Exotic Animal Care and Management

A ¡mal Care

Management

-----I--~e Vicki Judah, AS, CVT

Kathy Nuttall, BS, CVT

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DEUVlAR L EARNING

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THOMSON

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DELMAR L EARNING

fACUltAD DE ESTUDIOI NEIIIORESetUAU11RM ¡ Exotic Animal (are and Management WiP04 Vicki Judah AS, CVT and Kathy Nuttall SS, CVT Vice President, Career Education Strategic Business Unit: Dawn Gerrain Director of Learning Solutions: John Fedor Acquisitions Editor: David Rosenbaum Managing Editor: Robert L. 5erenka, Jr.

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Judah, Vicki. Exotic animal care and management / Vicki Judah, Kathy Nuttall. p.; cm.

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN-13: 978-1-4180-4198-4

1. Exotic animals--Diseases . 2. Wildlife diseases. 3. Pet medicine. l. Nutta 11, Kathy. 11. Title. [DNLM: 1. Animal Diseases--therapy. 2. Animals, Domestic. 3. Animal Husbandry--methods. 4. Animal Technicians-­ education. 5. Animals, Wild. SF 981 J92e 2008] SF997.5.E95J83 2008

636.089--dc22

2007044864

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Chap ter 2: Zoonotic Disease

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Cbaptcr12: Short-Tailed Opossums . .. . .. .. .. ... .. ... 108

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Unit JI Chapterl4: Avian . ... .. .. . . . . ... .. . .. .. .. . . ... .. 133

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vi

CONTENTS

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corpions .. . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . ... .. . . 207

ChapL.er 18:

Tarantulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

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ary .. ..... .... ... .... ... . . .. . . .. ... . ... . 250

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Uf human

O

need for companion animal s is ingrained

and is probably the reason that the first orphaned

wolf rub ar injured yOW1g bird was taken in and

cared for by our ancestors. Tt is a need far different from capturing, kj lling, and consuming. Over ti me, our attitudes have changed greatly. Animals are no langer just pets, but have become companions and family members. The dogs, cats, and endless hamster ]jtters of childhood have been joined by animals that are lTIOre unusuat strange, and exotic. Never before have there been sud1 a variety of spedes and so Hule accurate information generally available. Availability and affordability of many species have out-paced the knowledge needed to care for them. This, in turn, has produced countless experts whose personal experience is delivered as fact and clouds what real information is avail­ able. Pet store shelves are filled with glossy books, and racks of care sheets, yet sugar gliders are still hawked in the shopping malls as cute little pocket pets, and non-native species are being released when they become too large, too aggressive, or too non-cuddly. The problem is accelerating and there are serious ethical ques­ tions regarding many species currently being sold, bred, and traded with little thought given to their very specific needs and welfare. ¡\'lany sta tes have banned the sale of certain species. USDA permits are required for possession of many others. Laws have been enacted to address irresponsible ownership, the reality of non-native species introducing disease, and the rising number of incidences of rarely seen zoonotic d.iseases. Exotic animal s are presented to veterinary staff usually when a major health issue becomes apparent or the home remedy or pet store treatment has failed. Then, an owner expects an immediate cure, whether for an iguana in renal fail­ ure ("but he loves cat food"), an aggressive chinchilla that is actually a wood rat (delivered to the exotic vet from another small animal clinic), or the Ball Python presented with an esophageal laceration due to an inept attempt to force feed a tofu sausage concoction ("beca use eating rats is mean"). Veterinary staff and a11 animal caregivers playa crucial role in education for a variety of species, many perhaps not seen in the clinics and hospitals b efo re, yet there are no defined educational requirements for credentialed technicians. Many schools offer a course on exotics as an elective, but not as a core require­ ment. Recommended and essential skills in an accredited program for veterinary technology require on ly that studen ts be able to perform restra in t and nail trims vii

viii

PREFACE

for birds and (unspecified) exotics. There is required curriculum for laboratory species. It ineludes biological data and basic husb andry practices, but the approach to the beloved companion rat is appreciably different from meeting the needs and performing the procedures for rat colonies in a laboratory setting. In this ever-growing, ever-changing field of exotic animal husbandry, there has been no one textbook that addresses the needs of advanced secondary stu­ dents in animal science. This text was designed to provide that information and also to develop the technical skills needed fo r those students who wish to further their education, pursuing careers as veterinary assistants, veterinary technicians, or veterinary technologists. The majority of reliable information is directed toward the elinicianfveterinar­ ian or the very advanced, credentialed technician. This book was written to meet the needs of students. Combined, the authors have more than 42 years of clinical and teaching experience. With this experience has come a simple reality; students learn best when engaged, not when overwhelmed with the pedantic. Appropriate use of terminology is important and has been incorporated. We have made a deliberate choice to avoid the ostentatious, the journal-speah of academia, while still introducing students to the terminology required to communicate effectively and professionally, providing a more learner friendly text o Each unit and chapter ineludes information on species, behavior, habitats, and diet. Without this appreciat ion, it just isn't possible to care for these species, whatever the educationallevel attained. We have ineluded handling and restraint techniques, veterinary concerns and diseases, parasites, blood sampling, and injection sites. Anesthesia may have a slightly different approach in exotics and special considerations are addressed . We have included a Fast Facts list for each species and review questions that reflect the material in the text.

THE AMERICAN VETERINARY MEDICAL ASSOCIATION (AVMA) provides accreditation for schools offering programs in veterinary technology. The AVMA, in their Model Veterinary Practice Act (AVMA, November 2003) also defines veterinary technicians and veterinary technologists as those students who have attended a two or three year accredited program (technicians) and those who have attended a four year accredited program (technolo­ gists). The use of either term implies that a certain level of education has been successfully achie ve d and that the person has passed the credentialing examination. The Veterinary Technician National Exam (VTNE) is administered at a state organization level. Each state may determine the score required to pass the exam and also to determine the title of successful candidates as Certified, Licensed, or Registered. Each state has autonomy in determining the level of care and procedures performed by a credentialed technician or technologist and whether or not they may be performed under the direct or indirect supervislon of a veterinarian. Ind ividual states may also have additional requirements for the performance of certain procedures. However, under no circumstance s are credentialed staff allowed to diagnose, prescribe , or incise. A few states have no requirements. Other personnel may act as veterinary assistants but may not perform the tasks of a credentialed technician or technolog·ist, nor should they be referred to as technicians or vet techs.

PREFACE

A course in Exotic Animal Medicine is rarely offered as first term/first year curriculum. It is assumed that students in veterinary technology programs will have attained a level of proficiency with anatomy, radiology, anesthesia, and many other clinical procedures. lt is not our intent to introduce or re-teach the basics of anesthesia or radiographic positioning. However, we have included many adap­ tations, devices, tips, sometimes tricks, that contribute to a successful outcome when dealing with different species. These facts can best be categorized as 1 wish I'd known thal. The information presented here is intended to build on a solid foundation rather than offer, for example, detailed instruction for the operation of a re-breathing system in anesthesia delivery. We have not given specifics of drug therapies or formularies for exotics. Much of the pharmacokinetics of commonly used therapeutics in traditional small animals are unknown in exotics and many therapeutic choices are based on extra-label usage and clinical experience; what works, what doesn't and what may be a possibility. These decisions should only be made by a licensed veterinarian. There are excellent Exotic Formularies, updated regularly as new information becomes available, that belong on every bookshelf. Details of these may be found in Appendix 1, along with contact information for exotic specialty diagnostic laboralOries and resource organizations. A full glossary and a detailed index contribute to the ease of use for students and instructors. In addition to Review Questions at the conclusion of each chapter, this text is accompanied by a Teacher's Manual and a Student Workbook. The student work­ book includes study questions and case studies to ful1her develop the material presented in the text o References are made lO journal articles and papers presented during confer­ ence sessions, sources not readily available to students. Annual conferences offer great insight, understanding, and knowledge of the issues confronting all of us who have an interest in exotic species. Contributors to exotic animal sessions cannot be appreciated enough. Without them sharing their dedication and experi­ ences, our knowledge would be limited. The authors maintain direct and, in most instances, daily care for most of the species presented in this texl, either clinically or through school and private coJlections. For those few exceptions, we have been fortunate in having generous access to people and facilities who willingly shared valuable experiences, difficul­ ties, and successes. Learning is alife-long commitment. We also lea m by teaching and hands-on experiences, with the questions students ask and the answers we don't know.

ix

PREFACE

Foreword

AS A VETERINARY TEC HNICIAN EDUCATOR who has worked in an exotic animal practice and as an owner of exotic animals, 1 was excited to learn of this book. Much of my own knowledge of exotics had to be learned on the jobo There was little emphasis on exotics in school and a lack of even the most rudimentary exotic animal textbooks. Experience has shown me ho"v complicated exotic ani­ mal medicine and care can be. There is still a great deal of misconception and misinformation. Veterinary staff are often the first to provide crucial information to the owner of an exotic pet. We not only educa te, but in many instances have to persuade owners that what they were told is often far from accurate. Most of my students have had little exposure to exotic species. An introduc­ tion to this field needs to provide a background of the species, the animal's natural habit, and its situation now as a pet. An understanding of the species is essential to an understanding of the animal's health. Information is included in this book to ensure that proper housing and diets can be provided and behaviors better understood. Medical problems and diseases, the issues of restraint, and techniques in anesthesia are delivered with clear language, yet the text also develops professional terminology. This book provides a beginner-friendly approach to learning. lt is straight forward , ensuring an accurate understanding so the student has a concrete foundation to build a future working with exotic animals in many capacities Additionally, the text sets the stage for responsibility, offering both legal and ethical considerations in owning exotic animals and the profound impact that collection of wild specimens for the pet industry has had on many popular spe­ cies. Zoonotic implications are also addressed in a manner that enables the stu­ dent to appreciate the seriousness of animal transmitted disease My personal acquaintance with the authors began while 1 was an undergradu­ ate, vvorking part time in an exclusive exotic animal practice. With their guidance, 1 was fonunate to learn the ropes of not only being a veterinary technician , but one working in a very specialized field. 1 attribute much of my practical knowledge to them , as opposed to the material taught in the c1assroom. They are able to turn book knowledge into real Jife application, teach to a high standard of personal responsibility, and encourage sensitivity and understanding. As a result of their tireless efforts, they have become top educators in the field of animal care and veterinary technology. Their teaching experience and practical knowledge has now become available to al! students, presented at an appropriate level so more students are ableto learn. [n writing this book, the authors have provided a much needed text that fills a gap between advanced level textbooks and simple, often inaccurate, pet owner handbooks.

Laura Devries,

cvr

xi

PREFACE

Acknowledgments

THIS BOOK COULD NOT HAVE BEEN WlUITEN without the willing and more than generous assistance of many people. We are very fortunate to have so many doors opened to us and to our students, for people at the end of a phone, for those of you who have spent hours reviewing the manuscript, generously giving of your time, contributing photographs, wisdom, and vast amounts of experi­ ence. Thank you for your insight, perspective, and dedication. Thank you for your contributions to learning. Without each and every one of you, our lives would be less enriched. Daniel S. Schapiro, M.D., Cathy A Johnson-Delany, DVM, Martín G. Orr, DVM, Eric. Klaphake, DVM, Laura Devries, cvr, Susan KeJleher, DVM, ¡\liare Kramer, DVM, Linda R. Harrison and The Zoological Education Network. Janet and Clark Ottemess & Alta Mist Alpacas, Faith Ching, Ching Sanctuary, Sonja Craythorn, CC Rabbitry, Ronaleigh Wheelright, Ronie's For The Love of Birds, Pet Kingdom USA (Las Vegas, NV) , Beverly and Dan Ring, Chloe Long, Degutopia, Seatt Olsen, Director of Jordan Applied Technology Centers. The students at JKfC Companion Animal Sciences, Veterinary Technology and Veterinary Assistant programs : without you, the questions may have never been asked . Carol VandenAkker: without Caro!, this book would still be a "bunch of stuff in a box". Thanks for helping put it al! together. Thank you to the Delmar production team and to Pre-PressPMG, India. Christina Gifford, our Developmental Editor, who has kept us on track, relatively sane, and has been more than "there". To the following reviewers, we would Jike to express our gratitude fo r their observations and feedback: Terry D. Canerdy, DVM. Munay State University, Murray, Kentucky

Stuart L. Porter, DVM. Blue Ridge Community College Weyers Cave, Virginia

Leland S. Shapiro, DVM. LA Pierce College Woodland Hills, California

Dr. Bil! Plummer Cal Poly San Luis Obispo San Luis Obispo, California

Susan Kopp, DVM. La Guardia Community College Long Island City, NY

Gary Wilson Moorpark College Moorpark, Cal iforni a

Angela Lathrop, DVM.

Lodi, Wisconsin

xiii

Introduction

After completing this chapte7; the student sl10uld • be familiar with CITES. • know what species are covered under CITES. • be familiar with the laws that protect exotic pets.

InlroducLion lo E 01 if \nimals

2

The trade in exotic animals has grown enormously in the last decade. There are e.xclusive exotic pet sto res and specialized products ranging from cages to canned diets. There are exotic animal veterinarians, organizations, magazines, and Internet fOll.lms. A dictionary definition might define exotic as foreign or uf/usual and differ­ ent and this, in part, is the appeal of keeping an exotic animal. With dogs and cats, there are specific laws that require licensing and rabies vaccinations. When dealing with exotics, laws become far more complicated. The issues are complicated even further by location; an animal that may be legal in one sta te is illegal in another and may be subject to confiscation, euthanasia, fines, or imprisonment for the owner. Federal laws and enactments ban cenain species while protecting others. Before acquiring any exotic, regardless of the source, it is the responsibility of the owner to comply with the law and to obtain the permits andjor licenses required. Many species that are privately held have come through black-market suppli­ ers or have been purchased through [nternet sources. It is 1ikely tha t they ,,,ere wild caught and possible that they bring with them exotic parasites and the poten­ tial of zoonotic disease. So me species may be listed as Threatened or Endangered by CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). In 1963, members of the World Conservation Union proposed an interna­ tiona!, voluntalY agreement between governments of panicipating countries. The purpose was to ensure that international trade in wild (exotic) animals and plants did not threaten their survival in the wild. In 1975, what is now known as The Convention on Intemational Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) ofWild Fauna and Flora came into effect. There was worldwide concern that the illegal trade in many exotics was fueling such a demand that many species were being exploited to the point of extinction. The traffic in exotic animals amounted to billions of dollars, and was second only lo illegal narcotics traffic (Conservatíon Treaty Suppon Fund, no date).

Introdudion

Species covered by CITES are listed in appendices according to the degree of protection they need. CITES Appendix I lists species that are threatened with extinction. CITES Appendix II lists species which are not directly threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled to avoid utilizatíon which is not compatible with their survival (CITES, accessed 6/13/02). CITES Appendix III lists species that are protected in at least one country. The country concerned has asked for ass istance from other member countries in controlling trade in specified species. CITES is one of the world's largest conservation agreements. There are now over 150 member countries (Parties to the Agreement). Not one species protected by CITES has become extinct, and for many species, the agreement prohibits cap­ ture in the wild.

UnderslandinA the Conc("J'n There is a growing problem in the release of unwanted exotic species. Animals are turned loose to survive on their own. Many do not survive, but those that do can quickly become established, invading habitats and consuming native species, many of which are already endangered . The Everglades National Park in Florida has a large and growing population of Burmese pythons, released by owners who no longer had an interest in them or an ability to care for them. As of October 2005, over 150 of these giant pet snakes have been captured. Another Florida island has been invaded by spiny-tailed iguanas. The island is overrun with an estimated population of 13,000 offspring from three pets released in 1970. There are frequent news reports of large snakes and other reptiles being found or causing injury to unsuspecting people and more traditional pets. Many people think that zoos will readily take their unwanted exotic animals. This is rarely the case because of the potential for introducing disease or parasites. There are legitimate rescue organizations and they are usually struggling to capac­ ity to care for abandoned exotics. Responsible people know exactly what is involved in caring for an ~'(otic species, and more importantly, are committed to the welfare of the animal for its lifetime in captivity. People who are interested and involved with exotic animals are valued members of veterinary practices, rescue organizations, and conservation efforts. Experience in this growing and specialized fíeld of care often begins with volu ntee r work. Opportunities to volunteer may be found through veterinarians, zoos, local clubs, and state organizations. Working as a volunteer reflects commitment and a desire to learn new skills. These qualities often lead to gainful employment. Many jobs in the field of caring for exotics are offered to volun tee rs who have demonstrated their commitment by working long and sometimes difficult hours, accepting any task and performing it to the best of their ability. Attending a two or four year college that offers programs in veterinary technology, wildlife management, animal science, or zoology greatly in creases career opportunities and choices. An associates or bachelors degree can pro­ vide for more career opportunities in the educational field, rese arch, and private industry.

3

4

UNIT I • CHAPTER I

Furlher Reading EPA-MAlA, lntroduced Species. http://www.epa.gov/ (accessed August 2007). Non-native Species Sink Their Claws Into Florida lsland . Burmese Pythons in

Everglades. FOXNews.com. Wednesday October 5, 2005 (AP). The Dangers of Keeping Exoti( l'ets. Animal Protection lnstitute. http: //www .ap i4animals .org (accessed G/ G/OS). Liebman, M. G. (2004) . Overview of Exotic Pet Laws. Animal Legal & Historical Center, Michigan State University, College of Law. http ://www.animallaw.info. Conventional International Trade in Enda ngered Sp cies. http://www.cites.org/ (accessed August 2007). Captive Exotics and Wild Animals as Pets. The Humane Society of the United States. http://vvww.hsus.org (accessed G/ G/ OS).

Zoonotic

Diseases

08JECTI\ E ~.' zoonotie

After completing t.he chapter, the student should be able to • defin e zoonosis. • be familiar wi th how zoonotic diseases are contracted and spread . • know how to inco rporate safery procedures in handling and housing exotics. • be familiar with exotics pets that have a higher risk of transmitting zoonotic diseases.

Illll'oducl ion Zoollolic diseases are diseases that are transmitted directly from animals to

humans. The causative agent may be h c.lcria, vinls, fungus, protozoan , or para it . Common routes of transmission inelude inha lati on, direct contact, ex.pos u re to urine and fecal materia!, contaminated bedding and food / water bowls, handling dead or diseased animals and their body fluids and tissues. Methods of transmission can be as variable as each disease-causing organ ismo Diseases may be mi ld to severe and, in some instances, life-threatening or fatal. As more people come inlO close contact with E'.,xotic species, exposure to disease and zoon olic po tential increases. Anyone who works with animals is at risk. Those who have close and frequent contact with exotic species have an increa ed risk. Chi ldren and the elderly have higher risk factors because their immu ne systems are less ab le lO ward o ff disease. Anyone who is already immuno­ compromised has an even greater risk. Many species commonly available, those sold in pet sto res, reptile and bird expos, and from private breeders have the potential to transmit disease . So me Z00I10M~ (p lural), su eh as salmonellosis, are well recognized, while others, such as Tularemia, are known to have occurred. One of the biggest concerns is new and emerging un known diseases. The disease may not be new, the ¡lclmogens (disease-causing agents) may be known, but th e zoonotic implications are sometimes discovered only after the fact, when the first occurrence is diagnosed in a human. Path ogens, like other life forms, are continually adapting and respond ing to environmental changes. Many are opportunistic, invading convenient hosts not considered to be the normal reservoir. Viruses mutate regularly with different strains emerging annually. Bacteria are becoming drug resistant, producing 'iuper infl'ctions with deadly consequences.

bKterI_ virus

fungus protozoan pal'llsite zoonoses pathogens super infections monkeypox bubonic plague Yersinia pestis septicemic pneumonic orthopox variola Center for Disease Control ( CDC) Food and Drug Administration ( FDA) lym phocytic Cho riomeningitis ( lC M) pande mic

6

UNIT l' CHAPTER 2

There are few vaccines to protect against zoonotic diseases. The human rabies vaccine is one exception, readily available, yet few people choose to be inoculated. People with a high risk of exposure to rabies include veterinari­ ans, veterinary technicians and assistants, wildlife personneL and diagnostic laboratory workers. When different species are housed col!ectively, the opportunity for pathogens to invade other organisms increases. There may be a direct leap to a new host or links and bridges formed from one host to the next until multiple species are infected and ultimately transmitted to a human host. The monJ-ey pux outbreak demonstrates how easily this can occur. Monkey Pox is caused by an ortl/Opo.\" virus and is closely related to the human smal!pox virus, lldr;oIII . In Tune of 2003, monkey pox was diagnosed in several people in the United States. Prior to this, the disease had been limited to people and animals native to the rainforest regions of Central and West Africa. The source of the outbreak was determined to be an exotic pet store in a suburb of Chicago, Illinois. Al! of the victims had one thing in common; they had close contact with wild caught Prairie Dogs that were offered for sale. The infected Prairie Dogs (native to the western states of America) had been previously exposed through a Texas distri­ butor's facility In the Texas facility, they were hou sed in close proximity to Gambian Giant rats and other smal! mammals imported from Africa and destined for the pet market. In Illinois, the exposed Prairie Dogs were so Id as pets. The premises also housed several other exotic mammals. No one knows how many other species of mammals are susceptible. The Ccntcr tur Diseasc Conlrol (CDC) strongly sug­ gests caution because the potential is unknown, and al! mammals should be considered susceptible lO the orthopox virus. The CDC and FUA (rood amI Drug AdministraLion) have issued a legal order that prohibits the importation of al! African rodents, and also stops move­ ment, sale, or release of Prairie Dogs (CDC, 2003). Also included are six genera of African rodents known to be already in the United States. A more familiar species, hamsters, are known to be carriers of the virus that causes Lymphocytic Choriomeningilis (LC\l) , which is transmissible to humans. Although long recognized in pet hamsters, there was litrle public aware­ ness until May of 2005 when three of four recipients of organ transplants died from LCM (Nolan, 200G). The organ donor carried the virus but was asymplOm­ atic at the time of his death. He was infected by pet ha msters. The CDC was able to confirm that the original supplier of the hamsters was a breeding facility in Arkansas. Unknowingly, infected animals were shipped to retailers in several states. The hamster was purchased at a store in Rhode Island. Further investiga­ tion revealed that not only was the hamster the direct source, but other animals in the store also tested positive for LCM. These included two other hamsters and a guinea pig. The common house mouse, Mus musculus, is the reservoir carrier ofLCM. It is likely that the breeding facility was contaminated by mouse droppings and urine. The virus is al so shed in contaminated bedding and saliva as well as being trans­ mitted from infected animals lO their offspring in utero. Once infected, animals shed the virus ú1foughout their lives. It is not fatal in mice and there may be no signs that they are infected.

Zoonotic Diseases

7

The CDC has issued an awareness and warning fact sheet, especially for pregnant women. Exposure to LCM during early pregnancy can cause abortion, or the child "may suffer permanent deveIopmentaI skilIs. " Fad sheets are avai lable from the CDC website (cdc.gov). Companion animals, however exotic, are brought into homes and are given family member status. People develo p strong attachments and spend much time caring for and interacting with them. It is human nature to want to hold, hug, kiss, and share. There is rarely a thought given to potent ial disease. Fluffy the iguana probably drags salmonella bacteria across the kitchen counter, Buddy the bird always gives and receives kisses and takes food from the owner's mouth and couId be carrying psittacosis, coccidia, or giardia. It is not only reptiles and birds that can transmit disease. Owners need to be aware (as noted aboye) that potentia/Iy any animal could be a source of human disease. There are more than 200 known zoonoses. Source animals have been identi­ fied, methods of transmission known, and the specific symptoms are recognized and treated in humans. The majority of zoonoses are confined to people with direct contact with a specific host and are not usually transmitted from person to persono Hovvever, throughout human history, there have been panucmk disea es which have killed millions. Pandemic outbreaks of a disease involve multipl e countries and continents. Black Death, bubonic plague, swept through Europe from 1347 to 1350, kill­ ing approximately 1/3 of the population. The source was a bacteria, Yersinia p estis, that is found in the gut of fl eas and thrives in the blood of rats. Infected rats spread the disease to people. Infected people spread the plague to family members and entire villages. People who fled in an attempt to escape the disease spread it even furthe r, carrying it across much of Europe. People became infected from direct contact with infected people, fleas, and rats, causing two of the three forms of the plague; septicemic and bubonic. The other form, pneumonic, was transmitted by airborne droplets, sprayed by the coughing and sneezing of infected people. While it is easy to think that this distant disease was limited to the Dark Ages, Natural Bridges National Park (San Juan County, Utah) was temporarily closed to the public in April 2006 beca use the wild rodent population was infected with the plague. In June 2006, a cat in Arizona was positively diagnosed with bubonic plague due to probable close contact with wild rodents. Today, with air traveL human migration and expansion, encroachment into relatively isolated areas, and destruction of habitats, zoonotic diseases can quickly become global concerns. Humans are coming into contact with pathogens for

THE CHILDREN'S RHYME, Ring Around A Rosie is constantly being argued over, interpreted, reinterpreted, and dis­

sected. Is th is little verse an oral history of the Black Death;>

Ring around a rosie - The plague was characterized by pustules rin ged with a rosie color.

Pocket full oJ posies - Strongly scented flowers and herbs (pos ies) were carried in an attempt to ward off the disease and

cover up the stench of decaying corpses.

Ashes, ashes - Bodies were piled together and burned .

AII JaH down - Countless, seemingly endless bodies and all were expecting to die.

L -_ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

8

UNIT l' CHAPTER 2

which they have no immunity, contact with more exotic species, and disease potential that is unknown. Most zoonotic diseases are acquired through casualness, carelessness, and lack of education regarding zoonotic diseases. Zoo noses from exotic animals kept as companions are real an d the potential is known. Responsible ownership inc\udes knowledge of what disease potential there may be and how to prevent possible infections. It is everyone's responsibility to inform and educate. Pet sto res, animal handlers, veterinarians, and veterinary staff are all in the forefront of public education and awareness.

Table 2-1: Safe Practices SAFE PRACTICES • Exotics should not be allowed to roam freely. This especially applies to reptiles. • Reptiles should be provided with dedicated tubs for soaking, not placed in the bathtub or sin k. No animal should be in or near food preparation areas. Animals should only be fed from dishes reserved exclusively for them; never from hands or allowed to take food from a human mouth, to lick dinner plates and other uten sils . • All anima l food and water dishes shou ld be disinfected and washed separately, not placed in a dishwasher. Animal food and water bowls should not be exchang'ed between species (e.g., the snake bowl should not be used to provide water for the family dog). All soi led bedding and fecal material should be ha ndled with latex gloves and disposed of in tied plastic bags. It should not be used as garden mulch l Hands should ALWAYS be thoroughly was hed with soap and water after ha nd ling any animal, animal equi pment, and enclosure contact, even if wearing disposable latex gloves. Latex gloves should be pulled off so they are inSide-out , tied at the wrist, and disposed of in a plastic bago Hands should be washed between handling other animals. In cleaning cages that are very dirty, a disposable face mask should be worn. When handling a diseased animal, protective eye wear should also be worn.

Table 2-2 Short list of Common Zoonotic Infectious Agents and Source Groups

~' m~t!º~]l i !:.I~T, .Q.F, CO:~~o~; zo6~OT,CTt'lrEqIOUS ~GENTS AND -1= _. __ _ '_ .l... ... ~OURCE;~ROUPS~¿~ _ '_ _

'l

Source

Bacte ri a

Sa lmonella

All animals

Aeromonas

Reptiles

Mycobacterium

Mammals, reptiles

C. psittaci

Birds

Listeria

Amphibians

Tularemia

Mammals (especially rabbits)

Leptospiros is

Mammals

Campylobacter

Reptiles

Enterobacte r

Reptiles

Streptobac illus

Mammals continLled

Zoonotic Diseases

Table 2·2 Continued

• Mammals, birds

Pasterurella Colibacilla

Birds

Yersinia pestis

Mammals (rode nts and fleas)

Tuberculosis

Mam mals, birds

Staphylococcus

Mammals, birds

Viral LCM (lymphocytic cho riomeningitis)

Mammals

Ra bies

Mammals (ra re ly repo rted in birds of prey)

Monkey Pox

Potentially any mammal Yeast

Candida

Repti les

Funga l Dermatophytes (ringwonm )

Mammals

Cryptococcus

Birds

Protozoan Giardia

All species pote ntial

Coccidia

All species potential

Define zoonotic.

What are sorne common routes oftransmission for zoonotic diseases?

list eight safety practices that will reduce the potential for contracting

a zoonotic disease.

Harnsters are known carriers of a disease called LCM. Wh at is it

and how is contracted?

Which government agency tracks and provides information on

zoonotic diseases?

Discuss the reasons that close contact with exotic anirn als could

potenti ally cause disease in hurnans.

Which population groups have a greater risk of developing severe

complications from a zoonotic disease?

Explain why mixed species of animals should not be housed together.

Give one example of what could happen.

List five different groups of pathogens that have zoonotic potential.

I

With regard to the information presented in this chapte r, discuss the possible implications ofthe bird flu virus, H5NI.

9

10

UNIT I • CHAPTER 2

FUllher ReadinA Hoff, B. & Smith,

c.,

JI!. (2000). Mapping Epidemics: A Historical Atlas of Disease.

Franklin Watts. "Monkey Pox Backgrounder" (2003). In American Veterinary Medical Association. June 23,2003.

Fact Sheet: Monkeypox in Animals: The Basics for People Who Have Contact with Animals (2003) ovember 5, 2003. http://wwvv.cdc.gov/ /wv.,'W.cdc.gov (accessed 3/ 24/ 05). "Foreign Animal Disease AJert: Investigation Uncovers First Outbreak of Monkeypox Infection in Westem Hemisphere." (2003). In American Veterinary

Medical Association. June 23,2003. http://www.avma.org (accessed 3/28/06). Fact Sheet: Embargoed Alrican Rodents and Monke)'pox Virus, january 26, 2006 http:// www.cdc.gov (accessed 2/14/ 06).

Emerging Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. Supplement to Compendium, Vol 24, 'J o 1 (A) ofVeterinary Learning Systems, Murie!, January 2002 . Nolen, S. CDC on the Offensi ve to Stamp Out Rodents Virus. http:// www.avma .org (accessed 3/ 28/ 06) .

•

Introd e o t mall Ma

s

vertebrates endoskeleton endotherm eutherian placenta precocial .ltrici.l metatheria monotremes deciduous mandible malleus incus sta pes herbivore carnivore omnivore insectivo re

After compleLing this chapter, the Sl1ldenl sh ol/ld be tibie W • • • • • •

explain what a eutherian is. explain what a metatherian is. explain what a monotreme is. describe what a herbivore eats. describe what a carnivore eats. describe what an omnivore eats.

Inll'odllclion Mamma ls are a very diverse group within the animal kingdom. They represent a great variety of species, ranging from the very smallest of the known mammals, Kitli's Hog-nosed Bat, which we ighs considerably less than aunce, to the greatest of all living creatures, the Blue Whale, with an estimated weight uf 150 tons. Although the range of mamma lian species is vast, they all share distinguishing dlaracteristics. All mammals are H' I le , possessing a spinal column that is part of the elldos lelor , a framework of bones which provides structure and suppon to the body. Mammals have a h ighly developed central nervous sys tem and brain. They are all 'O( lhCJ ni (warm-blooded), h ave h air, and produce milk to feed their young. Mam rnals are separated into three distinaive groups based primarily on the man­ ner in which their young develop prior to birth. Most familiar are the 1!lIlllL'ril/ll \ those mammals with a pI. (el!' that nourishes the developing young, conneaing them to the uterus until the time of birth. The young of sorne species are prccO(. al. They are fully developed at birth, with their eyes open and a fu ll coat of hair and they are able to funaion with a degree of independence. A few of these species indude the degu, chinchilla, and guinea pig. More commonly the young are delivered alLridal. They are born wi th their eyes and ears dosed and have no visible hair growth. They are entirely depend ent on maternal care for survival. Examples of these species are miel' and rats, rabbits, and ferrets .

12

Introduction to Small Mammals

The second group is /l/erorl"'ri,, , or marsupiaIs. The young of all marsupials are born in an embryonic state. They must make their way to either a pouch or teat attachment to complete their development. Two examples of marsupials commonly kept as pets are sugar gliders and Brazilian short-tailed opossums. The third group, monotremcs, are mammals which lay eggs. There are only two living species of monotremes, the duck-billed platypus and the echidna, a type of spiny ant-eater. While they have many features characteristic to other mammals, adult monotremes do not possess teeth. The echidna has a specialized snout for probing into anthills and a very long tongue, while the platypus has a bill, not dissimilar to that of some ducks, which is used to probe underwater in search of food items. With the exception of the monotremes, a1l mammals have two sets of teeth. The dcciduous or baby teeth are shed and replaced by permanent, adult teeth. If adult teeth are Iost they are not replaced. Other features unique to mammals inelude the structure of the lower javv, or mandible . The mandible consists of one bone in mammals, and many smaller bones in nonmammals. Fossil evidence in the evolution of mammals has determined that these smaller bones of the lower jaw were once present but have evolved to form the bones of the middle ear in mammals. They have beco me the malllUs (the hammer) , the incus (the anvil) , and the tap ~ (the stirru p). Additionally. mammals possess a diaphragm, a strong muscle which assists in respiration . It is absent in birds and reptiles. Mammals aIso possess a soft and a hard palate which separate the esophagus and the trachea. Mammals consume a variety of diets. They may be generally classifled as herbivores, animals which eat only plant material, carnivore , those which eat only meat, and omnivores, those mammals which eat both plants and other animals. Some mammals may be referred to as mscctivores and these feed primarily on insects.

Re\ ¡el QuesUons

o

What is one reason mammals are divided into groups?

f) Give definitions for the following groups of animals:

a. eutherians b. metatherians c. monotremes

e

What is the fundion of the placenta?

O

How does the structure of the mammalian mandible differ from

other classes of animals?

e What are the names of the bones of the middle ear? o What are the deciduous teeth? A diaphragm is uniqu e to mammals. What is the function?

13

14

UN IT 11 • CHAPTER 3

o

Define the following terms: a. herbivore b. carnivore c. omnivore d. insectivore

o

lhe young of mammals are described as bei ng either precocial or altricial. What is the difference between these two?

Fur he)' Rtaadin o www.animaldiversity.org.

Earth-LifeWeb produaions, www.earthlife.net. April 06 (accessed December 4,2006).

WWW.u pm.berkleyedu (accessed December 4, 2006).

Ferrets

OBJECTIVES After completing the chapter, the student should be able to • • • • • •

properly house a ferret. provide appropriate client education to new ferret owners. know what vaccines to give and the vaccination schedule. be able to provide basic nursing care to a ferret. assist io the anesthesia of a ferret. demonstrate appropriate restraint techniq ues.

Inlrodufl ion lo Latin, Mustela putorius furo means "smel!y mouse-eaLng thief." Ferret owoers could agree that ferrets are smelty thieves, but oot al! are mouse-eaters. \Alhat they will all agree on is how fuony, playful, mischievous, and delightful ferrets are as companions. The ferret has a firmly established place as an animal companion, rivaling the popularity of dogs, cats, and birds. The ferret has been domesticated for centuries. In 450 Be, Aristophaoes, a Creek playwright, meotioned ferrets in "The Achaeans," referring to certain peop le and ferrets together as thieves (wikipedia, 2006). The presence of ferrets in aneien t writing and art, coupled with the uncertainty of tbeir an cestors, has led many to think that the domestic ferret may never have been a wil d species. Domestic ferrets are closely related to the European polecat (M. putorius), a wild ferret tbat ranges across mucb of the forests oC [ urope aod Great Britain. A polecat is also known as a Otm . Domestic ferrets and polecats can interbreed and their pbysical appearance is barely distinguishable. Closely related is the endan­ gered Black-footed ferret, which was originally found in the pra iries of orth America. Captive breeding programs have successfully released and reintroduced several groups in the hope that the Black-footed ferret will be able to reestablish wild breeding populations. Ferrets were kept as hunting animals and for pest control. They are efficient hunters with the predatory instinct of a carnivore. They were introduced into Australia and New Zealand in the 1800s to rid the countries of the overpopulation of rabbits (also an introduced species ), which were digging up tbe countryside and ruining crops. In Creat Britain and many other European countries, ferrets are still kept for sport hunting (see Chapter 5- Rabbits).

fitch congenitaUy hob

jiU kit scruff Iscruffing anaphylaxis ca rri ers heartworm vector fixed formula free choice hypoglycemia gastric duodenal

NSAID melena epizootic pruritis erythematosis epiglottis

15

16

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 4

The family Mustelidae ineludes ferrets as well as skunks, weasels, mink, badgers, and otters. What they all have in common are very strong smelling scent glands. Ferrets sold in pet stores are de-scented and spayed or neutered. Anal scent glands, located just inside the rectu m, are surgically removed. Ferrets that have been de-scented still have a musky odor. They have smal!, scent producing sebaceous glands that cannot be removed from their abdominal surface. Ferrets may be given a bath with a shampoo specifically formulated for ferrets or one made for kittens. Dog and human shampoos should not be used because they reduce the natural oils of the coat and cause dry, flaky skin. Ferrets should not be bathed more frequently than once every three months. Frequent bathing actually increases sebaceous gland secretion in compensation for oils lost. Diet can also contribute to the odor, especially ferret foods which contain blood and blood by-products. The easiest way to reduce odor is by keeping the ferret's cage elean and by changing the bedding often. The American Ferret Association recognizes 30 color variations, ineluding sable, the most common and natural coat color; silver and a si/ver mitt (silver with white feet); chocolate; albino; black-eyed whites; and cinnamon. Some of the newer color variations have distinctive white markings on the head and body. Coat color is often genetically linked to other less desirable traits. Because of the inbreeding required to establish new coat colors and variations, many ferrets with white marking on their heads are congcnilallv deaf, that is, they are born without the ability to hear. Hob~ ( males) can be twice the size of j iIIs (females). This is especially evident if the hobs were not neutered at an early age. Hobs weigh an average 2 to 4.5 pounds (1 to 2 kg). Jills often weigh as little as 1 to 2 .5 pounds (0.6 to 0.9 kg). Twice ayear, ferrets shed their coats and their color may change from dark to lighe depending on the season. If hair is shaved for any reason, it takes several weeks for it to grow back and it may have a slightly different color or texture when it does. Ferret ski n is thick and tough, especially around the neck. In the United States, ferrets are kept as companion animals. Regulations regarding felTets vary from state to state. They are illegal in California, while in many other states, counties, and towns there are strict regulations that require fer­ rets to be spayed, neutered, and licens ed. [n addition, a speci al permit may be required for possession of a ferret. Before obtaining a ferret, always check locallaws first. lf it is illegal to keep a ferret, ordinances have provisions for confiscation and the ferret vvil! be euthanized. Persons illegally housing ferrets may also be subject to animal violation citations and fines. Many of the laws regarding ferrets were enacted before there was an understanding of their behaviors. The concerns were often based on hearsay: that ferrets would attack and kilJ human infants; that they would decimate other animal populations; and that they were carrier... of rabies. These concems have now been largely discounted through public education and many areas have repealed laws which prohibited keeping ferrets as pets. However, no one should attempt to smuggle a ferret into an area where they are illegal.

Beha\ior Ferrets spend a great deal of time sleeping. It is not unusual for a healthy ferret to sleep as much as 18 to 20 hours out of 24. The sleep is very deep, especially in kits (immature ferrets). Many new owners have become alarmed, thinking their pet might be dead. W hen awake, ferrets are nonstop bundles of curious energy.

Ferrets

Tbe spine of a ferret is long and very flexible, allowing it to maneuver through small spaces and still turn around. Ferrets will investigate any space and are capable of flattening their bodies to squeeze into and under small areas. For this reason, homes must be "ferret-proofed" as ferrets may disappear into small spaces that the owner may not bave noticed. It is especially important to check under cabinets for small, recessed openings between the floor and cabinet bottom. Al! doors, latches, and window screens need to be checked carefully. Ferrets have no trouble elimbing up screen, making a small opening, and popping through. They can squeeze u nder a elosed door that is not flush with the floor or go ioto heating vents or areas that have been cut out for water pipes. rerrets are active diggers and can throw out all the soil in a potted plant in a mat­ ter of minutes. They will dig at carpets and in the comers of rooms. 50ft fumishings are a favorite play area; a ferret will go in, over, under, pulling itself along on its back by its nails, potentially doing as much damage as a cat elawing at the fumiture.

RRETS

H0ULD IOT BE DECI AWED Declawing of cats is controversial,

but declawing a ferret is crippling and the ferret will suffer permanent disability. The claws of ferrets are not retractable and the an atomy of the digit is completely differ­ ent. Declawing includes removal of the claw as well as amputation of the last ¡oint of each toe , making it very difficult for the ferret to walk properly.

Owners must be very careful when the ferret is out of its cage and disappears. Ma ny pieces of furniture are perfect hiding places for ferrets and can become death traps . This is particularly true of reelining chairs and sofa beds. Many ferrets have been critically injured or killed by people who didn't realize the ferret was so und asleep inside the chair, pulled the reeliner lever, and crushed the ferret, or sat on the sofa with a ferret under the cushions. Trauma can inelude dislocation of a joint or fractures (Figure 4-1). f.'"

4 I The ovvner of th is male fe rret

was unaware that he was sleeping in the back ofthe couc h. When she sat down, the result to t he ferret was a lu xabon o f the left femo ral head. (Court e~ o{ lardan Applied

Techn ology Center.)

17

18

UNIT 11' C HAPTER 4

Bedding and laundey baskets are other places ferrets like to curl up and sleep. More than one distraught owner has found his missing ferret when pulli ng laundry from the wash ing machine. AlI drawers must be opened carefully, as ferrets elimb up the backside of chests or cabinets, be they in the bath room, bedroom, or kitchen. Ferrets are very pIayful and enjoy games with their owners. An excited, pIayful ferret performs an array of movements by jumping, hunch-backed, pouncing up and down, running backwards or around in tight cireles, shaking its head, and making soft chuckling and hissing sounds. Ferrets will "attack" bare toes and ankles. They also have a strong attraction to white socks and sIippers. Fenet own­ ers quickly learn to wear shoes when their ferre ts are out for playtime. Play between ferre ts is veey rough, especially with kits. Like cats that learn to stalk, pounce, and bite, kits have no hesitation in being just as rough with peop le. Ferrets grab and bite each oth er's scruff (the thick skin aro und the area of the neck) or drag one another around by the ears or any other appendage. They should be taught at a young age that biting and pulling are not so enjoyable for humans. Ferrets are intelligent and responsive to the human voice, quite cap abl e of understanding the meaning of "NO." Scruffing a kit by grasping the area of ski n at the nape of the neck, an d saying" o " in a firm voice is effective. Ferrets should never be given physical punishment. One of the worst recom­ mendations is to "flick the ferret on the end of the nose." This is not only very painful for the ferret and completely unjustified, but it teaches the ferret th at hands cause pain and the lesson for the ferret is one of avoidan ce or aggression. A simple, painless scruff is a1l that is ever required, a "tim e-o ut. " Wl1en ferrets are scruffed with a ll four feet off the ground, they relax completely and will usually yawn widely and appear to be asleep. Toys must b e chosen carefully. Ferrets that have swallowed toys often require surgery to remove foreign body obstructions. Soft, woo l covered toys, fur mice, plastic cat balls, feath er wands, an d squ eaky toys are all favorites. Toys need to be checked regulady to make sure the ferret is not chewing on them and swallowing small pieces. The biggest danger is not from toys, however, but from other items around the house. Common causes of in testinal blockage are foam rubber from headphones and furniture cushions, pencil erasers, rubber bands, and cotton balls. Oth er items removed with surgery are small pieces of plastic, wads of thread , and velero, which is ano ther favorite "chew toy" for ferrets. Shoes with velero fas­ tenings need to be examined for missing pieces, especially the rubber soleo Th iefZ Ferrets will take anything that appeals to them and stash th e item away. Missing items are found all at the same time and in the same place. ror ferret own­ ers, this is tbe answer to the age oId mystery, "where does the other sock go?" In addition to socks, peop le have found car keys, wrapped sweets, prescription bottles, cash and wallets, ornaments they hadn 't eve n realized were missing, toothbrushes, and countless other items. Clearly, these are not food items for a ferret. It is not food hoarding, as seen in other species, and the reason for this beh avior is not clear. Wise owners know the location of tbe stash and have learned to look there first for any missing items. Cood pI aces to begin a "treasure hunt " are tbe inside of a box spring mattress and in the back of the family sofa or upholstered chair. Ferrets wiJl use a litter box, providing it is in the right place at the right time. During play, they will not actively seek out the litter box but run backwards to the nearest comer. Plastic sheets or loose floor tiles in the comers of rooms where the ferret is allowed to play make c\eanup considerably easier. Ferrets elevate their rear

Ferrets

ends to unnate and defecate so the protected comers should also cover a small area of the wal!. Litter boxes specifically designed for ferrets are triangular, designed to fit into comers. The uiangular back of the litter box is higher to accommodate the ferret's elimination behavior. Many ferrets will not use a litter box, no matter how many or well placed they are. lnstead, they prefer to go behind the litter box, often shoving it away to get to the comer. Basic unscented cat litter is the best choice. Clumping litters could have the potential for creating an intestinal blockage if ingested. Routine care ineludes nail trims and ear-eleaning. Each foot has five elaws which can grow very long and become entangled in carpet and bedding. These are easily trimmed with small human nail elippers, being careful not to cut into the quick. Depending on the ferret, it may require one person to "scruff and dangle" while another performs the trim. What often works well is to place a small amount of cat hair-ball remedy on a tongue depressor and allow the ferret to lick it while the nails are being trimmed. They are very fond of the malt flavor and will be distracted enough not to object to the nail trim. A method often used is to place the sticky substance on the ferret's abdomen. This is not recommended because when it is licked off, the ferret is also likely to ingest hair. Ferrets produce grainy, reddish-brown exudates from their ears. Ear-eleaning solutions are available from pet sto res and veterinarians. A few drops of the solution should be placed in each ear and massaged in. The ear can be wiped out with cotton tipped applicators, being careful not to enter into the ear canal. If the debris is dark and has an odor, the ferrel may have ear mites which can be confirmed and treated by a veterinarian.

Hotlsing One of the things ferrets do best is sleep. Elaborate cages are not required. With the dramatic increase in the popularity of ferrets has come a variety of cages and related products, in particular the ferret condo. The condo is an uprighe multilevel wire cage with a sol id floor. Ferrets are ground-dwelling and the various levels designed within these cages can contribute to injury. Ferrets are very near-sighted and negotiating ladders and ramps can lead to falls. Most condo setups suggest using sleeping sacks or hammocks suspended from the top of the cage. Ferrets do not naturally elimb up to sleeping dens, but go down and under to a smal! space. Many sleeping ferrets have fallen from the unguarded edges of platforms resulting in fractures. Condos should be equipped with padded ramps, rather than open rung wire ladders. Sleeping sacs are safer and more easily accessed by the ferret when they are placed on the cage floor. Many ferrets are housed in la rge, sturdy pet carriers. One of adequate size would be a medium to Iarge dog pet transporter. Ferrets do not play in their sleeping den. All they need is a water bottle, a full food cup, soft bedding, and a litter box at the o pposite end of the carrier. When the ferret is let out for exercise and play time, the door is left open, making access to food and water uncomplicated. Cage substrates, ineluding any type of wood shavings, recyeled paper prod­ ucts, and com cob should not be used for ferrets. The cage floor can be lined with plain newspaper. Apile of soft towels, old elothes, or pieces of blanket are al! a ferret needs for comfort and security. Items should be used that can be easily and frequently laundered without the addition of fabric softeners or drying sheets.

19

20

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 4

Frequent laundering of bedding items contribules greatly to reducing lhe musky odor associated with ~ rrets.

Diel

FIXED FORMULA DIETS ARE CONSTAr'u, the

l'\

ingredients and percent­ ages do not change with market availabllity and price. There is a standard, or "fixed recipe," for each batch of food produced by the manufacturero

Ferrets are carnivores. They need a diet based on animal-derived protein. Many fenets are fed, and wilI eat, a variety of fruits and dairy products, bU l bo th can contribute to digestive and urinary tract problems. Fruit produces urinary crystals thal coul d eventualIy lead to the form at ion of kidney or bladder stones. Dairy, especi ally ice ream, m ilk, and cottage ch ees e, can cause diarrhea. A good, high quali ty, fixed (ormula dry kitten chow is recommended. The pro tei n requirem llL for kittens is higher than that for adult ca ts. Although form ulated to meet the growth requirements of kittens, the percentage of protein in kitten chow also meets th e d ietary requirements of fenets. Th re are also di ets available that have been specillcally formulated for fenets. Many of these inelude blood <1'ld blood by-products which conu-ibu te to foul­ smelling stools. Wh ich ever choice is made, ab rupt or random chan ges in b rands should be avoided to prevent diarrhea and intestinal upset. A11 p roduct labels sho uld be care fully read and evaluated not only for pro te in co nten t, but also fo r protei n source. Raw foods, indudi ng horse meat, beef, and chicken are som ti mes fed to ferrets. Feed ing raw meat to any no nzoo carnivore is controversial due to the po temial risk of parasite ane! bacterial transmission. With the high standards and nutrit ional bal­ ance of form ulated diets, feed ing raw meat is neith r necessary nor recom mended. Ferrets h a e a very sho rt d igesti ve tract and transit lime. Food should be avail­ able fre . Lhoice, allowing the ferret access to food at all limes. Fe rrets do not nibble al fo od, but eat fro m the bowl u ntil th ir needs are mel. Tbey may fe d every three ro four hOLLfS. Restricting food wi ll cause hypoglycemi.l, a conditiOI1 of low bl a od sugar. v ilh a high quality diet, nutritional suppl ments are not need ed . There are vitamin an d min era l produ cts which ferrets take read ily and eagerIy Ma ny of these are liqujd and may b e squirted d irectly on the food or li cked from the nozzle end of th e bottle. These products can al so greatly improve coat and skin condition and assist in preventi ng the buildup of intestinal hair and the forma­ tion ofhairballs. lIsed as a treat, most ferrets wil! abando n any activity or hidi ng place for th e proffered bribe.

Handling and Resll'ajnl [errets (J I! be picked up l'ilsily in one hand, just behi nd lh eir shoulders. With al! four feet away trom a surface, they usually r lax and may be carried in this manner without a struggle. For more th an removing from or retu rning a ferret to Íls cage, the hind end should be supported and the ferret held cl ase to the body They shoul d not be expected to ride around on shoulders or in the back of a hood ed sweatshil1 or handled in any way that would subject them to a fal!. Restraint for an exam can be difficult because of their Dexi biLity and q ui ckness. The scruff should be the first approach as this is effective a nd safe in all but those ferrels th at are very fr ightened, injured, or in pain . As with any species, the least

Fe rre t s

21

amo un t of reslrai n t required is the best restraint to use. Many ferrets relax so 'omp letely ';\lith a m aintained scruff that they can be la id down and positioned fO[ radi ographs wi thout moving and the use of a general anesthesia. This is also a technique u ed fol' a qui 'k ~'{am of the oral cavity. There is a yawn reflex associated wi lh being scnlf~ d and the fe rret will open its mouth wide as it yawns. Scruffing also provides adequate restraint for giving injections and taking rectal temperatures. In large hobs, lhe scruff may be a little harder to grasp as the skin is not only very tigh t, but lough. If the fe rret starts to twist and squirm, the other hand should be placed aro und the rear limbs, just below the pelvis (Figure 4-2) . Ferrets should not be held direel ly over the floor during any type of restraint. Should they brea k free fro m lb e srsu[f and fall to the floor, serious injury could result.

:\lcdical Conce 'lIS Ferrets are very su ceptible to canine distem per. This virus can be airborne, trans­ mi tted d ireetly fro m infected dogs, or carried on clothing, shoes, or other con­ tam inated items. Ferre ts can b protected against tbis disease through a series of vaccinati o ns. Wben tbe kit arrives in the pet sto re, it may have one vaccination to gu ard agai nst ca n in distemper. If this is the case, it is a temporary vaccine and does not provide full immu nity. Kits need to be fully vaccinated through a series of vaccinatio ns given at 6 to 8 weeks and 10 to 12 weeks, and given a yearly boo ster vaccine thereafter. Currently, there are two vaccines approved by the USo Department of Agricul tu r<: (USDA) for use in ferrets: PureVax produced by Meria!, and Fervac-D fro m United Vacci nes. Even though it is tbe same distemper virus th at affects dogs, canine-specific "combo vaccines " should not be substituted for use in ferrets . Some ferrets m ay h ave ( vaccination reaction. A reaction can be mild , severe, or Jife-thr al ning. If ,10 ilph}la 'ís occurs postvacrination, it is usually within 20 to 30 minutes. Owners should remain at the clinic during this period to ensure immed iate and possi b ly !ife-saving treatment if anaphylaxis occurs. Depending upon the severity of anap hylactic sho ck anti histamines and/ or short-acting ste­ roids are ad m inistered. In an extreme case, the ferret may need to be intubated and given respiratory su p port. Where fe rrets are legal, rabies vaccinations are also required by law. The ap proved vaccine fo r use in fe rrets is Im rab-3 from Meria!' Ferrets should be vac­ cinated against rabi es at tbree montbs and be given an annual booster tbereafter. In lhe rare inSlance when a fe fIet bites someone, despite proof of current rabies vaccin ation, the ferre l may be confiscated and euthanized to be tested for rabies. 'Ibis is contraly to dog and cat laws wbere an animal is quarantined and observed for a period of 10 d ays. lfvaccination protocol is followed, inoculated ferrets are no more likely lO be carriers o f rab ies than any other warm-blooded species. Fortunately, with greater public awareness and education, the majority of laws bave been amended lO provide for quarantine rather than m andatory euthanasia and rabies testing.

GaslrointeslinaJ Uisol'd( rs lI

Many ferrets are presented with vague signs of lethargy, anorexia, and diarrhea. One o f the u rst lllle-o uts (r/o) would inelude a foreign body in the gastrointestinal

Figure 4-2 Correct restraint of a ferret. A ferret should be restrained over a tab le in case it breaks free from th e scruff and falls.

22

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 4

(GI tract). Foreign body obstructions are very common in ferrets because of their curious nature and because they like to chew on certain items. Rubber products are the most common foreign bodies found. Many ferrets also show more specific signs, ineluding abdominal pai n and a hunched body position. In this case, radiographs should be taken, as this is the best way to determine not only if there is a foreign body, but the exact location and size of the obstruction. Two views are usual!y taken; a lateral (L) and a ventral/dorsal (V/O). Surgical removal of the foreign body is required and often the retrieved item is very recognizable to the owner. In conjunction with foreign body ingestion or exposure to and ingestion of a toxin, it is not uncommon for a ferret to develop ulcers, both gaslJic and uuoden 1, involving the stomach and the smal! intestine. Some medications may also predispose a ferret to developing gastric ulcers. Evaluation should inelude a history of foreign body ingestion, presaibed steroid or N \lO use (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), and household items the ferret may have been exposed to ineluding plants, carpet fresheners, and eleaning products. Clinical signs inelude teeth-grinding (a sign ofp a in in many animals), weight loss, vomiting, pale mucous membranes, and hypersalivation (associated with nausea and pain). The stool may be black and tarry (melena ) indicating blood in the feces. Fecal material may also adhere to the ther­ mometer tip when obtaining a rectal temperature. Treatment may inelude antibiotics, fluid therapy, and antacids. Force feeding of bland foods may also be required. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBO) is a chronic condition of the Gl tract and can develop in ferrets with a history of metabolic or infectious disease or a hyper­ sensitivity to some foods. lt may also be bacterial in origino It can cause inflam­ mation of the digestive tract, but most commonly the lower bowel is affected. Signs inelude vomiting and weight loss, dehydration, and loss of muscle tone. It is accompanied by a characteristic green diarrhea.

THERE IS A DISEASE CONDITION OF FERRETS KNOWN AS ECE, or Epizootic Catarrhal Enteritis . This is commonly called "C reen Slime Disease." ECE

is distinctly different from IBD and the presence of green, slimy diarrhea should not be reason to immediately presume a diagnosis of ECE . Most ECE outbreaks are confined to breeding facilitie s and ferret/ pet shows or in a ferret that has been recently exposed to ECE-positive ferrets. The mortality rate for ECE is high, espe­ cially in young kits. The causative agent is unknown , but ECE is thought to be caused by a virus.

Diagnosis of IBD requires surgical biopsies of the intestinal tract and lymph nodes. Lymph node biopsy results will help determine the treatment if a bacterial infection is implicated. Nonbacterial IBO is often treated with supportive care, fluid therapy, anti-inflammatolY drugs, and a change in diet. Nutriti onal support is usually recommended while the patient convalesces. Food should be just wet enough to fit through the tip of a G mI syringe without elogging up or pouring through the tipo Recovering ferrets should be fed as much as they will consume every three to four hours.

Ferrets

23

THEREARE VARJOUS RECIPES USEDTO CREATESUPPORTIVE DIETS. One ofthe mostcommonly used is "duck soup," a mixture of kitten chow, human nutritional drinks, and high calorie animal supplements. Current thought (Kramer & Kelleher,

2005) is that "duck soup" is too high in sugar, causing ferrets to become addicted to it while they are convalescing

and WON'T go back to kibble (Kelleher,

2005). 80th Kramer and Kelleher recommend that the "duck soup" recipe be

replaced with either a commercial carnivore diet, or a canned prescription diet available from the treating veterinarian.

'ol1digeslh (. DisoJ1ders In addition to the canine distemper virus, ferrets are unusual in that they can become infected with human influenza. Vlhile there are many different strains of the influenza virus, al! cause respiratory infections and the signs are similar; ele­ vated temperature, coughing, sneezing, ocular and nasal discharge, lethargy, and dehydration. Sick ferrets may al so be reluctant to eat. Treatment can inelude pro­ phyJactic use of antibiotics (even though influenza is viral) , fluid therapy, and supplemental feedings . Most ferrets recover v"ithout further complications. If left untreated , however, severe cases of influenza may progress to pneumonia. This can be problematic when human household members are also suffering from the flu and the ferret does not receive needed ca re. Owners with the flu or the onset of a common cold shou Jd avoid elose contact with their ferrets. Adrenal gland disease is becoming an increasing problem with pet ferrets. The exact cause of Lhe high incidence of adrenal gland tumors is unknown. One the­ ory that has been suggested several times is that these tumors are directly related to premature spaying and neutering. Ferrets are usual!y neLl tered by breeding facilities at around six weeks of age, which may be far too young, preventing endo­ crine gland and hormonal development. One of the first signs of adrenal gland disease is alopecia. Hair loss starts on the rump, across the hips, and progresses down the tai!. As the disease advances, so too does the alopecia. Some ferrets with adrenal gland disease become devoid of al! hair. I'rurttU1> (itching), and crythunato·j · (red and inflamed skin), also occur within the areas of hair loss (Figure 4-3) .

FIgure 4-3 When adrenal gland disease progresses and left untreated, there can be a complete loss of hai r with erythematosis. (Courtery of frie Klaphake, DVM.)

24

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 4

Figure 4-4 A typical patte rn of hair loss (alopec ia ) and edema which occurs in both jills and hobs with adre nal gla nd disease. (Courtesy of frie /(laphake , DVM.)

In the jill, the vulva becomes swollen and it may ap pear as if she is in heat. Hobs with adrenal gl and disease have tro uble urinating, wh ich may indicate an enlarged pros tate and cys titis. Both se.xes may exhibit edema (Figure 4-4). Adrenal gland disease is usu ally diagnosed by clinical signs and a complete history. Basic blood work, chemistry panels, and radiographs do not provid e eno ugh informatio n to confirm a diagnosis. If the ferret is o theI\-vise young and healthy, surgical r moval of the affea ed adre­ nal gland is the most successful treatment. There are medical options, but the expense of the drugs used (mitotane or lupron), combined with [.be complications of timing th e injections, monitoring their effectiveness, and multiple office visits needs to be considered carefully Drug administration requires painfu l intramuscular (1M) injec­ tions. The inj ections may co ntrol the clinical signs but they are not curative. Ferret are often diagnosed with insulino mas. Pancreatic tumors can be dif­ ficult to ap proach surgically and medica l management is usually attemp ted first. Diet and dru g th erapy can help co ntrol the hypoglycemia that is a consequence of pa ncreatic insulinoma. Mast cel! tumors are ofien diagnosed in th e ferret. Mast cells m ediate a vari ety of reacti ons in lhe body and are often associated with allergies. ~i hey first appear as smal!, hairless areas o n the surface of the skin w hi ch may be mistake n for a slight scratch or insect bi te (Figure 4-5). In later stages they may be swoll en, black, and crusty. In the early stages, mast cel! tumors can be re moved with ]jttle conseq uence and are usually benigno In later stages they are likely to beco m e malignant and require more e.xtensive surgery (Figure 4-G).

Clinical PrO('edll1'eS FiguI 4· 5 An early stage mas t cell tumor in lhe axilla of a rerret. (Cou rtery oi frie I
Vaccinations should be administered subcutaneously (S ) . When held by the scruff, m ast fe rrets wi ll not object too m uch oMedications should be administered

Ferrets

25

Figure 4-6 A young ferret with an oral tum or. (Courtesy of f rie

Klaphake, DVM .)

orally, as 1M injections re extr mely painful and will elicit a loud scream from th ferret. Also, there is a greater chance in giving 1M injecti ons o f losing the scruff and causing inju ry to tlle [erret as it attempts to escape. Although blood rna be d rawn from various sites, the la teral saphenous and ce phali c veins provide ease of access fa r small a m ounts. Larger volumes may be co llected fram the rigbt jugular vei n and tht> anterior vena cava (Figure 4-7) . If atte mp ting an anterior vena cava collecrion, general anesthesia is recommend ed

Figure 4-7 Res t ra int o Fa fe rret and approach fo r blood collection fr o m the vena cava. The vena cava is located mo re caudally in fe rrets t han in most mammals.

26

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 4

Figure 4-8 Restraint and setup for the administration of SQ fluids. The extension set allows the ferret some movement without dislodg­ ing the needle or havi ng it acciden­ tally penetrate deeper, causing more pain.

When administering any amount of SQ fluids, it is simpler to attach a fluid extension set to the syringe, rather than attempt direct delivery (Figure 4-8). This allows the ferret some movement without pulling the needle out of the skin and elimina tes the possibility of pain caused by the needle penetrating deeper than SQ when the ferret moves. The use of gas anesthesia in a ferret is similar to dogs and cats Ferrets are initially masked down prior to intubation. Intubating the ferret is easier than with many other exotics as the epiglottis is easily visualized (Figure 4-9 ). Use of a 2.5, uncuffed ET tube is recommended. Many of the diseases seen in ferrets are common to other species, but often their management is qui te different. Ferrets should have regular, yearly veterinary wellness exams that inelude a CBC, blood chemistries, and radiographs. Early detection of medical issues can often prevent serious consequences.

t>al'ilsiles Heartworm disease is endemic in many areas. It is vecLOr transmitted by the same mosquitoes that infect dogs and cats. AlI ferret owners should discuss heartworm pre­ ventatives with a veteri'Oarian. A heartworm positive ferret has a guarded prognosis. Figure 4-9 When a suitable plane of anes­ thesia is achieved, the ferret may be easily intubated. A length of gauze placed iust behind the cani,nes aids in opening the mouth and helps avoid a "clamp bite" should the fer­ ret respond to the stimulus o f tube place­ mento lf the gauze has been wetted , the threads are less likely to snag on the teeth.

Fe rret s

What is the result when fe rrets are bathed too frequentLy?

O Normal play for ferrets can be rough. Acce ptable be havior with humans needs to be ta ught at an early age . Explain th e co rred way to discipline a ferret . ., W hat are the recommended vaccinations for ferrets? Describe the clinical signs exhibited by a ferret with adre nal gla nd disease. Intestinal blockages are frequentLy see n in ferrets. What items are commonly found in the GI tract?

O Iffood is restricted, what is the medicaL consequence? Even though a ferret has been de-scented, it still has an odor because __________________

What is meant by "ferret -p roofing" the home?

What is a disadvantage of fe eding some commerciaLLy prod uced

ferret foods?

I

Discuss the reasons why ferrets are iLlegal in some areas.

Ferrets

VJfl('IIT

DENTAL

Hobs: 1to 2 kg· (2.2 to 4 .2 lbs)

• To tal of 20 t e et h

plls: 0 .6 t o 1 kg ( 1. 3 to 2.2 lbs)

• De nta l fo rmula 2 (13/3,

V CCI . T

LlFE SPA

c;,

• C anine diste mper: Vacci ne schedu le: 6 to 8 weeks;

8 to 11 years

Q.EP ODUCT

o

e 1/ 1, PM 3/ 3, M Y2 )

9 to 12 weeks , 14 to 16 weeks; ye arly there after.

e

Sexual maturity: 6 to 12 mon th s • Gestation : 41 to 4 3 days • Litter size: 1to 18 (8 ave rage) Weaning age: 6 to 8 wee ks L TATI 1

e

Temperature: 37.7 t o 39.7 ° C ( 100 to 103.5 ° F) Heart rate: 180 to 250/ min ute • Respiratory rate: 33 to 361 minute

• Rabies: Vacc in e sc he dule: 4 to 6 months; ye arly the rea ft er.

27

28

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 4

Bel l, J. . (2004). Peripartu ri e nt and Neo nata l D isease. In K E. Quesenberry & J W Carpenter ( Ed s.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents. Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2nd Edition (pp . 50- 57) . lm p rint o f EIsevier Sci ence. Brown, S. A. (2004) . Basic An to my, Phys iology, and Husbandry In K. E. Qu esenberry &. J. W . Carpe nler (Eds. ), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surger)', 2 nd Edition (pp. 2- 11). Imprint of Elsevi r Science Burges , M. & Gamer, M. (2002). Clinical in Ferrets. Exotic DVM , 4 (2) ,29 - 34.

spects o f [n fl a mmatory Bowel Disease

Hess, L (2006). Clinical Techniques in rerrets. Co nfere nce Am li ca Veterinary Con ference, Ja n 7-11,2006 O rlan do, FL. Hess, L (20 05). Ferrel Lym p hom a: The

Id a nd the

otes, The North

ew. Seminars in Avian and

Exotic Pet Medicine, 14( ), 199-204. Il oerer, 1J. L (2006) . Cardiac Disease in Fenets. Co nference No tes, Th e North America Veterínary Co nferen c , Jan 7- 11, 2006, O rla nd o. F1. 1[ocrer, H. L & l3elL }. A (20 04) . Caslrointestinal Disease . In K E. Q uesenberry & J W Carpenter (Ed s.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surger)',

2 nd Edition (pp. 25-4 0). [m príl1l of L1sevie r Sc ien ce. Kramer, M. & Kcll eher, S. per o nal corres pondence vía Zoo logícal Ed ucatíon etwark EXOlí c DVM, Linda R. [ larosan, DVM., summ er 2005 . Mayer, J D. (200 G). Update 0 11 Adren al Glal1d Dísease !n Ferrets. Co n feren ce No tes, Th Nonh America Vete rí nary Con ference, Jan 7-11 / 2006 O rlando, f 1. Mayer, J. D. (2006) . Update on Ferret L)'mphoma. Conference _ o tes, The

orth

Alllerica Veterinary Confcrence, Jan 7- JI , 200G. O rl a nd o, FL Petrie, J.-P. &. Morri sey, J. K. (20 04) . Cardiovascula r a nd

ther D iseases. In K. E.

J. w. Carpen ter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents. Clinical Medicine nd and Su rger)', 2 Edítion (pp . 58-71). Irn p rint of Elsevier Sci ence. Que enberry

Quesenberry, K. E. O rc ult, C. (2004) . 13 sic Approa ch to Vdcrinary Care. In K. E. Quesenbeny & J. '. ~ a rp ente r (Ed s.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Roden ts :

Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp . 13-23). Impr int of Else\ ier Science. Q uesen beny, K. E. & Rosen tha l, K. 1. (2004). Enclocrine D iseases. [n K. E. Q uesen berry & ] . W. Carpenter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Su rgel}', 2 nd Edition (pp. 79-90) . Imp ri nt of Elsevíer Scíence. Rosentha l, K L. (2004) . Resp iratory Diseases. In K. E. Quesenberry & J w. .arpenter (Ed .), Ferret , Rabbíts and Rodents: Clíllical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (p p . 72-78). Imprint of EIsevie r cien ce. Schoem ke r, .. ]. (2002). Fe rre ts. BSAVA Manual of b otic Pets, 4, 93-1Ol.

Ferrets

Williams, B. H. & Weiss, C. A. (2004). eoplasia. In K E. Quesenberry & J W Carpenter (Eds.), Fe1Tets, Rabbits and Rodents. Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 91-106). Imprint of EIsevier Science. 2006 Wik ip edia CD Selection flxedrefe rence.orgj2006-wiki pedia-cd -selectionj wpjfj FerreLhtm , accessed August 2007.

29

Rabbits

lagomorph kit warren bolt hole ferreting

jiU ferret out free range feral hutch doe buck ingu inal c repuscular g ut m oti lit y uro li t h tim ot hy alfalfa ration coprophagi c cecotrophs dewclaw cyanosis pododermatitis i nduced ovulat or pa rt urition d ewlap kindle altri cia l asp irat ion c ann ulati on rhinitis snuffles dyspne a torticoUis cecum spirochet e e nterotoxemia trichobezoar urolithi asis slobbe rs cute re bra fly stri ke apnea glottis

After completing this chaptel; the student should be able to • • • • • •

properly house a rabbit. provide appropriate client education to new rabbit O\vners. provide basic n ursing ca re for a rabbit. assist in the anesthesia of a rabbit. provi de appropriate restraint techniques. correct[y identify the sex of a rabbit.

Il1lroduftion The domestication of the rabbit can be traced back to the Phoenicians over 1,000 years ago. The Iberian Peninsula is, literaJly, the land af the rabbit. Rabbits were > kep t by the Romans in walled areas called leparia. (Iberia, once Hispania, is nov/ the country of Spain.) Although previously included with rodents, rabbits were reelass ifi ed nearly a century ago and belong to the order lagomorph, which also inel udes cottonta ils and hares. Domestic rabbits are the same species as the Eu ro pean wild rabb it, Oryctolagus cuniculus. Ra bbits are grou ped by breed and type, depending upon their purpose. They a re bred for m eal, fur, and wool 0[, in the case of the smaller dwarfs, as companion animals. The American Rabbit Breeders Association (ARBA) recognizes 45 distinct breeds. The ARBA determines the standard for each breed. Standards inelude body typ a nJ acceptable coat colors, patterns, texture, and eye color. There are also m any ind ividual specialty clubs for rabbits. 4-H and FFA both offer opportunities for you lh. Tbe 1 o use Ra bbit Society is an organization which promotes education and ow ner responsibility for rabbits housed indoors. Many rabbits are of mixed breed but are just as appealing as rabbits with a known pedigree. It is useful to knowwhich breed to choose as there are generalizations regarding temp rament and breed disposition . There are dwarf breeds and giant breeds, lops vvith low, cl roo ping ears, and rabbits with ears erect, woolies, angoras, and the new Lionhead, (Figure 5-1 ) each with their own personaJity type and physical characteristics. Rabbits vary in size and weight from two to eight pouncls, a consicleration when buyi ng a rab bit 'n. Becoming familiar with different breeds and their traits is beneficia l not o nly in choosing a pet rabbit, but also in providing information to v terin ary and rescue personnel.

Rabbits

31

B~I)(I\ ior Wild rabbits live in underground warrens . A single warren may be home to as many as 40 or 50 rabbits. The size of the warren increases with the population, and an old warren may extend to nearly one-quarter of an acre. In appearance, a warren is a mound of earth with many entrances and exits called boll hales.

ON THE ENGLlSH DOWNS, MANY SEPARATE WARRENS ARE FOUND IN CLOSE PROXIMITY. Ferretmg is a popular sport which involves the use of a ferret. With the exception of one or tvvo, the bolt holes are covered with purse nets. A jiU is sent down into the open holes to ferre ou the rabbits. In their panic to escape, the rabbits run from their bolt holes straight into the purse nets, where they are captured and dispatched. Hunting with a ferret is illegal in the United States.

Domestic rabbits allowed freE.' range of a large enclosure also dig warrens and could potentially escape, quickly establishing a f~ral population Domestic rab­ bits exhibit digging behavior in cage bedding, on the floor of lhe W[C 1, or, in the case of a house rabbi t, by digging at the carpet and flooring. Rabbits are prey species and can be easily frightened or injured in an attempt to escape capture or restraint. The eyes of a rabbit are positioned laterally, giving a nearly 360 degree field of visiono They are constantly on the 100kout for preda ­ torso At the first hint of danger, rabbits thump loudly with a h ind foot to alert other rabbits, even those underground. Caged rabbits also thump in alarm wh en startled by the presence of other species or unknown scents. in general, rabbits are quiet animals and vocalize only when provoked, when in pain, or when extremely frightened . Growling is unmistakable, aggre sive, and not just an empty threat. Rabbits will charge, growling and clawing with the front feet. The scream of a rabbit in pain is loud and piercing, a sound unforgettable to those who have heard it. A frightened , restrained rabbit may scream and kick wildly with powerful hind legs, raking with the rear claws. Many rabbits have been severely injured during attempts lO escape. Although they can be affectionate and playful with early sociali zation , rabbits are also very territorial and will not hesitate to confront an intruder, wheth er it is a child or another household pet. Territorial aggression is common in rabbits of both sexes, especially those which have not been castrated or spayed. lyp ically, do s that have not been spayed are more aggressive than unneutered hucks. Rabbits use scent glands to mark territory. They have submandibular, or chin glands, and both males and females have folds of ski n on either side of the genitals. These n uinal glands normally produce an unpleasant smelling, thicl<, and somewhat waxy substance. Rabbits are crcpu 'cul r, more active at dawn and dusk. They take many short naps during the day. For this reason, owners of house rabbits say that they feel more comfortable leaving their pet alone than they would if they had a dogo

Figure 5 -1 A relat ively new breed

oFrabbit , the lionhea d. (Co urrery of Craythorn's CC Rabbi rry, West IOI'dan,

Un

32

UNIT 11· CHAP TER 5

Rabbit a re high!y ime1 Jige nt. Rabb it wil l r adily ch ase ba ll s an d toss o b jects into th air in p lcy. They shou ld be given suila bl e p lay ¡[ems, in cl ud ing block o f wood

or

ari olls sh apes and ize , cardboa rd lubes, a n d box s. House ra bbit

hou ld never be I ft unsupervisecl. There are many ho usehol d

dang rs, including electrical cords, p ainted wood, and fu rni tu re. Inj uries an d frac­ tur S (3n o ccu r by bei ng accide ntally stepp d o n or rolled over with a d si cl1air. Rocking ch airs a lso pr ent a da og r (Figure -2).

Fi~ur C' 2 This house rabbit suffe red a fr3cture to lhe left tibia/ fibula as the owner sal in the chair and was accidentally caughl

under the rodero (Courte9' ollordilll Applied Tech~ology

Center.)

Ra bb its a ll owcd outd ors a lso n ed supe.rv isio n. It is not ju t d ogs Lhal m ay presenl a danger, but so me of lhe larger birds o f prey h ave bee n 1m wn to ta l e rahb its from enclo ure wi rh ut a cure cove ri ng, uch as the p nabl e pet pens. As ·tra nge as it may ~ee m, many rabbits e nj oy wa t r an d úley are q uite capa ­ toes oC ú1e hind feet ar wehbeJ. So rne rab b its willingly

b le of swimming. Th hop into

él

sha llow tu b ofwa ler, a pparently lO coo l off. Pr viJi ng a rab b il ,.vi tb a

pool is nOl recomm en d ed, b Ul [here are countless re porls o f ra bbits intenti onaJly en lering water.

FORMER PRESIDENT IIMMY CARTERACTUALLY HAD TO FE NO OFF A RABBIT ATTACK\YIHEN A RASSI S

o

TT

HIt.1 '(/HILE

E

AS

FISHING IN A SOAT The intent of the rab bit was unkn own [April 20, 1979].

House rabbits w iIl use a li tter box. Owners ca n take advam g of the anima l's natura l be.havior, sim il ar lO Lh:\t o f cats, and provide what is needed ra ú1er tha n actually rmi/ling lhe an imal. Rab b its normally minaLe a nd defec te in o ne area, \ hether in a cage, hutch , or lra . Pl ai n newspa per shou ld be used in lead o f ca l litter or any other

e l1leu subSLra te. Using

cented product may create tray

avoidance or, d pending on Ul\: Lype of su b lrat , may contrib u te to res pirato ry problem. oileJ bedding or fecal material initially p laced in {'he tray will nco u r­ age lhe r bbit to use it.

Rabbits

THE MOST HEAVILY USED tl.REA OF A MF.TAL TPAY r A.

er- SPRAY D

WITH A VEGETABLE OIL. It will help to prevent metal corrosion from urine and make cleanlng the tray considerably easier. Alternabvely, the entlre tray may be sU d into a large garbage bago When deaning the tray, the bag can simply be pulled off (Insrde out) so that all the contents are contained within the bagoTh is ho uld only be done if there is no way the rabbit would be able to reach any part of t he bag and chew on It.

