what is actually occurring in the group at any given moment. The trainer uses these interventions to facilitate learning about group dynamics or to heighten awareness about individual dynamics that may be positively or negatively affecting group goal achievement. Experiential interventions are essential to the t-group trainer whose task it is to help members understand groups by studying the group's ongoing behavior. The t-group trainer uses experiential interventions to observe the group's behavior. He does not intentionally a t t e m p t to alter the direction of the group through his interventions. A personal growth group trainer or skills trainer, however, is interested in individual members accomplishing their goals. Individual change and/or the acquisition of new skills is essential to the definitions of both these models. Group processes, therefore, m u s t be carefully monitored in these models since the group's dynamics can interfere with or facilitate the accomplishment of these goals. Whenever necessary, the t r a i n e r ' s job is to create a group environment conducive to goal achievement. For example, a personal growth group that establishes a n o r m prohibiting self-disclosure will not be one that encourages exploration and change. Likewise, a skills training group that disallows m e m b e r expressions of problematic situations on the job will not foster the trusting, supportive climate necessary for the acquisition of new skills. In such instances, the trainer m u s t anticipate the establishment of such restrictive n o r m s and intervene in an attempt to block their adoption, replacing t h e m with n o r m s consistent with the goal. Whitaker and Lieberman (1965) have provided us with a framework for using observational (experiential) interventions to encourage the adoption of positive norms. In essence, they describe the process that leads up to the establishment of a n o r m (or rule to control m e m b e r behavior) as one precipitated by an anxiety-producing group conflict. For example, in the beginning of a group, there, typically, is a wish to establish trusting, close relationships with other m e m b e r s . However, there is also a corresponding fear of being h u r t or rejected by others. These conflicting feelings must be resolved. The group m u s t decide how to reduce its tension and which of the two feelings to honor. Members could subconsciously decide to limit their interactions with each other to formal types of communication. This would block the formation of t r u s t b u t would also alleviate the anxiety of being h u r t or rejected. Whitaker and Lieberman refer to this as a restrictive solution since it inhibits the development of trust necessary for change or the acquisition of new skills to occur.

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Conversely, the group could decide to establish a n o r m that allows for self-disclosure about the wish for close relationships and the fear of hurt. This would also alleviate anxiety. The open discussion of the conflict would encourage the adoption of a n o r m to facilitate the development of a trusting climate. In Whitaker and Lieberman's framework, the group would have chosen an enabling solution in this instance. The solution enables the group to work toward the accomplishment of group and individual goals. This process of disturbance, discussion, and n o r m establishment occurs repeatedly in the group as members build rules to govern their interactions. Each time a solution is reached and a n o r m is agreed upon, goal achievement is positively or negatively affected. A series of restrictive solutions makes the accomplishment of group or individual goals more remote. A string of enabling solutions, or norms, enhances the likelihood of goal achievement. The personal growth or skills trainer obviously wants the group to choose enabling solutions. It is consistent with his or her role in these models for the trainer to encourage, foster, and direct this process in order to ensure the establishment of positive n o r m s . Since the development of norms occurs, for the most part, on a subconscious level, group m e m b e r s are often u n a w a r e that they are in the process of establishing a norm. This is when an experiential intervention can help to redirect the group toward the establishment of a positive, or enabling norm. By pointing out the group's conflicting feelings and proposed solution, the trainer brings this covert decision-making process to conscious awareness. Once this is done, logical discussion can take place. Usually, this will lead the group to make decisions that are in its best interest. In order to perceive accurately a subconscious process, the trainer m u s t be very familiar with theories of group development and the concepts of group dynamics. For example, if a m e m b e r becomes hostile toward another m e m b e r for sharing too much, the trainer must be alert to the possibility that the group is in the throes of establishing a n o r m against self-disclosure. If the group continuously ignores a m e m b e r who wishes to talk about difficult situations at work, the trainer should consider that the group may be attempting to keep m e m b e r s from discussing areas of weakness. Once the trainer observes the decision-making process happening, he should intervene swiftly. To wait until the group has reached a restrictive solution is ill-advised. Norms, once established, are very difficult to change. It is imperative to make interventions before the decision is finalized. Experiential interventions, then, have two uses: to heighten awareness of group or individual dynamics and to change the direction of

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these dynamics for the good of the group. Descriptions follow of nine types of experiential interventions that can be used for these purposes. Types of Experiential Interventions Inconsistency interventions are those which point out discrepancies in m e m b e r behaviors. They point out the fact that the group, or individual, is saying one thing and doing another. "The group is saying that it supports m e m b e r s who w a n t to lead. But, when a m e m b e r makes a suggestion, he is ignored." This intervention d r a w s attention to the subconscious decision not to allow members to lead. Such a decision usually results from feelings of competition among m e m b e r s . In a t-group, this intervention could lead to a discussion of reactions to peers who assume leadership or to a discussion of the subconscious establishment of norms. In a personal growth or skills training group, the same kinds of discussions might ensue. The trainer, then, could use these discussions for further interventions aimed at changing this n o r m to one that sets a m o r e positive climate. "Jerry, I notice that you rarely volunteer to receive feedback on your supervision style and yet you seem to want to improve in that area. What's u p ? " This intervention points out Jerry's ambivalent feelings about practicing new skills and receiving feedback. The discussion likely to follow would enable the trainer to work with J e r r y in establishing behaviors more likely to help him meet his goals. Impasse interventions are those which focus clearly on problems or conflicts that emerge in the group. "The group seems stuck. Rather than take action and offend some m e m b e r s , it has chosen not to act b u t this seems to have b r o u g h t things to a halt." This intervention describes the processes that led up to the impasse and brings the issue back to the group for further discussion. "Joe, you seem to be fighting with Jean, and yet, I think you're fond of her. Is fighting a way to keep your distance?" Here, the intervention describes what the problem a p p e a r s to be and poses a possible interpretation. The discussion that follows such an intervention usually explores old behavior p a t t e r n s and the efficacy of adopting m o r e adaptive ones. Such an intervention is often very helpful in a personal growth group. Organizational process interventions point out roles, status relationships, norms, communication patterns, decision-making strategies, and other organizational s t r u c t u r e s emerging in the group. "People who have been in training groups before tend to be deferred to by others in the group when it's time to make decisions,"

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describes the criterion being used to assign status. It outlines the decision-making process not as one based on consensus or voting but as one where low status m e m b e r s defer to the judgment of high status participants. "When some people talk, the group seems to ignore them while others receive a great deal of attention when they speak," is designed to point out the relationship between communication p a t t e r n s and perceived status. "Joe, the group seems to have assigned you to the role of group critic. When they are about to do something, you express reasons why it shouldn't be done. In effect, the group doesn't have to worry about what they decide to do because they've got you to divert them from action. You're performing a job for them." This intervention describes a group phenomenon and shows how an individual's role is a function of a subconscious group need for that role. Such an intervention places the responsibility for the results of that individual's behavior on all m e m b e r s of the group. Discussion following such an intervention is usually centered a r o u n d why the group allows itself to be blocked from taking certain actions. Organizational structure interventions can be purely observational and designed to heighten awareness about the effect of certain types of structures on group and individual behavior. In a t-group such interventions are useful in helping members to understand group processes. In personal growth and skills training groups, organizational structure interventions are used to bring to awareness the potentially positive or negative effects of certain structural elements on personal and group goals. Generally, trainers in these types of groups make group s t r u c t u r e interventions when the emerging s t r u c t u r e is likely to inhibit growth, change, or learning. The t r a i n e r ' s intent is to precipitate a discussion of the situation that sets the stage for altering structural components that are dysfunctional. Relationship interventions describe the types of relationships developing among members, the level of cohesion developing, or the occurrence of sub-group formations and coalitions. "This feels to me like two groups—not one. One group is positive about what we're doing. The other seems skeptical." This intervention points out a common phenomenon in groups. Sub-groups representing different views form and do battle until agreements are reached. In a short-term group, however, there may not be time for natural resolution of these issues and these differing views may inhibit goal achievement. Therefore, direct intervention is called for in these instances. "The group seems tense to m e , " is an intervention designed to highlight the c u r r e n t feeling tone of the group. Group discussion of

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feeling tone may reduce tension and increase the group's ability to work. It is important to keep in mind that excessive tension may not be the only emotional tone that inhibits work. Some groups become so interested and involved with each other that they abandon work and become more of a support group. In a t-group, this is simply observed. In personal growth and skills training groups, the trainer must monitor feeling tone and intervene to alter a trend that is dysfunctional. Paradoxical interventions state the opposite of what the trainer believes to be the situation or what she intends to have occur. "The group seems to be very comfortable with the trainer," is stated when the trainer believes that the opposite is true. This intervention usually pushes the group to discuss the reasons for their discomfort and to take action or make requests of the trainer to alter the situation. "John, you seem content with your situation," may help John to discuss his discontent. Sometimes when people are frightened or angry or hurt, it is easier to begin to talk about these feelings in reaction to another person's misstatement than in reaction to supportive and gentle urging to share. Paradoxical interventions can help members to share uncomfortable feelings. Paradoxical interventions should be used sparingly and with care. The use of too many paradoxical interventions within the same group diminishes their effectiveness. Also, these interventions must be delivered calmly and with a bit of warm humor. If they are simply stated, objectively, they may be interpreted as sarcastic and hostile. Paradoxical interventions are not meant to be underhanded. Rather, they are meant to facilitate sharing in difficult situations. Psychologists use paradox in a broader sense in treatment. However, trainers have not contracted to do therapy with their groups. The narrow definition of paradox given here seems adequate, safe, and useful in the training situation. Self-disclosure intervention are those in which the trainer shares personal feelings, wishes, and information with the group in order to further group goal achievement. "I'm feeling disregarded by the group," is an intervention designed to precipitate a discussion of how the group is using the trainer. The intention is to facilitate discussion of reactions to authority figures and resistance to task. It is not a plea for attention on the part of the trainer. "I had to learn to share personal information with others, too, Sarah. Lots of people have that problem." This intervention gives real information about the trainer's personal struggles. This is done to empathize with Sarah and to encourage her in her efforts to form closer relationships with people.