11011

¡ng

Rabbi ts housed olltdo r need shelter fro m lh heat ami co ld. Tempe ra tures beJO\ 40 o ¡:: make lhe m sllseeptib l LO hYPOlherm ia. Winter temp raLUres lower than lh al will ause froslbile, especially lO the lips o lhe ears. Ra bbits h LLlJ nOl b e lefl exposed to h al greater lha n 80 o F At temp ralures h igher tha n lhi , rabbi quick­ ly . uccumb to h al lroke. The ha e a lim iled ab il ily lO coo l Lhemselves. They a re una b le lO swea t and d o nOI pa n!. A small amoum of h eat is dis ipaled lbrough th ears and n are ' b ut it is íneffeclive in conJ itions ofhigh hea t and hum idi ty, A ra bbi l íth h en t slroke will be foun u o ll ap ed ,·"iLh íncreased respira tío n and aru ! Rabb its \ ilh these c1ini ca l si gns and a eore body temperalure approachi ng 105 o F are un likely

LO

survive ami are LLSU,l ll y hu manely uth anizetl.

When temperatures are el va led, hutche nced lo be siluated in an area that is shad ed and well vent ilated . frozen contai! ers of waler plaeeJ in lh e hUIch '() lh at lhe ra b bil ís ab le t<) slretch out or sÍl next lo it may help . Sorne Owners use a ti med m isling system whi h gently prays the h u tch wilh waler fo r short ((Jo l down pcriods. ldeally, rabb its ShOlllJ neve! be exposed LO lemperature whi ch p lace them al risk. Rabbils a re easily envíronm cnta lly stressed, Ilot just bv lemperatu re. b ut by visu a l a ncl ol facLOry stimu li. Whe n rabbits are h pita li.ted for Lrealment or placed in a board ing fae ililY, ti e re are !TIany co n siderat ion '. Rah bi ls need LO b e housed in a quíel area a nd away from the odors o f predaLOrs. Th is i nel LI des dogs, calS. ~nakes, ferrels, an d large bí rd~. T heyhoul d nOl be plaeed in cages fací ng p I' d a tor)' speei es or where tb ere !TIay be visu al contad, Including h igh traffie tr almenl a reas. Wh n ele ting d eage o r a h UlCh , lh e ~í¿e ancl we igh l of lhe rabbit as an adu lt m~eds lO

be con id red . Hoar space shou ld b al leaSL Úlree Li m s Lh 1 nglh o f

lhe rab bil. Rabb íts uften lay 0 11 their stemum , wilh legs extend ed laterally. Anotber way of determini ng the mí nim um sized cage is the Tllree l-!()P Rule, mean­ ing th at it would lake ule rabb it th ree fu ll hops lO go from ene end efth cage to lhe othe r. Many h Ulmes hay wire-bollom fl oors SO urine antl fecal material falls 1 a co ll enion Lray u nclemeath . Th is makes Úle hU lCh asier to lean and keeps the rabb íl way fro m s iled materia l. Regan.lless. there needs LO be an areJ. \A:ilh solid flo oring so the rabbíl i ' nOl constantly o n lh wÍle. With no relief [rom the pressure o f the rab bí l', weighl o n wi e, sores form

OTl

lhe hO l lOI11~

01'

[he fee l, a condílioll

33

34

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 5

called podoJenuatil ~ . [nstead of foot pads, rabbits have a thick covering of fur on their feet where the pads would be located. When the fur is worn away, there is no protecti o n and the skin breaks down. Fur loss exposes the thin skin of the rabbit to urine- and feces-contaminated wire and eventually, the feet become infected with bacteria. Rabbits suffering from pododermatitis, or sore hocks, exhibit abnor­ mal weight bearing and lameness, trying to compensate and avoid further pain. All cages or hutches should be provided with a hide box, or bolt holeo For the doe, it al so serves as a nesting site (Figure 5-3) Flgur 5 -3 A li o nh e ad doe with her kits in the nest box. (Courte'1

01 Crcrythorn's CC Rabbitry, West lordan, UT.)

Rabbits use sipper tube water bottles which should be washed and disinfected daily. Metal fo od hoppers attached to the side of the cage provide for a measured supply of pellets. There are also small hay racks to keep the hay dean and away from bedding material.

ni~1 A pet rabbit's diet consists of pellets and grass hay with supplemental fresh leafy gre ns and vegetables. Rabbit pellets contain analyzed amounts of ollde protein and fiber. The amounts, or percentages, are based on the specific dietalY needs of th e rabbit. Pellets that are high in fiber help reduce hairball formation and stimu­ late gUl utili, but are not recommended for extended periods of time. This type of diet may disrupt the balance of normal gut bacteria . A high protein/low fiber diet increases the potenti al for diarrhea, and urolilh (bladder stone) formation. Pellets made from timoth , hay, rather than alf¡1lfa hay, have a better fiber/ p rotein ratio and are more suitable as a maintenance die! One should always read the food label to determine which diet 1S compatible with the needs of the rabbit. Always follow veterinary advi ce, as a recommended diet can be critical in managillg some health problems. Most rabbits are fed pellets free choice which greatly increases the risk of obesity. A daily, measured rallOO of 1/3 cup of pellets per five pounds body weight is sufficient when given with one cup of high fiber, fresh vegetables and an unlim­ ited amount of grass hay. Vegetable choices may vary, but there should never be an abrupt change in the diet. New foods should be introduced gradually. Whole carrots, carrol, turnip, and beet tops, parsley, and dandelions are readily con­ sumed. Almost al! rabbits enjoy the taste of a ripe banana. Offeri ng a smal! slice

Rabbits

occasionally is beneficial if for no other reason than it is a very convenient way to get a rabbit to accept medication. Most rabbits will readily accept medication that has been mixed into a banana mash.

ALTHOUGH THERE IS NO REAL SCIENCE BEHIND IT, MANY OWN­ ERS ROUTINELV GIVE THEIR RABBITS A SMALL AMOUNT OF PINEAPPLE IUICE. THINKING THAT THE ACIDlTY WILL HELP REMOVE OR REDUCE HAIR BALLS. There is also a variety of treats for rabbits; fruit flavored chew sticks) yoghurt drops) and

traíl mix assortments.

Rabbits should not be given seeds or nuts that could impact the teeth) oral cavity, and digestive tracto

If a balanced, nutritionally complete diet is provided, there is no need for vitamin and mineral supplements. Many breeders recommend adding salt or mineral wheels. Ol al! rabbits use them but many will lick at them, gradually reducing them in size. Small pieces of the líck should be removed from the cage and the wire fastening checked regularly to prevent injury. Rabbits are coprophagic and produce different types of fecal pellets. Hard pellets are passed during the day nd consist of undigested waste. Níght teces, cecotmphs, are soft and encased in a m ucous membrane. They are consumed by the rabbit, directly rrom the anus. Co nsumption of cecotrophs is essential to the rabbit's health as they contain quantities of vitamins B and K beneficial bacteria and protein.

lIal1drng and Rest,l'ailll The most impol1ant thi ng lO remember when handling or restraining a rabbit is how eas ily it may be inj ured. The hind limbs have a powerful kick Coupled with a long, but rel atively in flexi ble, vertebral column, the force of a rabbit's kick can be enough to fracture its back The hind limbs should always be supported and restrained securely. When removing a rabbit from its cage, one hand should be placed underneath, grasping the back legs. The other hand is used to support ancl hold the front legs while the rabbit is gently lifted out of the cage. Rabbits should never be li[ted by the ears or picked u p by the scruff alone. When the rabbit is out of the cage, it should be he Id close to the body with the head tucked under the arm of the restrainer (Figure 5-4) .

IT IS POSSIBLE TO INDUCE A TRANCE-LlKE STATE IN A RABBIT BY COVERING ITS EVES ANO SLOWLY TURNING IT ONTO ITS BACK. It is important to restrain the hind legs and maintain a scruff while keeping the rab­ bit's eyes covered. With the rabbit on its back, keeping the eyes covered, gently stroke the abdomen. The rabbit will relax, making an exam of the ventral area very easy. This technique should not be used for any procedure likely to cau se pain .

35

36

UN IT 11 • CHAPTER 5

Figure 5-4 When carrying a rabbit, the rabbit should be held close to the restrainer's body with the rabbit' s head tucked under one arm of the restrainer and the rear legs held securely to prevent it from kicking out .

This helps to m ake the rabbit feel calm and more secure. When the rabbit is returned to the cage, it should be placed in backwards with the h ind limbs in first to reduce the danger o f the rabbit kicking out. Most spinal fractures occur between the lumbar vertebrae, L6jL7 . Tbe result is paralysis and euthanasia. Rab bits have five c1awecl toes o n each fool. On the forefeet, one is a de "da\\, ails need to be tri mmed regularly, especially for rabbits housed indoors. The simplest method is to place th rabbit on a so lid surface and secure it in a towel (the bunny burrito). Each foot can be gently pu lled out ancl trimmed ""ith any of the standard variety of nail trim m ers. Sexing rabbits can be a ]jttle more diffi cult, especially with young kits . The male's testicles descend around 12 we ks of age (Figure 5-5). Male Rabbit (Buck)

Figure 5-5 The external gen italia of a buck with the

Right Hind Fool

Le!t Hind Foot

testes descended .

Anus wouldn't be visible in this position Gentle Pressure (downward ca~dal) with

thum b, avoiding anus pressure ,

on testicle will evert enis.

This is complicated funher because the inguinal can al remains open, allowing the testicles to retract into the abdomen. Bucks have a rounded urethral opening and a

Rabbits

Examiner's Hand Gentle upwards Craniau movement 01 ski n

Figure 5-6 lhe exter­ nal genitalía oF a doe. It helps to wet the hai r around the genital area when determining the sex of young rabbits.

Left Hind

Foot

Foot

Scent glands Underside 01 ta il

Female Rabbit (Ooe)

sheath that covers a relatively small penis. The vulva of a doe is elongated and the open­ ing is vertical (Figure 5-6). It helps to wet the hair around the genitals to more easily visualize the area when determining sexo80th sexes have nipples; those of the male are more rudimenta

than the 6 m ale, but a young unbred doe may initially appear no

different. Accurate sex d termination is imponant to avoid unwanted litters. oes are sexually m ature around four to eight months, approximately one to two mo ntlls earlier than bucks. The age of sexual maturity is influenced by breed. As a general rule, small breeds mature earlier than large breeds. With maturity, the doe in ma ny breeds may have a pronounced dcwlap. The dewlap is rarely seen in bucks (Figure 5-7). Does are induod u"ld.ll<

fl> .

They are capable ofbreeding at any time once they

reach sexual maturity. Bucks have tiny penile spines which irritate cervical tissue, inducing lh e ovaries to release the eggs. Fertilization occurs in the oviduct. Does do not have a uterine boJy, but t\-vo elongated uterine homs for the development of multiple kits. Ovulation occurs within 10 hours after breeding. Copulation is very short. O ne sign [hat a successful mating has occurred is that the bud squeals and dismo u nts wi th a li u le b ackward flj p . Due to their territorial nature, does are always taken Lo th e buck and their interaction carefully monitored. The doe is

Figure 5-7 A doe and buck New Zealand White. lhe doe , on the right, has a pro­ nounced dew lapo ( Courte~ of Cnry th orn's CC Rabbítl), West lordan , UT.)

37

38

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 5

returned to her own cage after mating. The presence of the male during gestation may be stressful for the doe. The fetuses can be reabsorbed. The buck should never be kept with the doe as bucks are known to kili the young. Cannibalism of the kits by the doe can occur. It is usually associated with stress, poor nutrition , or environmental conceros. Once a doe starts to cannibalize, she willlikely continue with each litter. Does also consume dead or deformed young. Gestation for the rabbit is 29 to 35 days. A few days prior to parturition , the doe makes a nest with bedding material and hay and begins to pull fur from her dewlap and abdomen to line the nest. Most does I indle in the early moroing. Parturition usually lasts, on average, around 30 minutes. Dysloda in rabbits is rare. An average sized litter is five to eight kits. The young are boro altricial; they are hairless, blind, and deaf (Figure 5-8). Around 10 days old, they are lightly furred and their eyes and ears begin to open.

Figure 5-8 Rabbit kits th e doe has placed in a ba sket. Kits are hairless when t hey are born. Th eir eyes and ears are unopened.

(Courtesy of Craythorn's CC Rabbitry, West lordan, UT.)

Many rabbit owners are conceroed when they do not see the doe nursing her kits or in with them. They become alarmed and assume that the doe has abandoned her litter and remove the kits from the nest in an attempt to bottle feed them. Does nurse an average of three to five minutes, once a day. The kits nurse on their backs and consume approximately 20 percent of their body weight per feeding. Rabbit milk is very high in fat and difficult to replicate. Attempting to feed kits from a bottle, on their backs, often results in aspira tion when milk is inhaled into the lungs. Orphaned kits are very difficult to raise to weaning age and should not be removed from the nest in an attempt to bottle feed.

l'-dical COnterOs Rabbits have become very popular household pets, yet they are still considered exotic because they are different in anatomy, physiology, and behavior from more traditional companion animals. They have a variety of medical and husbandry conceros unique to them.

Gastrointestinal Disorders Rabbits are monogastric, hind gut fermenters. What this means is that they are single-stomached with micro bes in the cecum that ferment (convert) organic material into usable carbohydrates. In this way, they are more similar to a horse

Rabbits

than a dog or a cat. The cecum is a part of the large intestine and one of the largest organs in the rabbit's body (Figure 5-9). The microbes are normal gut flora (essential bacteria) for digestion and assimilation of food. Indigestible waste is separated out by the colon and eliminated as hard , dry, fecal pellets. Digestible foodstuffs continue metabolic breakdown in the cecum through the action of bacteria. Long-term use of antibiotics reduces normal gut flora, preventing food from being digested. When the balance of healthy bacteria is disrupted, other conditions can develop and lead to enLcrotoxemia . Enterotoxemia is caused by the overgrowth of detrimental or bad bacteria. Signs inelude watery, greenish-brown diarrhea, bloat, depression, or sud den death. Clostrídium spiroforme is most often implicated. Supportive care with selec­ tive use of antibiotics, fluid therapy, and nutritional support has limited effect. Mortality is high, especially in newly weaned kits. Rabbits are unable to vomit due to the anatomical placement of the stomach. Relative lO other species, they also have a very short small intestine. Because of this, rabbits are prone to blockages and gut stasis (Figure 5-10).

39

Figure 5-9 D igestive tract of a rabbit. The cecum is located at the proximal end of the colon.

Figure 5-10 Rabbits have a very sensitive G I tract. This rabbit has multiple air pockets throughout the intestinal tract. In addition to gut stasis, air pockets can compromise respi ration and ca rdiac function.

(Courtery 01 lordan Applied Technology Center.)

Cut stasis is associated with diets low in fiber, lack of exercise, and ha ir balls. Signs inelude anorexia, an enlarged stomach, and decreased fecal production. Fluids are given to rehydrate the rabbit and melOelopramide may be prescribed for short-term use to help the rabbit become more comfortable until gut motility is restored. Force-feeding of a high fiber diet may also be required. Hair balls, or lnchobezoars, form in the digestive tract. They are most com­ monly found in the stomach. They are caused by ingestion of hair due to excessive grooming, boredom, or barbering of cage mates. Hair balls can cause impaction, anorexia and weight loss, generalized discomfort, and depression. Trichobezoars, as with any foreign body, are best treated with surgical removal. Rabbit digestive problems can be complex. A veterinarian who is experi­ enced with rabbit medicine should always be consulted at the first sign of medical concern.

40

UNIT 11' CHAPTER 5

Nondigestive Disorders

Figure 5-11 A rabbit with torticol­ lis, a condlllon comm only called "wry neck ." (Courtesy of frie

Klaphake , D

)

While dystocia is rare in rabbits, other problems with pregnancy and l.lctaLÍol1 (milk production) are more common. Pregnancy toxemia can occur, usually during th e last vveek of gestation. Signs are acute and inelude weakness with .1l l . ia, a lack of musele coordination. The doe shows no interest in food or nesting and is generally depressed. If medical intervention is not immediate, toxic shock can cause abortion and seizures. With the onset of seizure , the prognosis is grave. Treatment options are limited, but warmed IV fluids may help deter the progression of shock Lactating does, especially those living in dilty environments, can develop mastitis, the m ammary glands becoming inflamed and hard. The doe spikes a fever, often as h igh as 104 °F. Streptococcus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pasteurella have al! been impli­ cated in mastitis. Oue to the bacterial infection, abscesses are likely to develop in the mammary glands and the infection can become systemic Oral antibiotics and nuúi­ tional SUpp0l1 for the doe are important, as is a cleaner environmenl. Rabbits are suscep tible to a variety of bacterial infections, many of which can be d ire tly related to unsanitalY housing, confinement to outdoor hutches with no environmental protection, and overcrowd ed living conditions. Bacterial infec­ tion s can create abscesses that affect the interna! organs. External abscesses are treated the same as in any species, by opening the ab scess to drain and flushing copiously with a dilute betadine so lution. Follow-up amibiotics may be pre­ scribed . Inte rnal abscesses are far more difficult to cli agnose dnd treal. There may be no c1inical signs before the rabbit dies. Most internal abscesses are diagnosed on necropsy. Bacteria commonly implicated in rabbit abscesses are Pasteurella multocida, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, S. aureus, and Proteus. Co njunctivitis can also be caused by bacteria, especia lly when rabbits are housed ou tdoors in unsanitalY conditions. Bacteria, and the resulting pus, can completely ocelude the lacrimal duct and prevent the eye from being kept rnoist. Lacrimal duct cannul.liion is required to unblock the duct. Pasteurellosis is one of the most common upper respiratoly infections fOll nd in rabbits. It is callsed by P. multicodia, the same bacteria that can invade any o rgan of the b ody. The bacteria is spread through the air, by direct contact, an d fomite transmissio l1. Neonates can be e),.'P0sed 10 P. multicodia at the ti m e of birth or by n ur ing. Asymptomatic carriers can h arbor the bacteria in their reproductive organs, ears, nares, lungs, and conjunctiva. Signs o f pasteurellosis are variable, and inelude nasal and ocular discharge, gen ital swelling, dermal ulcerations, weight loss, or sudden death. What i:, com­ mon to most affected rabbits is the environment. Ra bbits that are older, stressed, exposed to extrem e temperature changes, and housed in poor cond itions are p re­ disposed ro pasteurellosis. Rhmitis Of snull7e is also commonly caused by P. multicodia, although other bacteria have been found in conjunction with this disease. fluft1es is character­ ized by a severe nasal discharge that is thick and yellow or white. It adheres to the na res and as the rabbit attemp ts to groom, it will sli lo t he fore paws and m aybe spread to other body parts. Rabbits with snuffles sneeze frequentl y, spreading the in rection, and will ult im at Iy s how signs or lyspnea and ches l congestiono Snuffl es m ay be chronic or th e condition m y progress to internal abscesses, or torti ullis, a b acteria! cond ition also known as wry neck that affects the noves of the neck or inner ea L The rabbit is unable LO eat or drink (Fi gure S-ll).

Rabbits

41

Tyzzer's disease is a bacter ial infectio n that primarily affects the e cum . It is common among rabbits and rodents but diff¡cult to positively diagnose and treat. Most diagnoses are based on history and clinical signs. Bacillus piliformis causes inflammation of the cecum, which, in tum, causes diarrhea and fecal soiling of the rectal area. Tyzzer's can occur in rabbíts as young as SL'C weeks. A compromised immune system, overcrowdi ng, poor diet, and husbandry al! contribute to this disease. Oral antibiotics are used to treat the condition. Rabbit syphilis or Vent disease is caused by a spmJChctc. It is transmitted from rab­ bit to rabbit via direct genital contact. Rabbits with this disease can be asymptomatic carriers until stressed. Lesions appear on the genitalia, perineum, eyelids, and mouth. There may be edema, ulcerations, and scab fonnation. Diagnosis can be made with skin scrapings or biopsy of the tissue affected and a plasma region card (PRC) test. This condítion can be treated with oral antibiotics. Rabbit syphilis is not zoonotic. Urine color and consistency is a good indicator of rabbit health. Nonnally, it is thick and creamy. Urine that is dear often indicates that the body has a higher demand for calcium . Rapid growth, pregnancy, and lactation all crea te higher calcium require­ ments. Sorne foods may affect the color of urine; for example, plant and vegetable pigments. Orange or rust colored urine alanns many owners, creating concem that there is blood in the urine. In most instances, the color indicates a diet high in protein. Excess protein in the diet can lead to the formation ofbladder stones or urolithiasis. Uroliths are more common in rabbits vvith litúe exercise and high protein diets. They may also be genetically predisposed to stone fonnation. Rabbits with urolithiasis often have a history of being fed vitamin and mineral supplements or unlimited amounts of alfalfa, both pellets and hay. Stones are more common in bucks beca use of their long urethra, preventing smaller stones and grit material from being eliminated. A rabbit that sits with a hunched-over posture, strains to urinate, and grinds its teeth when attempting to urinate may be exhibiting signs of stone formation. Other indicators include anorexia, weight loss, and depression. There may be blood in the urine due to the irritation of th e bladder wall and urethra. Radiographs (Figure 5-12 and Figure 5-13) will be able to confirm the presence of stones or a gritty sludge which can precipitate stone formation. The majority of Figure 5·12 This large urolith was discovered during a routine well­ ness examinabo n. The rabbit had exhibited no signs suggestive of hav ing a bladder stone. Six monthly wellness exams can potentially avert disaster. (Courte~ of lardan

Applied Technol ogy Cente,-.)

42

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 5

Figure 5-13 Surgery was success­ fully performed to remove the stone, shown here) and the rabbit recovered without incident. (Courtesy ollordan

Applied Technology Center.)

uroliths are composed of calcium salts, calcium oxalates, and calcium phosphates, all of which are radiopaque and easily visualized on a radiograph . Surgery is rec­ ommended for the removal of the stones and grit, followed by a change in diet. Rabbits should be fed grass hay. AJI alfalfa and vitamin/mineral supplements should be eliminated to prevent further stone formation. The most common dental problem seen in rabbits is overgrowth of the incisors. Rabbit teeth are open-rooted and grow continuously. Smaller breeds may be more genetically predisposed to malocdusion. The lower incisors tend to grow out and up while more often the upper incisors curl back into the oral cavity (Figure 5-14). Overgrown teeth may be c1ipped back to the appropriate length with small wire nippers. The use of a dental burr can help smooth down rough edges. Incisor trims can be performed with proper restraint. Rabbits have two sets of incisors, one behind the other. The second set of incisors is called peg teeth (Figure 5-15). A complete dental exam usually requires the use of anesthesia, special ized mouth gags, and dental instruments, as the oral cavity of a rabbit is very small and hard to visualize. Dental packs are available and indude molar nippers, rasps, probes, elevators, and gags. Cheek spreaders are usually of the spring type. The mouth gag is placed on the upper and lower incisors with a thumb screw to adjust and maintain the opened mouth (Figure 5-16).

Figure 5-14 Extremely overgrown lower incisors, a result of mal­ occlusion. The left incisor is frac­ tured and a large hairball has formed around both incisors. (Courtesy 01 Eric Klaphake, DVM.)

Upper incisors

Peg teeth

Figure 5-15 Rabbits have two sets of upper incisors. The smaller set (peg teeth) is located directly behind the primary incisors.

Figure 5 -16 A dent al pack desi gned for rabbits: left to right, molar nippers, double-ended dental rasp, dental probe and a mouth speculum. The two other instruments are different sized cheek spreaders. (Courtesy 01 Martin C . Orr, DVM.)

Dental problems may contribute to a condition commonly called lobbers, a chronically wel dewlap. Slobbers can crea le moiSl dermatitis that is not always easy lo treat. Large does with highly developed dewlaps are more prone to slobbers. The dewlap may be continually wet from being dragged though a water bowL Rabbits should be checked for dental problems and water bowls should be replaced by sipper bottles.

Rabbits

Clinica Proc cdul'cs Rabbit anesthesi( can sometimes be a little more of a chal(enge than with other ma mmals. Being aware of some of the idiosyncrasies can make induction and recovery more successful ancl less stress ful for the rabbit. The most often used inhalant anestheücs in rabbits are isofluran e and sevoflurane. Both are well toler­ ated by rabbits, b Ul an advantage of sevofJurane is thar il doesn't have an odor, making ir easi r to mas k down the rabbil. Ra bbits often hold their breath when being induced and resist breathing in the anesthesia agent. This is especially evi­ dent wh n rapid ind uction is often practiced . r-or the r:lbbit, a slow and calculated induction is p referable. Even befare applying the face mask, allow a few minutes of pure oxygen flow, which wil! help flush any residual odar in the mask. With the oxygen still al 100%, gently position the face mask around the nose and mouth to secure a correcl fit with no ocular pressure points. AlIow rhe rabbit to breathe 100% oxygen for anoth r fe n ¡nutes before introducing the anesthetic agent. When the an sthesia gas is slowly introduced in 0.5% increments, th e occurrence of apnea (breaú1 holding) decreases, ma king for a smoother and less stressful induction.

A WORD OF WARNING: NEVER ASSUME THAT A RABBIT HAS REACHED A SUITABLE PLANE OF ANESTHESIA BY VISUAL PAPAME­ TERS ALONE

Many a rabbit has been positioned in dorsal recumbency,

shaved, and scrubbed for the surgery table, appa rently anesthetized, only to bo lt off the tab le In an attempt to escape.

intubation of a ra bbit can be difficult because the oral cavity is so smalI. Add itionalIy, tbe tongue, while small, is thicl<, and further blocks visualintion. The epiglottis (trachea l open ing) is more caudal than in many species. These an atomi cal difi rences al! contri bu te to the challenge of intubation. The tech­ ni que needs to be mastercd, but rep ea ted attempts t o intubate the same patient ar nO! recommended . Sti mul ation duríng the attempts disrupts the plane of anesth esia al ready ach ieved and wil! fu nber increase the frustratíon for alI involved, potent ially causing traum a to the rabbit. The rabbit needs to be posi­ tio ned by th e restrainer in a manner which op tim izes acress to the ep iglottis. The us of a laryngoscope will assist in the p lacement of an IT tube (Figure 5-17). O nce intu bated, the rabbi t can be positioned for surgery and connected to a nonrebreathing anesthesia delivery sy, tem (Figure 5-18). Ra bbits ca nn ot breathe th rough their mouths. Another method of inducing and ma intai ning anesthesia is nasal intubation . A small red rubber feeding tube, a fl exible, noncu ffed endotradleal tube (1.0 to 1.5 m m), or a nasogastric tube (3 Fr) can aH be llsed successfully. Slowly pass the tube through one nostril. When placed Wi Úl ca re, it sh ould emer lhe nasal septum that leads to the back of lhe th roat and tlle tradlea. Conftnn that placem ent is correct and that it has not entered the esophagus. A light breath into the end of the tube will cause th e tho­ rax to rise, co nfirmin g m at me tube has entered the t[ach a. Under no CÍrcum­ sta nces shou ld tube advance men l be íorced.

43

44

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 5

Figure 5 17 Restraint position required in a lightly anesthetized rabb il for placement of the ET t ube. A laryngosco pe is used to help visualize the epiglottis . (CaLlrte~ af

lardan Applied Techn alagy Center.)

Figure 5 18 A rabb it positio ned for surge ry and connected to a no nre br athi ng anesthesia nit o (CaurteSj a[ lardan Applied Tec hn alagy Center.)

Rab b its wil l accept oral medications given as a liqu id or semiliquid much better than they will accep t a capsule or tablet. ¡'vled icatio n can be mixed with fruit ju ice, 1 ashed fruit (b anana is a special favorite), or a pureed human inrant food (veg table). Th e mi xtu re can be drawn into a syringe and administered orally if the ra bbit r fuses it. Th e ra bbit should be held c10se against the restra in­ er's body, wi th th rab bit's rear toward d ¡e restrainer. Lean over the rab bit, put th lip o[ lhe syrin ge in th side of the mouth, and ad mi n ister the amount slow ly and stead ily. Do not place lh e rabbit on its back or cradle it, as there is a risk o f 'pi ralion.

Rabbits

dministering intramuscular injections causes pain and may elicit a scream from the rabbit. Ir can also cause prolonged muscle inflammalion and potential necrosis of m uscle tissue. Ir there isn't an al ternative route for the specific drug, th., l[uadriceps muscles of a hind leg are used. Ra bbits vary a great deal in size and weight, as do es their blood volume. It is im portant to obtain an accurate weight at the time of the blood draw to cal­ cu la te the amount which may be safely drawn from that particular rabbit at that pan icular time. As a general guideline, no more [han G to 10 percent of the blood volume should be collectcd. Microtainer tubes are adequate as the amount of the sample will be smal!. Clots can form quickly and the sample needs lO be added to the appropriate collection tube and rocked with the anti­ coagulant to avoid rendering the sample unusable. ""'or a complete blood count (CBC), an EDTA tube is used, but for a bioch u nistry panel, a lithium heparin tu be provides more accurate results. All supplies should be im m ediately at hand and ready for use. Collection sites in rabbits are similar to those in other small animals. The lateral saphenous or cephalic veins usually provide the easiest access and least amount of trauma and stress to the rabbit. The marginal ear vein or central ear artery are often cited for possible blood collection, but in reality, it is very difficult to obtain an adequa te sa m ple from either of these sites without causing trauma to the sensitive tissue of the ear, colla p ing the vein, and creating a potentially Jarge and painful hematoma. For the pet rabbit, ear draws should be avoided . The jugu lar can be accessed , but because of the restraint technique required , this proced ure will cause a great deal of stress to the rab bit and potentially compro­ mise an already critical patient.

Par.tsil '.!oo\ There are many parasites which affect rabbits. They are susceptible to ear and fUf mites, lice, cat fleas, internal prolOzoans, and intestinal worms. Definitive diagno­ ses are made by fecal floatation, ski n scraping, and microscopic examination. Rabbits housed outdoors can become hosts to el h:rebra, the larva of many large fly species. The eggs are deposited on the fur. Wh en the larva hatches, it bur­ rows under the skin of the rabbit, where it matures. The larva forms a cavity and may be seen protruding fro m a sinar hole (a small hole) in lhe skin. Larva can also m igrate into the nasal inuses and ear canals. Cuterebra Jarvae produce toxins which cause muscle weakn in the rabbit. The larva must be carefully removed . It is very important not to crush the larva in the process as it will cause .Jni1ph, t.ICue shock, poten tially killing the rabbit. The entire body should be checked for cu terebra. Us ually lhere are only one or two, but as many as even cut rebra larvae were removed from the abdomen of a young doe. Fl slril, occurs when the common hou se fly lays eggs on the fuf. It is most common in th rectal area , especially in rabbits with fecal soiling and dirty enclo­ sures. The eggs hatch into matigols which feed on the traumatized skin and IUH' . Maggots must be removed, Ol1 e by one, with forceps . This can be fa ilitated by flushing through maggot holes vvith hydrogen peroxide. The mag­ gots will crawl out of the skin, and are more easily collect d and destroyed. The area should rh en be thoroughly flushed with sterile saline.

45

46

UNIT 11· CHAPTE R 5

R{~\'ie\\

OuesUons

o

Under what circum stances would a rabbit vocalize?

8

What is the best way to encourage a rabbit to use a litter box?

e

What are cecot rop hs and why are they important to rabbit health?

O 9

o

What are th e causes of pododermatitis?

Why is it important t o control the hind feet of a rabbit?

Explain the t erm induced ovulator.

f) What is snuffies?

«1) What can cause urolithiasis in rabbits?

f) What are the main parasites of rabbits?

Q) What is the average life span of a companion rabbit?

Rabbits

• Buck adult we ight: 2 to 5 kg (4.4 to 11 lbs) average

• Litter Si ze: 4 to 8 kits

• Doe adult weight: 2 to 6 kg

• We aning age : 4 to 6 weeks

(4. 4 to 13.2 lbs) average

LlFE SPAN

VITAL STATISTICS

• 7 t o 9 years

• Te mperature: 38.3 t o 40

Oc (101 to 104 ° F)

• Heart rate: 130 to 325/minute

REPRODUCTION

• Respiratory rate: 35 to 60/ minute

• Sexual Maturity • Bucks: 22 to 25 weeks

DENTAL

• Does: 22 to 25 weeks

• Dental formula 2 (2/1, O/O, 3/ 2, 3/ 3)

=

28 t otal teeth

• Gestation : 30 to 32 da ys

Furlh~r

Rcading

Brooks, D. L. (20 04). Nutrition and Gastrointestinal Physiology. In K E Quesen berry & J. w. Carpenter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbíts and Radents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Editían (pp. 155-170). Imprint of Elsevier Science. Deeb, B. J. (2004). Respiratory Disease and Pasteurellosis. In K. E. Quesenberry &

J. w. Ca rp enter (Ed s.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Radents: Clínical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Editian (pp . 174-181). lm print ofElsevierScience.

Rabbits

Deeb, B. J. & Carpenter, J. W. (2004). Neurologic and Musculoskeletal Diseases. In K. E. Quesenberry & J. W. Carpenter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical

Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 203-209). Imprint of Elsevier Science. Donnelly, T. M. (2004). Basic Anatomy, Physiology, and Husbandry. In K. E. Quesenberry & J. W. Carpenter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 136-145). Imprint o [ Elsevier Science. Harcourt-Brown, F. (2004). Textbook 01 Rabbit Medicine ButtervvorthjHeinemann, Creat Britain. Heard, D. J. (2004). Anesthesia, Analgesia, and Sedation of Small Mammals. In K. E. Quesenberry & J. W. Carpenter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 356-368). Imprint of Elsevier Science. Hess, L. (2006). Clinical Techniques in Rabbits. Conference Notes, The N orth America Veterinary Conference, Orlando, FL, January 7-11,2006. Hess, L. (2004). Dermatologic Diseases. In K. E. Quesenberry & J. W. Carpenter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 194-200). Imprint of Elsevier Science. Hoefer, H. L. (2006). UTOlithiasis in Rabbits and Guinea Pigs. Conference Notes, The orth America Veterinary Conference, Orlando, FL, January 7-11,2006. Jappson, L. (2006). Notes on the Diseases of Exotics Animals. http://www.aqua­ vet.i12.com (accessed August 7,2006). Mader, D. R. (2004). Basic Approach to Veterinary Careo In K. E. Quesenberry & J. \Al. Carpenter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 147-154). Imprint of Elsevier Science. Mayer, J. (2006). Analgesia and Anesthesia in Rabbits and Rodents. Presented at The No rth America Veterinary Conference, Orlando, FL, Jan 7-11,2006. Murray, M. J. (2006). Practice Tips: Rabbits. Conference Notes, The North America Veterinary Conference, 2006. Murray, M. J. (2006). Rabbits: It's Not Always Pasteurella. Conference Notes, The North America Veterinary Conference, Orlando, FL, Jan 7-11,2006. Mayer, J. D. (2006). Analgesia and Anesthesia in Rabbits and Rodents. Conference Notes, The North America Veterinary Conference, Orlando, FL, Jan 7-11, 2006. O'Malley, B. (2005). Clinical Anatomy and Physiology of Exotic Species. In 1<:. E. Quesenberry, & J. W. Carpenter. Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 173-194). Imprint of Elsevier Science. Paré, J. A. & Paul-Murphy, J. (2004). Disorders of the Reproductive and Urinary Systems. In 1<:. E. Quesenberry & J. W. Carpenter (Eds.), Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clínical Medicine and Surgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 138-192). Imprint of Elsevier Science. Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.orgjwikijRabbit (accessed 2006).

47

Gu~nea cavy

POgs

OBJI~ CTnES

anorexia drilling

AfteT completing this chap teT, che student should be able 10

boilrs

• • • • • •

sows peri-anal polyestrous inguinal precocial perineum ascorbic acid scurvy probiotics dystocia parturition postpartum hypoglycemic hyperkalemic ketonic hepatic lipidosis hypsodontic dermatophytos is Kurloff bodíes

prop rly house a gu inea pig. provide appropriate c1 ient education to new guin ea pig owners. provide a correct di et fo r a guinea pig. provide basic nursing ( are tu a guinea pig. assist in th e anesth esia of a guinea pig. demonstrate appropriate restrain t techniques.

Intl oduclion There are probably few ch ildren who don 't know what a guinea pig is. They will tell you that guinea pigs are cute, soft, gentle, and make good c1assroom pets. Yet ask anyone where gui nea pigs co me from and th response is usually N ew Guinea. Their sp cíes name, pOTcellus, m eans little pig, but it is uncertain bow this South American sp cíes ca m e to be called a Gu inea pig, when ew Guinea is so distant fram their natural hab itat. Pig may be because o f their pi g-like squeals a.nd chunky body type, but the derivation for l he preG.x guinea remains unknown. The gu inea pig is m ore accurately called a l ', Cavia pOTcellus, and belongs to th e suborde r Hystrico morphic, 01' porcupine-like rodents. They are found throu ghout the wes tern , mounta inous regio ns o CSouth America. They live in family gro ups with Qne dominant male, using rocky o utcrops J nd ledges for shelter with no permane nt dens or nesti ng sites. Strictly herbivo rous, they forage from site to site, grazing o n grasses and leafy plan ts. Long LIsed in research , the ph rase do es anyone volunteer LO be a guinea pig is not without reason and indi ca tes appr hens io n about wh at is to come. Guinea pigs have con trib uted grea tly to the understanding of m any h uman diseases and in the develop ment of va ines. Today, the re are guinea pig c1 uhs and associ ations, guin ea pig shows and exhi ­ bit ions with na ti o na lly recognized judges an d breed stand ards . Th is li ttle pig has become a househo ld favorite ami makes an ideal sm al! pet or 4-H project. They are docile and rare ly bite in a ny situ at ion . They are easy to handle and require litt le in the way o f h ous ing or p cialized ne ds. Because of their tim id na ture, they shou ld be kept away from other household pets, incl udi ng dogs, cats, and ferrets. However friendly the family dog may seem,

48

Guinea Pigs

49

to the guinea pig ir is a predator and can cause a great deal of stress. Stress is a major contributor to health problems commonly seen in guinea pigs. Stress can be one cause of anOfP "101 . Anorexia is more than simply going off feed and leads to major medical concerns and mortality. The American Cavy Breeders Association recognizes 13 different breeds with many varieties in each category. I ot officially recognized , two hai rless mu tations have been developed, the Skinnies and the Baldwins. Skinnies have no hair except on their heads and lower legs, while the Baldwins are born with a full coat that is completely lost by the time they are weaned. There is great variety in the breeds recognized ; the Silkie with its very long silky hair; the Abyssinian, a shorter-haired gu inea pig with whorls al! over its body; the Teddy, with short fuzzy hair; and the Textel, with a very kinky coal. There are numerous coat colors within each group and an endless assortment of patterns, patd1es, and markings, all contributing to their appeal (Figure 6-1).

293 289

Figure 6-1 There are different breed s and varieties of cav ie s avail ­ able in pet store s. As illustrated here, they shou ld not be housed with rabb its. (Courtesy of Pet

I(¡ngdom USA, Las Vegas.)

8eha\ior Gu inea pigs are not only social with each other but actively res pond to human companionship and recognize different people While their eyesight is poor, their hearing is highly developed and familiar footfalls often elicit a variety of chi rps, wh is tl es, and chuckles. Guinea pigs produce a large range of vocal sounds. The whistle can be a call of greeting or of alarm, the exact meaning determined by length and pitch of the cal! Owners closely involved with their guinea pigs are not only able to interpret situations, but know which guinea pig in a group is whistling. Chirps are lower pitched and equally varied in tone and modulation. They are the sounds of con­ tentment. Very distinct from other sounds is dnlllllg, a low, a lmost guttural and rapid d-r-r-r-r-r produced by their teeth. Drilling is a warning, an alert to other guinea pigs of possible danger. BOJ['.> in pursuit of a ~O\~ aIso drill , challenging

50

UI'JIT 11· CHAPTER 6

hgu - 6 2 Guinea pigs sho uld be he ld with two han ds , o ne around the sho ulders and th e othe r sup­ po rting the rump. (Cou rtesy of lordan Applied Technology Center.)

other m ales. Dri Lling is also heard when a guinea p ig is in pain. D rilling sh o uld never be interpreted as a on tented purr. Whil e they rarely fight, two adu lt ma le ' pl aced together are li kely to engage in m ino r, mostly bluff squal bies to establish dom inance. A single boar with one or m ore sows is com patib le, as are groups o f t"vo or more fem ales. Guinea pigs h ave large p 'r -anal seb aeeous glands used for scent marki ng. These are espe ialIy pron ouneed in unneutered boars . They drag their ru mps, pressing down o n lhe flo or urfaee and leaving a scenl tra il . When excessive mark­ ing occurs in males, a buildup of oi l coats the hair arow1d the gl ands, givin g the hair a greasy appeara n . Th e seent glands ca n easily beeome impacted with fecal and bed ding m ateri aL re ulling in a foul smell. The rump area shoul d be ch ecked regularly. Mineral oil can be ap plied wi th cotton-tipped swabs to help soft n the im paction and the area gently cleaned with warrn water. Gu inea pigs have lial e in rhe way of self-defense. Their oral cavity is sm al!, which makes b iting d ifficull. They have four clawed toes o n the front feet and th ree o n the rear. Scratches m ay be likely in an attempt to escape. The normal group (or herd) response to fear i to fl ee, to stampede. Often a single guinea pig wiU freeze in place, not moving at al! until the perceived danger has passed. Attempts to captu re a loose guinea pig can beco me very stressful to th e an imal. It is bes! to tempt th m with fo od. [n most in tances, the guin ea pig will app roach and, if it has been handled regul arly, it can be scooped up in two hands, one aro und the shoulders and lhe oth r su ppo rting the rump . The guinea pig should be held cl ose to the body where it feels m ore secu re and is less lil ely to struggle (rigur 6-2) . Determin ing the se.: o f a S'1li nea pig is fai rly easy com pared to sorne smal! m ammals. Th e anogenital area o f the sow is more rounded in appearance, and has a y sha pe. Th e Y configura tío n extends from the a nus to the vag inal opening (Figure 6-3 ).

Figure 6 lhe ext e rn al genlta lio of a fema le guinea pig wi t h a d istin ctive "Y" shape.

Boars have promínent, slen der testicles on eilher sid e of the anal area. However, du e to their open ingui n 1canal, lhe leste are not always apparent and yo ung gu inea pigs may be sexed incorrectly. Applying gent le pressure with the thumb and a caudall d irected stroke o n the lower abd o me n w il! cause the pen is to prolru de an d conflrm the sex o The anogenital d i tanc is longer in the boar (Figure 6-4) . Early determinati o n o f sex is im porta nt to avo id unwanted litters. In the male, sexual maturity is reached al nine to t n weeks, wh ile in the fe mal e it is un expectedly

Guinea Pigs

Figure 6-4 lhe external gen italia of a maleo lhe penis may be everted with gentle thumb pressure on the lowe r abdomen.

earlier, at four to six weeks. If the boar is Ieft with the group, father/ daughter mat­ ings will occur. Sows are polyeslrolls in that they have many breeding cycles throughout the year. Estrus cycles last an average of 16 days. A vaginal plug appears after copula­ tion but falls away within a few hours after mating. The vaginal plug is common to many rodents, but the ~'{act purpose is unknown. It is made up of ejaculate and thought to prevent sperm from leaking from the vagina, ensuring greater fertility or to prevent another male from mating with the same sow. 80th sexes have a single pair of inguinal nipples. Despite having only two mammary glands, sows are able to take care of an average sized litter of three or four young. Unweaned guinea pigs patientIy await their turn with no aggression towards one another. It is not necessary to remove the boar from the presence of the neonates. Boars are very tolerant of their antics and will often groom the yo ung guinea pigs. Guinea pigs are born precocial after a gestation period of 63 days. Their eyes and ears are open, they have a full coat of hair, and their teeth are erupted. They are very active from birth and will start to nibble at hay and the fecal pellets of the adult within a few days of birth . Guinea pigs are coprophagic. Fecal ingestion by the pups is necessary to help establish normal gut flora (adults eat soft feces directly from the anus). Even though guinea pig pups are precociaL for the first seven to ten days, the sow licks the perineum to stimulate urination and defeca­ tian. Pups should be weaned at six weeks.

Housing Guinea pigs can be housed simply. Elaborate cages with platforms and wire floors are nat suitable. They do not dimb or attempt to jump out. Any enclosed area with sides that are at least eight to ten inches high will keep them safely inside. The floor space should be at least 36 inches long, providing ample room for exercise and faad bowls. Guinea pigs urinate and defecate without a locatian preference and bowls are frequently contaminated. Using a food hopper helps to prevent this.

51

52

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 6

Guinea pigs drink a lot ofwater and need to be provided with sipper bottles large enough to meet their daily needs. Water bottles should be cleaned out on a daily basis and checked frequently Guinea pigs drink when they have mouthfuls of food, often pushing chewed material up into the sipper tube where it swells and total!y blocks the wa ter flow. Owners should be alerted to monitor water intake, as they can quickly beco me dehydrated. Al! small animals should be provided with a hide box, a place to escape to and feel safe. Guinea pigs are no different. There are a variety of commercial smal! mammal hide boxes, half round logs, and plastic houses. Many itern s available are d es igned to appeal to people, rather than the animal. Guinea pigs are just as com­ fortable with an upside down cardboard box with an entrance cut into it. There are a variet)' of cages available. A good choice would be one that has an easily removed wire frame cover which cla mps dow n over a plastic tubo This al!ows for plenty of air circulation, is easy to clean, a nd provides sorne protection from other household pets (Figure 6-5). Figure 6-5 A good example of a guinea pig cage that aLLows for ample air c ircu lation, placement of a food hopper, water bottle, a nd hide box. The sturdy, latchon top also prov ides safety from other household pets. (Courtesy 01 lardan Applied Technology Center, West lardan, UT.)

Guinea pigs should not b e housed in aquariums. In su ch enclosed environ­ ments, ammonia and nitrogen from their urine can quickly accumulate and cause resp iratory problems. Cedar bedding should not be used for guinea pigs or any small animal. When cedar shavings beco me wet, they release toxic fumes that cause severe respiratory problems and can lead to death . Newspaper or aspen shavings are safe.

Dicl­ uinea pigs are herbivores and ca n be fed a variety of fresh greens and vegetables. Daily offerings include guinea pig pellets supp lemented with timothy or other varieties of grass hay. While appearing to b e the same as rabbit pellets, guinea pig pell ets h ave added vitamin . !\swrbic aCld (vitamin C) is an essential part of the

Guinea Pigs

guinea pigs' daily diet as they are unable to synthesize it from other foodstuffs. Guinea pigs lack a specific liver enzyme, L-gulonolactone, an essential component of the o-gl ucose L-ascorbic acid pathway. Ascorbic acid is necessary for the metab­ olism of cholesterol, amino acids, and carbohydrates. Without adequate daily amounts in the diet, the signs of vitamin C deficiency can appear in a little as ten days to two weeks. Guinea pigs with vitamin C deficiency become weak and refuse to eat. Joints beco me swollen and they have severe lameness. They lose weight and rapidly deteriora te. If immediate veterinary assistance is not received and the diet corrected, the guinea pig will die. This disease, known as . curvy, is easi1y prevented with a correct diet. Always check the expiration date on the bag when buying pellets. Although vitamin C is added, it has a relatively short 'helf-life. The level of ascorbic acid can be reduced dramatically by exposure to lighe heat, long-term storage, and dampness. Pellets should never be purchased from bulk bins or in quantities larger than can be used within three months. There are a variety of vitamin C supplements available. There are drops and tablets and sorne of them are formulated to be added to the water. This can create problems, as many guinea pigs refuse to drink the treated "vater. Also, ascorbic acid is one of the water-soluble vitamins and so quickly degrades in water. The best answer is always to ensure that the guinea pig receives an adequate amount of vitamin C in the foods offered. Foods high in vitamin C and readily consumed by guinea pigs are kale, parsley, beet greens, spinach, and broccoli. Once introduced to them, guinea pigs will also eat red and ye\low peppers, tomatoes, kiwi fruit, and orange segments. Dande\ions are always well received. lt is important to be sure that the food has not been sprayed with weed killer and that it does not come from an area of lawn that has been fertilized. Care must be taken not to over­ whelm guinea pigs with new foods or abrupt changes in diet. Both will cause diar­ rhea and lead to further problems with the digestive tract. Iceberg lettuce should never be fed as it has very little nutritional value and will cause intestinal upset.

Handling and Restrainl Guinea pigs are easy to handle and are often vocal when picked up. Unless fully supported, they may struggle in attempts to escape. Holding them securely with two hands and close to the body makes them feel more secure. There is very little scruff and attempting to use this method will only cause alarm and pain as it results in more of a pinch than a scruff. Ca re must be taken that they do not fall or walk off the edge of an examination table. Placing a towel on the table reduces the slippery surface for them, but stilL one hand should always be on the body. When carrying a guinea pig, the rear legs can be cupped in one hand. This not only supports them securely, but reduces a possible scratch from the hind claws should they attempt to struggle. The other hand should be placed under the tho­ rax and around the shoulders.

J\ledical COnC('rnS While guinea pigs are generally hardy if fed the correct diet and housed appropri­ ately, there are sorne serious medical issues that can develop. ¡\--lany complications

53

54

UNIT 11' CHAPTER 6

arise from the gastrointestinal tract and are further complicated by sensitivity antib i tics .

to

Gastrointestinal Disordcrs

Figure

6~ 6 A radi ograph howing

a large air pocket on th e right side. The guinea pig was presenl ed with abdominal distension and discom­ Port, decreased amount of fecal droppings, and difficulty breathin g.

(Co urtesy 01 Mari:in C. Orr, Bird &. Exotic AII-Pets Hospital, Drape r, UT.)

FECAL PELLETS FROM A HEALTHY GUINEA PIG ARE SOMETIMES MIXED WI T H A SUP­ PORTIVE DIET ANO FEO BY SYRINGE.

Coprophagic therapy

has

been used incidentally and with so me success. How eve r, the risk o f int ro­ ducing salmonella to an

Guinea p igs are monogastric. The stomach is proportionally larger than that of a rabbit and lhe c cum is well developed. Because of the position and size of the stomach r lative to th e diaphragm, guinea pigs are unable to vomito Normal gas­ tro intestin al flora, necessary for digestion , is Gram positive. Any dislUption of norma l flora and gut motility can quickly lead to gut stasis and an overgrowth of toxin producing Gra m-negative bacteria. Clostridium is most commonly implicated in cases of bacterial enterotoxemia. Most inci dences of gut stasis involve the cecum rather than the stomach and can be attribu led to a di et low in fiber. Reduced fiber leads to reduced gut motility, which in turn causes gut stasis and may also account for pockets of air and gasses trapped within the intestinal tract (Figure 6-6). The combination of gut stasis and the over­ growth of Gram-negative bacteria is a common cause of death. Gas trointestinal disorders occur rapidly and there may be few c1inical signs . Diarrhea, anorexia, and decreased water consumption are always a cause for alarmo Fluid therapy is required for dehydration and short-term antibiotics may be used in an attempt to control the overgrowth of Gram-negative bacteria. Probiotics , su eh as lactobacillus and live yogurt, can be fed in an attempt to resto re normal microflora. Many bacteria] infections are seen in th e guinea pig and treatment is difficult. They do not tolerate many of the commonly used antibiotics. Adverse reactions inclu de endotoxl:mia and death due to the dislUption of normal gu t flora . Broad spectlUm antibiotics an d those which primarily target Gram-positive bacteria will destroy beneficial bacteria, while allowing the more pathogen¡c Gram-negative bacteria to flourish . Death may be acute or occur within a week or less. Many topical antibiotics should also be avoided as they may be licked off and ingested. Injectable antibiotics, e.g., enrofloxacin, should not be given orally because of the rapid and direct access to the gul. Antibiotic choices and therapy protocol should only be m ade by the veteri­ narían. Owners need to be cautioned never to administer any antibiotic, for what­ ever reason, wheth er it is something recommended from a pet store or found in their own medicine cupboards. Safer choices which m ay be considered includ e enrofloxadn (injectable), chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfa, and the amino­ glycocides that larget Gram-negative bacteria . AlI antibiotic therapy should inel ude frequent m onitoring of blood serum leve ls and careful observation of th e guine p ig fo r early signs of loxicity.

already compromised guinea pig ne eds to be carefully considered.

' ondig~

Uve Disorders

A commo n reproductive problem is dy tocia . If the sow does not have her first litler before she is seven to nine months old, th e cartilaginous pelvic midline, w hicll norm ally relaxes prior to panuriuon, begins to ossify. Fat pads can also block lhe pelvic o pening, preventing delivery. Caesarian dellvery is necessary to preven l the death of the sow and her litter. The young develop in both uterine horns, rather than in the small body of the utems.

Gu inea Pigs

Pregnancy toxemia is anoth er reproductive disorder and is most oft n seen either during the last two weeks of gestation or in the first week postpartum . It is more common with obese sows. Signs are acute and inelude weakness and dep res­ sion with accompanying ataxia, dyspnea, a nor~"'(ia, and a drama tic drop in water consumption. Th e normally thick and slightly creamy consistency of urine beco mes acidic and clear. If left untreated, this condition in lile pregnant sow quickly progresses to abortion and seizures. With the onset of seizures, either in th e graviJ or postpartum sow, the prognosis is grave. Medical intervention ineludes warmed IV fluids to help stabilize the sow and prevent the progression of toxic shock. Clinical values change dramatically as the sow becom es hypoglyccmic, hyperkalcmic, and kctonic. Sows at this stage may also d evelop hepatic lipido ¡s. It is always better to guard against and possibly prevent this condition by feeding a correct diet and not allowing the sow to become obese. For a pregnant sow, vitamin C should be provided in greater amounts. Ovarian cysts mal' also occur in females from two to four years old. They are a source of discomfort and pain. Cysts develop spontaneously and may only beco me evident when the sow shows signs of pain, warranting further investiga­ tion. An ovariohysterectomy may be required, but as with any surgical pro ced ure for the guinea pig, the potential anesthesia compli cations need to be considered. Poor husbandry contributes to poor health. Pododermatitis, commonly called bumble Joot, is associa ted w ith animals, especially obese guinea pigs, housed on wire floors, and kep t in unelean environments. The con stan t weight of the guinea pig's hairless, unprotected feet on the wire crea tes pressure sores that soon become inflamed and infected. The planlJr surfaces of the feet become painful and swollen with crusty areas of dried blood an cl exuÓales. Ifleft untreated, podo­ dermatitis may progress to necrosis of the fOOL The guinea pig w ith pododermatitis should b e provided w ith a sol id floor, soft, nonabrasive bedding, and meticulous husbandIY practices. Affecled areas should be carefully eleaned an d treated as open wounds. Stap hylococcus is the most commonly found bacteria in cases of pododermatitis. rhis condition can be preven ted with proper housing and careful husbandry practices. Children should be sup ervised to ensure that cage cleaning is frequent and complete with ample fres h, dry bedding. Bordatella bronchiseptica is the same bacterial agen t res ponsible for Kennel Cough in dogs an d cats, but it causes severe upp er respiratory tract in fec tions in guin ea pigs. It is also responsible for abortions an d stillbirths in pregnant sows and mortality is high. It spreads via direct contact, fomite transmissio n, and through the air. Rabbits ca n be asymptomatic carriers of Bordatella and should never be housed with guinea pigs. Clinical signs inelude anorexia, dysp nea, an d ocular and nasal dis cha rge. As a further compli ca tion, Streptococcus pneumoniae often dev lops Th e prognosis is grave. Sulfa drugs and wa rm ed isotoni fl uids can be used in an attempt to trea t Bordatella. Streptococcus pneumoniae is commonly associated with upper respiratory tract infections. Transmission is through direct contact or aerosol dist ribution of th e bacteria from infected guinea pigs. Guinea pigs may be asym pto matic carriers or show multi ple elínical signs ineluding sn eezing, nasa l and ocular discharge, co ughing, anorexia, and d ep ressíon The diseas e is progressive and the mo rta lity

55

56

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 6

Figure 6-7 A curso ry o ral exam i­ nation shows correct alignment of guinea pig teeth. (Courtesy 01 lardan Applied Techn ology Center, West lardan, UT.)

is high. Streptococcus pneumonia is not always associated with BOTdatella and can occur as an independent infection. Guinea pigs are highly susceptible to salmonel!a infections. Salmonel!a infec­ tions are commonly associ ated with bacterial enteritis, which is transmitted, as are most salmonella infections, via the fecal/oral route. The most common routes of infection inelude eating infected feces, access to contaminated water, or contami­ nated food or bedding. In the guinea pig, salmonella bacteria can also enter through the conjunctiva (Hanes, POLA-cavia, 1999) The incidence may be higher than in other smal! mammals due to behavior. Being enelosed, frequently urinat­ ing a nd defecating in food and water bowls, and the normal consumption of fecal m aterial are al! contributing factors. Clinical signs inelude diarrhea, anorexia and associated weight loss, loss of coat condition, ocular discharge, and abortion in pregnant sows. Dental exams can be difficult because of the smal! oral cavity. Guinea pigs do not have cheek pouches, but have cheek folds that accumulate food . Care must be ta ken when examining the oral cavity to prevent food in the mouth being pushed into the trachea . All teeth are hypsodontic (open-rooted) and grow continually. Correct alignment of the incisors can easily be checked and may indicate potential prob­ lems ifthey do not appear straight and evenly woro (Figure 6-7). There are a total of 20 teeth, ineluding the incisors. Mandibular teeth are directed toward the cheeks, while maxillary teeth are directed toward the soft pal a te. Both are convexo This arrangement can predispose guinea pigs to malocelusion. An otoscope can be used to assist in visualiz ing the molars. The rodent/ rabbit dental packs can also be used with guinea pigs. Submandibular abscesses occur in so many guinea pigs that the condition is commonly known as lumpy jaw. The correct term for this condition is Cervical lymphadenitis. Lymph nodes under the jaw become abscessed and cause the lumps. The abscesses occur when StTeptococcus bacteria invade oral wounds and abra­ sions. A frequent cause is consumption of coarse feed items, hay stalks, straw, and the hulls of seeds and peanuts that penetrate or abrade the oral mucosa. (No seeds, peanuts, or nuts of any kind should ever be offered, but are frequently found in guinea pig mixed diets or have been recommended as a treat.) Another cause of lumpy jaw is malocelusion, caused when teeth penetrate the buccal surface or when the guinea pig unintentionally bites ioto the cheek while trying to chew. Bacteria enter though these wounds, creating an abscess which drains directly ioto the cervicallymph nodes. Veterinary treatment involves a cuta­ neous incision to open the abscess, allowing it to drain and be thoroughly flushed. Follow-up care is often required, especially in cases caused by malocelusion.

Clinical

PrO(CdIUrS

Guinea pigs have small, fragile blood vessels that easily collapse. The lateral saphenous and cephalic veins are the most commonly used for blood sampling. Using a tubercu­ lin or insulin syringe with a 25 gauge needle, no more than 0.5 to 0. 7 mljlOO gm should be collected. Examination of the b'lood film should inelude recognition and recording of I'urloff bodies, which are cytoplasmic inelusions in some monocytes. They are normal in the guinea pig and may increase in number and

Guinea Pigs

become more obvio us in a pregnant sow. The fun ction of Kurloff bodies is unknown. Typically, guin ea pigs have a rela tively greater number of lymphocytes, compa red to dogs or cals. Peripheral a theters for fluid adm in i tra ti on can be diffí Cll lt beca use of the sm al!, fragile vessels. Sub cutan eo Lls fluids ca n be given between the sea pulas. The ski n is tough, tight, with no scruff, and voy !ittle subcutaneous space. An intra­ scap ular fa l pad makes the procedure mo re painful than in other small mammals and the patient will vocalize loudly. Guinea pigs are extrem ely difficult to intubate because of their small oral cavity. They c.a n be mas ked down wi th either isoflurane or sevoflurane. Guinea pigs should not be [asted for more than two to four hours prior to general anes th es ia . Tllough th ey la ck lhe ability to vomir, regurgitati o n under anesthe­ sia is common and may be frequent. As soon as a light plane of anesthesia is achieved, the oral cavi ty mu st be swab bed out, removing food debris from their d 1eeks and rnolars. This may be necessary several times during the procedure to prevent aspiration. Recovely sho uld take place in a quiet, undisturbed area with unobtrusive o bservation . Gu in ea pigs sometimes fai! to recover due to dramatic metabolic changes and the stress th at occurs during induction. Rapid induction d ecreases stress time. Guinea pigs with any medi cal concerns must be handled minimally because of the poten lÍa lly catastrophic results of stress.

Guinea pigs are often presented w'ith alopecia and need to be C'i am ined carefully for mites and li e. So me ha ir losses an be attributed to barbering by cage mates, either due to bo redom or, mo re likely, hi erarchal reinforcement. Clinical signs th ar warrant funher invest igat ion with skin scrapi ngs and microscopic examina­ tion ine lude intense su atching, secondary skin infections, and lesions. TTixacanls caviae is a zoonotic burrowin g mite that causes scabies in guinea pigs and should b e a primaly rule-out in any dcrma tological problem . There are two speeies ofhost-specificguinea piglice, GliTico la pOTee/li and Gyropus ovalis. Transmission is through direct contaCl with infested guinea pigs or bedding. Guinea pigs with !ice are usually kept in poor conditions and suffer from other illnesses. Oral or injectable ivennectin can b given upon the recommendation of a veterinarian. The environ­ ment m ust be thoroughly cleaned and disin fected prior to the Tetum of the guinea pig to elimin ate the hance of reinfes tat ioI1. Any wood items should be deslroyed and the rem ainjng bedding supply be thrown out. DUflll ph} O~ ~ occurs frequently in guinea pigs, especially those housed in crowded conditio ns. While it is a fungal infection rather than a parasite, ringworm transmission eas ily occ urs through di rect contacr, contaminated bedding, and fomites. Faciallesio ns that are inflamed and hairl ess should always b e carefully examined as ringworm h as zoonotic po te ntial. Positive diagnosis can be made with a black Iight or a DTM hair culture. The environment needs to be completely d econt m in ated . Affeded guinea pigs should 110t be returned to the group until les ion s are healed . La lex gloves should be wo rn to prevent human contact while applying a to pical antifu ngal cream . Gl oves should be removed so that they are turned in ide-ou t and disposed of in a biohazard container.

57

58

UNIT 11· CHAPTE R 6

o O O O

o o 8

What is the importance of vita min

e in a gu ine a pig diet?

Describe pregnancy toxe mia.

Why should antíbiotícs only be prescríbed by a veterinarian?

Rabbíts should not be housed with guinea pigs. What is t he reaso n?

What are Kurloff bodie s? Describe lumpy jaw. What is it and what is the cause? Why should a sow have her first litter before she is six to seven months old?

O

What is drilling?

o

Wh ich is better for guinea pigs, alfalfa or grass hay? Why?

e

Why is it necessary to check th e water bottle frequently?

Guinea Pigs WEIGHT

• Litter Size : 2 to 5 pups

• Boar: 900 to 1200 gm

• Weaning age : 3 wee ks (21 days)

• $ow: 700 to 90 0 gm

VITAL STATISTICS

LlFE SPAN

c (99 to 103.1 ° F) • Tem perature: 37.2 to 39.6 O

• 5 to 7 years

• Heart rate : 230 t o 280/ minute

REPRODUCTION

• Respiratory rate: 42 to lOO / minute

• Sexua l Matu rity

DENTAL

• Boars: 9 to 10 weeks

• Dental formul a 2 (11 / 1, C O/O, PM 1/1, M 3/ 3)

• Sows: 4 t o 6 weeks • Gestati o n: 63 days (average)

teeth total

=

20

Guinea Pigs

FUl'lher Readillg Standard ofPerfection (2001 -2005). Standard Bred Rabbits & Guinea pigs (American Rabbit Breeders Association, [nc).

v.,

(2006) . Clinical Approach to the Anorectic Guinea Pig. Conference Notes, The North America Veterinaty Conference, 2006, pp. 1697-1699. Capello,

Girling, S. (2003). Veterinary Nursing of Exotic Pets. Blackwell PublishingfJune 1999.

Guinea Pig Ca re. http://Saintfrancispetfoundation.org (accessed 2004). Hanes, M., Diseases ofGuinea Pigs. Department ofLab Animal Resources, University ofTe.xas Health Science Center. Afip.org (accessed June 2006). Hanes, M., Diseases of Guinea Pigs. Department ofLab Animal Resources, University ofTe.xas Health Science Center, PO LA-cavia 1999 (accessed August 2007). Harkness,

J. E. & Wagner, J. E. (1989). The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and

Rodents, 3 rd Edition . Lea & Febiger. Hoefer, H. L. , (2006). Urolithiasis in Rabbits and Guinea Pigs. Conference Notes, The North America Veterinary Conference, 2006. Mayer, J., (2006). Analgesia and Anesthesia in Rabbits and Rodents. Conference Notes, The North America Veterinary Conference, 2006, pp. 1740-1742. O'Malley, B., (2005). Clinical Anatomy and Physiology of Exotic Species. Elsevier Sauoders. Quesenbeny, K. E., Donnelly, T. M., & Hillyer, E. V. (2004). Biology, Husbandry and Clinical Techniques of Guinea Pigs and Chinchillas. [n Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surger}', 2nd Edition (pp . 232-252). [mprint of Elsevier Science.

59

Chinchillas

ecosystems mosaic hairfoWcle fursUp urethral cone pinna pelters choke dry huyes coníunctiv;tis giilrdia prototoan

Alter completing this chapler, the student should be able • • • • • •

10

properly hOLlse a chinchilla. provide appropriate client education to new chinchilla owners. provide a proper diet for a chinchilla. provide basic nursing care to a chinchilla. assist in the anesthesia of a chinchilla. provide appropriate restraint techniques.

Inlrodu(llion "J f;

South America is home to many diverse species in 'l sy"l 'tns as varied as the lowland scrubs and tropical rainforests to the great heights and freezing climate of the Andes Mountains. The Andes extend for more than 5,000 miles and have many peaks greater 22,000 feet. This rugged and stark region is the natural habitat of the chinchilla. As far back as the 16th century, chinchilla pelts were used to decorate ceremo­ nial dress of the Chincha Indians. The word chinchilla literally means liule chincha. In the 1800s, with the arrival of the Eurapeans, chinchillas were hunted lO near extinction for their pelts. Wild populations did not recover fram this mass exploi­ tation . Today, their range is greatly diminished and they are rarely seen in the wild , Wild chinchillas are listed by CITES as an end..:mg\.'rcd SpCCH': . Their present status in the wild is unknown. AlI domestically bred chinchillas are descendants of 11 animals that were cap­ tu red and braughl to the United States in the 1930s. An American, Mathias F. Chapman, lived in the Andes of Peru and Chile wh re he became interested in the financial reward of chinchilla pelts. He reported th at he lived at an altitude of 11,300 feet and th at the trappers went a mile higher to capture the chinchillas. Because their numbers were already so depleted, locating this elusive little animal was not easy. They were so few in number that, in three years of searching, 23 men brought Chapman less than a dozen d l inchillas. For t,vo years, he housed his small collection at an altitude of 11,000 feet before trying to acclimatize them to lower altitudes and eventually LO the extreme heat and hUlIlidity of sea leve!. He stopped again at an altitude of 8,000 feet, where he remained for ayear before completing the descent down the rno untains. Sorne time during captivity, one chinchilla gave birth.

60

Chinchillas

Despite being under the cooperative protection of four South American counuies, Chapman somehow managed to obtain an export perrnit. These 12 chinchillas beca me known as The Chapman Chinchillas and founded the Drst captive breeding herd of chinchillas anywhere in the world. While the re are still farms where tbey are bred only for their pelts, chinchillas have firmly establisbed their place, and possibly their survival as a species, by becoming very popular as cornpanion animals. The natural color of a chinchilla is bluish-grey with lighter underbelly fur, usually white or cream (Figure 7-1). Over time, many color mutations have ap peared and chinchillas have been selectively bred to produce rnany varieties, even sorne with patterned coats described as musaic. Sorne of the colors now available are beige, violet, white, silver, and the much sought after bJack velvet. Other than cost, there is no difference; this appealing and gentle rodent is still

Chinch illa laníger. Figure 7-1 The natural coat color of a c hinchilla is grey with a lighter underbelly. There are now many color mutati ons avai l­ able. (Co urte~ of Pet Kingdom USA, Las

Vega s.)

Chinchillas are smalL cornp act animals, but their dense fur makes them appear bigger and rounder. The fur is very soft with as many as 60 hairs growing from one h. ir f{ lIi IL . Chinchillas have large, rounded ears, long whiskers, and big, dark eyes. They have a brush tail, covered with hair that is only slightly more coarse than that on the body. Chinchillas have four toes on each foot with nail­ pads that never need trimming. They weigh from 400 to 500 g (approx.imately one pound). remales are slightly larger than males. The average life span is 14 to 15 years but sorne have lived as long as 20 years.

8...lunior Chinchillas are very curious animals, a trait that may have led to their ease of capture. At the first sign of danger they scarnper away, yet within a few moments they return to the area or situation which caused them to leave. They have very long hind feet and are capable of ju mp ing up and over items many times their own length. Chinchillas are very quick and agile. Their long tail acts as a rudder as they leap from place lO place. Though not strictly nocturnal, chinchillas are more active at dusk and during the night

61

62

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 7

Figure 7-2 Chinch illa kits are born precocial. Thi s kit is one day old.

Chinchi llas have little means of defending themselves. One mechanism that helps them to escape capture is known as fur slip. If grabbed or frightened they are able to release patches of fuf. It may take six weeks or more to regrow and co m p letely cover the area of fUf loss. Female.s can become cage territoriaL especially when they have young kits. They stand uprigh t on th eir hind iegs, spitting and barking. If this fails to deter an intruder, they squ ut urine (wi th great accuracy) at the perceived danger, be it another house­ hold pet 01' a persono Even if provoked to this poine they rarely bite. Chinchillas are seasonally polyestrous. The female cydes every 28 to 35 days. Pairs may be k pl togeth er for months or even years befo re they breed. Many ovvners have been surprised when a pair that has been together for sorne time produces a completely unexpected littey. Chinchillas are not nest builders and there may be no indication that the femal e is pregnant. Gestation is (n average of 111 days. Parturition is very short and usually occurs in the m omi ng. It may last only 20 to 30 minutes for each kit. Chinchi lla kits are p recocial. At birth, they are fully furred with their eyes open and teeth erupted . They are active within minutes and nibble on solid food with in a few hours o f birth (Figure 7-2). Both pa rents tend to the young and there is no need to remove the ma le, however, the female may be rebred within three days pOslp artum . The average litter size is two, but a litter of three is not that unusual, \-viLh one kit being much smaller than the other two. Many of these smaller kits do not survive. I
~"--

~

---­ /;/

(/

\( \\

MALE

FEMALE

I

Figure 7-3 C hinchillas of both sexes ha ve a uret hral con e . Sex determi nation is co nfirmed by th e an o-genital distance, which is greater in t he male o

Chinchillas

63

lousillg Chinchillas are active and need a cage large enough for them to be able to exercise. It should have different levels and provide platforms for jumping and a hide box. Any connecting ladders to the different levels need to be removed to prevent the chinchilla from becoming entangled and possibly fracturing a lim boSome items used for exercise in other small mammals can be a bJ¿ard for chinchillas. They will use large wheels, but can become trapped in the side braces. Fracture and eventual amputation of the hind leg are most commonly caused by these items (Figure 7-4). Because of the normally hunch ed sitting posture of the chinchilla, frac ­ tuyes of the tibi a often go unrecognized by the owner until the leg has become necrotic and odorous. Giant exercise balls are not recommended. Chinchillas hop and bounce from place-to-place. Being enclosed in a rolling bal!, able only to run, can cause the chinchilla to quickly beco me stressed and overheated. Supervised out-of-cage play time can be very rewarding for both the chinchilla and the owner. A safe place with multiple levels is the bathroo m . There are usually no exposed electrical cords and the only hazard to a chinchilla on reboun d is the toilet. rf using this room for exercise, always insure that the lid of the toil et seaL is down. Chinchillas do not swim 1 The cage should be placed in an area that is cool and dry and receives no direct sunlight. Chinchillas are most comfortable in temperatures between 65 and 75 o F. The cage should not be exposed on all sides but kept with one si de against a wal!, giving the chinch illa a place to retreat and feel protected when not in the hide box. Because of their dense fur coat, chinchillas need to be given access to a dust bath to keep the fur clean. The dust should be about 1 inch deep and be provided in a shallow pan or bowl. Chinchilla dust is vely fine powdery pumice. A good way to provide chinchillas with a dust bath is to use a one gallon, flat sided fish bow!, placed in the cage flat side down . It provides ample room for their rolling antics, running in and out and keeps the dust somewhat contained. It is not nec­ essary to leave the dust in the cage at all times; offering it two or three times a week is sufficient. Dust can be purchased from most pet stores and the standard grey color is readily available. With the color varieties now seen in chinchillas, color­ specific dust can be ordered. The bottom of the cage can be layered with plain newspaper or aspen shav­ ings. Crock pottery dishes are suitable to use for pellets and treats as they are eas­ ily cleaned and resist being chewed. Chinchillas need a water bottle that is cleaned, disinfected, and refreshed on a da ily basis.

Chinchillas are herbivorous and should be fed a quality, high fiber diet consisting of formulated pellets and free choice ti m otoy hay Pellets made for rabbits and guinea pigs are usually not as high in protein as tbose specifically made for chinchillas. Another important factor is the length of chinchilla pellets. Chinchillas do not eat directly from a food bowl, but pick up and hold individual food ite m . Chinchilla pellets are mad longer so they are easier for

Figure 7 -4 The fractured leg of a ch inchilla that was caught in an exercise wheel. (Courtesy of frie

Klaphake, DVM. )

64

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 7

the chinchilla to grasp. A small a mount of unsalted trail mix with unshelled nuts and dried fruit ca n b e offered as treat food, but th e amount needs to be carefully co ntrolled to p revent obesity and selective feeding. The mix should not contain a ny chocolate. Rai sins are a known favorite a nd these should be Iimited to two per day. Unsweetened dry cerea l can also be given for variety. Sunfl ower seed s should not be fe d. They are very high in fat and th e shells can cause oral trauma and intestinal blockage. New foods and food changes sh o uld not be ab ru pt as dram atic changes in diet ca n ca use gastrointestinal upset, diarrhea, or, mo re co mmonly, constipation.

lIandUng and R(ASll'ainl Chinchillas need to b e hand led gentl)' When removing a chinchill a from its cage, place one hand unde'r ¡he abdomen and let the body rest in the palm of your hand. Wrap th index finger of your other hand around the base of the tail. In this way, ifthe ch inchilla tri es 10 jump away, it is safely restrained until it relaxes and can be safely released for play tim e (Figure 7-5).

Figure 7-5 Th e correct way to ho ld a c hin ­ chilla; one ha nd suppo rts the bod y around th e t horax a nd lh e othe r ha nd supports the rump, with o ne finger wra pp ed aroun d t he tail. ( Courte~ of lorda n Applied Technology

Center, West lordan, Utah.)

Figu re 7-6 eh inch illas that are not used to being hand le d or may be frightened ma y be held by th e ta il fo r a short perio d until placed on th e ta ble for rest rai nt. (Th is c hinch ill a also ha s pododer­ mat itis on the plantar surface o f th e hin d fe et) . (Courte~ of lordan

Applied Tech nology Cen ta, West lordan, U¡ah .)

It is al so appropriate to lift th e chinchilla by the tail base and pl ace the body in the palm of your other hand. This technique ca n be used with chin­ chillas that are not as socialized or may be frightened by the strange surround­ ings of a c1 inic ( Figure 7-6). No attempt should ever be made to lift or restrain a chinch illa by the ears. Although this inhumane practice causes damage to the fragile vessels of th e pinn" it is a common practice with pe/h' ~ to avoid d a m aging the product, the fUf pelt ever try to scruff or make a grab for a chinchilla; it will result in nothing but a handfu l o f hair and a chinch illa with a large bald spot (fur slip). A secure method o f hol di ng a chinchilla for an examination is to place one hand around the thorax from underneath and mai ntain the fin ger wrap around the tail. The examin ation tabl e shou ld have a towel pl aced on the 10p to make it less slippery (Figu re 7-7) .

Chinchil las

Figure 7 7 When re stra ining a chinch illa for an examination, t he table shou ld be covered with a towel, making the surface less slippery. One hand supports the thorax from underneath . The other hand securely grasps the taiL. (Caurtery af lardan Applied

Technalagy Center, West lardan, Utah.)

Chinch ill as thar are housed and fed appropriately are usually hardy but, as with any exotic, can develop medical problems unique to them . Many concerns are difficult to detect immediately, for examp le, weight 10ss or pregnancy, due the density of the coa!. Carefu l observation of normal behaviors wi ll help to deter­ mine when something is abnormal.

Gasll'oinl eslinal Oisordel's Chinchillas have a relatively long digestive tract and, like many rodents, th ey are unable to vomit. They are, however, susceptible to IlOh . It may appear that the chinchilla is trying to vomit, but choke is an esophageal blockage. Signs of choke includ e retching, dr)' heaves (nonproductive vomiting), exces­ sive salivation, and difflculty breathing. Choke can be caused by pieces offood or a hairball. A chinchilla with choke, or suspected choke, should be seen by a veterinarian immediately, as this condition can obstruct the airvvay. formal chinchilla droppings look like grains of rice and may be either black or dark brown, depending on diet and water consumption. An incorrect diet will cause either diarrhea or constipation. Constipation is seen more fre ­ quently and is usually the result of not enough fresh food andJor a combina­ tion of lack of exercise and obesity. Adding a sma ll amount of fresh fruits , gradually adjusting the diet, and providing for amp le exercise can help with constipation. Diarrhea, too, is usuaIly dietary and is caused by feeding too much fresh food or sud den changes in dieto Stress and excessive environmental temperatures can also cause diarrhea .

ondi~cslh (' DiSO.,d('I'S Because of the dust bath, chinchillas can develop conjunctivitis from irrita­ tion caused by dust particles. The chinchilla may keep one or both eyes closed and there may be a sticky ocular discharge that prevents the eye from open­ ing. The eye can be flushed with sterile saline. Dust baths shou ld be limited until the inflammation is gone. A veterinarian should examine the eye for any surface abrasions.

6S

66

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 7

Figure 7-8 A female chinchilla with a vaginal prolapse. Thís conditíon requíres immediate veterinary careo (Courte~ of frie

Klaphake, DVM.)

Generally, bacterial diseases in pet chinchillas are not common. Fur-ranched chinchillas are Iikely to suffer more from bacterial infections due to stress, over­ crowded conditions, and less than desirable hygiene practices. Any suspect bacte­ rial infection should be cultured. Bacterial infections inelude Yersinia ssp, Listeria and Pseudomonas. Male chinchillas can accumulate a tightly woven ring around the urethral cone and penis. Eventually, as the hair builds up and the ring becomes tighter, the chinchilla will be unable to retract the penis. It can become swollen due to a tour­ niquet effect of the hair ring, which cuts off blood supply and causes the penis to become necrotic. The area should be examined regularly. The fur ring can be removed with the use of a sterile lubricant and then gently rolled off the penis. Never use scissors in an attempt to cut a\ovay the hair ringo Female chinchillas, especially those which are obese, may be prone to vaginal prolapse. It may occur during delivery, postpartum, or in a female that is not preg­ nant. It is usually attributed to stress and a lack of exercise (Figure 7-8). This condition requires immediate veterinary care and probable surgical treatment to repair the prolapse.

Clinical Procedures Medications given orally are preferable due to the restraint required , pain involved, and the potential of fur slip. lf there is no alternative, the quadriceps of a rear leg can be used. A 25 gauge needle, as small as it is, will still cause pain and potential necrosis at the injection site. One way to help minimize fur slip is to wet the site with warm water. A soaked cotton ball, squeezed over the site will wet down the fur and separate the hairs to allow more easy visualization of the injection site. Veins are difficult to access due to their small size and the restraint required. The lateral saphenous vein is usually a good choice for blood sampling. A 25 gauge needle and a tuberculin syringe are recommended. The volume should not exceed 0.5 mI/lOO g. Peripheral catheters are equally difficult to place. A small bolus (3 to 4 mI) of fluids may be given SQ between the shoulders, but long-term fluid therapy requires placement of an intraosseous catheter into the proximal head of the femur. For accu­ rate placement, and pain avoidance, the chinchilla will need to be anesthetized. Chinchillas can be masked down with either isoflurane or sevoflurane. They are not generally given a preanesthetic due to the potential of muscle necrosis at the injedion site. Prior to anesthesia, the cheeks should be emptied of food to prevent aspiration. Food should not be withheld (NPO) for more than two to four hours prior to anesthesia as hypoglycemia could result. During recovery, the chin­ chilla should be wrapped in a towel or placed in a small animal incubator to prevent it from trying to bolt before fully recovering.

Parasiles rdia , a prol zo.m, is common in many chinchilla colonies and even healthy chinchillas normally have giardia present in low numbers. It causes diarrhea and j,

• Chinchillas

intestinal upset and is transmitted by th e fecal/ oral route and through contaminated water. Veterinary tr atment ineludes a fecal exam and treatment if parasites are seen. Metronizadol is usually the drug of choice for giardia, however there are recent reports of this drug causing liver failure in chinchillas. The veterinarian may decide to use an alternative d rug. If giardia becomes a concern, chinchillas can be provided with bottled water. Lice and mites are not a concern with chinchillas. The fur is so dense that it creates a natural barrier to blood-feeding external parasites.

R(', i(~" Oueslions Explain what is meant by fur slip.

O When chinchilla kits are born, they are precoci al. Describe the appearance of a newborn chinchilla. Why is it important to provide a chinchilla with a dust bath?

O

What faclors contribute to constipation in a chi nch illa?

e

What problem could develop for a male chi nc hilla? What is the difference betwee n rabbit pe llets and chinchilla pellets? Why are they different?

f) How Long is the gestation period for chinchillas?

Describe the corred setup of a chinchilla's cage.

o

How are chinchillas restrained?

4ID How do chinchillas defend themselves?

Chinchillas

WEIGHT

VITAL STATISTICS

• 400 to 500 gm (Approx I pound)

• Temperature: 37 to 38 Oc (98.6 to 100.4° F)

lIFE SPAN • 15 years - average (180 months)

REPRODUCTION Sexual Maturity: 4 to 12 months • Gestation : 111 days Litter Size: 1to 3 (2 average) • Weaning Age: 6 weeks

• Heart rate: 120 to 160/ minute • Respiratory rate: 50 to 60/ minute DENTAL • 2(1 / 11,010 C, 111P, 313M)

=

20 teeth total

67

68

UNIT 11 · CHAPTER 7

Ftll' IIU~I' Readin~ Boone, J\ndrew R. (1933) Three meriean Chinchilla Farms Produce Most Cost!y Fur.

Popular Science Monthly (December, 193 ). http://www.etc-etc. com (accessed March 10,2005). Brenner, Serena Z. G., IIawkins, M. G. & Tel!, L A el al. (2005) lin ica! Anato my, Radiography and Comput r Tomography of the Chinchilla Skull. Compendium, December 2005,27 (12, pp. 671-684).

CI TE.S. Append ices l, Ir, and (accessed Augusl 10, 2006).

m,

valid fro m Iu ne 14, 200 6. http://www.c.ites.org

Quesen b rry, I<. E., Donn lly; T M. & Hillyer, E. Y. Biology, Husbandry and linical Techniques of Gu inea Pigs and Ch in chillas. In Q uesenberry, K. E. & Carpenter, J W Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 2nd Edition (pp. 2 2-244 ). lmprint of El evier Science. Q ue enberry, K. E., DOJ1nelly, T M. & Hi llyer, E. Y. Disease Problems of Chinchill as. In Q uesenberry, K. E. & Carpente r, w. ferrets, Rabbits and Rodent- Clinical Medicine

r.

and Sur,gery, 2nd Edition (pp. 2 5-263) . Imprint of Elsevier Science.

Hedgehogs

AJier colnplelillS chis er,apt.el; cile s/wJent should be able

anthru LO

• properly h ouse a hedgeh og. • provide appropriale ( licnt ed ucation to n w hedgehog owners. • • • •

provide a correcl d iet for a h edgehog. p rovide basic nu rsing care LO a hedgehog. assist in th e a ne the ' i of a h edgehog. d m o nslrate ap propriate resu-aint tech niques.

11l11'odul' ion

insectivores

p.leontology kemin anointing umbilicus vulva hoglets estivate carrion neoplasia mCllignant ilscites syndrome

Fro m the time Beatrix POlter first introduced 1\;lr~. Tiggy-winkle in The Tales af Peter Rabbit, hedgehogs have held an end arlng and special affeerion in !he hearts of m any. Later, the a rtoon strip Sanie captured a whole new generation and spawned a mul titud e of lOy , orname nts, vid o games, and , unfort unately, a new fad, the des ire to own a pet h d gehog. Many peo ple who acquired hedgehogs were soon confronted with reality; !he spiny, hiss ing, nocturn al, an tisocial little animals with some very odd behaviors were no th ing li ke Mrs. Tiggy-win kle or Sonie. Many pet hedgehogs were aban­ d oned and prices plum m eted. Laws were enacted by many cili es and states prohib iting !he breeding, sale, and keep ing of hedgehogs. There was concern over the possibility of introducing anthra. with irnpo rted African hedgehogs and that hedgehogs, should they escape or be released, would establ ish a feral population in many areas. r he importation of African species has be n ball ned. Laws affecting exotic species may seem quir ky and, lO sorne, withoUI reason . Ilowe er, it is an owner's responsibility LO deter­ mi ne th legali t. of (lny animal, to cornp ly wi!h the law, obtain required permits, and thoro ugh ly un derstand the speeific needs and behaviors 01 [he species. The hedgehog has eh nged little il1 the last 15 million years. It belongs to the class of ·nse<.tJ\'o 'Cs, Erinaeeidae. P.llconto)og) , fossil records, indicates that insec­ tivores were the (i rst placental mammals. There are two species generally recog­ nized; lhe Europ an hedgehog and the African hedgehog and subspecies. D ue to th eir srnaller ize, th African hedgehog has b (ome known as the African pygmy h edgehog, the pet hedgehog. The taxon omic narn c is Atelerix albiventis, and !hey are also kn ow! as lhe white-b ellied or four-toed hedgehog. They are native to the

69

70

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 8

savannahs of cent[al and east Af[ica. The[e are no hedgehogs native to North Ame[ica. Cont[ary to some popula[ notions, hedgehogs are not [elated to PO[CU­ pines (rodents) or echidnas (monotremes).

Hedgehogs are solitary and nocturnal. Du[ing the day, they can be found unde[ logs, bushes, and piles of wood. They do not make burrows, but dig out a shallow spot in which to sl eep or give birth. They are not st[ictly territorial, but use p[e­ ferred pathways o[ routes familia[ to them and travel fa[ while out fo[aging. Th ey are intole[ant of each othe[, accepting the p[esence of anothe[ hedgehog only dur­ ing b[ief m ating encounte[s. When threatened, hedgehogs curl up into a tight bal! to p[otect themselves. They are cove[ed in very sharp spines, and when curled, their heads and soft, hai[ed under­ belly are completely protected. 1he spines are made of keratln, a protein commonly seen in the epidermis and homy tissue, and are continually shed and replaced. Predators, confronted with a very prickly objea, soon wande[ off, leaving the hedgehog alone. To furthe[ dissuade would-be predato[s, a curled hedgehog can make a variety of ala[ming noises, startling the unsuspecting. Hedgehogs hiss and make a popping o[ clicking sound when annoyed or th[eatened. The whole body; while sti ll curled, seems to vibrate and snap. Spines do not come out when touch ed, nor do hedgehogs have the ability to throw their spines. Spines do not contain toxins, but many people are sensi­ tive to them and develop a rash where spines come in to contact with ba[e skin. A behavior unique to the hedgehog is anointing or anting. When confronted with an item that has a new smell or taste, hedgehogs lick the item and begin lO hypersalivate, producing a white, frothy spit. They use their tongues to paint, or anoint, th eir spines with the foam produced. The [eason for this behavio[ is uncer­ tain . It may have significance in att[acting a mate o[ in disguising its own scent. Any new smell can produce this behavio[, including hand lotion and food items. Hedgehogs do not like to be distu[bed during the day and it is [are that a hedgehog has no objection to being handled (Figu[e 8-1) . When handled from a vely young age, they becOllie accepting, rathe[ than social, and may [elax enough to uncurl and eA'Plo[e their surroundings. Their eyesight is poor with linle depth pe[ception. Hedgehogs are frequently injured when they fal! from the edge of atable or counter topo 1Iedgehogs can b[eed throughout the year. They are se.'(ually matu[e at app[oximately eight weeks. Sexing hedgehogs is no t difficult except for being ab le Figure 8-1 An alb ino hedgehog that accepts being held by his owner.

Hedgehogs

to visualize the genitalia without them curling into a ball . The male's penis is mid­ abdomen, near the umbIllcus (Figure 8-2).

Figure 8-2 The externa l ge nitalia of a male (boar) hedgehog". The penis is located mid-abdo men, near the umbilicus.

The "u". of the female is close to the anus (Figure 8-3). The boar should be taken to the sow and promptly removed after breeding. Mating is brief, but it may be repeated several times over the course of 15 or 20 minutes. If mating does not occur or if they are aggressive with one another, they should not be left together but paired again on another night. Figure 8-3 The external genitalia of a female (sow) hedge hog. The vulva is located close to the anus.

Vulva

Gestation is 34 to 37 days, producing an average of three to four young. Hoglcts are born hairless and with the spines barely visible beneath a membrane which protects the sow during delivery. Their eyes and ears are closed. Within six hours after birth, the spines begin to protrude as the membrane shrinks away. ewborn hoglets are approximately the size of a nickel and grow very quickly (Figure 8-4). Dams are known to cannibalize their young if d isturbed or otherwise stressed. The sow and her young should be left undisturbed until the hoglets are around 14 days old and venturing out on their own. If necessary, orphaned hoglets can be fed with a canine milk replacer and syringe. They require feeding, as much as they will consume, every two to four hours until they are weaned. Hoglets are usually weaned by the dam between four and six weeks (Figure 8-5).

71

72

~ 'gurE!

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 8

8-4 A litter of thre e-da y

otd hoglets with spines eru pted.

Figure 8 5 A re cently w aned mate hogt t, approxi mately fíve weeks old. (Courte~ of 10Ann

Sm itll. )

lIousing Hedgehogs should be kept in a n enclosure with solid tl ooring and sides. They are adept climbers and will scale a wire cage without much effo n, but a fal! can lead to entangled limbs, fractures, or internal injury. Large plastic tubs, glass aquaria, and cat carriers have bee n used successfully. r ledgehogs are very active at n ight and need an area w ith a large floor space. Confining th em to a sm all enclosure will cause behavioral p ro bJems such as weaving, compulsive pacing, and endless laps around tl1e perimele.r of the enclosure. Provid ing a hedg h og with a solid wheel is esse ntiai fo r mental bealth, physicalactivity, and weight control. Hedgehogs are frequently so overweight that it prevents them from rolling iOlO a bal! (Figure 8-6).

Hedge hogs

Figure 8-6 Obesity is a ma¡or health con­ cern in pet hed ehogs. They can become so overwe ight that they are unable to curl into a ball. (Courtery 01 frie Klapl1 ake, DVM. )

Hedgehogs are undemandi ng and easy to care fOL Asp en shavings are suitable materia l, as are bedding products m ad of recycJ ed or plain newspa per. There should always b e a hi de box or something fo r the hedgehog to sleep under during the d ay. !vlany owners su pply a mound of shredded pap r and eloth, cardboard boxes, or larg PVC pi pe sectio ns, all of which the hedgehog will use. They are not known to hew items and food bowls an be eil her plastic or ceramic. Hedgehogs use water boules and tb ose made for small rodents are suitable. The habitat should be lo cated away from direct sunlight, air-conditio ning units, and heating vents. Hedgehogs are most comfortable in te mperatures between 70 and 85 o F but can 10lerate temp eratu res that are slighlly higher. When ten peratur s exceed toler­ ,mee leveL they wil l !oo!! 11', and en ter a stale of inactivity. In a cooler environm nt, hedgehogs become less active, b ut t11is should n ever be m islaken for h ibernation. African Pygmy Hedgehogs left to cope wi th cooler lemp eratures \ViII usua lly die, as th y do not have tbe ab ility to hibernate. A sup­ plemental so urce of beal m ay be r q uired to mainra in an appropriate temperature. Ceram ic hea l rad iati ng fixtures can be located at one end of th enelosure. Under­ lan k heate rs, like those used with reptiles, will also provid e an area of greater warmth. Heated repLi le rocks and caves should never be used. ]-]eated rocks can cause th ermal burns al d the cave, while a very inviting space for a hedgebog, can beco m e a dea th eh m ber. Tbe smal!, h eated interior, coupl ed with tbe hedgehog's own body heat can qui cJdy exceed the acceptable lem perature range. IN ENGLAND, hedgehogs are encouraged to visit homes and gardens

A balanced diet is im portant. Hedgehogs require high protein, low fat diets. Th ey are insectivores, but eal a variety ( f items in tbe wild such as frogs and toads, nestlings of ground-dwelling birds, and eggs. lhey \Vil! also feed on carrian, dead animals, eanh­ worms and snails, frult and berries. They do n tea! seeds, nuts, or plants. The most common health issue for hedgehogs is obesity. Own ers ar usually advised to feed a hi gh quality kitten chow, supplemen ted with meal worms a nd wax worms. 80 th are reli shed by hedgel10gs b ut need to be limited to three or four per n ight as they are very hi gh in fat. ow h at there is a greater understanding of ¡he nu tritional needs of the captiv hedgehog, there are many specifically formu­ laled diets availa ble that are generally p re ferable to hitten chow, which is a quality diet, b UI is formul ated for growing carnivores. The diet may also be supplemented

in order to keep the insect and snai l populations down. The most com mon foo d left out to attract t hem is a bowl of bread soaked in milk. While they will eat this, hedge hogs are lactose intolerant and should not be offered milk.

73

74

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 8

w ith common earthworms purchased from any fishingj bait supply toreo If kept moist, refrigerated, and fed with bran or other cereal crumbs, the worms will remain alive for several weeks.

Handling and Restraint Hedgehogs remain curled until the perception of danger or annoyance has passed. So effective is the protection of th e spines that it is difficult and painful to pick up a curled hedgehog. lI nless it has been frequently a nd carefu lly handled, it will not unrol!. Handlers should wear lightweight leather gloves or use a folded towel to protect their hands (Figure 8-7) Figure 8-7 Hedgeh ogs usually need t o be he ld with li ghtwe ight leat her gloves or a towel to protect the handler from sha rp spines.

Sometimes, a hedgehog can be tempted to unroll by placing a fa vo rite food item on the table in front of it, or by stroking th spines caudally. Handlers need to be very patient and quiet. The slightest noise will cause it to cUfI even tighter. lInder no circumstances should force be used in an attem pt to pry it apeno Hedge­ hogs are surprisingly strong and the use of force can cause frac tures or internal injury. Should the hedgehog unrolL it is so rne imes possible to q ui kly scruff it between the shoulders, or insert fmgers jllst behind the shoulders o n the back. This prevents the hedgehog from rolling up. For simple procedures, like a nail trim, putting the hedgehog in a sink with a slow trickle of water will often encourage it to umo l!. Never leave the hedgehog alone in the water, as sorne are so reluctant to unrol! they could potentially drown. Once unrolled, it is possibl e to quickly grasp a foot [or a nail trim. For most hedgehogs, this technique will work only once and anesthesia is required for subsequent nail trims.

i\ledical Concerns Pet hedgehogs are seen for a variety health issues, many related to diet and hus­ bandry. While sorne issues can be easily resolved with owner education, other concerns can be complicated and lead to death .

Gas' roinles inal Di.. oJ'd

I

s

Salmonella is a problem with hedgehogs. They may be asymptomatic carriers of the bacteria or show signs of the disease. Becallse of public health concerns, hedgehogs should be screened for salmonella a nd treated accordingl)'. Signs of

Hedgehogs

75

sal mo nella in a hedgehog indude wa lery, green d iarrhea, anorexia, or sudden dea tll. Enteritis may also be causecl by Candida albicans and Lhe signs may be simil ar, but C. albicans i5 a yeast infecli on, not baúeri al. Trealmen t depends on dete rmi ning the ca usative agent.

Any vel erinary exam or proc dure willusually require the use of an inha lant anesthesia. A Iight plane of anesthesia will relax th e hedgehog enough to allow a thorough e.,-xami nation. At this pi ne of anesthesia, lhe oral cavity ca n also be examirred for den­ tal disease, tooth fraa ur€s, abscesses, and ny abno rm lity thal cou ld ind icate a tumor. A heclgehog suffering from oral/dental problems often paws al its mouth and will be reluctant to eal. (Teeth are pennanenl ancl closecl rooted .) (Figure 8-8). The fe t and limbs need lO be checked carefully for threads and human hair that easily become wound around lhe li mbs and toes, cutting off circul tion. Many owners give their pets blanket, o r doth Lo sle p under and human hair is easily collected from the carpet or directly from a hanclJ er. l'his is aJso a gooel ti me to trim the nails. DlJ ring t.he exam, o t.her abnormalit ies m ay also be nO Led; po tential tumors, ar as of discol o ration, or conditions which requ ire fu rth er investigat ion. This is al so t.he o p portuni ty to ob ta in blood sa m ples and radiographs if necessary. Radiographs also p ro ide inrorm atio n on fa t density ( Fi gure 8-9 ) . There is a h igh incidence of neUpld~I.l in pet hedgehogs. AIJ body organs have been affected arrd mo re t.h an 75 percent of ¡he tumors are c1iagnosed as mdlig­ 111111. Tu mor growth may be related lo ge, as most are see n in hedgehogs three years old or ol d er. Aside fro m a prevalen ce of mamm;.uy gl and tu mors in sows, th e growLh of umors seems to be unrd.. ted to gender. Tumors m ay affect the lymphatic system and a ll parts o f tl1e d igestive tract, includi ng the oral cavity (Figure 8-10). General signs related to tu mor growth inelude weigh lloss, letJ1argy, and asole.., an accurn ul ation o f fluid in th abdo men. Any abn ormality o rh ang in beh avior warrants ea rly med ical investigatio n. Wob bly Hedgeh g sy' roml' i8 a degen rative, neurological disease and, as the name suggests, causes ataxia and weakness. l he hind limbs are affected first, becom­ ing weaker with ensui ng paralysis. Para lysis progresses to the front limbs. Tbe exact cause is not known alld there is no e H~ ctive trea tm en t. Dealh is inevitable. The qual­ ity ofli fe deteriora tes as tl)e hedgehog b comes less and less able lo ambulate, unable to reach food and water. In t.he interesl of th hedgehog, regardle '5 of the n ursi ng care an owner is prepared to pr vide, humane euthana ia shoul d be consi dered .

F gure 8-10 A large, ¡'ap idly growing, ora l mass prevented this hedgehog fro n eating . (Cour(e~ o/ fríe

Klaphake, DVM.)

FIgure 8-8 A cursory oral exam showing the pl
Figu 'e 8-9 A ra diogr
C. Orr, DVM)

.

76

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 8

(~ h j(.

IP

0(' ~dlll'~S

Hedgehogs can be ¡:m esthetized by delivering the gas agent either in an induction chamber or by placi ng a large dog face mask over the entire patient. Using a mask is usually more rapid as the area is smaUer, but it offers less roo m and they will not be unable to L1 m oll co m plelely. W hen aplane of rel axat ion is reach ed and the m outh and nose are acces ible, transfer the elbow of úle nonrebreathing unit directly over the mouth and nose. This provides qu ick and appropriately sized mask. Isoflurane and sevoflurane are both used uccessflllly with hedgehogs. To prevent hypothermia, common with hedgeho gs und er aneslhesia, they should be placed on a covered heat­ ing pad. Recove.ly ho uJd t.ake place in an incubator, prewarmed to 75 to 80 o F Su bcutaneous in j clio ns sh ould be given on the right si de below the spine layer. Inj ect ion s gi ven on the right side decrease the chance of inadvertently pen­ etrating the splee.n 01' ki dney in a tightly ro Ued hedgeh og. The right kidney is more cranial th an lh e left. Ir give.n th rough lhe spines, absorption is delayed because of a lhick fal lay r lhal h as liule blood supply. Intramuscular inj ecti ons are given in lhe qu adriceps of a h ind lego Bo th in jections can be problematic with a rolled-up patient. O ralm ed icat ions can be eq ually d ifficult. Medications Cd ll be mixed with a favorite ro od 01' ¡n j cted d irect ly into a prey item (a mealworm or a wax worm ) im medi ately prior to feeding it to the h edgehog. The I110 st co mmo n site fOI blood coll ection is the jugular vein due to lhe fact that hed gehogs h ave ve ry short I gs and provide limited access to other sites. Visua lizing the jugular is d ifficult, but anatomically it is located in th e same region as in any other small mamm al. A tuberculi n syringe with a 25 gauge needle wiU help preven t laceralion or collapse of lhe v in.

Mite in fes tation is com mon. Miles can come from bedding materia! and natural wood hide boxes. Signs include loss of spines, crusty skin around the b ase of the pines, and seborrhea. Mites can be diagnosed with a skin scraping and examina­ tion of an o il slid e L1nder the microsco pe. lt may requ ire severa! veterinalY treat­ ments wi th injeclab le ive rmectin to kili al! me m ites. A complete change ofhabitat is necessary LO p reve Ol lhe m iles from r inres ting the hedgehog and its environ­ m enL ShOll ld internal pa rasi tes be suspected, a veterinarian can p erfoID1 a fecal examination .

o What is anointing and when does it occur? Which bacteria can be a problem in hedgehogs and a potential public health concern?

O Describe hedgehog behaviors regarding sleep, social nature, and handling. Hedgehogs do not throwtheir quiLLs. What is a common cause of quillloss?

Hedgehogs

" Hedgehogs belong to which classification of animals?

O Why is it important to provide an exercise wheel for a hedgehog? What are two common behavioral disorders seen in captive hedgehogs? What food items should be included in a balanced hedgehog diet? Describe two methods of getting a hedgehog to unroll. I

Neoplasia is common in hedgehogs. Define neoplasia .

Hedgehogs

WEIGHT

VITAL STATISTICS

Male: 300 to 600 gm

• Temperature: 35 .5 to 37.2 (e (96 to 9 9 ° F)

• FemaLe: 400 to 600 gm

Heart rate: 180 to 280/ minute Respiratory rate: 25 to 50/ minute

LlFF SP N

4 to 6 years (48 to 72 months) REPRODUCTIO

DE TAL • Dental form ula 2 ( 1312,

Sexual Maturity: 8 to 10 weeks Ge5tation : 34 to 37 days Litter Size: 3 to 4 Weaning age : 4 to 6 weeks

FI 1'1 hf"r

(',Hlin'

Hea lley, li l! j . ( 2005). R view of eoplasia in lh Selllinars in \L'iall ~ Exotic Pe[ Medicine 14: 182- 192 .

apLive

fri an I ledgehog.

Ivey, [velyn & Carp nler, ¡(1m s W. (2004). lIedgehogs. In Q uesen berry, I( L. & Carpem er, , . W. Fcrrets, Robbits 0/1(1 Rodelll ' lilJiclll Medici ne llllcl Stlrgery, 1/lrl [di/ion (pp. 339-351 ). Imprilll of Elsev ie r cience Joh nson- Delanv, Ca lhy A. (2002 ). Iledgeh ogs. [n R V AJ{/r/ulI l .¡{!J Edition (pr. 108-112). Bri tish Smal! An imal Veterinary \

o .

al

EXCl(i

[>,'1.,

e 1/1, P 3/2, M 313)

77

Degus

diurnal lay breeders weeplng anthropomorphic induced oyulators atrophies red · nose

Afler col/lplefÍlli(

• • • • • •

¡hj'

clliI(1Ir!r, tire st wlel11 SllOlIrd /Ie dlJre LO

properly hou a degu . provide appropriat cl ie nl educaLion lO n w degu owner . provide a orrecL diet for a degu . provid b 'ic nur in care lO el degu. a SiSl in th aneslhe ia o[ a d gu. demonslrate appropriale restraint techniques.

Inll'o

11

lion

Degus have been kepl el pels in many European countri es and Ca nada, an d are now gain ing in popularity in lhe Uniled Slates. As with many exoLic species, lhey ere originc lIy imponed as re arch animals and [ater int rod uced lO lhe pel m ar­ kel. Research sludie · have been particu l rly ocused on diabetes, €mbryonic devel­ opmenL, and sleep diso rders. rodenLS fmm o u Lh America. 1'h ir eh vior Degus are very activ . and social nalure make lhem ¡nlere ting, med iu m-siz d pets lhat are q ui te dif[er­ nt rrom other rodents. Larger 1han many olher rodent th at are kep l aS pets, ,he degu has a body lenglh of ' ix lO eight in hes, and a ove inch. ha ired laiJ with a darker tuft on lh tipoThey havc d n e brow n fur lha t i lighler on lhe underside (Figur 9-1) . ~k i n color is variable and may be any color from slightJy pi nk to very dark brown . They llave f1ve lO so n each fool. The lhum bs o f th forefeet are non­ opposable and not much morl" lhan nubs. Degu pups are bom precoc! al and covered Wilh black fur Wh lCb Jightens Wilh m aturity. The leeLh of neo na tes are white bUl gradually lUrn , ell ow a~ they mature. The teet h r hea lthy, md lure degu can vary from yellow lO orange in color. The tlegu's laxonomic fam ily, OClOdonticlae. refers to th e fi,~ur of eight sha pe seen on Lhe molar surface (figure 9-2) . Classifka li o n of the OclOaon degu is d bated. especially among . who bel ieve that Lhey are mo re lo ely related lO guinea pigs (ca!liolllorph) and should nOl be group d wi lh olher rodent . Taxonomic lassiocalion i. determi ned by s veral faclo rs, om o f wh ich include lhe shape and structure o t lhe ku l!. jaw muscu lalurc. and lee lh. There are nin' ~Llbspecies of ti gu and lh ey alt belo ng to the sam uborder, Ily. trimglldt/¡i. which include.c; Lhe pon·upille-lille r denls. [)egus are ground dwelling.

78

Degus

79

Figure 9 I A young degu. Degus are also called the Chilean Squirrel or Brush­ tailed rat. (Courcesy of Pet Kingdom USA , LJs Vegas.)

f AC ULTADGE ESruoa IUfiRIORa-CUAUnIUI

tAllPO 4

burrowing, foragers of lhe low land areas of Ch ile. They al' also commonly l'efened la ~ lh Chileall s( /lIilTel, r lhe Bru.sl¡-wiled rato In manya r as uegus a l' consid red n agricultural pe lo On e slabli hed , a colony is capabl of causing a grea l deal of damage, especially in planled fields where th y dig ut ds and young hoots, devast ljng lhe erop. They will he\ on anything, stri pping hilrk rrom young hrub ' and mallrrees. While ground dwelling, [hey are adeP l c1imbers and can reach lhe bran hes oC more eSlablished plants. In ad ilion to consum ing the e food items whi le oul foraging, they cany bal'k, planl lwigs, anJ oth el' items back lO their hUITOws. Because of lhe agricuJlllial CO I1 Cen1 , imporlaLion in to lhe Unilcd Slales is restrioed. AII degus domeslica ll y bred 01' offered fo r sale Ol' trade (even lhose given 3\\ray) requir a llSDA perrnil [or po st'S~ion

I eha io' Degus live in groups of fi ve to ten a nimals. 1 he group coopera tively digs a com­ plex, communal burrow which serves as shelter, nursery, and food sLOrage. Fema les ' hare lh e nllrsely, cornbini ng evera l lillers and nur. ing each olher" young. Degus a re very vocal and produce a variety of soullds [ro m a high-pitclled whis tle to a low c1wclde. One of tbeír more d istinctive ocalizations, desO'ibed as l {II , may conlinue of[ and un for everil hour. The sign iflca n e of weepillg is nOl lear. 130th lhe so lilary dn irnal and lhose in olon ies weep . Ir may simply be a hr '1' l I illlcrp rélalion, that of extreme t rritorial song, but a signing an sadness, sholl ld be avo ided as the lrue signiJkance i 110t understood . The hierarcha l slruclure of degus is mainta ined Wil h much squabbling and fi ghting lO establi~h amI mainLain domina nce. Th y are Lerril rial anJ sociJ IJy ti pendan t o n th i¡, lrudure wh ich give the group unity in lending off olh r degu co lo nies. Domi nam males haul a ll manne r of debris lO the burrow¡ buil ding large mOllnds aro und lhe en Lrance. The [arger and more elaborate the moun d, lhe high r Lhe . tatus 01' lh bui luer. BOlh sexes. en t mark e tablished Lerrilory wiLh fec s and uri.ne. Oegus dig sh;¡llow ;:¡ rcas in ¡he so il ilro und lhe bUITows, creating du ly wa llows. They urinate copiously in Lhe depression befare r Iling in it, cover­ ing lhemselves and each olher Wilh a group sce nl. They also lIrin aLe on lhe heads of each o lher, reinfo rcing the scent of rhe hierarchy and grollp as a whole. Because oC lh ir social ly J ep ntlant natur{', they shollld n ver be kept ajan (Figu re 9- ). SoliLary anim ls of either sex o ften become aggress ive ancl self-mulilale. Squabb ling is comrnon wilhin the colany and shollld na t be laken as a sign of incomp< ubilily Serious injuries rarely OCCU I: bUI there i~ a conslant dynamic lO

Figure 9·2 1l1e degus's taxo­ nomic famiLy name, Octoaonuaae , refers to the figu re of 8 shape of the molars .

Figure 9-3 Degus are socially dependant on one another and shouLd be housed colleclively. ( Courte~1 of Pet Kingdom USA Las Vegas. )

80

UN IT 11' CH AP TER 9

Figure 9 Degus are very curious and boldo They WIU readily approach a stra nger or él household pet to investigate. (Courtesy 01 Pet Kingdom USA , Las Vegas .)

lablish whid1 one is boss. nghting is worse in mixed groups lhan in single s x colo­ nie . On viay lo deler sorne of this behavior in a capti e col ny i ro 'et a ide a small amount [ oilcd h dd ing and mix il in wilh the new bedd ing. Asimple axiom mighl be: l/¡e larger lhe (age, l/U) IlIrgeJ lile perceit'ed terrilOl}l, lile more peaceJili lhe colol1)'. Degu are incredibly curious amI ver)' intere t d in lh goi ngs-o n al' Llnd them . Th y willingly inleract wiú, peop le, becom ing playfLll and scamp rin g up, over. and around ubje lS in lhe enclosure almost as an enti emelll to ngage a human in chase gam > . , '1hey exhibil l1 fear f other hou ehold pel ,ru ning ro the fronl ofthe cndo. Llre 10 iove tigate a ca L d g, or ferre l (1 igure 9-4) . Degus, boú1 male and rem ate. are sexualIy matur between 12 and 1 G weeks Id. In captivi ty, breeJing .111 o(cur yea[-round . Degus are il! I J l ' {I lIl, Ir . Copu lation is brief, bul fn'l{ucnt. ,estalion is sligh lly va riable, lhe average belllg approximalel y 90 days. The rc may he as ll1any as len pu ps in a lilter, bUI Ove or !>ix are more LI ual Pups are boro precocica l and are active from b inh , allhough oeon(11 s ll1ay nOI open lhe ir yes [or Llp lo 48 ho ur after b ing bo rn (figure 9-5) .

11011. 'in o

FI ure 9 ·5 Degu pups are born precocial. This pup !s approximately 10 days old Degus have él uretheral cone, similar lo lhe hinchllla (see Figure 7·3) (ColineS) o/ Pe! Klngdom USA, Las Vegas.)

DEGU LA

Ll

H W

le o fte n swa llow­

ing sha rp pieces. Th is can cause lacerations to t he oral caviLy, intestinal block­ age, tears in the Intestinal

tract, prolapse, and, potentlally, death.

Appropriate housing is more difficuh than Wilh ol her sma ll mammals. The enelo­ sure should be large enough to (lccommodate v ral degus, provide areas for d igging. climbing, ollecting and slorage of fo )d, and ::In area fo r lhe communal nesting sitc. C.apli e colonies exhibít nonn al dominance b havior ,o t only s nl marking lerrilory, hUI also a h olher. Providing ao area su itable for th¡ ri tual i nece sary ror lhe so ial slructUr ano menta l hea llh of the grOLlp . Too orlen, many exotics kept as pets are exp ctcel lO ad rn 10 lhei r caged taluS wilhout lhoLlghl or ca re given to what the animal actually requir s. If requir ­ ment cannot be mel, serious consideralion needs lo be given to the elhica l aspccls f keeping any exolic pis. This is panicularly importJ nt nO l just with degus, bUI Wilh sugar glid r as well ( ee Chapl r 14). n looking lo ely at ready­ made age offered for a variety of species and the pO lential fO f adapt ing Úlem LO aee mmodale degus, úlere is very Ihue presemly av il ab le. ondo-type cages. lho e u igned for ferrel or h inchilla, have been sugge ted and ma)' al fi r l appear suitable. J hey proviele leelges and ladders for lirnb ing. places fo r water bottle and food di hes, and usually an area for a ne t box, JI v r, lhe height is greal r lhan lhe Ooor space and ledges are plaeed far h igher lhan a degu ould limb.. There is lhe danger of a fall 01' entrapmenl in lhe ladders, Even the largesl ofthese is far to smelll for a uegu e lony, ,lI1d 1110 t, ir nOl all, have large amo unts of plaslic whi ch should m'ver be used for degus . 'I!te gauge of lhe wire u ed in small mammal ag s would be easiJy chewed lhrough by degus. A heavier gau e, nongalvanized wire woulcl b' required l keep then colllained safely. O ' gu n d grollTld mO/ll. Th open \Vire of th~ e ag~ \\fo uld not be able to cOlllain a subslrale for digging, nor ís il able lO confine pups. Rabbit hutches have al o been used, but wilh lilue succesS. Allhough they ar longef lhan lh y are high, lh rrame i u ually made orwo d. O nsidering Lhei r abi li ty LO shr o \Voou, lhe hUlch is soon destroyed and lhe anima l!> lost. $uilable cagin mUSl be pro­ vided Wilh the species welfal'e foremosl and for lhe c
D egus

81

Ded icated keepers o[ dcgu colonies have become very invemive. Sorne have adapted ideas from zoos, Orlen ombinLng many :1spects ofsmal1 mammal ollea.ion . The habitats are not only fu nctio na 1 for me degus, bUl can creale an altractive [0((\1 poi nt (Figllre 9-(1). An intem at ional organizali n with an ex ellent web page proviJes an artide, HolO 7b B¡úlrl A L~age (Dvoak amI Svo oda, ti gus rg)

Fígure 9 6 An example of a large t1ight cage that has been adapted for housing a degu colony. The habitat 15 app roxlmately 6 1/2 feet long. Double glass panels prevent lhe degu5 from chewing on the wood and keep them saFely enclosed .

ustom-bu il t cages should be a minimum length of five feet ane! ..l n approxi­ mate height of fo ur [eet. The frameworl can be maJe o f tempered al umi num or olle ill ch square steel pipe in conjul1rtio!l wi lh acry lic 0 1 glas:, panels. O ne advan­ tage to acryli c is lhat it can be dri lleo for -crcwattach m nt 10 Lhe fr. me. When using glass, a no ntoxic aquarium sealant is required . Many cages incorporaLl': l.lfge aq uarium bllsemellls, making degu activities visib le, Wilh me constructed enclosurc mounted on Lhe to!'> (Figure 9- 7). Confi ni ng degus LO ju tan Jt.¡lIarÍum, n maller hO\\l large, i' neil her suitable no r hum
82

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 9

Figure ... An eXi.'Imple of a cage set-up lhal worl<s well for deg colonie s. The bottom 15 a large glass aquarium WitJl a custom bu iLl top made of heavy gauge wire .

•

,~

,

~

b

Wi re top shelves in wire pad

I~ /

/U

\

r

t)

~~ /' ~~

t-- Aquarium

:~' ~()¡¿¿(t

".5". . ~

Tubes

\

~ . -

f-- Sand box

~

Branches

>

F. ...·e 8 Degus en joy sorting through bedd ing mate riaL and olher Ile ms lo carry back lo the nesting den. (Counesy o{ Pet Kingdom USA, Las Vegas .)

J'here should be sev ral heavy-dUly ceramic bowls. Degus defend food bowl a a ubstÍlute fo r norma l hoarding behavior. [f lhere are not en ugh, Ilghling over thi lilúe pat h ofterriLory \vill occur. Degu use water bOll tes, but these, loo. need to be either cemrnic o r glass with m te 1 ipper luhes and muSl 1 e fa tened curely to the enclosure wa ll s \ ith meta l brackets. It an be dirflcull lO combine degus fro m d ifferen t groups. An effective meLhod of introducíng new animal is lO flrsl exchange the bed ing, ramer than lhe animal. Chang out sm 1I quamitie of bedding from each cag I m ixing it thoroughly, exd1anging it back and fonh belo r illtroducing the degus LO eaeh othcr. Soiled sand lrays als n ed lO be exchanged in thi. m, n ero lix both trays lOgelher and divide the COnLents before relurning them to separale cages. Careful ob e.rvalion of lh degu behavior in resp nse LO the strange scents (ould help lO delermine when lhe animals are put togelher for lh fir l Lime. Th is proc s may take a rew days or il may requ ire several week . age prox imity mayal h Ip familiarize lh m wim ach olher, but lhe direcl e.xchange of sccnl is a very effee­ ti e method .

Degus

Fi ure 9 9 Degus are very active diurnal rodents that e njoy using an exercise wheel. For safety, the wheel should have a wire mesh floor and be mad e en ti rely of metal .

(Courtesy of Per I
Enri hment items need lO be included . Bran hes from u nsprayed frui t a nd wi ll ow trees provide many areas of interest nel varying I veis to explore. O ther items may include natural ho llow log , wood blocks of asso rted shapes and s izes, and heavy a rd board tube . D gus will use a large rodeol heel. Choose o ne lha t has a grid-like run ning ba e or a sol id f1oor, making sur th at no n o f the parts are pl asl ic (Figure 9-9) .

Degus are grazil1g herbivores, onsuming a va riety of grasses, p lants and grains, ro ts, tubers, ( nd bark. I h ~ are coprophagi.c and, in lhe wi ld, also consu me fecal material of gra.ú ng herbivo res. Co m pared LO other species, lhe nu tritional n eds for degus are more easi ly mel. Fres h, ctcan, grass hay, . uch a ti mothy, should be available at a tl lim es .uin a pig, rabbit, r chinchilla peltets can be provided free hoi e. Rod nt m ixtllfcs thal cOl1la in n UlS and sunf10wer eed hould not b r, d as t hey are too high in fats and lhe roughage and bulk of the items may ca use intestinal blockage. rruit, eithe.r fresh or drieJ, shoul d be avo iJ d as degus have a low tolerance for sugars. Fresh root ve.getables are read ily consumed and provide variety in lhe diet, as Jo da ndelions, complete wil h mOl . Enri hment r, ods surh as will w branches anJ unsprayed fm il wood and leave can 1 o he pr vid J . For treats, unsugared cereals Jike puffed wheal, puffed ri e, a nd CO I11 flakes are excellem ch ic s. In add i­ tion, there are spe ially formu la ted d 'gu pe llets availab Je. The e usually have l b ord r d through a 5upplier special izing in zoo and lab anima l diels.

andlinA «nd

('sll'éliI11

As in teresled as they may appear in the activilie oC people, degus do not like to be held. If a degu mUSl be ha nd led, il can be se op d u p in bo th ha nds and held cupped, li k a guinea pig, with one hand end rcling lhe for quarters jusl behind lh rront I gs and lh other sup p ning lbe hind end. Degus, like gerb ils, wi ll sI ugh th ir tail in an altempl lO escape. If hel by lhe tail, a degu will spin to escap , leaving oruy [he skin once covering lhe tai!. Once degloved , Ihe t il llrnphl <; . lt wi II ne d lO b urgically r moved or me degu wil! chew it, potel1liall causing more trauma. WilJ degu ' 'elf-amputate, bu! Lhe risk of infec tion in , ca ptive colony is grealer simply bccause tl1ey are con flned to an afea where greater num­ bers o r bacteria m
83

84

UN IT /1 • CHAPTER 9

\h difal

(;olll'('rnS

Ifprovided with th carreet diet and hou ing, degus are hardy. Utde inform alion is, i1 el, readi ly avai la ble. he major eon eem is di beles, wh ich may be acq ui red ar genetic anJ is b Sl managed \Vilh d iel. Diab [ - 1' lal el Glla racts are also know n l oeeur. Therc are many referen ces LO degus being wzable w digest Sliga r, bOl lhe reason, Lhe melabolie process, has been unslated in degu papers and liltle i n~ rmalion is readily ava ilable The behavio r of degus \ ilh lheir litlle sqll
Clinical procedures, those o f rou tine blood co lleetions and injections, may be arp roaehed in Ihe s me malU1er a lhey are wilh gllin ea pigs. As th legs oCa degu are [cnger. il may also be poss ibJe to élec s Lhe ep hal i or lal ra l phen us vei ns. I.- or a jllgul ar blooe! eo ll eetion, anesthesia i reqllired . The lat fal taH vei n, under anesthes ía, may be atte mpted wirh camion but remember lhal the tai! is easily degloved. Ane [he i may be indll ced with a fa masl or in an induction ehamber. [10th iso fl urane and sevofl uran are uilable hoiees. There is littl da la n lhe use of injectable anesthelícs in degus.

Why are degus referred to as octodont?

What are some of the difficulties in providing suitable housing for

degus?

C) What is the best way to introduce a new colony member? Describe a suitable diet for degus. What should be fed and what should not be fed?

Degus

What are the two most common medical problems seen in degus?

What are sorne of the factors that determine taxonomic

classification?

What is the legal requirement for possession of degus? Why?

What does anthropomorphic mean?

A degu should never be kept as a single animal. What behaviors are

seen in solitary degus?

I

What is the purpose of the sand pit?

Degus

LlFF S

VIT L TATISTIC

• 5 to 8 years (120 to 192 months)

Temperature: 39.7 oC (1 00.9 °F) • Heart Rate : 274 beats/ minute (e. Long, 2007)

RCCUr¡ OH

• Respiratory Rate: 123 breaths/mlnute

Sexual Maturity

(e. Long, 2007)

Males: 16 weeks Females : 12 weeks

DE TAL

Mate and remate have a urethral cone, sexing

2 <1 / 1,0/01/1, 3/ 3) = 20 teeth total

similar to chinchillas Gestation: 92 days (ave rage)

Young born precocial Litter size: 1to 10 (6 average) Weaning age: 5 to 6 weeks

80th male and femate have

8 mammary glands

Klaph ake, Eric, (2007) . 200 B ards ( vian), Perso nal co rre pondence, Ja nu a/y

2007 . ,apel lo, illorio, (2006) . C1in iC!11 Approacll lo Lhe Allorec¡ic Cuinea Pig. Co nferenc a tes, The onh i\merica Veteri n ry o nference, Ja nua ry 7-l l, O rlando, FL, 2006. loyd, E. (2003 ). Anlma ldiversity. um mz.u mc b .cd u (c1ccessed 2006 ). Girl ing, _imon (2003) . Ve((>rillary Nmsillg o( l:...:oli " PeL~ . Blackwell Publi h ing. Long, C. (2007) . DegulOpia unp ub Jish el d ala, persona l corr s po nue nce, J nua ry

2007

85

86

UNIT 11 · CHAPTER 9

Hark ne s, roh n E. & Joseph ( 1989). l he Biology and Medicine o Rabbits and RodenLS, 1'11 Ldition. Lea & Febiger. Mayee Jo rg, (2006). Allalge ia and AnesLhesia in Rabbits and Rodents. Conference Notes, -rhe o rth Am rica Y, terinary Co nferenc, pp . 1740- 1742. O 'I\¡lalley, B. (2005) . Clinical Anatorny and Physiology of EXOlic Species. Sau nders. Dvoak and

lsevier

bo da, http ://www.degus.o rg (arce ed May 6,2006).

Q uesen berry, K. E., Don nelly, T M. & Hi llyer, E. V. (2004) Biology, H usba ndry and Clinica l 11 ch niques of Cui n a Pigs and Chinchillas . [n ue enberry, K. E. & Ca rpenter, 1. W. l'eITets, Rabbits and Rodents Clinical Medicine and urgery, 2 nd Edition (pp. 23 2-2 52) . Imprint o f Elsevi r Scien ce.

Hamsters and

Gerbils

dWllrf

After completing ehi' chapeer, ¡}¡e swdent should be able to • • • • • •

hou e a ham te r or gerbil p roperly. provide cI ient education for a n w hamster ar gerb il own er. provide a corree diel for the hamster or ge rbil. be able to proviJ basi nur 'i ng care LO a ha mSler or gerbil. ass isl in me anesth esi a of a hamster or ge rbil. de mo nslrate appropriate restrai nt t ch niques.

Hanl

I<~I S

zoologist monocamoul sebaceous Iltriclal exophthllmoses wet talL proliferative ileitis Campylobacter endemic OTC rhinitis purulent lymphoma eczema Harderian gland

and (J .)' ni

¡ lam ters an d gerb il oft n p rovide the f1r t E'J{P n many peop/e h ave with exo tic pelS. fhere are simil r ities in h usband ry and diet, but the differences b etween {hese two rodenLs are more complex. Th ere a r lwo peeies of h ams ter commonly availab l . Th Cald en (or Syrian ) hamster, an d the Russian h amste r, common ly call d a (11 tl The Russ ian h am ter, wh il e co ns io rably maller lhan ¡he C Ideo ham ter, ¡s n' t a m ini-vers ion of me o ther species. The are sepa rate a nd dis tincl. Th e wo rd ham­ ster is a derivalion o f a Cerm an word, hamsLern, a verb lhat mea n s lo store. 1t refers to an anatomy an o beh avior com m on to a ll h a mSle rs; lhal o f storin g nd transponing foo d in Lh.ei r ch ek poumes (Ame rican foancy Rat & Mo use ssociatio n, 200 6) . Gol d eo ha mSlers are na tive lO lhe desen regio os 01' Syri< . rn 193 0, a ¡i tter was d is covered by a ri eld oulo "1, Pro[esso r r. Ahar ni, wh coll ecled lhem a nd attempted to transport th em 10 th e H brew Uni ersity in ¡erusalem. AII b u t three d ied , leaving a ma le a nd two fema les. The litter mates were allowed to reprodu ce a nd, while n t verifiab le, tbese lh ree are attrib uled wi lh being lhe fo u noati on s I ck fo r a ll c Uve breed i ng llon ies. Becau e o f the ir ability to r p rodu ce rapid ly, col o ni e w r qui ek ly sta blished for use in medical reseaJm around lhe world. The stat us of the w ild C ol d en ha ms ler is un ko own . They m<'l)i possib l,r be eXlinCl due to erosion of habitat a n d over o ll e cl ing.

87

h

88

UNIT 11· CH APTER 10

Figure 10 I The Golden Hamsler, o r Syria n, now has many color varieties. (Co urtery of lordarl App/íed Techn%gy Center, Wesr lordarl, Utah .)

THE TERM DWARFIS SPEC IFIC Dwarfism can

occu r in any species and refers to an ab normality of development causi ng the animal (or plant) to be smaller th an the no rm For that spec les. It may be attributed to a developmen ­ tal abnormality, hormona l imbalance, or nutritio na l deficiency.

'[heywe re call ed go/den to re fl en lh eir natu ra l co at co lor, a ri h ligh t eh stnul, a go lden brown . Th re a re nO\ ma ny colo rs anó lo ng coal varieli es availa bl ., bUl lh ey are slill the a me, !v1esocricetu s aumtus ( Figu re 10-1) . Rus ia n h amst rs are rela tive ly new as p 'ts ancl are ilIegal to keep in m any sta les. Li llle is known b OUl how ::m d wh en lhey ilp peared in the pet t rad dU Ting in the 1980 . . They are s m all. app roxi m ately th ree inches lo ng, Wilh th ick fur that m akes lh em ap pea r so mewh at la rger. Th e ar ap p roxi m ately half l he ize of the Go ld en hamster. Th e nalu ra l colo r of lhe Ru sian h a ms te r is 50 ft gray w ilh a d ark do rsa l stri pe. Even thOllgh t here are now ifferent col ors, ú1ey sU11 ma intain the strip down lhe mid dle o f th back (Figure 10-2 ). Un like rh e ol den ham ster and o lher rode n t , lhe feet of th Ru sian ham ster ar furr d . BOlh sp ci s h ave ch eek pouches, in wh ich to Slore a nd transport ~ d , bedding m ateria l, an d o lher ite ms, somctim es moving an entire li ller fro m o ne place lo another.

Figure 10 2 The Russ ian hamster is natu ­ ra lly a 50ft gray color. Many varieties have been bred , but all still reta in the distinctlve dorsal stripe . ( Courte~ 01 Man's Arll, Taylo .wil/e, Utah. )

B('ha\ iOf Hamste r Me often d 10sen as a fi r 1 per beCduse o f th ir small . iLe and relatívely low ost 10 ~ et! and house. r ro blem s arise w hen owners qllickly rea lize th al th ey have a . lricuy nocturnal spe ies whieh does nO l willingly accepl being dislU rbed dllring day, lhe time w hen ch ild re.tl are e;xpected to interact Wilh and ca re fo r lh e new pet o HamS lers sleep ery d eeply a nd can: I11USt be ta ken 10 e nsure th ar the an imalis fu lly awake before attemp ting la pick it up to avoid being b inen . The deep sleep and q uiet behavio r o[ dayt ime hanges al n igh tfall, w hen lhe ha m­ st r beco mes very ad ive. The biggest com plai nt ab ou t the noctu rnal bchavior of

me

Hamsters and Gerbils

ha msters is that they lIl aiw roo mueh noise. Usually it i n't the bamster ma king lhe noise, bU[ (he exercise wheel squeaking a nd L pping up agai nSl lhe side o f lh e age. Ha mSLers 1 ave been kno",n to run as fa r as 10 kilo me ters (app rox.imalely six m iles) in a singl e n ight ( Bihull & Bauck, 2004) . l il er is no metho cl o f tra ining a nocturna l anima l to meet the exp ctati ons o f di u rnal pet. Ma ny hams ters have been aba n­ doned, returned LO lhe pel sto re, Ol", unfortu nate1 , lreated as d isp osab le and desuoyed . li amst rs , r no r r com m nded as pets r r yo ung children becausc of th eir q u ickne s lO bi te ( llcllhe ir nocturnal act ivi ties. Th tempera me nt o f ind í idu­ al h amste rs varíes great ly ami genemll¡' lhe Russ ian hamster te nd to be mo re aggres­ sive. This, along Wi lh th eir very small size, makes mem ao e e n les des ir ab le d10ice as a d1i ld's pelo I Jamsters are fastidio us in m ai ntaining and arra nging lh eir hab itats . lhe ChlJOSe specific area ' for 1 ep ing, stockp il ing food , a nd depos it ing lhe ir waSle. They d o n ot rou se d uring tJl e dd)' to dereca te. Wh en lh ey \vake up, they co ll el th e fecal m ateria l rrom lhe s leeping d n alld pl ace it in their ch eek po uc h S lO !TIove it l a specific area and place il with other d ro p p ings. There a re tiny plasti hOllses available, a variety 01 J¡a 111 Srer po tries and oza/wuses. I f p laced i n Lh e loca (j on already de ignaled by Lhe hamsler, tb ese liny lille! boxes will be used . aregive rs neeJ to be dwa re of lhe hamste r's .1lTa ng me nl ,m d no t pUl item::. back in a diff reOl place afte r dea n ing t he cage H amsters beco m e quite agita ted and will immediate ly start LO rearrange t11 ir cage Golden h amslers should be hou ed a lone. They are so Jila ry by nalu re and \ViII n l lolerate olher hamslers. Allemp tin g lO keep lWO sexuter a re very eviden t a nd are oflen m i tak n by ow ners as

sudden/)' appeming llImors Females need o be lert undistuT ed w iLh a n ew litler as [hey are kn own LO cann ibaliz the ir young. C tatio n is an av rage of 16 de ys and both species form copu lato ry p lug~ arte r m ating. rem ales a re seaso n a lly p ol)'estro us an d m ost do IlOt llave reproductive cycles du ring tb e winter months. A norm al reprodu ctive cycl e u ua lJ y lasLS for four days . During this time, fema les produ ce a ueam -wh ite d isch Mge rro m lhe vulva The t1 ischarg n rma lly h d él v ry stro ng od or. ve rage litter s ize for tJ1e Go ld en b amster is fo ur to t",elve, an d fOl\[ to eight fo r the Russia n h am Sler. Wean ing is usu ally [h ree to fOlli wee l s. The Russ ia n h a m ter reache sexual rnaturily b elween Ave and eigh l 'vveeks nel th e Co lden ha rnster sl igh tl y later a l six tu lwelve weeks. Ha mster Jo n ot Jive fo r m any year~ . The life span o f a Russ ian h a m ster, an average o f 18 to 24 mont hs, is sh Ol;te r lh a n th at o a Colden hamster. Sorne Go lde n hamste rs have bee n kn own la l ive as lo ng as 6 m on lhs OtJ1e r lhan síze, il is difficu llll app rox im te [he age of a ha mste.r when purch ased u nless acqui red fróm a private b r ede r 'v ho has r co rded the J liv ry d ate.

89

90

UNIT 11' CHAPTER 10

Cerbils are n ative to the desert regions of Mongolia and nort heastem Ch ina. In the 1930s, several pairs were caugh t on the bord r between China and Russia. Some 20 years latee a few b reed ing pairs \Vere sen t to th Un ited St tes Cerb il s sold as pets are descendants o f th se specimens. Wh ile approximalely the sa me size as a Cold en hamster \Vith an average body length of five inches, gerbils have haired tails that are as long as t heir bodies. Hamster tails are very sh ort and hairless. Cerb ils do not possess ch eek pouches. Their La tin name, Meríones unguiclatus, means little cl(/ wed waníor (lIumane Society of the United States, 2002) . The normal color of a gerbil is san dy brown with a lighter unde rbelly, which camouflages them in their native desert habitat. Several color varietie have been breJ in captivity, includíng ap ure bl ek, snow white, pied, and albino ( igure 10-3). Unlike ham sters, gerbils are social Willl each o th r J od need the o m panionship of oth ers. Sa me sex groups m ay be housed togeth er wlt o they are introduced to eaeh other at a young age. A pair, maje and femaJe, are m(lnO~amOlls and mate for ;i Fe and sha re in the eare of their offspring. Owners need to be aware of the social

Figure 10 3

The normal co lor of

ge rbils camouflages them in th e ir native desert habitat. (Caurtesy af

lardan Applied Techn alogy Center, West lardan, Utah. )

bonds that have formed and maintain paired gerbils togeth er. Cerbils a re aware of their social communiry and protective of one anoth er. If danger approaches, they thump with a hind foo t in warn ing to the others. Cerbils are not strictly nocturn al and are often out an d ery acti ve during th e day. They are playful with each other, scampering and leaping aro u n d the encJo­ sure, stoppi ng ofteo to engage in bouts o f d igging. They enjo small lOys aod many it m s can be iocluded for lh em; cat bal ls wit h a h Il inside, ca rdbo ard tubes and hideboxes witb 'everal entran ces lO run th rough, around, over, an d back again. Both sexes have ao area of alo pecia on their abdomens. It is a !arg <;t' de u gland used for scent marking. Regardl ess o f (he hair coa t col o r, (h is area usually has a slightly o ra nge pigm ent. e ither hamster& no r gerbils have swea t glands, but gerbils are abl e to tolerate slightly higher temperatu re tha n ham sters, provided that the temperature is not accompanied with an increase in hu m idit '. If tem ­ perature exceeds 80 o F, ha rnsters estivate and beco m e very di fficu lt lO rouse. Like hamsters, fe male gerbils are seasonally polyestrous. The reproducti e cycle lasts approximately four to six days. 'lhe gestation perio d for the gerbil is 26 days, considerably lon ger lha n for the h amster. As the pair ren a in s lOgether, rebreeding occurs postpartum. Du ri ng lhe breeding s ason, it w o uld b possi b!e to produce one litler per mon th, qu ickly lead ing lO overp opulation an d inb reed­ ing. Th e averag lilter size is two to six and lh you ng are weaned completely by four wecks. The young of hamst rs and gerbils are bo m altriu.1L being both bl ind and hairless. erbils are less likely to ca o nibal ize their you og tha n hamsters. The aver­ age life span for a gerbil is three to uve years .

lIollsin o The habitat for h arn ters and gerbils should have solid f100rs and sides. C lass aquarium fitted with secure screen lids make ao ideal and inexpensive arra ng ment.

Ham sters and Gerbils

Bo th sp ci es are capable of clim b ing lp a nd jumping o ut. Gerb ils are more likely to jum p th an ha mst rs, as jumping is m o re na tu ral to them . Cerb ils have very lo ng hi nd legs, and are able to jump a grea ler Jistance than m ight be thought for

SUd1

mal! anima ls. H ab ita ts fo r hamslers ca n be q u ite ela borate with ma ny p lasti e tu bes, towe rs, and eon necting tu n ne b. So rn e of t.bese ,rra ngeme nts re

m ble sma ll citi es, wi lh

di ffe rent pieces, conn el ing lubes, and towers invested in over a p riod of ti me. I lamsler own ers sL il1 need t rate a no (om p lex

él

re membe r: al/e hamsler, one /l{lbitaL Th mo re e1abo ­

unit b co rnes, the m ore ti me is req uired to dea n it prop rly.

It should be lak n a p' rt a nd c1 ea ned comp letely on a weekly basis, and then lhe wh ol e p ro jecl needs to be reassem bled . The . ub. lfat can be asp en sh avings, recycl ed papel' pro ducls, or gr un d com cob.

erbi ls may also be housed on fine sand. BOl h ham ste rs a nd gerbils use

ater botdes, b u ! due to their d ese rt h ritage, gerbils le n U le d rin k less water. I loweve r, a ll wate r bott le need 10 b

cl ea ned a nd re freshed daily. A hi d e box

shoulJ ah ays be prov id ed. 1Ia m sters w il l use a h ide box, provided it is p la ed in the d es igna ted si ep ing area. I[ a ha mste r p refers 10 slee p cu rl ed up in a n e t o f its ow n m ak ing, so m

f the beddi ng m alerial co llected by the h a msler can be

plar ed in lhe hid e box a nd retu rned 10 ¡h e spot the h mster has chosen as the sleepi ng d en. Rode n t w he Is ( a ll be provld ed [or gerbi ls, bu t they sho uld llave a grid or solid run niog su rface as gerbils lend

LO

spring forwa rd o n th em , as o p po ed

10

me

scu rryi ng ru n of a h a m ste r. Th ese wh eel s are safe r for gerb ils and h Ip to avoid g ttíng Lheir feet an d tail e n tra p ped. If ilS ta il is ca ugh t in the whee\' th e g rbj] will c mp let Iy d eglove the skin, leaving exposed lissu e. If tl e t il is injured or d egl o ed, it should be am p utated by a veteri na ri a n

10

prevent furth er lraum fro m

the gerb il ch ewi ng o n il an d to p re ven t bact rial infe lio n . Both gerb ils a nd ham ­ ste rs can be

ercised with a rod en ( ba ll, bu t th ey sh o uld no t b e left uo supe rvised

to rolJ aw u nd the house fo r extended pe riods.

Recause they are roden! w ilh co ntin llt II grow ing teeth, gerbils and h a rnsle rs n eed to b p rovided with chew bl ocks. '1h se can be purchased in vario us sh ape and co lors. eh w b l cb a lso p rovi de enrichm en l. O th r e nric h m ent ile m s ca n be vely si mpl y p rovid l:d Em pty toil et pap e l' roJl s, p laí n pa per towe ls, a nd t issue b oxes are readily shredd ed by b o th gerbils and h amsters. They may bo lh use these ma leria ls for hedding an d nest m aking

Ila m Sler an d gerbil d iets are si mil . r. Th b s ic di et shou ld b good qu alil)' rod ent bl cks. These Were o riginally develo p ed for ¡abora tory use and are we ll bala nced lo m eet nUl rit ional needs. In add iLÍon, (hey a re ha rd Jn J provi de

COI'

gnawin g and

den tal heallh . Ro J e n! m ixes e n a lso be added , provided heya r low in ' u nflO\ er seeds, wh ich are ve ry h igh in fat. O b sily ca n be a probl em for both h a mst rs a nd gerbi ls. Unsw eetened shred dcd wheat, rice an d co m cereals, t mil m ix (wilh oU l chocolate), u ns lted popcorn, and cracke r p i es ca n be offered in lim ited dm ount . T h re a re a l o m ny trea t ite ms availab le in pet stor s. H amste rs w ill ea t fr sh , ch opped fr u its a n d vegeta b le . If fresh fo ods a re g iven, lh e

sh o uld be re moved lhe fo llow ing mo roi ng. Ha m s t rs Sl r food .

91

92

UNIT 11' CH¡l,PTER 10

Stashed, [re h roo d wiU grow mo ld if no ( re moved from the SLOrage ·,rea. C heek po uclt s o f hamslers -a n a co m m ad le a grea l amount of m t rial and large pieces of food ite m s can impa ct th p ouch e. Un sheJl ed pean u ts shou lJ be given w ith cauti or1 . 1[a m s! rs have been k now n lo p lace lh ree full )' sh e lled d o ubl e pea n uls in ooe cheek pou ch, requi li ng vete rin ry assis tan .e to re m ave the m .

""adlino

t g re 10 4 Care must be ta ken when scruffi ng a hamster. The cheek pouches should be empty an d the scruff sufficie nt enough to gather in the loose skin or the pouches to prevent the hams er from turn ing and being able to bite . Prolonged scruffmg, or a scruff lhat is too tight, may cause exoph · thalmosis . ( Courte~ oflo rdan Applied Technology Center, We st lordan, Utah. )

'11

ti

Wh n first awa kened, ham slers can be easi ly sta rtl ed. They stand u p righ t o r LUrn away ma king hL ingfchillering no is wi lh lheir eyes stil l closed. [ his is no t the tim e (O reach in
Ger ils tcml lo be a little mo re h rdy lha n ha mSlers. BO lh are sus eptible to b
(;a flgur I S Gerblls can be held securely In one hand . TIley are less lIkely o a tempt to bite than are hamsters . (Courrery of lordan App/¡ed Technology Center, West lordan, Utah.)

I

oinl eslin

ni. o .• h-•.'

Ha m sters are very uscep[ib le [O a cond itio n ca lleJ '. Il causes ch ro nic weln ess ar und Ú1e lail a m I qui ckly I ad LO dehyd ra Lion a nd d ath . Wel lail i a f mil ('wfII tu cau sed by a I (b acteria ) infection in lhe Iower pan o f themall inte line, the ileul11 . T!1e co ndi lion an be bro ugh l on by stress, over­ crowd ing, sh ipp ing, a nd poo r hygie ne. Trea tmen t n eds to b pro mpt and aggT ­ sive, w ith fl u id th erapy and a nti biotics. Even wi t h lhe besl ve teri nary ca re, Lhe mo rtaJí ty rate i h igh. It is I l in many com mercia J b reecli ng e lo n ies and i asi l trans mi lted fro m ane hams ter lO another, o r by expo in g a noth r ha mster to lh a me env iro nmen t. R lailers o flen off r a pef gll ariln lee th al p rovides fo r rep laceme nt af .:\ 11 an im al shou ld il d ie w ithin a speci fi ed number o f d ays . If there sha uld b a n o u tb reak of wet ta il and the rep lacement hamster co mes fro m the sam e so u rce

Hamsters and Cerbils

and is lh n pl aced in lhe ame cage as ilS ! redeces Of, it \ il! mOSl like ly dev lo p t he same coml ili on. Over-lhe-colL nter produ cls sold to prevent ar trent wet tai l should be ap ­ proadled wi th caution. Ma ny OH prod UClS interfere with ú,e action ofveteri nary pr ' cribed drugs, J elaying or prevenl ing Vita l medicaúon from being ab o rbed.

ondiA(', 'th ('

l)iSOl'd~f' ,

Ha t ríal pneum an ia is anOlhe r cOl11l11 on di ea e in hamste rs. Signs inel ude "lin ' ti" ocu lar d ischarge, a nd a I ti· 1 di ch arge from lhe na al cav ity. Prognosis is pOO L Bacterial pneumonia can a1so be seen in ge rbils, but lhe disease i les ' common . Variou typ of tum rs are e n fr q uenlly in hamSlcr , n ore s lhan wi th gerbils. Th ey may be rna lign ant o r benign , d pending upon lhe tissue i nvolved. So rne tumor be ome invasive lhat lhey are d ifll cul l t rem ove surgically due to t he volum of blood su p ply n u rish ing the tu mor. A ca tas Lrophi c lo ' s of bloo d vo lu rne m ay occur wh n lh e tumor is removed ( Figu re 10-6) . I\m 1 n l occ ur fa irl yfreq uen tlyinboth pcie·of ha mte L .Tumor invade lhe Iymp h nodes, 'plee n, an d liver. There may be few signs befo re th e ha mster is fou n dea d.

Figure 10-6 Large, vascular tumors are fairly comm on in hamsters. (Coltrte~ Erie

01

Klaphake , DVM )

Seríous medical conce rn s are rare in lhe gerb il. Many gerbi ls are prone lo seizure-like activit . The seizure are oflen triggered by the stress o han d ling or bouts of hyperact ivity but rarely la t longer tI (I n a few econdS. Owners I ou ld be cauLi on ed lo expect lbese incidents. ('he gerb il shou lcl be lefl al ne a nd quieuy observed during recovery. Attemp L to assist in any way coul resul t in a ¡a ¡dl-oll bite. Mt Sl ge rbil re over wilhou t complic.1tions. Red-nose orcu rs in g rblls lhat are im p ro perl y housed in w ir cages. anstan l chevving on cage bars irritates th e end of th muzzle and no ' , (reall ng 1 air lo and in fl am mat ion. Changing lhe ha ital will improve l he condit io n If no t r 111 ­ edied, it may p rogress LO facial (L • 11. wilb les ions <1roLlnd lhe nose, alopecia, in O mmati o n of tJ e skin, an d mo l 1 dermatitis. la ny rod nts, incJ ud ing ham ters ami g rb ils, h. ve ft lIdl'rian gland b h ind Úle eyes. Th is lan d produces an ¡rritating substance when overstimu lated . A cam­ mo n, bu t eas ly remedi ed cause, is Ú1at the ambie nt hu midity is too high. Moving th habilat LO a urier lo alio n wil l help . [n severe cases, a veleri narian may recom ­ me nd a lOp ica I a ntibi otic.

93

94

UN IT 11 • CHAPTER 10

A b lood sa mple fro m a gerbil may be obtain d from it her lateral tail vein, with cau tion . This is easier iflhe taíl is warmed firsl by ei ther dip ping it in a warrn water balh or wrapp ing it in a wa rm ed cloth to di lale the vessels. This isn't poss ibl with ha mster beca use o f their ry short tails. Blood may a lso be d rawn from the cra­ nial vena cava . This is not wilhoU l fisk ancl th patien t needs to be fully anesthe­ tized. In jections may be given SQ or intraperi toneal. An esth sia ca n be hieved by placing a cat mas k over lhe ani mal with induc­ tio n o( eilher sevoflurane or iso flurane and maintained Wilh a co nverted syringe case connecled to the nonreb reathing anesthesia unit (Figure 10-7)

Figure 10-7 Converted syrlnge case s make e xcellent anesthesia masks for small rod ents. (Courtery

1frie Klaphake, DVM .)

Parasi¡ s are n Ol commonly d iagn o ed in hamsters and gerbils. Both h amsters and gerbils, if in con tad wi th rats and mio:, may be in feded with pinworm. If pinvvorm is suspeCled, it is usually d iagnosed by plad ng a sma ll piece of lear ta pe on the recta l area and exam ini ng lhe tape, Ill o unted on a miaoscop slidc, fo r lhe presence of ova. Both 'pedes may hay large mlm bers of intesünal protozoans, including gia rdia.

e\ ir\\

(hl(~sl ions

o Why are hamsters not a good choice of pet for chiLd ren? 8 What is wet tail? Refer to Chapter 2, Zoonotic Diseases. What is t he signifi cance of LCM? Red-nose is a condition seen in gerbils. Describe this cond ition and its causes.

----

---------------------------~--~----------------------~--~

:¡:r

Hams te rs and Gerbils

"

What is the most important thing to remember about housing

hamsters?

O

Seizures are common in ge rbils. What events could trigger seizure

activity?

f) What are the two species of hamsters?

O

Hamsters can be restrained with a scruff. What could happen if the

scruff is maintained for too long? .

O

Why should gerbils not be caught or held by the taiL?

~ Gerbils are monogamous. What significance does this have with

regard to a coLony of ge rbils?

Hamsters/Ge biLs

WEIGHT

Litter Size : 4 to 8 (Russian ); 4 to 12 (Go lden) ;

• Russian : 30 to 60 gm

3 to 8 (G e rbil)

• Golden: 40 to 70 gm

Weaning Age: 4 weeks (Russ ian); 5 to 9 weeks

• Gerbil: 50 to 13 1gm

(Golden); 3 to 4 weeks (Gerbils)

VITAL STATISTICS

LlFE SPAN Russian:

I'~

to 2 years ( 18 to 24 mo nths)

• Temperature : 37.6 oC, 99.6 °F

• Golden: 2 to 2 7 yea rs (24 to 36 month s)

Heart rate: 300 to 460/ minute (Russian); 200 to

• GerbiL: 2 to 3 ye ars (24 to 39 mo nth s)

400/ minute (G olde n) ; 260 to 600/minute (Gerbi l)

1

REPRODUCTIOI'I

Respiratory rate: 6 0 to 80/mi nute (Russian) ; 40 t o 70/ minute (Golden); 85 to 160/ minute (Gerbil)

• Sexual Maturity • Russian: 5 to 8 weeks Golden: 6 to 12 weeks

DE TAL Denta l form ula 2 (11 / 1, C O/O, PM O/ O, M 3/3)

• Gerbils: 9 to 12 weeks • Gestation : 16 days (Russian); 15 to 18 da ys (Co lde n) ; 23 to 26 da ys (C erbils)

hltp :/jocw.tufts.edujcourses/ 5/ content/ 21 920 (accessed April 7,200 6). fe rris, Nancy. 1Tamsters: }frian & Russian DW(lrf Ham . (as. meriean f ancy Rat anJ Mouse ssoc iation, 199 5- 2006. htt r:/jwww.afrma org/harnster. h tm l (accessed June 27, 2006) .

95

96

UN IT 11 • CHAPTE R 10

Goodman, Cidona ( 2002 ). HamsLer . In BSV, Manua l (~r [ xoLic PeL" 4 th Edilion. (p p. 26-32 ). HSLlS. How to Ca re for Gerbi ls. /\n imal S/¡ ellering How-w Series, Ma rch - April 2002. Ke

ble, Emma (2002) . Gerbil . In BS\ti\ Manllal of Exotic Pers, 4lh Edition. (pp. 34- 45 ).

Mayer, Joerg O (2006 ) AI1LLlgesia and /1l1e.liles;a ;/1 F?al1biL, l/lid Rodelas. Conference mes, 'J'h orth Ameri a Veterin a¡y Confe rence, O rl an J , Fe January 7-11 , 20 0 G.

len, SCOll . CDC 0/1 rIJ e OjJensil1e 10 S llllllP O!ll Rodent Villls (SIC). http://www .avma.org/ (accessed March 28, 2006 ). O' lafl ey, B. (2005) . Hamslers. In Clin icl/l AlwlOmy l/mi Pllys iology of xo[ic pe 'ies (pp . 227, 235 ) . Elsei ero Que enberry, K. E., DonneIly, T M . & Hill yer, E. V (2004). Basic Ana tomy. Physio logy and Clínica l Tech niques. In f-errels, RabI iLS and Rodenrs: Clin ical Medicine {l/I I S!IIgel}i 2 nd Edilion (pp. 285-297) . Im p rint of Elsevi r cien ce. Quesenberry, K. E., Oonnelly, T M . & 1fillyer, E. V. (200 4) Oís ase Pro lems of Smal1 Rodents. In [erreu, RlIbbits and Rodenrs: Clíllical Med icine and Surgen ), 2 nd Etlit ion (pp. 299-3 [2) . Imprint f Else ' ier S ience.

Rats and Mice

After compl ting • • • • • •

¡/¡i:;

ganome

c!w{Jter, lhe stw lenl hOllld be {/vle to

properly house a rat r mous . p rovíde app ro priate d ient educa tí an to new ral or mo use p rovi de the correct d iet for ralS a nd mice provi Je basic nursing eare to a fa l or ma l! e. assist in [he anesth sia o f a rat 0 1' 1110use. demon stra te ap proprial restrai nt tech n iq ues.

cosn

OWTl

rs.

Inll'odll c ion Rats and mice a r tv o of lh most succes fui and adapti v specie o f rodents in lhe wode!. They can be found in nearly every regio n, in n atu ra l envi ronm ent.< , and fo llowing h u m an hab itation wo rl dwide. They h ave been ,il ifi d , m el with ho rror, and exte rm inatcd by lhe m illio ns, yet lh y ~ lill sllrvive in grea t nu mbers. BOlh ra ls and mice are used exten sively in resea r h . Mi e ha e cOl1lri buted

ition pinkla fuzzies hoppen gang Whitten effect Bruce effect

plloerection red tea,., red sneezas porphyrin postmortem dyspnea heaving bronchodilato,., nebulizer otitis interna

greatly to lhe deco eli ng of lhe hum an I lbe gen líc laggíng, and countless di sease an d reproelllctive studies. Rats are llsed in cancer and tumor research, devel pme.ntal leami ng, an d Oh 11'111 st udies which measure awareness and intelligen e. Ra ts ane! roiee have not only ea used human elíseas but have an essential ro le in curing hu ma n d isease (see C harHe r 2). Rats nd miee Jre a lso bred as feed rs, food fo r severa! specie of carn ivo res kept in ca p ti vity. They are purchased LO reed Ilak a nd lizards, sco rp ions and la rantlllas, and bi rd ' of pr y. They are p rovided as fo o d in zoos an d wi ld life re ha bil itaLion centers. Th ey can be pu rchased from aoy pet store or ordered frozen an vacuum packed. feed rs a re avai lable in dilt ren l ages and s izes to mee l any need. There are pi JI ( hai rl s neonales ), I 1. l (p ups wi th a li ght coal of hair) (1 igure 11 -1), h )P. (j uvenile m iee), and smal L m edium, large, and jumbo aelults. The Lat in te.rm rotlere mea ll s fO gnaw. Tbc lo ng ch iseling incis o rs o f rodents have <1lso contrihu tcd to lheir suecess. Few thi ng:. are impe rvious lO gnawing rodents; lhey gaín a eess to h mes, fced bins, alld barns, and lhey lunnel L1 nder roacls (lnd inh ab it sewers. References to rod nts (yO Il dirry rtll, /i}le a ¡, i t in a maze ) pepper hu m an la n­ guage and atl mpls LO perfcet so lutions ror comp licated prob lems are dis missed

97

..