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Self-disclosure interventions are used to join with the group in their struggles, to model self-disclosure for the group, to describe the effect of certain group actions on the trainer, or to comment on the emotional aspects of group life. Self-disclosure on the part of a trainer m u s t always be consistent with the task of the group and not merely an outgrowth of the trainer's needs or wishes. Existential therapists refer to this as selective authenticity. The trainer uses his own feelings and past history to help the group accomplish its task. Cautious, goal-directed use of this intervention technique can be very beneficial to m e m b e r s . Misuse can be, at best, off task and, at worst, an abuse of the power inherent in the trainer role. A silence intervention is one in which a trainer does not react verbally in response to a request or in response to the demands of a particular model or group event. If a member, or the whole group, asks the trainer to direct their activities, it may be counterproductive for the trainer to respond. Often, m e m b e r s seek the trainer's help out of feelings of dependency and a wish to avoid the responsibility for decision making. If the goal of that group includes increasing m e m b e r s ' skills in self-direction (personal growth), a trainer response would decrease the likelihood that that goal would be met. In a t-group, the trainer uses his or her silence to heighten participants' awareness of group dependency on authority figures. Also, the trainer's role in a t-group is to observe ongoing processes, not to create them. Therefore, to take direct action would be to step out of role. Frequently, groups will wait for the trainer to solve a problem or console an overwrought participant. This phenomenon is observed in all types of groups and reflects the diffusion of personal responsibility that occurs in groups. Training groups should not foster continued dependence on authority figures to solve problems that m e m b e r s are capable of solving themselves. Silence, then, helps the trainer to keep from doing the work of the group. A goal check intervention is one in which the trainer comments on the degree to which c u r r e n t behavior is consistent with group or individual goals. "I'm not sure how this discussion relates to our task," is an example of an intervention that calls the group's attention to their task. "The group seems to have decided on a way to accomplish its goal," points out positive progress toward goal accomplishment. "Marion, you're being pretty quiet and I know you're working on being able to share more in groups," is an intervention designed to help Marion compare her current behavior with her desired behavior. The trainer is the embodiment of the task. He is always checking his own behavior against the goals of the group or individuals. The

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trainer also checks group behavior against goals and shares this information with the group when appropriate. Because of their size, structure, emotionality, and p a r t i c u l a r processes, groups often lose sight of their goals. Since the trainer is m o r e objective and m o r e attuned to looking at the whole group, it is easier for her to be a w a r e of off-task behavior and to point out its occurrence. Restatement interventions are those in which the trainer highlights what participants have been saying or feeling in o r d e r to allow further examination of their behaviors or feelings. "The group seems to be feeling guilty"; "The group seems concerned about the possibility of evaluation"; or "The g r o u p is focusing on feelings" are three examples of restatement interventions. STRUCTURAL INTERVENTIONS S t r u c t u r a l interventions are those in which the trainer initiates structured activities, gives directives, or deliberately models certain behaviors for the benefit of group m e m b e r s . These interventions are referred to as s t r u c t u r a l because they are designed, in most cases, to directly effect group functioning or to directly alter the course of group events or behavior. S t r u c t u r a l interventions generally are intended to shift the level at which the group is operating. For example, a group might be discussing a problem in a highly intellectual way. The t r a i n e r may determine that the intellectual mode of the discussion may lead to faulty conclusions or may impede adequate psychological resolution of the issue. Consequently, she may initiate a nonverbal activity in which m e m b e r s are instructed to act out their feelings about the subject. Nonverbal activities tend to bypass cognitive processes and allow emotional reactions to surface. This changes the group's mode of relating to an issue from a cognitive to an emotional response. On the other hand, a trainer might determine that a highly emotional tone is interfering, at that moment, with understanding. Therefore, he might choose to provide s t r u c t u r e d cognitive inputs in the form of a brief lecture to introduce more thoughtfulness into the process. Of course, this example assumes that the trainer is working in a model where such actions are appropriate (personal growth or skills training). Sometimes a group or a few participants will be discussing a surface issue when the real issue, in the trainer's considered judgment, is an underlying one. He might, therefore, direct m e m b e r s ' attention to the underlying issue through an activity, an experiment, or selected comments.

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Finally, any n u m b e r of group variables—norms, decision-making procedures, level of supportiveness, and the like—may be negatively effecting goal achievement. The trainer may find it necessary to alter the course of events to provide an "enabling" r a t h e r than "restrictive" climate. A structural intervention may be useful in this instance. Types of Structural Interventions A behavior experiment intervention is one in which the trainer invites a member or m e m b e r s to try out new behaviors in order to gain insights into their c u r r e n t feelings or to learn new behavioral skills. Role reversal, role playing, behavior rehearsal, and suggested experiments are examples of behavior experiments. Role reversal is suggested by the trainer to help a m e m b e r understand the feelings of another member of the group. For example, two members might be engaged in a heated argument. The trainer would invite them to continue the argument but to switch positions. Member A now argues the position of m e m b e r B and vice versa. The trainer's intention in using this intervention is to sensitize one m e m b e r to the struggles of the other by having him walk in the other person's shoes for a while. Role playing may involve the acting out of past personal events or current difficulties. The trainer asks the m e m b e r to act out r a t h e r than talk about the event. This provides insight into feelings and reactions. Also, it is possible that the role playing may suggest other interpretations of the meaning of events or may suggest ways to alter the course of such events in the future. Moreno (1959), the inventor of this technique, suggests various ways to use this powerful tool. Behavioral rehearsal (McFall and Twentyman, 1973) is a further refinement of the role-playing process. In this process, a participant role plays a past situation as it occurred in order to acquire new skills to apply to future situations. Then the trainer models an alternative way of dealing more effectively with the situation. The participant observes the modeled behavior, covertly rehearses it, and then overtly rehearses a new response. He receives feedback from other participants and the trainer on the effectiveness of his new behavioral response. He then replays this response incorporating the feedback. Behavioral rehearsal is a major strategy in skills training groups. It provides a vehicle for learning new skills and practicing these skills to gain mastery. There has been a significant amount of research on the effect of this intervention on the acquisition of new skills. Every skills and personal growth trainer should be familiar with behavior rehearsal and be able to use this structural intervention competently.

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Trainers may also create or suggest behavior experiments to members. An example that comes to mind occurred a number of years ago in a residential personal growth lab. Two men were having an intense disagreement. They did not get along and took every opportunity to goad each other. The situation was interfering with the m e m b e r s ' goal achievement and the trainer was also concerned that the two men were not examining the underlying reasons for their feuding. The trainer suggested that the men, who were about the same size, literally exchange clothes. The men left the room and r e t u r n e d wearing each others' clothing. The t r a i n e r had noted that the dress of the two men reflected their differences—liberal and conservative. The exchange of clothes changed the tone of their discussion. They began trying to u n d e r s t a n d each other. Behavior experiments tend to be interventions that respond to the moment. They are individualized and intended to provide a chance for participants to explore attitudes and behaviors in the safety of the group. An executive intervention is one in which the t r a i n e r gives directions, states rules, teaches skills or offers suggestions consistent with group or individual goals. This type of intervention is consistent with the executive function of group leaders outlined by Lieberman, Yalom and Miles (1973). A trainer's role includes, in most cases, a guidance function. He or she begins and ends the group in accordance with agreed upon time boundaries, sets some limits as to the types of interactions that will occur in the group, offers information or suggestions, and directly teaches skills, when necessary. "The group is not the place for discussion of world events. It just takes us away from our task." "I think it would be useful for us all to share some background information with each other." "Let's hold that discussion until we've finished this activity." These are all examples of executive interventions. In their research, Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles (1973) found that groups with positive results and high learning quotients had leaders who exhibited a moderate a m o u n t of executive interventions. Too many or too few of these types of interventions adversely affected goal achievement. Supportive interventions are those in which the trainer offers support, caring, and protection, if necessary, to group m e m b e r s and, in so doing, models supportive behavior for participants. "Jean I would he h u r t by what was just said," is an example of a supportive intervention designed to d e m o n s t r a t e caring and a protective attitude toward a group m e m b e r . Again, Lieberman, Yalom, and Miles' (1973) research found that trainers who exhibited a high n u m b e r of supportive behaviors h a d

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positive results and fostered high learning in their groups. This caring, protective attitude is perhaps the most important trainer intervention in establishing a safe, supportive environment in which to learn. Activity interventions are those in which the trainer initiates structured exercises to facilitate group goals. There are many such activities for trainers to choose from. Pfeiffer and Jones (1969-1989) and Amidon et al. (1976) are just two of the many references trainers may consult to find such activities. The key to the use of an activity intervention is in choosing exercises that fit with the needs of the group at that time. Things to consider are the learning needs, the audience, prior experience with group activities and the developmental stage of the group. An excessive amount of exercises, exercises that seem "gamey," or exercises that don't fit current group conditions, may interfere with goal attainment. Judicious and economic use of selected activity interventions can do much to enhance learning. This chapter defined and described trainer interventions that have been found to facilitate goal achievement. The next chapter discusses the process of deciding when and how a trainer should intervene in different types of groups.

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7 Deciding When and How to Intervene

WHEN TO I N T E R V E N E There are several factors that the trainer must be a w a r e of in deciding when to intervene in a group. The first issue the trainer must consider is the model in which he is working. Each model implies a different rate of intervention. The frequency of intervention depends upon the specific model's goal and theoretical underpinnings. For example, t-groups attempt to help participants u n d e r s t a n d group processes as they occur. Consequently, the t r a i n e r is relieved of the responsibility of making things happen. The trainer establishes an initial u n s t r u c t u r e d environment by consciously not intervening. She does not lead or attempt to initiate any action. This is m a n d a t e d by the model in that nonintervention sets in motion processes that more closely resemble the initial stages of n a t u r a l groups in which members create their own structure. Also, it draws the m e m b e r s ' attention to group dependence on authority figures to organize and direct activities. This, too, parallels life in the real world where work groups wait for the boss to decide on their method of operation. The trainer sets these processes in motion through his silence. Thus, the rate of verbal interventions in a t-group will be considerably less than that of other models. In addition, the t-group model is based on the notion that experiential learning is the best way to gain an understanding of group functioning. Experiential learning implies that participants experience group processes and then discuss and conceptualize these experiences, as much as possible, on their own. Therefore, the trainer intervenes only when the group needs assistance in accomplishing

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their task. Again, this limits the a m o u n t of interventions since a high intervention rate may interfere with goal achievement. Finally, the t-group trainer frustrates m e m b e r s ' dependency behaviors in o r d e r to highlight individual responsibility for shaping the direction of the group. This, too, is best accomplished through silence. T-group trainers intervene only to highlight group processes that are occurring in the group. This can best be done with a minimal amount of intervention. In general, t-group trainers tend to intervene once or twice in an hour. This is a much lower rate than is required by most models. In personal growth groups, the goal requires a more active trainer. The trainer is attempting to help individuals reach p a r t i c u l a r goals. He m u s t facilitate goal development for each individual and coordinate and consolidate individual goals in order to plan and execute activities relevant to all members. Therefore, the rate of intervention will be m u c h higher than in a t-group. A word of caution is necessary at this point. The theoretical underpinnings of personal growth groups vary widely and affect the intervention rate. Thus, a Gestalt-oriented trainer would intervene less than a behaviorally oriented trainer. When working within a particular theoretical framework, the t r a i n e r must adjust his intervention rate to be consistent with that framework. Two other factors affect the intervention rate in personal growth groups. No m a t t e r what the t r a i n e r ' s theoretical orientation might be, personal growth groups work t o w a r d helping individuals to assume more responsibility for their own growth. An overactive trainer might inhibit the development of personal responsibility in participants. It is necessary for the t r a i n e r to gauge his intervention rate to match the group's ability to work on its own. Attempting to push groups faster than they are willing to go is antithetical to goal achievement and simply increases resistance. Personal growth trainers, whether they have an individual or group-oriented view of change, cannot overlook group processes. Groups move at their own pace and trainers must match that pace. The skilled trainer is never too far out of step with group development and processes. A skills training group requires a fairly high rate of intervention. In this model, trainers have the most active teaching role. They plan, organize, and implement various training designs. Lectures, demonstrations, and feedback are often necessary and significantly increase the trainer's "airtime." Often, the group is short-term (one or two days). Therefore, the trainer must actively work to build trust in his leadership. There isn't time for the natural trust-building group processes to occur. This fact also demands a more active t r a i n e r role.