98

UNIT II • CHAPTER II

. Ral and mouse pups are r¡¡ ised to feed other species . Feeder rodents are sorted by size and age . Pinkles (neonates) , and a fuzzy ( IO- day-old mouse) are illus­ trated he re .

F.gu re I1 There is a great va riety of do meslic rats availa ble . Illustrated is one of the halrless arieties. Thl5 rat has only black eye brows, a patch of hair on the nose, and small tu fts behind the ears . (Co urtesy Df frie Klaphake, DVM.)

as tr)'ing to build a berter mouse trap. Rats anJ m iee have a lso been personi f¡ ed in m any hild ren' books, nu rs ry rhymes, an d fil ms as b rave and heroic, eUle a!le! lo ing, wise an d ge ml e. There is pro ba bly no ot her group o f an im a ls tha! elieits su h varyi ng and ada m an t reacti o ns fr m hu man . The p t mouse, Mus /HII cufus, and the pel rat, Ratlu5 n071JcgiCl/ are ery popular as a ltemativ sm all com pan ion s. These are domes ticated suains lha t are healthi r and have b en bred spe ifical ly fo r th e eom p nio n an il 1 1 marke t. [i ce are avail­ able in a variety of e()l o r , referred to eoll en iv Iy as [ancj'. So n e of th ese are pied, Him a layan, sali n, lo ng-h ¡red, b rin dles, and seal poims. There is a wide variety of col o rs in rats: sol ids of m a ny colors, hood ed (bl. eh and h ite), siam se, blues, si lver, rex, a nd agouti . There is Iso a ha ir! ss rat ( igu re 11-2) and Lhe newer u m bo ra L, wi th larger than normal ea rs. Peopl e may ¡oi n the merica n Fa n , Rat &< Mouse t\ sso eiat ion (A FR lA), an internat ional organizatio n th t eneourage rat s an d miee as pels. l'he AF Rt'vt organizes shows a nd exh ibi tions, co m pl ete w ith a rule bo o k and stan dards for d iffe r nr varieties. lt is a no n p ro I t orga n izat ion wüh a D eus o n edu ation aoe! responsi ble wne sh ip . More ex ti spedes h e been impo l1ed, b u! aside rrom an ini ti .1 limited inlerest, they have not become esta blish d in the pet u de. Thi s is due in grea t part t legislatí o n govern ing and co n tro lling the importation an d possessio n of exotie rod nls, the.ir zoono tic p otemiaL kno \ n and unknO\\f1l, an d the d evastat­ ing effects of introducing no n- nalive speei e that ould q uickly become tab­ lish ed as viabl e popu la tio ns. ian t Ca m bian rats, Afri a n Zebra m ice (also trad ed as th' Slriped Grass m o use), and frican Spi ny miee have all e n ímpo rled, m any of th m s m uggled in by p rivate co l! ctors. One species th al seem lO m ain­ tain in terest i ¡he Afriean Sp ín mouse (Figure 11 -3 ).

F. ur 11 One of the more unusual species is the African Spiny mouse . A dam is shown here wilh her IO -day-old pup .

Afriean Spi ny m ice, also called Egyp tian Spi ny mice, ar o cca iona lly avail­ abl in pet . t res. Legal own e r~h ip an d lrade vari es from sta te to state. It is from dedieated ke pers and private owners tha r m uch o f lhe in fo rm a tio n o n Sp in , m ice is avai lable. Sp iny m i e are originally from lh dese rts a nd savan nahs o f Afri ca, India, and areas of th e Middle ~as t. They [ive in ro ck crevices and a ban do ned burrows of Olher species. As the nam e sugges ts, they have a un ique co at with eo arse, b rist ly, spin e-li ke ha irs. Th ey ar larger tha n the d o m stic m ouse, (lfe gol den b rown in co lor, and have a crea my-white u nd erbelly. fhey h ave a lo ng, na rrow Cace with large ea rs and very d ark eyes. Owners have fou nd th em to be more social than dome lie m íe , ca lmer lO handl , and less incli ned to b ile.

Rats and Mice

Sp iny m ice a re monogamolls
Generally, rats ilre con idereJ to be better pets th an mi ce. T hey are easily social­ ized as pups anc! rarely bite. Ma le rats are more doc ile than fem ales. Ne Ulered male ralS p rod uce liule oela r Ra lS a re curio us and intel ligen l and are cap abl e of leami l g p uule-so lving skills which lhey a r able to retil in an d apply to n ew situ­ a tian s_ They h ave been laugh t to play ba 'ketbal l, ret rieve items, a nd indu lge in socia l play with lh eir owners. Mice are more aClive an d will rarely si t qu iet ly for long eno ug h lO allow l11uc h h,mul ing lr in teraClial1 . They a re also mu ch q ui ke r to b ite and have a ge n era l/ y m ore nervous d isp o silion . rh o dor o( mice is m u ch st ro n ger than fa lSo They are less socia l Wilh each ot h e r, often attac kin g or gangilly, -up un d cage 111 Me, innicling severe inj u ry o r death . A gro u p of m ice is colle c­ tively re(erred to as a h,1l1 • of mi ce. Rats rare ly ex hi b il agg ressive behavio rs lo one anot h er. Both rats all d mire comb ine li tlers, care

roc and nurse each oth er's young.

Male rats are vely to leran t of p ups a nd wil l o ften ha ld Lhem down an d groo m lh em . •'vla le ral lend lO lile yo ung when the rema Le Leaves Lhe nest to fe ed . 80th ma l s i1n d fem;;¡les pick up pups lha t h ave strayed al d p lace tb m back in the nest wi th the al hers. Male mice wil! tol erale pups tú a lesser d gré'e and freq uently can nibali.ze pups [ound away fro m Lhe res t o[ Lhe liller. Sexing ra lS a ne! m ice is im ilar. In pups. sex ca n b e delerm ined by lhe ano­ gen ital dista nce, th lengt h between lh" anu s and lh geni tal ia. In a fem;;¡le, th e di tance i much sho rter lha n in a m ale. In m alu re ma les, th er is little room for doubt. Tesl icl es are large and pen du lo u in lightly hai red scrata l sacks. e tieles deseend in juveni les prior

tú

reaehing sexu I maturity.

R ts and m icc r aeh , ex u I mat u rity between s ix an d eigh t 'vl/ee ks o f age. O n ce m a U f e, ~ ma les wil l cycle every [o ur to fíve d ays . Ra ts ca n be caged as a pair o r set in small harems, w ilh one m a le a mi t \Vo to three f m al es. In large co lo ni e 01' mice, ame [emales may not cy e. u n less a new m ale is introd ueed . When a d iffl ren t ma l e is p Ja J in wi th a grou p of [em ales, the fe m ales al l begi n t O cycl e al the same time. T h is is ca ll d the \ lill 'o ff {l . W hi l fi rst recognized in m iee. ynchron ization of re pro duc tive cycl es occu rs with many other species.

99

100

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 11

Another pecu li alit}~ callcd the I nIO' ('1 I ,occu rs in fema le m iCl.' lhat have be n bred wi lhin 24 l 48 hours prio r to beíng introducecl te .l d ifferen l male. rhe first litter is fr q uentJy abo rteJ, or rea bsorbed, and the female wi ll rebreed \NiLh lhe new ma le. Average gestalioo time fo r mi ce is 16 lO 18 days wi!.h litters averagi ng 8 l a 12 . Gestatíon time ror ra~ is on ly "Iigh lly longec Wi lh an av rage 0[20 LO 22 days. Ra l li lte rs al Orlen larger and can produce as many ti 1R pups. Sh o u ld a rat d isappear from I1S age, it is usu a lly not a problem lo capture iL r he ra l has prohab ly cu rled up in a wa rm, soft pot tO leep Ma oy rat ·, on h earing their wn crs, wi ll run up lO lhem, e; pecl in g to be p ickeJ u p and given a lrea e 'v hcn mice escape, they ar very d iffi cult lO Joca le and reca¡::iture. Esca ped mi ce m ay be hea rd so mew here in 1he hO Llse, bUl nol S en . Th e use o f a live trap is usu­ ally req u ired. It is ba ited with fa m ilia r food an d sel al nigh t in a localion the m ouse is m ost likel to b or where ít was las1 heard . Pet rats (. n be kepl indivi Jual1 y, in pairs, or in group or one ma je 3nd s v ral rem a les. eutered ma le rals ca n be kep l toge lh er. Jnu'od ucin g a young m ale ra! ro an establi sh ed ma le can r su l! in I1 gh ling an d in jury. Mice an be grou ped s im i­ ldrly, bu t lhe introd uCli o n o f a new mo use of eilher s x into an eSlab li hed o lon r wiU most like!>' resu lt in death a nd annibaliz:lti o n by the o lhels . There is a lways o n dominant mal e in él g ng of m ice. Olher m ale mi ce are bi LL n and intim id ateJ by ti e J min. nt m ale an d Ihis may enco u rag lhe sa me bullying be ha io r ro m lh e fema les. O nl y the <.lominant m al e b reeds with females. Yo unger mtlle have been o bserved lO form bachetor o lun. ies, n o t even attemp li ng lO male o r 'howing interest in the Fem ales .

IOUSIIIA Cag s for m ice an d ralS shoulJ h ave good vt:nt ilali on a nd olid 1100 rs Wilh ou t adeyu te ve ntil al io n, lO 'ic mm o nia fume ' from mi ne w ill q u ickl y bu il d up an d caus · res pira!ory pro b lems. Wire cages for m i e n eed lO be h osen careful ly by loo king a l the w idth o f ba r spacing. lan y s mall m am mal ages would easi ty allow m ice LO escape lh rough th e b ars. Lo n.g aqu riu ms Wilh (iLled ser en lids are arpropriate ro r bnth speci s. Bed di ng su bstrates of recycled paper, grou nd com cob, and aspen are al I su itable. Ceua r ho uld llot be used because th e aromatic fumes are lox ic cl l1d willle, d LO re pi raLO I prob le ms and, if ex po sure is proJonged, dealll . Cage fu rn iture shollld in lude a hide bo x, which is o rr en h ared (Figu re 11 -4), wh eels for exerci se, eCl ions o( rvc pi pes, and mpty toile l paper ro ll s for hi d­ y sm aJI di sh t h.H CJn easily be el aned .a n be lIsed in g in and chew ing on . fo r a food dis h. ipp r tu be b Ol tl e are us u by bOl h rats a nd mice. Wat r bo ttl es sho u ld be checked ,l nd re filleJ lwice d ai ly, Bottles are frequen tly gn aw d by rod en ts an d damaged eoough to cause lhe wat r lO leal<. If rode n ts ruo out f wale r, lh y have been know n LO ca n n iba lize one a n olh r in o rd r to 1I Gangs of mice can be ver¡ social wlthln an established groufl and wi lL often ~h a re hide boxes . (C:Jtlrtesy 01 fordan Applied

Technology Camer, West fordan , Utah.)

ob lai n m oi ~ LUr e . Assoned wood blocks sh ou ld be given for gnawin b .

lany 50 ld in pel stores

ar fl a ored and dyed wit h n o n tox ic food co Jo ring. Ra ts have been rus hed to Lile dinic wi lh brigllt pi n k an d red bl ol hes Jrollnd !.he moulh , bl uc bottoms, and green ea rs. A d ose l' 1001< al lhe cage wo uld probab ly p rodu ce a chew hlock lindel' a dripping sipper tube.

Rats and M ice

Rall> and mice have survived for so long anJ in , uch

n u mbe r~

beca use Lhey \ViII

eal anything. I fowever. w it h com panio l raLS Lhe goa l is no! jusI survival bu! healLh and longevity. e mmercial rodent b loek , whi h a re nUl ritional ly 0111 ­ ple Le and fed exclusively to lab rod 'nts, sho uld also form Lhe basi5 of co mpanion roden t dieto!>. They a re harcl a nd require gnawi n g wh ich h elps kcep lhe ineisors worn down . r lLOre he lves are fuI! of various rodenl rnL"es and sp edal treats, tixes sh o uld be evalu3teJ for content al1(l lhose \Vilh excess iv ~ am oun ts o f sun­ fl wer seeds shou ld be avoided, Ra1.s panicularly e njoy bananas, slices of app le, smal l p ien:.s o f cracke r, a nd breakbs t ce reals. AlI of the5e add vari ety lO Lhe d iet w ilhout conlributing greatly lO obesity. Oflen, a campan ion ral or m use h as lhe same slIpper as the o ner. F eding 5mall amounls of scraps is nOL lik Iy LO harm lh e anima l bUl amounts shoul J limited and never ubsLiluted for a ma intl'nan e dieL Al lhe lOp of the lis t af fal favoril s is th .11l- merican favor iLe, lhe hO l dogoA hOl dog wiJllempt any ra t and it is a gooel [oad item in wh ich to ¡n jeet medicalio n lhal lhe ral might o lhenvisl' refuse Pi eces o hOl dogs shoul<1 no l be o fferl'd (1n a regu lar bas is. Very small piece (a ,uaping), given occasiona lly, wi ll e nd itio n lhe rat lO accepl medicaled pieccs with OU l fuss, BOlh ral and miel' have a very <¡lrong allraCl ion to ch ecse. If cheese is given , it sh olll d only be a li lly p i ce, about Lhe size o f a ,i ngle cOllage eh ese curdo Cheese has been known Lo cause con. ti pa­ lion in pel fa lSo

h1l (lIinA

'In(

.'. Ifuinl

Miel', when resLrained , \ il! att 'mpt lO bile. A mouse can be pic ked up by lhe base of [he ta il and WiLh lhe tai l holel maima in eJ, placed 011 a rough su rface. The mousl' \ViII atLempl lO run away, beco me stretched o u t, and allow lhe restrainer lO calle t il up in Ú1e other hand wilh a cruff. Once seeurely scruffed, the lail hould be he ltl WiÚ1 lhe [iltle fInge r w rappecl arou nJ il. Thi l aves olle hancl free for exa m ination O[ treallnent (Figllr 11-5 ) .

Flpure 1I .. A mouse is easily restrained for an examination with a scruff, (Collne~

lordarl Applied Technology Cenrer, Wesr lordan. Ucah .)

o/

101

102

UNIT 11' CHAPTER 1I

If a mo use is hel by t he ta il fu r more than a brid transfer to an ther age, it wil! qukkl y craw l u p irs Lail nd biteo Weari ng leather glo\les i5 not an aeeeptable ap pro ach to mouse res traint o liee are easil y injured or lost as it is imp ossible to Secu re them wh ile wea ri ng !he b ulk of a leather al oveo Rats can just b p ick el u p w ith o ne h and oThey should be grasped wi th on e han d aIOund the sho ulders and th e ot her han d pl aeed u nderneath fo r support. e e r carry a la l by its tail It is nOl n ecessa,ry an d is one o f lhe fevI instances lhat In ight provoke ,1 bite. 11..1ls, like mi e, will mn up (he ta il 3nd bile Lhe re trainer, or from th e ra t's pers p Cl ive, the o bj eCl o r p reda tor tha l has a hold of ilS lail. If the p roeedu re is like ly ro ca use pain , injecti ons for example, p lace o ne han d around lhe houlders as norm a l, b Ul place the thumb u nder lh e man di ble, preventin g th e head fro m turning Th e o lher han d should be placed around the rat's rear limbs, st retch ing them out sligh tly.

fl'di(,.tI CnIU'(llnS Ge neral signs of ill ness in rats and m ie inelud e weight IOS5, lethargy, an e! a po o r ha ir coat They sil h un ehed, separated fmm Lhei r cage mates, and may exhibir rillll'r Ii n; the ha irs are ere Led, tand ing llp right. Piloerection is o fle n a sigo o pain in m any speeies. '0 1erc may be an aceo m pa nyi ng red nas al and ocu lar d ischa rge, ~J! ',tr', and r '<.\ <,11 'l'/. ., Th is i not blo o d bU l r 'rph, rin from the Harderi an glan d wh idl is locaLed behind lh e eye. Po rphyrin m ay 31so be evident in overly stressed rats < nd miec. Ra l~ and miee lh ar are ill sLill altem pt to groo m an d th 'ecre t d porp hyrin can be transferred [c) o lh er areas o( lhe body, ma king it appear as ir they are sm ea r d wi lh blood . l1aLS in exc 11 nt h allh sneez fre­ quel1lly and ¡his alo ne sh ou ld n OLbe interpreled as d isease.

Tyzzer's disease is seen in m any roden ts. It is a bacterial infed ion tha t att acks the GI traet and causes diarrhea, dehyd ratio n, ami d eath , Mo st rodents are posi tively diagno sed n., IT urll' 1. Rode nts rarely su rvive Tyzzer's d isease, even wi th the bes t su ppo nive eare, as lhey are us ually presented in lhe late stages of Lhe diseas o'

RespiratOl , disease is frequen tIy seen in pet rats and m iel". In ra ts it is u ually a myeoplc sm a bacte ria, wh ile in mire il m ay just as likely be cau ed by a virus, Signs ind ud e d Spnl'd (d ifficulty brcathing), loud and raspy respi rato ry sou nds, weigh e 10ss, let hargy, hunched posture, and most indicative of al!, } e °u >, or abdom inal m usele m oveme nts wiLb each breaLh , Treatm n ts may inel ude am ib io li cs, hronC !lmhla or , an d su bcutaneous fl uids wi th n utritiona l sup po rt. A n 'buhz 1 or vaporizer may also be used wi Lh ill an oxygen infus ·' d isolation unit. Incisor maJocdusio n is fairly co mmon in rats b ut it is usually trau ma indueed , ra ther lhan geneLic. Lack o f suit bl e gnawi ng malerial and chewing al the cag bars conllib u Le tú lhi!, C0ndition. eh 'wi ng cage ba rs can loosen the roOls f th e co n ti nu­ all y growing in cisors and callse them 10 stray from th ei r norm al po sition, A dental burr or wire cutters are the best too! t use in lri mmi ng abnorm al rodent Leeth,

Rats and Mice

103

Th e teeth are open-rooted an d trimmi ng th em wil l not ca use pa in. The use of stan­ dard nail elippers is like l T LO shatler Lhe teeth, causing even more dam age. Rats nd m ice are bOlll prone to olill imcmol, a bacterial infectiu :\ of the in ner ea r. /v1ost presenl wi th a head tilt and report d b havior of constant cireling. The clirection of the cirde is usually an ind icator ol' wh.i ch ear is affected . This co ncliti o n is treatable with antibio tic lh rapy. Abscesses o ccu r fr rn fighting or trau ma caused by an injury from sorne cage fu rnislLing. Most abscesses are surgically o peneu and f1 \lshed with a dilull:' oeta­ d ine so lution , which is iodine based. l he solu ti o n shoul cl he the color al' weak tea. Surgical scrub hould never be used te f1ush a wou nd of any type. The soapi­ ness of scru b on!y compounds lhe p rob lem. Abscess discharge in a rodent is thick and creamy in appeara nce (Figure 11-6) . Ir b recom me nded that al! involved in the lancing of lh e absces should ,year latex glov s for úl eir protection against bact rial infect ion ane! to avoid introd uci ng ol her pathogens into lhe abscess cav­ ity. Absc.esses are all owed to heal as o pe n wa u nds. 19ur 11-6 Abs cess ma terial (pus) in rodents is thick an d cre am-co lo re d. It is often desc ribed as caseous, or che ese- like. (Courtesy

01 fordan Applied

Te ehnology Center.)

Tumors are by fa r the most prevalent problem foune! in both rats an d m ice. Tumors grow qllic.kly an e! u, ually hay rieh blood su pply. /v1any timeS the q ue tia n is raised, Is the llt lTlOr removed [rom the rat, 01' the rat removed ji-orn ¡he tumor! Tllmors can beeollle so large that they restrict m overn el1t (Figure 11 -7). The only treatrn nt is surgieal remo al. Thcrc is also a p red ictab ility of a11 0 1h r tumor occurring.

Figure 11-7 Tumors are by far th e most p revalent pro ble m found in both rats and mice. The y can become so enla rged as to re strict movement. This is a n example of a large , vascula r t umor in a female rat. (Courtesy

01 frie Klaph ake, DVM.)

-

104

UNIT 11' CHAPTER 11

rumor~

are best removed when they are sm al! Many perioperiltive deaths n be allributeu lo th e. ura m atic loss of blood il nd bl oou pressure rel ted to lh e volume o f ci rculating b lood wil..hin lhe tumor. Milmmary gJand lumor can potentiaIly be ilvoided by spaying a female \ hen sh e reaches sexual m aturity (figure ll -S ), Barbering is a omOlon p robl m in m i -e colonies. Mice norma ll)' groom e ch om er, bUI the beh avior is arried lO excess by dominant or bor m ice, There will be patches ofalopeciil an d the damage m ayexlend lO ~kin a brasi os (f igure 11 -9) . The trawnati¿ed siles ho u ld a lso b xa m ined fo r lh pre e n ce oC mile . rni tiall l , in severe ases o barbering the co ndi tio ns may app ar simil a r.

rlgur 11 A mammary gland tumor en a female mouse. Many lumor, of mammary gland erigm can be prevenled by paying the female when she reaches sexual ma urity.

Igur" I 9 Mice will often gang-up en a cage mate, This is an example of a severely barbered female that has been bullie by cage mates, Barbering can alse occur from beredom or overzea lous groo ml ng. (Cotlrtesy oflordan Applied Technology Center, \,I'/es[ lordan , Utah ,)

(Cow1:ery 01 lordan Appl¡ed Tedmology Center, West lordan, Utah.)

(.lini al "ro(

lIdul'~s

When co llecting blood from <1 mOllse o r ral, nOl mo r lhan 10% of tOlal b lood vo [um e , hould be take.tl. 13(0 ( voJu me in a heal lhy ral or mouse may be c31cu lated from an average base voJume of 70 mlJ kg of body weight. Nei th e ral nor lll ice reach a body w ighl of one kilogram (2.2 pounds ), Conve.t·sion mLlSl be carefu l and a c lrately performed Wilh the use f a alibrated gram s ale 10 o b taio the exaCl we ight jus l prior 1 drawing b lo o d, The best cho ice for b lood co ll ectio n in a ra t o r mouse is a 1 lera l tai l vei n ( r:igure 11-10),

Ig ( O The approach for blood collecüen In a rat, accessing a lateral tail vein . (Counesy 01 lordan Appljed Technology Center, West lor'dan , Utah ,)

Rats and Mice

105

The ral can be rnanua ll y restrain ed 01' placed head fi r tinto nn mp ty 60 ce s ringe c.ase wilh on ly ¡he tail protruding If opting for yringe case restraint, lhe end of lhe case needs to be perforated fru m lhe in,' ide or have lh e nd (ip cul away lO al lol\' air fl ow and avoid suffocaLion . Mice Cdn be restra ined in rhe same man ne r by using a 3 ce syringe case. l" loSl 3 ce syringe case are open-en ded . A lubere ul in syringe with • 25 gauge need le of~ r ' lhe bes! chance o[ avoiuing ve.in J ceration ar callapse. Il is o f ade,-!u ale size for 5111all volume that will be col l eted . r'referred mUles of injecl ion are SQ, belween me sca pu la, an d IP, in tra e rila­

me

nea\. If using me inLrapeli lanea l ct pproach, in jeCli ns sh o u ld be give n in lhe lower ri ght qu adrant lO help avai d internal urgdl1s. MOSl rod cnts are m asked dow n w ith ( n in h a lanl c1l1esth es ia . A large ca n ine m ask i p laced Jirectly over lh I aUem so it siL<; f1u sh wilh lhe lab le O n ce a SUil­ ab le plane of an lhesia is ach ie ed, o ne wit hout lile req ll ireme n¡ oC fllrrher resua int, lhe palient rnay be u-ansferrecl lO a sma ll er mas k, plaeed di rectly over lh no e. Rodent- ized mask ' can be im prov ised from syringe cases or smalI dispe ns­ ing bOl tl es lhal have been cu t in half. The lOr end ean be conn eeted lo lh e non­ re brealh ing systcm wjth an elbow and laped securely in place 10 avo id I aks, The mask is (ormed by taping d latex gl ve o er lh la rg€' end and Cll lting a small slil in lhe glove, big enough o lll)' lo accommodale rhe rod m's head, yel 1I 0l putti ng pressure on lhe traehea (rigure 11 -11) . These relldY-/I1(u[e m. intena nce Ola ks s hou ld be disrüsed o f afte r eaeh u e. Eye lubrica nl o r artinci a l t afS , hould be placed in lhe palient's eyes lo prevent oxygen and anesthetic gas [10m dryi ng OU l rhe eyes. Pul se oximeters can be ;¡pplied to a fOUl 01' la the tail LO monito r heart rate and oxygen saturalio n .

r g'u r

11 11 Converted syringe

cases make excellent masks for inhalation anesthesia. The one used here is from a 35 ce syringe. The dl,tal end hils been removed and eonneeted ( tJped) direeLly to the nonrebreathing unlt. These

,-eady-made malntenanee

masks should be disposed of after use . The patlent is a halrless ra t , about t o undergo ca~tration

surgery. (Courrery ollordan Applied Technology Center, WeSI

lordan, Utah .)

Hypotherm ia is el coneern Wi lh SOl 1I rodenls un d r anesthes ia . They should be su poned Wilh additio n I h eat in lh fm m r a eir ul alÍllg waler pad, prc­ hea lecl :md ready. Smal l mam1113 1s can a lso be kep l warrn during surgica l proce­ dures by supporting lh m Wilb lale>: gloves nlled wi t h healed water. Gloves u. d il lh is manner mu Sl be monito red carefu lly ror appro p riate lemperalure. As they

106

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 11

lose their heat they should be replaced a o ften as n cessary lo m aimain warm tJ1 for the patient lhe waler-fill d glove sho uld also be checked for sm a ll leaks. Patients should be recovered in a prewarrn ed incubawr ( Figu re 11-12). Figure 11-12 On e e xa mple o f a small ani­ mal incubator. Incubators should have a 50ft towe l on the floor and be prewormed p ri o r

(Co u,.¡esy of lordan Applied Technology C ent er, West lordan, Utah ) to re cei ving a recovering patient.

Parasil

~S

Common parasit S in rode n t colonies inelu de pinlVo rms and mite in fcs talion. Pin'Norms are sma l! roundworms of th ' Gl lract The o a ( re expelled w ith the feces . An easy di agnostic rn lho d for pinwoml is to apply a lransparen t L¡-ip of tape to the rect al area. The tape vvi U co llect ova lha t ca n be visualized with a microsco pe. r he tape is ap plied directly 10 lh e micro cope slide and scanned using immersion oil at lOOX. Mi les ca n b di agnosed wi h li n ical signs and a 'kin scrapi ng. Anthel mint ics ineludi ng o ral ivermectin are co rn m only prescribed.

o Whe n co mparing mice and rats, why are rats cons idered better com panion animals than mice? f) Why should ced ar not be used as bedding?

() Rodents that are stressed o r ill often have red tears. What is the ca use?

O O

What are the different types of feeders?

o

How do restraint techniques differ between rats and mice?

How is sex determined in rats and mice?

f) What restrictions apply to owning African Spiny mice?

O

It is very co mmon for rats and mice to produce large tumors . What is a comm on cause of death during tumor-remova l surgery?

O

If rats and mice are deprived of wate r, how do they obta in mo isture?

«@ What is the Whitten Effect?

Rats and Mice

Rats/Mice

ous-

RATS Weight: 250 to 450

Weight: 20 to 40 g

g (males heavier)

L t SPA ~

LlFF SPAN 1 to 3 years (12 to 36 months)

2.5 to 3 years- ave rage (30 to 36 month s)

REPRODUCTlor

PEP ODLCT O

Sexual maturity: 8 to 12 wee ks (2 to 3 months)

Sexual maturity: 8 to 12 weeks (2 to 3 months)

Gestation: 18 Lo 19 days (ave ra ge )

Gestation: 21 to 23 days Litte r size: 8 to 18

• Litter size: 8 t o 12

Wean ing age: 4 to 5 weeks

Weaning: 4 wee ks

VITAL S ATlST

es

liT I

r

I'..- ...S

Temperature: 3 .5 to 40 O c (100.4 to 104 ° F)

Temperature: 37.7 Oc (99.8 ° F)

Heart Rate: 320 0760 bpm

Heart rate: 250 to 450 bpm

Respiratory rate: 60 to 220 breaths/min

Respiration rate: 70 to 115 breaths/ minute

D ITA ...

DENTAL Dental formula: 2(1 / 1 1, O/ O e, O/ O P, 3/3 M) =

Dental Formula: 2(1 / 11, O/O

16 o pen rooted

16 open rooted

bltP:¡¡WWw. ocw.tu fl. ed u (a .cessed Ap ril 7, 2006). rerri , Nancy. J fil/JI lers: S)'riall & Russ ian DW(//ll famsters . American fa ncy Ra t and tUl!

e Associatio n, 1995-2006 h u p ://wwwa frnla .o rg (accessed June 12, 2006) .

Joerg D. (2006) . Analgesia (I /u[ Ane$thes ia in Rabbu.s (lnd Roden/s. Co nference Ol 'S, The

orlh Am erica Vet rinary

onference, Orlando, FL, Ja nuary 7 - 11,

006 . Quesen ben y, K. L , Don n Ily, T. M . & lli l/yer, E. V. (2004 ). Bas ic An 3to rny,

rh io logy and C lin ic( I 1: chn iques. In Fe rrets, Rllubils and Rodel1ls: Clínical Medicine Illl d Surger)', 2 nd Edit ioll (pp . 285- 297). Imp rint o f Else i r Science. Quesenberry, K. E , Donnelly, T. M. & J li llyer, E. V. (2004 ). Disease Pro b lems of Smal/ Ro de n l . In FerreL'i, Ra bbirs l/mi Rodents:

linien[

Edilion. (pp . 299-312) . Im pri n t of Elsevier S ien ce.

Jedieinc and Surgery, 2 nd

e, O/O

P, 3/ 3 M)

=

107

Short-Tai ed

üpossums

eutherien marsup.U. prehensile hygrometer enrichment

neoplasia polyuria polydipsia hematuria pyuria melanomil sarcoma

arthrosclerosis

t\fler completi rlg t/¡is Chaple); lile SllIdClll:;hollld be able w • pro perly h use a sh rt-ta il ed opossum . • p rovide appro p ria te dient educati n LO new h art- tail d opos UI11 owne rs . • • • •

provide lhe correa di et fe r a sho rt- lc ileo opo u m . prov id basic n u rsing care lO <1 short-tailed opossum . ass i 1 in lh e a nesthesi - of a short-lailed opossum . dem onstrale appropriate restraint tech niL/u s.

Inl roductioll Ma rsup ials are djsti ncl from the Ilh! i J mamm als. LUlherian m a mmals h ve a p llop ing young. Some marsupials, o ns idered more prim itl e, do flOt ll ave a [)ouch , bUl the skin arou nd each nipple forms a uo n ut-sh aped cLl sh io n which i<eeps the neonale wa m an o secure in lh ir atlach men t. Al! m arsupials < re bum in a n immilture stat , on ly pan iall develo ped at birth . The newl oelivered young are able lO crawl or riggle up Lhe n oÚler's ab domen and loca te a leal. The leal swel ls, comp letely fil ling Úle m OLlth, and Arm ly altach ing Lhe neonate. Marsu pi b are so nilmeu b cau Úley h ave dislin ctive, m o dified

!""I

bon lh al are abse llt in other mammals. The marsupial bones, os ,Ir " form pa rt o f lh e pelvic allach menLS [or abdomina l muscles. Th e re are approximalely 260 sp cies of marsupials. Many o f lhem are na tive lO Aus tra lia, )Ul many of [he smallcr species ar found in Sou Lh me ri ca . Th e onl y rep resentative in orth America is lh Virgini a op ssum . There a re n o species native la Europe.

Sho rt-Taile d Oposs ums

109

Shol'l-1 áJlh'( 01'OSSIIIIIS The short-la il ed opossum, com monly called the Brazili an sh rt -tailed op OSSll m, or simp ly referred lo as an TO, is re lated to severa l sm all opossum wi!h a pprox­ imately 17 slIbspecies. AII are foun d in Sou lh America . They a re native t ra irly h um id, ~ resled areas of Brazil il nd Bol ivia. T hey ar groun d dwelle rs, fo rag ing on the fo res! fl oo r fo r ínsens and small rodents. They are we lco med in lo co u nlrys ide ha mes and ir is consi dered good luck la have residenl po' sUIII"lh y are very cu ri ­ ou s and unl ike ly LO ca rry o r transmil diseases, and wi ll read il y consu n e mo re u nwel ome ho use guests su has large spiders and scorpio ns. Whi le never co nsid· ere pets in Lhei r n alÍ ve lands, !he Laxonomic na m , (M ollodelphis dom es tica), refl ects lh ir long an d am ia bl e dom es /¡e r laLionship w i¡h h u mans . Sho rt-tai led opossu ms Jre recem arriva ls ro lhe peL Ill arket, al though the) h ay been used eXLensive ly aS labara Lo ,
Short-lailed opa um are soli tary by na lure a nd wi!lnat tolerate the co m p. n j' of o thers. Attempti ng lO place IWO or mor logelher \V iII resulL in seve re in ju rie o r

Figure 12-... The first toes of the hmd feet are clawless. The thumbs ilre opposable.

figure 12 Short-tailed opossums are appealing and social with their owners.

110

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 12

death. In the wild, lhe only time they come together ís when a female is ready to breed and tol raLe the pre nee o f él male. Sho rt- lailed opossums may breed year round. E.sl rus, the period of ree ptívity, . va ríes fro m lhree lO twe lve days. O nce mating has oeeurred, gestatíon is approxi­ m ately 14 days. The liny em bryos are barely visible as they erawl up the mother's a bd ome n to locate and atta h lO a nípp le. Short-tailed opossu ms have no poueh but instead have 13 teats arranged in a eirele on th eir abdom en . There may be more fetal pup d elívered, but only those t.l at are able to attélch to a lea t will survive. The attach ment oeeurs because the n ipple swel ls an d co m pl elely fi lls the mouth of the pu p . Ma ny may be lost, as the average litter size is [¡ve to ten . They remain at lached to t.he nipple for approxi­ mately 30 days a nd are wea ned completely at 50 days. Under no eircumstances should a p up ever be p hysieally removed from a leal. The pu p, once r mov d, will not be ab le lo reattaeh and it would be very d ifficull lo save it. Prior to being complelely weaned, pups dimb up and ride on the dam's back as they begin lO leam lO search for fo d. A good time lo start social izing the individual pup is when th liule hitch-hikers begin to seamper off Lhe dam and become fairly indepen­ Jent. Most pe! short-tailed opossums are aequired around one or two months of age, b whieh time tb y are fully weaned and wou ld norm lly lea e Lhe family group. Prior to wean ing, short-tailed opossu rns rnay nest together rour LO six-week-old pups m ay súll be in th maternal nest, but as soon as the you ng are independent of the da m, they wi ll leave the e mpany of lheir liuer mates and begin their solitary lives. Male anatomy is typical o f other marsupials. The testides are fur-eovered and aanial to the penis, !ocated on the lower abdomen (Figure 12-3) . The female has a very small g nita! openi ng that may bt: d ifficull to visualize because of the fur (Figu re 12-4). Sexual malurity is normally aro und four and a ha lf month s. STO have an average life span oC four years but are re p roductively sueeessful for approxi m ately

Figure 12-3 The extemal genitalia of a male short-tliled opossum. The scrotum is round and fully furred.

Figure 12·4 The external gen italia of female short-tailed opos-sum . The fem ale has a very small genital opening which may be hard to visu­ aUze because of the density of the fu ro

Short-Tailed Opossums

111

three years. Rega rdless of the size of hab itat provided, it is not recomm endt:d to l/y to accommod ate more than on e animal per enclos uJe. Cap tive b reeding a n be di ffi cult. Many tim es, even the introduction of a p air to each other will resu lt in the death of one and serious injuries to the survivo r. As il is for many exotic spe­ cíes, a US DA lice nse is req u ired to breed sb orl- tail ed opossu m s, even if o nly one pair is kept and lhe occasional (itter produced .

lIousing Alth ough the sho rt-ta iled opossum probably has a faid y large range of terrilOry in the wild , they are eas ily kept in cap tivity w ithout many spe ial o ns idera tjons. A 20 gallon (long) te rrarium tank with a CT>en lid works wel !. Basic set-up tanks are read ily available in a variery of sizes, but the 1l10st im po rtant thi ng in choosing Oíle is that the lid f¡ ts securel a nd can b e ¡atched. [ve n lho ugh this little opossum is a ground dw lIer, it can and wil! cl imb read il)'. s with al! exotic animals, natural environ m ent I ranges ofhumidiry and

t

m­

perature should be p rovided. The hu m id ily of South American forests is much b igher than lhe average o rth America n household. The advantage of a glass aquar­ iUIl1 is that it h elps lO maintain a slightly more hum id enviro nment. Recom ll1ended h umid ity is Oto 60 percent. A small humidity gauge, or h\gr lffi¡'h::r, attached to lhe inside of the tank wi ll help determine if the hum id iry is h igh eílo ugh . It may be n ecessary to add a small waterfall to lhe hab itat. n1ere a re rn any sel f-contained waterfalls designed for use in reptile hab itats lha t make an easy addition to me la nk The e1ectrical cord ho uld be checked regulady, but shorl-tailed opossums are n m kno wn to chew or gnaw at items. An a ditio n I source for raising the humidiry is especially important du ring the winter m o nths wh e n a mb ie nl room hUll1 idity is

far lower. The ideal te mp era ture rang for a h OrL-lail ed OpOSS UIl1 is between 72 and 74 o F. In a Jarger habitat, an additional souro:: of heal is n eeded. U nder-ta nk h 'a l­ ing pads used for reptiles are safe and designed to p roví de smal! a reas o f greater wa rmth . Ithough live plants are at u active, lighting req uired fo r their benefit is not heallhy for lhe sh orl-tai led opossu rn . 11 shorl-tailed opossu ms should be pro vided wilb a neSl box a nd nestin g materia!. Small rodent houses work wel!, as do 1 alf-ro u nd logs (f igur 12-5). Both sexes make sIl' ping nests and m alerial such as gras h ay, shredded paper, or leaves should be provided so lb ey ca n be gathe red u p by the OpOSSU I11 and put into the nest box. Beddi ng mate rial sh ou ld 1 e no n b rasive, nonlOxic, and at lea 1 two inches d ep. Aspen shavi ngs, shredded fo rest Ooor bark, or recycl ed pa per bedding a re all sui table. Cedar shavings sho uld never be liS el as lh ey conlai n oi ls kn own to be toxic a nd w jl! caus severe resp iratory p ro bl e ms. Short-tailed opo s um< a re fastidiously cl ean . Th ey groom with their tongues, li cking the fur clean. Tbey have been observed washing their hands in th e same m a nn er as ra ts an d m ice and use lheir forepaws to clean t heir Cace an d ea rs. Th ey use a ¡itter tray regularly. Sma ll triangu lar pl as lic ¡itter trays are available, but plas­ lÍe food con tain er lids work jusl as well as long as th ey are d ee p enough lO contain the litter and are easy lO clea n and di in fect (Figure 12-6). Sho rt-tailed OpOSSUITl do not cover or bury lheir droppings. Pl ain (nonclu mping), unscented ca l litter is recommended.

Figure 12-5 Short-tailed OP OS­ sums sho uld be provided with small rodent hide box s. Both sexes wlll bUlld a sleeping nest inside t he hide box.

112

UN IT 11· CHAPTER 12

Figure 12 6 Short-tililed opossums ilre fas­

Li d iously dean

and wi llingly use a liLter box.

The addi li on of nrichml ni ilems Ilot onl y ma kes the ha bitat isua ll appeal­ ing, but provide ¡he opo surn wil h e.xtra Mea lO exp lore. Many ilems ava ilable rO l repl ile habilats ca n be incorparalecl into the op SSll m hab itat, provid ing inleresl fO I thi s cur ious li lll e mJrsu pi dL Art ilicial pl ants, as we ll as a rt ificial ledges and nal ural hr;¡nches, may be hung from Lhe sities f lhe lJn k Short-Lailed opossums wil! lI se a roclent wheel fm exerci s , both Jur ing the day and at nigh l. For safelY, sa lid 01' wire mesh \ heels are safer than lhose with ho rizontal bals (Figure 12-7).

Figu e 12-7 Exercise wheels should have a solid f1oo r. PlasDc is suitable as they are not known to chew on it and it is easily cleaned .

Access lO fresh water is easily provided Wilh a smal l rod ent s ippe r boule. The

wa ter bOlLle shou ld be rinsed ou t ancJ dl anged d a ily. The sipper tube n eds tO be checked regularly lO be sure thal Lile wa ler dropl eLS 00\0\1 Witll the lightest to uch . Neve! add any vilam in r mi nera l :illpp lements 10 lhe w;¡ter so urce. If upp le­ ments are needed, Ihe best so luti on j:; to correa lhe diel. It may be inadequate, eilhe r in lh e amounl fed o r by no Lmeet ing nUlr ilional need s.

The best capli ve cJ iel i slil l being resea rched . O rnn ivoro u by natu re, sho I1-ta ilecJ oppos u ms have been kepl ucces fu ll ' wi th a grea t assortme nt o f fo od items. Most of lhe knowledge regarding ca ptive d iets has been d rived from researrn

- -- - - -

Sho rt-Tailed Opossums

113

col on ies, where they are !TI intained for general and r p rodu tive he Ilh . A mix o f co mmer ¡al c m i o re an d insectivo re dieLS is always recom m e nded, along wí th fresh fru its, In al worms, wax worm , (lnd cricl<ets. Food sb o u ld be fres hly p re­ pared and fed in the eveni ng ho rt-tail ed opa SLIln& r quíre a di eL that i high in pro tein and low in faL lany ow ners feed a high q u alily I itten how sup pl cmented ¡lb low- at co ttage cheese, boil ecl egg (sh ell removed ), live in~ecl5, anel weekly pinky o r fuzzy mouse. Short-tail d Or )$ u ms can be astoni hingly q ui ck whcn atl cki ng li ve pr y, a nd GIre needs to be laken v.'h e n off¡ .ring a m o use to an eager sho rt-laíled o possu m . $ mall r dents a re quí kly grabbed and Ji palched wíth a bi t lO the h ead (r igur 12-8 ).

Figure 12- 8 Short-ullted opossums should be fed a Uve plnkie or fuuy mouse once weekly. Th is femate qlJickly dispatches her prey with a bite to the head .

Th ere is a specific lIy fo rm ul aled diel avai lab le ~ r lhe shon-taíl el opossum . lt is a sem i-50ft crumble that u esn 't neeu refrí gerati )n, bU l il hou ld b kepl in a sealeel c ntain er to preserve its m i8ture contrnl. Commer"lal fox food d iets h ave al a bee n u e j s u e sfully.

The pet sh ort-tai led opo sum abjen s 1i ttle la being h a nu led . Many of lh em \ ill scamper over and a ro un u an owner's lap, exp lori ng pockels and c1olh ing. Th ey are rarely aggressive whe n being h ndleel, but like a ny ani m a l, will b ite ir pro­ va l'ed . Finge r may be n ipped if hu man ba nds smell li k foa d or treats o ffered in lhe pase Shon-ta iled o possurns have li u le in the way o f d efense bu t w il! gape an el h iss in a larm if tbey a re frightened . Pups shou ld he handJed gently a nu allowed to explor with u t restrainl. Il is bes l lO be seated o n Lhe f1 or to avo id any d a nger of a fall. However short lhe drop, they are easily injur d . Restraint for a phy. ical exarn shou lcl be as mínimal a po s ¡ble. As th y b - ome ver)' lrusting o r eop le, a scruff may wd l alarm thern . They can be h eld

114

UNIT 11 • CHAPTER 12

ge ntly w ilh o n

ha nd yet lil l be exam ined, hedrt rale taken , and respi rati on

o bscrv d . Shou ld an exam req uíre dose r eva lua tion, it woulc!

e better to use an

inh 13m a nest hesia.

Sh ort- tailed o possu ms are genera lly h ard y. The p roblem thal do occur are usu­ ally lh e re 'ult of pOOl' husba ndlY ami diel in capti vity. Tnere is limiled infor m a­ tion ava ilable

0 11

health anu di. ease . f\S they h (>co me m o re p o p u la r and are seen

mor frcq uen tly by veterinaria ns, grealer knowl edge wil l

ga ín d. Ofie.n, lh re

is relu ctance 011 lhe pa rl o f the ov l1e r lO seek medi ca l 3dvice w h en neCes ary as

short-la ilE'd opossu m a re ill ega! in many slates.

Th e ól use of Jealh m os! often repo rted is recta l pro lapse due lO aging, an incorre d ie t, or the co mbi na lio n of bo Lh . Il ca n a lso be secon d ry te b acterial en teritis . Il.ectal p rolapse ie; see n m o st co mm on!)' in older fema le . If the initial a u e oC th e pro lapse e, n b id e nl ified and reso lved, it m y heI p lO preven l a prol ap 'e from recu rrin g. Ir is critiea l lhal Lhe opossu m be seen by an exot i a nim al veteri n a rian

as soon as possible s tha t the en larged a mI inflamed recta lli sue can be red uced and repla ced be fo re tiss ue necrosis occurS. Any sign of sU'ain ing l d fecale is cause fo r concem . Bacteria l enteritis, impli ated in some p rol ap 'es, ca n alsc b ca used by poor di et an d husba ndry. Tll e opossu rn becomes I thargic a n d has a di sten d ed abdo­ m en due LO a b ui lJ up of gas in lhe ga lro inteS lina l tracto t\dditio n I!y, dia rrhea a n d ano rexia co mpoun d lh e pr )ble m . The pa Li n t can quickly beco m e crilically d e hydra t el beca use of lhe di
ondig · Hepalic and panaeat ic

are m ast freq uenLly se n in sh on-t
L1 ms t\ovo yeélf' o ld o r o lde r. I Iepali c neop las ia prod u e lesi o ns on Ihe s u rface o f lhe liver lha l can be read ily s e n on necro psy.

Ir h

patie neop lasia i suspeeted, a

d efl ni tive diagno!'is a n be c1etermined wi lh a eh mistry panel. Both a panate a m ino trans fe r;:¡ se (AST) and 1an in a m inotransferase (Al. ) \Viii be elevated . 'lhe pat ie n t w ill m ost like ly prese nt Wi lh a bdo minal en large m e nt and we ight loss. Signs ffiay be slow l progres, ive o r a p pea r in a ve ry short period of time. Pa n creat ic neo p las ia rnay be primar)' or 'eco n d a ry LO h e pa tic neopl asia. Il is m ost oEle n d ia gn o sed po s tmo rte m . Th ere m ay b e s ig n s simi la r to h ep at ic neo p las ia, or lhe o wn er m ay fin d lh e s hort-ta iled opo ss u m de ad in th e cage "" ith no pri o r si gn of ill ness . BOlh type

o f n o p lasia h ve a

ery p oor

p rognosis. O lde r opossu m s frequenlly develop neph ritis in asso cia tion with a bacteria I infection,

¡gn may in clud

( PU/ PO) , e íd e nl wh en lhe pa-

ti nt d rin ks more water Lhan no rmal a.nd uri na les freq ue n tl y.

a llJ

. wilh b lood andjo r p u in the urine ro y ( bo be p rese n t. A rollti n e u rinal ysis

...

Short-Tailed Opossums

should be performed , along w ilh , bacterial cultu re of the urine to identi fy Ihe causati e bacteri a. Radiographs m ay show kidn y en Jargement. 'r reatment u lI ally inv lves ant ib ioti anJ Ou id [h rapy to ensw-e hydration and sUppOI1 for kidney fil tratio n Piluitary ade lIom a can o (U r in th e Short-Iai led opossum. JI is usually first evaJuated as a skin disorder because lhe p rimary sign is a rather large area of alo­ pecia 011 lhe rump whirh m ay prog-ress up ¡he lmver back (Figure 12-9) . Th e hair loss is not asso cialed w ith inflam ma tion or irritalion and m any owners re port lh at the bald r leh appeared uddenly Wi lh a p ituitary aden om a, blood serum levels of both est radi o l and p ro laClin (luteot rophic h ormo ne LTH) will be ele­ vateJ. Prior 10 a blood drilw, deci de which exol ic specialty labora tory wi Jl be used and lhe spec ifl cs of the samples requirecL lJ labs will provide information rega rd ing lhe type of sam ples that should be s ubmittecl for specific tests; serum or bl od vol u me requ ired, pr t rreo pr servativ , an d ir the sample should be fro zen or (o o led .

Figure 12-9 Pituitary adenoma i5 not un known In short-tailed oposs ums . One of the primary dínical signs is an area of alope­ cía across the rump which rnay progress up the back.

De rm atitis is an other co ncl ition lhal may be caused by an inadequa te diet and poo r nutririon . Hair loss is common with flea or mite in fe talions. The alopecia m ay be isolateo or aprear pa tchy anywhere n the body. Th re may be o ther causes, such as al l rgí es, skin in fec tion, or neo plal>ia. A skin scraping will hel p to determi ne the exaCl cause. Benign skin li pomas hav al50 been reported and, as ."vilh any sl11 all mammal, th s shou ld b surgi ally rem oved . Excessive 1I1traviolet light can induce melanornd and s. reoma . The history hOlllel inel ude whether or n Ol UV lighling is LIsed and the n umber of hours of exposure. I fa bitats are o ften set up with live plants and, alLho ugh ben (Jeial to Lhe planls, sh orl-tailed opossums shou ld Ilot be exposed to th is Iypc of ligh !. I.on g-lerm dietary d ficie ncies ao age can cause hea n and coronary artery di sease in short-lail d opossums. They can develop h igh levels of cho les terol

115

116

UNIT 11• CHAPTER 12

lead ing to arthro lero is (hardeni ng of the a n eries ) Sign . a re typi c 1 o[ heal1 and circul ato ry proble ms see n w ith other sm a! I anim als, th ar o f exercise in toler­ ance, co ld ext remities a nd ascilí es.

~linical

Pl'ocedur{-s

The vei ns a re m a l! a nd fragil e. Ir wiII be d ifficu ll ro safe!y o tain a bIo od sam p le wirho ut rhe use of genera l an esth sia . Either isofl u r::\l1 e or sevoflur ne is sui tab le. The palie n t ca n be p laCE'e[ in an inductio n ch a m b r or co m ai n d in e dog m a k p I ed (l a l against lhe ta b le. Induction is rapi J and th , are easil, l11o ni to red . Gene ra l anes lhes ia w ill reduce tress on lhe patient a nd help t p re e nt a 11 ma ­ toma or lacerat ion o f a ves el in a strugo lin g a nd very srn aII pa tien l. For recovery, al ea r p lastíc co ntaine r (sol d as a s mall h abi l,ll ) provides a secur co nta ine r a nd lid with go od ve nti l'llion . A so ft c10th sho uld cove r ¡he botla m . A r g;wge n eed l \V il h a tu b rculio syringe is adeq ua t for lh e sm all a m o u nt of blood required, wh ich sh o u ld not b e greate r th dn 1% of bo cly weigh t by vol­ ume. Blood m ay be .o lleaed fr 111 th e ve n Lral coccyg al ve in, fe m o raL or sap he­ nous veins. Atte mpts with a d irect cardiac p uncture o r aceessing th ve na ava o fte n result in dis aster and death for th e pa ti e nt

Pal'asiles Incide n tal re po rts of pJ rasites in sho rt-tai led o possu ms (l re rare. The e ule! po tent ially t e exp osed lO a nd in fe led w ith fl a r m ites. [f su. pecled , intest in al parasiLes cou lcl be di agn osed w ilh sta n da rd feca l float , ti n m e th ds or by d irect smear. To dal , d ala cannOl be fo und rega rding Lh e use f peeiMe am he lmi ntics in the short-lai led opossum.

o Why are short-tailed opossums classified as marsupials if they don't have a pouch?

O

How do short-tailed opossums use their tails?

., What is the typical diet of the short-tailed opossum in captivity?

O

How long do neonates stay attached to the nipple before exploring independently?

O What happens when the tiny embryos are

born?

What is the most common cause of illness or disease in a short-tailed opossum?

O What can cause

rectal proLapse in a short-tailed opossum?

What is the best method of anesthetizing a short-ta iled opossum?

o

list the veins that may be used for blood coLLection .

E>

What types of bedding shouLd be used in the habitat?

Short-Ta iled Opossums

Short-TaiLed Opossums

• Brazilia n Short-Talled O possum (Monode lphis

REPRODUCTION

domestica ) STO

• Sexual Maturity: 16 to 20 we eks (4 to 5 months)

Diurna l/ noc t urnal ground-dwelli ng

• Gestation: 14 days

marsupial

• Litter Size: 5 to 10

• Solitary, aggressive with others • Omn ivore/insedivore diet • Five toes on each fo ot ; 1st digit o f each hind foot is claw-less and opposable

WEIGHT

VITAL STATISTlCS

• Temperature: 8 9.6 °F, 31 .6

• Average female : 75 to 95 g

• Marsupia l body temperature is normally much lower

• Heart Rate: 239/30 0 bpm DENTAL

• Respiratory Rate: 52 to 65 breat hs/ min

l/FE SPAN App roxi ma tely four years (48 mont hs)

• Dental formula: 2(4 / 3 , 1/ 1, 3/ 3, 4/4)

R~ading

Ilolz, Peter (2003 ). MarsupiaJia (Marsupials ). In Fowl er, lurray E. &1 MiLler, R. f ri e. 200

(/ /1(/

Oc

than placen tal mammals

Average male: 10 0 to 125 g

Flirt he)'

• Weaning: 48 to 50 days

Wild An ima l Medici1le, StlLedir íon.

Delaney, Ca thy A. Joh nson (2005 ). l 'h e 1ar upíal Pet: Sug(/r Slider , Op05SU11IS, c/nd Wa ll(/u ies. Pre en ted at Dali as Vele ri n ry Medi cal sociation .

=

48 teet h total

117

ugar G iders ( BJECTJ canopy arbote.l 5Jnd.ct:yUsm yolplane patagium joeys OOP glidermiUs detritus seasonaL feeders paLatabiUty gut-loaded

I~ S

After conrplet.in8 this chaple1; rhe student should be lIble to • properl, hOllse sugar gliders. • provid e appropriate clie nt educa tion to ne\ov sugar gli d e r owners . • provid e (he correet diet for th e s ugar glider. • provid e basic nursing ca re to a sllga r glid er. • ass is t in the a nesthesia o f a sugar glider. • demonslrate approp ria te restra im t ch nique.

Inl rodUfl ion Sugar gliders are unique ~ r maD, rea o ns, n o t lhe least uf w h i h is the way th ey move. Rather than jumping, rllnning, or waLki ng on the ground, lhe)' ¡aunch th ' m selves from high b ra nches and glide from p lace to place, ra re l)' leavin g the treetop

l \

101. a n d th e s fe r)' of the foresL

Sugar gl iders b e lo ng to a fa mily oC arl or Austral ia, Tasm ania, Indo nesia, and

1 (Iree living) marsupial s n ative to

ew Guinea . TI e belong to the same ord er

which incl udes possu ms, ka ngaroos, and wom bats. Within this order, there are three species taxo nomica lIy grouped as fa milies, one of which is th

Petauridae

an d includes th e sugar gl ide r, PetauTu5 brevicep5. Sugargliders are small, wi th a body length of unly five la seven inches. The taíl is as long as or slightly lo ng r than me body. They have nve c\awed lo four on

on the front feet and

me hind feet, wi tll an opposable grasping Úlu mb. Th e middle two toes of me

hind feet are fused, an anatomical adaptation caJled , 'ml ct't I . ffi . Sugar gliders have a total of 46 to 4 8 teeÚl with long, fo rwa rd pointing lower inciso rs designed for gouging. Sllgar glid e rs are s trict ly noct u rnal. During the day, th y sleep huddled together in s m 11 co lony g rou ps. Th e colooy nest is high in the neeto ps and li n ed with leaves. Thei r n a tu ral ra nge (territory) cover an area greater th a n two acres. Th

b i li ty to glide o r olplanl is du e lO a flap of fur-covered skin 0 11 each ide

that connecls from carp us to ta rslls and opens some what like a parachute w hen the limbs are exten d d . Sugar gli d ers are able to gui de them se lves whil e air borne by mov in g their limbs and allering the tension of the skin flap. The tail is used as a rudde r, much like the tai! of ao dircra ft or lh e steering rudd er o f a boat, which helps them to change ho rizontal direction and ass ist in landing (figu re 13- 1). Sugar glid ers do n Ol fly; they gl ide from place to place b y launching themselves in

118

..

Sugar Gliders

the air, often from great heights. They are able to glicl e for distanc s as great as 300 feet. This analom i al parachute is ca lled the palaglUfll . Sugar gliders are ve ry vocal with on e ano ther and make a variety of sounds. A surpris ingly loud ba rk serves, s a warning or ala rm call to other gliders. Th ey also p ro uu c a soft, churri ng sound which h as b en interpreted as contentm ent because it is often heard when the animal s are settling into lhe nest togetJ1er. The m o l common noise heard by owners occurs hen sllgar gliders are disturbed dllring tb day. rhis unique sound has been lik ned to an electronic pen cil sharp­ en er, or to a LO)' chain sa w l.uith a nm-down battery. n1e term crabbing has recently been co in ed to describe thi ound. Regardless of how it is describ ed, it is a sou nd p rod uced when sugar gliders are annoyed or distu rbed . The sex of an ad u lt suga r glider is easily determined. 1al have a vely la rge sce nt gland on lhe top o f the head that is absent in females (Figure 13-2) . Th e gl and beco mes m ore prono unced with sexual m aturity. he scrotu m is located mo re cran ial tb n in p lacental mamo ab o It ís fur covered, penuu lo us, and att checl by a stalk (Figure 13-3) . The penís i bifu rca ted, caudal to lhe scro tUI11, and difficul t to visualize und r normal ci rcumstances. There are bi lateral anal sacs near the pe nis nd lhese are often mi. taken fo r testicles in young male glid ers.

119

Figure 13 I Sugar gliders do not have the ability to fly, but glide from place to place by lau nching themselves Into the air and extend­ ing the patagium. The fu r-covered flap of skin acts somewhat like a parachute .

Igure 13-2 Mal sugar gi.ide rs have a large scent gla nd on the head. The gla nd becomes more pronounced with sexual ma turity.

Figure 13-3 The external ge ni ta lia of a male sugar glider. The scrotum is attached by a stalk; ¡t i5 rou nd , fur- covered and, in t his photo ­ gra ph, position ed iust lateral to the abdomen, near the right lego (Co urt e~ of fardan Applied Techn olagy Ceme¡-, West fardan, Utah. )

120

UNIT 11' CHA PTER 13

Ma les also have a scent gl and on the Lhorax, isíble a a sma ll area o d i co l­ ored rm ( Figure 13-3 ). Durin g brced ing eas n, lh e saliva of males has also becn repo rted to prod uce a st rong sce nt. The fe m a le has a b it bed u Lerus with late ral vagina ' and a cenLral birt h canal. The b irth can al is tem porary. It forll1s just prio r 1 birth and d isapp ars soon after de Iivery. Be ali se o f lhe uterine natomy, it is fa irl, commo n lO have Se¡Mrale p regnanci es Wilh develop ing jo 'Y" of di frering ag _ . The pouch is vertical anú contai ns on ly two teal. . Fe m a les have an al se n i gl a nds and additio na l ~cent glands located in the p o uch . Th fr equency of fe m aIe scenl marking incr a s Wi lh h r read iness lo breed Once m ating occurs, ges tatio n is ap proximalely 16 da s. Pa11 u riti on usu ­ a l1 y ta kes p lace mid-momi ng w ith a n a erage o f t\l o joeys per litler. Th e joeys are bo rn in an e m bryon ic 'tate, be in g abo ut lh e size 0 1" a grain of rice. The ir fo relegs are deve l ped o n ly e no ugh to all ow them lO crawl from [he birt b cana l u p into rh e pouch . An o bservable s ign t hal th ere h as becn a b irth i l har the d am imrnediately begins to lick lhe fu r 1 ad ing lO he r pouch . The li king p re­ vents the joeys fro m becom in g sluck in lh e fur, helping th c neonales lO mi grate and no t d i of expos ure. C rawli ng fro m lhe b in h ca n a l to the pouch us ually lakes fi ve o r six m in utes. O nce in the pouch, lhe joey a[taches to a n ipp le whi h swells t p r ven! lh e n wborn fram being di lo d g d. Joeys ho ul d never be for ibly rem oved from th e ni p ple al any slag in thcir dev lopmem a it is not passib le for lhem t rea Llach . loe s w ill d ie ir forcib ly removed fro m lhe n i pie. Joeys stay 3ttached LO the nipp le far MO mont hs. During lhis tim e their il1t mal organ and li m bs dev lap and fur appears. Araund eighl weeks, they begi n lO ven ture oul of the POUd1 They co ntin uc 10 nurse by sticki ng lh ir h ads im o lhe pouch a , by now, tht'Y are lOO large tú fit insid e. Jo ys ua ll , trave.! on th back o r underb Ily of ei ther par nt as they begin to lea rn to forage and al sol id food (figure 13-4).

Figure 13-4 An unweaned ¡oey traveling on the bac of the dam .

(Co urtery 01 u ura DeVdes, CVT.)

Sugar Glid ers

12 1

Bot h par ms co ntrib u t.e lO lhe care of the offsp ring. Most joeys become inde­ pe nden l at ap prox im alely 117 days but they may tay in the parental nest for II p ne yea L Males Jre driven fro m th e fa m ily ne t o nce they reach sexual m aturity. S xua l m aturi ty i uSlla lly reached at e igh t months fo r a fe ma le, but m ay no t be reached fo r as long as a yeaL Ma les m at ure sl ightly Iater, with an ave rage of 12 to lO

14 mOl1lhs. Pouch in depe nden t o ung a re often d escribed (lhe ir ages given ) by number f days OOP, or O ut Of Pouch (Figu re 13-5 )

Figure 13 5 !he age of a joey is usuaLly stated by the number of days the joey has been o t of the pouch , or O OP. (Courtesy of Lau¡-a De Vries, CVT )

No o ne knows f r -ertain w he n suga r gtid '[s fr rst arrived in l.he United Sta tes, but il is probab le lha t lh y were s m uggled in, p rh a ps as p ets or b a p riva te co ll eclo r wh o fOllnd them ap p e
~VE

TH

UGH THE MARKET SHMS TO HAV

BEEN SATURATED t he re are thousands of suga r gliders

stíll being bred by glider mills , a recent t erm t hat refers to the indi scriminate breeding of suga r gliders for pro fit. With the con stant supply o f gtiders and prodllcts con nected to t hi s ind ustry, internet web pages abound. One must be extremely cau t ious when eva luati ng the content of many of these sit es, forums, and di scusslon boards. t'vl lsinformation not only expand s but som ehow beco mes fact. Advice is offered o n everything from disease diagnosis and t reat ment t o commerciaL cam ivore diet s that are bei ng repackaged , relabeled, and then sold as secret recipes . AIl medical concerns should be dis­ cllssed with an exo tic ani mal vete rinaria n.

Rt-ha\ior Beh avi r in captivity is Orle n aberrant fmm natural b eh aviors observed by t1eld researchers. Regardless o f ti e n u m b er o f ge ne ralions thal a r b red in caplivily, the suga r gl ide.r is sU II (ar from being a d omes ticated spedes. Sugar gliders res [)ond an u re t lO lh ir ca p live slate s im llarly to ot h r wild a nim als; Lhat is, by exhi bit­ ing abnorm al beh avio r a n d disorders no t see n in the w ild . Sllgar glid rs n eed the ro mpa ny of other glid ers fo r socia l in teraction and men­ t < l stab ili ty. t\ so litary sugar glider will self-m utilat€, callsing trau m a that oflen leads

122

UNIT 11· CHAPTER 13

to death or eutha nasic . Th Y hav been kn own to chew off li m bs, scrotal sacs a nd stalks, and their own ta ils. Ther are [so gouging wou nd from lh ir lower inei o r and trauma caused from 'cessive, co m pulsive 1icking. This be havio r occurs rega rd­ less of the mount of time a caregiver provi des for an indivi dual anima l.

MANY OEALERS OFFER AN ITEM CALLEO A BONDING POUCH. The idea is t hat the ow ner carrie s t he glide r around with the pouch tucked inside a shirt or pocket, to allow the estran ged and isolated little ani ma l to become famil ­ iar with the scent of the owner. This may well accustom t he gl ide r to a speciFic scent, but the glider' is sti ll a capti'le wild animal and it is doubtful that any real bon d ing occurs . Bond ing pouches may, in fa ct , increa se t he anx iety oF the lone sugar glider. Being held in the company of another species (human) is not a substitute for natu ra l, normal interaction with its own kind. Knowledgeable people and th ose who t ruly ca re abou t t he welfare of t he rr animals wo uld ne'ler sup port th is

bonding pouch idea

and would ne'ler sell or obta in a sin gle sugar glider as a

poáet pet,

doom ing it t o a short an d '1ery

stressfullife .

Sugar gl ider are co lony a nimal', with small fa mi ly grou ps living nd nesting together, both male and fe male and young, po uch indepen d · nt joeys, A minimwn of four gliders should be housed togeth er lO provide a ocial environ mel1l lll al i as normal as poss ib le. Sugar gliders are usually w ry go o d parents, bUl to o often lhe dam is all owed to breed indiscriminate ly, resu[ting in c10se inbreed in g lhat int ns ifi es m any of the prob lems already seen in cap tive glid r co loni e .

11()lIsill~ With an und rstanding of natural b haviors a nd the issues o f captivity in m ind, housing can be problemat ic and needs seríous consid eratíon before ch oos ing and caring for a sugar glider colony. Ideal l , th ere sh ould be a glider room that is large enough lO allow the gliders lO gl ide, to interact with each other. and lO behave in a manner somewha l resem bl ing their behaviors in the wil d. As th ey are no turnaL bright daylighl and a rúfida llight are both very stressful to them . They need to be fed in the evenings and wil! come out to eal only 'v hen it is dark O ne should never attempr to chan ge a nOd u rnal speci es ioto a d iumal speci ; it \·v ill no t wo rk and the interrup LÍ on of normal cycles of sI ep causes a grea t deal of ph siologi 1 stress lo me an imal. Und rs ta ndi ng the natu ra l bebavior of a sp ie i vital to its we.ll -being in captivity. Sugar gl id rs n ed a great amou I1t of pace and the usua l cage sewp fo r other sma ll animals is totally inadequa t . Simply put, gl ide r can not be housed in cages designed for o Lher sm all animals. Moreover, it must be reiterated that it is extre mely important that lhey , re n o t kept alolle wi Lh pocl?et pet status. Fo r tl1e average pet owner, províJing a healthy hab ila l vvhi ch meets th e animals' need is generally no l easy. Co ns id ering 3111h se things, il is p ossibl e to house suga r glid rs safely a nd su ce fuI! . o m e owne.r h ave adapt d tv o or mo re la rge avia n fl igh t cages. If constructing a cage, lh h o ice of m a terial is imp ortan l. Suga r gliders \V il!

Sugar Gliders

123

MINIMUM CAG REQUI EMENTS AS SET BY INDIVIDUAL STATES' DEPARTMENTS OF Agriculture do not

even come close to actua l requirem e nts. For th e most part, sugar gl iders are no t understood as a speci e s and are groupe d t ogeth e r wlth oth er small anim als such as ro de nts, chinchilla s , an d cavi e s. The author of Cage Size Matters:

The Current Indus rry Sta ndard Borders On Anim al Cruelty (Glider Unive rsity) po ints out that t here is a vast di fferenc e in one U.S. state' s min imum ho usin g re quire me nt of 2 16 sq uare in ches for o ne ani mal and th e 8 1 square feet ( 11 ,644 square inche s) pe r two animals as req ui re d by Austra li an regulations.

chew o n items which ma be toxic to Lhem , an d gouge aL lhe wood of lhe enclosu re in él na tu ral allem pt lO n nd foad ilems . 'l'hey are e.speci " lly adep t at llsi ng lheir fo repaws to o pen cage do ors. A1I d ors sho ul e! have se u re la tch to preven t sea pe. The e nclosur should be eq u ipped wiLh a sleepi ng PO Udl TI ar the lOp of lhe cage, one whidl most mim ics the sleeping nest of tJle co lony. Sic p ing po uch s designed fo r fe rr ts work well and can be eas ily alt mee! to the upper p art o f the cage. There sho u ld Iso be an asso rtm nt o f branches, perches, and food d ishes pl ac d to accomrnodale lheir arbo real nature. Dishes placed in lhe lO'v\'er part of the cage co ll en uri nl:: and reces, cOnLam inali ng the food /\ccess lO fresh wa l r mUSl be easi ly ava il ab le. S veral , epa rale water J ishes sh ou ld be provided. Sugar glid rs do not readily use sipper bo a! s as do rabbitS an u rode nts. The hab ilat sh uld be set up to meet the needs or th gliders, yet also pr vide easy arcess for the caregiver.

Fiele! re earchers in lud ing velerinJrians, zoo logists, bOla n isls, a nd o lhers have spent countless hou rs ob erving wi ld gliders in an effort t determ ine their d ietary n eds in capt i iLy. Dietary needs are 1 OL just whaL lhey ea l, but how and wben Lhey feed, their behaviors, and lhe ir social jnteradions. Researchers e:xa m ine feca l sam p les, browsing aoe! foraging siles, an d the dt:tntm around nes Lsiles and n tl e ground. AnalOm ira! featu re, oCa speci s oCfe!' dues as to whal an anima l ats: for exa mp le, lhe lower incisors of the sugar gli der are elongated and pro lrud e forwa rd. They are very sharp, a nd are used for gouging and peel ing tre bark to search fo r insects or lO gain acce sto tree sap o Like many species, gl iders are !.{.LI~{ln. l fc~J{ r., ; Lhei r diel varies dep 'mi­ jng up on n tura l foo d avai lability and a b u nda nce. lhey are om n ivo res, co n uming in eClS, ara hn ids, a gr al deal o f pl ant-deri ed mater ial, and, occasi nally, sma ll vertebrales. ObservaLi ns and LU d ies li ke lh is a re al o very imp o nant in determi n ing w hat sugar gli ders do not eal Many breed ers of ca p­ tive gliders e rroneou Iy recomme nd di ets wh ich inel ude seeds, n uts, and cerea l graíns. For aptive gliders, !he con mon name prefLX .' llga r has co ntri bu ted to the mis­ taken b lie[ Lhat mey only eat sw el foods. Wh ile ir is true lhat gliders seem lO enjoy f¡ ds wilh a sweeL taste, th is in no way begjns to meet th ir nu tritional needs. $ugar cubes and vario us o ther candies, ref rred to a ¡¡(lley lrrats, have been promoled by breeders and sellers as a melhod of laITIi ng a sugar glider. Misin fo m1ation sum as

124

UNIT 11 • CH APTER 13

Lhis, however well int nded, cont ributes greatly to o ne oCthe major a ncerns in capti e gl iders : maln utrition an d prematu re d eath. Table 13 -1 lisIs road ilems co nsu med in the w ild. This na tural d ie! is no t eas­ ily re plicated (o r cap tive sugar glider co lon ies, but goo e! a ltern atives h ave been deve lo ped . There is no o ne easy fo rm ula thaL m eets all their nutri tion al needs; however, lhere are se e ral recommended diets that are not only ad equ ate, b ut are proving to be successrul.

Table 13 I

Natural D ieL f Pretaurus

Breuiceps

• I ngredi e nts/Source

Natura l D iet Eucalypt us Sap

Sap is the fluid produced by pl ants and trees . It is usually sti cky to the touch and provides the circulal ing nutrients to the lTee . Eucalyptus trees are native to Austra lia and grov t o grea t heights . lheir leaves produce an aroma ti c

011 , often used for human

medicinal purposes . Ma nna

Manna is produced from sap that leaks Prom a tree at the site of Inseet damage . It can be found on Lhe leal/es and tree bark.

Ho neydew

Honeydew is produced by insects which feed on large <¡uantities of sa po It IS the excess sugar content of sa p excreted by these inseets . It is usually white and crusty.

Nectar

Nectar is a li<¡uld produced by Flowering plants and trees, it has a sweet taste and attrac s pollinatlng inseets.

Gums

Gums are multiple sugars produced by some plants and trees . lt is thicker than sap and becomes gelatlnous when mi xed with water. It is produced in abundance by many Austra lia n and Afri can trees, In particular, the acacias, which are a variety of tropical tree . IL is ¡¡[so referred to as gum Arabic, a substa nce used in the production of many human food products such as candy, chewing gum, and other pro ducts t hat re<¡uire non ­ artificial thickening agents .

Insects and Arachnids

Many species are consumed by the sugar gtider, dependant upon their availilbility. Gliders, both wild an d captive, will pull o ff the legs and wings before they are eaten .

Ana lysis o l" food it ms by n ut riti o nal co nLe n t for p rotein s a nd ca rbohy­ d rates, in ludi ll g th o se de riv J fro m plant fib e r, fats, mi n ra ls, an d vita m ins, is esse n tial in prov iding a di t th a t is no t o nly d eq ua te LO p ro rn o te an an i­ m al's h ealth and well- bei n g, bu t also all ow th e a n im al to exhi b it nor ma!, n a LU ral beh vio rs w he n ~ ragin g an d selen in g f(l o d ite m s. Ad diti o na lly, ( n­ sid e r tio n m USL be give 10 seaso nal ity (the va rie ty a nd type o f [o o d a ail a b le) in the wi ld w ith in thei r norm al geogra p hic range. T h ' ugar gli d er in h ab its th e southern he mi p here, wh ich is sea 'o n ally oppos ite LO th e north ern h e mi ­ sphere. Fo o d so u rces ha nge dra m ati ca lly a nd season all y. Th is di f~ rence in natural food ava ilab il ity conlrib u Les to th e no ti o n lha t th ey are piel?)' ea/en . la ny own rs repon Lha t rhei r g lid ers w ill sud d e n ly r fu se r od \"lhich th ey prev io llsl y .onsu m ed rea d ily.

--~ -------~---------==---------------~=-~~

Sugar Gl ide rs

125

reriods f deaeased cansu mplion may be norm a l an d tle mplS to encourage grealer il1lake usuall y invol e random ubslituti ns o f foad items selected for pal.ltabilJh raLher lh an it ms which are n utriLianally approp riale and m eet meta­ ba H needs. besity in captiv gli ders, co up lecl ¡lh mal nulrition, I ek a f norma l exer ise (roo m tu gl ide), and human expecla tio ns o f amou nts that should be eaten, al! contribu te to the hea lth p rob le ms , een in eaptive glicl ers.

BENIAMIN LEADBEATER, an Englis h Victoria natura list an d taxidermlst, t raveled the world collecti ng specimens for

zoos and muse ums. He is cred ited with discovering many speci es and for his observatio ns an d writi ngs of t heir natUl'al hi s­ t ory. Leadbeate r's Mi x of nutrients may be dated to 1834 , when he recammended suitab le diets for new speclmens deliv ­ ered to the London Zoo. Leadbeater)s Mix

150 ml ea ch of warm water and honey 1boile d egg , sh ell re moved 25 gms of high prote in baby cereal vitamin/mine ral suppleme nt Mix water and ho ney and gradually add to blended egg. Add vitam in/ mine ra l supp lement and baby cereal, ble nd un ti l sm ooth . The mixtu re needs to be refrigerate d. Portions may be froze n in ice cube trays and t hawed completely befare feedi ng. Leadbeat e r's Mix sh ould equal50 percent of the da lly dietoThe other 50 percent ca n be an assortmen t o f chopped fru its, froze n mixed vegetables (thawed), and live insects such as cri ckets, and mea lworm s.

Anolher diet thal is used with ron&itlerabl e suceess is based 00 lhe Taronga Z O d iet (Sydney, Auslr lía). There are . lighl va riati on LO ú1is d i t, but none seem la a (~ el the nU lritiana l balance. l~or example, the diet cal ls for once we('hl}~ dfl)'-old chichs . Aside from lhe inherent unpleasantnes of feed ing day o ld ch icks, theyar no t re d ily availab le to the aver ge earegiver. la ny breeders have rerommended ub tituling a repder /1 /O Hse . This substi tuLÍon needs eM f11 1 tho ught a lhe re is a gr al p ten li al for injmy lO lhe suga r gliJ er<; and th ere i Lhe poss ibi lity of pa rasite transm iss ion ( loxoplasmo is, wh ieh is zoono lic). Alsa, it has bcen noted b m an I owners, that cimls f ruits (oranges ) co ntribute grea lly LO the o do r rrod ucetl by sugar glid rs. Their unne becomes stronge smel ling a nd m o re pungelll.

TARONGA ZOO DIET

Equal po rtion s of ap ple, bana na , fres h sweet corn (frozen com may be used if thawed), gra pes, and kiwi fru it. Fresh oranges with t he skin on, melon, pa paya, and sweet potatoes Leadbeater's Mix 50 pe rce nt of total volume . Dog Kibble (wh ich appears in a few variations of th is for mula) O nce weekly, day-old chicks

126

UNIT 11' CHAPTE R 13

I\lla ny owners caplure insects, grasshoppe.J , and moths, but care must be take n as they may have been exposed to inse t ici des and fertilizers. Fireflies sho uld no t I e fed as lhey a re known to be toxic in many 'pecies. lnsects should be 'ul-Iudd 'll prior lo feed i ng, (feed the food) or they may be dusled with a vita­ m ini mineral sup pleme nt just pr ior to feeding. There are commercial diets for sugar gliders, as we ll as a neCla r powJ er tl1at is mLxed with water. Gliders will also readi ly lap nalural fruit ju ices. Several veterinarians recommend smal! amounts (leaspoo nfl.ll ) of exotic fe lint: diets as an additional protein sOllrce.

IIHndling and R(.t.sll aiol Owners f ugar gli ders all ow lhem lO sca mpe r around on th eir hands and bodies wilhoUl much ha ndli ng. Well-hand led slIgar gliders often leap fro m lhe cage top or oth er high area in a room to land on the owner. Shollld one unintentionally escap from lhe cage, il is ea ¡er to recapt ure by turning on alI the lights or wilh lhe use o f a fla. hl igh i. A sudden light somce will lemporarily im mobilize a sugar glide r and a thick towel ca n be pl aced over it so lhat it may safely be picked up. no th er method is la pUL lh slecping sack clase to its [ocation . Most sugar gliders wil! en! r lhe sJeep ing S3 k. Bare-handed atten1pts to capture th e sugar glider may result in a bite that can be d ep and painful. Il can be very difticult LO exami ne a sugar glider with regard to its health, poten lial ¡lIne 's, or inju ries with out lhe use of general anesthesia. In assessing genera l h alth , mobi lilY, coat con Ji ti o l , ,1I1d attitude, it often works wel! to keep one's d i lance and ob erve lhe glider's inl ractions wit h Lhe owner while obta in­ ing all r levant hi. tory. His lo ry sho uld includ how and where it was obtained, num ber of glid es in tb e colony; housing, and di t. If it is a pochec pet, informatíon sh uld be obtain d a' lo bow oft n an d wben the animal is most disturbed, and th e i ni ti ' I reason for th e exam.ination. uga r gliders s ho dd be obse rved in ub clued light in g ancl lhat alone can make a more ompl ete e am inalion d illi cu lt. Bright, a rt ifi cia l lights stanle sugar gliders and reaclions m ay be m isinterpreted. It i poss ible to scruff a glid er for a very ql.lic k cu rsory exam ina lío n , but b prepared and wam the own r thal the glid er \Vill produ cE' loud vocali zations, most of which they have never hea rd befare. [ ven a rela tively simp le p rocedure, such as a na il tri m, ofte n req u ires gen eral ane thesia, as sugar gl id er ' are d ifficult to restrain sa f Iy.

I~dical

Conc .. rn:

los! medical problems seen in the sugar glid er can be clirectly related to improper hu. bandry and an inadeq uale diet. Maln utrit ion leads to weight loss, general ized weak'lle , musde aLr phy, lethargy, at
Suga r G Uders

127

G(lsll'oilll ("si ina' Ilisord("rs

Ca, t ro int stinal probleros are seen with an in orreCl d i 1, which may a lso con lri bute to red al prolapse. The musdes beco me wea k n ed ( nd lose to ne to the p o int where the redum protrudes, ' p osing th lissue. Vete rinary care is nec ssary and a ne thes i is req uired to reduce nd re to re lhe p rolapsed tissue. Success depends upon how long the tissue has beell exposed an d the vera ll hea lth o f th glider. Prola pse o fte n becom es a chronic, r cu rring problem rega rd l s o f dieta

d 1anges m ade.

Enteri tis ca n be a so ciated w ith b acterial a nd pro tozoal prob lems. D ia rrhea is the m o t common sign w it h boLh of lhese co ndi iOIl!>. Reco m men d ed veterina ry trea tm e nl inclu des adm inistration of an tim icrob ial andf o r an lhel mintic therapy for poss ibl e parasi tes, b ismuth sub sa licylate lO co nu'ol ú1e di arrhea, aoel a n ana l­ gesie and antj-infla mm a tory medication to ca lm the gas U'oinlestinal track

ondi~(~sl h."

Disord("rs

Ca taracts have occurred in suga r gliders an e! are lin ked la n u lri li o na l de li cie nci e an d genetics. Catara t · see m to occur m o re fr -q uently in los Iy related, in bred sugar gliders. Vitamin A defi ciency can also ca use Cala raClS lO fo rm

ver

d

period

o f time. When lhe d iet is incorrect, lh e gli der can b eeome hype rgly e m ic, aus illg ca laraets to fo rm more readily. Urinary tract diso rders can oecur in

me sugar glider.

Dietary-rehllcd n ephritis,

re f1al disease, and ma le urinary trad blockages art com mo n. Bladd r ru plure, prolapse of th pen is, and ensuing n

rosis may occur wllh tra u ma. lnsta nces of penile necrosis

are also seen d ue lO lh e aeeumulation of [u r, hu man hair, o r b ddi ng materi al thal has tighten ed and foml d a to m niqu t around Ih penis, rutti ng o ff lhe bl ood supply. Reproducti e p ro blems m ay be caused by a n inap propria te d iel or insuffide lll amounts Hood. There ma a lso b in fectio us agents

ithin!.he pOLlch or reprod uc­

tiv tractoJoeys !.hal are weak an d fail lO th rive can b e atlri buled to an insllfficiency problem of the d am, as she may nO l be r rodllclng an adeq UiHe vol ume lf m ilk or may h ave developed maStilis . Hum an interfe rene will also prod uce weak joeys and will kili tI ero ir lh ey are pulled [ro m lhe pOllch early. lIl-advised all mpls (lre mad to h and- feed joeys in order lO more easily imprillt o r Lame the bab T glider. O ecasionaLly, joeys m ay di if1 th pouch 3nd !.he cause is un J elermined . e uro logiea l a nd limb prob le m a re oflen seen togeth er. Th se on d itio ns occur most frequently in sugar glide rs tb al are co n fin ed lo a bonding pouch af1d receive l¡ttle o p pOrLUn ily fOl" exercise o r feed ing norm ally. AIrected sugar gli cle rs a re ata 'ie an d m ay e: h ib it l1l uscle tr m or

w h e n they alle mpt lo m ove

Deca \cifica lio n of Ih b one m ay a lso be presen t (figu re 13-6) . De pe nding on the dural ian a nd severity o f th se probJ ems, there m ay be permanent J a m age lO Ú1.e ne rv u sy 'tem an d bone struct u r . Re ommended th efa py eons ists of supp nive care w ith dieta

and h us b a ndry cha nges. A veterinarian m a p r scr ibe injecti ns

of ca I.cium gluc f1a te a nd a ppropriale vi ta mi nf ll ine.raJ sup p le me nls.

Figure 13-6 Neurological and lImb problems are often seen togelhe r in captive su gar gtiders. These conditions occur more fre­ quently in sugar gliders confined to a bonding pouch. The male sugar gti der shown here was barely able to crawl fro m the bon ding pouch .

Eit h er isoflourane or sevo f1u rane can be used for anest he ia . In balanL n est he­

( Co ll rre~\I of lordar! App/ied Technology Ce nter, West lordan.

sÍa and ind u ctio n \Vi tll e ither age nr can safely be ach ieved with

Utah .)

ól!1

a nesthesia

128

UNIT" • CHAPTER 13

ind uction hambe r ( Figure 13- 7). Wh n lhe sugar glide r reaches a s u itable pl ane ofa neslhes ia wit hi n lhe cham ber. il ca be mai n tained by lrans ferring the an ima l lO the exa m lable an o having il brealh directl , from a nonreb r alhing system (Figure 13-8 ). As with any sma ll m amma l und er g nera l a nesth ia, a decrease in body tem peralure may be expected . Exa m gloves fill ed with warm waler can be lIsed to ma in lain body tem pera ture a nd p rovid p itio ni ng su pp ¡rt, as can a circu lati ng warm wate r pad . orm a! mars upial body te mpera ­ ture is approxim ately 30 percent lower lhan thal o [ placen tal ma mma ls and are mu st b tal en not to erhea t the a nes lheti zed glid er whi le comp nsating for body heat lost.

Figure 1 -7 The se tup of an anesthes ia induction chamber in preparaban for surgery. (Coul1e~ of lordan Applied Tl?chnology Cent!."·, West lordan , Utah )

Sllgar gli clers are ver)' dex terOll s a nd quickly remove sutu res unl ess they are A jac/wt o f sto ki nette m ay help in m a ny in tances (fig ure 1 -9). Sugar li ders bject less to th i a nd se m to ri nd co mfort by being in II e sto l inelle. ALlequate ana lges ia is necessary, a lh ey will chew a t lh si te, CJU S­ ing an even greate r wo und . Glicle rs d o best when al lowed to recover in a soft, dark pOll ch . lnj eclíons m
Figure 13-8 When a suitable plane of ¿mesthesia has been achleved , the patíent is transfe rred directly to che nonrebreathJng sys­ tem o111e elbow forms a perfectly ntted mask and is easily detached aFter use for clean ing and cold­

sterilizati on. (Coune~ of lorda n

Applied TecllMology Center, West lordan , Utah .)

Sugar Gliders

129

ob ta ining a sam p l is lO mask down the gl id er with gas ane lhe · ia . Th is is not only less stressfu[ bu t \- il l help prevent lacerali on oC lh blood vessel. ror s mall o lum es of blaad, the ce p ha lic, late ral saphen ous, fem o ra l, or coccygea l vein may be tlsed . Il is easi e r t a ces the coecygeal vein ir Ihe tail is warm ed fi rst to dil ate the v in. Thi s is acb i ved by di pping the lai l in warm water or appl ying a warm d o th rou nd the la il. If necess a ry, the jugu lar or cran ial ve na cava may be used for larger amaunts of blood. a blood d raw sh o uld exr eed 1 percen t of o J y e igh t by olul1 e. Ir atlemp ting 10 draw [rom th ese sil es, an app ropriate p lane o[ a nes lhesi a is requ ired . Use of a 25 gauge needle w ith a ltIbe r ul in syringe wi ll also hel p to avoio co llaps ing th v in . Because only , mal! amounts o f bloocJ J r obla inec\, lllicrocontainer collecti on tub es are adequate. Most tesls can be ru n o n bIood co ll ectecl in tub es containing ei ther EDT o r heparin .

Pal'tlsil es Figur

Th e [m of a hea lthy L1g r glider is dense and very soft. Poo r hair coats can be a resul l of d ietary insufficiency, barbering, r fig h ting. If ¡he gli der is kepl in a age with wooc\ havings as bed ding, mires can al o be a problem. li te infestal ions are Lrea ted by a veteri narían w ith injecti ons oriverme tin alld a reco mmended ha nge in ho using. Suga r gli ders Ill ay a[so have giardia and oc .idia, usua lly vid need by d iar­ rh ea . F a l nOlaLÍons mI di reet smears w ill delermine if these organisms , re pr s­ em The mieros o ie sl ic\e should a1so be carefull y sc nn d f¡ r ova of ther inle tinal parasites . Th . e may n ot be a. ily id en tifieo as there L little infonnalio n or r po rts of in testina l parasil is lll in suga r gliders.

What does OOP refer to?

When are sugar gliders active?

What is the name ofthe ilniltomicill pilrilchute that allows the sugar

glider to glide?

What is the diet of a captive sugar glider?

" What are sorne of the problems seen when a sugar glider is kept as a solitary pet? What are the recornrnended methods of restraint to examine a sugar glider?

8 How is sex determined in a sugar glider? What is the most common gastrointestinal disease in sugar gliders?

o

Explain how a maLe sugar glider develops penile necrosis.

~ Which veins are used for blood collection?

3 -9 A recovering 5ugar

güder in a stockinette jacket . (This 15 a young mal . The scrotal stalk an d scrotum is evident bet ween the rear legs. ) (Co¡¡rtesy of larda n Applied Technology Centet-, piloto by Cal-al Va ndenAkl¡er.)

130

UNIT 11' C HAPTER 13

Sugar Glider (Pretaurus breviceps)

Nocturnal , arboreal marsu pi als

Native to Australia and New Guinea

• live in colonies of 7 to 12 ani mals, usually fami ly groups • Defend individ ual tre es and lerritories of up to 2.5 acres • Gliding membrane ( patagi um) begins at the 5 digit ,

UFE .>PAN Wild: 4 to 7 years (48 to 84 months) • Captivity: 12 to 14 years (1 44 to 168 mo nths), de pende nt on d iet and husbandry REPRODUCTIO

continues from carpus to tarsus SexuaL Maturity: 1st and 2nd digit of hind feet pa rtia lly fu sed

Female: 32 t o 48 weeks (8 to 12 month s)

Wi ll e nte r a torpi d slate with adve rse tem peratures Male: 4 8 to 56 wee ks (12 to 14 mon t hs ) ( Id eal e nviron men tal temperature : 6 4 to 75°F) Uterine gestatio n is 16 days, fo llowed by fetal migration t o po uch

FEMALE ANATOMY Bilobed uterus with lateral vagi nas and central birth canal

• TIP (ti me in pouch) approximately 70 days

Pouch with two teals , two o ffspr ing common

Litter Size: 1to 2

Scent gla nds contai ned with in the pouch ; secretio n

In dependence/wea ning age ap proximate ly 117 days,

and urine mark ing increase with breedi ng rece ptivity

will remain in parental nest

MALE A~ATOMY

VITAL STATISTICS

Oc (8 9 .6 °F)

• Bifurcated pen is with mid-ven t ral pendulous scrotum

Temperature: 32

• Scent glands on the fore head , chest and peri-anal region

Heart Rate: 23 9 to 300 bpm

• Both sexes scent mark territory, nest site, and each other

Respiratory Rate: 5 2 to 6 5 breaths/minu te

WEIGHT

DENTAL

• Male: 115 to 160 g

Dental Formula: 2(4 /3, 1/ 1,3/3,4/4) = 4 6 to 48

• FemaLe: 96 to 135 g

total teeth

Barnes, Michelle (2 002 ). "Suga r Gl iders" In Cage, Laurie j. (Ed. ) . fland-Rearing Wild ¡lnd Do mestic Mal1l l1la l.\ (pp. 5 -62 ) , lowa Slate Press. Oelan y, athy A. John sol1 (2002). "O thr ma ll Mamma ls." In Mered ith, nna & Sharon Redrobe ( ds.). BS/\\~I\ MmwiI/ ofFxolir PeLS, 4 th [ dirio n (pp. 102 -105). British

Small Ani mal Veterinary Association. Oelaney, Cathy A. JOhnsOll (2 005) . "Th ~ la rsupi al Pet: Suga r SIid er ( O pos ums, an d Wa lJabies," Presented al D !las Veterinary Medica l Associatio n. http ://www.glideruniversity.org (accessdjanu.1 l)f 2005-M arch 2006) .

Suga r Gliders

Holz, Peter (2003 ) . "Mafsupalia (Marsupi,ds)." In Fowkr, MUITJy F. & Millcr, It

Eric ( Ed ,) . 7.00 arld Wild An ill/u { Medicirle, 5 th Ed itioll (pp , 2 88-303 ). Phi ladelphia: W. tl Saunders. igh lfo t, Tere 'a M. ( 1999 ) "Cl inical I:xam inalion of Ch inchillas, Hed gehogs, Pra irie Dogs and Sugar Gl iders." [n Orcutt, Conn ie J. (Ed .). TIle Ve teril/III")' CUll les 1 No rth AlIleriw Exa l le Animal Pmc[iw PJ¡)'~ic(j1 EX(l/ llin al ;(Jr¡ ¡l nd Preuelllalive Medici ne (2.262- 269 ) . Ph iladelphia: W B. Saunders. Lighlfoot, Teresa M. & Bartlell, L. ( 1999 ). "Sugar Glider Ord,ietom , an Ex e rpl from Small Ma m mal Clin i ian 's Ol 'b ole" [n Exotic DVM . Florida ( 1-4: 11- 13).

ICE Proceedings. €ss, Roben D. ROO lh, Ro ie ( 2004). "S ugar G li de rs." rn QlIesenberry, Kalh rine E. & Carpemer, J mes W. ( Eds.) . Fen e/s, HaMirs allli Roderz ls Clinical Medici1l e and Surger}', 2 nd Edil io n (p p. 330-338 ). PhiJade lp b ia: W B. Sa llnders.

Riv ra, Samuel (2003). "Olher Species Seen in Pradice." In Ballard, Bonnie . heek, Ryan ( Eds,) . Exotic An ima l M edicin e [01' lhe VC1eril7 ar)' Tecllll ici1l71 (r p. 269-272 ). Iowa State Press, Shapiro, Dani el S., M D., Director, Clínica l Micro b ioJogy Labor;¡tory, La bey C! inic, Burl ington, Massachuselts; Adjll nct Assocíate Professor of Medicine (In fectious iseas ),130 ton lIn iversiey Sehoa l o f tedieine.

-

131

AVIa OH II~(~ rn E ..,iculture

hlconry psiltacine. passerine. softbills aviaries

lofts crop miUt squabs proventriculus ventricuLus gizzard cloaca sexually dimorphic cere uropygial gland preening rectrices remiges down po wder down fiLo plumes bristle feathers blood feather molting cogn izant cu ttlebones choana tenesmus

Afle¡- complelin2, Ihi" d WplCl; lh e Sl lIdenL ShOIl{i{l¡c ah/e lo

• properly hOllse a om pa nion bird \-vilh the , ppropriate cag size, perches, and tO}15. • provide ap pro priate c1i en l ed uca lion to nE'\- b ird owners. • provi d a prop r die t for lh e d ifferenl sp ec ies of companion birds. • provid e bas ic n ursing a nd m e rgency ,are lO a bird. • provid e nu trit iona l sup port to an ill bird lhrough Lu b ~ eding • assisl in lhe anes lhesia oCa bird. • dc monSlra le a ppropriat restrail1l tech n ic¡ ues.

Inll'oducl ion \ in tI!

the keep ing o f co m pa nion b irds, has b en a p art of hum a n culture fo r cemuri es. Bi rds were kep l for th cir 'o ngs, bea ut iful colors, in te llig n e,
ours , lhe wond e r of ll ight. The fea lh ers o( 'o ti c bi r s have been used la J co­ ra te C rem o nial dress, birJ s of prey were lrain ee! as hu nti ng companio n in th e ancienr a rt o f fi k IOn , pigeo ns were employed du ring war li m lo deliver l11 e$­ sages b e hind nemy línes, a n d lhen there wa lhe wo nder o f sp ech, Tod y, birds a re kep l [o r all these reasons a n d more, They a r t h third most popular compan­ ion p cjes, following on ly after dogs and cats (Fi gure 14- 1). Ther is such great a riety in the typ s of co m pan ion b jrds, from lh s m allest sLngin g fi nch es lo th e larges l ma caws, th at lhere can be n o o ne volu m that could ven begi n to e ver or keep up wi lh cu rrent inform aLion. In gene raL compan io n birds are lim ited to a f, w 1 'onomic fam Uies: tho e co m mo n ly and co ll eclively call ed parrots, findles, soft-bil1s, pigeon , an d doves. Wi th in each of mese gro up is an enormous variely of species, each wi th lh eir own distin ct cha ract rist ics, behaviors, and perso n alít ies. Oi et an d husb an dry require­ me nts th a t m eet m eir ne ds are JUSI as specific. Bird are cl assified according to theü' an lomical featllr . ( re those birds w ilh powerful hooked beaks, Th y h a e fo ur lo es, t\Vo forward and tw back. In addition to perd1i ng, th ey use thei r fce! to pick up and hol d [ood items, to pl ay. and to clim b. Th is group is co l! clivel y called parrots o r hookbi/k Popular speci ind ude budge rigars, coc.ka Liel s, cockaloos, conures, a mazo ns, macaws, and the Africa n parrots. Psittacines are J nown for t h ir ab ili ty to ta lk, Lheir ime lli J nce, and lhe ir longe ity. Sorne hoo kbills m ay live 60 y a rs or more.

134

Avian

135

Figure 14 1 Birds have be en kept for centu­ ries. The feathers of many species , such as these scarlet macaws, were used to decorate cerem onial dress .

1.\ ennL are lhe largest group a nd indude th e so ng b irds. They 1 ave sma ll straigh t beak and four toes; three toes are d irected forward and o ne back. Passeri ne do Ila l use tb eir feet like psi ua cines and are o ften ca lled perching birds (Figu re l4- 2). They are usually too small lo beco l1le h afld tame but are enjoy ' d rol' th eir variety o f so ngs an d colo r. l ncl uded in this group are an enormo us variety of tin ches an d ca n aries. f he have a m uch sh o n er lifespa n of four to eigh t years. Passerine Percll ing Fool

Psittacine

Figure 14-2 While both passer­ ines an<:i psittacines have four toes , l he fooi of the passerine (or perch ­ ing bird) has three toes poi nting forward and one pOlnting back . A psittaclne's foot is adapted for grasping and has two toes pointing

2 Toes Forward, 2 Back

Ma ny of th e flnc h

S

ar also <¡ni hU s to distinguish l hem from th e : eedea ters.

Softb ill s req ui re diffe rent d ielS and gen rally do no t eat seeds, bu t feed main ly on in 'eClS and a va riery o( fru its. ¡\ sepa ra te grou p, Rh amp hastidae, incl udes to ucans, touca neu es, and aricaris . These are aften kept in d isplay .l\ i. r ~ rather th ao as companion b irds. Th ey h ay very specift c d ielary requ irem ents and are not usually hand-tamed. They eat a vari ety of fruil , insects, small m am mals, and lizards. 'fhey are kept for Lhe ir beauty and relative r reness. This gro up h a. very large b aks for catching pre" w hi ch they toss into lhe ir and swa llow " h ole. Pigeons and doves al' ery popul ar and are usu ally housed oUldo rs in lofL1>. They are kn wn for their h mi ng insLincts and gentle natu re. Flocks of homers m ay o fle n be seen in lh e sky as Lhey ny back lo ¡he Joft, re tuming arter moming 'xercise

.

forward and two toes pointing back .

136

UNIT 111' CHAPTER 14

A HOMING PIGEON is a domesticated rock pigeon that has been selectively bred to be able to find its way home over long d ista nces. Sorne of the lo ngest flights recorded have been greater th an 1600 miles. Many of these birds compete in races. Pigeon rac ing ís a popular sport t he world o ve ro

There are rnany arieties o f fan cy pigeons. Th ey a re nO l on ly raced, bu t a re exh ibited in pecial ty sh ows, rel eased at functions, an d njayecl 1y rnillians wh o just en joy wa t h ing th eir no ks whirJ and swoop th ough th e aie Pigeons a nd doves are ColumbifoTmes. Pigeons are large r with sq ua red tails. Doves a re rn uch sm alle r w ill tai! f a thers thaL e n d in a po in t. T hey ar Inique in tha t bo th pa rents produce crop Illilk to fe ed th eir yo ung, known as quab ·. Resp ira tí a n in b ir i ~ l[u ite different frarn that of ot her spe ies. The lu ngs ar rairly rigid a nd lay flat agains t the dorsal vertebrae and ribs. MOSl birds hay eight ai[ sac that assist wi th res piration. Movement of the breast m llscl es, ke.e l bone, ami ribs p rovid s fo r lu ng respiration a lld also inflat s the air sa c ', losp ir d a ir m oves fro m th lungs and t hro ugh th e air sac before re turning to th e lllngs and exh aling ex h a nged gases. Bírds d o not h ave a di ap hragm to assist in res pi.ra tio n (Figure 14-3 ) . A ian diges lion al o differs compared to otb er specie , Food enters the oral cavity an d lravels dow n the eso phagus to the erop. Th e erap is an expand able

Fígurp I -3 The respiratoly sys­ te m of birds fun ct¡ons ín a d iffe rent way from that o f mammals . Bírds do

Lateral Víew of the Respiratory

Organs of a Blrd

nol have d iaphragms to assist in res­ pitatíon . Inspired air mo ves through the lungs and air sacs assisted by lhe kee l bone, bre ast muscles and ribs.

Humeral Medullar Cavity

Clavicular Air Sac

----:::::::=====::::t

Pneumati zation 01 the Stern um

Cranial Thoracic Air Sac Caudal Thoracic Aír Sac

137

Avian

fo o d lo rage po uch (figure 14-4) . fter leavi ng Lhe ero p food pesses to the prnVllllf mIli'" or true sto m ach. The prov ntricu lus cont ins digestive enzymes th at sta n lO break down lhe food. hom the pro enLricu lus, partially digcsted food travels to the \'l ltnculus, com mo nly called the glLLud. The stro ng, tough muscles 01' lhe venlficulus grind lh e food befo re it enLers the small inte tine, wll ere nutri enlS are abs rbed . Waste producls are expell ed fro m th doac.l . lile cloaca is nOl only lhe terminal co llecting sac fol' th digestive system, but the urinary tract also empties into lh cl oaca befo re wa Sle is expell ed . The cloaca is a major organ of lhe reproduClive trad ""h ere sperm is dep sited and eggs are deliv­ ered (Figure 14-5) .

'''gure'

4 A young, paren t-fed cockatiel

chi ck with a ful l crop . This chick is approxi­ mately eight days old. (Cal!rt€~

al Ron ie 's

For The Loue 01 Birds.)

Jejunum

Avian Digestive Tract

Cloaca

Ceca

Crop

lIeum Heart

FIgure I

Ventriculus (Gizzard)

5 The digestive system of birds also differs from hat of mammals. Digesti on begins in the erop befare moving to the

proventri eulus (or trLle stomach) an d the ventric ulus, comm only called the gizzard .

..

138

UNIT 111' CHAPTER 14

Mate Bird Urogenital Trae!

Mal s have two t stieles enelosed within lhe < bdomio¡]¡ cavi ty ( Figure 14- 6). Duri ng breeJ ing season , th e le 'l ides nlMg as lhey prod u e sperm In many b írcls, only !he left teslide is fu ncl io na l. 1- ma les, whi le h aving l\Vo ovaries, usua Jly h ,lve on ly one !hal i ' fun ctiona l anJ this, too, is on lhe left side (Figure 14 -7).

Kidney Kidney

Figure 14 7 Newly hatche d cockallel Ureter

chicks. No t all eggs produced by t he Qvary will be ferrllized by the male as shown here with the rema ining egg being non-Fertlle.

(Courtery oJ lordan Applied Techt1ology Cernel', Wesljordan , Urah.) Figure 14-6 The urogenital tract of a male bird . Usually, only the left testlcle produces sperm duri ng the breeding season .

Víth SOl11e spceie , sex determinalion is as, an d can be do ne v'isua lly. Biro with dis tmctlv different ph sienl ap p earaoces between m ales and fe males al' ea lled 'il. \111 \ dim. rphi . For ex mple, tlle L r of a m a je bu dg ri ga r 1S bl ue aod lhe [emaJe has a tao o r pa le p in l- cereo The Ecl ectu parro t ha an even gTealer differ oce : mal es arc bright green alld females a re red. In so m e species, sou nd m be identifying; for e;\[am[lle, on ly lhe mal canary sings. In ol her specie , il ¡s not possib le lO delermin e sex visuall y Positive ide nti fl calion i usua lly det rm in ed through DN¡\ testing. A single fealher scn t to a !ab i5 alllha t is requ ired. Pre ious ly, be fare DNA lesling, birds were exam ineJ su rgica lly. 1 he p rocedure req ulred the bird to be anesrhetized and l he reprodu (ive rgans exam in ed inlernal ly. T his pUL the bird al risk and i5 nol now usually performcd )[l companion birds . Some species llave;1I1 01') -i.1 gl. I 10caleJ at lhe base o f lhe taí l. The gland produces o iJ ~ rh at tJ1e bird uses when 11 n 11 . Hi rJs ru b their beaks o e r tbe gland, picking u p lhe oi.ls, whid\ ;He transferred and groomed in to lhe fealhers. Al! bi rds preen lO clean an d ma intai n their fea lhers. Birds have six díff r nl lyp s of fealh ers. Contour [eathe rs {lre fo u nd on the wings ancl tai l; tbey over th e body and OUlli ne its shapc. The wing fea!hers are r ctn~es ane! lhe tail feat h e rs are r 'mi ( Figu re 14-8 ). Dm '11 fealllers are dose to thc body and p ro ¡d e wa rm!h . Down fealh 'r<; are rhe fif t LO a ]1ear in oewly hcllched ehicks. Semipl u mes lay lInder rhe contour (ea Lhe r and ove r lhe clown fealhe rs. These a lso help insulate and keep [he bird warm. Some clown feathers produce a Iln e white powJ er lhaL p rovides waler­ p roollng. ¡-hese fealher. a re called r )\\tl r It 11 feat h ers LO distinguish them from lhose whid, only p roviu e warmth . Some species such a, ckatoos and African Greys produce a grcater amounl of fea liler dusl th ;m ther b irds. I I r1ur '\ are m all, hair-like feathers wiLIl barbs a loog the shafl thal hel p gu ide the bird in nighL and reposition lhe fealh e rs. I n\tl l. h are on ¡he 1 ead, arou nd the eyes a nd nares. These are sen sOly feathers ( rigurc 14-9) . ew and growing ~>alhers have a rieh blood supp ly lh al nourishes!he fealhe r as il grows. As the fealher matures, lhe bIood Sllpply rec des a nd the shaft of the feal he r beco mes cleae If a Iarge growing ronlo u r 01' Il igh l fea!her is b roken r Jamaged, it will blt'ed profusely. To stop lhe b leeding. the brol e n t III 1 f llhlr needs lo be completely r moved Ic s houlJ be grasped fir ml y wi tb. foree ps, lose

Avia n

Patag ium

----­

Metacarpus

Ventral View o. a Bird 's Wing

Primary Remi ges Secondary Remi ges

Figure 14

The ventral view of a bird wing showing feath er attachmen l and s ~e leta l ilnatomy.

Nares

Avlan Anatomyl Primary Feathers

Cere

Body Coverts

Figu re 14

Extemal anatomy of a bi rd and feat her dlfferences .

la ¡he skin, an d p ull ed direcLly o u t in the sa m e di rection as th e feathe r gTOwth The b lood vessel will seal o ff under the skin . DireCl p ressure Oll a b loo d feather

will usually lla r SlOP lhe b leed ing. Traumatized birJs h ay been known to bleed la

-

dea th from broke n blood [eat hers. Extract ion of d b[ood feat h.er is pa inful a nd

Jn es thesia is req u ired, especi, ll in large b ird s.

139

'140

UNIT 111· CHAPTER 14

\Iultmg, ¡he natura l replacement of fea thers, occurs in birds o nce or twice ayear.

,[,h is can e in ueneed by season, health, and nutriLio l1 . Most mo lts lake several weeks to com plete. Molting an be a slressful time (o r.-\ i.n.!. Birds ti a l ar normally vocal often bec me subd lled and qu iet. e are should be taken wi th molting birds, as blood feathers are coming in and lhey can potentia lly be more vulnerabl e to damage.

F10ck status is very impo rtan t in es tabl ishing hierarchy and so cial arder. When peopIe acq u ire companion birds, th ey beco me part of the social o rd er. In the wiId , th e birds on th e highest bra nch are che domina n t birds . Wilh co mpanion b irds, the fl ock status is no d ifferent. Th e higher Lhe bi fd is plac d, eith er by cage loca­ tion or whil e so iJl izing w ith a h uman, determines fan k and social ~t tus. Many bch av ioral i su es wi th birds are a direct reslllt of placi ng tbe bird d ove the owner's head o r all owing the b ird to sit on a shoulder, giving the bird priorit)' at m e top of t he pefe ived hiera rch)'. Birds are very int Iligen t. They have lh e ab il ity to use tool s, pro bl em-solve, and transfer lea rned info rrnation. Because of th is level ofintelligence, they req u ire da ily interaction w it h hum ans or other birds. They need [O be pro ided with toys approp ria te fo r thei r m enta l abili ties, toys that interact, stilll ul ale, and e nterta in . ,Ylany beh dv ioral pro bl ems seen in b irds are cr aled by bor d o m o So me bi rds become aggressive, cage territorial, and bi te. thers b gin to feath r-piek o ut of boredom and from littl or no social inte racti on \vith peo ple (Figure 14-10) . Birds th at are han d-raised by hurn a ns imp rint and bond wilh pe p ie, not o ther b irds, and need J ail q ua lity time from thei r human t1ock.

Figure I 10 Feather-píckíng ís a comrnon behavloral problem In many companíon bírds. As wlth any behavioral change , a medical cause should be ruled out. This otherwise healthy green wíng ma caw has become a chroníc feather picker. The exact reason, or reasons, is undetermined . (Courte:y 01 Ro nie 's Fo r Tite Lou~ of Birds.)

Sp cies th at spe k al so use appro pri ate vOGlb ul ary for their si tuati o n. African Cre)'s in p articu la r are vely vocal ab out th ir p redica ment and wi lt co m ­ plain el arly : Sto p it' Don't do it l , Bad do,S;! Birds are wgnizanl an d know exactly wha t t hey are saying and use the voca bu la ry th y h ave 10 make their fe lings ve ry lear.

Allian

FOR MAI'lY YEARS, Dr. Iren e Pep perberg has stud ied the learning ability of par­

rots . Through her studies and others, we know that parrots are cognizant, intelligent, and have a greater ab ili ty of communi cat ion than once thought.

lIousing Al I bi rds need to be provided with as I rge a cage as possi ble. A cage is not just a pl ace t contain a b ird, bu! it beco mes a sa f, pl ace, a play ground, the source of food ilnd water, and a sleeping area. Cages shou ld be wider tha n they are tal!. Birds do not fl y straight u p and down. Their Oight and movements are more lateral or at a gradu al incline. Ro und cages provide n p lace for a bi rd to seltle ¡nto and feel safe. e ges sho uld n Ol be coated wi lh lead -based paint or made of galva nized metJ I. Cage bar spacing needs lo be of ¡he appropri ate size for the bird so it can­ not sq ueeze through the bars or become stuck betwe n them. Perches in the cages should vary in dimen sio n wi th , izes appropriate for grasp ing and resting the f el. alural wood, such as ma nzanita, makes ideal perches . They are avail able in arying wi cl lhs and shapes and altach easily to cage ba rs. ManzJn ita wood is easy to c1ean and d isinfect. Dowe l rods and sand-covered perches should nOl be used . The co nstan r abrasion [rom ,tand ing on sa nd paper­ cove red perch e crea t s so res on th e bottoms of ¡he feet. Th e foot w raps 3/4 of the way aro und a correctly fi tted p erd1, and ¡he nails do nO l c me into co ntact wirh lhe surface of lhe perch , so ¡he use of sandpaper covered perche is no! a meth o d of keep ing nail trim med . Perches should not be pl aced d irea Jy over food ano water bmvls wh r the ca n beco me co n ta m inated Wi Ú1 feca l ma terial. Most bi rds have a sleepi ng perch, used only at nigh t or when res ting. le sh o u ld be placed towards the back o f a cage. So me birds, especi ally conures, use a sl eeping tent that ha ng fro m the cage topo There are a vari ty of materi als a ailabl for bird cage floo rs. The easiest, cheap­ est, and health iest is still pl ain news paper. Sawdust and waod shavi ngs crea te dust that can caus respi ratory problems and pos ible crop blockages if ingested . Ground corncob, wal nut shells (which are toxic) , and recycled paper prod ua s promote mold growili whe n they beco me wel. Birds pick up and play with m ny items, inelud ing cage subs trates. "1 bey enjoy sh redding newspaper b ut rarely swaJlow pieces. The cage should be located in an area o f th e house where [he bird is able ro int raet w ith fa mily 111 m bers, bU l not near the kitchen. o nstick coo bvare, when heated, releases fum es that are toxic to birels_Burning food, such as mi cro-waved popcorn, can als release nough toxi c [umes to kili a bird. Common household ilem s that are toxic to birds inelude fum es from sel f-eleaning ovens, aerosol sprays, concentra ted eleaning products, an d oil-b ased pa int. ew carp t often o n ta ins forrn ald e.hyele, S me candles contain lead, and scen ted air fresh eners have a lso b en imp licated . These prod uas can p orentia lly cause respi ratory dis­ tres s an d possibly death . Placing lhe cag near a w indow is no! reco m m en ded . Birds are easily fri ght­ en ed by lbings they see outside and pan ic. D rJ matic tempe ra ture changes, m agni­ fi ed by the glass, ca n overheat the bi r , or drafts from winter weather can chi ll the bird. o m pan ion birds are most com fortabl e al roo m temperatures .

.

141

142

UNIT 11 1· CHAPTER 14

ni..,

No t al! birds eal seeds aIld biru s that do sbould 1l0t eat lhem exclusively. Feeding a s ed- only diel con tributes to ma lnutrition and shorter life spans. Seed mixtures sh ou ld be ava ila b le free choice and be suitable for the speci e . Smaller speci es feed 011 a ariety o fplant seeds, including millet, rape, and linseed while mixes for larger birds contain safflower, su nf1 ower, pu m pkin, and cereal grains. Peppers, shredded coconut, and whole nuts are often found in the hi gh er qualil:) mixes. Diets h igh in sun f10 wer seeds can cau se obesity. With th e advances in un d er­ standing lhe nutritional needs of companion birds, form uJated, pelleted diets h ave b n ueveJ oped. Pell els can be mixed in with seeds to allow the b ird to becom e fam il ia r wilh lhe new foo d . either seeds nor pellets exclusive!)' will meet all the bird's Il eeds. Food a lso becom s enrichme nt and a part of fa mily life in the human flock. Birds frequ ntly shar sm all portions of the family dinner. For the m ost part, it is saf 10 feed birds people food Food ite ms which sho uld never be offered are avoca­ dos, o l11o ns, rbuba rb, garlic, and some uncooked sq uashes which contain enzymes lhal ca n be [Oxie. C hocolate and caffe ine are both on the ¡ O list, as well as h ighly . alted ite ms, alcoh olic beverages, and all food take n from the human m outh.

ASIDE FROM THE POSSISILlTY OF ZOONOT

e

DISEASE TRANSM lS-

SIO , feedinga bi rd fro m the human mouth may send the wrongmessage to the bird. As birds bond with owners, t hey can also view th em as mates. As a part of bird court­ sh ip behaviors , they regu rgitate foo d to fee d their chosen mate.

A wi de varíely of fre sh fru its and vegeL1.bl es should al so be a part of the bi rd' d aíly di et. O lher fo o ds lhal can be add ed to the diet are cooked pasta, pOlal s and rice, legumes lh t have been soaked and th en cooked, cooked scrambled eggs, and hard-bo iled eggs. Sm a ll er b irds, cockatiels, finches, and canaries see m to prefer vegetables over fruit. lt can be difficult 10 te mpt birds to try d ifferen t foods if th ey were not introduced to them when rhey were ch icks. The sense f 'mell is not very well develo ped in birds, but many companion birds have co me to ass o ci ate t he so unds of certaia noi ses in the kitchen with certain foa ds lh at th ey nj oy. Lories a nd I rikeets require J speci al ized d iet of oeda r and do not eat seeds or vegetabl s. Powdered neclar is mixed with water a nd offered as a liquido The tongu e of a Lo ry has brist) es tha t hold the nectar as it is lapped. They also eat very ripe and juicy fruit. Pigeons and d ve. consume seeds whole. They eat a variety of cereal grain s and pod seeds, SUd l as peas a nd bea ns. Pigeons are fed different combinations of pro teins and fats which betler enab le the m to compete and race. Many pigeon breeders develop th eir own m ix o f grain and legumes to enhance performance in raci ng ar in spe ia lty b reeds, whi ch are bred fo r show. Gri t was often recom­ mended for < 11 ompani on bi rds. Jt was sca tt r don the cage floor or offe red in a sma! ) di. h . Grit was thought LO b necessary fo l' bi rds to digest seeds. Grit eventu­ ally en ds u p ín the gizzard (ven lriculus) where it grind the food and breaks clown

•

Avian

143

[he shell hui !. No t all birds shou[d have grit (b ird grav 1) a nJ it can ha rm th ose thal d on't need it. It is n w recom mended onIy for birds, lik pigeons and doves, mal con su me wh o le, intact s eds. Most o ther b irds rack the sced hull and cast it aside b fore co ns um ing th e sm all ke rnel insi de. ( ullllhnOl. ~ are reco m mended for small bi rds. Finc!1 e , an a ries, ockat iels, and budgies all enj oy pe ki ng on th m. CUl tlehones providc a so urce of ca !cium an J lraee amou nts of io di ne. Ni bb lin g on thern
I~(' stl~ainl

(lnd lIandliuA

Most co m pa nion birJs re hand-tam ed an d wi l[ingl y slep up to a n extended pa ir oE fingers. IlookbiJls often use thei r beaks LO grasp someth ing prior to leppi ng onto ir. Tb is should not be t ken as an attemp t to bile. Jerking t he ha nu away wdl earn im mediate mist rus t from the bird. It is lhe equivalen t of o ffering someo ne a seat th en pull ing it out [rom un der them . If a bird st ps tow,uJ an exten ded h and, il is not likely that it will bite un less sOl1l ething frig htens il or me p erso n attempl 10 grab the bird. Hy necessity, reslra int for an exam or procedur reqllires el J ifferent appro eh from social inleractions. Birds should never be restrained from tJl e fron t. Fven slight pre ure on the 1eel bon e and breast muscles will restriCl res pi ratío n. Birds shou ld al ways be retrained from the back, either u pped in lhe h and or wrapped in towel. The owner should be requested nOl 10 h a nd the bird la lhe restrai ner, bUl allow th res lrainer to afely eatch up lhe b i rd~ Wh en an OWl1er passes lh bi rd, ir can damage lhe trus t the b ird h as wit h its hum, n co mpanion. Th e bi rd should be pl aced on a perch [or th e restrai n r to retrieve and restrJin (J igure 14-12). The use. of d towe.l as a restraint d evice preven ts o i[s fro m lh e re train er's hand s from damaging the ~ a lhers an d also acts as d istraetion [01' the birc! . Cl oves shoul d n ever be used with companion bird '. Th Y " re. frighteni ng to the bird and can r ul t in trauma to the pa tienl. When wearing gl oves, tbe r l rainer is u nab le to fe 1 the amO llOl o f p ressure be ing applied lO lh hird. Birds sh ould be a pproached from behind and the tow I wra p ped arou nd them , incl ud ing the wings. The patien t sh u ld be grasp d ith one hand u nd er the lower beak, avoi d ­ ing pressure on the eheeks, which will re u[t in b ru ising. (This is e pec ia lly impor­ ta n! with m acaws th a t do not have feath er on thcir cheek ) The other han d grasps both feet and up po rts lhe birc!. To prevent reg urgitaLio n, th e bird shoulc! he h eld uprigh t. Ho lding the bird c10se to th (:; restrain r offers s curit_ lo lhe bird . Birds that arrive in their cages can also be ret rie ed with a LOwel. l o avoid in ju ry to the bjrd, toys, di shes, and p erch es should be r moved prior lO alt mpting to towel the bird ins id ¡he cage. Most birds kn ow exac tly what lhe Jreaded lowel mea ns and sorne wi l! alt m pt avoitlance al th e very sight o [ ir. If a bird panies w ith the app ro ach of a toweL the lights should be turned off. o L di urn a l b irds ar u nable to see in the dark, a nd this wil l give lhe restrainer the advantage of retrieving the bird wilh out dim cu lty. Toweled bi rds can become very vocal. Maeaws cream [oudly eno ugh ro

Figur I -11 Cuttlebones are given to small birds as a source of calciurn and lrace amounts of iodine. A cu ttlebone is the endo­ skeleton of this salt water cuttleftsh.

FIgure I I This blue and ¡¡old macaw is correctly and safely restralned with t he use of a towel. lhe reslraine r' s right han d is under the towel and has the bird's head comfortably under control wlthout the danger of bruis ing the bird 's cheeks. (Caw,ery af lordan App/ied

Technology Center, West lardan , Utah.)

use ringing in hum n ears and m any din ic staff llave le, roed 10 be prepared nd use ea r plugs.

.

-

144

UNIT 111 • CHAPTER 14

1"0 restrai n ror veni pu nrw re. the pa Lient is wrapped in a towel an d posilio ned on its ¡eh ide. ith one hand hol ding the head (th llmb under lower beak and t.he resl of the hand arou nd the ba ck of the h ead) the olhe r hand lower th e right wing down to expose th jugular vein.

ledical COnCel'IIS Birds are suscep tib le to a a iety of d iseases. So rn e disease are chro nic while other are acute. There may be d iffi rent forms of lite same d isease. with varying c1i ni al s igns. Many diseases and co nditions resu lt in death. Bird droppings often ind icat lhe h ea lth sta tus of lb e patíent. A norm al d rop­ ping nsists o f Lh ree parts: fecal mate rial is llsually gr en o r brown. urates are wh ite, an d th e urine is clca r and watery Ta ble 14-1 provid s a su mmary o f chang s an d e nditions associated with bi rd d ropp ings. Table 14-1. Evaluation of Bi rd Droppings

EVALUATION OF BIRO OROPPINGS Dropping consistency or color Red dropping: Bright red Dark re d

Causes

Fresh blood from the lower GI trac t O ld blood Fro m the upper G I tract

"Tomato soup" or choco late-appearing

Suggests lead poisoning

dro pping Chartreuse green diarrhea

Suggests septicemia, true diarrhea, chlyamdiosis

Undigested seeds in the dro pping

Suggests a digestive disorder

" Popcorn" looking stools

Suggests pancreati c insufficiency

Very large drop pings in the moming

Suggests the blrd is not defecating ove rnight

Polyuria (excessive urine)

Suggests fruits/veggles in the diel, medicati on, diabetes

Ye Llow or yeLlow-colored urates

Suggests a liver disorder

General signs of illness in birds includ e eueased appetite, disd1a rge from lb nares or oral cav ity, uecreased a tivity, abno rmai droppings, and a huddled o r Ouffed appearance. Bi rds wi th res pi ratOly disease o ft en exh ibit a tail {¡ob . The tai l fea thers m ove u p and own witb each b reat h. They may al o exh ib it open-mou th brea thi ng. Bi rds that are ve ry ill may sit with lheir eyes cl osed (Figu re J 4-13). Fi~re 14-13 This Amazon parrot is crilically itl. Signs of jllness inelude open-mouth breath ing, ~ittl n g on the botlom of the cage with feath ers ruffled and eyes elosed .

(Courte~

01 Eric Klaphake, DVM.)

Avian

Baúl ing or sh wering at least wed ly h Ips mainta in feather heal th, Birds enjoy having a bal h; they can be misted with a pray bO ltle, pUL in to a si n k ""iLh a sp rayer, o r laken into th shower. 1'h water should be lukewarm and gently sprayecl over th e birc! , Smaller birds will bath e in a sm all bowl of water p laeed on the cage fl oo e AJI ompanion birds need routin na il trims and sorne birds may also require b ak trin s, In sm a ller b irds, the nai ls ea ll be cl ipped with tiny nail trimm ers. In large r birds, nai ls can be tri rnmed with a d l'em el too!. Th advantage to us ing a clr~m ej is th at it .lIs ulerize lhe Ilail if Lhe q u i k is cut. Beaks can also be trimm el a ncl haped l1sing (h e dreme [ (Figure 14-14 ). If a dremel is nol used ol' b leed ing fra m a cut nail or beak doe n't stop, a styp li e powdel' is reeo mrn ended, Silve.r n itrate li cks sho uld no l be used on a h ird , Whjle no! toxie lo d ogs or ea ls, 'ilver nitrate is lüxie lO b irds if ing sted . orl' et trim ming of na il s ancl beaks r q l1ires knowledge o f lh to Is usecl ro avo id injury lO th e b ird (Figu re 14-1 5),

F gure I 1 , The use of a dremel tool to trim a bird 's beak is an acqUlred and exact skill. lh e veterinarian has both hands free to control the dremel and the beak . Serious trauma could result ir the bird is not restril ined properly for this procedure . (Co unesy of Martil1 G, Orr, DVM.)

F'gu e 1 15 A variety of grooming tools used for beaks, nails ; and wings. lhese Include a dremeltool, smil ll side cutters for feathers , two sizes of nail clippers, an emery board, and a buffer fo r smoothing and poli~h­ ing lhe beak and nails. (Courtesy of Ron ie's For T e Love of Birds ,)

Wi ng tl'Íms ar> o rten p ersonal preference, Some owners prefer free fli ght 0 1' d n ol wam lh ir birds LO app ar lo have incom plete wings. The purpose oftrimm ing flig hl fea lbers is to prev nt the b ird from f1 ying too fa ro r too h igh, MaSl vetetinar­ ia ns recornmend ru uing lhe tlight feathers (rectrices ) just under the seco ncl row of con tour eath rs. rh mUTI ' r to rut vari es w ith d i fere n t species. The fe th rs are ClIt from (h e distal end of the wing, lri mrn ing towa rds th e b dy. Feath r sbou l 1b exam ined fro m lh e l1n d rside of th e win g and cut one al a ti m . Blood fea lher: shoul d never be cut. If a blood feal her is presen t, o ne mature feaLher 011 each s icle o f ¡he blood feat h er s hould be left to pro tect it. Sci o rs sh ould no r be used to LIt slraigl1 t acre and lhrough al! of the ~ at.hers at o n e.

145

146

UNIT 111· CHAPTE R 14

Leg ban ns placed on b irds by b reed ers a r for id nüucation purpo es. Breeder ban ds 00 young bi rds a re fu lly el sed. Q uara ntin e bands placed by the USD

opeP7 b:mds. Some ow ners like tl1ese

lO

a re

be re m oved so ¡b e bird w il! nOl gel eaughl

in lh e eage o r on a toy. Leg ba nds are usu ally removed by a et eri nari n using a pin cuUe r. Care h a to be laken tha! the v ios and arteries are not nieked in [he proeess of removing lhe ba nd fro m the lego Bird baods are no t p ro o f o f own c rshi p as lhey can be quickl I removed . Ooe way to posiLive.ly id ent ify a hird and p rove own r h ip is with a microchi p implanl. This is plae d in th b reasl pecto ral m usde.

Sour crup, a r erop

stasi ~,

i o l a di sea~e bu t i ' usu ally a sign of ú lh er conditi o ns.

Th e cause may be a b acteria l o r a fungal in ~ li o n. [l a lso o eurs in h and-reared ch ieks. f o d tha l has been left out, reheated , or fed at lhe ineorrect lemperature is a omm on cau se of sow" crop .

a l a llow iJ1g lb e erap lO eom p1elel y e m pty b efore

a notiler feed in g can a lso lea d lo erop stasis (Figu re 14- 16) .

.Ir",

~

Correct hand-feeding meth ­

ods, including lemperature of the rormula and serupulous hygiene practlees, are essen­ tial to prevent sour erop and aspiraUon in baby birds . This young eonure is being hand· fed with a syringe . (Courtery

of Ronie's For

The Lo ue o[ Birds. )

Tumors may also invade tl,e erop and become O inva ive lhat ti ey prevent lhe bi rd from slo ri ng food and fill ing lhe erop (Figure 14-17). Figu re 14-4 shows a b ird wilh a s}'slemic tumor o f the erop . '1he tu mor to ok up three fo urths oflhe crap capac­ ity, Surge!)' was llot an option due

LO

tll e rieh bl

d u pp ly feeding the rum o r.

A se riou gastrointestinal d i ease o birds i p r ve n tricu lar d ilalati n disease ( P D ). Thi . di ease is th ough t l) be caused by a virus lh a l aLlaeks the sm OOlh muscle ol' the G ap, provenlricu l s, ven triculus, ami sma ll ime tine. PO li eau e e layed motility in the ga lroimest in al traet an d el ilaLaLion of the o rg n s. Co m m on sign!> incl ud weighl loss, regu rgilaLio n, erap impactio n, and eventu al d eath.

ondi~~ , ur

I i (. Uisord ... S

I r Tumors ma develop

anyvvhere ¡¡long the digestive tract o

Heak el l'ormities can be eith e.r eongeni tal or a qllir d . The most commo n cause

lhis femaLe edectus parrot has a

is tra u mCl . [n young birds, Lraum a-relaled injuries are due

large, rapldly grow.ng tumor of the

eage m ates and aggressive feed ing o f eh icks by parent b ircb, Scissor beak i a co m­

erop . Due to t he inv¡¡sive and sys­

man congeni lal deform ity where lh e upper beak

tem ie InvoLvement of this tumor, (only lhe smaLl bulge in the upper

j

lO

aggres ion among

b nt la one side.

PsilLaeine beak ill1d realher d ise.ase ( PBI-D) is aused by a virus th at can be trans­

left area of lhe erop was runctional)

ferred from an infeeled hen to th e egg o r diredly to feeding dtid <s. IL is ~lso lrans mit­

th e bi rd was humanely eulhanlzed . (Courtesy of Brenda and Don Beck .)

ted by inha lation o r ingestion of infecled fealher d u t and dly, powdered feca l material. It can b

arried on doth ing, ha nds, feeding utcnsi ls, and neSl boxes.

Avían

There are three forms of Prll:O 'l'he peracute fo rm occur in chi ks. There may be no ' igns and it is usually d iagno ed poslmo nern. The aCU le form dppears in yo ung birds lhal are begi nni ng lo grow fealhers t re p lace n eo na lal do wn. There may be se e ral da~ of d epression and ch anges in lhe appe rance o f devel ­ op ing feaLhers. New, growing fe, thers may die, br ak o ff or be nd, (In d h ve a clubbeu appearance. ew fealh 'J"S may be molled premalurely, before [h ey are fu lly grown. Th e ch ron ic fo rm of PBFD d elo ps in matu re bi rds. Durin g each molt, m ore and more abn onnal feathe rs ar pear. Th ere may be bleeding in the reamer shaft al' with in the p ulp cavi ly of new fea th >rs ' ho n, c1 u bbed, and ab nom13lly colored fea th ers m ay appear. Seal defonn ities u. ua lly ccm folI O\; ing fealher cha ng s. The beak may becom longated and lhere may be fractu res Jnd necrosis of the beak. ¡\.-Iany inrected b irds die with in a few momhs of the appearanee of clinical ign anu a posil ive diagnosi s. Olh rs have bee n known to survi e for a few yea rs. Al present, thlLre is no vaecine or u re for PBFO . Chlamydophila (psi tta osis) is of eoncern to biro wners because of its zoo­ nOlic p OI nLial Hum an tra ns mi s ion oecurs by in ha lat ion o f i n ~ et d parLi cles in feather dust andj or dried powdery dropp ings Birds can be aysrnptomatie carriers an d lra nsmit the di 'ease to ot her bi rds amI peor le. Th e.re are no speci fie signs lhat a bi rd is inreet d . Man)' b irds can carry lhe di sease fo r evera l years, sllow no igns of being infeeted, a nd on]y beco m e c1inically ill after a period of stress, Sorne bi rds m< y sI ow genera l, unspecifk sign . There may b a ¡ael< o f appeti te and we ight loss, let hargy and genera l dis inter L Brigh Lgreen, wate ry dropp ings m ay also be appare nt. There may be a disdl arge from Lhe ey~s and perio rbita l swell in g. E. treme cases can cause sudden deaLh . C. psitt.a ci ti, lh e causative bae t ria, has also been fou nd in many other species o f birds, no t just parrots. Pigeo ns are assu med carriers, birds of prey, shore birds, nd pet do es have been implica Led, and lo a le r eXlent, ca naries and fi nehes. In humans, lhe i ea e is ealled psiLtacosis. Th is i L di linguish it from other sp eies of chlamydia bacteria whieh is spread fro m perso n to p rson . Transmis ion to h u rnans uccurs in the same lll al111 er a bird- lO- ird transm i' ion; in halati an of Lhe o rgan i m . Th is ca n ome fro m fea lh r ust and dried feca l materi al, but also fro m co ntact wiLh respi rClto ry secretiO l1 s, h andli ng infeel d b irds, an d b r mouth ­ to-bea k com el. iagn is o f Lhe disease in b irds an be difficu lL 13l0od, seru m , an d swabs fro m the choana (the o pen ing between lh e nasal and ora l cavity), a nd clo a a (vent) swabs are submilled al Lhe ame lime te a diagnosti c labo ratory for d iffer­ nl v lu ations. Treatme nl may begin if lhe disease is suspected, even pCflding lab ralOry resu lls. Chlarn yr./iophilia (in birds) a no Ps illacosis (in hu mans) can be trea ted wilh lhe prescribed use of tClrarycli nes. Confi rmed ca es of psi ltaeosi are reportable to th e CO , (Center fo r Disease ol1t rol)

TETRACYClINE TABLITS

RE READILY

VAILABLE FOR AQU R

TREATMENTS These tablet s should neve /- be used in an attempt to preve nt or self­ medicate . They are ineffedive for anythíng other t ha n físh aquaria .

147

148

UNIT 111 • CHAPTER 14

The larges l at-risk groups of peop le are bird-fanciers and pet bird own ers. Olher groups inclu de veterinaria ns and vele.rina ry slaff, wi ldlife rehabililalors, pigeon fanciers, and cit sa nilati ol1 e nginefrs (pigeon clean -u p dUlY) , Th ere is no over-the-counte r prevention or cu re and no one is immune, Polyoma is a contagioll,s, f. tal disease of birds, So me bi rds die wi th oUl deve l­ oping a ny clinical signs and oth ers di E' withi n 48 hours of de d oping cl inical signs, There may be delayed crop emp lying, regu rgi lation, diarrhea, and su cuta ­ neous l)keding, Pul yoma is readily tra nsmitted lo olhe r birds through shared air space and contaminanl,s (fomile ) brought in on clolhing, skin (frum h a ndl ing in fected birds), jewelry, and hai r. People may bring th e irus inlO thE' ho me when visiting b ird fairs or pet Slores, Viru pa rticles can survive in th e envi ro n men l for severa I months, Preve nting the spread o f any disease is important; this can be done b, not visi ti ng multiple b irdf pet slOres in the same day. Peop le should always disin­ feel t hemselves and lheir c10thing befare han dling their own birus. When pur­ chasing a bird, never aecept had all his shots, Vacc in,lled bi rds are issued a certificate by the ma nufacturer of the vacci ne and it must be compl etely and accuratel fille d out. Vaccination wiIl protect a bi rd from po lyoma, Initial!y, the bird should receive two vaccinations given al a two to three week interval and th ereafte r boosted annua lly. Cloacal prol aps in birds is caused by m any variables, d epend ing upo n lhe sex of the bird, In hens, it is com m o nly associ ated \V ith slraining lO lay eggs. Some cases are idiopathic, with no know n calls . The recom mended trea lme n !. is surgi­ cal repl a e ment ofthe prolapsed lisslI e ( Figure 14-1 8).

Figu re I -18 This cockatiel has a cloacal prolapse which was successfully repai red . A prolapse is a medic(ll emergency and should b attended to by a vete ri narian immediately to prevent tissue necrosis , Surgical intervention is often req uired , (Courte~

of Erie Klaphahe, DVM.)

Cl oaca l p a pillomas are cornm on in b irds. A papillo ma is a b eni gn wart that origina tes fro m ep ithelial ce lls. Il can ca use 'nc~1l liS (painfuI st ra ining while defeca rin g), b loody droppings, an d s la ining of th e feath e r around th e ven t. The u act cause o [ p apillomas is undete rm in e d, but it is thollght lO be viral in origin , Birds ke pl in unclean environments are particularl y usce pti­ ble. A sim pl e diag n ostic test ca n be d o n e lO determine if it is pap illo ma by using a dab of wh ite vinegar on the affected tissue, If the vi negar turns the area (growth) white, it is indicalive of papillo m a . Th e acetic acid in the

Avian

149

vin egar reaC IS to t he pap illo ma ti ss ue. Trcatment may eonsist of surgically rem ovi ng the papilloma but recum: :¡ces are common. Along with scrupulous h yg ie n e pra rtiees, ho m e o pa thic remedies may offer some degree of relief. Tb es e trea tm ent s sh ou ld not be undertaken without ve terin a ry consultation (Figure 14-19). Birds él r susce pti b le to a variety o f m edical p roblems uniljl\c to them . It is imp rtalll to est abli sh a good rel a t ionship ,vith an avian veterinarian prior to needing emergency careo

Blo od sa mples are most frequently col lected fro m the right jugular vein. Most birds h ve a v ry small left jugular or no vein at al!. The jugular veio is superficial

FifUre 14 19

T'ne exact ca use of

av ra n papillom a is undetermined , but there is a gTeater incid en ce in

a nd easy to visu alize. The crop should be empty prior to obtaining a blood sam ple

bird s t hat are kept in dirty co ndi­

to prevent regurgitaúo o an d poss ib le sp iration. Occasiooally, ao air sac may sit

tions. This btu e an d gold macaw

top of lhe ve io. To avoid inadvertent puocture, the ;Ji : "J': should be gentIy

was rescued from seri ou s neglect.

pus hed asid e. A 25 to 27 gallge need le con nccted to a tubercu:1Jl syringe is used to ob tain ¡h e sample.

When the caked-o n fecal materia l

00

Blood may also be ta ken from th e medi a l metatarsal vej " . Collection from this site should be app roached with eau úon as the vein is in very close proximity

was carefully re moved From the vent area, the papilloma became evi dent. With recomrnended veteri ­ nary care and cleanliness, the bi rd's

to t he medial artery. The artery ca n be easily lacera ted if the bird is allowed to

con dition has im prove d greatly.

move. Ar ce 's ing thi s site may req uire anesthesia. Another potential site is the clltaneous ulna r vein, on the medial surface of the wing. Because this vein is

(Courte ~

su pe rficial and th

o[ ROtl ie's For Til e Love o[

Birds .)

'kin is thin, the area is cas ily bruised .

It is n ot reco m m en d ed to obtain a blood sampl e by clip ping a to ena il sh ort to ma ke it b leed. Th i' is ve ry p in ful for th e b ird and th e injured toe is eas ily conta rnina ted . II m ay a lso ca use a permanen t disfigurement of the toe. Most rolltine blood samp les are co ll ected in h epa rin ized tu bes. Blood vol ume in birds is no rm al !y 10 p ereen t ofbody we igh t. Only s m a ll amOllnts are req ui red . In mOSl pari I1ts, 0. 5 lO l.0 mI ofblood wiIl be an adequate sa mple. AII patients should be we ighed on a gra m scal prio r to a blood draw to d ete rmine the max.i­ m u m vo! u m e of blo od lhat can be safely ta ke.n . Intra museubr in j crions are given in the p Clo ral m uscle. Drugs adminis­ t red 1M need LO be ons id ered carefu ll y, as many dru gs can cause muscle necrosis at tbe in ject ion il . When mu lt iple injections are being ad m inis tered, alternate sides . hou ld be usetl . Fluid the rapy ca n b a drn inist red th rough in travenOlls or intraosseous ealh­ eLers or by su bcu ta neo us in jectio ns. If giving subcll laneoLls fluids, the bird is

restrai n ti and

0 11

leg is pul1cd slig h tly fo rward and lateral. A 25 to 27 gauge

n eed le is inserted through lhe thin me mbrane between the leg and body and the flu ids are inj ected into th e lri angle fo rmed. The fl u ids should appear as a smalI h u bble formi ng at the site. If ¡b e needle is p u hed too deep in to the skin pocket, fluid s may be deposited in the air sac and th e patient collld , in effee!, be drowned (hgu re 14-20) . [ntraosseous cathcters are placeo m ore routi nely tha n

r

catheters becaus the

veins are so fragile. In 5m a!! birds, a 25 to 27 gauge spinal needle or injection needl e is llsed . A 20 10 22 gauge spina! need le or in jection need le can be used in larger

+

r=i

150

gure 14

UNIT 111 • CHAPTER 14

U Subcutaneous fluid may be given in the web of skin between the body and l he legoIt is impo rtant t o

gently pull lhe leg slightly lateral to visua lize the co rreet area for in jection.

bi rds . Co mmon sites for p[acem n t include the distal ulna, proximal ulna, an d lhe proxima l Lib io tarsu . Pa tients are anesthetized and the area is prep ared wim m e same care as a surgical sil . The catheter needl e i secured by tap e or sutures. There are ma ny di fferen e~ il1 avian an Lh si a compared to other species_ Their uniq u physi o logy affeas the way the are anest etiz ed and m o nito red. Air sa s fu nction in re p iration and will hdve an effect o n the an sthetic gas in haled . l3i rds should not be fasted for m ore th an three h ours pri o r to anesth esia. Th ey have a hi gh n e tabo lic rate and li ttle glycogen sto rage ability; wi th hold ing food for lo ng p riods can resu lt in hypoglycem ia . If lh cr p is full, it n eds lO be m a nual ly emp lied prior to anesthes ia ind uction to avo id regurgi tation am! pos­ sibl asp iration . Their uni q ue re p irato ry ySle m a[so makes birds prone 10 hypo therm ia. Heat loss o ccu rs durill g anesthesia because o f the conSlant need fo r air flow a ross the parab ro nchi . It i impo rtJ l1 t to k p the bird wan n wh il und er anesthesia and m a inta in st ady, p ositive pressure ven tilation (PPV). Inh al nt anesthesia is preferred for use in birds. lnjectab [e anesthetics are avail­ abre bu! , Ol u ed often bec u e o[ m e pro [onged reco 'ery a nd possible m uscIe necrosis at the injectio n site. The adva ntage of in halan t anesthesi a is a qui ck

Avian

AFRICAN GREYS USUALLY HAVE LOWE

151

BLOOD CALClUM "'H f'I

OTH ER SPEClES. Ad mi nistenn g an appropriate dose of calcium gluconate by inj ec­ tion prior to anesthesia may help prevent seiz ures dur-i ng anesthesia and re covery.

ioduct io n and recovery time with m in im al cardi op ulmo nary effects_ lsofl uran e and sevoflu rane are bo th used successfu lly wim a n onreb reat h íng system Bird are intuba ted by gently pull ing the tong ue forward and plae íng the ndolraeheal tube (FT) into the epiglotlís, which is eas ily visual ized at the base o f th tongue. An un uffed ET tube sho uld be used as the trach ea l rings of bi rd s are co m pl ete and Cragile. If there is an up per air\-vay obstructi on, ao experience d avian eterinaria n may perform an air sac in tubatio n. lt is not W1Common to experience m ucous p lugs in the ET tube during long procedures. lf the avían p atient is h aving difflcult b reathing o r the aJ1es lh ti t is having difficu lty entilali ng the patienl, the tube needs to b carefully ehecked for a mucous plug an d imm ed ialely replaced wi lh a new lu be. Careful monitori ng during a neslhesia is critical in bi rds. With in d uctio n, 01 · u nta muscle aaivity decreases, but comeal and pedal rei1exes rem ain. As the depth of anesth es ia increases, respi ration beco mes m ore regular but vital signs continue to deerease and resp irato ry arrest may occur. Res pira lory arrest is no t unco mm o n in an ;me tJ1etized avi an pa ti ent. \ ilh cl ose mon ito ring lhis can be reversed or preven ted Cardiac arrest will q ui ckly follow wi lh out imm ed i te cor­ rective meas ures. It may not be reversib le. Manual ventilation an d adjuslm ent of lhe flow of lhe ane.s thetic agen t can both help reverse respira to ry arre l a nd Sl b­ lish a norm al respiralOry rateo During recovery from an sthesia, [h e bird shoul d be wTap ped in <1 t wel and hel d uprigh t u ntil fu lly recovered . Extub<1tion occurs on ly w h n th e bi rJ is a len no ugh to atlem pl to bi te lh e tu be. Keep ing lhe b ird in tubated w ill help p revent possibl e regurgitatío n. os! patients recover Cro m in haI an t aneslhesía wit hin fi ve tO ten mi n utes aft r th e gas aneslhelic is tu rn ed off. Beca use of their high meta­ bolic rate, fo od shoulcl be o ffered shortly after recove ry t prevenl hypoglycem ia. via n patients are usu ally anesth etized prior to pos itioni ng for a radiogra ph. This no t only removes stress on the palie n t but aIso allows for betler positio ning, without m ovement and !he potential of in jury_Til e two views are lateral, with th w ings fully exten ded a nd placed over the bírd's bac k. The legs are exten ded cau­ da lly to expose the abdomen. The other ie is ven tra l/ dorsal (V/ O) . The p atien t is position d dorsa[ly with lh ,·vi n gs spread o ut lo eirher sid The legs ar p ulled down an d away fram the body (Figure 14 -21) . Birds are he ld in positio n by u ing m(/shing lap . Wh ite, or zonas ta pe, sho uld n t be used. Whe n tbese tapes are removed, fe ath ers are pulled out an d the re may be skin teari ng. Birds can be give n n u tritional sup port by tLlbe feedin g_ The amount given is based on weight and need and placed direcrly in to the crop. 1he bird is restrain ed with a towel and h e lti u p right. The gavage tube is gen lly m an euvered past me tongue and down righ t side towards the esoph agus an d ¡n to lhe erop. If the place­ ment is eo rreet, the fee di ng tube ca n be seen to slide down the esop hagus into th e

•

­

152

UNIT 111 • CHAPTER 14

~igur

14-21 Position for a lateral radiograph.

The patient is anesthetized; th e wings and legs are held in place with maskingtape. (Courtery

0i Martin G. OlT, DVM , Bird and Exotic Pet Hospital. )

Tube Feeding

crop.To ensure correct placement, the metal feeding tube sho uld be fdt or visual­ ized in the crop before ad minis tering the food . If the tu be cannot be felt in the crop, it is in the trach ea . If the food is deposited into the tra chea, it wiI: enter the lungs and kilI th e bird instantly (Figu re 14-22).

Pal'asil~s

Igurt! 1

') It is extremely

important to co nflrm lhat t he gavage, or feeding tube, is correctly place d wi lh in the crop to avoid aspirat io n and death o f the patient.

Parasites are rarely a concero in companion bi rds . If birds have parasites, they are us ually ectoparasites. Knem idocoptes mite is the most common m ile seen in bud ­ gerigars and passeri nes. Th is mite attacks the li ssu aro und th e cere and Iegs. In Budger igars, hyperkeratosis is present around the cereo In r as e rin .S, the Ieg a re attacked, the feathers Iook ragged aro und the legs ami th e na ils grow excess ively. lvermect in is the medication o f choice to treat most I11i le in festa tion. Lice are not a problem in well-cared-for birds kept in doo r in a cIea n environment. Lice can be seen along the fea lhe r sh af1, dos >to the skin. A bird <:ann Ol cont racl Jice from other pecies, including humans.

How does avian re spiration differ from mammalian respiration?

What is the purpose of the crop?

What are the methods of determ ining the sex of a bird?

Wh at is a blood feathe r?

Discuss the drawbacks of aLlow ing a bird to rid e around on the

owne r's shoulde r.

list human foods which can be toxic to birds.

Describe the methods of restrai nt used on the avian pat ient.

Why is it so important to eonfirm that a fee ding tube has aeeurately

been placed in the erop?

list t he various type s of bird fe athers and the purpose of eaeh .

!

Wh at is t he purpose of th e uropygial gLan d?

Avian

Avian

We ight

Species Finches

10 to 18 g

Canaries

15 to 40 g

Budgerigars

30 to 90 g

Cockatiels

70 to 11 0

P~ rrots

g 90 to 130 g

African Grey Parro ts

350 to 60 0

Small

Cockatoos

g 4 00 to 550 g 200 lo 950 g

Macaws

1000 to 1800 g

Amazons

TabLe 14 3 Avían life Span

Species

Life Span

Fínche

4 to 5 yea rs average

Canaries

8 to 10 years ave rage

Budgerigars

6 to 8 years average

Cockat iels

18 to 20 years average

Small Parrots

20 to 30 years

African Grey Parrots

40 to 50 years

Amazons

70 to 80 years

Cocka toos

30 to 40 years

Macaws

50 to 60 years

Table 14-4 Avian Reprodu ction

AVIAN REPRODUCTION Egg Incubation Tim e

Species Fi nches

18 days

Canaries

18 days

Budgerigars

18 d ys

Cockatiels

21days

Small Parro ls

22 to 24 days

African Grey Parrots

24 to 28 days

Amaz.ons

26 days

Cockatoos

24 lO 29 days

153

154

UNIT III • CHAPT ER 14

Table 14 S twian Heart Rate/ Respiratory Rote

Heart Rate

Species

Re spiratory Rate

Finch es

274 bpm

60 to 70 b eaths/ min

Canaries

274 bpm

60 to 70 breaths/ min

Budgerigars

206 to 225 bpm

35 to 50 breaths/ mi n

Cockatiels

190 to 215 bpm

35 to 50 breaths/mi n

Small Parrots

190 to 215 bpm

35 to 50 breaths/mi n

AFri can Grey Parro ts

147 to 163 bpm

20 to 40 breaths/min

Amazons

147 to 154 bpm

20 to 30 breaths / min

Cockatoos

1' 0 to 178 bpm

5 to 4 0 breaths/min

Macaws

110 lo 127 bp m

20 to 30 breaths/min

Bays, Ter sa Brad! y, Ligh trool, Teresa &

tayer, JO rg (2006). l:.xotie ['e l Behauior.

Se unders, Sr Lou is, M isso uri . de Matos, Rica rdo .,' Morrisey, Ja m es (2005). Eme/gene}' and CriLica/ Care j or Small

Birds. Se m inars in A ia n and Exolie Pel Medici ne, Apri l 20 05; 14(2):90-105. G irli ng, Si mo n, Dzoo

ed , Cbio l ( 2003 ). Vew rillar)' N lIrsing of Exo lic Pels.

Blackwel l. G u nke l, Conny, Dr. MedVet & Lafortune, Maucie (2005).

C UI T'e lll

Tedmiques in

Auian i\ nesthesia. 5em inars in Avian an d Exotic Pet Medi cine. October 20 05; 14(4) :263- 275. vi an Analomy a nd Physio logy. In BSAVA l(//'wolof th [xatie Pets, 4 Edition (pp . 138 - 148 ). Bril is h Sl11allnimal e terinary Association. Ha rcou n -Brown, Nig 1 ( 2002).

Juda h , Vicki &

uttnll, KaLhy ( 2001-20 0 3 ). Tec}¡ Tá llt: A rooh Beyond, Sessioll I.

Ronie's rol' 'fh e Love of Birds, I:.dlIcalio n al Semi nars ro l' Bird Own ers, 2001-2003. Kra me r & 1 el leh r, persona l con spon d en ce 20 05 . Ritchie, Branso n, 1Ja lTison , e reg ,., & Harriso n, I.in d a R. (1 994 ). Av ian Medicine:

Principies

e/ lid

App lication. Wingers Pu b lish ing, ln e.

Stanfo rd, Micha 1 'age (2002) .

via ry Birds. In BSAVA Mamill / of Exulic PeíS, 4 th

Edition (pp. 157- 167). British 5ma ll Animal Veterí nary Associatio n.

tle

ca"Pfte­ ptntron

scutes

oviparoua viviJMrous

Jacobson's orpn episodlcally pleul1Il cavity polyphyodontic hemipenes ecdysis dysecdysis autonomy ectotherms POTZ UV light heliotherms slam feeding stomatitis caseo us gap ing Mycobacteria gout diuretic oviparous Lavage septicemia hematoma cardiocentesis parthenogenesis

Ajter cOlllplelil1g the chapter, che ,cut/ene siwllld [le u/lit' 10

• • • • • • •

prop erly housc common rep til e species. prov ide appropriate c1ient edu ca ti o n to new rep til e owners. provid e basic nllrs ing care fo r reptile species. demonstrate appropriate restra int techn iqll s \Vith each speci es of rep tile. provide a p propriate diets for di fferellt r> lije pecies kept a pets. provid e the appropriate tempe rature and hu midity (1' 'fZ) fo r rep tile spec ies. identify potential p rob lerns with inappropri a te h Ollsin g, res traint, and diet.

Inlrodu( 1ion Reptil es have been kept in captivity for many yea rs, however, th kno\Vledge to keep them healthy was severely lacki ng. Th ere \Vas no und ersta nding of lhe importance of UVB lighting, temp era ture e q uireme nts, humidi ty, and diet. 10st, if not al!, we re wi ld caugh t a nd kept or traded b ho bbyist s. Smal! turtles could be purchased for a quan er a nd carne \ ilb flowers pa im cd on their very ti n shells. The habitat was a smal! plastic bowl w ith , n isla n and a green to pped palm tree. Dried ants and flies \,ve r provid J in a flsh food shaker ano the only advice available was t feed raw h ambllIge r a nd put drops in its swollen eyes. Today, many of th ese remarkabl e and anci ent animals are Glptive bred a nd protecled from being collected in the wild. New in formation is forthcoming almost on a da ily basis and with new information com s im provern en t in di et and husbandry practices. Reptile medicine has beco m e a highly skilled, specialized neld. Medical diag­ nostics and procedures are advanced and specific to th e uniqueness of rep til es. Specifically designed habitats have become household focal points beca use of their beauty and appeal, recreating natural habitats that are quickl)' disappearing. Rep tiles are bred for beau ty, color variations, and health . The varity see ms e no­ less. The attraction to re ptiles is in their differen ces, not thei r s imil a rities. Liza rds inhabit a wide variety of ecosystems from desel1 dwelling l O tropical rainforests. They are divided geographically berween Old Worl d speci es ancl ew World species. There are approximately 44 O different species. The iguanid s include the largest number of New World species. Within this group are me green igu a na,

156

•

Reptiles

anole, basi lisk, hom d Iizard, and the spincy lizard. The Agam idae family contains the large t of the O ld Wo rld Iizards Fxamples from chis group inelude the bea rded dragon, agama, frilled lizard, water dragon, and uromastyx (Figure 15-1).

Figure 15 I A member of the Agamidae family is the Ch inese water dragon.