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The high intervention rate required of skills trainers has a built-in pitfall. Trainers may work too h a r d and overwhelm the group. Or, they may not pay enough attention to group processes and may unwittingly produce counterproductive group processes (resistance, suspicion, or excessive dependency). Frequent feedback from the group regarding its state of well-being and continued observation by the trainer will help avoid excessive intervention. The second factor that aids the trainer in deciding when to intervene is the group process. Intervention is needed when the process of the group could potentially block goal achievement. For example, if a group is feeling discouraged about its progress, this could reduce motivation. Intervention to attempt to change this prevailing mood is necessary. At another level, if one member is disparaging the worth of a particular activity, the feeling may spread and increase resistance to the activity. Again, intervention is necessary. Sometimes one m e m b e r will monopolize the group. Other participants will become disgruntled and resentful of the trainer unless the trainer intervenes. Trainers are the guardians of the group's processes and development. They are alert to the system's functioning and intervene, when necessary, to adjust this functioning to be supportive of the group's learning goals. A trainer cannot drastically alter group processes. The group system is an extremely powerful force. He can, however, adjust the direction of this force through intervention. When trains change tracks, the change is never accomplished abruptly. A number of switches must be thrown before a northbound train is moving in a northeasterly direction. In a similar manner, a number of interventions are needed to change a "blocking" group process into an "enabling" one. The third factor to consider in deciding when to intervene is the group's learning requirements. The trainer m u s t assess whether or not the group requires input at a particular moment to reach its goals. Input may be offered in the form of information, encouragement, support, or observation. The type of input must, of course, be consistent with the goals of the model in which the t r a i n e r is working. Once a trainer has thought through the three major factors that determine when an intervention is necessary, she should ask herself three questions. I. Is a member

likely to intervene

for me?

It is often better for an observation or comment to come from a group m e m b e r r a t h e r than a trainer. People learn better when they are involved in and feel responsible for their own learning. Sometimes trainers inadvertently t h w a r t m e m b e r initiatives by intervening too quickly. Once a trainer has formulated an intervention, it is useful

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to wait for a short time before delivering the intervention. During this time interval, a m e m b e r may make the intervention for him.

2. How frequently haave I been intervening? If the trainer's rate of intervention has been high, it may be best to forego intervening for a time. Trainers often work h a r d e r than m e m b e r s and, in so doing, negatively effect m e m b e r goal achievement. Members may defer to the trainer and, as a result, be less involved in the process. 3. How should the intervention be timed to maximize its effectiveness? In general, an intervention should be delivered as soon after an example of the behavior or issue has occurred as possible. Participants will have an easier time connecting the intervention to the example if they occur in close proximity. Many beginning trainers worry that they will miss the opportune moment to make an intervention. However, if the trainer's observation is accurate, there will be many opportunities to implement the intervention. HOW TO INTERVENE The process of formulating an intervention is very similar to the process involved in conducting a research project. The steps are as follows: 1. Choose the frameworks which provide a way to view the group and change/learning processes as they occur during the life of the group. 2. Collect data as it occurs in the group. 3. Collate and sort the data. Create a statement that describes the c u r r e n t situation. 4. Process the statement in t e r m s of the chosen group framework. Note how the statement relates to group development and how it may positively or negatively effect group goal achievement. 5. Process the statement in t e r m s of the chosen change/learning framework. Note how the statement would be explained and dealt with in that framework. 6. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience as a participant and leader of this type of group. How would you explain and deal with this event? 7. Decide what needs to be done and what the expected outcome might be.

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8. Frame the intervention. Choose the type of intervention. Carefully p h r a s e the wording of the intervention. 9. State the intervention to the group. 10. Note the group's short-term and long-term reaction to the intervention as a way to assess its effectiveness. Note changes, if any, that might be made in the future, should a similar event occur. At first glance, this process seems c u m b e r s o m e and time consuming. It is true that interventions are decided upon and occur in a small time frame. In many ways, though, this ten-step process reduces the amount of time necessary to formulate an intervention. Also, it reduces the amount of data to be attended to and provides a clear decision-making process. An examination of each step may help the reader to u n d e r s t a n d how the process works. Step One—Choosing Frameworks Two frameworks are necessary for viewing the events that occur in training groups—a group theory framework and the theory of change or learning framework inherent in the model in which the trainer is working. Things happen at a furious pace in groups. If a trainer paid attention to every event, action, or response occurring in a group at any given time, she would be inundated with information and in a quandary as to how to interpret the meaning of all these data. It is important to decide beforehand what events and behaviors will be attended to and how to interpret their meaning. Theoretical frameworks then, provide us with a way to n a r r o w our focus by screening out inconsequential information and attending primarily to predetermined data. Bion (1959), Bennis and Shepard (1956), Schutz (1966), and the integrated theory presented in this work offer four group theory frameworks from which the trainer may choose (see Chapter 2). Prior to the group, the facilitator is well-advised to choose one of these theories (or some other) as the way in which he will monitor group processes. For example, one might choose Schutz. Consequently, behavioral events in the group would be filtered through Schutz's major concepts of inclusion, affection, and control. Events in the group that relate to these three categories would be attended to and assessed in terms of their effect on the healthy resolution of these issues. Thus, a trainer would see an anxious silence near the beginning of a personal growth group as evidence that m e m b e r s ' needs to feel included

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and safe in the group have not yet been met. This would be viewed as a normal p a r t of group development and, therefore, no intervention is necessary. The same event, however, later in the group's life would be seen as a problem that will interfere with goal achievement. Consequently, intervention might be contemplated. The same event, during initial meetings, in Bion's theory, might be interpreted as a sign of flight from the anxiety generated by working on personal issues. It would be dealt with as a normal occurrence unless the anxiety was seen as overwhelming and inhibiting the group's work. In that case, intervention would be contemplated. The second framework is directly related to the model in which the trainer is working. Each model has a different goal and a slightly different set of beliefs about how change or learning takes place. In the t-group, the goal is to learn about group development and the model assumes that participation and observation in a relatively unstructured, nondirected setting is the way to accomplish this goal. Thus, all events occurring in the group are scrutinized for their potential value as examples of universal group processes and as opportunities to enhance insight learning. The trainer would not, therefore, direct the group or suggest what is to be learned by focusing on an individual or an idiosyncratic event since this would be inconsistent with the t-group framework. The goal of a personal growth group is to facilitate individual small changes in self-acceptance, self-directions and self-awareness. This model assumes that a mixture of awareness, learning about the change process, planning, and practicing necessary skills is the way to accomplish this goal. Consequently, the trainer would be more directive, would be mindful of individual goals, and would evaluate group events according to their potential positive or negative effect on individual goal attainment. Also, the trainer would be careful not to be too directive since personal growth groups are set up to enhance self-direction not leader direction. Skills training groups, as their n a m e implies, have the teaching of a skill or set of skills as their p r i m a r y goal. The model assumes that behavioral practice in a supportive environment is the p r i m a r y way to accomplish this goal. A skills trainer, therefore, would be quite directive, would encourage participation and practice, and would view events in the group according to their potential to encourage or discourage practice and the flow of feedback necessary for the learning process. Choice of the two frameworks occurs prior to the start of any group and helps us to focus our attention on things considered essential to the task.

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Step Two—Data Collection At this step, the actual process of formulating an intervention begins. The trainer starts by observing ongoing events in the group. This requires observational skills—primarily visual, auditory, and affect sensing. Frequent visual scanning of nonverbal behavior, paying particular attention to facial expressions, is a useful data collection strategy. Trainers should listen to everything—what is said, by whom and to whom. Also, it is important to learn to sense affective states in individuals and the group as a whole. Step Three—Create a Statement After a period of observation, the facilitator will begin to see patterns in group events. For example, several people may state their concern over the lack of direction in the group. At this point, the trainer creates an internal statement that describes the current situation. In this case, the statement might be, "The group feels directionless and is looking for the trainer to assume more leadership." Step Four—Relate to Group Framework The descriptive statement created at Step Three is now processed through the group theory framework employed by the trainer. She examines the current situation in light of this framework to determine how it may positively or negatively affect group goal achievement. Continuing with this example and assuming that this is a t-group (Bennis and Shepard, 1956 [framework]), the statement describes members' natural response to the nondirective style required of a t-group trainer. In a personal growth group, (Schutz, 1966 [framework]) in a middle session, such a statement might describe the group's frustration over attempts to organize their individual concerns into compatible group concerns and to deal with naturally emerging conflicts about who has control in the group. In an early session of a skills training group (Bion or the integrated framework) the statement might indicate emerging dependency needs that can inhibit task-oriented behavior. Step Five—Relate to Learning Framework Next, the statement is processed in terms of the change/learning framework of the model in use. This statement, in a t-group, describes the natural dependency needs that members feel in relationship to authority. Because of the trainer's nondirective style, members are

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more aware of their dependency issues than they might be in other groups. Since the goal of the t-group is to facilitate member learning about groups and the method used to facilitate learning is through experience and insight, it would be consistent with the framework to intervene. In a personal growth group, this statement is also indicative of dependency needs and, in addition, may represent some normal resistance to beginning a self-directed change process. The trainer might consider an intervention to heighten awareness of these issues and/or a supportive intervention to ease the tension. The skills training facilitator would view such a statement as a potential impediment to goal achievement and as important feedback for himself. When members of a skills training group are concerned about a lack of structure, it may be that the trainer is not providing enough leadership. Skills trainers must be more directive due to the different learning goal of such a group. The trainer assumes more responsibility and attempts to ease group tensions by his interventions in order to maintain a positive climate for skill acquisition. An intervention, or series of interventions, is clearly necessary. It is also possible that such a statement is an indicator of some anxiety among members about the nontraditional teaching methods employed in skills training groups. Most people are used to lectures and note taking in a classroom situation. The discussions, activities, and role playing, that are necessary for skill acquisition, may feel unstructured and a bit risky. The statement, then, could be describing some resistance to the novel teaching methods. If this is determined by the facilitator to be the case, an intervention to reduce the group's fears and to build safety is in order. Step Six—Relate to Personal Experience Once the trainer has determined the most likely meaning of the statement and the most useful action to take by referring to his theoretical frameworks, he should quickly scan his memory for similar events that he has experienced. Theories provide direction but do not necessarily cover all possible events. The facilitator compares the theoretical formulation and implied action plan to his experience-based formulation. If they match, he proceeds to Step Seven. If not, the trainer attempts to gain more data from the group in order to choose between the disparate formulations. For instance, referring back to our example, imagine that the t-group in question contains one member who is displaying a great deal of anxiety in response to the lack of structure in the group. Other members may be expressing natural dependency concerns. However,

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this particular member appears more distressed and the trainer is concerned about possible psychopathology. In this case, the theoretical framework suggests an intervention to heighten awareness of naturally occurring dependency needs. However, the trainer's clinical experience suggests that, for this individual, more direct action is necessary to prevent psychological harm. Given this set of circumstances, the trainer might choose to provide input during the group about how some people can respond negatively to the unstructured t-group situation due to situational stress in their lives. Such an intervention would be an indirect attempt on the trainer's part to calm the individual for the duration of that session. After the group, a private discussion with the individual regarding the efficacy of his participating in a t-group at this time might be necessary. This deviation from theoretical frameworks must be carefully thought out. Often, due to their own anxieties, trainers overreact to emotionally expressive individuals and read pathology into situations when none is present. However, if, after careful deliberation, the trainer believes that a member is in excessive distress, deviation from theoretical frameworks is appropriate and ethical. The issue then becomes how to ease the individual's distress without causing undue embarrassment for him or the group and how to counsel the individual privately about continued participation or possible referral. Fortunately, such incidents are very rare but they do occur and trainers should feel free to deviate from their framework in these circumstances. Another important way to use personal experience in shaping interventions is to check your emotional reaction to the current group situation. Being human, trainers can react personally and emotionally to events. They may feel defensive, overly protective, threatened, or hostile in response to the situation. It is crucial to check your current reaction for evidence of this phenomenon. While normal, interventions made on this basis do not often help the group accomplish its goals. Step Seven—Decide What to Do At this point, the trainer has looked at the event in three ways— from her group, learning, and personal frameworks. Now, she formulates an action plan on the advice provided by these three perspectives. Of course, there is always some ambivalence surrounding the decision-making process. However, the trainer has increased the probability of a helpful intervention by seeking the best advice obtainable at that moment. Returning again to our example, this event leads to the formulation of the following action plans:

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Step Eight—Frame the Intervention Given the predetermined action plan, the facilitator now m u s t choose the type of intervention to deliver the message. He also m u s t decide whether he will direct this intervention to the group as a whole, to an individual, or to a sub-group. Finally, he m u s t carefully check the wording of the intervention so that his words will have the desired impact. In o u r example, the t-group trainer decided at Step Seven to use this group event as an opportunity to facilitate m e m b e r s ' learning about naturally occurring group dependency needs. Referring to the types of interventions that were outlined in Chapter 6, the trainer could choose to use a conceptual intervention or an experiential intervention to accomplish this task. He could say: "Group m e m b e r s tend to depend a lot on their leaders and to feel helpless in taking m a t t e r s into their own hands, especially in beginning sessions." This is a group process intervention which provides information based on Bennis and Shepard's theoretical formulation. It provides the group with a way to u n d e r s t a n d their c u r r e n t behavior. It is delivered to the whole group and wording, voice tone, and nonverbal behaviors are checked to ensure that the statement is said in a nonthreatening, matter-of-fact manner. The trainer could also choose an experiential intervention. She might say: "The group is saying that it wants more s t r u c t u r e b u t s t r u c t u r e implies differentiated roles among m e m b e r s . The group seems unwilling to allow m e m b e r s to assume different roles. Only the trainer can be different." This is an example of an impasse intervention. It is intended to describe the group's current situation and to point out indirectly their dependence on the leader and their subconscious rivalry with each other for special t r e a t m e n t from the trainer. Again, w o r d s are carefully chosen to be descriptive and affectively neutral. It would

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be easy for the trainer to be perceived as sarcastic in delivering this intervention. Words like "sibling rivalry" would get a negative response. Also, a knowing grin would create anger and divert the group from thinking about the message to thinking about attacking the trainer. For the group to challenge the trainer is not in and of itself negative. However, in this case, the attack would be reflexive and would be unlikely to enhance awareness of group dynamics. Consequently, the trainer delivers the intervention in an emotionally neutral way to enhance the likelihood of having the message received and understood. The personal growth trainer decided at Step Seven to deliver an intervention designed to heighten awareness of the difficulties in selfdirected change and to support members' efforts to change. Also, a reduction of unnecessary tension was sought. The trainer could use either a conceptual or experiential intervention to accomplish this. The trainer might say: "When we try to incorporate new changes into ourselves, we initially resist our own efforts. Our bodies are designed to resist intrusions and our minds work that way too. It makes us go slowly when we're making a physical or mental change and that's fine. It's a slow process and you're handling it just fine." This is a theory intervention that compares psychic resistance and physical resistance to change. It gives members a way to understand their anxiety over the lack of structure and a way to understand their impatience with the process. Finally, it reassures them that their feelings are normal, which will, most likely, decrease their anxiety. The facilitator might also say: "This group feels tense and a bit angry to me. There is tension about getting on with the change process and, I think, a little anger at me for not helping you do this in an easier way." This is an example of a relationship intervention designed to highlight the current feeling tone of the group. The ensuing group discussion of member anxieties may reduce tension and increase the group's ability to work. The intervention is delivered to the group as a whole. The feeling tone of the intervention is supportive and words are delivered by the trainer in a gentle, open way since the trainer's goal is to facilitate discussion of this issue in order to reduce anxiety. The skills trainer decided at Step Seven to deliver an intervention to reduce group anxiety. She also intends to respond to the group's need for structure by being more directive. She might say: "It's important that people feel secure here so that we can meet our goals. Please take five minutes in your small groups to express your concerns about the structure and to write down two suggestions about what I could do to correct the situation. I'll incorporate as many

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suggestions as possible into my plans for the rest of our sessions together." This is a structural intervention-activity type in which the trainer initiates structured exercises to facilitate group goal achievement. It is designed to reduce tension by immediately supplying more structure via the proposed activity. It also will provide the trainer with information about the reasons for their concern and suggestions to correct the problem. The suggested activity is time limited. It allows for ventilation without too much deviation from the trainer's planned design. Step Nine—State the Intervention Deliver interventions to the group with attention to your nonverbal and verbal messages. Be sure that your delivery matches your intended message. Sometimes, this is the hardest step for trainers. It requires that the trainer be confident and deliver the intervention with certainty. Step Ten—Assess the Intervention's Effect After the intervention is delivered, there will be a short-term and long-term group reaction to it. In order to assess an intervention's effectiveness the trainer recalls his goal in making the intervention and then correlates the group's response to the intervention with this goal. If, for example, an intervention was intended to reduce anxiety and the group's anxiety level decreases, then the intervention met the goal. If the goal was to heighten group awareness of dependency issues and a discussion of this phenomenon ensues, then the intervention has been successful. These short-term reactions do not always immediately follow the intervention. In general, however, the anticipated reaction occurs at some point during that session. Long-term reactions are not as easy for a practitioner to evaluate. However, feedback from participants after a session or at the end of a training experience may shed light on the effectiveness of a particular intervention or the cumulative effect of numerous interventions. It is useful to tape-record training sessions and review them as an ongoing part of one's professional development. The ten-step intervention process outlined here, is an attempt to describe the process that trainers employ in deciding how to intervene. In reality, this process occurs in a brief time frame. Beginning trainers will benefit from practicing interventions by using these steps until they become second nature to them. More advanced trainers may use this approach to systematize the intuitive process they have developed through experience.

8 Practicing Interventions

An essential element of any learning methodology includes practice. An important aspect of acquiring new skills includes the transfer of learning from group settings to natural environments closely resembling life situations. In this chapter, the reader will have the opportunity to integrate his or her knowledge of group development and change/learning frameworks with knowledge of the intervention process and then apply these concepts to situations extracted from actual group settings. Here, the reader is invited to synthesize the information acquired throughout the reading of this text—to utilize the definitions of the three groups models addressed in the "Introduction" with the group development frameworks discussed in Chapter 2, the decision-making process involved in choosing a framework outline in Chapter 1, the types of interventions offered in Chapter 6, the format for intervention described in Chapter 7, and descriptions of the three models in Chapters 3,4, and 5. This is where the pieces of the process fit together in an action plan. HOW TO USE THE PRACTICE EXAMPLES For purposes of review and familiarity, it may be wise to reread the ten-step process entitled "How to Intervene" described in Chapter 7. Refer to this section for a further explanation of the intervention process to be applied to the examples given in this chapter. Essentially, the first three steps mentioned in the ten-step format will be stated by the author as "given" information for each example.

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Some steps in the original ten have been combined for clarity and simplicity. A series of scenarios describing various events occuring in group settings will be presented. For each scenario, information will be given by the a u t h o r that describes: The context: The type of group climate prevailing at the time that the event occurred, the approximate session in the group's life during which the event happened, and a general idea of the mood of the group at the time the event occurred. Data statement: The actual words used by participants to express a certain concern at a specific stage in group life will be provided. For each data statement given, the reader is invited to respond to the ' T r a i n e r Intervention Process N o t e s " for a t-group, a personal growth group, and then a skills training group. Following each group practice section, the trainer may compare his responses to the a u t h o r ' s intervention process notes. For each group practice section, information will be given that describes: The type of group—a t-group, skills training group, or personal growth group. The group goal—this information flows logically from the type of group being described: In other words, if a skills training group is described in the example, the goal might be "learning specific h u m a n relations skills." The group development framework—Prior to the group's first meeting, the trainer would have chosen a theoretical group framework (Bion, 1959; Bennis and Shepard, 1956; Schutz, 1966; or the integrated model) through which he will filter behavioral events. •

The learning framework—Since each model has a different goal or underlying assumption of how change and learning takes place, this will be stated for each example. In the t-group, for instance, the model assumes that experiential, insight-oriented learning in a relatively u n s t r u c t u r e d , nondirected setting is the best way to study group development. The stated learning framework, then, would be that participation 4- observation 4- conceptualization = understanding.