Chameleoo are withio a sep ara te e1assifícatioo of O ld World lízards, Cha maeJ eonidae. There is a great variety of cha m eleons commonly avail ble. ve iled, panth er, Jackso n's, and Mueller eh me leons are all popular an d und er the righ t conditioos are fai rly easy to maintain. Another gro llp ineludes the geckos, skin ks, and monitor lizards. Many of these species are not d for aggress ive ness in captivi ty, especially lh monitors and tokay gecko. Care needs to be taken when handling these species. Lizards have keen ey sight wi th excell en t color vis iono Their binocular vision causes the m to tilt their heads to one side when focusing. Ch amel eo ns ar a b le to focu each eye indepen de ntly, with one eye 00 one object an d the other eye on another at the same time (Figure 15-2) . h elon ians (lu rtles and tortoises) are facing ma ny lhreats to $urvival. They are used as food , nests ar ro bbed of eggs, and many species are iJl ega lly traded by the thous¡¡ nds for use in tradilional medicine. The re are app roximately 257 rl' m ain ing speci of tu rLle ane! tortoises, divie!ee! into 12 famili es. In very general terms, tortoises differ fra m tut1les in that tortoises are t rrestt'ial vegetarians whi le tll rtles are aquatic, or semiaquatic and o m nivorou s. Collectively, rhe, are called eh lo nians The most common cause oí' di sea 'e in chelonians is poor husband ry. To rtoises an d turtles differ in nutrítional and husbcll1 dry requirem nts. A11 chelonians ha ao llpper shel l, th e U.\p.l , and a lower shell, the r I tro l . The two halves are co nnected by bony bridg S. The ca rapace forms the vertebrae and ribs wh ile the p l stron is an app roxim ation of a bd ominal ribs. The shell is covered in a keratin laye r, with distin ctively shap >d o; lIU ') . SCllteS are capable of rege neration ir d amaged (Figure 15-3) .

15 7

158

UNIT IV • CHAPTER 15

Figure 15 2 Chamel ons belong lo a separate class iflcatio n of Otd Wortd lizards , Cha l1leleonidae. This veiled chameleo n has lust caught a cricket with a ver¡ long and slicky tongue. (COWtery of Kathy Nutrall .)

Figure 15-3 Chelonians, turtles and to rto ises, are similar in anatomy. 80th have an uppe r and lower shell connected by bony bridges to pro ­ tect internal organs.

Ventral View of a Turtle

-'r--\-- - - - - - Mouth cavity

Trachea

Intestine ­

-+--1--1_

Reptiles

Owners frequ en Lly asl ir lhey !>hou ld allow lhei r lurtle nd lOrtoises lO hiber­ nate. There are many diffe ring o pi ni o ns fram veleri nari"ns an d h erpetologists. T h mast common p rob lem seen by velerinarian s is lh t ani ma ls are allowcd to hibern ate w h n they ar 1 Ol nutril ionally prepared. Po lhibernation anorexi a can be caused by di seas p ri o r to hibe rn atio n, poor nutriti an, cold weather shortly after coming out of hibernat io n, and th e Q'vvn er nal fced ing the che lonian sufft ­ ient ly duri ng recovery from h ibem ation. They a re u u lly p resented to the vet­ rina ry hosp ital with r p iratory p roblems and a d ramatic \ eigh t loss. Many Che lon ians, doing poorly, di d u ri ng hibe rnali on. A!l o wners should discuss hib crn tio n optio ns with their veterin , giving bi rth lO live young, while lh 'pecies nalive lO frica, A ia, and Au tral ia are oviparous, egg tayers. Snakes hay poor yes ight and hea ring is lim iled lo low frequenci es. Th y rely on o lfaetory in put.lO hll n t anJ e aluate ll1 eir envi ron! enl. The \0 . . . rgJn , near lhe to ngue, i a h jghly d evelo ped ensory organ . The fo rk d tongue pi e s u p s en t that is fi ltered lhrough piLS in lh o ral cavi ty. A healt hy, aeri ve snake is con­ tin ually tlicl
'auJ.

159

THERE 1$ NQTRUTH IN CQUNTING THE UNES WITHIN THE SCUTES TQ DETERMINE AGE Lines and patterns of the seu tes are determlned by speeies, diet, overall health, and growth rateo

-

160

UNIT IV • CHAPTER 15

Fgure 15-4 The anatomy of a

Anatomy 01 a Snake

sl1i1ke, showing the elongation of inte rnalorgans.

Reptile teeth are pi 1 p 1\ Il >ntí , that is, they are reabsorbed or shed and rep laeed at a rapid rale thro ugh out life. o t all reptiles have teeth. Some have a hard bony plate along lhe m a ndible and rnax illary bo nes. Th e digestive traet of rept iles is sho rter lhan th at o f m ammals but slowcr to digest and assi mi lalc food. Herbivo rous reptiles h ave a sJower digestiv m etab o­ lism (h an om nivores and inseetivores. Sexing li zards and monitors can be diffl eult. In so me lizard specles, males have horns or subtle differenees in body build . Ma les usually hJ.ve more ro bust bo dies an c! larger heads than fe m a les (Figure 15 -5). Many males dcvelop Iarge ¡aw m uscles and more pro nouneed do rsal spin es or crests, depending on spec ies. DN sexing in rep tiles is not always accurate an d many labaratories have abandoned lhi s melhod. Ultrasound may revea l ovarie in a reproductivcly active femaJ e, but so w¡¡1 a radiograph with th e distinctive outline of mul tiple eggs. Male reptil es have paired reproductive organs called huni[1 m ... Cen der determi natian o f sa me liza rds can be done by loca ting lhe h emipene bulge, whi ch is ¡ust erani al lO lhe vento The hemipenes can b eve rted manually or th ey m ay prol apse. ~h ro n i c p rolapse need to be investigated for a medial cause. In ch ro nic co nditions, o ne a r both hem ipenes may be surgically removed .

Reptiles

161

Figure 15 5 Reproduct ive ly mal ure iguanas often und ergo dramatic behavioral and color changes during breeding season. Th is mature maLe green iguana has turned a deep reddish orange and has become very aggressive towards its owner.

(Courtery 01 frie

Klaphake, DVM.)

The sex of a m at re igua na (and many other lizard species) was though t to be d elerm ined by femo ral pores. lf th e fe moral pores were pronounced, it was assu m d to be a m ale. Th is is no lon ger accepted as there are n· ;:my femaJe lizards wi th la rge femoral po res Sorn e . pecies of sna k , have small sp urs, lo cated on either side of the ven!. They are sho rt bo nes covered in keratin . Sp u rs are used in courtship and mating. Exa m ini ng the relauve s ize of spurs is not a reliable melhod for sex determination. Sexual det Im inatio n in sn a k can be performed wit h the use of a probe. Pro bing requi res a s le nde r, blunt-ended m etal rod that is inserted inlO the vent call cl alI y a nd carefully moved al o ng lh ventral \""all of the tail. A probe that ca n be p ssed onl y two to three scale length s caudally indicates a female. In a male, th e pro be ca n be advanced six 10 seve n scal es. The probe should slide in easily and force should not be lIsed. sterile lubricating jelly is applied 10 the tip o fthe p rob befo r inse n ion into lh e vent (hgure 15-6).

gur 15

o

The sex of a snake

may be determined with carefuL use of a probe inserted into the

(Courtery 01 lordan Applied Teehnology Center, West lordan, Utah.)

vent

rl

162

UN IT IV · CHAPTER 15

Reptil e reprod ucLion is regul ted by the pi neal gland, m e hypo th ala mus, and enviro nmental timuli. Th e, in tu rn, stim u late lh rel ase o f repro ductive hor­ m o nes. Ma ny sp ci es of rep til es from the Nort hern hemisphere will no t breed unl es they have been in hibernatian for a p eri od of time to mímíc Lil e natural hibernatíon perí o d . Most b r ed ing hi bern atíon begin in Nove mb er and con ti nue thro ugh Feb rua ry. Incubatían temp ra tme dete rmines t he ex of Lhe affsp ring in mo re lhe n 70 species of repti les, including 90 perce nt of turtles and so m 1izards. The e p ti o n to this is snakes. W ith so rne rep ti le pecies, sperm can b e $tored in th oviduct. Fertil iza tion is tri ggered vvhen the ova enter the oviduct, which may be montl s lateL In sorn e speci s, the sperm can be stored for u p to six ears. The female is ah le to produce fertile eggs ove r a p riod of severa l yea rs w ithout omí ng into contact WiLh a maleo The majorilY o f reptil e egg ar incu bated around 28 oC (82° F) to 32 oC (86°F) . '1'0 determin if a n egg is viable, an egg can d le can be used severa l days after the gg has been laid . The egg is ta ken into a da rk roo m and a bright ligh t sou rce is held d irectl y against the sbe.lL One to seven day. after th e egg h as been laid, the yolk drops an d 11 blood spO l will appear. n uriog stages of th e incubation period, it may be possib le to observe develo pment o[ th e fetus nd poss ibl e movem ent within the egg (r:igure 15-7).

..

Figure 5 -7 A reptile incubation setup. These bearded dragon ggs were all hatched successfully. (Co urtesy of Beu and Dan Ring. )

Reptil es sheJ úleir skin s the grow. A healthy sn ake -heds ít skin in o ne piece, sLartin g w ith the head. It shou ld be com plete I1 the way do wn lO the ta il. Chel oni ans shed their skin in sm 311 p iec s from the limbs, neck, and tai l over J sh rt perioJ of time. A dl clon ia n Lh al appear to be const3 ntly shedd ing needs to be exam ined for malnutriti n or skin iofe ion. Aqua tic lurt les hed not on ly tneir skin, bu t I;¡yers o f growing ScU l es. Li za rds shcd their ski n in patdles, small

"

Reptiles

pieces over a peri d o f severa l d ays. Shedding compleled in a h althy rep tile is refened Lo as o ut,

'd

IS.

Fail ure to shed ompl tely can cause pro bl em

lhe dead skin conslri

lS

s ir d rie.

ilfOll nd LOe and lhe e nd of th lai L cu lting off blood

suppl . Ecdysis occu rs lhrough o ul lhe lifetime of the reptil e. Young snaJ<es shed more freq uentl y than au ults because f th eir ra p id growth ral . Mo i tu re fm m lh 'nake' body nler the space between [he old and ne\ layers o f kin, wh ich a ids in loosening and lifting the o ld kin u p a nd off. Snakes b gin ning to shed appea r opaque an d úle eye app 'ar b lu (tigure 15-8 ).

figure 15 8 The blue eye of a snake that is about to shed .

(Coun ery oi KatJ:y Nu. ttall. )

Ecdysis lakes approximately five la even day , d u ring wbi h ti me the snakc is llnable to see an d shou ld be han tl le carefully o r, p referabl y, n Ol a l a ll.

nake,

in che [¡ll/e ¡more like!y LO slrike. A good, he Ilhy sh ed co m es off in one piece, comp l le with eye caps, lf lh

ye caps are relained, it c uld cau e ocul a r d amage.

Re lL ined e e caps need lO be r moved very ca reflllly to avoid inj ury lo lhe e. e. A ' 10 \ 01'

lricklc of

ann water will 1110iSlen th e eye cap. Using (111)' colton tip swabs

cotton balls, gellll y an d carefully roll th e layer oCd ead ski n away [rom ¡be eye.

.' lever atLempr to pul l ye caps J \\lay wi lh forcep s as d oi ng lbis cou ld a l o rel

e

lhe len, o f lbe eye. Diffiru lty during lhe sheddi ng proce!. is know n as d~ u:d\

....

Tbe m os! common reason fo r a p úo r h ed is l
S veral sludies llave been done on replile beh avia r, especially with ¡he gr e n anole. Mast of Úle lUdies have been re lated to rep rod uClive be havio r. tor rep tiles in capl iv ity, il is importan l to know lhe so cia l sl fllCl ure of ea ch species so as no t LO

st ress the rer til e. Many replil es suffer from e nvironmenta l stress in ca p tivity.

163

164

I

U

UNIT IV ' CHAPTER 15

e ,;)

The recently shed

skm of a heallhy snake, complete with eye caps . (Collrtesy af J(,¡thy

Nurtal/. )

rf d anger is near, m o st reptiles will

'. ,

I

requires the lea

t

ti

T

to avo id d etection by hi ding, as this

amo u nt oCe nergy to avo iJ being de lected. If th is d oes not work,

so m e . pecie fake a bi te o r strike. The EaSlern r log Nose na ke, for exa mple, per­ forms a cleaLh displa)' by turning u ps ide down and lyin g mo tionless. Whil e p layi ng

,

d ead, thb sp cies can pr duce a bloody, sm e lly [iquid th at imital

blood.

ther

reptil e speci . m ay self-i nf1ate by ta killg in ai r, causi ng them to app ar bigge r to a predator, or m ay weclae tightJy im o a sm a ll space. iffere.nt species oflizards have variou ways o f p ro lecting th mselv na tura l habital..

in the ir

ja ny speci es of n¿ards ha e lhe a b ilily lO rel ease their tails and

esca pe u nharm d. Species with

cll!

Ollllm , ¡he vol un ta ry rel eas of lh e

t

il, also

have th ab ili ty to r gene ra Le it. The regrown ta il ha s a d istinctl y diffe re nt appear­ ance a nd col or. Il m ay take . eve ra[ m onth s to regenerale. Th e head- b b, a qu i k up an d down moveme nt, is always a warning or a threat and sh ould not be copied by owners. It i no! a frien d ly greeting. Tal! fli ck ing and tail whippi ng a r b haviors tb ar indica re thar th e reptile is agitated. lt is seen in snakes wh n they vi bra l t heir ta ils when a predaror or threat ap proar he:i. Liz ards wi l I ofl e n use th eir ta i l' to strj ke out al th e predator or ir agi­ tate

uuring <1n

a min alion in a veterin ary hospilaL

fuI when male iguanas become se xually matu re , as t hey become extre me ly aggress ive t owa rds women during t heir men­ strual cycle. There have bee n severa l instances of male iguanas attac king and causi ng seve re lacerati ons t hat requ ired emergency room t reatme nt, sutures, and , in some instan ces, re co ns"tructive plastic surgery. It is Foolhardy and dangero us t o believe that rep ti les, especially iguanas , can be trained to be gentle , tha t aggressive behaviors can be modified , o r t hat they will respon d to humans with any degree of affe ction.

•

Reptiles

Sna kes have th ab il ity lO empty th eir musk glands when provoked or frigh t­ ened . These gl;md s are lo ca ted nea r the loaea. Milk snakes a re known ro r this behavior. Tu rtles d o no t h ave this glc nd, but they will urinate orten durin g han­ dling wit h lhe sa me cffect. e h lonians retrao tb eir head and legs into their shells for pro teetio n agai nst predators. This can pose a probl e m w he n trying lO examine or m edi e, te lhem. Seve ral species of liza rds, ror example, th e ho med li za rd, ca n spurt blood fro m th ei r eye as fa r as three fe 't or nearl y a mete r. They are able to do lhis b restrict­ ing blood Il ow from lhe head until the m all blood vessels rupture due lo the ri se in blo od p ressure around the eyes. '¡he abil ity of some re p tile sp eeies to change colors h elps lhe m with camou­ n age. ol or ch a nge ca n also indicat courtship, stress, ill ness, or interaction \-vith o ther sp cies. Ch ameleo ns are known for their abiIity to change color. O the r spe­ cies (lf rept ile have th e b ility to ehange according to eh anges in their enviran­ menl, incl ud ing h eat, coId, stress, and pereeived threals.

lIousino Rept iles are I."C10lh 'nns and require an ellvironment lhat provides the h eat neees­ sa ly for met bolic activity an d hea lth . Eacb species requires a differe nt temp era­ ture rang to aehi ve opt imum ability lO digest prey, 6gh t offi nfect ion, and pfffo rrn d ay-to-d a fun ctions. These temperatu res are referred to as P . / (preferl'ed opti­ mum tempel'ature zone ). A reptile enclo sure s h ould lake into consi deralion al! of lhe va ri ants a nd provide reas to aecommodate repLi le move ment fTom one a rea lO ano the r, Il owing the reptile lo obtain opt imum temperaLlIfe to fu ncti on . Reptiles that are ill usua lly seek out the warme t pan of the e nclosure (se Table 15-1 u nder b st foaas ). mb ien t hu mi dity in flu e nc s a rePlil e's abi lity to ea l, to sh ed noonally, and l elim in ale waste. I lumidity can range fram 30 percen t to 100 per t:ll t, depe nd­ ing upon Lhe nal u ral hab ita t of the pecies. 'orreCl light ing is a critiea l co mponent in I eeping reptiles healthy. Ultravio let Ii gh t assists in lh e as im il alion of vita min D3 . Vilam in D3 is necessa ly for th e absorption of d ieta!)! cal ¡L1 m. atural slIl1 light is lhe best source of u lLraviu let ligh t, but most r p liles are kept ind oors. Re p tiles sho uld nOl be hOllsecl in direct sUllligh t fm m win dows. The full spect ru m rays of sunligh l can not penelrate th ro ugh window glass and habildl lempe ra lLlre~ wi ll J ra ma ti ca lly increasc, pOlen­ tiaUy ki lli ng 11 e rep til e. Full spectrum light ing is provided by bu lbs an d fLXlurcs design ed sp ecifieal ly fo l' re ptil e hab ita ts. Thcre are varyin g degrees o f ultraviolel wa ele nglhs or U\ 11).,111 gene raled. uvn ar~ elS vitamin 03 production a n d calc ium metab o lism . UVA ban Js arfecl lhe beh avior of rep til es. Fu ll spectrum ligh ts (uvn an d U A) sho ul d be ch angt'd eve ly six to eight mO llths, or ilccordin g lO the m anufacturer recomlllenda ti o n. Whil the bulb may still pro d uce a light, the abil ity to produce a fu l! spPctl'UIIl may ha e d ro pped dram a tica lly. The líghts sho uld cyclt> for 1 lO 15 h ou rs duri ng lhe Sllmmer m omhs, and 9 lO 12 hours du ring tbe winter mon lhs to mi mic ¡he nat u ra l ph otoperi od o f lhc species. I.iza rd hab ilals sh o u ld be spa ious eno ugh lO all ow lil e liza rd to stretch le ngthwise and lO lUm around co mple lely, inclu dillg lhe fuil lenglh of the ta il, without LO uch ing the . ¡d es of the e nd o ure. Terrestri al li zards req uí re more fl oor space th a n h igh t.

q uatic an d semi q ualic speci es need access to all afea v ilh

165

166

UNIT IV, CHAPTER 15

water and a dr)' a rea for basking. Adequate ventilation while keeping heat and humidity within th PO' Z range needs to be considered Glass or acrylic habit ts help con tai n ap p rop ri ate levels of heat and hum idity ( 'i gure 15-10).

Figure 15 10 When designed correctly, re ptile hab itat s are not o nly benefi cial to the inhabi tant, but can become a fo cal po int and an area o f great bea uty and nteres t.

(Courtesy oI CagesByOesign.)

C hamele ns req uire a cage th a t allmvs fo r plenty oC air circulation, such as a wi re m esh or screen, yet m ain la ins temperature a od h um idity for Lhe sp cies. h ameleons s ho uld nO[ be hous J in aq ua riums, whi ch do not provide adequate vent ilatia n . IIousi ng chameleons in aquariums, however large, is often a main cause of d eat h. Hum idity is di ffi cult lO maintain for sorne Iizards. Tropical species need 80 percent to 100 percent humid it , wh ile the desert speci es only need around 30 percent to 40 P rcent. Mi sting lhe cage daily w ill help provide some of Lhe humidity. Adding water fa11 5, water bowls, and live plan !. can a lso increase lhe humidity. age subs trates vary for different species. Substrates should mi mi c rh e natural environm en l o f the species. There are a variety of commercially prepared sub­ su-ates thal p ro ide fo r species v ci ation. These inelude sand, shredded bark soil, and soft re ptilc litter. So me are d igestib le, oth ers are su p ptemented ",.ri th e lcium, bur all a r manu factu r d for sp ec ifi c rep tile requirements and feeding b haviors. Som e species inadvertenlly wallow substrate material when catching prey. This can ca use gas trointestin al blockage. Wood shavings of ;:¡ny typ e, sili ca san d, corncob, and ground walnut shell should not be used. An example and result o f using an incorrect ub trate occurs with the leopard gecko, which is freque ntly ept on sand . Sand impaction is com mon in this species because of the way lhey catch crickets, pounce and slUallow, ingesling san d along wit h th e prey. Mas! liza rds need climbing objects as a part of the cage fum ishings. These includ various sized branche , d riftwood pieces, o rk bark, plastic or live pla nts, and

Reptiles

167

rocks. There ar also artificial vines, realis licaliy cr aled lO m imic jungle vines. AlI ílem sbo uld be p laced al varyin g ley ls lo provide ea se o f ( ccess to basking ar as. Main ta ini ng lbe POTZ for each species is very imp na m in keeping reptiles hea lthy. The b ask ing lamp should be placed at one end of Ihe cage, keeping that area of the enelosure lem perature on sta nL. Levels o f fu rn ishings prov ide for tem­ peraLU re gradi ents . Th ere are several m lhods and produ cts to provide heat. Heat roc ks should not be used for any reptile, especial! lizards. There is no way to regu late the amou nt of heat produced and they can malfuncli on, either by not pro ducing >nough hea t or by becoming excessively hol. Iguanas, for example, wil l lay on a heat rock un lil it beco mes so hot that the ski n starts to b urn. Normal basking activi ty is derived from the h ea t f the sun, d orsaJly, an d rep tiles do not h ave Ihe ab iJity lo detect excess heat from the ventral surface. Basking ligh ts pl aced outsid' the age or enelosed within the habitat at a safe distance from the rept il e are more easily monitored and controlled. Any heating e1eme n ts pl aced within the environ m ent need Lo be wged so the reptile has no dírect access lO th e m. Man y species of Iizards are excelle nt al lea ping and h ave been fo und fatally burned by un p rotected heating e lemer ts. lf lh e nighttime te m perature drops too low for the re ptile, an additional so urce of heat n eeds lO be provided. This ineludes ceramic h eal bulbs, red in can­ descent b u lbs, or repl ile heating pads placed u no erneath th e cage. In the mo ming, liza rds often appea r darker than norm al. Dark pigments abso rb more heat and light. By mid LO late afternoon the lizard may be ligh ter in colo r be a use of abso rbed he;:H an d light. So rne spec ies of lo rto ises c n grow qu ite large and requ ir an area that is big en ough ror ex rci e and h as easy access LO a water source fo r soak ing. Tortoises absorb waler th ro ugh their skin and rarely drink water like ma mm als. Substrates wh ich are digestible indude alfalfa rabbit pell ets or a layer f grass hay placeo over a rubber mal. Ra bbil pellels bo ught in bulk are relatively inexp nsive and the area can be deaned of fe al m aterial si m ilar LO elean ing a cat li tter ¡ray. Loose grass hay is raked up anel di spos d of as gard n mulch. The mal u ndemeath is sim pl hosed off and rep laced . o nd ige_~t i ble floor coverings commo n ly used inelude indoo r/ o l1 tdoor ca rpet and rep ti le soil mixes. Ir these are swallow el, they can cause intes­ ti nal blockage. To rtoi ses also need a source o f llVB light. Many torlo ises are housed outdoors during th summer months and allowed LO graze and wander at will. Sti IL th ey need a shelter and p rotection fro m pred ators, e peri al ly curious dogs. Aq uatic turtl es need a body of waler for swim m ing and 6 edi ng. Th ey need LO be provid ed with a basking platfo rm that allows them to easil y c1 imb co m p letely OU I of lh e water. Water qu ality is ma intained with an un derwater filter sySlem . Wa ler s hould be dechlorinaled, and depending upo n lhe species, the water may need lO be heated. Su itable su bstrates for turttes ¡nelude peat m oss, reptil e soil, or cyp ress m u lch . 1ay, waJnut shell (which is toxi ), rocks, a nd gravel should nOl be used as they are too abrasive. Cheloruans are hl holhcrm , meaning lh t they actively seek out sunlight for h eat. In capLivity, the PGIZ range for tortoises, depending on species, is between 26 oC and 3 7.7 ° (79 ° lo 100 l> - ) POl 7. for turue' is 25 oC to 35 oC (77 ° F lO 95°F). Snake enclosu res va ry with the species o f sna ke b ing h used; burrowi ng, arbo reaL or semiaqu3 lic. The minimum length of th e en el osu re should be as long as the snake. The en elosure should p rovide good ventil ati on yet be a ble la retai n heat. 10st snakes are ho used in glass aqu ariums or plexigl ass tan l S.

IN ONE TRAGIC INSTANCE, a newly pur­ chased panther chameleon was left inside a box in the car whi l.e the owners stopped for iust a minute to do some errands. The cha­ meleon turn ed pure white in an attempt to di ssipat e excessive heat. It did not survive.

168

UNIT IV ' C HAPTER 15

Cag S made of wooJ are no l reco mme nded. They are difficu lt lO keep dean and pro id e lh e pe rfect environ m e nt for ectoparasiles. H a b itats need lO ll ave a hea t source th at \v i! l mai nta in tllE' rOTZ range for Lhe speci es. Basking lamps and/ o r reptile h ealing pads pla ced under th e cag are ¡he usual il n d mos t reliabl e sou rce. As wi th other rep t iles, heat roc ks should b e avoi d d. Ma ny species o f bu rTowi ng snakes are na tive lO dry d serts where lhey burrow in lO Lh e sand a nd wai t for pre _Commercia l replile sand has been cleaned, is usu­ w, p aper, ally bi o dcgrad abl e, and is a sui table substrale f r bu rro wing sn akes. indoo rfo utd oor carp Li ng (replilc carpet), a nd re p lile liuer ( imdar to wood shav­ ings) ca n b used as su bs lrate for groun J dwelling sn a kes. S mi q uaLic sna kes

shou ld have a substrat si m ilar to ground d welle rs, but a bowl or co nta iner large enou gh fo r th e m to en ter lhe wale r and so a!< (hgure 1 -11 ). Every sna h ::, regard less of species, sho ul d h ave a colltainer of wa ter large g

I ~ 1I All silakes shou ld be

provided with a water bowl fo r soaking. This

IS

a luvenile blood

python subme rged in bowl . (Cow-tery

Taylonuille, UT)

11

deep water

DI Ma¡"k 's Ark,

e nougll 1.0 all ow the snake to be totally subl1l e rged. Ma ny snak hyd rale i.n wa te r by soa king rathe r lhan gulping water. Sna ke that req uire a higher h mi d ity, such as rainbow boas and rubber boas, need Iargcr bowls of water al]d a bowl \Vi th da mp sphagnu m rnoss to help keep a rn bient humidity eleva ted. Arhoreal snak s, ~ r exa mpJe th e gr 'en t I' e python and m e emerald lfee boa, require bra nch es o r stu rdy perches. Both of th ses snakes fold and drape their bodies aaoss bran ches in the highest pan of an en los re. Arboreal b oas and python s also req uire a highe r hum idit level and ne d to be mis ted dail y. Al! sna kes req u ire a p lace to hide. Providing a hi di.ng p lace decrecse ' the chanee of th e sna ke having slfess-rel ~ted probJ ems an d m ay, d epending o n the sp ec ies, reduce incidences o[ defen sive or aggres 'ive st rikes .

Dit I A co rreet di et is essentia l lO re pt de health. s more inform ation beco m es avail abJe regardi ng lhe needs o f individu al species, di (reco mmendati o ns re im p roved a mi m od itl ed. Diffc r nt speci es are herb ivore, ornni vore, or in SE'ctivo re (see Tab le 15 ­ under F s t Facts). Th re is no one diN l it.' nIl easy answer. Il erbivores incl ude the green iguana, urom astyx. nd Salo mon [sta nd prehensi le­ tailed skin k. Om ni ores inel ude bearded dragons, b lue-tongued skinks, t gu', eertain geckos, and rod
Re pti les

169

Lizards Ihat a re fed cri kets s hould be red da il y. C ricke ts sho uld be gut-Io ad ed prior to feed in g them lO lh e lizard. Cri cke ts are llsllaJly rhe ma in diet o f omni ­ vo r s, but they should I e a ltern ated with m eal wo rms and wax wo rm s. m ni vorous li za reIs shoulel be [eel a pinky o r fun y mo use o nce a week. There is a variely of ca nn ed d iels avail a bl e for lizards, indudi ng cG1n ned (d ad) cric kels. Des igned mo re fo r human con ven i 'nce, they ShOll ld not be consi de red a co mpl ete die t. [ he best diets are fresh ancl as e/ ose to a natu ral di el as poss ibl e. Lizards are o ne of the fe

replile 'pecies thal use th eir tongues to lap wate r.

ome snak s, tu n! s, an d tortoises im m erse rhei r heads in water dnd gulp. Su pp lying an app rop riat wa te r so u rce i ' sse nt ial in m ai ntai ni ng lhe h a1th of lhe lizard. Al! [0l10ises r q uir a diet thal is hi gh in calc ium an d ¡ow in p rote in nd fat. They should be fed daily, Da rk leafy gree ns, squash es, carrots, gree n beans, peas, and a sma ll am OU rH o Cfr uil offer vari ely and m eel nutritio nal needs. Torto ises also enjoy n ibbling on grass hay, growing grass, and we lis. 11 is very important

CH-')Itv1ELEONS DO

lhat tortoises ll ave gTJzin g access onl y to areas of lawn that have nO l been treated with fe nil izers, w poisons, or inse ti cid es. Turtl s are om n ivorous. T he bulk orthe diet sho uld be dark leafy greens with

INe WATf , They need

eo

smal l amounts of a n ima l pro te in. Anima l pro tei n ineludes cri kels, m ealworms,

NOT RECOGNIZE OR

OItINK FRO

STAND

to be suppli ed with moving water, as they cate h water droplets witn t he ir

and rth wo rms. Aquatic turtles fe o only in the water. Co mm r ¡al f10a tin g lu rtl e st icks are availabl . lf wild caughl, the LU rtl e may refu se lo eal th em, not recogni ¿­

ton gues. A drip system ca n

in g lhe pell ets as a fo acl so urce. Th ey slloul d be addeel graduall

be plaeed on top oF the

a nd th e con ­

sumpt ion moni lored . lIn alen p eO ts should be removed to p reve n t fouli ng, bacteria, and mo ld growth.

at r

-':i nakes fe d o n a va riety of prey. They hun t and consume ma mrna l , sma lle r r p til es, amphib ia ns,

egg~,

fish , h icks, insects, a nd wor ms . li ce, n!ts, and rabb its

are common ly offe red as prey ani mal s. S miaquati c sn a l es a lso ea t sl11JIl flsh. Feed ing o n killed p rey wi ll p rev n t serious in jur ies to lhe sn a1<e. Li e p rey has lhe potentia[ to cau e sE'riou s b ite injuri es to the sna ke. Snakes th , t are chew el 011 by p r y will try lo escape, bu t not fig h t back. So me snakes will on[y take live prey. If feed ing [ive prey, lhe n,lke should no t be lefl uns upervis d . lf the sn ake doc ' no t strike "vithill 10 m in ute , the prey sh o uJd be ren oved.

ever lea

Iive p r y in

the enelosure thin king the sn ake wilI eal il late L Mo re oh n tba n no t, lh e snake is lhe vic Li m (Figure 15-12). Stu T1n 'd or fres hly killed prey is re omm eJl d d to p revenllhe possi b ility o f injury to the snake. Sorne sn akes are very picky abo ut lh e color an d type of p rey th e ea l ano th e tim of day lh y

Ul.

'ea

0 11

al so pl ays a part in lhe fceding h abi ls o f sorn e

Snakes shoutd never be ter!: ft ur 5 unsupervised with live prey. Th i . ball python

has been severely cnewed by a rat . ( Co une~

of Erie f(laphake DVM .)

enclosure o r a wa terfa ll added to the habitat.

170

UNIT IV • CHAPTER 15

spec ies. Du ring what wo u ld n ormally be a h ib rna tion pe riod in the wild, m a ny snakes sto p ealing in a p tlvilY. Bal! pytho ns are lhe m l diffieu ll spec ies to keep ali ng on a regul ar bas is and lh ey are usuall lhe m os t timi d a bo ul lak­ ing prey. Al! s n akes slrike, ho ld in g the p rey w ith th ir teeth. Sm all er pecies o fte n swa l­ low lheir prey wi lh ou t eon stri Lion. O ther spee ies stri ke an d eonsui ct, tightly co it ing lheir bodies arou n d lhe pre and constr icting, su ffocati ng it to d ea th before swa ll owing ir who le. Digestion begins in the sl ma eh . It m ay take up to five or more d ys Lo co mpl ete! digest on prey item. Son es :md hair o f the p rey are co mpacted in Ihe reces a mi cxpelled . Ad u ll snakes are usually fed o ne appropriately sized pre one a wee k or once ever)' two lO lh ree weeks, depending on the feeding h b ilS natural to lhe spe jes. SmalIer snakes and yo u ng, gr wi ng sna kes sho uld be fed weekl y. The coneet size of p re)' to offer is one Lhal is as IMge as the large 1 part of the na ke's body, not \ acco rding Lo head size. Som ow ners alte m 1 10 G ed a large num be r of p re it O1S in a shon am ount of time lo increase lhe growth of their sn ake. TI is is call ed "'1m le 'ding, and it is not reeo m m ended . Sla m feeding ca n cause the in test in a l aact to beco me bl ocked, sl owin g d wn the metabolism and p len tia lly causi ng regurgitatiün ofth es rood . Victim of sl am feed ing lech n iques often requ ire u rgery lo rem ov b locked feca l mate rial and partíall y cliges ted prey in lhe il1lest inal tra et. tech n il ue used to en L1 re Fare feedi n g (di ffe rem to slam feedin g ) is th at a n an o rex ic n ake has an adequ ale d iet. [t sh o ll ld n o t be atte mp ted by inexp Ti ' n( d owner . The so phagus ca n b e eas ily lacerated. For eps an d to n gs used to p ush p rey ilem into rhe mOlll h and clown ¡nro lhe es op h gll s have ca used such trauma tha t th e sn ake h as h ad lo b eUlh a n ized . Ano rectie sn ake hou ld r e ive a co mpreh e nsive veterina ry ex am. There may be an underl ying d isease eau. in g th anorexi a and force feed íng m ay on ly complieale th e issu e ( Fi gure 15- 13) .

FI

15 1

Force feeding a snake may be

necessary to provide nulrilional support. A red rubher catheter is placed behind the lrachea in lhe ¡nitial approach to the esophagus .

R~slnlinl

alld

lIandlin~

Many lizards become slressed wilh clase huma n ca nte et. So m e will fl e or f1l1 d a place lO hiele, while oth ers be ome iln mob ile. Gen eral restra in t of liLards foi l v s lhe rule of LEAST: lhe leaSl am ollnt of reSlraint r qu ired 10 gel the job do ne, lhe better.

Reptiles

171

Lizard s d o not struggle as m uch when lhey are held erurely, but not forcefulIy. Lizards are grasped behind lhe head ami aro und lh e shoulders with one hand. Th e other han d sh ould be placed around the pel is ho lding the legs caudally and against lhe body (Figure 15- 14).

Figur p 15 1 A two · handed m th od of restrai nt for a ve ry quick lizard, th e basi lisk . This holds th e rept ile securely and secures the tail , protecting it fro m iniu ry. (Cau rtesy af lardan Applied Technalagy Cen ter, West lardan, Utah )

Be cautious of a de fens ive/aggress ive tail-wh ip, especiall y from an iguana. Th lail should be tucked under th a me ar m that h olds lh e pe lvis and rear legs. O n e restrai ned, rh e liza rd can be w rapped up in a lOwel for an exa mination or na illrim . An lhe.r effe ive m etho d of res tra int, especially for radiograph and blood d raws, is lO p lace COllon balls over both eyes and lo osely but securely wra p the head w irh a self- adhering ban daging m ate rial. When corre uy ap pl ied , tbi ' a lso forms a m uzzle and prevents the reptil e {rom biling, This method pllts modera te pressure on Lhe vagal nerve and tends to keep even the most aggressive reptile in a sub dued SL te. Examining a chel o nian can be di fficult. To avoi d internal injury, chelon ia ns ShOllld not be h eld upside down or wilh the h ead lowe r than Lh e body for long p eriods o f tim e. This can ca use re p iralOry diffieulty and is very stress fu l for th e tllrL le. They hould not b turned q llickly from ide to side as this migh t cause the int tines to twist. 1 0 exam ine the head on a small tu rtl , grasp either sid of lhe head beh ind llle jaws a nd pllll the head fo n.va rd sl owly ( Figure 15-15 ). If th h ead is reLr ct>d inside ¡he sh ell, a gentle prod with blllnt fo rceps !lear th back legs wil! usua lly encour. ge the head lO co m o ut from insi d ' lhe shell. Wh en u1e head starts to co m e o ut, it can be grasped q ll i kly. Chelanians are ur­ pri ingly q uick in their responses an d it may tal< several attempts lO gra P lhe head ar a leg. Comp letely enclosed box turtl es ca n be tempted to open up iE su b­ mersed in water. rr using for eps to e nco urage the head lO extend from lh helL the forceps should never be app lied LO th mandibl e. The resista nce ol" t11 tunl e ca n be so stron g lha l ir will most likely cause a mid line m an dí 1Ilar fracture . Forceps sh o ul d be used with grea t care and o nly appli ed to ¡he bea k. Even Lhe.n, lhere is a risk of b reaking chips o f keratin from th e beak.

172

UNIT IV· CHAPTE R 15

Fig e 15 Restraint of a box turtle . O nce the Foreleg is secu re d . the tu rtle willllkely extend th e neck , making it possible to qui ck ly J

secure the head. (Cour-tery

0i

l0r-dan Applied Technoiogy Center, West lordan , Utah .)

Large turtles or tortoises are very stro ng clnd it is 110t po sibl e to m anuaIly exteDd the head or legs \ ¡lho ut anesl hesia . In Sorne insta nces, large turto ises can be eDcou raged ro stay Oul of th eir shells with th offer of fo od du ri ng lhe exami­ nation . Fresh strawb [Ti es work wonders. Movern ent aro ll nd sDakes, e. pecially DCil r tf e h ad , sho ul d be careful an d s.low. Quic k rn ovemen ts oflen elicil a suikc ami poss ibl ' bi t. Sorne of lh e more aggressi ve :, nakes, for example the eme rald tree boa and th e 8urmese pythOD, ar likely LO ~tr i ke and bite the insta nt visual co ntact is made. Before attem pting r slrai nl, il is im portant to un derst and exacll y wha t behaviors are characteris lic of the snake. In all snal-es, the head should b secu rcd fir. t. era p the head gently bUl firmly from beh ind, caudal to the jaws. Once th head is secur · el, the rest of th e hody can be held loosely, all owing the snake sorne move ment over the sup­ po rt of the han dler's body an d ar ms. f Ol" sa rety, an sna ke over Ove [eet requires two restrainers; one for the head and fi rsl lh ird lh e bocly, and the other ro co ntrol t be body to preven t th snake from wrapping around any part of the hdnd ler's body Snakes should never be placed around anyo ne's neck. Many peo ple are seen carrying large sna k :; in this ma nner. Aside fro m endangering th emselves, this casualness is a sign ofignorancc. Should anything fright n the sna ke, it will quickly tighten an d const ricl in self-defense or in preparalio n to strike Sna kes thal [ eed lO be u ..\nsponed can be placed in a pillow case or sorne type of cloth bag that can be tied securely at the top oA 1 rge snake can be placed in a sp ort · bag or two- hand l d cuoler. The lid should always be secured.

A ph ys ical ex am should be perforrned on any r pt íl e prior to p llfchase. The e.xam begi ns w¡th the eyes, whi ch houId be clear and open . A sick reptil e will

Reptiles

173

typically have an ocul ar di sc ha rge with lhe eyes pa rtiJ lly or om pletely c1 oseJ . ¡he e 'es ~ ho u ld be eheeked for a ny swelJi ng that mi ght sugges l irri lJ Lia n or a n ey i n ~ el ion . The aura l ope ni n gs h ou ld a lso be checked for swe lling Iha t might sugges t a bscesses or in fla mm a tioll . Th a ura l ope n ing is a lso a com mo n place for miles

10

hide ( Figu re 1 -16). Th e leopard gecko in rigur 15- 16 \Vas nOl

~

d

th e correct di 1 o r house d proper ly. Il was resc ued fram a pe! Slo re an d n ursed back to healh.

figure 15 16 A critically ill leopard gecko ; the eyes are swollen shut and encrusted with sa nd . It has stomatibs and is very emacialed . With veterinary care and several weeks oi dedicated nursing care by the rescuers, the gecko is now reported to be in e xcellent heaLth , (CalO-re~ af Beu

and Dan Ring. )

Th e rosrrum s]¡ ould be exa m ined for lraum a or o ergro\Vth of a bea k o n a che lon ian . Tb e n a res sho uld be d ear (rom discharge. r he ora l cavily sho uld b > ex:a min d for tra u m a anJ Meas lha l a re abno rm a l in co lor. Th e norm al o lor o f lhe m uco us m e mb ran es in most rep t il e is pale pin.k it is nonn al to see

10

hi te. In bea rded drago ns

lJow m ucous m em bra nes . • 1< flldllli , inflamm ati on of th e

mo ulh , u lce rs, o p n mouth b rea thi ¡¡g, and excessive salivatio n ca n indi cate poor h ealth F

examp le, u pp r re p iralory i n~ Clio ns in snakes wil l cause excessive

sa lival ion a nd

pe n m oulh brea lhi ng. 'l o ngues in snakes a nd m onitor li zards

should be cons lantJy flic.kin g in al Id out of the n oUl h . To ngue Oicki ng indi -al . éln a len and healt hy

r

ci m en.

ve ra ll we ighl a nd :.p pearance o f lhe reptil e needs la be eva lua ted. Repti les that are sufTe ri ng fro m m alllUlrition fed efllpl )' wh en lhey a r p icked up . The lr body weighl \ ill be su b tantia lly less lh a n it sh oul d be for lh e speci es. In m a[­ n ou rished liza rds, p e lvic bo n s beco

e m ore prominen t a nd the la il a pp E'él rs

shriveled or thi n. Sna kes have a decrea 'ed muscl e mass \Vil h prom inen l do rsal processes and ri b ~ , O b e ity an a lso b . poor d i

l S.

él

Obese lizards have a distended

pads a lo ng lhe bo dy. The tail ba e i' a lso h ¡w ~ t pad a long the lower thi rd

..

probl e m in rep til es, especiaIly due

[O

bd o mi llil l cavi l, Wilh pa lpabl - fa t nlarged Wilh fat pad . Obese snakes

or th e bo d)'.

­

174

UNIT IV • CHAPTER 15

MO Sl reptile he ans are small an d loeated more dorsally than those of m am mal s. This makes ir di ffi Ull LO pla ce a ste rh oscope on the t horax LO aus­ cu ltale lh hean . Beea use of th eir seal . a neljar solid breast pl ates, it i mo re difficu lt Lo au scu la te [he rcp tili an heart. Wrapping a da m p LOwel around the thorax of a liza rd am plifies the sou nd and decre ases int rfere nce from scale noise ( igure 15-1 7).

Figure 15-17 Wrapping a damp towel around the th o x of a lizard ampl,fies heart sounds and decreases interference from scale nOlse . (Courtesy of KaLhy Nuuall.)

I

Re pr ile!. are often d iagn ose wilh bacterial infections in the joinl!. ;md lim b . l' n lrali ng wo un ds from encl osures or wounds caused by cage m ales ca n be a so uree of infection. In fect ion begins lo cally, al lhe site of the injury, and th en becomes sy lem ie. If the in ~ ( tio n is tr aled v h >n lo ca lized, reptil es usually rerover Wil h olJ l co m plirations. Sto m atitis, also cal led Mouth Rol, is com m an in lizards nd snal s to matilis can develap Wilh irnm unosupp ressi o n, an in ade­ qu ale diet, or an u nderl yi ng d isease. Sign' incl ude a norex ia, gingivitis, an in ability to use the tongue prope rly, bleed ing, a nd oral dis harge. Ro st ral (nose) ab ra i ns occu r in lizards tha l are co nsla nt ly lryin g to escape from th e ndosure a nd bu m p íng t he wa ll s, caus ing ínju ry lo lb e ro ­ trum. Trea tment involves p rovidi ng th e correct en clos u re and envi ron me nt and ap plying int ments a re omme nd ed by the v te ri n arian 10 preve nt a sys­ te m ic infect ion . If th e ab ra. io n is se ere, surgiea l debri d men t m ay be neces­ saly (Figure 15- 18). Abscesses are comIll on in reptiles and invo lve a variety of ba leria Absc ss ca n fo rm in th e ora! cavíty, eye , ear can al, a nd skin . There may also be inte rnal abscesses on th ¡iver and lung . Abscesse in repti les are different fro m th ose found in i11amm al s. The pus foun d in Ihe abseess is <:'1 t'UlI!'" cheesy a nd non­ flo w ing. Suhculan ous a bscesse are surgí a lly opened, and the solid pus packe l removed . rhe cavity may be left open or pac ked with sterile gauze. In te rnal abscesses are dif(icu lt LO diagno , a nd may be treated with oral an tibiotics (figure 15 -1 9 ).

Reptiles

175

Figur 15-18 A pan o f basllisk liz.ards. lhe male (lower) ha a rostral abrasion.

Figure 15 19 Aural (ear) abscesses are fairly common in captive tur­ tles. lhe abscess on lhis red-eared slider is so large that it prevenls the tu rtle from retracting its head . (Co ul·tery 01 E¡-ic Klaphake , DVM. )

Th erm al burns ar frequent ly seen by eteri na rian . Faul lY heat rocks a nd the close proximity of basking Iigh ts are (o m mon causes of rh ese b urns. Rep ti le d o no t have a wiLhd r wa l refl ex and can not perceive ma l a li gh t o r a rock ís too hol. Baski ng repti les contin ue to Ije on lop of a h Ol íte m, often bu rni ng lhro ugh the si in a nd u nderlying mus le ti sue. Trea lment depemls on the severit I of lhe bum . Ste ril c aline is used to irrigat the bu m ed tissue. Debridement and possi bl e sur­ gery may be recommended by m e veterinariao . Recovery from them1a1 burns may

-

176

UNIT IV • CHAPTE R 15

ta ke mo nths or years wit h severa l sh eds th at gradually replace the de troyed tissue an d skin. The m ost common cause of resp iralory problem in rep tiles is roor hus­ bandl and nU lri úon. Signs o f res p ira LOry distress in d ude o pen mouth brealhing and bubbl a l the 'ides of the mout h and from th e na res. Dep nding on Lhe degree o f r spi ralo ry di Slress, there may be abnorma l posturing, !:pping (fre quent openin g of tlle mo u th ), and audibl e resp irato ry sounds. Anorexia a nd lethargy re ¡¡Iso seen Wilh resp iratory p ro blem (figure 1S-20).

~jg,",r..

~. 20 Respiratary infections in

re ptiles are often due to inadequate hus­ bandry practices and not meeting POTZ requirements . This turtle has pneumania in the left lung.

(Cau ne.ry af lardan Applied

Techn alogy Center. \Y/est lardan, Urah .)

.....

\ tress contributes to ill ness o r a del a in h aling. O ne oflhe major tress fac­ tors in ca ptive rep tile is the e nvi ron ment and the rood Lhey re of~ red . Rep til behavior lh at may in dka le stress indude in llalin g th e body with air, hissing sou nds, and o pen m o uth brea thing. There may also be immobility, tense ness. a change in co lo r, cautiou s mo e ment, an d eva ua ti on of cloacal contents.

Ga", lroint<·slinal )isord(-fS Gastro intest inal disorders are associated w ith in ternal para ites, bacteria r viral infeclions, a nd foreign bo dy ing stions . 1 loh.1(Leri are oflen diagnosed in reptil . Th e inva ling bacteria cause deteriorati on and wasli ng of lhe whol body. White nodules deve lop on the viscera, slowly de troying lhe gast roi ntes tj na l tract o Prognosi is grave. A vira l d i, ease o f con cern in snakes is In lllsi e n B dy Disea or IB D. This vi rus m ost comm o nly affeel' lhe bo ids. There are seve ra! slrains of [8D tha! may cause a vari eLY o f signs. 1n young boas, ¡he d isease is acute, re ult ing in pa ralys is and dealh . Signs in adult boa incl ude regu rgitalio n o ne ro two d ays afler ea li ng an d u pper respiralory traet in fectio n . As the disease prog resses, neurological sign may be p resent. In affeCled py thon s, th diseas progresses quickly and

t5

-6

~

ca

Reptiles

invo lves ll1u ltip le b d y syste ms Ther is (requ entl y pn umonia, slOma ti tis, él nd n eu rol ogica l signs. The disease was p revio usly r [erred lO as star gazing as affected snakes lose m e ab ility to ri ght lhe mselve , with much of the body twisted and upsid e down du to the loss of muscle control. The re is no treatm ent an d it is recomm end ed lhat any sna ke te ti ng positive fo r I BD be euth an i;¿ed. Diagnosis can be made with biopsies taken from several locat io n s; liver, IUIIgs, skin, and glotti s. Gastroi ntestinal fo reign bodies a re mo re com monly een in terrestrial rep til es. Some repti les ingest cag su bstrate, includ ing sand and gravel. Ch elonians some­ ti mes in gest rock!> and wood m aterial. Sna kes ancl lizard~ often ingest inani mat bjects. It is n ot un usual fo r iguanas to ing t n ecklaces, earri ngs, and children's toys (Figure ] 5-21).

r gur I -21 This iguana was presented with vague signs, lack of appetite , and leth ­ argy. The rad iographs revealed it had swal­ lowed the owner's necklace, complete with the chain . ( Courte~ o/ Ma l"'lLn G. Orr, DVM , Bird and Exotlc Pet Hospital.)

Gas trointestin a l neo plasia is a co ncern in repti le m edí ine. Tumors h ave b e n rep o rt d in att sp eci es of rep til s wit h no appa rent age p re ft"renc e. Ph ys ical si gns of tum rs va ry, d e pe nJing on lh e rype of ne o p lasia and loca­ ri on of th e ru mo r. ,ene ral sig n may inclu d e poo r grow th , an o rexia, o ns ti pa­ tion, m le na, and p lp ab ie m asse ·. [n mos t cases, rh e patient do es nor su rviv th is dise ase.

Metabo lic b n d isease (MBD ) is common in rep til es that have not been f, d an éld equate d iet. It is al so s J1 in rep tiles rll at do nor have ful! spectru rn UVB light­ ing, which is esse nt ial fo r lhe abso rp ti o n of calcíum. Cl ín ical signs of MBD in lude musde !re mo rs, d fo rmed bOIl strl.lC tu re, stunted growth, spontaneous frac tures, ami p ara lysis . Often, th e diet has a calcium conte nt tha! is loo I wan d a p hospho rous ontent thar is too high .

177

178

UNIT IV • CHAPTER 15

Tr€atm ~ nt

of MBD invoJves improving the diet, add ing cal cium suppleme nts or giving calcium inj ections, and p roviding corren lighting. The condilion may be stabil ¡zed, but it cannot be cured or the deformiti es co rre ted . is caused by an ín adequate dietary intake of vítamín A. Hypovitaminosís Signs ind ud respiralo ry in rections, neurological an d ocular problems, and di ffi­ culty shedding. Suppl ement l vitami n A is o ften given by injection . Oversuppl mentatíon of vítam ins and m ínera ls can be just as dangewus as a d ft ciency. Re ptile owners need to be aware o f lh e sp cific dietary needs of a species and provide a su itable and appropriate diet. Many owners are not aware that this may mean twice weekly isíts to the grocery store to obt in fresh greew; and a IOl of ti me spent in food preparatío n. Supplements are not a substirute for a correct diet. <'oul ís caused by the accumul atíon of excess m ates de pos íted in the intesti­ nal tract and joints . Gout affects many species includ ing snakes, lizards, and tor­ to ises. C out is asso iated with d 1 ydration and poor nutrition. Signs in dude swollen join ls a nd painful movement. Tr 'a tme nt involves supp rtive th erapy and th e use of a Ji rdi!.., a d rug that increases urinati on and elimínati on o f excess body flui d . Most treatme nts are ineffect ive. Many rep roducti e problems can occur, esp ecially in green iguanas and cha­ meleons. Most liza rds a re 0\ Iparnus, egg layers. A common pro ble m occu rs when lhe lizard becom s egg bound. This mily occ ur due lO a la k o f a su itabJ e si te to lay the eggs, stress, poor n utritíon, or hormonal probl ems. Reprile eggs do nOl ll ave a hard sh ell like b ird 's eggs. The shell is soft, rubb ery, or lea thery, dependi ng on t he species. Medical m an ageme nt ¡nelude in cr asing the hu m id­ iry and lemperature, adminis ler ing Gllciu m glucon3te ínjections, fluid therapy, ah{!¿ roviding a suitabt e substra le for gg la ing Th e other opti on is surgicaJ re mo -al of rhe eggs. Due to the lo catio n o r the ovari $, the mass of eggs d uri ng the preovul atory stage may comp le tely block the 1 tract du e to their numb ers and bu lk (Figu res 15 -22,15-23, and 15-24 ). Ventral View of a Femala Lizard

FIgure 15- _ The anatomy of a fema

lizard showing the loca tion of preovulato ly eggs .

Reptiles

179

Figure 15 23 A radiograph of an egg-bound female veiled cham e­ leon. (Courte sy 01 IOI-dan Applied Technology Cenrer, West lordan, Uta/I ,)

F. lIre I 7.<+ N ecropsy o f a young Senega l chame leon l hat was found dead. Ten eggs were revealed from the necropsy. (Courte~ o[Jordan Applied Tech , ology Center, Wesc lordan, Utah .)

1'80

UNIT IV • CHAPTER 15

hell repai rs in che[ oruans may b necessary, oflen due lO trauma. frequent causes are dog bit ol' being hit by a car. The fractured ar a of the she[ 1 hould be de.brided to remove any fragm ents of shell, bon , o r conta rnin ants. The area should be 1.1\ J d vvilh saline (PSS) to reduce the poss ibilit , of an infeclion, lhen leaned \ ith a urgical scru b and f1u sh d agaín wilh rss. Bleeding may !JE:> sto pped with ul'gical glue or gelfoa m. l 11e damage can be repai red us ing fi berglass patd1e5, hoof aay li c, or dental rnateri 1. he patch becomes a permanent add ition to lhe shell. lf the inj ury occurs in a juvenile chelonia n, the fi berglass patch wil l need to be changed to allow [or growth (Figu re 15-25 ) , A box turtle that has a flberglas$ patch to repal r a shell in jury (Coun esy o{ lordan Appl,ed Technology C enter, West lordan , Uta h.)

Sep li cern ic cutaneou ' ulcerative disease ( ' CUD) is see n in ( q uaLic tllftles. 'Ihis is a bacterial infection of th e ski n and hell. The (ond ition i cOl11m o n wiLh turt les kepl in a diny environ ment o r no t all owed a basking area out of the waler. The ba lería cause u lcers 01 lhe ki n and can cause 105s of ú1e scutes. This co nd i­ tio n can be life th r aten ing. lf the bacteIÍa invade the blood slream il can cause 'P I 111 . Treatment is focused on changing lhe ellviron m nt an d b, keeping the water quali ty high and well fil tered . Affected areas of iJkin and h tI should be cleaned an d scrub bed wi lh d íl ute iodine solution da ily until heaJed . OvergrO\ n beaks and nails re co m mon in chelon ians because lheir captive envir >nme nt
Re ptiles

181

so lutiun . This allow ' the o rg ns a nd tis, ues to be gently p u hed back ins ide the body, Some velerinaria ns may partially sut.u re th e c1 0aca l ope ni ng [or severa! days to p reven t a rep ro lapse (Figure 15 -26)

tlini(HI ) 'orcduJ ("S Intramuscu lar (1M ) in jeClions sh ould be gí ven in the fro nt li mbs oC líza rds a n d che lo n ians. If adm ini!>Lered in Lhe hincl Jimbs, th e r na! portal syste m delive rs the age nt t lhe kiuneys, \ here it is qui Id y fi ltered ou t Jnd lhe erfecti ve nes is IO SI ( Figu re 15-27 ).

Renal Portal System of a Lizard

1It-......--.l~_ Post Cava n.-__....--

Efferent Ren al Vein--r-......."""

Dorsal Aorta

Fi u e 15-?7 A dlagram o fthe renal portal system of reptiles. Because of this system, injection s should be glven in th e fronllegs . D rugs delivered in the rear limbs are qUlckly filte red out by t he kidneys.

Figure 15 26 A cloaca l protapse in a bearded dragon. The ven t was

",--"...-.-_ Left

partially d osed wlth su tures lo pre­

Kídney

venL Its recu rrence . (Co urt esy of

Righl _.l-II-tt~~ 1 1 Kidney

la rdan Applied Tech n%gy Cen ter, West lo rdall, Utah .) Femoral Vein

Ven ipu ncture silt'S in li:¿a rcls in dude Ihe vel1lra l coccyg al vei n and the vent ral abdomina l vein . Th C'Occygeal v in is easi ly accessed in lhe Jizard wh en r slrained in dorsa l recumbe ncy. A tuberc ulin syri nge with a 22 lO 25 gauge needJ e is requi red . The needle is ínsert d beLwee n Lh e scales al the m id line o f lhe la il. rt sh ould be íl1serted al least 1/3 of lhe distance from lh e ven llO avo id pene tratí on o [ (he hem ipenes ( Figu re 15 -28) . The ventral abdom inal vein i. superfi cia l and f[agile . Th e Jiza rd is re lrain ed cl orsal ly ami a 22 LO 25 gauge needle is used wiLh a shallow approach ju t la teral to th e vein . Venipuncture iles in chelonia ns inc\ ude the jugu la r vein, the dorsal and v n tra! coccyg a l ei n, lhe hean ¡ lhe carotid an ely, and th e subcara pacia l vein. The jugu!ar vein is localed lalerally on the ned , beginnin g al th tympanic membranc. lt fo llows bl ood the angle o f the jaw along the !engm o f the neck. rhis is a co m mon si le calle io n in , mal l lunles and torto ises when lh e head ca n bee>..1ended and restrained.

rm

Tl1e vei n is held off al lhe base o f the neck an I a tub r ul in syringe with a 22 LO 25

h

ür

5 b

The approach

lhe coccygeat vein for blooc :::: ­ lection in a reptile. (Cauro.

lordan Applied Techno!C& Wm lordan, Utd ,

e

182

UNIT IV' CHAPTER 15

gaug need le is used lO e llect lhe ~a m ple. Pressure o n the vein . ho uld be ap plied fo r severa I minll t s after blood coIlection to avo id a h('m lIom.l . The do rsal coccygeal vein is su perfici al and approached m id line fr m the ventral swface of the ta il. A 25 gauge n 'JI is angled at 45 lO 90 c\egrees and slowly advanced into the skin untU blood enters the needle hubo The subcarapacial vein is fo u nd midline, dir clly lJnd r the carapace. Tile head should be retracted in t sh 11 The app ro dl should be with a 60 degree angle, jus t caudal to skin attachment to the carapace. In so ft shell tunles, (.1 dioll III í~ an be perfo rm d for blood co ll ection (Figure 15-29).

Figur 15-29 To o btain a blood sa mple from the subcarapacial vein, the head sho uld be retracted _ (Cou nery 01 lordan Applied Technology Center, West lordan, Uta h.)

The tw m ost comm n ly used blood collection sites in the s nak are th e entra l coccygeal vein and ca rdiac p unClu re. Th e ven tra l co eygea l ci n is loe ted caud al lO the ent along lhe m idJ ine o f rhe ta il. The sn dke shoul d be rest raincd erticaU . The app ropria t sized needJ e is inserted midline at a .90 degree angle u nd l coming int e ntact w ith the vertebrae_ rhe needle is thcn slow l , baeked OU l un li! blood nters lhe hubo A (ardiac punclure req uires patiencE'. The snake is reslxained dorsally or held aloft by two peop le. The heart be t can be fell or se at the distal end o f lhe fi rst third o f the 1 nglh )f lhe snake's hotly. The heartbeal of a snake ¡sub lan tially slower ¡ha n tha t of ma mm als ancl it may lake several seconds to locate lhe !lean. Onc a heartbeat is visualized, lh site can be marked wi¡h a nO Oloxic fe lt-tipped peno Llsing a 25 gauge needle and tuberculi n syringe. Oler slraigh t into lh hean, avo iding a 10 1 of needle movemenl lO p revent f1.ll1her dam age or laceratio n of the heal1. ¡\leJ i alions fo r chelon ians can be given oraIly or by inj edio n. Intram uscular and subcula neo lls routes are preferred. In uamuscu la r in jeclio ns a re givcn in th e frolll legs due to ¡11 funcLi o n 01' Lhe re nal po rta l system. Su bcu taneous in jections are giv n belween lhe from leg and the neck. "[ his site is me easi Sl l dccess. Be aware thal eve n lhe . mallesl lu rt] e or tol1oise cou ld allem p t lO b ile. Adm in islering oral med ication to a rep tile can be dirtlcult ir th e reptil e does not open it moutJl easily. To o pen a rep lilian mouth wi lhout da maging it req u ires head restra inl. Once Lhe head is restra ined, él rub b r patula, a pl astic card (credil card ), r longue depressor ca n be lIsed la gcntly ply o pen lhe mouth. If meta l forc ps are used, ti u aro u nd tbe 11l0u lh and in lh e ora l < vi ty co uld be injured . Nutritional SUppO l1 in chelonian. c n b gi en by p lacing a meta l avian fced­ ing !libe illlo lhe esophagus w ilh an attached syringe. To bes t ava id ¡he trach ea, Lh e lube is adva n ed toward ¡h e right side o f the ora l cavity. When admini.l ring flll ids or medi cations, intramuscular in je tions should be considered as a last option . Th is is d ue to the spo radi c u pta ke o f m di cations

il

me

Reptiles

when th ' patient is del ydrated or hypoLhermic. Several m eJ ic lions can be ini tati ng lO lhe reptile anu omp lica ted f1Jrth er by limited ffi uscle mass. M t intram uscu lar in jecLions are given in lh Cro nt li mbs or liza rds and h lon ia ns. Fluid rep lace m e nt in rep t il es is co m mo nl y ad m ini stered by in u av nous o r intraosseous ro u les. C he lonians can soak in an d absorb wale r th roug h lhe cloaca

if lhey are not sev rely dehydrated, Ir[he rep tile is sligh tly dehyJrated , ' u bcutane­ o us ( ' Q) fl uids can be adminislered. Sn akes a nd liza rd:. rece ive su bcuLaneous tlu ids between Lh e laLera l sca les, Chelo n ic ns receive s ub cutan eous fluids in the ingui nal Co ld Of tJle ventral neck flap , ¡Ce aJ m inistrat io n ca n a lso b used to give sm 11 amo u nts o f flui ds l o rep­ Lil es, In s nakes, Oll ids are give n towards the last fou rth of Lhe c-oeIomic cílvily, injecting be tween the scaI es, In lhe lizard and chel onians, the fl uids are given in fronl of the hind l g, The fl uids ar di reCled towards the o pposi te shouId er. l o r rna intenanc , fl uids a re ca1culaled at 5 to 10 ml/kg daily.

AN ANOREXIC BOX TURTLE CAN BE SOAKEO IN DILUTED (1 :1> TOMATO OR VEGETABLE IUICE ANO WATER FOP 15 Te '20 MIN"TES OAILV. The t urtle is able to soak up fluids and vi tami ns, Thi s should be do ne in co njunction with assisted feedings and recommended veterinary treatment, which may also include ant ibiotic therapy,

Blood vol ume fo r mosl species is appro im al Iy 5 to 8 per en t o f total bod y weighl Approxlm ately 10 pe rcent of this can b col/caed at o ne time, Blood ho u ld be collected in a lith ium hepa rin (green lOp) 1Ube, Rep ti le eryth rocytes are n ucle­ al d and ell ip tica L Red blood cells are larger in size th an mamm als and simi lar

lO

birds, Packed cel! vo lu m e (PCV) in m OSl rep ti les is between 20 pe rcenl nd 40 percenl. A packed ell vaJume of le than 20 percent may llgge 1 an em ia , R ptiles do no t us u !Iy regurgi lale unde r an st he ia w iLh the exc Plion of a recently fed snake, The r pt il e p al ient daes no l 11 ed lo be fasled prior to , nes the­ si a. Because rep til s are erlo Lherms, they can be slowe r lO induce an d more diffi­ cult to ma intain under aneslh esia, Recove ry m ay be p ro longed , lnj eaab le anesthet ics lower cardiac outpul, causing slower blood distributio n an d resu lting in a slower ab~o rpti on rat , When llsing injecL, b le an e lh tics in repti l s, an increased lime fo r drug effectiveness i exp eled , Admi nistering a sec­ ond volume w ill not horten induclio n

um

a nd a fIen leads to a nesth lic over­

dose al d dea lh . Some inj ectable an esthel ic agen ts can be ery irri tating if given ICe and Lh re is a risk o f lae rating imema! orga ns, Mo l inje ta bIe anesthetics are admin istered inuave no us o r intraoss o us in rep ti les, This improves ind u tio n and recovery lime an d is less irriLaüng LO the repli le, Hecommend d inhalanl for u e in reptiles are isofl urane and sevofl urane, evoflurane has a greate r vafi a nce in re ptil s and, o ccasio n 11 , a su rgical pla ne of a nesth esi a m ay b di[f¡cu lt ro ach ieve. The reptile heart is three chambered, w ith two at ria and a ne ventri cJe, The ven­ lriel has three subcha mbers with shunts ¡hat fo rce th e bloo d to the body and lungs, These valve-lik sb unts can func:tion independently or in un ison (Figur 15-30)

183

184

UNIT IV • CH APT ER 15

o Reptiles have a

Lizard Heart (Dorsal View) Circulatlon

three chambered heart, wlth two atria and one ve ntricle , The dia ­ gram of a lizard heart Illustrat es ca rd iac blood Flow.

Right System lc Artery

Left Pulmonary

Artery Righ t Pulmonary Arte ry

(The red arrows show the oxyge nate d bl ood flow,

A Cavum Venosum

The blue arrows sh ow the

B. Cavum Pulmonale

deoxygenated blood flow.)

e

Cavum Arte rio sum

The ca rd iac m ech anis m has a clüect affect on o xyge n sa lW'atio n ¡evels a nd the el imi nati o l1 u f anestheti c gas during surge ry an d recovery, R p tiles uo r ol have a d iaph ragm to assi t Wilh respiralio n , Abdo m in;¡1 alld in ter­ costa l m uscles move the ai r in a nJ ou t of the lungs (in snakes, only lhe right lung is inflaled) . It is comm o n fo r re pti les lO become apn ic w hen completely anesthetized . Repujes are episoclic brea thers; tJley mal' lake a couple ofbreaths and ¡h en stop breath­ ing for a sho a period of úm > Whe n mon iloling a reptile und r gas nestJlesia, the anesthetist should ventilate m e palie nt m an ually sev ral limes in q u nce. r his infl t s the lungs si m ilarly to norm al respiration an d assists in main ta ining th ane tll es ia leveL ormal respiralion for a n anesthetized reptile is tvvo lO four breaths per minute. It i:; fai rl y easy to intu bate r pti le as t he gl o tLis is easi ly vi 'ualized . Un u ffed end otracheal tubes sh ou ld he u ~ ed . Ir Lhe only al prop riale s ized e ndo trach t'a l lube is cuffed, it ca n be used, bllt nol in fla ted , In fl atí on of the cuff ca n cause tra um a lO the u' hea as re ptiles do n Ol ha e complete tracllea l ri ngs to SUppOrl m e cu fe C helon ian hay shorl, bifurcated trac heas, Th is C3n pose a prob lem v hen intub at­ ing for a n es lhesía , tndO lrachea l tu bes should be pl aced at ¡he tOIJ o f lhe bifur a­ !.'i on to avo id in fl ating o n!y une lung. \Vhe fl chelon ia n b rea th, lhe abd om inal an d n eck muscles assi st with air flow. When a che! on ian retracts its h ad in lO the she lL it slO ps m usde 1110vemenl an d h ;:¡]ts respi ra tion , An an eslhetiz d cllelon ian sho ul d h ave il he d and neck fully extend .::d to preven I res p iratory co mp romise, Du ri ng a neslhe ia inJ ll ction, mllsrl ' relaxation sta rt al the micll ine oC lhe body and m oves cran iaJly, th en cau dally The ta i! is lhe last pan of the b ody to relax, Asses m en t o f card iovascular functio n can b e do n e wilh Lhe use o f a _tetba· scope, esop bageal stetlloscope, or a do pp ler. vVh e n pl acing an esophagea l tube,

Reptiles

ad vance slowly

lO

avo id enlerin g into lhe sto m ach. The do pple r probe ca n be

p laced over th e heart, carotid artery, or co((ygea l art ry. Pulse oximet rs a re not the most re ljable in a essing vita l signs il1 r pliles. Th e primi tive brain st m of reptiles con ti nues ro funct ion, producing recogni ¿ab le sou nds of cardiac ou tpul when, in fa t, lhe pa lien! may be unrecovera ble. Rad iogTaphs can be vcry he lpfu l in di gnosing p rob lems. High detail film \. ¡lh om p at ibl e asse ltes or mammography fi lm cassett s, will p roduce the besl radiogrd phic deLa il. M )Sl ra di graph~ ca n be taken w ith o u t a nesl hesia or eh ' m i­ cal resrrain l, jUSl palience. Norm al Vle'v s fo r lizards a nd sna kes a re dorsal/ventra l and 1 leral. Sna kes sh oul d be unco iled fo r radiographs. Depe nding on the length

of lILe snal e amI ! he area oC i m e reSl, severa 1 may need to be taken in sequen ec, on length oC the body al a ti me. If it is a large snake, restrai nt assistanee is required. Sn kes may also b te m pted to cn ter a length of d ear p la. Lic tube, making il easie r to ob t
¡li n (rigure 15 -31 ).

e tare 15 31 A rad. ograph (DN) of a snake with a vertebral fractu re.

Che lo n ians are lhe easiest lO position ro r a rad íograp h. D/V i the mo st com ­ m n view taken . If a lalera l nr aan ial / ca udal iew ís n ed d, a chelon ía n can be p la ced on top or,an objecl w ith a ll four legs sus pended.

Pal asil t~S [mernal parasites are omm on in "" il d ca ught lizards . Para ites may b proto zoa ns in rhe gastrointeslinal Ira t a nd circulaLOry system, and/ or n em atodes wi th in the GI traet. In the wi ld, lhese parasites m y nOl be prohlema tic, bUl in captivity, when the lizard is exposed to tress, ma ln utritioIl, or inatlequ ate husbandry, para­ site

an become a problem . Signo ind ude a norexia, dehyd ration , regurgita tían,

an d b loat.

Ir

lbe [izarcl is already c mpro mi sed, parasites may beco me over­

w helm ing Jnd cause deat h. Parasiles can be diagnosed by feca l Oo tation and are trealed \ ilh the appropriate an lh e lmintic as p rescri bed by lh e veterinaria n.

185

.,.... 186

UNIT IV • CHAPTER 15

E" tern al pa rasites, m iles, a n d ticks, a re co mm on in wild caug hl liz a rds. R d mi tes, chiggers, live u nde r the sca les an d around the folds o l' lhe legs, e. es, and ear Mil s ~ ed o n b lood and can cause a nar xia, d ehydration, a nd dnem ia.

op e ni ng~.

lnjectab le ive m1€c ti n is u ua lly p r scribed to rem ov mile ' from tite p atient, ho w­ ever, the e nclosu re nceds to be co mplete!y d is in l'ected . Al! natu r 1 wo o d furnish­ ings sh o uld be rem o ed 3nd d estroyed Mites hide in wood, m o ss, a nd sm a lJ crevices. age fl.l rnishings can be bagged and plae d in a free¿e r for 24 to 48 h ours, killing free-living mites. Ticks are u sua lly attad l ed in hard-to-reach ar as aro un d the head anu limbs. All visible ticks need to b arefu lly and co mpletel)' re moved. Ivermectin ini ctio ns may also be lIsed in lhe l[ea lm en l of a m aj or tick infe ta li o n oSo aking the lizard in water, o fle n [eco mm e nded by pet sto res, will not drown

aH?!/!

(the ticks), nor w il l a thick

coating o f petro kum jeU slIffomte th elll and solv lhe p rob lem. P[o fessional veteri­ nary t[eat men t wDI save an owne[ much fruslral io n and pOlenl ial loss o f th e repU le. The snake mi le, Ophyion y\5U.í llatricis, is a b lood feedi ng parasite. Th e mites can ca use sea les to lift a nd hecome necrolic, and ca use dehyd rat io n , de[mati lis, an d ane mia . ¡ hey also transm it blood-b orne d iseases a nd are a li kely \leGar of JBO. The m ites burrow lInde[ scales and into crevices in th e co rn e rs of th e 1110uth and 3ro ll n d the eyes. Becau se thei r life cycle is lI ni que, they are very d iffi cult to e[ad icate. Ivlated fe m a Jes can lay b oth fe n il e a nd un fertile egas. The Grtíl e egg deve lop as fe m aJes and lhe u n fertil e eggs devel p as m ales. !'vlales are produced asexual ly. [eferred to as p

nhLllo¡" 111:

i

Eggs hatch w ilhin 50 ho urs flf bei ng laido T hi' ' pec ies 0 1' mi le has ,1 40-day life sp an th a t is self-pe rpetu a ting. Sn a k m ites have a five- t g life cycle : cgg, la rva, pro w nym ph, deu l nymp h, an d ad ulto O n ly m ites in tb bst two slages of devd ­ opme nt feed 0 11 blood an d they must have a blooJ m ea ! b efore p roducing eggs . The ~ m ale mi le is a vo [aciolls fe d cc co nsum ing m o re Ih a n lOon percent of he[ body wei gh t a t eac h feedi llg. l'vl 0 ll t h pa rts a re si mi lar to tbose of J tick vv itb a pe nelra ting bl od feedi ng tube. The re m a, be visu al signs oC infesta tion w ith scale dis rup Lion a nd dermatiLis. InD sted snd kes b eco me agita led a n d [ub on a ny ite m in the e ncl oslI re. T h y will also soak in wa t r m ore e ften '¡'he [e are o ve[-th e- ou nter pro ducts Ctvail(lb le, bll l it is recom m e nded that infected s na kes be trea ted by a vete ri n a rian .

o What does POTZ mean and why is this important in housing reptiles? f) Why is it important to provi de UV lighting for reptiles?

Gout is a common disease in reptiles . What are the typical signs seen with this disease?

O What are the common signs of a reptile with respiratory d ifficulties? What is an episodic breather?

Reptiles

What type of habitat is required for ch ameleons?

What are the causes of metabolic bone diseases?

What are common blood collection sites for the following species:

a. lizards b. snakesd c. chelonians

O What are the different ways of determining the sex of the following reptiles? a. snakes b. chelonians c. lizards

(I!) Explain the renal portal system in reptiles.

Reptiles

Table'

1: Rep tile Tem peralu res and Hum idity Levels REP.:rILE TEMPERATURES ANO HUMIOITV LEVELS Lizards

African fat tail gecko

POTZ 78 to 90 °F

Humidity 20 to 50 %

Anole

73 to 84° F

70 to 80 \

Basilisk

73 to 86 " F

80 to lO O"'.

Bea rd ed dragon

84 lo 120 °F

30 to 40 %

Blue -tongued skink

81to 9 0 ° F

30 to 6 0 %

Crested gecko

74 to 83 ° F

5 0 to 8 0"(,

Dwarf chameleon

70 to 85° F

70 to 80 %

Giant day gecko

80 to 86 ° F

5 0 to 80 %

Fische r' s chameleon

72 lo 85°F

70 to 80 %

Co ld dusl gecko

80 to 86 ° F

50 to 70 ~~

Creen 19uana

85 to 103 ° F

80 to 100 %

lackson 's chameleon

70 to 80 °F

5 0 to 75%

Leo pCJrd gecko

77 to 86 °F

20 to 30%

Panther cha me leon

85 to 9 0 F

70 to100 %

Savan na monitor

80 to 95 F

20 to 30%

Tegu

78 lo90 °F

50 to 80'i.

Ve lled cha meleon

80 to 9 5 c F

20 to 30' 0

Water drago n

77 to 9 3 ° F

50 to

85 to 11 0 °F

20 to 30 ·

Uromastyx

80 o~

Contirll/ed

187

188

UN IT IV • CHAPTE R 15

Table 15 1. Continued Snakes

POTZ

Hum idity

Ball python

77to 86°F

Blood python

85 to 86 ° F

Boa constrictor

82 to 93 uF

70 to 90 '\

Red-ta iled , Columbian , Burmese python

77 to 86°F

Com snake

78 to 88° F

20 to 50·"

Carter snake

68 to 95 ° F

20 to

C reen tree python

78 to 85°F

80 to 100%

Hog Istand boa

78 to 90 DF

80 to 100');,

Hog-nose

80 lo 9 0 °F

20 to 30 .

Kmg snake

73 lo 86 °F

50 to 75

78 to 90 "F

20 to 4 0 %

3 0 ~c

0 0

Ritinbow boa

75to90°F

Reticulated python

78 lo 90 "F

80 to 100 %

Sand Boa

77 to 86 F

20 to 30 \

Chelonians

Box turtle

75 to 84°F

50 to 80"..

Leopard tortoise

68 to 86 F

40 to

Pain ted turtle

73 to 82 ° F

80 to 100"0 80 to 10 0".

Red -eared slide r

70 to

8 0 '~

20 to

50'~

80 to 100"F

20 t o

5 0·~

80 to 95 ° F

20 to 50 "'..

Red- footed tortoíse Ru ss ian lortoise Rad iated tortoise (stor) Sulcata tortoise

5 0~

78 lo 90 ° F

Note: These are recommended average temperature ranges and hum idity levels .