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For each "data statement" the reader is asked to consider the stepby-step intervention strategy he or she would employ by responding to the following requests: 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the c u r r e n t situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen change/learning framework.

group,

3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide action—to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention types, level of intensity, wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. First, the reader may take account of her practice intervention strategy for a t-group and then review the a u t h o r ' s recommended intervention strategy for the t-group situation. Following this, she may practice her strategy for a personal growth group intervention for the same data statement and then check her ideas with those provided. Next, she will respond as a skills trainer might and then compare her answers to the intervention process notes for a skills training group. The reader will see how one event is responded to in three different settings in three different ways. The author's responses are not to be considered the "right answers" to the practice dilemmas presented; they are merely possible ways to respond to the data presented. Readers are encouraged to use their own creative thinking powers to discover intervention choices, rationales, and strategies.

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EXAMPLE 1: Beginning Issue Content: Joe makes a statement in the second session of the group. He wants to suggest an activity for the group to try. Until now, the group has done little to challenge the authority of the leader. This statement is Joe's way of testing his own power in the group and a way of testing the leader's management of his or her authority.

Data Statement: Joe: "I know an activity to help us get acquainted. Should we try it?" He turns to the leader and says, "Is it all right?" The group looks to you for your answers. RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION. BEGINNING ISSUE—t-GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation + observation -f conceptualization — understanding Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene.

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5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. Joe is expressing the group's persistent dependency on the trainer. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Joe's statement is a clear behavioral example of Bennis and Shepard's dependency stage. Given the group's goal, this is a normal and pivotal event in the group's life. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. The natural urge to answer a posed question verbally must be resisted if the trainer is to remain a participant-observer and not assume the leadership role. 4. Decide action—to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-silence 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Confusion, anger and frustration will follow. Long-term: A discussion of the group's dependency issues may occur a bit later in the group's life. This will facilitate participants' understanding of the dependency phase that naturally occurs in group development. BEGINNING ISSUE—PERSONAL GROWTH Goal: Joe's goal—to become more assertive Overall goal:—individual, specific goal achievement Group Framework: Bion

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1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. On an individual level, Joe is showing assertive initiative in proposing an activity. Although there is a slightly deferential tone to Joe's statement, it is clearly a positive step towards goal achievement. Joe is also expressing the group's dependency on the leader. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. The event is an example of Bion's dependency issue. Given that this is an early session, dependent behavior is quite normal at the group level. Joe's individual behavior is quite normal at the group level. Joe's individual behavior is goal directed. He may, however, be unaware of having exhibited assertive behavior in his questioning. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Trainers used to dealing with the group may label this a dependent event and miss the individual goal-directed concurrent event. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group?

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type: structural-support; structural-executive intensity: low to whom: individual "Joe, you're getting more assertive already. Why don't you describe your activity to the group and see what they say?" 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Joe will feel supported by the trainer. He will then initiate a discussion of his activity with the group. Long-term: Joe will continue his efforts to be more assertive. The group will turn to each other rather than to the trainer, for approval in the future. BEGINNING ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills Learning management skills Group Framework: Schutz Learning Framework: Learning -f modeling 4- practice + support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. Joe is attempting to exercise some influence in the group by suggesting an activity.

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2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. According to Schutz, this event is indicative of the control stage of group development, a normal process in groups. The skills trainer must keep a tight rein on the activities of the skills training group since a specific agenda and a specific goal must be accomplished in a set period of time. Consequently, it is important to maintain control of the agenda. This should be executed in a supportive manner in order to maintain an atmosphere that optimizes learning. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Trainers may feel threatened or challenged by this event. The trainer may respond too quickly and appear harsh and overly controlling. The event is a normal occurrence and should not be viewed as a personal affront. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: structural-executive intensity: low to whom: individual "If it fits with our agenda for today, Joe, it would be fun. Describe it quickly and I'll see." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Joe describes the activity and a decision is made by the trainer regarding its relevance. Long-term: Group members perceive the trainer as being in charge and being supportive. This factor should limit future challenges directed toward the trainer by establishing a norm of overall cooperation.

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EXAMPLE 2: Middle Issue Context: The group has been meeting regularly for several weeks. Members are beginning to feel comfortable enough in the group environment to share some of their feelings. Several issues have surfaced and have been discussed. Presently, a controversial subject is being discussed by the group. Mary interjects a thoughtful comment off the subject. It is directed to the trainer. Data

Statement:

Mary: "Are we doing as well as other groups you've led?" RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION.

MIDDLE ISSUE—t-GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation + observation -f conceptualization = understanding

Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene.

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5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. Mary is seeking the trainer's approval. The event is a group attempt to coax the leader out of role and into a more comfortable relationship with the group. This attempt is led by the over personals. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Bennis and Shepard would describe this event as an example of continuing group dependence as the group begins to struggle with issues of interdependence. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. Trainers must guard against the urge to alleviate group anxiety and be placed in the position of the person who gives rewards to group members. Neither role is consistent with the goal of helping group members understand group development. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: conceptual-group process intensity: low to whom: group "I wonder why the group is seeking the trainer's approval?" 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Some members will be angry with the trainer for her seemingly evasive, judgmental response. Others will try to observe the connection between the behavior and the concept. Long-term: After several examples of this concept occur in the group, some members may initiate a discussion of group dependency and group ambivalence about allowing members to assume different roles in the group. Even if a group discussion does not ensue, individual understanding is likely to increase as a result of the intervention.

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Goal: Mary's goal: take steps to initiate a second career since the children are all in school. Overall goal: individual, specific goal achievement Group Framework: Bion Learning Framework: Awareness + planning -f- learning 4- practice + support = goal achievement Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. Mary is expressing the group's wish to please the trainer and to avoid the task. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. This event is an example of Bion's concept of flight from task. Mary may also be expressing some personal feelings of insecurity as she begins to make plans to reenter the business world. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. Nurturant trainers often wish to comfort the group and the group members individually. Awareness of the possible meaning of the individual's behavior

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Facilitating Training Groups is more consistent with the stated goal. It is not necessary to point out the group dynamic since personal goal achievement is the issue here.

4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: structural-activity intensity: low to whom: individual "Mary, it sounds like you're concerned about whether or not I and the group see you as competent. This seems to relate directly to your goal. I'd like to suggest that you ask for feedback about this from all of us." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Mary will become more aware of her behavior via the intervention. The feedback activity will occur. Long-term: Mary and the group will become more aware of behavioral blocks to goal achievement and will be more cabable of eliminating these blocks. MIDDLE ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills Supervisory skills Group Framework: Integrated Theory Learning Framework: Learning + modeling + practice + support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that

describes the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene.

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5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. Mary is leading the group's flight from work by bringing up a topic not pertinent to the task at hand. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. The event is an example of the concept of flight to avoid the anxiety of the current work task. This event may also represent a fear on the part of the group that their performance will be evaluated by their employers and compared with other training groups. Indeed, this is often a realistic issue in skills training. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. The skills trainer must keep in mind that results are being assessed by participants' employers and this fact causes anxiety which may interfere with learning efforts. The anxiety over evaluation cannot be eliminated but it can be used to facilitate rather than inhibit learning. If the trainer uses the group's anxiety to unite them against a common threat, she may tend to create a more supportive learning environment. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-restatement structural-activity intensity: moderate to whom: the group "Sounds like the group is concerned about being evaluated outside of this group. Since we're learning about supervision, let's use our concern as an opportunity for learning. I'd like you to outline an evaluation procedure that you would like your superiors to use in evaluating your new skills." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention.

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Facilitating Training Groups Short-term: The group will engage in an activity that will aid in learning about supervision and the activity (given that it has a shared emotional focus) will increase group cohesion. Long-term: The group will experience the necessity for humane supervisory procedures as well as think about this subject. They will also become more cohesive as a result of this shared exercise.

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EXAMPLE 3: Beginning Issue Context: During the early sessions of the group, members are exchanging comments and discussing issues. A few people in the group have chosen not to participate in any of the group discussions. The following statements are directed to one silent group member. Data

Statement:

Ah "Jim, what do you think about this?" Sue: "Yeah, Jim, we haven't heard from you." Mary: "Come on, Jim, what have you got to say?" RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION.

BEGINNING ISSUE—t-GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation + observation + conceptualization = understanding

Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene.

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5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group?

6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is attempting to establish a norm which requires that a fullfledged member must also be a verbal, active participant. Pressures to conform to this emerging norm are tremendous. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. This is an excellent example of the covert process that leads to the establishment of a norm. No one has directly stated that participation is a prerequisite for membership. Members' somewhat confrontational, directed comments, though, are being fueled by their subconscious wishes to conform to this norm. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Trainers often want to rescue the member who is being confronted. They must keep in mind, however, that their role is to help members learn about group development. To attempt to rescue the participant would place the trainer in a leadership position rather than a participantobserver role and would not facilitate goal achievement. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention seems appropriate. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: conceptual-group process intensity: low to whom: group "All groups have initiation rites. This group seems to have decided that talking is required for membership." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Silence.

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Long-term: More individual awareness of the process of norm development is likely to occur. There is also a strong possibility that the reason for the silence following the trainer's intervention will be discussed at a later point. BEGINNING ISSUE—PERSONAL GROWTH Goal: Jim's goal: to be more assertive Al's goal: to be more comfortable in groups Sue's goal: to be more assertive Mary's goal: to be more independent Overall goal: individual, specific goal achievement Group Framework:

Schutz

Learning Framework: Awareness -f planning -f learning + practice + support = goal achievement Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is attempting to establish a norm that requires that a full-fledged member must also be an active participant. This group process is adversely effecting individual goal achievement. Individuals are conforming to group pressures rather than working on their goals.

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2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Schutz would describe the event as an example of the concept of inclusion. It also is an example of a normal group process, norm development, contributing to a negative or restrictive solution. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Trainers must support all members involved in the incident. To rescue one, at the expense of others, will jeopardize the establishment of a supportive environment. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-inconsistency intensity: low to whom: individual and group "Jim, it sounds like the group is trying to help you be more assertive but their help isn't working." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Jim will talk a bit about feeling pressured to speak. The group will discuss their behavior. Long-term: The norm of participation as a prerequisite for membership will not be established which, paradoxically, will allow for more participation. BEGINNING ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills Communications skills Group Framework: Schutz Learning Framework: Learning -f modeling + practice + support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that describes

the

current

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2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is attempting to establish a norm that requires participation as a prerequisite for membership. This normal group process may adversely effect group learning by inadvertently creating a threatening group environment. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Schutz would describe this event as an example of the concept of inclusion. It is also an example of norm development. Given the fact that this training focuses on the acquisition of communications skills, this is an excellent example of trying to help without listening. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. Trainers may feel anger toward the "pushy" members. It helps to remember that they are responding to normal group pressures to conformity and they are reacting to the anxiety created by a silent member. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-impasse structural-activity intensity: moderate to whom: group and individual "Jim, I think the group is asking you to join in because they're interested

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Facilitating Training Groups in you. I also think it's not helping. Something in the communication isn't working. If you don't mind, I'd like to suggest that we all analyze what happened in this communication based on what we've been discussing so far."

6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: The group would engage in an activity analyzing this event. Jim would feel relieved. Others would feel supported for their attempt and a bit embarrassed by their failure. Long-term: The norm of participation as a prerequisite for membership would not be established. This, paradoxically, would allow for more communication. Group members, through the analysis of this shared communication failure, will experience the factors that contributed to the failure in an emotional as well as cognitive way. This will result in increased skills in effective communications.

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EXAMPLE 4: Ending Issue Context: John makes a statement during the second to last session of the group. He feels the group has been a wonderful learning environment but fears the real world just isn't comparable to the group setting. He expresses his reservations concerning the transfer of the knowledge he has acquired in the group to other settings in the world outside the group. Data

Statement:

John: "This group's been OK, but this isn't anything like the real world. People just won't be as receptive as they are in here. What we've learned here just won't hold up out there." RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION. ENDING ISSUE—t-GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation + observation + conceptualization = understanding Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group?

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6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. John is expressing the group's discontent about the similarity of the group setting to real world experiences. He is challenging the prevailing view that the group is wonderful and useful. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. John is expressing Bennis and Shepard's concept of disenchantment. Other members are likely to attack his statement and argue with him. The ensuing fight, theoretically, is a normal part of group development that will ultimately lead to more acceptance of different views and traits among group members. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Many trainers will feel that John's statement is a personal attack on them. In fact, the statement is a normal event that heralds the transition and transfer of learning from the group setting to real world group settings. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention may be helpful. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-restatement intensity: low to whom: group "The group seems to be experimenting with the expression of different views to see how they will be received." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Confusion and silence will follow. Then some display of anger at the trainer may occur. Long-term: Increased awareness of the conflict between unity and individuality in groups may occur.

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ENDING ISSUE—PERSONAL GROWTH Goal: John's goal-increased communication skills Overall goal—individual, specific goal achievement Group Framework: Bion Learning Framework: Awareness + planning -f learning + practice -I- support = goal achievement Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that describes the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. John is inadvertently about to precipitate a fight about the usefulness of this group experience. He is focusing group energy away from the task. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. The event is an example of Bion's concept of fight as a means to avoid work. It is a group diversionary tactic to avoid work. John is also avoiding working on his stated goal—the acquisition of communication skills. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. Trainers may feel personally challenged by John's statement. The event, though, is predictable, and should be treated as such.

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4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention may be helpful. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: structural-supportive structural-activity intensity: low to whom: individual and group "That's a good question, John. How can we use these new skills back home? I'd like you to get into your small groups and list concerns you have about maintaining your achievements on the job or at home. Then we can plan effective ways of dealing with your concerns." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: The potential fight is averted and the group is redirected to the task. Long-term: The activity dealing with transfer of learning will facilitate planning effective ways to maintain individual gains after the group ends. ENDING ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills Leadership skills Group Framework: Schutz Learning Framework: Learning + modeling + practice + support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that

describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene.

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5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. John is about to precipitate a fight to determine who is the most powerful member of the group. The contents of the discussion are not as important as the anticipated fight for control. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Schutz would see the event as an example of the control phase common to all groups. The event is also a power play that could potentially divert the group from its task which is the acquisition of skills. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. The trainer needs to be careful not to retaliate and respond defensively to John's comments. The group must be brought to task in a way that models effective leadership. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention would be helpful. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: structural-supportive structural-executive intensity: low to whom: individual "John, your question is a good one and one that we will address formally later. Hold that thought until we complete this activity and then we will deal with it thoroughly." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: John will wait for a more appropriate time to discuss his concern. He will feel praised by the trainer and defer to the trainer's plan. The group will feel comforted that the trainer is capable of leading without resorting to autocratic behavior.

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Facilitating Training Groups Long-term: The trainer has modelled a series of leadership skills that the group observed and may later practice.

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EXAMPLE 5: Middle Issue Context: During the fourth meeting, the group discussion is centered around issues of structure. Members express divided opinions on the subject. Sara challenges Lou when he proposes an activity to the group. She states that this is just a power play on Lou's part. Data

Statement:

Lou: "It's a great activity. Let's do it." Sara: "Lou, you're too much. There's no need for you to suggest an activity. Things are proceeding nicely, thank you." RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION. MIDDLE ISSUE—t-GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation + observation + conceptualization = understanding Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group?

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6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention.

Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group has divided into two groups—those who want more structure and those who do not. These sub-groups usually correspond to the dependents (structure) and counterdependents (no structure) posited by Bennis and Shepard. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. This example illustrates Bennis and Shepard's notion of the division of the group into sub-groups as the beginning of an attempt to deal with the authority inherent in the trainer and each member. It is the beginning of attempts at organization and norm development. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Trainers must be careful to focus on the group process in this event and not on a possible personality struggle. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention would aid learning. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-organizational process intensity: low to whom: group "The group seems to be splitting into two groups as a first step towards establishment of an organizational structure." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Silence, followed by questions as to the meaning of the trainer's statement. Long-term: More individual understanding of the covert process of organization which occurs in all groups.

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Goal: Lou's goal: plan and implement steps to a career change Sara's goal: to be more direct and less manipulative in her communications Overall goal: individual, specific goal achievement Group Framework: Schutz Learning Framework: Awareness + planning + learning + practice + support = goal achievement Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that

describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is engaged in a fight for control. This event takes members away from working on their goals. Also, the content of the incident may, if not handled appropriately, intimidate members. Individuals may feel threatened and not supported when they initiate in the group. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Schutz would describe this as a normal event occurring during the control phase of group development. The effects of this event must be minimized, however, to maintain a supportive climate. The group must also be able to redirect their work.

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3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Some trainers confuse models at points like this and try to help Sara and Lou work out their interpersonal problems. The trainer would be succumbing to the lure of diversion rather than the real work task. Real work always has to do with the task. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: structural-supportive structural-behavior experiment intensity: moderate to whom: individual and group "Sara, that was definitely more direct. It needs the rough edges polished a bit, though. Let's try a role reversal with that followed by behavior rehearsal." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Sara and Lou will reverse roles and replay their interaction. The group and the trainer will give feedback on more effective ways to convey this type of information. Tension will be reduced. Long-term: Sara and the group will learn skills in the delivery of negative feedback. The group will feel confident that the trainer can handle potentially volatile situations. MIDDLE ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills Assertion training Group Framework:

Integrated theory

Learning Framework: Learning + modeling + practice + support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework.

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3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is engaged in a fight to avoid work. The contents of the incident depict aggressive behavior. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Bion would describe this as an example of fight behavior in an effort to avoid work. The aggressive behavior offers a negative model and therefore, must be modified. The modification must be done in a supportive way in order to maintain a supportive learning environment. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. Trainers must not be afraid to use events that occur spontaneously as data for learning. This may require some creativity and flexibility. The ensuing results, though, are often excellent. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: structural-supportive structural-behavior experiment intensity: low to whom: dyad "Lou and Sara, those were two good attempts at being assertive. Let's replay it to make both statements more assertive." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Re-direction of energy from fight to work should occur. Long-term: The group will learn to be more assertive in actual situations.

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EXAMPLE 6: Middle Issue Context: The group has made efforts to reveal some personal data over the course of the first few sessions. One member shares her difficulties with assuming a leadership role. She has already revealed to the group that she has had some problems in dealing with her relationship with her own father. Someone else inquires if the leadership role difficulties may be related to the woman's family problems. The rest of the group seems uncomfortable with this line of therapeutic inquiry. Data

Statement:

Alice: "So, my new job is very hard for me. I can't seem to be the leader very well." Millie: "Alice, do you think that this has anything to do with what you've told us about your father?" RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION. MIDDLE ISSUE—t GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation -f observation + conceptualization = u n d e r s t a n d i n g Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups.

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4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. Two overpersonals are trying to establish a norm of fairly risky levels of self-disclosure. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Bennis and Shepard would describe this as a typical example of overpersonal behavior. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. Trainers must remember that their role is to observe, not to change behavior. The urge, in this situation, would be to prevent the establishment of this norm. The group may or may not adopt the norm. The trainer's job will be to observe what the group does. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is not necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? None 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: None Long-term: It may be advisable to coment at a later point in time about what the group decided to do and how they decided to do it. MIDDLE ISSUE—PERSONAL GROWTH Goal: Alice's goal: to be more effective as a supervisor at work Millie's goal: to be more self-centered and less other-centered

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Group Framework: Bion Learning Framework: Awareness + planning + learning + practice 4- support = goal achievement Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that

describes the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. Two members are engaged in pseudo-work or flight. Alice appears to be working; however, insight and reflection are the purview of therapy. Skill acquisition and role-related awareness are indicative of work in personal growth. Millie is off task since she is "helping" Alice. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Bion would describe this event as group flight. Members need to be directed to the task. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Trainers often are tempted to cross the line between personal growth and therapy. No one's interests are served by doing so. It is important for the trainer to keep focused on the goal. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary.

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5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-goal check intensity: low to whom: dyad "I'm wondering how this conversation relates to both your goals?" 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: A possible rationalization of how this relates to the members' goals may occur, along with a possible exploration of persistent behavior patterns that inhibit goal achievement. Long-term: Less therapeutic-like activity will occur in the group as members gain awareness of behavioral blocks to reaching their goals. MIDDLE ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills Management skills Group Framework: Bion Learning Framework: Learning + modeling + practice 4- support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that

describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention.

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Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. This pair is engaged in pseudo-work or flight. The topic under discussion seems related to management training. The context of the discussion, though, is not likely to lead to skill acquisition. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Bion would describe this as flight. Members need to be redirected to the task. Another aspect of the event to consider is the therapy-like nature of the conversation which may be quite upsetting to other group members. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Trainers must keep the agenda in mind and not allow inappropriate deviation from the task. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-relationship structural-behavior experiment intensity: low to whom: individual "Millie, you seem to be in the kind of relationship with Alice that many managers inadvertently fall into—that of therapist. Try to move back to a more professional relationship and see how you might continue the discussion." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Millie will attempt to continue the discussion with Alice in a more professional manner. Alice will not feel pressured to respond to Millie's therapy question. Long-term: There will be fewer therapeutic incidents in the group. The group will feel confident that its manager can handle difficult situations.