Table IS-,L

Ufespan in Captivlty

CoLubrids

Age (years)

Cornsnake

32

Ralsnakes

22

Hog-nose sna ke

19

Kingsnakes Northwestern garter snake

19 to 44

15

Bolds Boa constrictor

40

Solomon Island boa

16

Rubberboa

26

Emerald tree boa

31

Rainbow boa

31

Carpet python

26

Creen lree python

19

Burmese python

Bal! python Reliculated python

28

20 to 47 29 COlll il1 ued

..

Reptiles

Tabl 15 -2: Contintled Box turtle

20

Red-eared slider

20

Red-foot torloise

20 to 30 12 to 15

Softshell

Table 15 3 Re ptile Diets

_., ,-

~J

Re comm e nded Diet

Species

Pythons

Rode nts, srnall rnammals, chicks

Feedings

2 to 3 weeks

Boas-larger species

Rodents, sma ll mammals, chicks

2 to 3 weeks

Boas-smaller species

Ro dents

1to 2 we eKS

Ratsnakes

Rodents , chicks

2 to 3 weeks

Cornsnakes

Rodents , checks

1to 2 wee ks

Gopher snakes

Rodents, chicks

1to 2 weeks

Pinesnakes

Rodents, chick,

1to 2 weeks

Kingsnakes

Amphibians , rodents, flsh , smalllizards

1to 2 weeks

Watersnilkes

Amphibians, rodents, fish , smalllizards

1to 2 wee ks

Garter snakes

Am phibians , rodents, fis h, smalllizards

I lo 2 wee ks

Hog-nosed snake

Amphibians, rodents , fish , small liza rds

I to 2 weeks

Anoles

Insects

Daily

Chameleons

Inseds , limited greens , smalllizards

Dally

Geckos

insects

Daily

Water dragons

1nsects , pinkies

Daily

Most skinks

Insects

Daily

Swifts

Insecls

Dally

Ameivas

Inseds

Daily

Li!certas

Insects

Daily

5mall monilors

Inseets , pinkies

Dal ly

Tegus

Insects, pinkles

Daily

Day geckos

Irwerlebr¡¡tes , inseets

Dai ly

Large monitors

V rtebrates

Wee kly

Large tegus

Vertebrates , fruit

Weekly

Be¡¡rded dragons

Cree ns , invertebrates

Daily

Blue-tongued skln ks

Creens , invertebrates

Daily

Uromaslyx

Greens, invertebrates , seed

Daily

C reen iguana

C reens

Dai ly

Prehenslle-talls ki nk

C ree ns

Daily

Sortshell turtles

Carnivores

Daily

Box lurtles

Earthworms, Fruits , veggies, crickets

Daily

Wood lurtles

Earthworms , fruits , veggies, crickets

Dai ly

Sulcata tortoise

Grasses , greens, fru its

Dai ly

Leopard torlolse

Grasses, gree ns

Dally

Radlaled tortoise estar)

Crasses, greens

Daily

189

190

UNIT IV • CHAPTER 15

Table 15

. Rep roducti ve (Stat us) of Reptiles REPRODUCTIVE (STATUS)

Exotic Companion Medicine Handbook . Edited by Johnson- Delaney, Cathy. (Zo ological

OF REPTILES

Species

Ovipilrous Vivipilrous

Chelonlans

x

Monitors

x

Donoghue, Susan (2002). Assist-reeding Sick Li zards. E-,oUe DVM, 4 (2) , 3 8- 39.

Educa tio n Netwo rk. 2000, Florida )

Carner, Mich ael M . (2005). Common and Emerging Dlseases of Reptiles: Bacterial.

N o rrh America n Veterinal Co nference, Orlando, FL, Ja nu ary 2005.

Iguanas

x

Water dragons

x

Geckos

x

Ve lled chameleon

Hea rd, Da rryI, F1 e ming, C reg, Lock, Bra d & j aco bson , [ Uiott (20 02) Lizards. In

BSAVA Ma nual of Exotic Pe es, 4 th fdiLion (pp . 22 -240). British Sm all Anima l

x

Ve terina ry Asso iatio n.

Panther cha meleon

x

Girling, Simon (200 ). Veterilltlry Nursing of Exotic rets. Blackwe ll Pub lishing.

lackson chameleon

lIe rn andez- ivers, Sleph n x

Python ­ snakes

x

Ki ng snak s

x

J

&

ooper, Joh n E. (2001) Reptile Jú'patic Lipidasis

(pp . 193-199) . Assoc iation of Rep tilian and Amphibia n 2001 Proceed ings ¡vlade r, Douglas R. (200 6). Reptile Medicine

({/Ui

Surgery, 2 nd Edi rian. Saunders/

El sevier. Mayee lorg, & Bays, Teresa Brad ley (2006). FxoLic Pet Belw vior. Elsevier. Mc rthu r, Stua rt D. J., W ilk inso n, Roger J

S;¡

Barro " Mich el le G . (2002). 'I o rro is s

Mil snakes

x

and 'l"u rt les. In B AVA Manual of Exotic Pets, 4 th Ftl ition (pp . 208-222). British

Ratsnakes

x

Sma l! Ani mal Veterin a ry sso ia tion.

Com snakes

x

Most boas

x

Mo sley, raig A. E. (200 5). CVA. nesthesia and Analge ia in Reptil es. Selllilla/"s in Allian l/nd Exotic Pet Med icine, 14 (4), 243 - 262.

Most vipers (raltlesnake)

x

Raiti, Pau l (2002) . Sn kes. [n BSAVA Manual of Exotic PeL" 4 th EdiLion (pp . 24 l-2'i6).

Colubrids­ some

x

Garter snake

x

American water snake

Bri tish Sma ll Anim al Vcterinary Associau ol1. Stahl. Sea n

J. ( 1999). Medi cal Managem e1ll oI Bellrded n ragons.

No n h Am eri can

e lenn ary Con ference, la n u ary 1999 . x

Wright, Kevin, DVM (2005 ). Beyond POTl: Enviro nmental Influe nces

00

Rep til e

/-I ea ling. EXOL ic DVM , 7 (4),11-15. Wyo >ken, Jea nette (2001). Respira tory Anato my-Form am.I Fu nction in Rep ti les.

rocic DVM, 3 (2) , 17-22.

Amphibians

mebmorphol hallueino,ena

h.rpetoloty mueoid plth neotony tadpoles larval sta,e spawned amplaxus nuptilll pads poikilotherms vivarium bromeliads osmosis fry desiccation gastric overload re d leg

¡\ftel" wmplering (his cllilpte r, Ih e SWde /ll S110 11 Id be i1ble ro

• properI h o use com m an amp hibian species. • provid e appro pri ale c1 ienl edu a li o n to new amp hi bi an o wners . • provi de b asic n u r ing care [() co m m o n amph ibian speci es. • provi de app ropriate re traint tech n iq u es vv ¡lh eaC' h sp e ·es o f a m ph ib ia l1s. • provi de ap p ro pria te di lS for each differe nt amp hibian species. • providt' the ap propriate lempe.ra ture and humidit)' (1"> 12) ideal fo r ead, co mmon am ph ib ian spe ·es. • identify pot mi a l pr bl ems wirh in, pp roprial€ hou sin g, restra int , ami die t.

Inl 'odll '1ion T hroughout Lime, amphibia ns have b ee n assodated w ith myths a n d fo lldo re. [n ancien ( FgYPl, th e frog godd ess He.ke t represemed fe.ni li(y a nd m s b elie ed

lO h ~lVe

been responsib le fo r rege nera tin g the li m bs o C s ir is. $al a m al1 ders an d l1 ewl 11 ve traditionally bee l1 con nected to fi re an d the myslerio us heali n g b rew$ 01 wirc h­ craft. Not m udl was u n dersto o d ab o ut a rn pbi b ial1 s cel1luIÍ es ago ; frogs [ained from lh e sky, touchi ng to ad

aused wa rts, a n d sa la m a nder d ra n k lh e m ilk oC

cows. With p resen t k nowl d ge o ne ca n easily u nderstand how so rne of tb s ries ca m e

to

be. Amph ib ian s h ave (he abili ty

to

(u­

regen era l li m bs, frogs are D rti le,

sorne pro ducing as many as 3 ,000 eggs al o ne time (BlIIo nLilrinus),

L

nd a la­

man ders live in m oist woo d la nds a nd craw l out o f fíre wood wh en it is burned. Irnm ature am p hib ians h ave no resem bl a nce to adu lts . Al! must go thro ugh developrnenta l stages o f

111

."1101')

h

.,i~,

from je lly-Ii ke gg to aq uatic larva \Vith

gills. As they become adults, Lhey wi ll craw l o nto land, breathe aie and live o n land as if ap pearing by m agic. The word amphibian is derived fro rn Greek a nd ref1 ects a grealer awareness of what must h ave eern ed, th en, a w ly slra nge gro u p o f C-l 'ea tures. Amphi m eans borh, and bio.\ m ean li fe, life both in lh waler and Jife on land.

Tod ay, lhe re are m o re Lhan 4000 di ffe re nt speci es o f a mph ibians, ra ngi ng fro m the tra p ie to th e u barcLic regions of th e w o rld . Their num ber (l re decreas­ ing at an alarming rateo Ma ny h ave beco m e extinct just in lhe last few d ecad es, others h ave suffered m assive die-offs, and still o the rs are exh ib iti ng defo rmi ties th at can not be expIai n ed .

192

Amphibia ns

TO INS PRODUCED BY

MPHIBI N PPODU'"

Bufo species contain toxins potent enough to ki li a 5mal l dog, shou ld it be unfortu­ nate enough to pick it up in its mouth . Other effects of amphibian toxins indude neu ro toxins and the vasoconstrict ive effects of the pOlson darts. Many amphibians produce potenl toxins , some of which are powerful halluclnogens .

IN 199.... , during a classroorn pro¡ect, large numbers of deformed frogs we re discov­ ered in Hellderson, MlIlnesota. Many frogs had missi ng or ext ra limbs, legs sprouting f rom t hei r backs, and, in some cases, both legs growing from the same side of t he body. One frog had only one developed eye . The other eye wa s later found to have developed in it s throat . Since then, 40 ot her states have reported finding frogs with sim ilar deformit ies ( Lut z, 2002).

Th e in crease in hum an pa pu Ja tia n a n d urba n dev Jopment and lhe de Lructi an o f wet la n ds and o ld grow lh fo res ts h ave undoub ted ly p layed a m, jo r role in lh decli n e o f amphi bi ans, rem a v ing fo ad so urce w ilh insec­ lici des a nd o ntaminalion o f h ab it al . Ma ny scie nti ts ar co n ce rn ed lh at air a nd wa ter q u lit y h ave b ome so po ll u ted th at, coup led wilh glo ba l wa rm­ ing, lhe d mis e of am p hibi a ns is a prob ab le in d ica wr of ou r v ry sick p lan t. T h e n um b ers of decli ni n g amp h ib ian s p cies worlcl w id e i ' accele rat ing. Th e World Conservat io n Union li ts 918 amp hib iall sp cies for which th e n ll m­ ber are d c1 inillg 0 [, pe rha p s wo rse, thei r stat us is un kn own ( Red Da la Boo k, 20 0 6 ) . 1l(>[PCh IOg) , ¡he stu dy of rep li le antl amp hib ians, h as long b een a reco g­ nized cie n ce. Thi s scie nce is co nst ant ly changing as new repti les a nd am ph ib­ ia ns are d i,sco ve red amI lU d ie d. ll owever, a m ateu r o ll ec lors an d hob b)' is/s have rea l el a new deman d an d a new lh rea t. Many s pecies h ave been ex ­ p loiled beyo n d recove ry to sup ply lhe m arket. Man ' pec ies d o nOl breed in ca p tivity. ' u p pl ing the peL market ¡Lh "v ild -ca ught s p cim ens o f aIready rare amphib ians h as p laceo m a ny sp e ie on CITCS e n d a ngered list. Fo r ex, m p l , the l iny (under ¡ inch ) go ld e n m ant !la frog was freq ue n tly fo u n d in pe t sto res as recenlly a:. 00 2. Il is n o \ th o ugh t lo b extincl in íts n al ive h a bitat of Mad aga car. \ mphibians can be aq ua tic terrestrial, or arbor al. Generally lhey are grouped as A/ ll/rrI, lhose wi lh o ul lai ls (frogs ancl loéds), ((lllrla ta , lhose wi th ta ils (salamanders, newls, and sirens), ilnd gynz nophio na, Lhe caecilians, or (he li m ble s amphi b ian:,. The family ,\ n ura has lhe grealeSl d iversity \ ilh app r xim ate!y 3500 s pecies. M o~ t frogs a re semiaqualic, wi lh [he -Jí. ep tio n o the Surinam toad an d the Afri ca n d awed frog, which are ent ire ly aqllJ ti c. There is no b iologi al d ifferen ce betwee n fro gs ,md toads, but lh e le rms are lIsed t separate lerr <¡ tria l, aq llil tic. and semi aq ualic species. Toads h ave drier, th icker, and nodulaled ski ll. f rogs huye lhinn er, s m lh, mu(oid skin .

193

194

UNIT V • CHAPTER 16

Frogs are used in the sludy of deve lopmental biology amI d o ning res arch. They h,lve been rai ed as food and used

as cl as roo m dissect io n specimens . T he

African d a" ed frog (Xeno pa th) is the m ost com J11 only usec! frog in biomedical resea rch. T he Ame rican bullfro g (Rana) is h arvested for h um an con surnption

(frog legs ) a ud is a lso p resenred a nd prepared or di ss ction . Wi th a g reater awa re­ lIesS of a ni ma l we!fare and many stude nts re fu sing lo dissect (or in so me ins tances, refusi ng to kil I, or pith, lhe frog), this practic is 'l owIy d isapp earing from class­ rooms and b eing repl ac d with interaclive

D-ROM programs.

Caudata, those with taiI s, con tain s ap p roximately 3 75 di ffe re nt species. SaI a mande rs are used in ludi es of li mb regene ration as th ey have lhe biIity to comp let Iy regrow a limb that has been lost. Thi s pheno m enon is nOl complelely understood. SaIa manders and ne\.vts a r usu a ll Y 'eparated by ha bitat. Sa lama nd rs prefer moist woo dlan d s a nd ri

rban ks, wh ile lhe mal! ' r newts

re mainJ y aqualic.

So me sa lamande r , t r examp le the axolotl an el ElIrop a n o lm , retain , stale of l>utoll) ,

in lh at they rem ai n in a n im mat ur larva l slate throughou t lheir lives .

•ymnoph iona are limbless, worm-li ke, a nc! d o not have pelvic girdl ' or pec­ toral m uscl es. This is the sm all e t group, w ith approxi mately 160 species. They are rare in captivity. Argen ti ne h omed frogs are ve ry p opular terrari Ulll specimen . lh ey hay bony, 100lh-like p rojections

011

lhe Iower ja\-v lhat can cause a pa in ful bite. fh e

comm an co lor va rialio ns of this sped es a re gre n,

rea ll1, a nd reddish b row n

(Figu re 16- 1).

Figure 16 1 Argentine horned Frog. (Cou n esy of Kilt"J Nl. ttall)

raison dan frogs have becomc popular dditions lo terrari u ms.

h se liny

frogs are brightl y colored, a n atural warni ng to pred, lors tha t they are po ison ous. lo t poisan dan frog. are not toxic in capli iLy. Th i> toxins a re derived from feed ­ ing o n a n ts lhat eal 10 ' ie plams in lhe wi I j ( Figur¡> 16-2). Th e Wh ite's tree frog is another popul ar pet fro g and o n e o f lhe largest of it subfa mily, Li taria . These frog. are big and s turdy and beco m

r lativel tame in

captivi . The frog's p pea[ance of being ouerweig/lL, cOll pled w ith its folds of skin, is app a ling lo a large number of a mph ibi an quen tl y called dllmpy 1¡-pe jrogs (figure 16-3 ).

ner . W hile's tree frog, are fr ­

Amp hibia ns

195

Figure 16-2 BlHYiblebee po ison dart frog . (Co u ne~ of Kar l;y Nllttilll.)

Figure 16 3 Whi te ' s t ree frog, often called dumpy cree frog.

(Co urtery of Katlry Nuttall.)

Red- yed !Iee frogs have stri ki ng co lo rs wilh cri mson-r d eyes. They are d li­ cale a rboreal frogs thal requ ire a more xp rienceo herpelOlogist (Figu re 16-4) . Th liger alamanuer is one of lhe wo rl d 's largesl land -d welling sa l, ma nder species. Th is noaurna l sale l11i1nder ad jusLS \ 11 LO capti vity anu te nds Lo b urrow under logs (Figure 16-5 ). Correct iden lilkaLion of many species is el ud ed I n d co nfused. Su ppliers m ay not kno w ¡he genus and recie~. hipmems arrive in lhe retail m arket with a variety of common names Ihat vary from lo alion la loca tio n and w ho Jesaler to whole­ alero Pe! stores also a slgn in a rrea nOl11endature lO species, based 011 Ilolh ing

196

UNIT V • CHAPTER 16

Figure J6 4 Red-eyed tree frog. (Co urtesy of Kathy Nuttall. )

figure 16-5 Tlge r salamander. (Courtesy of !(Jt);y Nutta//. )

If'I Ol'l E SUCH It S"T"ANC . what was purchased as a Frog tadpole was dropped off in a cla ssroom in LJtah . It was left in a 30 gallon aquarium wi t h about 4 inches of foul smelling wate r, rotti ng vegetabo n and dead, bloated ealthworm s. Th is tadpole beca me a full y grown, air breath ing terrestrial sa lamande r th at measured 9 inches long. Wh en identified , it turne d out to be arare spe ci es, nati ve only t o the Kentucky River Palis ades . It was not dete rmined how the larva came to be sold in a pet store in Salt Lake City.

Amphibian s

more lh a n ap peara nce. Many 1.1lIpolt.·<¡, for ex mpl , are sold as fish tank scavengers a nu d velop no l ¡nI frogs, bUI into sa la m anders. ' om mon

lO

al! amph ibians is the ir life cycJ e. Most have four slag s: egg,

, q ua ti c larva Wi lh gi ll s, aqu atic larva wi th li mb buds, and a complete meta mor­ p h o is ¡l1l0 air b r

lh ing aJ ults. Frogs and toad s in th

larva l stage are ca lIed

tadrol ,while sal a manders a nd newts are refe rred to simply as I..l.f\ I sl.l e. De pe ndi ng upo n th species and e nviro nment, 1 factors, it m ay take two or more yea rs to co mplete m etam o rphosi ' (Figure 16-6).

Figure 16-6 amphibians.

Larva wilh full y developed limbs and gills

Egg

Larva with gill buds

Larva with developing gills, forelimbs and hind limb buds

mphibians usually retu m to the sa me water in which they wer "'pa\\ n d . fhis may enta il mas. m igra ion , crossing freeways or usi ng specially des igned, under­ road tu nnels construned specifical1 y for toad anJ frog migrati on safety. Migratian siles ar

arefull y mon it red by wildlife authorities. Road signs are po ted either by

g vernmen tal agencies r the caring pub lic to he lp pr v l1llh tho usa nd of cleaths thal were occll rring ev ry pri ng w t e n amp hí bi a ns crossed the roads. P nd keepers are \ el! aware of th i slrange eve nt and regularly palfol th ir orna m en tal po nds l O r m o e gelatinous masse of spawn, lra nsporting th e m to o ther, mor desi rable 10ratiollS. It woul J no t take long for frogs to complele ly av rrun an av rélge sized fi sh pondo While the songs o [ frogs m ay be pI aSe nt lo some, lhe voca lizatians 01' spring CJn 411 ickly beco me a nu isance. In ¡he frenzy of ,mpl

..tlo

(th e mal da p in g th e f ma l ' rorel gs [ 01' breeJíng purposes ) it is not

u nusual fo r male (rogs lO dasp onto anyth ing lh at swims, inrl u di ng o rname ntal fi sh, res u lling in scarin g and loss o f prized sp cimens.

.

e tife cycle oF

197

198

UNIT V • CHAPTER 16

Most am phi bians are oviparous, similar to fish, dJ1d lay gela tinous stri ngs or rnasses of eggs that are fer1il ized outside of th e bo dy. The eggs, or sp awn , do not have shell s a nd are dep osited directly in water, very wet reed beds, or cups forrn eJ by pl ant leaves. Wi tho ut water, the eggs dry u p a nd the tadpoles die. There are excep tions and sorne Gl ecilians are viviparous, giving birth to live young ancl pro­ ducing nutri enls in th e oviduct to feed the embryos. Se..x ing amph ib ians can be di fficu lt. Males have internal testes a nd the sexes may only be d istinguishablc during breeding seaso n . Some m ale frogs and toa ds h ave nupli 11 plds oear their toes whi ch assist in amplexis. Male frogs and toad are more vo cal aod are, in maoy species, approxirnately hal f the size of females. So me species o f sala ma m lers and oew ts are sexuall y dimorph ic [n ma ny species of newts, lhe m ales llave rests just behind the h ea d and alo ng the dorsal surface. The re m ay also be color differenc s. So me m ales, esp cially newts, b eco me very brightly colored during b reedi ng season.

Amphibians do well in captivity if prov ided w ith the p rope r care, diet a nd e nvi­ ronment.. Some species are more adaptable to captivi ty than a th ers. lh omate horneo frog a nd !he tiger salamander are very adaptable and can survive und r a variety of co nd itio ns. areful selecLi o n m ust b m aJ e if housing di f~ r n I species together. So me amphibians pro duce IOxins rha t could ki li other speci e. a nd ad ul t spe ¡es are carnivores wh ich could 1ead them to feed on ead1 oth er. Thi is spe­ ia lly true Wilh frags. Most a mphibians hum at night. During th e d ay, a mphi bi ns h id und er moss, logs, and rocks. Th ey becom · active a t dus l<, catching insects and other foo d i te ms that are moving abour.

lIousin~ AII a m phib ia ns are Pi iki Ilhem1 , thal is, th ey are lOtally d pen de.nt up n th ei r environment to regulate body tem perature and m etabolic act ivi ty. Ma ny captive a m ph ib ian s d ie b cause they h ave specific temp erature requi r m elllS rhat a re eithe r u n known o r are not met. Amphibians are un ab le to t hrive a nd adapt to te mperature ra nges o utside r th eir species-specifi roTZ requirements. Amphib ians kep t ahoye Lheir no rmal fa nge (too ho t) beco me anorectic, agi tated, luve changes in skin color, and can easil y d evelop secondary pro b lems. Amp h ibians housed below th eir normal range (too col d) have decreased appetiles a nd lovve r m ctabo lic activity. They exhih it lethargy; bloati ng, and have slovver grow th rates. Before a q uiri ng any dm p h ibian, th e habitat ho uld be set up an J dllowed to s labil ize as microe nviron me nt before lhe add iti 11 of any animal. A \. lr u an be crea ted th at is conect [or the species, as well as an enjoyable a nd a ttractive focal point. Basic requirements fo r amp hibians include a glass aquarium or plastic tan k of an ap prop riate size. [t needs to be able 10 accept and safel acco mmoda te e.lectrical cords for heati ng tlnd lighti ng req u ire ments, remembering lh t Lhere will be lh addi­ lion of water su pp ly. It should provide good venti b tion and have a secure, venti­ lated lid . I [abilals can be attractively furnished with Lbe additio n of living plants and waterfa ll features, m isters and foggers, natural rocks, ledges, and logs (f igure 16-7).

Amphibians

199

Figure 16-7 An attractive and appropriat e habita t for a tomoto frog. (Caurte~ af

larda n Applied Technalagy Cen ter, lYIest lardan, Uta h.)

Amphi bians require fui! spectrum li gh ting. onurnal spec ies need nighr bulbs th at p roduce black or red ligh t. Li ght b ulbs and 11 tubes are so!d u nder a v riety of names, b u! ¡hey al ! clearly state th speclrum of ligh t t hat i p roduced and that lbey re manu factur d speci lcal ly for u e in reptile/amphib ian habitats. Al! of lhese ligh ts have a tim e-!imited abi li ty to produce lh e fu ll sp n rum. While the habit ma be ligh ted, cha nces are lh at i the ligh t is pa t lhe reco rnrnn ded n u m­ ber of ho u rs for use, it i5 not producing the fu i! spe lrum lighl. Bu lb package should be car fu lly [e3d an d replac d when recom m end ed by the m anu fadurer ir th ey are to be flllly effe Live. There are several way ' of main taining envi ronm ntal te mpe rature. If lhe habitat is sm all, me LNB lighl m ay provide eno ugh hea t, bllt mos t wil! requ ire an add it ional h al so m ee thaL wi ll wa ml Lhe envi ro n ment a a wllo le, rath r tha n wdfrn ing just the d.ni m, 1. Pad ded, under-thc-lank h eating uni ts are available in a vari ty of sizes LO dequately cover eno ugh of th e hab itat botto m flo o r. As heal rises, it wi ll also warm the substraLe. Reptile bask in g lamps houl d b used wi th ca ut ion . Many become very h Ol ane!, ir placed too close lO the cage, can actual!, cook an am phi bian to dealh. Te m perature r~nges are genera ll y h igh er in th e day­ lime ane! shoul d be 1 we r al nigh t. The PO'JZ range for lhe chosen spec ie sh ould be considered when setting up lhe habilal. A1I a mph ib ia ns n eed a specifi level o f humiclity. The ra nge of h UIl\ idity is usually 75 percen l to 90 percenl. T he use of na tural sph agnum moss and tropi al plants, such as I mi di, h , can help lO maintain humi dity. rhe wa ler needs LO be eas ily accessí bJe, be it an orn am ental walerfall or a pl
-

200

UNIT V • CHAPTER 16

their ski n and !ungs and take in wate r through ski n m embranes by O~I

1

1:-' .

1f the

water qu ality is poor, bacteria! and fun ga ! in fe ctiol1s could resu lto The sam e appli es to su strates; if skin permcab ilíty ís com p ro mised by inj ury or fungal or bacteria! di seases, it inh ibits the ani m aI 's abi!i ry to brea the. The wa ter in th e habitat shou!d be treated with d chlorinaled ch e m ica!s. h ere are severa! p roducts fo r waler treatm e nt a m I th ey are found with tro pical

fi h supplies. Distill ed water is not recomm en ded, as all th e min eral have becn removed, including lhose which are beneficia!. Water shoul d b' changed fre­ guently a nd the container clea ned regularly lO pre em bacle ri a l grovvth . Frogs sho u ld also be m isted t\.yice daily with chlorine-free \ ate r. For aq uati c speci es, the use of submersible pumps and aquari u l11 fil ters he lp keep lhe wJ ter cican a nd oxygenated. The tank m ay be lefl ba re or cont . in a layer of aq ua rium gravel or pebbles. Bags of grave l shou ld he thOfOUghl y riosed to

remove dust befo re being ad ded to lhe tank It is best to obtain ca ptive bred specim e ns lo 3void ti e intro du ction of par3­ iles r dis ases b rough t into th e co ll ection from wild ca ugh l sp ci m e ns. Although (here no is way to real ly know if a specimen is wild caught a r ca ptive bred, the best approach is to establish a relat ionship wi lh a reputa ble su pp lier ho h as lhe same concerns. isplay habi ta ts offering ca ptive bred species should be marked as su eh with the letters CB (cap tive bred) .

Diel AIl adult amph ib ians a re carnivoro us a nd eat on!y live fo od. ladpol s and larvae feed on a variety of food stu ffs, in cl ucling th e f of fi sh, e Iga e, an d each o Lher. Some species a lso secrete a $llbsla nce that inhibi ls (he grovvlh o f o ther tad po les, effective ly provi d ing 3 ready food so urce for sibli ngs. d ul ts consu m e a va riely of insects, mo ths, W Om1 !>, inve rteb ra tes, and sm all fi s l . La rge p ies of fro gs also prey llpon ra t a nd mouse p ups, imm ature birds, an d other a mphib ia ns . lhe smaller species of frogs, mantellas and poison darts, require much sm alle r food iten s such as fruit flies or pin-head crickets. Sala m ander ea l insecls and o th er inwrt b r3te I including slllgs, eaI1h orms, and snails. Aq uali c frogs ea t lubifex worms, blo o dwor m s, and mosq uito larva. Sm all fishing worms known as red wrig­

glers m ay also be take n . Befo re acquiring a ny species, one n eeds lO know lhe spe­ cíes natu ra l diet, how o flen it shoul d be fed, and, most impo rta n tly, lha l suitab le p rey items can be readily ob ta ined. Dieta ry inadequacies are a frequent con em in keepi ng a m p h ibians healthy. A cOlllributi ng factor is rb at owners receive incorrect infonnation r ga rding the feed ­ il1g of a n ind ivid ua l speci es, or substitute convenient prey items which are refused

MOST SPECIES SOLO IN RETAIL STORES wou ld never encounter a cricket in thei r natura l habita t . Ofte n) when crickets are dum ped into a habitat , the crickets feed on the amp hibian. Different species of insects) bee tle larva ( mea1worms), wax worms) rtie s, and othe r prey items have d ifferent nutritiona1 va 1ues. M any amphib ians suffer not o n1y fro m starvat ion, but a1so fro m t he stress , harassment, and t rauma of crickets feeding on them.

Amp hibians

lIandlin~

and

R~sl nf

201

11

A mph ib ia ns s hould o nl)' b handl d when necessary a nd n ever with bare h an ds. They absorb b act ria, so ap res id ue, an d lotions fro m ba re hands d irectly through th ei r skin. Additionally, the compara ti ve dryn ss of h uman skill can damage alll phibi a n skin and its p rolective Ill uco ida l !ayer. Nonpowdered and wet dispos­ abl e latex glovE's sh o u ld alwa s be worn w hen h a ndl ing any a mphibian. Many a m p bi b ians p rodu ce pote nt toxi ns from specialized glands in their skin or, in Lhe case f tbe marin e (c ll1e) toad, from highl y d ev loped parotid glands. This giant toad is abl e lo squ irt ilS loxin severa l feet. Handlers of this species, B. lIlarinus, sh o uld also wea r protective eye glasses or goggles. Toxins m a)' e nter through open skin wouncl s 0 11 (he hands, the con jund iva and m ucous membranes of lhe mou th and nose. lways wea r gl oves to protect the skin of lhe alll phib ian and to protecl the hand le r. Reme m ber: Toxins in-Toxills out. Eve l when gloves are worn, hands should always be 1110 rough ly washed after handl ing
I lea lthy amp hi bian skil1 is shed regul a rly. Ma ny own ers do no t eve n rea lize that shedd ing has o ccurrecl Th e fine laye r of loosened skin is consumed, w ith many s pecies pull ing it away from th eir bocli and usi ng th eir fo relegs lO pu sh it directly into their m ow hs. [t is not C(Is t off and Idt in lhe ha bita r, as w ith rep tiles. An inco m p let o r pa tchy shed is us uall y an indica tion tha t the humi dity is too low. rf this is the case, it is also probable th al the am ph ibi an is de hydrated. Dehydrat d skin da rkens and the mucous Jayer wi ll [eel tacky. The eyes Ill ay app a r su nken a nd dull. everely dehydrated 3m phibi a ns are ull able to sight th e mse l es. t thi s stage the progllosis is grave, as th conditio n has progressed fro m d ehydra tion 10 n ea r de icc.... ti.)JI, a co nditio n w here cell u lar fluid and inte r­ n al orgal s In,y llave irr vers ibl e da m age or alread y be d estroyed.

Gasl. oinh\" ¡na Uisol'd.·

'S

Eve ry now a l d aga in , lil e st ory surfa.ce th al a líve m al'Vorm ch e ed its way out of th e gu t of Ihe an imal tha l swa ll owed it. The.re are v ri ous stories circu la t ing

-

202

u r--i IT V • CHAPTER

16

and (hese are often rep a teo a ' , bso lut' fael. Wh ile il is LrU tha t m ea lwor ms have mOUlhpa rlS, the re is no substant ia led evi d en ce th l this occu rs . Wha t can be the e u e of death in a n am phibi a n is Ulal too many m al"" rms are red al one ti me. Th is ca uses .1!.lri l\l It, H.I, or im paa ion. Ce st..ric overload o ccur w hen an a mphibian is f d a large quantit, o f p re)r items in a sho rt amouot of time. Th is can ha ppen not jusI with me, lwOlms, but \Vi th an, prey red in excess. Foreign b dies are o ften ingested becau e o f th way amphib ians feed. They swa llow prey who le, capturing i( WiUl st id
Chytridiomycos is is a fu ngal ski n disease that has been the Cluse of recent a l11p hib ­ ia l deams Jnd population d c1 in es in several coll n tries. 'lhe di~ ase originalecl in Afri a a ne! has spread all o er th e world , affect ing lhe amph ib ían pop ulatio n. Sign s of lhis disease indu d e loss of l11uscle coordinatio n a nd hyperke.ratosi of the o u ter layer o f the skin. I detected arly, t/-¡i ' o nd it ion can be lreal el to pie lIy with an anthelm intic so ak. A Slri t d iet o f only crickets, coupl ed wit h ína dequate UV lighting, can cause metabolic bone di::;ease.. Th i d i ease is characterized by sp in e and lirnb deform i­ tieso Man dibu lar c1egenerat ion re u llS in a conJi li on cornmonly alled mbber jall'o This on dilioll (aD a lso be cJused by an irnbalance in lhe ratio of calciu m to p hos­ pl orous, denea ed calcium a nd increased ph osphorous. IB D rn ay be tr aled with seve ra! weeks of alc iul11 gluc na le, eiL her by bath , injection, or oral m edica­ ri on This is often supplernent d with vilarnin D3 to help w im ca!ci u rn assi m il a­ ti on . Gut-Io ading, feeding an enri hed di t te th prey, rnay help to avo id MBD . mph ibians and reptiles are both sLlscep tib l la rub ber jaw Il may b stab iIized wi th d ietJ D' correcl ion, but the skeleta l ch anges are not reversible. Many amphib ­ ians and repti les are lo t Ju to thi ~ p reventable disorder, as they become u nabl e 10 capture pre and feed . Most bacteria l infections are a result of po r hu bandry. R lit" i caused by aerumonas, bacteri wl ¡eh thrive. in mo ist co ndition . Signs of red leg in cl ud uleers on lh loes, ed ma,
Amphibians

203

di e, or imbalanc offatty acids and fals in prey ilem fed in captivity W hite, cl o udy lesio ns I"o rm over the eye a nd cornea. These les io ns start Oul sup rficia lly ane! can penetrate d eeper in to the cornea .

D rawing b lo o d frorn amphibians is compl icmed by reslIaint c n -ems and Lheir extreme! sm all, fragile blo d vessels. Cardiac pun ctu re can be performed w ilh a tub rcu lin syri nge anJ 25 gauge n edles if di agn oslic blood wo rk is req uired. This

f lacerati ng t.he sk in with Lhe needle and lhe

procedure is nol wil.hout lhe fisk

possib ility of causing severe cardiac damage. T h e latera l tai l ve in and ve n tral abdominal ve in may be m o re e sily accessed in salam anders . Subcutaneous and intra mu scu la r injeCli o ns both cause lissue trauma and possibJe necrosis. When inject ions are req ui r d, they are best delivered by im ra­ peri ton al or intrilcoelemic (ICe) ro ules. Fluid therapy for an amp hibia n is p ro­

THE AMPHIBIAN HEART IS SIMILAR TO

vided by soa kin g th paliem in dechlorina ted waler or di Jule 0.9 percenl sali ne

THE REPT1LE HEART It

with 50 perce m w ter. In critical instances, isotonic f1 uids m ay be delivered 1 ·e.

is three-chambered, with

O fferi ng nu tritional sup port to;ln amph ibi an m ay involve rem ovi ng the h ead f the crickel prior lO placin g il in the mOUlh . Sorne amphibian ' w ill need to h ave the mo u lh

pened by a specu lu m. The follo w ing items a n be uscd : business or

([ed il card, a small pi 'ce of d ve lo ped radiog raphs, or a ru bber spatu la . Some amph ibia ns wi ll ope n lheir m ou lh · In o me c ses, il may be

ll CCCS

t

a ligh t tou d1 o f t.he fO(Jd item.

ary lo tube feed lhe amphib ia n . A poi pro ­

pyl e ne ur in ary cathcter ( tom cal calhete r) , r d rub ber feedi n g tu be, or s mall avían gavage tu be ca n be used lO tube I"eed . Thi s meth od can be less slress ful on lhe amp h ib ian patien l an e! the se m iso Ct or liquid fo od is easier for them to d ige t. Anest hesia in amphíb íans is simi lar to fi h anes lh s ia . J'he most com mon agen t used i I\<JS-222 ( tr icaine methan sulphonale), a p owderwhich is di ssotved i n wa ter Co nce ntratíon dep nos 0 \1 the

o lu m e o ( Ivater used . 'lhe pa tj ~nt is

p laced in lhe balh in a el ar plas tic container. T he aneslhet i age n t is absorbed lhrough the skin . Anesth

ia is nOl immeJiate a nd il may lake 20 min u tes to

ind uce a su rgi cal p lane of an eslh esia. The patien e espeeia lI y n ongi ll ed a m phib ­ ians, n eeds to be care ful ly observed

lO

p revent drown ing. A lid nee ls

LO

be p laced

n lhe co n ta in er a sorne patients w ill have an exci lem e nt p hase a n d attem p t to jum p ou t During induction, observable re!.pirations w ill drop and may cease. rve n if resp iratio n cease

tem po rarily, there is still cardiac fu nction. Du ring

in duclion, lhe abd omen red d

J1S

a nd many pa tien ts exh ibit afloating tilt. During

t his phase, they shou ld be supponed and hel d lIprigh l Wi lh a dou bl e-glo ved h a nd to p revent lO la l subme rs io n . Whe n an ap pro p ria le p lane of anest hesi a is readleJ, lhe pati nt will be lInabl

lO righ t iLSe lf anó lhe' corneal reflex wil!

be losl. An sthesia can be m ai n la ined by trickli ng the induction solution ove r th e bo dy. Anesthetized paüent

houJd be p laced on towels p resoaked with dechlorinated

waler. The al110unt of we tness needs to be ca refull y m onitored to prevent the heat o ( lhe surgical lights from dryi ng oul the lowels . Th ey may be rewelled by using a 60 ce syringe, filleJ wlth wa rmed, dcch lorinated wat r. The pal ienl and lhe

one ventricle and two atria. Blood flows through the right atrium then directly t o th e l ungs before returning, oxygenated, to the heart.

-

204

UNIT V • CHAPTER 16

wetted lowe ls can be p laced on a large, rub ber tu b lid or on plastic sheeting to help contain the mo isture. An es thesia a n be reve rsed by placing lh patient in distilled, oxygenated water. The wate r JTlay be a llm ed to flood over the skin in a recovery tray. Rad iograp l s a re eas ier lO take if the patient is placed on a wet towel and lightly covered wilh a wet paper towel. The paper towe l sho uld be removed just the second before the laki ng the radiogra ph . r'OSili onin g for a mph ib ia n radio­ graphs is llsua lly dorsa l/ventral, eL) Lhe)' Sil , anJ most INil! stay still for that shon snap in ti m e.

Ptll'(I. 'il."s Amphibia ns can be in fected Wi lh internal pa rasi le , includ ing trema lodes (flukes), cesloJes (tapeworffis), an d ma ny speci es of n ematodes (roundworms ). The ' may a lso ha rbor inlestina l p r tozoans, in cl udino coccidia an d giardia. Many While's Tree Frogs have presented with sm al l nodu Je o n lhe rear limbs. Wilh eareful d is­ seetion of the nodll le, eaeh m ay be fo und to contain a smalllivi ng lape..vorm just under the skin. Thes m ay be ;}refu lly removed wit b the tip of a 25 gauge needle. Parasitism varies fro m speci 10 speei e . For exa mple, a p ro tozoan popula­ ti on m ay no t be problematic in o ne species but devaslali ng lO ano ther. Int roducing wild caught speci m ns im o a colleetion eo uld ::1150 intwduce parasites to CB specimens tbat hav\:.' liltle or no a bí li ty to cope

o

What could be the basis for the Frog Prince fairy tale?

8

How do frogs differ from toad s?

f) Diagram the stages of amphibian metamorphosis .

O

Discuss the environmental concerns that arose with t he discove ry

of a number of frogs that exhibited developmental abnormalities.

9 list some ofthe reasons that amphibians are disappearing.

O O

Define POTZ and its importance in keeping an amphi bia n health y. Why should only dechlorinated water be provided for amphibi ans ? What are the two ma in causes of MBD?

f) Wh at are the reasons for wea ring latex gloves when handling an amphibi an?

E>

Red leg is a disease of _ _ _ _ _ _ _ and is caused by _ _ __

ID

Discuss the use of MS -222 : What it is, how it is used, mai ntai ned, and reversed .

4D

What couLd be the cause of small nodules on the legs of a White's tree frog?

•

Amphibians

Amphibians

REPRODUCTION • Sexual maturity: va ries; some anurans are capable of

V TAL STATISTICS Environmental Temperatures:

Oc (75 to 85° F)

reproduction at 1 year of age; sa la manders species (ssp)

Tropicallowland species: 24 to 30

are capable of reproduction at 2 years; some amphibi­

Subtropical21 to 27°C (70 to 80°F)

ans are not capable o f re producing until 6 years of age

Tropical moun ta in species 18 to 24

• Male amphibians mature faster th an females

Humidity: 70 to 100%

• Caecilians: vivipa rous • Anurans: oviparous (external fert ilization in the water) • Salamanders: oviparous

furllu·"

Re(,din~

Data book 2006. htt p:// en .wik ipedia .o rg (accessed 5/09/06) .

Amplúbian FoUllore. htt p://wvvw.livingund er.oVo rld .org/ (acce sed, May 2006).

Girl ing, Siroon, BVM , Dzoo led, Cb ioL Mb iol, MRCVS (2005). Veterinml' N ursing

of EXOLic PeLs. Blackv.7ell Publ ishing. Grayson, Kristin e (2006). Regeneratíon in Urodeles. http:// www.biodaviso n.ed ll/

(accessed 7/0 6/ 200 6).

'lhe IUCN Red List oJ Threalened Species (2006). IU CN World Conserva tion Un ion

Sp des Survival Co mro ission. http:// www. iucn. org (accessed 6/ 20/ 2006). ip lAVBP-Avian (2005) Exotic COlIJ panion

A1edicine Handbooh Jor Veterinaríll/"ls. Zoological Edll a tion etwo rk.

) h nso n- Dela ny, Ka th y A. , DVM

Lu lZ, Ti m (2002). Survey Shows Few U.P. Frogs wirh Deformities. http://ww\V.

wllpcenter.mru .edllf (accessed 02/ 12/2002). Made r, Douglas (2006). Reptile Medicine anrl Surgery, 2 nd Edilion. Sa unde rs/ EI se ier. O 'Ma lIey, B. (2005) . Clinical Anatomy and I'hysiology of Exotic: Pet,. EIsevi er/ Sa ll nde rs.

To(/ds on Roads . h lLp:// www.froglife.o rg( (accessed 07/07/2006). Wri ght, Kevin, DVM (2006). Common Bacteria! and l-"lIngal Diseases of Captive Amphibians. Co n feren e Notes, The North Aro rica Ve ter ina ry Confere nce, O rl ando, FL, Jan 7- 11,2006. Wrigh t, Kevin, DVM (2006). Fluid Til era py lor Amphibians . Conference Nonh !\merica Vel rinary Co nfer n ce, O rla ndo, FL, Jan . 7-11 , 2006.

Oles, The

Oc (65 to 75°F)

205

invertebme phylum uthropocll molted chltin crustacellns telson Iculeus pectines spermatophore pedipalps chelicerae

Afler compleUng Lhis dwple/; lhe StlldellL ShOll ld be able 10 • properly house a scorpion. • provi d ap propria te client educarion ro new sco rpi o n O\vners. • identify ana lomical organs. • d emonstrate app ro priate sa fe handling lechn iqu

when \Vorking w ith a scorpion.

• prov ide ap prop riate di t for a scorp io n.

I llrodu('lioll r' 1 h I animals do not have a pinal co lumn , bu t rather an exos keleto n lhat gives th e body for m and SUp pOrL They ,cco u nt for ove r 95 percent of lhe earth's an im al species. There are ro any elass es o f invertebrat S and Ih I in h abit ('very area of the pl a nee in cl ud ing the 'eas, vvith th excepti n the arctic an d 'ub arcti c regioll s. hei r pecies in lu d e SO ITLe of rhe m ost ancient life forms. Many species living tod ay have rem ained unchanged for more than 400 nli llion years . The largest h IUI!1 in the ani mal kingdom i' t he .1 11 J )J , anim a ls \Vith hard, s gmen led bod ies and jo imed legs. They have an exos keleton wh ich is I 0\ l' an J replaced throughou t its life Lime. The exoskeleton is m ade of lun , the outer shel l tha l gives lh bo d su pport and protecti o D. There are ove.r ha lf a million recogn iz ed spec ies, divid ed into 12 classes. Indud ed within lh is gro up are crus .leN 1 , arachnid s, a nd insects. Crustaceans are aquati c sp ci es a nd in elud e crabs, lobsters, and shrimp. Arachni ds inelude spiders (tara n tulas), scorpio ns, lick , and mites. AII ara chnids have fo m pairs of legs. Th e greates t l1umb ers of speci s are Lh e in sects. In se l. are se arated from rachn ids by havi ng only three pairs of legs. Peo ple have e ithe r a fascination or fear regarding mem bers within th is grou p. So m uch so, for ex amp l , th at arachnophobia, th eJlwr of spiders, is a term fam il­ iar to ma ny. Wi th so me und ers tand ing of what th ey are, and what they are nor, arthropod can be in t resting specime ns to keep. Wh il e they are not usually CO I1­ sidered pets, sorne speci es o f invertebrates have becom e very popula r and a re read ­ ily available from private b reeders alld pet stores. Those co m m onl y avai lable are th emp ror sco rpio n, tara ntula speci es, and hermi t crabs. Scorpio ns inhabit many ecosystems. They live in arid .d eserts a nd the tropi cs, grasslands, and fo rests. The emperor scorpion is native to Wesl Africa, a semitropical

208

Scorpions

209

regio n where il d igs b u rrows in lh forest floor. Empero rs are large and impressive, reach ing a potential ad ult lengul of eighl inches. 'They are th e largest living speci es of scorpio ns (Figu re 17-1 ). Figure 17 I

An empero r scorpion.

(Courte~ 0I Mark's Ark,

Taylorsville. UT. )

Common lo a ll sco rpio lls is venOlll lh, t is delivered by iI taí! st ing. Th e tai! part e n d s aL lh e tll 01 , v"here the sl ing r is loca ted . Th e stinge r, or lcuh:m, is sharp, hollow, an d co nnected to lh e venom gland. Al! scorpi )n s a re camivores and use lhe sti nger lO stun or para lyze their prey. Em peror scorpio ns are not known for bei ng cggressi e o r for lhe p oten I o flhe ir venom, wh ich has probably contributed to th eir populari ty as ca pt ive specimens. Regard less, all scorpions mUSI be handl ed with careo fh e re is a l ays the po ten tia l of an anaphyl act ic reac­ tio n lO lhe stíng of any corpion (Figure 17-2). If housing more lha n o ne, there may be a ch e n ce th at t he scorpions \V iII reproduce. Se.x e1e t rmi n atía n is no t th e easie t p urel for re asons of restraint in o rder LO exami ne th em c1osely. If th e 5co rpio 11 is pl aced in a c1ear- b ottomed cont ain e r, it ma b ross ibl e to see the ollolin on lhe underside of th e tho ­ rax. r eCli n es a re fea t he ry-I oo king app ndage.'> just b hind ea ch pair of legs . .o mpa rative ly, m a le pecl ines a re la rger. In m alu re em pe rors, those which no lo nger m o ll, mal es are app roximately 1/ 3 to 1/2 t he s ize o f fe m ales. Sco rpi o n rep ro du ti o n o cc u rs w h n the m a le d p osits a 'p.·rmJlOplw[e (sperm packe t) on lh E' grou n d . T he m a le m an ipu la tes lh e fe ma le so that she is dir el ly ov r t he spe rm atop h o re. The female places th e packet in to !Jer gen ital op en1l1g, located between t h e fo tl rt h pa ir of legs. AlI scorp ions giv birth to live young. There m ay be as m any as 50 to 60 in ea ch dutch. The yo ung are born w h ite an d lave small black eye dots . They aawl up o n to th e m ther's bac", where they re m ain at least unli l tl1eir first molt. The degree o f maternal ca re vari s. An incidenta l r port of observed behavior suggested (hat a fe mal scorpl o n appea red LO rip-up a nd p redig st food to provide for her you ng. JI may also be th at ul e re male wa s no l alt mp ting to provide food for the yo un g, but just d iJ nOl co nsu me he r ow n prey an el abanelo n ed i t for sorne reason. Thjs ame re male, a few days laree an niba lized the enti r ' c1utch (Wa ke and Jud ah , 2006).

annibal ism in capti ily is 1n own to o cur frequently, but lhe

210

Fig lrI~

UNIT VI, CHAPTER 17

17-2 Anatomical drawi ng

of a scorpi o n.

Anatomy of a Scorpion

Pedipalp

Mouth parts

8 Legs. 4 segments each . each ends in small claws

cause ofth is behav io r is not cl car. Jt may b lhat· the ~ ma le is disturbed too often or th al lhere is ins ufficient [oo d. Rele ase of noni ndigenous s pecies is il lega l. Befo re a ny deli be rate atte mpt is made ro b reed emp ero r eorpions in a p tiv it , lhere must be a el a rly defi ned go al an d markct for ¡he po ten tial mu ltitud o f young co rpi o l1s. Per mits m ay b requ ired to estab lish a ea pt ive breedi ng progra m o

H~ha

ior

Scorpions are noctu rn al an d hu nt al n ight. Mos¡ sco rpio ns are a lso prey for o ther animals, ' u(h as birds, lizaros, a nd m a m mals. Becau e o f this, lhey hi de u nd er rocks and bushes wh ile lhey lie in wa it to a mbush th eir pr y.

lousing A 10 gallon aq u< rium wi th a secure screen lid is adequ ate, as scorpions do nO l need a greal amo uo t o f space. Mueh of lh ir tim e is spent in lairs r burrows where tJ1ey wail for pr y. There shollld be al least fo ur inehes of 'lI bstrate thal can retain sorn e mo isture. POlting soi!' m ulch, and orchid bark ar all suitab le. Ha lf· round cork bar! , sm all c1 ay ílower pots, and PV pipe sections e n be used as plaees fo r a lair. Sha ll ow water dish s sh ou ld be provided . If lh e hab it t is large enough and n ulti pl lairs a r provided , ' mperor scorpions may be kept with ol hers of the ir same sp ejes.

Scorpions

LighLing is not required, as scorpions are nocturn aL The seaso nal p ho to periods of 8 lo 12 hou rs provide enough natural lighl. lany peop le use a bla k lighl to o bserve rheir scorpi o ns al Ilight . l Inder blad ligh t, seorpions glow green. Empero r scorp ions requ ire a relatively high h um idity that mi m i me ir natural environm nt. The habitat should be kep t aroll llcl 65 to 75 percent h u midity. Illlm icli can be assi ted by lhe water bO\,."ls p rovided for lhe scorpion. tv! isti ng the endosu re several Limes da ily w ill Iso increase lhe le el o f hu mi dity. If condensa­ lion forms on me sides ofLhe ta n l , it is an in cl icatio n thal th e IlUmid ity level is loo high . A reptíle hum id ity gauge, hygromeLer, is a lIseful additio n in o rder to moni­ to r hum id ity level . Scorpion also need su ppl emema l heating, provided by under­ me-tank heaLing pad . rOTZ, for m ost species, is 80 lO 8 0F.

Although se rpions are carn ivores, they are liqu id feeders. O nce lhe prey has b en captured an d subd ued, il is lransfi rred 10 lhe mou th parts by th Il li palp~ , large daws that resembl lhose of a lobster. The h hl ra,-, or moulh pa rts, rip the food t pieees, turning it to pulp wh ile the d igeslive system s cretes enzymes that liquefy lh u nrecogn izable mJSs. The ¡iq uid is men su cked up into th gUl. C<1ptive scorp io n are u uall y fe d crickets. Ir lh i, i lhe on ly fo o d source, the críckets shou ld he dusted w ith a mi ll ra l su p p lem ent or gu t-Ioaded La rge scorpi­ ons shou ld al50 be given él pinkie m o use, alternatin g the p in ki e an d the cfi ek t . Ad u lt s(' rpions shou ld be fed twice a \ eek and juv ni les very o ther d ay.

' ven though emperor scorpio ns are reported ly hard LO pr oke, it is not recom­ m ended to p iek lhem up or have tlle m it in a hand . Whe n lhe sco rpion needs [O be moved for hab ilat el aning, it should be herded ¡nlo a cup wi th a secure lid and sel s [el)' asid~. u11lil being retu rned to the habi t a nd re leased fro m th e cup.

!\It"dical (;Ollff"l ns rhefe is very litt/e inforl11dti on availabl regard ing d isease or heal th probl ems with scorpions. Providi ng lha l lhe hab it is stab le and there is sufficiem food and wa ter, emperor SCOrpiOIlS have an average life span of seven to ight years. A heal thy, immature emperor will omp let 1)' molt severa l limes lll1lil it reaches ma turity.

I~e\ le" Oll~sli()ns

o

How is venom delivered by a sco rpion?

8 What type of reaction can occur after a sting from a scorpio n?

e

What is the purpose of the following mouth parts o n a scorpio n?

a. Pedipalps b. Chelicerae

O

How is sex determined in a scorpion?

211

-

212

UN IT VI' CHAPTER 17

What do the young Look li ke when newLy born?

What are common causes for a femaLe scorpion to cannibaLize her young?

What is the best way to move a scorpion?

O

What is the common diet fo r scorpions? Where do most scorpions spe nd their time during the day?

Q) What is the na me for the part of th e taiL that deLivers the sting?

Scorpions

L F SP.AN 7 to 8 years

REPRODUCflnN • Viviparous and cannibalistic Clutches of 50 to

60 common

VITAL STA-ISTIC POTZ: 80 to 85° F Humidity: 65 to 75 ~o

(111'1 h(·.,

(',

din~

Calzoo's Reference Shee t (2006). r~ mperor Scorpions. http://www fe bruary 5,2006).

120 0

(accessed

h ttp: // wwvv. end1antedlearning.co m (accessed Feb ruary 5, 2006).

Hunziker, Ray (no d ate avai lJb le) . The Emperor corpion, An ForgoL Reptile Hobb yist.

n imal That Time

Wake, Greg & Ju dah, Vicki (2006). Observation and Discussion of Abandol1ed Emperor

Scorpio n in Rescue fac ility. lord n Applied Technology Center, Ulah.

The Emperor Scorpion - race/Care Sheet (2 00G). ZWON Creatme Pres nta tions.

http://ao l.co mzwonpresentation s (accessed 2006).

=

Tarantulas

cephMthoru I ra complerins Lhis clwpLel; ¡he stwlel1l shau/d he ahle • • • •

LO

prop rl house a taran w ld. provide app ropriate d ie nt ed ucaú ol1 lO a new laram ula own e r. idenLity a néllomical realmes. d monSlrale appro priale h andl ing tech n iques whel 'vvo rki ng \Vith a taran tul a.

• providc dpp rop ri ale. d i t fo r a ta rantu la.

In II Odlll'lion farantu !as are arachnids, in Lhe same fami ! as s pid rs. They inh a bit a ll tempe rate regions of the wo rl d , b ut lhe grea test Ilu mber of speci s is foun d in Centra l or South mer ica Jnd in lhe desert southwest of the United States. Th ere a re more lha n 800 recognized sp cies. All ll ave fang a nd yeno m, are COY red in hair, an d po sess sp inneret that prod u sil k. Ta rantul as a re Lhe largest of alt arach n ids: the largesL is Lhe gol ialh b ird-ea ting taran tu ra (Theraphosa blandí), which ha a leg span lha t can exceed 12 in ch es (ri gure 18-1).

GOLlATH TARA TULAS ARE NAT VE TO SOUTH AMERICA. They live in deep burrows in t he gro und and do not feed on birds. Common prey items indude ad ult I·ats and mice, liza rds , snakes, and an y other prey item sm aller t ha n itse lf. Wild caught specimens are offered as pets and are not recomm end ed due to thei r la rge si ze and aggress ive na ture .

Tarillllul as have t\Vo a na tom ical b ody di vis io lls: th e TI h.d lhorax, where. the head is joined to lh tho rax, an d lhe. abd o me n . Tbey have eight eyes clu mped togelh er al the fron l o[ lh e head. O ther sensory o rg ns of lhe cep h alo lho ra.x a re úle p d ipa lps, whidl are use 1 in feed ing and reprodllction. Two fa ngs fold back lI nder lhe [ron! 01 the ceph illotho rax. The tip of ea ch fa ng is hollow and use cl lO inj ecl dle ye.nom tha! e ith r kilts or para lyzes prey. Tara ntula venom, d pen d ing on lhe species, is eithcr a neu rotoxin lh al affeCIS ne rves, or a cytotoxin that attad <s cells. Tarantulas can al o give a (h·y-bite w here no ve.nom is rel ased. The LIt Ji 'r:\ >, or te lh, are in a ro"" aboye lhe fangs_

cheUcer1llle booklungs satae urticating splderlings epipstric furrow spermathaC41e dry bite

214

UNIT VI • CHAPTER 18

Figure 18-1 lhe baboon tarantula is oA:e n mo re rea dily C!vailable than the la rge r bird -eati ng taranlula . (Cou ,-tesy 01 Mark 's Ark, T;rylo/''Sville, UT.)

Taran lul as have eigh t l gs with t\Vo small laws on th e end o f ea ch leg. TarantulJs h e th e abiliry lo rel ease their legs in ( n altempt to escape or if a leg becom es lrapp ed. Th i is called auto no my, an e! is sim ilar to tail release in reptil es. Missi n g legs are replaced \Vit h the next molt. 1; ranlul as have an open circul atory slem . Instead of having a bl ood and lymph ystem, they have hemolymph tha t m Is th e en lire body cavity. I-lem olymph is trans po n ed back to lh e h eart by seeping thro ugh small internal chan nels . The hean is more Ii ke ao el )n g ted tube t har líes alo ng the le nglh of lhe abdomen . Tarantul a hemol mp h is pale blue. Breathing, r gas exm ange, tak s pla e in fo ld ed, accordion-pleaLed, tissue called O( u h 11f! . ir e11lers and exits th rough [h e ve11l ra l side of the abd om en direcUy into lh bo lu ng, where resp iratíon occurS. Tarantulas have inte rnal urgans, in cluding ilk-producin a spin ne r ts located in lhe dorsa l caud al area o f Ih e abdomen. Depen d il1g 011 th e speci es, there m ay be four to six spi nnere ls. Silk is u eJ to line lh ir burrows alld ens nare prey. remale tara ntulas lay thei r eggs in a protect ive, dense si/k sack and t he ma les use a si lk pad to t ra nsfer sp rm to the pedi palps prior lO fert iliza tíon . Taran luJas ar re~ rred to by many as the big, hairy spiders. Theír bodies and legs are c:omplelely cover d in '> la (bri:lle-lihe) " nd many species have urti ,ting hai rs o n the do rsum. These haír are sharp and hay ba rb d tips. I I ed for d efens e, taran lul as flick these hairs off w ith their rear legs. When ¡he penetrate skin, they cause an irritatin g condi ti on, u nicaria, wh ich re~ embles hives A definite bald palch 0 11 th e do rsa l surface 0 1' a tara n lu la is an indication that these hairs have b en Oicked o ff. They are no! rep laced until th 11 ' t molt. Ta rantu las stop eating jusI prio r LO a moll. dul ts no rmally m o lt once ayea r and grow ing p ¡j rli gs (imm lUre larantu las) mo lt an av rage of fOUf ti mes a year. Tbe en ti re exo kel eton is cast off During this time, the ta rantula is very delj ale and hould nO l be d istu rbed . Ir they < re dist urb ed, jt can resu lt in d eath .

Tara nt ulas

Molling larantulas li on lhe ir backs wi lh thei r 1 gs up . Th e.xoskeleton sp lit on t be d o rs um, all owing lh e tarantul a lO withdraw lhe büdy flrsl, fo Ilowed by lhe legs. This process may take several hou rs. When a molt is co m pl te, il wil l appea r as if lhere are two taran tulas. The castoff exoskel lon i an exact cast of lhe li vi ng 1 r3m la. It may ta k three o r [ou r days for the new exoskeleton [O hard 'n co m­ pI tely ( Figure 18-2) . Many en thusias L have be n ucc sfu l in b reeding taramulas . Sexua l maturity varies w it h lhe spe ¡es and so me femal es m ay nOl be m alure unril they a re flve yea rs o ld. Mal es genera lly m alure much ea rli er. Sex ing imma lure larantulas i, very d iftl cul l nd yo ung pair are o ft ' n acquired by che nce. Mature sp cimens can be exed from castoff m o lts. Ca refu l a mi nation of the ventral abdo me n shows the p·g'I~lri( furro\\ , lhe fema le ge nita l o rening . l'vlature tarant ulas h ave sub tle visua l di ffer nCe : males develop sp ur' on lhe flr t pa ir of legs a nd the pedipalps are more swolJ en in ap pE'ilfan e lha n those of fema les. Fema les h ave mu ch larger abd mens. Even if br ed in g is n ot a co ns id­ eration, p urchasin g a male co u ld be a ve ry hort-lerm inves rmcn l. Mal es have a Jife spao of o n l o ne lo two years. Fem aJes o f many spedes may live as lon g as 30 yea rs. MaJ tarantula deposi t spE' rm o n a sil! pad am I tra ns[er Ihe pa cket to their pedípalps, where it is stored. f rom there, a neecl le·like ¡n j ctor transfers me perm lO the epigastric fu rrow of lhe fem ale. Sp rm is Slllred by lhe femal e in po uch es ca lled -.rlmnlhJl.ll' u ntil eggs are produ ed. lf lhe fe male d oesn't produce eggs from a mati ng prior to mol ting, ¡he sperm wil l be lo 1, as lhe perma th acae are d isca rded wilh lhe exoskeleto n. Commo nly kepl recte inel ud e the MexiC(ln red-knee (also kn owll as o range­ knee ), lhe Chil ea n rose-hai r, and vari o us sp cies from tbe gen us Avicll/aria, com mo nly call ed avics, all o fw hich m ay be so ld as pil1h t es. By the ti m AviClllaria arriv in lhe rela il m arket, they are nO l idenUfied by species. Avi CLIlaria species ar arborea\, while mOSl o f the oth er species are ground-dwell ing. Al mOSl eve ry p et sto re offers lWO or th ree aneti es, bU l il is rare to have lh cm iden tifi e 1 correctly in a nonsp e i Iisl SIOfe. Befare pur hasing a taran lula , lhe pros pective owner shou ld d o el co nsiderab le amount of re. ea rch, recognize lhe m ore com mon pedes, and be able to d ifferenliale males fro m fema les. It wou ld be of great va lu lO jo in a lub o r society with experienced m embers who are more than willi ng lO share their knowledge. Th e ve nom of a tarantu Ja (in moSI ases) is no ntoxi to humans. BOlh m ales and femal s are apable of bi li ng a nd injecli ng veno m . The bite can be pai n fu l and lhe surrou ndin g lissue may iteh and have a rash due lO lhe u rtica ting h a irs o f the pider. 1 [he veno m is in jected inlO a human, me re m ay be sligh t swell ing with som e n umbn ss and itch ing. A dr, hite is a bite in which tbe tara n tu la d o e no t inj ct venom .

Tara ntu)as spend most of th ir lim h idde n in burro'> or u nde r bushes, rock Jedges, and logs. They are mOS l aCl iv in m e Iale aftemoo n ro ea rl)' eve ning. Th ey are crepuscu lar predalors, killing (h e majorilY of rhei r prey al dusk

215

Figure 18-2 The molted exoskel· eton o f a healthy tarantu la . (Cau rte~ 01 lordan Applied Technalogy Ce nt er, West lardan , Utah.)

216

UNIT VI· CHAPTER 18

NO ONE SHOULD FVER PLACE A TARANTULA 01'1 ANOTH ER PERSO N AS A PRANK Many people have a deep -seated fear of spiders. Tarantulas have been killed when the victim ins ti nctively jumps away and the t arantula c rashes to the floor. Un less startled or thr-eatene d, tarantulas rarely bite. When t hey do, it can be very pa inful and there is a lways th e risk of asevere alle rgic reaction to the venom.

lIous'"A Ta rant ulas are u ual ly kep t in glass aq uari a wi th secured screen li ds. Wh eth e r gro u nd d we lliog or arbo rea l, th ey a re ad p t cl imbers. AlI eoclosu res sh ould be loo ge r th a nlh y are tall to p reve n t a fa ll tha t co uld ea u.e autoo o my o r abdo minal ruptll re. r ven tree-d wel ling speci es need

0 01

an assort ment o f b ra n hes

00

lhe

fl oor to use as an chor s ites fo r webs. Th e s u bstrate ean b e a mi xture o f b a rk, peal m os , and po ttiog soi l. Acl d io g ve rmieu lite h Ip, to retai n moi t ure. AIl tJLlnt u las s h ou ld b e provi d ed w ith a de n a rea, a place to retrea t. 1!a lf-ro und co rk logs, sma ll flowe r pO I , or o o e oC th e l11Jny su ita ble hUi" avail a b le in p et slo res wi.ll be used by ta ran lul as . [-[ u mi dity a n d te mpe ratu re requ ir men ts va ry wilh difrerent spe ¡es. Incr ased hu m idity w ill assist wi th lh e m o lt, but hu midity th at is too h igh will e ncourage mol d and fungal grawth. r or m os! speei es, P TZ is between 72 a nd 82 o F. Ta rantu las shou ld be ho used s ingl y or can n ibali sm \·'/i 11 occu r. A sha llow wate r dish sh ou lJ be provided . This can b e as simp le as a jar lid lu rn ed upsi de d own. Th ere ar wra ntula sponges (s m a ll p ie es o f n a tural s a sponge) tha t a re soaked in d echl o ri nal ed water a n d pla ed in lh wal r J ish. Th e use of [hese is co11lraversi al a n d m a ny feel lha t lhe sp nges enco u rage bacterial growth . Sponges are usecl l increase hUrTud iry, but a1so so th e ovm er will no t have 10 change lh e wale r as often . AlI 'Nater d ish es, wilh or w ithout s po nge ', should be clean ed and r plen­ ished dai l . ~Xlra lighting is nol req uired, as ta rant u las are crepusru lJ.r/ nocturnal. [n direct exposure to n atural su n light is su ffi cient. N igh t Lim e aCLi\'i ties e using a b lack 01' red ligh 1.

11

be observed by

AIl tara ntu las a re earnivores a nd shou ld b e offe red li ve prevo Mos t ca p tive sp ecimens a re ~ d a sla p le dit:: t of crick e ts . Mea l worl11 S, wax \. o rm s, an d grass­ h o pp e.rs a re a l o rea dily ta k n O pe ndin g on th e size o( úle ta r ntuL, p in kie mi ee sh o ul d al so be fed occas io nall y. Ad u llS sh o ul d be o ffere d food every o the r d ay. Spi d erlings are re d da ily. Taralllu la' a r liq uid f ede rs. uch like the sco rp ions, la ra n LU I s rip p re y into shreds and inj .el it wi th dig stive e n z,ymes . The ¡¡q uid is rh e n suc ked into th e abdo minal cavit . Uve insects sh o u ld n ot

-

Tarantulas be terl in l he h a b ilat, as they will chew on lhe legs and abdomen of a resl in g Laranlu la.

Ilandrng As a gen era l rul (>, la rantuIJs are not receptive LO being handled a nd are b st o bse rved in th e habila r. When it is necess ry to move a ta ra nlula, a large, soft aq uari um net (on e IMge eno ugh to enco mpass fu lly extended legs) can be used. Protecti l'e eyewear is slrong }y recomm ended 10 preven ( urticaria ) hairs from pen­ c trati n g Lhe e, es if lhey are flicked from th e back of an agitated tara ntul a . Th e larantul a sho u ld be all owed to craw l out of the net and not be shaken away from ir. Alte rn alivdy, it can be herded inlo an other, small er container w hile

5till in lhe enclo su re. Many expe ri enced kee pers allo w the ir tara ntuJas to crawl inLO

el

scoop

J h a nd . They sh ou lcl not be pokeJ or proelded Wi lh a ny hard obj ect.

'1'0 m ove a ta ra nt u la from a n area wilh in th e hab it, a long-h anclled , soft-bri stled paint b rush ge ntly Slr ked down th back w ill encourage it to move away. Wh atever m eLhod is us el, the safe ry of the tara n tula s hould be u p perm o st. Ta rantu las a re easil l frighte nt::d an d a re very quick LO read. The abdo men can s plit and rupture if lhe ta ra ntu la falls even a short clistance. BeCduse of the open circul atory system, a ta ran tula m ay q u ickly bleed to death.

Sick a nd clyi ng tara ntu las sit rlLl nd1eJ u priSht with lh eir legs tucked un derneath the m. They are re luctant LO move and beco me an oredic. Ivlany losses a re due to inco rrec t housing, lack of sufficient fo od ancl wate r, or excess ive attempts

lO

hand le.

ondi

t("SI h ("

lisordt·.,s

The mos Lcon lmo n problems faced by tarant u l< s relate los (a u lono my) of a leg in elu d es th e entire limb.

to

trau m a . Normal, willful

Ir a tarantula

beco m es caugh t

in a ha bitat a no lo se onlya part o f lhe les, the rem aind er sbou lcl be removed . If Lhe pa rti a l leg is lefr, the tara nlul a could ble el o ut from lhe re maining stump. The st u m p sh oul d be grasped firmly w ith a pair of forceps and pu ll ed up in one qui ck movemen t.

urgical gl ue or a ny comm on s uperglue sho u ld be applied

to

the

stum p o f a for ibly removed les. Abdom inal splits, if addresseJ before lh ere is too J11 uch he m o lyrn ph lo ss, may also be sea led in this m a nner.

Ta ran tu las couId be infested with m iles, n em atodes, and rounclwonns, al! of whi ch m ay be like ly in wild-c ugh t specimens. Particul a r/y ins idious is the fl y larva o f aGroceridlle species. Tbey a re co m m only called small-headed flíes. Fe male Oies lay Lhe ir eggs nea r restins spiders. Wh en lh

la rva h alches they crawI up the

sp ider's legs and emer the booklu ngs. Th larval' m ay stay clo rmant for many years bef re begin ni n g lO feed on tbe ta ra ntu la'¡, in terna l organ s.

217

218

UNIT VI' CHAPTER 18

o

What two types of venom do tarantulas possess?

8

What is an open circulatory system?

e

Tarantulas do not have blood, they have _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __

o

What are the purposes ofweb production?

e

What are the urticating hairs?

O

What is a dry bite?

8

What parasites commonLy infest tarantuLas?

(¡) Why is it important to know the sexual differences?

o

What happens to the spermathacae if a female does not produce eggs?

4l!) What is meant by liquid feeder?

Tarantulas VITAL STATISTICS

LlFE SPAN

Molting tarant ulas lay on their backs, legs up ; sick

• Females, 15 to 30 years, depending' on species Males, 1to 2 years or less , depending upon species

tarantulas remain upright, legs folded unde rneath . Adults molt yearly, juveniles may molt 4 times ayear

REPRODUCTION

WEIGHT

• Sexual Maturity:

Females: average 5 years

• Average: 15 to 16 g

Males: one year

J", rl h~r Reading Ars

liuantu la Care Sheet. American Taraolula Sociely. hltp://www.al hq.org (accessed 4/0 6/06 , 7/ 11/0 6).

Breene, Robert ale, 111 . Spider Digestion and Food Slof!lge. !\meri an Tarantula

So iety. http://www.atshq.org (accessed 12/ 21 /05 ).

http :// wwvv.centralpets.co m (accessed 07/10/06 ).

h up://wvvw.encha ntedlearning.coml (a cessed 7/1/06) .

Flank, Lenny Jr. ( 1()9fl) Tlle Ttlri.lll wla ¡ lowell B ok Hou

Walls, len)' G. (1 995 ). Red Knees, Legs and Rumps: An Int roduction to Bra hypdma

Tarantu[as. RepUle Hobbyist, 1 (4 ), 48 - 55 .

hup://en.w ikip d i .o rg (acee s d 7/ Ll/06).

Hermit Crabs

Alter comp1elins lhis d lilpt el; che 51wiell { s/¡o llld be alJle to • • • • •

p ropeTly house a hermi t aa b. pr vi de appro pria te cliem dueatio n 10 new hemlit crab ovmers. ide ntify a nal mical fea LU res. demonslrate appropriate handling te hn iques when working with a hermi ¡ r b. provi de an appropri a te di t fo r a herm it crab.

--pod c:heUped asymmetrial strIdulation

Inl rodu('lion Hermit erabs h e been kepl for m any years a nd tire not new to lhe pe t markel, bu t now there is much m ore knowl edge abo ut tb em and ¡hei r eare in captivi ty. Herm it crabs are lcc
9

220

UNIT VI • CHAPTER 19

Flgur~

I

A Large bul uni dentined

species of hermit cra b .

ro lhe ir mout hs. These Ia rge c1 aws a re a ttaehed to lh e cep h alo th o rlLx (rhe ca ra­ pace ) w hich is lhe h ard externa l pa n of the ra boThe ca rap acc a n 1 daw are m ade o f h it in Rehi nd the eh liped


t\Vo pa irs of wa lk ing legs . The lTlo ut hparts

and gills are d orsal lO the walking legs . I lermit crabs ha e tw o bo dy d ivi io o s, lhe cep ha lolh orax ( jo ined head a n d th o rax) an J lh

so fle r a bd ome n wh ich

is co iled in lhe sh 11 T he a bd,lmen con tai ns a ll lhe in te rnaI an d re pwductive o rga ns. Wilhi n lh

s hell are s mal l pili rs o f fo u rth and fifth legs. These legs

he lp h olJ o n lO lh e inside of ¡ he

hel l dn d are a l o used to el an ¡h e g il ls

(f igu r ] 9- 2 ) .

figu e 19 2 The

Herml t Crab Out of Shell

anatomlcal featu res of a hermlt crab .

Eye Stalks - -­

-\-== =ft!I:!HH1H",;t

8 0ft Abdomen that ColIs into Shell

C ill s a re u

d fo r resp iralio n even in specimens found in la nd In addition, lh e

velll ra l surface of lhe abdomen conlai ns numero us si n us po kels w h i h fu n Clio n simi lar lO gills bu t brea/he atmosph eric ai r. Cills ex t rae t o ).:y gen ro m wa le r. Thi

Hermit Crabs

adaplalion allows them lO [ravel away from lhe ocean b u t nat away from a d a mp environment.

On the head are two pairs ar differenl sized anten nae. In a h ea lthy crab th ese sensory organs ar co nstanlly in motian. rh an tennae, ar feelt7Ts, are sensitive to motian, vibra tion, and poten tia I food sources. AnLenna ·· a lso have specially deveI­ oped filamenls that dele 1 smd I. Hennil crabs have twa eyes on lb e.nd af m o b ile slalks blll th ir rision is poor. They rely more 0 11 lbe a nte n nae for se nso ry inp ut. It is very di ffrcult to delem1i n e lhe exa 1 specie of ht> rmit crabs o ffe red ro r sale. Size can be confllsing an d doe nm indicale age. A small cra b is not necessar­ ily a younger one. Sorne specie never exceed lbree o r four iocbes, whiJ e o lhers, so ld as giant.., or jU lIl bos, may be fiv€ or six indl €S a nd a re probab ly a differ n l spe­ des th at is Iarger by nature. They are genera Jl y sorted and p ri ced by sae. Because or Ul ir sp cia l re produclive rcqulremems, all h erl11il crabs a re wild caugh t. Il is very di ffifU lt or in possibl lO determ ine the age o w ild ca ug ht hermit aa bs. rhe natu rallife sran of heflll il crabs has nOl be n delermined . So me are knoW11 to have li ed in caplivity rar over 30 yeaTs, while o th ers d i wi th in a yea r or lWO. Th is m ay be due to species dirrerenti3lion , the age when caught, SLres and ha ndling during sh ipl11 em , and inadeq ua te are, specially a lad
;¡

he rmi t era b is preparing lo moJl Ihefe are beh avi o ral ch a nge . Th ey

consume mo re food and water an d digging activilYincrease '. nce in- becld ed, lh e era b should be left undi lurbed . Tll e m o Jt may take fro m severa l days ro a m o n lh or more lO ( mp lcte. The molted €XO, kelelon is usua ll y ea ten by lhe erab.

1lerm it crabs a n be very noisy at n ight during lheir expl oring and foraging tiv­ ilies. f hey also make stridulation noises tlla l may sOll nd like the chirp s o f a (rickeL. " .dul, 1( I is lhe crealion of sounJ causecJ by bouy parts lb al ar rubb d logelh r. Hermj [ rrabs are gem le b natw-e. They ca n use lheir o ne la rge law 10 pinch pred ators or humans . If a handl er is pinched, imm ersing lhe hermit erab under waler o r a brief momenL wil l llsu a ll ause lhe crab to rclease its grip . A1lem ately, place the ([ab on a solid Sll rra ce an j remai n sli ll . In all probab ilily, lhe (rab wil! let go a nd move away.