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127

EXAMPLE 7: Middle Issue Context: It is the fifth meeting of the group and some members have shared personal data while others have not. There are those who feel selfdisclosure is appropriate and those who feel it is quite threatening in the group environment. Ann and Harry voice opinions that imply that their professional stature is enough indication that they already are competent communicators. Data

Statement:

Ann: "We're all professionals here. Other people just don't know how to communicate." Harry: "You're right, Ann." RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION. MIDDLE ISSUE—t-GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation 4- observation + conceptualization = understanding Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene.

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5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. This is an example of group enchantment via the emphasis on assumed positive similarities. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Bennis and Shepard would see this as an example of the sub-phase enchantment-flight. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Trainers need to remember to focus on the group dynamics, not on Ann's individual dynamics. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention may be helpful. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: conceptual-group process intensity: low to whom: group "The group seems to be trying to ensure cohesion by emphasizing similarities." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: The group may be confused, at first, by this statement. Some members may be angered by the terseness of the statement. Long-term: The group members will be more aware of the covert processes occurring in groups. MIDDLE ISSUE—PERSONAL GROWTH Goal: Ann's goal: to make more friends at work Overall goal: individual, specific goal achievement

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129

Group Framework: Schutz Learning Framework: Awareness -f planning -I- learning + practice 4- support = goal achievement Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is dealing with the affection stage of development. Members are attempting to determine how close they will become to each other and how much they will share. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Schutz would see this as a normal phase of group development. This stage concerns Ann as an individual more than others in the group. It is she who has difficulties with intimacy and friendship issues. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. It is important for the trainer to take action before Ann's fears result in a restrictive solution where members decide not to be appropriately close. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary.

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5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? Type: experiential-paradox intensity: low to whom: individual "Ann, you seem quite comfortable with the closeness developing in the group." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Ann will express her discomfort with the closeness developing in the group. Long-term: The group will reassure Ann and establish a norm regarding the degree of intimacy allowable in the group that is also consistent with the task. MIDDLE ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills Management skills Group Framework:

Schutz

Learning Framework: Learning + modeling + practice + support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that

describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention.

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131

Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is dealing with the affection stage of development. Members are trying to determine how close they will become to one another and how much information they will share. This data statement is indicative of a wish not to share problems openly. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Schutz would see this as a routine event in the affection stage of group development. Whitaker and Lieberman would see this as the beginnings of the establishment of a restrictive solution or norm. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. Professional groups tend to distrust each other. They rarely share problems openly; more often, they share successes. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: conceptual-societal intensity: low to whom: group "Professional often have difficulty sharing areas in which they might need to improve. We tend to share solutions, not problems." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Some denial may occur. Some discussion of problems may also ensue. Long-term: The establishment of a norm that allows members to share problems and to be open to new ways of doing things may occur.

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EXAMPLE 8: Middle Issue Context: After several meetings, group members are beginning to feel dedicated to their task. Two members who have expressed a liking for one another are talking The rest of the group politely watches. Data

Statement:

Ron: "It's unusual to meet someone so sympathetic in a situation like this." Carol: "I know. I can only think of one other time that ... ." RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION. MIDDLE ISSUE—t-GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation -I- observation + conceptualization = understanding Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group?

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133

6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention.

Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group, represented by two overpersonals, is dealing with the establishment of norms governing intimacy. Sub-groups are forming that may be related to continued group efforts to differentiate and organize. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. This event represents the sub-phase enchantment-flight discussed by Bennis and Shepard. It is also an example of how a group works out a whole group issue through a group member or members. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. This event is part of the process of norm development. It may seem unrelated to the total group. This, however, is a subtle process often dismissed by trainers as an idiosyncratic occurrence. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention would be helpful. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: conceptual-group process intensity: low to whom: group "Groups often choose a few negotiators to make their decisions for them." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Silence, anger and confusion may result. A discussion concerning the meaning of the trainer's statement may also occur. Long-term: As more examples of this concept occur in the group, members will begin to understand how individuals are covertly assigned to roles by the group.

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MIDDLE ISSUE—PERSONAL GROWTH Goal: Ron's goal: organize time m o r e efficiently Carol's goal: be m o r e relaxed in groups Overall goal: Individual, specific goal achievement Group Framework:

Bion

Learning Framework: Awareness -f planning -f learning 4- practice 4- support = goal achievement Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that

describes the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is using this dyad as a means to avoid work. Their interchange appears to be important but in reality it is pseudo-work. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Bion would refer to this incident as an example of the concept of pairing. Pairing occurs when the group focuses on the relationship between two people, to the detriment of the task. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Such incidents are quite seductive to both the group members and the trainer. Everyone wants the pairing to be positive. The expression "everybody loves a lover," sums up the group's feeling. There is however, a time for work and a time for love.

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135

4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-organizational process structural-supportive intensity: moderate to whom: dyad "The group seems to have appointed you two to the role of social chair. Your feelings for each other are important, but not for our ears. We seem to want you to divert us from work." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: The group will return to work. Ron and Carol will feel the trainer supported them. No individual will feel blamed for the diversion. Long-term: The group will not avoid work via pairing as often. Members will be more able to monitor the group's use of time. MIDDLE ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills Conflict resolution skills Group Framework: Bion Learning Framework: Learning 4- modeling 4- practice 4- support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group?

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Facilitating Training Groups

6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is using this dyad as a means to avoid work. Their interchange appears to be important but is, in effect, pseudo-work. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Bion would call this an example of the concept of pairing. Pairing occurs when the group focuses on the relationship between two people to the detriment of the task. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Such incidents, when they occur in skills training groups, can be quite disquieting to some members. This intimate conversation is a boundary violation and may cause anxiety or anger at "wasted time." The trainer must gently and immediately redirect the group to the agenda. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: structural-executive structural-supportive intensity: low to whom: group "We seem to be getting a bit off course. I'm so glad that there's so much good feeling in the group and we must get to work." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Grins and some embarrassment may be noted followed by a return to work. Long-term: Less diversion from work is expected as well as confidence in the trainer's ability to keep the group on task.

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137

EXAMPLE 9: Middle Issue Context: A trend seems to be developing in the group that is causing repeated strife. Whenever a member makes a suggestion, another member disagrees and proposes an alternative. Data

Statement:

Susan: "So, I think we should each read one article and then report on it." Rita: "No, that's too stuffy. Let's just share what we know when it feels right." RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION. MIDDLE ISSUE—t-GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation -f observation -f conceptualization = understanding Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group?

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Facilitating Training Groups

6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. There is a power struggle occurring in the group. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Bennis and Shepard would see this event as typical of the counterdependence-fight sub-phase. Attacks and skirmishes are common as groups attempt to clarify roles and status. One by one, members attempt leadership and are stopped by other members. The trainer's presence further fuels these battles since the trainer is viewed by the group as most powerful. Other bids for leadership are, therefore, squelched. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. Examples of this group process are numerous. The trainer should wait to intervene until a number of incidents have occurred. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention when data is sufficient. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: conceptual-perspective intensity: low to whom: group "When you stick your head above the crowd, you may get pulled down." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Some anger may be forthcoming due to the indirect nature of the comment. The intervention, though, is designed to precipitate discussion and discovery on the part of group members. Long-term: Increased understanding of the nature of power struggles and their place in the process of group development may occur.

139

Practicing Interventions MIDDLE ISSUE—PERSONAL GROWTH Goal: Susan's Goal: To r e t u r n to college now that the children are in school Rita's goal: To be m o r e flexible and open

Group Framework: Schutz Learning Framework: Awareness 4- planning 4- learning 4- practice 4- support = goal achievement Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. There is a power struggle occurring in the group. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. This is a normal part of group development but it may be disruptive if it is allowed to divert energy from the group's task. At the individual level, this is an example of Rita's rigidity. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. The goal of increased flexibility and openness could easily cross the boundary into the therapeutic realm. Considerations as to why Rita has strong control needs would push this into a therapeutic intervention. Discussion and interventions should focus on observation and alteration of behavior.

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4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-restatement structural-behavior experiment intensity: low to whom: individual "Rita, this is a good example of your need to control. How about just agreeing with Susan this time and seeing how it feels?" 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: A return to work on individual goals may occur. Rita will experiment with new behavior. Long-term: Less skirmishes will be noted. Increased ability to observe one's own behavior is likely as well as an increased willingness to experiment with new behaviors. MIDDLE ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills, team building skills Group Framework: Schutz Learning Framework: Learning 4- modeling 4- practice 4- support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that

describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group?

Practicing Interventions

141

6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. There is a power struggle occurring in the group. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. This is a normal part of group development and is a process that must be considered if teamwork is to be increased. Participants would benefit from the identification of this issue. It would be wise to alter the impact of the event in order to decrease conflict and increase cohesion. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. Trainers must be tactful and supportive in using ongoing events as case examples. If handled well, they are the best means of learning experientially. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: conceptual-group process intensity: low to whom: group "This is a great example of how a normal group process may, if seen as a serious event, interfere with teamwork. I'd like to talk about this briefly. 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Susan and Rita will be surprised. They will stop and listen. They will not feel reprimanded since the trainer called the incident normal. Long-term: Increased understanding of group processes that may impede team building efforts lends itself to the task. Members will also know that one way to decrease the negative effect of this process is to view it as a normal, not subversive, one.

Facilitating Training Groups

142

EXAMPLE 10: Beginning Issue Context: In the second session of the group, a number of conversations began and then fizzled out. The group has become silent. Members appear uneasy. Data

Statement:

Silence. RESPOND TO THE GIVEN DATA STATEMENT BY COMPLETING THE TRAINER INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOR A t-GROUP, A PERSONAL GROWTH GROUP, AND A SKILLS TRAINING GROUP. COMPARE YOUR RESPONSES TO THE AUTHOR INTERVENTION PROCESS NOTES FOLLOWING EACH SECTION. BEGINNING ISSUE—t-GROUP Goal: To u n d e r s t a n d group development Group Framework: Bennis and Shepard Learning Framework: Participation -f observation + conceptualization = understanding Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention.

Practicing Interventions

143

Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. The group is reacting to the lack of defined leadership and organizational structure. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. According to Bennis and Shepard, the group is in the dependence-flight sub-phase. Members are waiting for the trainer to reconsider and lead them. Out of this anxiety will come the awkard beginnings of an organizational structure. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. Trainers must resist the urge to save the group. They must remember that the trainer's role is to help the group understand group development. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is not necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? None 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Continued awkward silence and then hesitant starts at the establishment of an organization structure. Anger at the trainer is likely. Long-term: Increased awareness of the process of organization as it occurs in emergent groups will ensue. BEGINNING ISSUE—PERSONAL GROWTH Goal: Individual goals have not yet been established Overall goal:—individual, specific goal achievement Group Framework:

Schutz

Learning Framework: Awareness 4- planning -f learning 4- practice + support = goal achievement Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the c u r r e n t situtation.

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Facilitating Training Groups

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. Group members are not yet comfortable with each other and are still unsure of the trainer's role. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Schutz would place this event in the inclusion phase of group development. Members fear saying or doing anything that might jeopardize their being accepted by other group members or the trainer. 3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. The trainer's role in this model is more directive than it is in some other models. Personal growth trainers act as facilitators and guide the process without doing the participants' work for them. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Intervention is necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: structural-executive intensity: low to whom: group "I'd like to suggest that we begin to share our individual goals. Once goals have been shared, we can begin to help each other clarify these goals." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention.

145

Practicing Interventions

Short-term: Hesitant attempts to comply with the trainer's directive will occur. Long-term: Active participation of members in setting their own goals will be encouraged. There will be more personal and group responsibility for individual and group success. BEGINNING ISSUE—SKILLS TRAINING Goal: Learning specific h u m a n relations skills Communication skills Group Framework:

Schutz

Learning Framework: Learning 4- modeling 4- practice 4- support = skill acquisition Trainer Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical situtation.

statement

that

describes

the

current

2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. 3. Process the statement in terms of your own experience in groups. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Author Intervention Process Notes 1. Create a theoretical statement that describes the current situation. Group members are not yet comfortable with each other and they are still unsure of the trainer's role. 2. Process the statement in terms of the chosen group, change/learning framework. Schutz would place this event in the inclusion phase of group development. Members are afraid to do or say anying that might jeopardize their being accepted by other group members or the trainer.

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Facilitating Training Groups

3. Process the statement in t e r m s of your own experience in groups. The trainer's role in a skills training group is more directive than it is in personal growth or t-groups. In fact, this event should not occur at all, since the trainer would have been more in charge and the agenda would outline group activities. 4. Decide to intervene or not to intervene. Should this event occur, intervention is definitely necessary. 5. State the intervention type, level of intensity, and wording. Will it be directed to an individual or the group? type: experiential-self-disclosure structural-activity intensity: low to whom: group "I'm sorry. I guess I haven't been clear. I'd like people to get into their small groups. We're going to do an activity to highlight communication styles." 6. State the group's anticipated short-term and long-term reactions to the intervention. Short-term: Group members will be relieved and will participate in the activity. Long-term: The trainer will become more established as the leader of the group. People will learn more about communication styles. There may be more comfort among small group members; working together will facilitate their getting to know and trust each other.

Bibliography

Alberti, R., and M. Emmons. 1974. Your Perfect Right. San Luis Obispo, CA: Impact Press. Amidon, E., J. Roth, and M. Greenberg. 1976. Group Magic: Group Experiences for Group and Individual Understanding. St. Paul, MN: Amidon Associates. Back, K. W. 1972. Beyond Words: The Story of Sensitivity Training and the Encounter Movement. New York: Russell Sage. Bales, R. F. 1950. Interaction Process Analysis: A Method for the Study of Small Groups. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley. Bennis, W. G., and H. A. Shepard. 1956. A theory of group development. Human Relations 9:415-37. Biberman, G. 1977. Trainer Behavior in a t-Group Setting: A Survey of Current Practice. Ph.D. diss., Temple University, Philadelphia, PA. Bion, W. R. 1959. Experiences in Groups. New York: Basic Books. Blake, R. R. and J. S. Mouton. 1976. Consultation. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley. Braaten, L. J. 1974/75. Developmental phases of encounter groups: A critical review of models and a new proposal. Interpersonal Development 5:112-28. Bradford, L., J. Gibb, and K. Benne. 1964. T-Group Theory and the Laboratory Method. New York: Wiley. Bugental, J. (Ed.) 1967. Challenges of Humanistic Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Burton, J. (Ed.) 1969. Encounter. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Campbell, J. D., and M. D. Dunnette. 1968. Effectiveness of t-group experiences in managerial training and development. Psychological Bulletin 70(2):73-104. Caple, R. 1978. The sequential stages of group development. Small Group Behavior 9: 470-476.

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Index

action research, 29 activity intervention, 77, 103, 109, 114, 146 affection stage, 15, 23, 129, 131 Alberti, R., 56 Amidon, E., 77 assertion training, 56 Bales, R. F., 4 basic assumption, 15-16 behavioral theory, xi behavior experiment, 75 behavior experiment interventions, 75-76, 120, 121, 126, 140 behavior rehearsal, 75-76 Bell, C. H., 11 Bennis, W. G., x, 16-17, 21, 25-26, 30, 35, 59, 67, 83, 85 Biberman, G., 30 Bion, W., 15-16, 21, 24-25, 59, 67, 83, 85 Braaten, L. J., 17 Bugenthal, J., x Campbell, J. D., 30 Caple, R., 17 Cohen, A. M., 63-64 conceptual interventions, 64-65 conflict, 19; and group development, 18

control phase, 15, 23, 119 Coser, L. A., 18 counterdependency-fight, 16, 18-19, 25, 26, 138 data collection, 1, 2, 85; examples of, 5-10 data statement, 92 dependency, 15, 24, 96 dependency/inclusion stage, 17-18, 26 dependency/flight, 16, 25, 143 dependency phase, 95, 100 design, 27 Deutsch, M., 18, 29-30 diagnosis, 1, 2-5; example of, 9-10 disenchantment/fight, 17, 26, 112 DuBois, P. M., 50 Dunnette, M. D., 30 Egan, G., 44 Emmons, M., 56 enabling solution, 69 enchantment/flight, 17, 25-26, 128, 133 ending/task completion stage, 21-22, 27 executive interventions, 76-77, 97, 98, 115, 136, 144 experiential interventions, 64, 68-74

152

Index

feedback meeting, 5 field theory, x fight, 16, 24, 113, 121 flight, 16, 24-5, 101, 124, 126 force field analysis, 39-40, 44 French, W. L., 11 Gestalt, x Gibb, J. R., 59 Goad, T. W., 50 goal check interventions, 73-74, 125 goals, 7-8 goal setting, 1 group: atmosphere, 14; characteristics, 13-14; conflict, 18; definition, 14; emotional states, 16; mind, 14 group development, x, 21-22 group framework, 85 group models: choice of, 1; definition confusion, 30 group processes, 14, 22-27 group process interventions, 67, 101, 106, 128, 133, 141 group regression, 21-22 group structure, 19-20 group theory framework, 83-84 Hare, A. P., x impasse interventions, 70, 109 inclusion phase, 15, 23, 108, 144, 145 inconsistency interventions, 70, 108 individuality centered groups, 31 integrative theory, 17-22, 26-27, 83, 85, 102 intervention, 27, 63; and frequency, 79-81 intervention process, 82-83 interviewing, 4 Jakubowski, P., 56 Jones, J., 41, 77 laboratory groups, 30 Lange, A. J., 56

learning framework, 84 Lewin, K., ix, x, 14, 18, 30, 39-40 Lieberman, M. A., x, 64-65, 68-69, 76-77 Luft, J., 14 McFall, R. M., 75 Mayo, G. D., 50 Miles, M. B., x, 64-65, 76-77 Moreno, J. L., 75 negotiations, 3 Nixon, H. L., 14 norms, 20; development of, 106 Northen, H., 18 observation, 4 organizational process interventions, 70-71, 135 over personal behavior, 123 pairing, 16, 25, 134, 136 paradoxical interventions, 72-73, 130 Parloff, M. B., 31, 38 participant observation, 30 Perls, F. S., x personal growth model: change process, 37-41; definitions, x, 37-39; design, 41-47; goals, 2, 38-39, 43-44, 45; history of, x-xi; intervention stategies, 48; learning framework, 96; trainer role, 47-48 perspective interventions, 66, 138 Pfeiffer, J., 41, 77 Phillips, J. J., 4 process centered groups, 31 p r o g r a m design, 8-11 questionnaires, 4 recommendations, 5 regression, 21-22 relationship interventions, 71-72, 126 Rendle, G. R., 18

Index resolution-catharsis, 16-17, 25-26 restatement interventions, 74, 103, 112, 140 restrictive solution, 68 role playing, 75 role reversal, 75 Rogers, C. R., x, 38 Rose, S., 41 Schmuck, R. A., 50 Schutz, W. C , x, 13, 15, 21, 23, 30, 35, 59, 67, 83, 85, 98, 108, 115 self-disclosure interventions, 72-73, 146 Shaw, M., x Shepard, H. A., x, 16-17, 21, 25-26, 30, 35, 59, 67, 83, 85 silence interventions, 73, 95 skills training groups: defined, xi, 49; design of, 50-57; goals, 1; intervention strategies, 59-62; learning framework, 97; needs assessment, 50-52; techniques, 49-50; trainer role, 57-59 Smith, M. J., 56 Smith, R. D., 63-64 social learning theory, xi

153

societal interventions, 66-67, 131 structural interventions, 64, 74-77 subgroups, 118 supportive interventions, 76-77, 97, 114, 115, 120, 121, 135, 136 t-group: defined, x, 21; description of, 31-33; goals, 1; intervention strategies, 34-36; learning framework, 94; learning process, 31; research, 30-31; trainer role, 29, 33-34 Theodorson, G. A., 18 theory interventions, 65-67 transfer of learning, 58-59 trust-structure stage, 20, 26-27 Tuckman, B., 17 Twentyman, C. T., 75 Watzlawick, P., 39 Weir, J., x, 38 Weisbord, M., 11 Whitaker, D. S., 68-69 work, 15, 24 work stage, 20-21, 27 Yalom, I. D., x, 64-65, 76-77

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR SUSAN A. WHEELAN is a Professor of Psychological Studies and Faculty Director of the Center for the Study of Psychoeducational Processes at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The Center provides training and consultation to public and private sector organizations. A licensed psychologist, she has worked in numerous clinical settings. Now, however, she has turned her focus to consultation and writing. How to Discipline Without Feeling Guilty, a book she coauthored with Dr. Mel Silberman, remains in demand. She is editor, with Dr. Eugene Stivers, a book entitled The Lewin Legacy: Field Theory in Current Practice. She has just completed, with Drs. Abt and Pepitone, a book entitled Advances in Field Theory. Currently, she is engaged in research on group development and is writing on this topic as well. Dr. Wheelan has provided organizational consultation to a wide variety of public and private sector organizations. She has led workshops and training courses on such topics as Management Skills, Managing Diversity, Women at Work, Dealing with Difficult Employees, Conflict Managment, Group Leadership, Team Development, Intergroup Conflict, and many more. She has been an invited speaker in England, Ireland, Israel, and the United States. Topics included group and organizational development and conflict management.