Ilou

' in~

Ile rmit crabs are often ol d witb lhe recommen dati on to keep lhem in a ta l! ser ened e ncl osure ca lJ ed a cra bbil lll. AII hermil crabs a re adept clim b rs and lhe

221

222

UNIT VI' CHAPTER 19

seree n 01" Wlr provi des 3n ex el l n t grippi ng sur[ace. Howeve r, lhis type of housing is not welJ su it d to the sa fely an d he alth of lhe ra bo Many erabs have fallen fro m the to p, losi ng legs and d dm aging sh ells. In an op en, ser en ed envi­ ron m ent, il is very di fficul l ro main tain adequate level s o f humidity an d surfa ce m oisture. A ten ga ll on or Luger aq uarium with a se cu red screen top p rovides enough space an d dd qua! ve n tilatio n yet still has lhe ability to rela in moisture. A sub strate of sand Of fo res t tl oor mu lch ¡hat is kep l m ois t, but n OI soaked, wiU ke p lhe hurnid ity h igher an d the environment damp en o ugh to hydrate the gills. A s hallow water bow l shou ld al so be provided . T his hould be filled w it h de ehlo rina ted water. atural sea sp on ges are av;:¡i lab le that a n be so ake d in dechlorin ated water and plae d in th e dish to help retaiI1 moi sture and hum id­ it '. Wa ter lhal is used lO keep the su bstrale mo íst should also be dechlorinated ( Figu r 19-3).

Figure 19-3 Examp le of a hermlt crab enclosure.

Ma ny élllrac1 ive tanks are set u p LO rese mble a ho re line, wi th multiple levels o r 5ubslrate lhal slo pe clown to sm all beac h afea . A currenl t r · nd in keep ing her­ mil crabs heal thy is to provide both fresh water and sea water. Bo ttled se a water ís ava ilable ínl11any pet stores specífica lly for lhís pu rpose. Salt water is not t he sa me as slIlred water Many hernlit cra bs have been lost when Lable saJt has been ad d ed la the waler supply in a well- inte nded all mpt lo m im ic lhe sa lin ity of lhe 'ea . Prod ces LIS d for ma inta ining salt water aqua ría are al o u ed in hermit erab habitats. Specific grav ity needs lO be measu red \-vith a hyd rom eter, to det rmi ne tbe COllcen tration of ynLheti c sea water.

He rmit Crabs

223

Provi din g m u lti pl e levels wit h bra nch s, smoo th beaeh pebb les, and oth er n atu ral fum ís h ing. wi ll g i e the crabs exercise. Herm it crabs are o o rmally ery active a nd will expl o re eve¡y J100 k a nd CTaJ1ny of thei r h abi tat. 1 hey also seek out pl aees lO hi de a nd tha t sh o u ld be co n idered when settin g up l h tank (Figure 19-4).

Figure 19-4 A variety of empty shells needs t o be provided fo r he rmi t crabs.

ll um idily shou lcl he main tained between 70 p rceO( and 90 p er ent. Ad d í­ lio nal heati ng is no t requi red, as herm it crabs wi l! thrive in a temperature raoge be[ween 75 ° 1_' and 85 ° F Speciallighti ng i not rt:qu ired as herm it crabs are noc­ turnal. The ha bit at shou! be exposed tú indir et light. bu t no t pIae d di reetIy in rront of a w indow Direcl sunl igh t can dra mat iea lly io rease the lemperalu re inside lhe aq uariu m .

H rmit erabs are omnivo re a nd cavenge rs. They wi Il ea t anything, both p lan t and animal. Comm >rcíaI hermi t crab diets are read ily avai lable. These are n utríti o nally bala oced a nd easy to f¡ ed. Pe llets sho uld be supplement d wirh fresh, dark lea fy gr ' o lld vegetables. Pell ts tbat beco m uamp sho u ld be re moved to prevent the grovvth of mold, and any uneate n fTes h room should be rem oved the next moming. If red a variety o f food ' and a co mm erci al diet. hermit rabs d not need vi lam in or mineral suppleme nts. Whal cou ld be added is a cuttl ebone. CutLle­ bones are me imemal ca lci fied struclure of euttlefish ( related to squ id ) . "hey provide a natu ral so rce of calcium and trace amo unlS of iod ine. CUlLlebones are read ily ava il abJe from pet sLOres and m ay be fou nd Wilh the bi rd supp lies.

lIélndlinA

lUId

Herm it crahs hould be held erureJy trom th back of the shell to avo id a pain ful r ind l fro m lh cIaws. This is fiOt a sign of aggressio n bu t simply a way of hanging 011 .

224

UNIT VI • CHAPTER 19

This pinch can be very sU'ong an the crab wi lI be rel ucta nt to lel go. If placed b ad~ ¡mo the h bitat o r on él sal id surface it is fami liar with, il w ill u ually release il ho ld and move off.

The ca use o f mosl h nni t crab d ea th is neglect and poor h usbandry. l mp roper cage selu p wi tho Ul adequate water and substrate moistu re will q ui ck ly dehyd rate them. Peop le orten und erestimate th e am ount of food h erm it aabs consu m e. Ca refu ll y m ni toring the a rnounts given a nd lhe amoulll co n:,umed ill en u re th at the crabs a re geuing e nough na u ri ~ h men t. A s ick hem1 il re b may haws signs o f le tha rgy, co lo r ch a nge, b havi a r changc, dea ase appeLite, a nd d ischarg s from lhe joinls of lh e xa skeleton .

Ca m mon vete rinary proced ures perfo rm d 011 large.r h rm il cra ns ind ud e amp u­ tali an o f in jured lim b s, de, nillg of waunds, a nd ~ lo pping ao y bJeedi ng. Severely dehyd ra ted cra bs may b sprayed wi tl

terile sali ne to help rehyd ral io I1 .

Sa rne hemú t crabs can b infect d with miles . "¡hese mites do n a l seern to ca use pro blems to the herm it crab and are left untr aled. Mite an b e seen crawling al l ayer t he hermi t crab .

o

What does decapod mean?

O Explain how hermit crabs are able to survive away from the

shoreline.

e o e o

List three functions of the antennae . List three functions of the cheLiped.

How does the behavior of a hermit crab change prior to molting?

What is a hydrometer?

O Why is it important to suppLy an assortment of empty sheLls in the

habitat?

O

What is stridulation?

o

With regard to temperature and humidity, what is the POTZ range for hermit crabs?

e

List two advantages to adding a cuttLebone to the habitat.

Hermit C rabs

Hermit Crabs

LlFE P Unk nown , but may Uve in capt ivit y for 10 to

30 yea rs

VIT L STATISTICS •

Enviro nment te mperature: 75 t o 8S oF Humidity: 70 t o 1 00 ~b

REP~ODUCTf

He rm lt cra bs are unable to r produce on land or in fresh water. Hermit crabs m ust lay their eggs in the ocea n.

d e Vosjoli, Ph ili pper (2005 ). Lallá Herlll ü Crabs. BowTie Publ iGl lio ns, Inc. (Californ ia) .

Tlle WytJern's I Ilir.· ¡,,"erlc/mues: Lancl J-Jermil Crabs as rets. http://members.ao l .comr rheWyvemsLair (accessed 7/1/06) Pavia, Audrey (2006). Spedes Pro fi le 'The Hermi t Crab' Crilters. USA AmZllll1. Bo wTie Pub li alion fn c. (Ca liro rnia).

Crab lover 2000 &. Christa W il kin . M aIl ing Dem)'st ifiecl. h Ltp://www.hennit­ crabs,co m (accessed 7/02/05 ), 00/1

h ttp://www.enchantedleam ing.com ( acce~ed, November 200 ) , Arenella, Slacey &. Michaelso n , Su mm er (2004 ). The fUi-natural Hermit So urcebook: A omp lete Cui de LO l'et Cra h Cafe a nd Fe d ing , afé Pres'.

rab

225

aca and

Lamas

vIc:una ......KO

huacya suri

cri.s spitting humming dilembowaled cud kushed bovine toxoid

stargazing

OB Jlj ( ~TI\ E.' Aj eer cOlllplel ing Lh is chapte r; che slll ncnl shollld ¡le a/Jle ro • proper1 y house a lp acas/ lla m as. • provide a ppro pria tiC cli ent educa tion to n ew a lpaca owners. • interpret th e body la nguage of a n alp aca. • be famili ar with the co mm o n vaccin es avail able and when to ad minister them . • prov ide basi c nursing care lo alpacas. • provid e approprial re lraint techniques fo r co mm o n procecl u res.

Inlloduclion Alpacas and llam as are m embers of th e cam lid am ily. Ca m elids are divid ed inlo lWO group s, Old World species and ew Worl d species. l3actria n ca mds and dromedari es are O ld World species. Old Wo rlcI ca melicIs are of t\\iO lypes, lh e Bactri a n cam el from Asia, with lwO h umps and lo ng h air, a nd th e Dro m edary from Africa, wil h o ne large hump and sh o rter hair. Th e J islincliv humps are used lO store [al, n t water. Both have been do m es ticated anc! usec! fo r centuri es as beasts of burden, a m ethod of moving goods and services across th e vast d serls of o rth Africa and th e MicId le East. No mad s live on cam el's m il k an d mea t, m ake rugs an d blankets from came! hair, an d burn ca mel dung fo r fue!. Even tod ay, camel train s can be seen trave ling alo ngsid e b usy highways in thriving modern citi es o f North Africa and the Middl fas t, creali ng a very slark co ntra st between anci ent civilization and m odern li fe. New World camelids are distanlly related. AIJ four species are fro m So uth America. They are mud l small er and w itho ut humps. These are th e "'-UlI< , the gu.lllaLl', th e m o re fam iliar ll a ma, and alpaca. .u, nacos and v icun a are wild s peci es. !.lam as and a lpacas are not wild, but dom eSlicated, agricul tu ral anim als (Figure 20- ] ). AIt110 Ugh a part of th e !ncan civiLization and cu lture fa r more th an 5000 years, il is on ly recently lh, t ll amas and alp acas h ave beco me po pula r in the United States. Th e alpaca is greatly ap p re ia ted fo r its m any quali Lies, n o t leas t of which is the value o f alpaca wool. Ir is so ft, strong, and w arrn , m aking it vely valu able an d much sought afte r. l.Iamas are LlS d for wooL but because o f th eir

228

Alpacas and Llamas

Figure 20-

An alpaca dam with her cria.

(Courte~ 01 lanet

&. Cla rk Otterness, Alta

Mist Alpacas.)

larger ize, lhey are also used as pack an imals and guard an im als, patroll íng and

prOl cting sb ' p an d goats and the smaller an d more timid alpacas. Llnl íke o m er exo LÍcs, alpacas and ll a m as produce an incom e ror their own ers. They are an inves lm ent, wi lh al pacas so m ti mes costin g tbousa nds of dollars apiece. lp ncas are n 1 only investm en ts bU l are also gentle an d loveable ompan­ ions. The ati o na l RegistT)' Cor Al pacas requ ires that al! a nima ls be D lested prior 10 acceptanc in lhe regis try. Today, lhere are more lhan 30,000 alp acas reg­ istered i 11 lhe LI ni led Slates. There are IWO typ o f a lpaca: lhe hu, C.I\
(Courtesy ollanet & C/ark Otterness, Alta Mrst Alpacas.)

229

230

UNIT VII' CHAPTER 20

As ide from h air coat, there are vis ual differences between ll a mas and a lpaca s in their síze, ea r sh,:¡pe, anJ la il se t. Llamas llave -,pear sh{/ped f:'!1rS with a lai l set high the rum p . Alp acas ha e banana shaped ears lhat are sel more for..va rd on rh e head than lho ' e of lhe ll ama. 'fhe taíl ofthe alpaca sits lower on the rum p. lam as a re larger thdn alpacas . The fee t of ca meli ds are unique. Th ey h ave two padded digils on each foot. The under pad is soft, s imil a r to rhe pads on d dog's foot. There is also a proteclive horny grOlVth tha t cover rhe lap of rh e l O . The naif covering needs to b e rrim m ecl period icall y ir lhe an im als are kepl on so ft grou nd an d lhe nails nOI worn down nJ tura lly. A b alanced fl o k us uall. has one domin a nt male wi th fo ur to five females and th eir ~ ri (yo ung) living as a fa m ily uni t. Away fro m the un it a re lhe young ba h ­ elors lha t h ave be n driven away b lhe domin a nt m le. Many far ms se parale males and females unt il brced ing. Ivlal s in m ixed groups fight Wi lh th eir canine teeth lO s la bl ish dominance. O n e do m ina nce is estabJish ed, sexual b eh avi or is less aggrcssíve. The m a Je ch ases lile fema lE' and pu hes h r into slernal rE'cum­ bency, all wíng the ma Je to mount. Alpaca s and llamas are induced ovu Jators. When ovula tío n occurs afte r seve ral days of breeding, fe males refu se the m aje and furtber a tLemp ts l :> breed a re m et Wilh pi ti 1 . G stillion lS app roximate ly 335 lo 360 days. Most crias a re bOfn belwee n 8 3m a nd 12 I m, d urin g the warm ing hours of the d a r. DysLO ci a is unCQl1lmon in alpacas . AII am elids h ave fo ur teal . Crias rota te ni pples 1 uri ng from teal to reaL Twi ns re ext remely rareo1\vo weeks afLer the birt h of the cri a, th e fe ma le may be rf bred (Figu rf 20-3 ).

Frgufl! 20 _ Crías are some tl mes given bottle feeds more for social bondlng than nutritional need . (Cou rtesy of Ia.net &. Clal·k

O tternm. Aira Mi $t Alpiicas .)

tpacas and ll amas a re social anim als and f10ck o ri nled . 1'h r produ ce rnuted but dis únctive /11111/ ,illS so u nds ro comm unica te with each o ther. Il u mmi ng is heard freq uently with a da m a nd her ria. They prod uce a click ing s u nd as a wa m ing lO aJert t.he oth ers lO po te ntial d ange r, e nd gTll1ilble at one olh r if per­ so n,~ l pace is ¡nvad u. ¡\ pacas a nd llamas can also prod uce h igh pitched scream s if they are exlremely frigh tened. Alpacas (a nd ll a mas ) d monstrat a nnoyal1ce by sp itt ing or regurgi tatíon . This slarts as a gurgle, hri n gi ng u p stomach content that is rh ell sprayed from the moulh. The spray, o r Spi l, can r ach dS fa r as i feet, and is very accu rale in stri ki ng a targ t. 111e Hui d ha slro ng, obnoxious odor whi ch is not easily removed, espe­ cíalt from c1 olh ing.

Alpacas and Llamas

231

ar and ta i! pos itio ns are go od indica lors o r hoV\l Lhe ' paca nd Ilamfl 3 [e likely lo be ha e. In an unco/1cerned :md reh xed anima l, lhc taill ays flat ag;:¡jnst the rump . The tail rises hi gher wi lh the degree of intemity of aggress io n or alarmo When an ani m al is aggressi e or Lh reaten ing, lh e ears are pi nned bad<, fl at again st lhe head. The ears of a submissive alpaca wil! be slighLly forwa d, wiLh lhe tail curved ve r the b, ck. The head aIld neck is lowered an Ilhere maya sl igbt crouch ( Fi gur 20- 4) (J-igu re 20-5). F gure 'le 4 20 5 It is impor­

Ear Positions in Llamas/Alpacas

tanllo understand the body language oralpacas and llamas . Attitu des can be evaluated by ear and tail positions .

Alert, Alarm

Normal

Aggression

Aggression

Taíl Posltions in Llamas/Alpacas

Normal

AlertlAlarm

Aggresslon

Submission

11011. 'in:.t Alpacas have ~ w deman ds or spe 'a l ac o m modal ion requirement::; for housing. They need a shel te r fro m th e weather, a small area LO roa m ancl graze, and a strong, safe fe nce tbat will keep predators out. Alpacas do llo l jump and wi ll nOl ch all enge fences . Barbed wired 'ho uld never be useu because o f lhe dange.r o f hair becom ing nlan gled and caugh l in the fe ncing. A struggling anim;-¡!is e::ts ily injured fram the sharp, cuttíng barbs of Lhe feoce , Animals have become so entangled in ba rbed wire lhal lh ey ha e been (\'''(11 bu\\' I d and have bled la death in their panic to escap . There should he no m ore lhan a two in ch gap between él fenee post and él gateoA ga p that is too wide G \!1 trap the head, caus in g traum or ( rvi al inju ries in the slruggl e to beco me free. Alpacas need a fresh water supply, a sma ll hay rack, and a feed ing tray. Clean ing lhe pen is impl e. O ne c mmon area is used by Lhem la defecate, crea t­ ing litlle mou nds. Al paca d ung also makes a gr al garden fert ilizer. Ipa él and llamas have a spi ral sha ped co lo n so they p ro duce smaller feca l pellet si mi lar to goals and sheep ( igure 20-6).

Uhl Lla mas and alpacas are grazers, used lO sparse, rough forage. One of lhe biggest c n­ ceros seen wiLh alpacas is Lhey are given access lO ridl grass and they overeat. Alpacas should be ~ J grass hay with only a lO lO 12 percenl protein . Thi type o f gras hay

F'gu 20 6 Alpacas and llamas create communal feca l plles , keep ­ ing much of their paddock clean .

( COlO'i e ~ 0I lanet & Ciark Ottern eS5, Alta Mist Alpacas.)

232

UNIT VII, CHAPTER 20

is not considered high enough quality for most other large an im als and so cosLs [ess. If given the opportunity, alpacas wil! eal an eq ui valent o[ nearly 2 percenl of their lotal body we igh t in foodstuff daily. Access to hay and lush gTazing areas needs ro be restricted. Depending on Ule type of forage available, the d ieLcan be suppl m nted with commercial alfalfa pellets formulated specific;:¡lly fO l" alpacas and llamas. Pellets provide vita m ins and minera.ls that may be defi ient in Lhe so il and h ay. Alp acas and lla mas have lower incisor teeth an d a tough dental p d instead of upper incisors. Sim ilar lO goats and sheep, they hea r vege ta tío n e10s to th e ground. The lower incísors grow contin ually and may n eed lO be trimmed if graz­ ing land does not provide for n atural wear. The to p lips ar divided, a1 10win g them lO manipu late food ite m s independently from each sí d e o f the mouth. Th ey do not use their tongues to gath er food while eating, n or do tlley liS them lO lick or groom (Figure 20-7).

F gure 20-7 C amelids do not have uppe r inc isors but instead have a hard dental pad . (Cow·te~ oflanet & Cla rk Otterness, Alta Mist Alpacas.)

Cameli ds have a uuee-chambered stomach. True rum in ants, such a e WS, h ave four- ch amb ered stomachs. Bact tia in tlle first two chambers provid e for fermenta­ tion of food. Li k ru m inanls, ca m eli ds regu rgitate and co ntinue to d 1ew pre­ ingested forage. When th e ( Id is swallowed, it enters tll third companmenl, where it is [urthcr d ígested, tllen moved to the small íntestine fo r absorption. l lnl ike other ru mina n ts, cam licls are efficie nt f ecle rs, ab le lO extraa p ro tein an d carbohyd rates from poor quality fo o d . Because there are only th ree omp, nnwn ts and diffe rent bacteria Hora in the stomach, they are illso less pro ne LO hl oat.

IIandin~

and

R~sl rainl

Befare attempting to rest ra in an alpaca or lIam J, a visual assessmenL of ear and tail positi on wil! help determine the a nimal's beh avior (see Figure 20-4 and 20 -5). To restrain an alpaca or llama, herd the animal into a small a rca an d approach sl owly wit h a rms outstretc hed . With one arm aruu n d the ch est and neck, use the o lher h an d to push ligh tly d ownwards on lh back. If the alpa ca or lla m a i ' likel y to I e a sp itter, p lace a towe l over the no e, ru ck ing it ioto the n ose ba nd of the

Alpacas an d Llamas

hal le r. rr he safest p lace lo sta nd during restra int is close lo the sho ulder. This helps to p rev nt being ki cked wirh a hind foot or be in g covered in spit. Alpacas and ll amas ca n c01u-lúc)¿, a forward srriking movement wi th a hind leg rhat COll ' CS out to lh e s ide. Th y rarcly bile or srrike with a fo releg. Al p cas amI llamas can be hel c.l with an ear restraint. Endose rhe base of the ea r with lh p alm of the hand and gen lly squeeze. Do not twis[ [he ear. Far fes traint is accepta ble and if pe rformed correctly, it w ill n o t da m age the ear or make the a nimal heael shy. lt is comm on fo r alpacas and llamas to quickly lift the head up an d o rward, h illing Lhe restrainer in ¡he face. To prevenl this, place one hand aro und th e lleck and ho ld lh e h ead dose to rhe rest ra ine r's body. Place the other hand al th e sho ulJers, p ress ing dow llwards on the alpaca. Take care not ro put exce sive pressure on the bridge of the nose, as the nasal cavi ly is easily blocked or consl ricled wi th p ressure from aboye lhe nose. Alpacas and llamas are unable to breat he thro ugh t.he m a uth. Alpe cas a nd ll a m as may a lso be restrain ed in th e I u:.hul (recumbent) posi­ lÍan. I<ush is achieved b in ití ally rest rain ing a h ind limb. A soft corton rope loop Wilh app rox im atel 'six. inches of lae ' is placed around the abdomen, jusr in froOl o f the pe lvi s. Reael1 across the back o f ¡he a lpaca and grasp lhe opposite hin d limb an e! p lace il in lhe loop . The near hind leg is then lifted into the loop, causing the animal to sit down (Fi gure 20-8).

An Alpaca (Kushed)

Flgur>

20-8

For ea se

of handling, alpacas may be placed In the kushed position.

233

234

UNIT VII' CHAPTER 20

ReS lraini ng a cría is similar to restraining a la rge standing dogo A cria und er 20 lbs ca n b e picked up with on e a rm aro u nd the hest and the o th e r a rro around th e reaf legs.

The no rm al body te mpera ture of alpacas fl uctua tes more lhan that of other spe­ ci es. They do well in cooJer temperatures becduse their ha ir fi be r is so den se and retains heat. Core b ody tempe rature will ary two to three degrees during the d ay. To determine if an individual alpaca's te rnp ra ture is n o rmaL it is measured agai ns t the average temp erature of the nock, wh ich is taken at lhe sa m ti me. At n igh t, crias begin to cavon and ru n around . While it cenainly app ea rs playfuL the real pu rpose is to increase body temperatu re b efo re ni ghtfall. o rma l resting body tempera lu re oCadults rang . from 99.5°F to 102°F. Du ring h o t months it m ay increase to 104 ° F ano still be considered n o rm al. Alpacas and ll am as are ve ry hardy a ni mals. O ther tha n obes it)', th ere are rarely h 'a lth concerns. Viral diseases ar ' no l full y d e te rmin ed in alpa cas a n d ll a­ mas. lhey are suscep tible to so me bm 1Ilt' d is eases, but not all of them. Beca use ~ll p acas and llamas are fr q u en tly transponed ro ll1a n sta les for exhi­ bitio ns and ftber festiva ls, interstate r 'gulations mu st be Col lowed. II a n imals need a ce nifi cate of veterinary in sp ection, a hea/¡J¡ certi(icme. Depend ing on lhe d stin ation and the va rious states traveled through, there m ay be ad dition al requi­ remenlS, includin g proof o f a negative te 1 for tuh e rcul osis an d brucell re nt rabi es yac in a tia n ceniftcate m ay also b e required.

cur­

Gasll'oinl ~sl in"ll J)isord(ar. There is only one routinely given vaccine. It is a II ·"id for Clo5trirlil/1I1 perfringes, types

~

& D. This vaccine a lso indudes tetanus toxoid .

lpacas a nd llam as r not

susceptibl e to cllJ eight clostridium diseases knowIl i.n cattle. C lo stri dl.lm bact ria are found in the soil and become path oge ni c when they invade the b o dy. C. perfringens [argets the intestina l trac!. This b acterial disease is often a re u lt of overfeeding on pasture th t is too lush, or it ma)' b e seconda (O th er intestinal p rob lems. Th recomm ended vaccination schedule for crias is ight ro twelve weeks of age, follo wed by a booster three to four weeks later. Adu lts are revaccinat d yearly.

Hypertherm ia can b a con eem when alpacas and ll a m s a re kept in h otter di ­ ma tes. It is not un com mon to see a n ad ul t mai m ain a body te mp era ru re of 104 o r~ wh ich is close to b eing a t risk for clinical hypert hermia . re m p e rdlures as high as 11 3° f to 11 GOf cause organ fa ilure and tissue d a th . 50al ing the n ecce is not an ffective co o ling m lhod for alpacas or llamas. Over-the-Deeee so ak in g does not pe nelrate the \·\1001. 'l'h e ventral abdomen needs to b e bathed with coo l wa te r as thefe is very little abdom ina l haiL In seve re casf'..5, cold wat r en e m as should also b e ad m inis te red . Alpacas a nd llam as need to be s horn of th ei r fle ece and have access to shaded areas d u ring the hottes t months. Th ere al' fi aIly i n ~ ctio us diseases of alpacas a nd ll am as lh at do not al ways produ e c1i nical signs s im ilar to disease in other species. One exa m ple is Wes t ik

Al pacas and Llamas

235

disease. If (befe are elini al igns in ¡he al paca or ll ama, lh re may be body tre mor,>, h 3d shaking, atax i<1, and death . Current r sea rd 1 in dicates rh at alpe cas and llam as develop protectiv ntibodies whi d1 may offer lifelo ng imrnuni ty againsL the W t Ni le virus. Ir is nOI recommended (at Lhis Lim e) to vaccinate agains t West ile virus due lO the low risk of devel ping clini cal disease. FaSlern Eq l1 ine Encephcl lit is (EEE) is not a comrnoo disease in alpacas and llamas. In recent years, there lu ve be na few iso lated case ' of the cameJids contract­ ing th is mosquito-borne disease. 'lhe virus causes infl ammJtlon of the brain and lhe sl1 rroundi ng tissues. Cl ínical signs include sLar r:.lZillg (staring off into space with Lhe heao til ted upvvards), al xi. , and di fi cu lty in tand ing fra m a sternal position . Equ ine 11 rpes irus has b· en ind dental1y diagnos d in alpacas and llamas. 111i disease may not how any cl ínica l signs in Lhe al paca or lla ma. It has only recently that the repo rted numb rs of J iagnosed cas hay sta rted to inaea e slightly.

Veni pu nctur ca n be a IittJe more diffi cu lt in alpacas than in so me other large arlÍ mals because of the locari on of lhe jugul ar vein and lhe thi ck skin on Lhe neck. 'fhe jugular vei n is us ually the site fo r blo d co[Jection . ., her re lwo sites that can be acce sed on the neck. One is low, nea r th !horacic ín let, and th e othcr is mo r craniall)', nea r !he frrst lwO ce ka l verteb rac. Att m pt in o the r areas of U1e neck are more diffkul t, as th > jugul r vein is de per. FQ[ sma[J er am ounts, U1C ventral tai l ve in may used (fi gure 20-9).

r A ElIDS H

elliptical red blood cells without a nucleu s. The leu ­ kocyte cou nt in ca me lids is norma lly highe r than that of ot her mamm als.

F gur 20 -9 O btaining a blood sarnple the I gularve in .

from

Adm inistrati n o f vaccinat ions is nOl di ffr cull with co rrect restra int. The vac­ cine is given sub.utan ously in the axillary area. There is lin! excess ski n thaL ca n be grasped to place !he n die under lhe skill . ¡se of lh ax il lary area he! ps reduce lhe possibil il)' of adve.rse vaccine reactions and causes less pai n for Lhe an imal ( Figure 20-10 ).

E FLAT.

236

UNIT VII· C HAPTER 20

/\dm in iste ring ora l an tib i lli es and ant hel m inl ics is a cam ma n p rocedure in alpac, s and llam as l h syri oge tip is placed in lhe o ral avity from lhe side of the mOllth . Atlem pl lO place the syri nge fro m Lhe [rom o f lhe rnou th "viii resu ll in lhe m d ica tian bein sprayed all over Lhe. ani mal, lb restra iner, and Lhe person adOl in ­ isteri ng lhe m edication . The ¡llpaca mOll th can be o pened by p lacing a lhum b io the side of tlle m OUlh nd ge ntl y pu ll iog down on Lhe lower jaw (Figu re 20 -11)

Flg 0- O Vaccination, should be given In the aXllla, or just behll1d the elbow. (Counery of /anet &. Clark Orte/· ess , Alta Mlst Alpacas.)

~ g ?f I1 Admíl11stering oral medlcation to an alpaca. (Courrery 0l/anet &. Clark Otremess , Alta Mi.st Alpacas.)

Many proced ur S ca n be pe rfonn ed wilh the use o f I ca l anest h sia . A lo ca l lo i nft [lrale lhe pro edure ·ile. Loca[ anesthe. i i ti ·ed t ane:¡l h tic is in jeet treat a bscesses, laceralions, and [or [apa ro copie proced u res . Vele rinaria o, ft n use a [o ea l anestheti c in oll1b inalio n wil h sedation lO pe rCo rm a standing cas­ tratia n . lnjeclab le ane ' lh lics ca n al so be used in e mbi natio n wilh in hal ant anes thesia. are necds to be taken when ad m in isteri ng IV anes thetics . The carot id art ry lies d irectly u nde rnea lh lhe jugu [ar eio a nd the ind uct ía n ag n t ca n be asi ly in jected inlo lh c1ro tid arte r)' iCth e needle is p i ced luO d ep. r or genera l a n st hesia, alpacas and lla rn as sha u ld be lasted 12 l a 18 ho u rs . r heyare prone lO reg u rgilation uuring a nesthesia and re av ry. Do rsal recumbency shau[ d he avo ided if possib le, as it ¡nerease lh > cha nces o f reg u rgitalio ll during surg ry and alsa makes it m ore d iCri u ll to ad eq uate ly in fl ale lhe lungs . Ma st amelid do Ilat req uire premedica ti n un [ es~ lhey are fractiClL!. when adm inis­ t rin g t he anesthelics o r wh n p [acing a jugular meter.

u

-

Alpacas and Llamas

Jame lids have vcry li ule spac in me oropha rynx nd long m an d ib le that prevents easy visuali zaLion of the e piglo tti s. En do tracl al tube placemenl is the sa m blind technique used in ho rses . The anesLhetiz d alpaca is placed la terally wi Lh its head iln d neck fll lly extend ed . A m Ulh specu lu m is required. If in tuba­ lion is diffícult, a na o tracheal tube ca n be pIe C J in lead. I o fl u ran e is used su ccess ful ly in bOÚl alpacas and lla mas. Patients are moni­ to red with ¡he use of a d oppler an d E G for hea rt ra le and blood pressu re. A p ul se may be felt ov r lh auri cu lar, femo ra L or dor 1peda l artery. A pulse oximeter can a1 so be used to manil r lhe patient's oxygen and heart raleo Normal hea rt rate is 60 to 90 b p m in lhe acl ull camelid. In gene ral, m ost rum inanls usuaIly m aíntain good blood pressure, (75 mm Hg or aboYe ), un der a nesth esi . ' j he a erage respi­ ra tary fa t und r aneslhes ia is 10 to O b reaths per minute and manu al ventila­ tions sho uld be performed when necessary. IlypoLhermia can be a complication during general ane thesia. Cme body tem­ perarur should be mon itored carefu ll . ¡fthe palient becomes hypothermic, admin­ iSlering wa rmed IV fluids o r placi ng the patient o n a heating pad is recommended. Ca mel id ar cons id red sensible anima ls durin g recovery. They rarely att mpt to stand unti l tJley art' (apa ble o[ stand ing without [alling over. Du ríng recovery, they sh oulcl be p laced in sternal recum bency and n t extuba ted until t hey are acüvely trying to pi l ou t the endotrach ea l tLIbe. As with m a ny s peci es, a smoo th ind u lion often produces a smooth recovery.

Parasites can becom e a p roblem in alp acas and ll a m as becaus they afre 1 no t o nly th health o f the an imaL b Ul the fiber of the co at. Th y sh ou ld be d wormeu twice yea rly, rolating anrhelmin tic prod ucts. Co mmo n in lernal parasi t s indude protozo ans.1'h se para siLes can cause poor growth and produ ctivity. The most deva, taling parasites for alpacas are nema to des. Crías d o nOL have a d v I ped enough imm une sys tem lO cope with a nema tode invasion . Th ey rap id ly faíl to lhrive, lose wei ghl, and an d velop bon deformi Lies. A parasite of growing concem, especi al ly o n the eastem ( Oasl o f th e Un ited States, is the men ingea l wo rm. The natural host is the while-[ailed de r. The parasite can be tra n m illed 10 a lpacas and llamas wh n de r invade grazing Jand and pastures. Meningeal womlS are hair-lik rou nd wmms tl1at in ad e tJle spac b twee!1 lhe brain and surround ing tissue (the m e! inges ). The men ingeal wonn ís com monly alled lhe brain !(Ion /!. Jñe ad ult stage o f th worm causes pa ral sís in the alpaca and lla ma. To date, there is no lrealment and affect d animals are humanely eUlhanjzed.

Rt \ h'" Qlu'sl ¡OIlS

o e

Explain how alpacas and llamas are placed in kush. Why are body temperatures so variable in alpacas and llamas? How is digestion different from monogastric species?

O

What could cause limb deformities in crías?

e

List the interstate documentatíon required to transport alpacas and Llamas.

237

238

UNIT VII' CHAPTER 20

What are the recommended vaccinations for alpacas and LLamas?

List the visual differences between alpacas and Llamas.

What are some of the reasons alpacas and Llamas have become so

popular?

What differences are see n in camelid blood cells?

e

How and why do camelids spit ?

Alpacas and Llamas

ADULTWEIGHT

• Birth síze : Llama cria 8-20 kg (18-45 lb), Alpaca cria

• Llama: 113.6 to 215.9 kg (250 to 475 lbs) • Alpaca: 55 to 90.9 kg (121 to 200 lbs) L

n

3.6-10.4 kg (8- 23 lb)

• Wean: 6 month s VITAL STATISTICS

SPAN

Temperature: 36.6 to 40 Oc (97.5 ° F to 104 ° F)

20 years

• Heart rate: 60 to 90 bpm

REPRODUCTION

• Respiratory rate: 10 to 30 breath s per minute

• Sexual maturity

MaLe: 2 to 3 years

DENTAL

FemaLe: 1year (over 100 lbs body weight)

Dental formula 2(11 / 3, C 1/1 , P/ M 1-2/ 1-2, M 3/ 3)

• Gestation: 11 mo nths (335 to 360 da ys)

Ande rson, David F.. http ;//w\.vw vet. oh io-stat .edu (aecessed Fowl er, Murray E. (1 998). Medicin e and Editiol!. lowa State Pr s.

I

larch 20 06).

lI rger)' of South American Ca melids 2 nd

Hoffman, Erie & Fowler, Murray E. (1 99 7). Tite Alpaca Book: Malwgement, Medicine, Bi%g)', and Fiber. Clay Press, Inc. (Oh io ). Jo h nson , La Rue W. (200 5 ). Tahing a Closer roo/¿ at Alpacils. Co lo rado State Universi ty, CSll It search, l:o rt Coll ins, CO (semi nar pa pers). O ttemess, Clark & Ottemess, Janel. Al ta Mist Al pa01s, 1Ierriman , T'tah 20 03-2006. Conversalion, advice, and practical exp rie nee wit h lhe floc k of Alta Mis\. Schoen ian, Susa no Meningeal Won n, Brain Worm. Weslern Ma ryl . nd R 's a reh an d Educati on Cen te r, Maryland Co opera tivc [ xt nsion. Decem ber 20 05.

w\vw" heepanJgoat.eom (aceessed 2004).

M"n"ature P"g

OH JE( '1'1\

~'

netidla teeth IOWI

tusles bo..INrrows gilb sow. root

pighook Ethologists wallow pig board I'1!!portilble diseilSe

Ajier compleling II1i5 chaple,; Ihe 51udenl shall/d be able /O

• properl y ho use mini alur pigs. • provi de ap p ropriate cl jent ducaüon lO ll( W 111 i n iatur pig o\-vners. • be familiar with th e co mmon accines avail able, whe n LO adminjsler lhem, and how t adl11ini sler Ih m. • proví de appropriate di ts lO m el the neecl oC lh p ig. • provid e basic nursing GHe 10 Ihe minialure pig. • provide appropri at r s([ai nt lech nique for comm on proceclures WilhOL1l caus­ íng too mu -h stres a nd anxie ty in lh pig.

nll'odu( ion In the late 1980s the ullimare /l elO pel was íntroduced lO Un it d ta tes through Canada. O pite a cost ofseve ral Lhousand dollar eh, th ietnamese potbellied pig became America's golta llave one fado Canaclian, Keith ConnelL mayb e n ve r lhoL1ghl (nor was il h is intention) lh t this miru al Lue pig would beco m a hou e pet, sough t after as a co mpanion animal and family me mber. Orig inal l)', lhe pigs were imponed to zoo collect ions as arare and differen t b reed of pigs. Th ey came from Vi Ln amese stock a nd had ve.ry di sti nctive characteristícs. The bigge l appeal was th eir s m all size. People did not unde rstand that smalln ess a l n ' did not ma ke the ani m al any ¡ess of a pig. The were soon confronted wilh lhe realily of lrying to cope with and lIndersta nd exactly what they had broughl into the ir homes ( ri gure 21 -l ). Alth o ugh the pop ul ari ty of the Vietnam ese potbellied pi g has decl ined and they are ce rtainly more affordable, many who bllY lhe (l dorable lilL/e piglet soon discover it eco mes a pig. The re are countless pig rescue organizat io ns an u h Iters overflo ing wilh pigs tha l h ve be n abandoned . Reasons often oled for nOl keep ing them: umnanageable, aggressive-at:Lacks my friends, it bites, ie's 100 big, Ihe landlord said il had lo go .. ., can't find jafford 11 vet, and he won't get 0[( lhe COUcf¡f (Ching,2 05). The o rigi nal imported sto ck was small and averaged between 75 an d 150 pounds. They were ap p roximately 15 lo 18 inches ta l!. Miniatllre was often a selling point. It was 1l0t long b fo re they were out-crossed an d lhe mini-pig m atured mu ch larger th an prom i ed, often al 350 pou nds or more, but com pared to agricu ltural pigs lh at (an weigh up lO 1000 poun ds or more, they were srill minialLlre. Despite

240

Mini atu re Pigs

F gure 21

Ahealthy mlxed

breed rn iniature pig. (Courtesy

Ching Farm SanctuaIY.)

ed ucflti na l organizal io ns anu mullip le reso u[ces ava ila b le, owneL he lel o n to the ir own expecla tions and lhe fun o f having a p ig, Puception s changed dra m ati­ cal ly when confron ted Wilh rea lity. There a re m any p eo p le d edicated LO th eir pet p igs. In me right cirCu t11Sla n Ce~, pigs afe a L o devot d to Lhe ir human companions, are easí! lra ined , a nu beco me n j yab l n d co mpat ible compa nion anim als. Many ow ners u nd r tand exact ly \, b al a pig is, w ha l il can never pos, ib Iy be, and how ro co pe Wilh behavi ora l L

issues nd emOl ional p[ b lerns a nu accep t lhe re po nsibilily o[ pro vitling vel fi ­ na r), ar , hoof tri rns, ar clea n ing. and yearly vaccinal io fl s. Piglets are born precocia L They are born wim leelh . The baby a nin s a re refe rred lo as dI '1 lit and are usua lly dippeJ out w h n th ey are one day ol d. They a re extrem el si arp and used for fi ghling. eed le t elh also lace rale the , )\ ~ udder). Ir ,h e adull canine leelh are not re m oved, th e)' d evelop inlO ery l::¡rge tu 1., in m a les. Tusks, incisor leelh , are op en-ro o leu Jnd grow continually Due to the ir lo e li on in lhe l11 ou lh, lusks are shdrpened by jaw mov m n l a n d soon deveJ op inlo fo rmillab le wt'ap ns. Pigs have fo m toes o n ach [ OO l. Two are walki ng loes a nd

tWO

a re dew d aws.

ll oof lrims hOllld b e d o ne rou ti nely lO preve nt vergrow lh .l nd I l11 e ness. 0 11 o f lhe mOSl com m o n lame.ne . p ro blcm fo u n d in pi g i )V rgrow n h oves. Pi gs need fO Uline h oof LrilllS a lo ng \Vilh yea rI y vace inat ions. Fem le m ini tur I ig reach sexual maturily between lh ree a nd fo ur 1110 m h . M( les a re sexually malure al th r e m o m hs, [ales a re fte n neutered as S0 0l1 .1 lhe testicles d escen d , as early as JO d ays. Fem a les can be spayed between 10 and l G weeks. If left unspayed . fema Ies cycI e ap rox imalely every 20 d ays for a peria d th at lasLs [o r lWO l lhree days. G sta tíon is approxim al >Iy 114 days, also ca lculated as tlnee mO!IL/¡s, {h me 1l'E'ehs, lhrec da)'s. Uner s izes in nü n ia ture p igs \lary frorn fo ur to ei gh t Sows have been known to cann ibalize lhei r young, especia lly weaker, s m aller pigleLs or pi glels lhal have been u na b le la e 'tab lis h J pla e in lh e pechins arder. n adu ll m a le pig is a ~ ).lf. Wl1en n utered, lh ey are ca lled l.lfTO\\'!-t . ¡;emal es are ca ll d Ill~ un lc;ss 1hey prouuce a IiUer, the n th ey a re cal led \( \.,. Th e cyes ight

f pi gs is poor, b ut they h ave an excellent sen e of ~ melL Th y

ca n ¡acate foou underground . with roo Ling "ne! sniffing, a ne! a n also s ent me!

24 1

01

242

UNIT VIII· CHAPTER 21

fo llowa trail in th e airo Pigs are so famou s fo r their keen sense of sm ell that th y are lIsed to locHe truffles, a hard to find and much s ugh t after edibl fun gus that grows und · ground. The sno ut of a pig has d evel o ped to dig o It has a di stinctive cJisc of caI1.il age th at strength ens it and enables th e pig to rUI) . They are ab le to root IIp fe.nces, bushes, and sm aIl tr es an d wark lh ir way th roug h woo de n ba rri rs. Rooting behavior is a natu ral insti nct th at ca n no t be changed. O lltdoo r pigs wil! root up a reas of lawn ancl gardens. They ar o effici e.n t al lh is Lha t rnan 0\ ners d e liber­ ately pen thcm over areas that need to be tilI ed. [Io use hol d pigs root up carpet and floorin g. Pigs roo t to explore, find food, and aeate co ol wallows to li e in. Metal pig ri!!gs that pi rce thl" nd of lhe snout will not detes ( pig from rooting. Th is is a co mmon agricultura l practice, and is also used as mel hod of contro lLing an an im al in conjun dion with a pi r hook - a lon g po le with a hook at the end tl1a l is intend ed to lead the pig arollnd by ¡he nose. 10re often th a n not, there is no co ntrol and the pi g b co m s irate a nd ag!ITessive. Miniature pig are not odorless, as man b reeders have cl aimed. Thei r o d or resembl es iodin e or so met h ing me tallic, !lot rarticu ldrl y u n pleas m, b Ul evident. Papaya frui! is oflen fed to house-pigs to h Ip r m ove the piggy l/ roma. Pigs, r gardless of lh ir s tatus as pets, are agricu ltural ani mals. ¿o n ing ordi­ nances usua lly do not pcrm il th I eep ing of li estod : in towns an d citi es. Iwa!s check Wilh th e zo ning o f/i ce before obtainin g a pet pig.

He-ha io!'

WHEN ELEPHANTS WEEP; the [matianal Uves of Animals by Masso n, leffe,y Moussa ieff and Susan Mc Ca rthy (1996) is groundbreaking in hu man understanding and accep­ ta nce that animals have emotions.

Pigs of an b reed are noted fo r their in telligence. It h s o nl . b en recently that an)' previousl j insisted discussi on of an imal m otion was considereJ v lid. I .Lholu i Ihat emoliom were only attribu led l O an imal because of h uman eeli ng, and inter­ p reta tio n, lhat il was very sub jective and an lhropo m o rp hic. Researche rs are n ow openl)' disc u ing e m otio nal intelli ge nce in a n im als Pigs (a well as ma ny olh er species ) l ave d em o nSl rat d very d eae appropriate emotional reactio ns. Ow n e.rs and rescuers spea k of piggy temper tantrums, tha t pigs can be em barrassed when augh l causi ng m ischi t{ cry tears when dis lressed or with the los o f a be loved co m pani on, exh ib it joy, and h ave a s nse of hu m or. They can have th e ir feelings easil) h urt with ha rs h wards . Mi n iature pigs have na tu ral beh avi o rs ti at ar no d ifferent from otl,e r b reeds. Pigs are herd an imals :md establ is h a hie f3 rcb from the m omen t they are bo rn. They w ill figh l , nd scram ble f r a l al, push , sho e, and vo calize \ ilh cach o ther un tí l the ard er is e labli hed o As th y m alure, domin nce iss ue:; con tin ue, both with o th r pigs and with lhe new herd of hu m ans. Pigs will fi gl t, ch arge, swing their heads, and bite lO esta bl ish dom ina nce. Th is can be v ry intim id ating lO h u mans, an d it is m eal lt to be. Mos t p o ple co nl"ro n ted w ith a p ig vying for dom ina nce ill back off in a r aso nab Je fear f being injured , a nd lh heh avior becomes rein fo rced . It is no t t he owner w ho i' al lh to p o f th herd, bu t l he pig. Dom ina nt p igs have, and expeCl, cenain p rivi leges: They have the choicest food and lhe best W.111O\ ' . Su bo rd ina le pigs ar p resen ted \ ith the e.xpo sed abd o m n of the do minal1l p ig in the expeclation of a massage. In the kitchen, pet pigs n íp al th eir ()wner' nkl , refuse lO vacale lhe couch , antl p down in front of

n

Miniature Pigs

fam il y mem bers, exposing lhe ir bellies. f-Iumil ns resp ond by say ing: Tsn't thaL culeo Molly lVi/n/ s a tunull)' ric!?le and proc ed to d o it, rein fo r ing the do minance th al the pig has estab lis hed . This is pro bab ly the most COJ1l ll1o n m isinterpretati on of pig behavio r and Ljll ickly leads to th ' [ b I vio ra l issues. 'xposure of a pig's belly is no t to be o nfllsed with lhe subm issive postu re of a dog Pigs should b e lrained Wilh posi live reinfo rceme n t, nO l phy 'ka l punishments. Food U'eats lls\:!d as lra ining a ids us ually onl leach lhe p ig to beg, whi ch q uickly hecomes a nuisanc behavio r. oys make better reward fo r good behaviors .

IInush

~

Pigs are very ele n. They are ea il, housebrok n because it is natural for them to mi nate an d de~ < te away from bedd ing and fo od, II llseho ld p igs use a liuer box j [ they have no access l the o utdo ors. La rge doggie daor" are installed when pigs are a1l wed out. When out ide, pigs use on d signaled ar a of lhe yard lo u rin ate an d el (ecate. !t is no t reco m m ended lO keep pigs ind oors. t\!l p igs need a shel t r Lo pro lect lhem Cro m lhe e tremes o f weather, b lh hOl an d m ld. Pig do not have sweat gland5 ,nd do Ilo l panl I1 ,ddiLion te shade, they sh olll d be gi ve n an area in to wh idl te dig a v J ]jow or be provided wilh a shallow dlil d's pool. The skin of pi gs is very sim il ar lo human skin ami cal be eas ily su n bu rned. They s ho u ld h ve su n­ ree n app lied da il y ror their pra t ction . Pi gs do not have 1ll 11ch hai L They do a l have enough o f coal to provi de a ny wannlh . The, need a deep straw bed lo kee p them o ff lhe cold ground and b d­ ding m terial to over lh em and t rool u nder. Sleeping bags, q u ilts, and bl, nkels provide comfon J nd wa nnlh. In v ry co ld areas, supp lrm en ta l hea tin g h L1 ld be provid d for Lhem . H ' at lamps s holll be uspe nd d over lhe sleep ing area. Pigs are v ry su eplib le lO pn um onía a nd lh biggesl co ntrib utin g ause is an ina bil­ ily lO stay warm . La rge, shall ow ba ins hou ld be pr vided for amp l frt> h drinking water. he supply sho uld b eh ck d reguJarly, as pigs wil! pi d< up anc! carry wat r and food bowls. A good cho ice would be lhe type of heavy rllbb r tubs ol d by agri cultural suppliers. These are Lough, de 'igned [al' heavy-du ly use, anc! they re easy LO scrub out and e1ean .

l)i~1 By far Lhe grealest prob lc m seen in com pan ion p igs is ob

ity, followed e10 ely by constipa lion. Pigs are Ol11 ni vores an d they will ea l anyt hing. Co m mercial p ig di t, are not u it able fo r pet pigs as they are designed for rna;x imum growlh in the sho rtest amount of Lime. rig cho/{! sh o uld be speci fi r LO m in iature p igs where lUlriliona l go 15 are ~ [ average growth and lon gevity. Feed shou ld be m as ured, ration d , and fed ac(ording lo manufaclurer's c!irections. Feed proc!uce rs have deve lop d spccificallv formul ated d i ts for comp:mio n p igs. Treals, wh ich are as varieJ as d og biscuits and strawb rry shortca ke, need to h verely restricteu Compan ion pigs are often fed lrea ts as behavio ra J distrac­ tio os and bribes. Many favorile lrealS an cause constip ¡io n. One easy rem edy

243

244

UNIT VIII' CHAPTER 21

to constipation is to [eed can ned p ump kin. Pet pigs enjoy the taste and it h as laxat iv effects. Fresh gr ens and root vegetabl es can also be . dded lO th e d i t. The € should b e purchased [resh a nd of human q uality. It is il lega l to fe ed raw ga rbage to pigs. Pig slop, the combination of whatever might be Jeft over from hu man co nsump­ tion, is prohi bited by fed eral and state Jaws that we r en acted to control swine diseases. This law also applies tO companion pigs.

R(~strainl

and

I"H1{lIin~

Pigs are not recep tive to being held. Even the small est of piglets \ViII st ruggl e and scream loud ly in an attempt to scape. Pigs can be tra ined to v ear a harness and walk with a lea sh, but the route is us ua lly d ete rm ined by me pig. They are cer­ tain ly intelli gent e nough ro learn o bedience a nd leash behéw ior but they are also strong will ed en ough to ig nore them. The wei gh t o f an adult pig usually p ro hibits tryi ng to lift it fOí restra int or an exam. Pigs are rE.'l uctant to move in bright light and are mo re ea ily persuaded to move in subdu ed lighting. A plg hoard , a large solid b arri er held from beh ind the pig, can be used to maneuv >r a pig in a certain d irection . For almost al! proce­ d ures, chemical restraint is required . e h mical rest raint refers to the use of drugs for sed atio n and an th ia . 'lil e ideal ch m ical restrai nt is one lha t is easily in duced and the 'ffects of wh ich ca n be reversed . These are often referred ro as cod(/t lils lha t c mbi ne more lh a n one agent, such as m edeto m idine for sed ation a nd torbuge ic for pain relief. The freo s of medetomidine are reversed with an anti ee!ent whi ch nables a quick recovery wh ile lhe be n f¡lS of analges ia remain (Orf, 2006).

Uedical

eOIU (~rnS

Locating a ete rina ri a n to care for a companion pig is not a h-vays easy. Before obta in ing < pig, veterinary services need to be lo cated. The veteri na ri an sh o u ld be ex perienced with pet pigs a nd [heir behavioral iss ues, be willing and ki li d in performing hoof ane! teeth trims, and provide ad vire for vaccinations and heal th concerns of co mpanion pigs. Just as importa ntly, the ve terinar ian a nd staFf sh o ul d recogni ze that lhe h uman- animal bond is just as strong wi th a pet p ig as it is wilh a dog or a cal. Exotic animal veterin arians often see ro mpani n pigs, m re so than sma ll an im al (dog and cat) pracl ices. lvI any large a nima l p ractitioners are invül ved in herd ma nagem ent ancl production, with quite diffe rent ap proaches to pig or swine heal th . There are ma ny d iseases of svvine, most of wh ich have a very low in 'd ence or are llot reponed in companion pigs. Thi s is no t ro say t h, t lh ey are im mune, b u t is more likel attrib uted to their being isol
245

M in iature Pigs

Figure 2 -2 A res cu ed min ia ture pi g that ha d be e n neglec ted a nd fed on ly smaU handfuls of dry do g food in an ill-advised attemp t to keep it sma/l . There are mu ltiple chron ic health conce rns as

il

result o (Co urtesy of Ching Fann

San(tuary.)

onslipauon is commonly seen wilh pigs th ( are urfering (ro m other i!ln esses ami du ring winter mo n th ' whe n th ey are no l outsid unCOlllm Oll

10

add

él

r v ry a ti ve. It is not

laxa tive t tbe pig's diet when con ti pati n is susp cled . This

may in cl ude o live o il , cann ed prunes, ca nned pumpkin, an d m eta mu il.

olldigt'SI i (' UiSUl'(h'l S AlJ pigs shoultl be vaccinaled again t erysipelas. rt is an infectious bact e ria! disease Lhal an cause swo llen jo in ts, la men ess, sys te m ic infe li o n , a nd skin lesio ns . It is also known as mi dilllllond di5ease

ca use ortbe d L tinctive d ia m on d sh a ped a rea

of affeded sl< in. Piglet shou ld b e vaccinilt da r e igh t lo twelve we 1 an d revac­ cin ated lhre we I<s laler, wi th b ooste r vaccillat ions every six m on ths. Erys ipelas is a zoonotic d isease. [ p losp ifosis vaccine is gi ven al me ame tim e as

ry ipelas and should be

boosted a n n ually. Pigs sho uld also be proleded aga inst mycop las ma p n u rno n ia a n d tetanus. R c rnmend< uons fOf vaccin al i

I

from the veteri narian shollld be

[o!lowed cal' fu lly lO n u re tbe pig's h ea lt h an d immune sla tus. Il has often been stated (by breed e rs o mini¡HUre pet pigs) that p igs immun

lO

rabies . Th is sho uJd Ilat be as u m ed as fadoSpeci fi

compa n ion pig

r

o llcerns regard ing

nd r b i s should b J i cuss d ""iLh a veterin ari an or di re ted Lo

Lhe CDC. The inciJence o í ra b ies in the United StaLes fl Ud uates by r gion. The ch a nce of rabies in p igs is €XL r mely low, but not im pas ibl e. The re is curren tly no ap proved acci ne for use in pigs. Pseud o rabi s is a Tepart lhle dISCd!>C o f pigs and s hou ld n l be confllsed w ith rab ie . Pseudo beca use the a ffected a ni m a ls exh ibit erra tic behavio r ( im ilar to rab ie ), lhe most obvio u b ing inlense itchin g a nd seemin gJy mad beh avior in an attempt to saatch . lt is a lso ca Jled Aujesky's d isea 'e a nJ rnad itch. Ma ture p igs uSlla ll

su rv ive pseudorabies and b com e carriers tha t can in fect otb er speci es

246

UNIT VIII, CHAPTER 21

F'g re 21 OCClIr

"T

Redal prolapses can

in pigs oF any age . They may

coming ¡nto contact w ith carr ier pi gs. It is co n lagiou to ca ttJ e, horses, sheep ,1I1d goats, d ogs and eaLS. Dog and cats do n t survive and usually die witb in a fevv days of sho ing signs. It does Ol affect humans. u rrent ly, al l 50 sta les ilre free of this dis a e due lO Lhe strict Iaws rega rdi ng herd testing, tra nsp o rtatio n of s\ i.n e, and radieation p rogram s. Rectal p ro lapse occu rs in p igs thal are Slress ·d or consti pated or it m ay be s condary ro other il ln s. es. VeteJinary e re is requirecl LO shrin k lh e pro lapsed lÍssue and gen tly pu sh it baek lhro ugh the reelum . Tem porary sutures may be required te keep lhe lissue in 1'1 ce and a llow lh e are to he I (Figu re 21-3).

be ca used by stress or con sllpation or be se con dary to other iU ness.

Immediate veteri nary care is requ ired . (Co l
Figlor 21

Th

hooves or lhis

pig are severely overgrown, preventing it rrom walking. The pig was only able to move by

walking on her

kn ees and sco oting her hind limb, at an angle . (Co urtesy of Mar(i.,

C. Orr, DVM )

f

r

(~ lini(' al

Pl'o('edul'es

In additiol1 to regular hoof lrims, companion pigs should ha e a veterinary exam every 'l;' months (Figure 21-4, Figure 21-5, Figure 21-6 ). The need lO hay their leeth trim med, eal' and eyes dea ned, and be vaccinat d an d dewann d (Figure. 21-7) . a l aIl veterin ari ans aeeep l pig patiellts or are ab le ro provid e lhe se rviees needed . In additi o n, there is the p n b\em of tra n po rt ing lh p ig to lhe ffiee. In most insta nces, [o r anylhing O he r than a sm a Il piglel, vett'finary pro cedu re are carri d o u t d uring hOllse eall visilS. In jecti o ns ca n b given in lhe r a r leg, in lhe skin just ab ve the hock, behi nd t h ars, and in the lo in of lh sh ou ld er. In jection s ~ h uJd nOl be gi en in the thick gl u ltea l museles of lhe ham o Regardl ess of [h e sit , there will be some bloo d as a resull o fl h n edl (h ence lhe expres ion, blcccling [i"ea Stlldl pig ). aecina tions are usually given at lh same lime as h of trims an d other routine proced u res, wh ieh ar 311 perform d lIn der g n era ( an eslhesia. Blood colleelion sites can be diffi cult lo aecess because of lhe pig's d ense layer of fa LThe easiesl sÍles lO a e ss ar m e lateral sap henous vein and the med ial and lal fa1 car veins. Blood an be dr wn from [h e crania l vena cava. Although ¡his is routinely performed in production pigs, it is nm reco rnmended for compan ion animals.

5 The trims began by using horse hoof nippers lo dra ·

rlgure 11 6 Wllh great ski ll and the use of a dremel too L, o ne

mat ically reduce the length of each hoof beFore attempllng lo re ­

foot has been reslored to orma!. Pri or lo the procedure, inject ·

shape an reaUgn the hooves to allow the pig to walk normally.

able aneslhesia was administered . (COllYlery of Manir¡ C. Orr,

(Coune~

01 Maro", G. Orr, DVM .)

DVM .)

Miniature Pigs

Figure 21 7 While anesthetized. the pig's teeth were also examlned. Aside from sorne

dental pliJque , alL is normal. (Cotmesy of Mart /n G. OlT, DVM. )

pwcedures not (arried o u t in ¡!le fi e/d, iso flu rane inh ala n t an thesiJ is recommen cl 'd . Pigs an be a chall nge u nder pro lo nged aneslhesia. AII patients sh o uld receive preinduct io n sed atíon . Pigs are easil y stressed " h ich, in tu rn, affects cardiac functian an d re ' pi ra tion. 11 p ig un de r inhalant aneslhe ia must be in lub"ted w ilh the use o f a lary ngosco pe. Direct visua lizalio n o f the larynx fo r intu batio n ca n be difficu lt b cause of lhe small mou lh, p ro m in en t to ngue, and ventral slo pe of lhe I rynx. A reclal Lh ern o m eler, taped in pl ace, shouJd be man ­ iLOred carefully a long Wilh all o rb er a nesthesia parameters. Pigs are prone to malignant hypenhenn ia (al recognized as porcine stress synd rome ) . AIlhough uSll ally 3"ocialed WiLh ha lo th , ne, malignant byperthennia an o ccur with any inhalant agent. Thi is haracterized by a rap id rise in core bod· lem perature, dys p nea, m uscle rigid ity, and if prolonged, dealh . Wilh this cond ilion, resp ira ti on rate u ually exceed heart rat . Im med iale cessa tion o f Lhe inhaJanl anestll C ia is required, and tlle palient shou ld be given 100 percent oxygen .1he patient needs to be quick1y coo led Wilh ice pad<s nd water batlls. lr an appr priclle leve] of preanesthetics is ad mi n istered , lhe leve! may b sll rfi cienl LO safely stabil ize lhe patiem. FOf

Potbelly pigs are susc p tible lO a variety of interna l and external pa rasi tes. :0 ielia an be found in p iglel and causes diarrJ ea . Pigs may sufrer fro m lice or mite infestations. The pig ¡ouse, Il ll e/llatop i llus slIis, is a large blood sucking P
R(~

i...." OutAstions

o What are the needLe teeth and why shouLd they be dipped soon after birth?

8

Why is it important to provide shelter for pigs? What procedures should be induded in routine veterinary care?

O How do the natural behaviors of a pig conflict with human expectations in a companion pig?

O

What vaccinations are recommended for companion pigs?

247

248

UN IT VIII, CHAPTER 21

(:) What is prohibited to feed pigs and why? f) Why should an owner not rub a pig's abdomen?

Define the following terms: boar, barrow, gilt, sow.

o

Why do pigs root?

4ID What is pseudorabies?

Miniature Pigs

WEIGHT

VITAL STATISTICS

• 227 to 90.9 Kg (50 to 200 lbs)

Temperature: 38 .8 Oc ( 102°F) Heart rate: 56 to 58 bpm

L1FE SPAI'i

Respiratory rate: 15 to 20 breaths / min

• 10 to 20 years average

DE TAL

REPROD IcrlON

• 2(3/3 1, 111 C, 4/ 4 P, 3/ 3 M) = 44 total teeth

• Sexual Maturity:

ACCI ES

Male: 12 weeks (3 month s)

Female : 16 to 36 wee ks (4 to 6 mo nths )

• Gestation: 114 days (" 3 mo nths , 3 weeks, 3 da ys") Litter Size: 4 to 8 • Weaning age: 6 to 8 weeks

Erysipelas: 8 to 12 weeks , 3 weeks later, annu lly

• Leptospriosus: 8 to 12 weeks, 3 wee ks late r, ann ual ly • Parvovi rus (Breeder pig): 5 to 6 mont hs , 3 weeks later, 3 to 8 wee ks prior to breeding

Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae: 1wee k, 3 weeks later, annually

Braun, Will iam le ( [ 993 ). Whe n the Pati n I is a Pig: Providing Basi c Ca re fo r Po tbellied Pigs. Veterinary Medicine, p. 412.

Braun, Wi ll ia m le (1993). I-lelpi ng Your Cli ents Raise Heal thy Potbe lli ed Pigs A

Symp osiu m o n Po tbeIlied Pigs. Velerúzary 1edicine, 414-428 .

Brau n, W il liam Ir. (199 3 ). Anesth tics and Surgi cal Technique Usefu l in ú,e Potbellied

Pig A ymposium on Potbellied Pigs Veteri1w))' Medicine, 441 - 447.

Ch ing. Failh. Ching Farm Sanauary, 1Ieniman, Utah . Oir ct communication 2003-2006.

htt p://www.aphis.LlSd .gov (accessed, lu ne 2006).

hltp:// lh p igsite.com (accessecl 3;06;06).

Miniature Pigs

htlp ://\vww.pigs4 ev r.co m (accessed 06/1 4/ 06). hup :/ / wvvw.o
c.,

Be nson , JOhl1 (1 93 ). Pro bl em s Enco unt ered

When Aocsth e lizing POlbell ied Pigs. Symposiul1l on Potbellied Pigs. Veterinmy

Medici ne, 435-440 . Masso n, Je ffrey Moussai eff & McCartb y, Susa n (1996). When Elephants \Neep; Th e

ü l/ocional Uves of AT/imals . D lldjD ell. O rr, tv1arú n G. DVM (2006) . Bird an d Exo ti c Al ! Pet s r [osp ital , Draper, Utah. () jrect commuoi atioo; 1998-2006 regarding r e n t protocol reiojectab! e anes ­ the tic age nts.

249

aculeus The sti nger o f a scorpion . acute. Somethi ng short, sharp and sud den , as in pain. Opposite to chron i, c t his is con t in ual or re-occuring.

sr rblc ar d' A wh ite, crystalline vitam in, COHa0 6' found in citrus fruits, tomatoes, potato es , and leafy green vegetables and used to prevent scurvy. Al so called

vi tal'llin C.

lfalf : A va riety of hay with a better fiber/ protein rati o, su itable as a mairrtenance diet.

asym'11etnciI : Not identical on both sides

of a centralline, al nClal Anl ma ls bo rn with their eyes and

ears dosed and have no visible hair growth . They are enti rely depen dent on maternaL

atrophles Wastes or decreases, as in the

size of an orga n or tis su e dutonOM) 1l1e volu ntary re lea se of the

care fo r surv iva l.

ample us Th e ma le fro gs d a pi ng of th e female 's foreLegs fo r breedi ng pu rposes . anap ytaltJs , A sudden, severe allergic

reacti on characterized by a sharp drop in blood press ure, urticaria, and breathing

ta il in reptiles . av arJes A large cage or a house or endo­

su re in wh ich birds are kept,

" I.ul

UI

.

The keep ing of compani on

bil·ds.

difficulties . anogen"taL di

ance The vi sual di ffer nce

between the anus and th e genitalia.

bd

eri , U biquito us o ne-celled o rgan,

isms, spheri cal , spira l , or rod-shap ed and

anomting' The be havior of t he he dge ­

hog when co nfro nted with an item that has a new sm eLl or taste, the hedgeh og wil l lick t he item and begin t o hype r-sal ­ ivate, prod ucing a white, fro lhy pit , an d then use th ei r tongue to paint , or

appearing singLy or in chains , eneo m pass"

ing the Sc hl zomyco ta, a phylu m of t he

kin gdo m Manera. Vari ous spec ies of

which are involved in fermen tation, putre ­

faction, infectio us diseases , or ni t roge n

fix atio n.

anoint , th ei r sp ines with th e fo am p ro "

b r

duced.

Refers to neutered adult male

pigs.

anor

Loss of appe ti te and inab ility

Ji!

btood feath rs . A new and growing fea t her

to eat.

that have a rieh blood supply.

anthr

An infectiou s, usually fatal

disease of warm -b looded ani maLs,

bo r ' The aduLt maLe of any of seve ral

especially of cattle an d sheep , ca used

mammals , such as th e beaver, raccoon, or

by th e baderium Bacillus anthrac is.

gu inea pig.

anthropomorphic Ascribi ng human fo rm

bolt hoL

or atlri butes to a being or t hi ng not huma n.

warre n.

apnea . A temporary suspension of breathing.

t..o

An entrance or exit in a rabbit

lungs In th e t arantula fo lded accor­

dion plea t d tis sue where respi rat io n takes

arbor al : Tree-living.

arthropods Ani mals with hard, seg­ mented bodies and ¡ointed legs.

arthros lerosís Hardening of the arteries.

250

place .

bovine : Of, relat ing to, or resernb ling a

ruminan t mamma l sueh as an ox,

COW,

or

burfalo.

a cites An acc um ulat ion o f flu id in the

b" tl fea hers . Sensory fea lh ers on the

abdomen.

head, aro und the eyes and nares .

-

CLOSS ARY

251

brome liad : Any o f various mostly

caseous: A materi al tha t re sembles

cognizant: To be aware of one's

epi ph yti c tro pical Am erica n plants of

cheese or cheese curds. Mat eria l

surroundi ngs .

th e fa mily Bromeliaceae, havi ng lo ng

associated with rept ile abscesses.

congenitaLly: Pertain ing to a condit io n

stiff leaves, colorfu l flowe rs, and

eavy: Any of vario us t aill ss So ut h

present at birth, wh et her in herited o r

sh owy bracts. Th ey inelude t he pine­

American rode nts of the family C avidae ,

caused by th e enviro nm ent, especially

apple, Span ish moss, and numero us

which ineludes the guinea pig.

t he uterine enviro nment.

o rn ament als .

e co rophs · 50Ft and encased feces in

conjunctl itis· Infla mmatl on of

bronehodilators: A medicati o n that

a muco us mem brane th at are consumed

th e co njunctiva , characteri zed by

w idens t he air passages o f the lungs and

by th e rabbit . Also called Night Feces.

red ness and oFt n accompan ied by a

cecum . The cavity in which the large

discharge .

eases breat hing by rela xing bron chi al smooth musele .

br ee

e~ect Abo rtio n of embryos in

recently bred mice in order to re-breed wit h t he new male .

bubonre fllague A pandem ic disease Lha t swepL through Europe from 13 47 t o 1350, killin g ap proximately 1/3 of t he po pulation. Th e so urce was a bacteria,

Yers;n;a pest;s, t hat is fo und in the gut of fleas and thrives In t he blood of ra ts. In fec ted rats spread th e d isease to

intes ti ne beg ins.

eoprophag'c: The eati ng of excrement

center for disease control (eDe)

th at is no rmal behavio r amo ng' many

A federal agen cy in t he D epartm ent of

especially you ng anima l s.

Health and H um an Services; lo cate d in

crepu cuLar: Appearing or active in t he

Atlanta; inve sti gates and diagnoses and

t w ilight

t ries t o contro l or pre vent d iseases.

e pl'laLo horax Th e ante rior part o f the body in certa in ara chni ds and crus· taceans cons isting of th e co alesced

buek. A ma le deer.

calcium used to replenish metabo li c deAc iencies .

campylobact r The bacteri a t hat causes Wet Tail in hamslers .

eann l tlon The insertio n o f a tub e into a hollow body o rgan Fo r th e drainage o f fluid .

eanopy The upperm ost laye r in a fo r­ est , fo rmed by the crowns of t he trees . Cilr

pa e A bo ny o r ch il: inous shi eld,

t est, or shell covering some or all of th e dorsa l part of an anima l , as of a tu rtle.

e rdiocenlesis . Pun ctu re o r a cha mbe r of the heart fo r diagnosis or t herapy.

A liqu id secreted in th e crop

of certai n adult pige ons and fed to t heir

newly hatc hed young.

c us ace ns. Any of vario us predo mi­

the base of th e up pe r mandible of a bird.

cal iufl" gl.Jeonate A llquid form of

crop mil

head and tho rax.

cere A flesh y, membra no us cove ring of

peop le.

erras' You ng alpa cas.

nantly aq uati c arthro pods of t he elass

C ru stacea, ineluding lobsters, crabs ,

shrimps, and barn aeles, chara cteristically

chelicerae The first pa ir o f usually

having a segmented body, a chitinou s

pincerlike appendages of spiders and

exoske let o n, and paired, jo inted

other arachnids.

lim b .

d. The portio n o f food that a ru m i­

e ellP d: Either of the pair of ap pend· ages bea ring a chela .

nant return s from t he fi rst stomach to

chltm: A semitransparent horn y sub·

t he mouth to ch ew a secon d ti me.

stance t hat is a princ ipa l conslitu ent of

e

the exoskelet o n, o r o uter coveri ng , of

spec ies.

'ebr

The larva o f many large fly

insects, crusta cea ns, an d arachni ds.

cu Hebones Th e endoske let on of

rhoand. The open ing between t he

sa lt wat er cuttlefish, whi ch are re lated

nasal and oral cavity.

ehoke: An eso phagea l blockage,

characterized retching, dry heave s,

excessive salivat io n, and diffic ult y

to squid ni bbling o n t hem also helps groom th e bea k and provide s a so urce of calciurn an d t race amo unts of lo din e.

breathing. Ch oke can be caused by

cyanosls A blui sh d isco lo ration of t he

pieces of food o r a hairball.

ski n and muco us me mbranes resulting

cloaca The t erm inal collecting sac fo r

camlvore Th ose animals whic h eat

the digestive sys tem, whi ch th e urina ry

only meat o

tract a[so em plies in l o b rore wast e is

fronr, ina dequate oxygenation of the blood .

carrre rs' An ani mal that shows no

expelled , and is also a major orga n o f

d capod Any crustacea n having fi ve

sympt oms of a disease but harbo rs t he

t he reproductive tract where sperm is

pairs o f wa lki ng legs.

infe ct io us agent oF t hat disease and is

deposited and eggs are delivere d.

d el u u

capabl e of transm itting it t o o t hers.

co ",tion: Th e mental pro cess of

teeth th at mam mal s po ssess, also

ca

kn owi ng, ineluding awaren ess , percep ­

called

tion, re asoning, and judgrnent.

replaced by permanent, adult teeth .

iOI

D ead an imal flesh, eaten by

ot her ani mal s.

On e o f th e two sets of

baby teeth , th ey are shed and

252

GLOSSARY

dermatoph~os,s: An infectio n of t he

ectotherms. Anim als requi ri ng an envi­

euthenan Th ose mammals wlth a pla ­

skin, ha ir, or nai ls cau sed by a dermato ­

ronme nt tha t provides t he heat neces­

centa tha t nourishes t he develo ping

phyte and ch aracterized by redness

sary fo r metabo lic activity and hea lth.

young, connecting t hem to the uterus

of t he skin, small papular vesicles, fis su res, and scal ing.

eo.ema: An acute or chronic noncontigu­

unti l t he t ime of birth.

ous inflammation of t he skin , characteri zed

e ophthaLmoses: Pressure behin d th e

deslccat,on: A condition wh ere cellular

chi efty by redness, itch ing, and the out­

eyes, pushing them out of the orbits.

fiui d and intem al orga ns may have irre­

break of lesions-that may discharge serous

versible damage or already be destroyed.

matter and beco me encrusted and scaly.

detritus M atter produ ced by the

endangered species Flora and fauna in

decay o r disintegration of an organic

dange r of becoming extinct.

substa nce.

dewcla . A vestigi al digit or claw found on t he medial side of t he leg reachlng the gro und and found on certain mammals.

endemlC: A disease that is co n. tantly

d.uretlc: A drug that increases urination and eli minati on of excess bod y fl uid .

the body.

ates heat to rnai ntain its body tempera­ ture, t ypically aboye the temperature of its su rround ings.

ennchment: Ite ms added to an envi­ ronm ent t o provi de an animal with a

doe A female deer.

visually appealing environ ment, as well

body and provide wa rmth.

drllling: A low, alm ost guttura l an d rap id d- r-r-r-r-r produced by th e Guinea Pig. Used as a warn ing or an alert to other

ferTeting. A popu l ar sp ort on t he

English Downs which invo lves t he use of a fe rret t o hu nt rabbits.

d,urnaL: Ac tive during the day.

down: Feathers t hat are close to the

as from dom esti cation.

ferTet out To drive out by using a ferret.

endotherm: An o rgan ism that gener­ th e abdomen.

feral: Havi ng reverted to the wild st ate,

endoskeLeton: A framework of bones

from the neck o f certain an imals.

disembow ledo To cut or slash ope n

fa lcons.

pres ent in a certai n popu latio n.

wh ich provides structure and support t o

e lap A fo ld of loose skin hangin g

falconry' The sport of hunt ing wi th

as areas to explo re , and oppo rtu nity for exercise.

enterotoxemia: A disease tha t is attrib ­ ute d to to xins ab sorbe d from the intestines.

filoplu es: Small, hai r- li ke feath ers with barbs along th e sha ft that help guide t he b,rd in flight and repositio n the feathers .

fitch: A ch iefly nocturnal Eu ropean car­ nivorous mam mal of the weasel fa mily t hat ejects a malo do rous flui d to mark its territo ry and ward o ff ene mies. A[so called a Polecat.

fiKed formuLa' Re fers to diets t hat are co nstant , the ingredi ents and percent­ ages do not ch ange w it h market avail­

gu inea pigs of possible da nger.

epigas ríe furrow lhe fem ale tara nt ula's

dry bite. A bi te in wh ich the tarant ula

genitalopening.

does not inj ect veno m.

epibLottis ' Th e thi ela t ic carti laginous

lays eggs on th e furo

dry heaves Non-pro ductive vom itin g.

structu re located at the root of t he

food and drug admlni ratlon (FDA) .

ton gue t hat folds over the glotti s to pre ­

duodenal Pertain ing to the beginn ing portion of th e small intestine.

dwarf An animal or plant much smalle r than th e average o F its kind or species

dys cdysis: Diffi culty during t he shedd ing process.

vent foo d and liqui d from entering th e

t rachea du ring t he act of swallowing.

episodlcally- Occurri ng spo rad ically o r incide ntally.

epizootic: Affecting a large num ber

of an imals at th e sa me l im e withi n a

abil ity and prr ce.

fly stnke

When the commo n house fly

A fed eral agency in t he Departrn ent of Health and Human Services estab li shed to regulate the relea se of new foods and health-related products .

free choice ' Referring to unh indered access to food at all t imes .

frpe rang . Permltted t o graze or

dyspnea: dlffí,cult or labored breathing.

partic ular re gio n or geogra phic area.

dy oCia A slow or diffi cult labor or

erythematosls . Referrin g t o re d and

a feed lot or a sma ll enclosure.

delivery.

inflamed skin.

fry: Th e young of fish.

Cd)5is completed shedding in a hea lthy reptile_

fora ge rather t han being confined to

est,vate To spend a hot, dry season in

rungus' Any of a diverse group of eukary­

an inactive, dormant state .

otic single-celled or multi nucleate

etholog' ts Refers to sc.enti sts wh o

organisms that li ve by decomposing and

absorb ing the organ ic material in which

ecosystems An ecological community

study animal behavior w it h em phasis on

together with its environment, func ­

the beha vioral patterns that occ ur in

they grow, compris ing th e mushrooms,

tion ing as a unit .

nat ura l environments.

molds, mi ldews , smuts, rust s, and yeast s.

CLOSSARY

r slip The ability of the chinchilla to re lea se patches o f fur to evade capture. ru I s Mice nd rats lhat have some fur but are generally not very mobile. Used as food fo r snakes and lizards, scorpions and tarantulas, and birds of prey.

gut flora Normal bacteria foun d in the

digestive tract o The normal sou nd s of digestio n aud ible via stethoscope through the abdo minal wall . gu moti! t

gut loaded. Refe rs to insects that

gro up of mice collectively.

have bee n fed vitami ns an d minerals to e nhance their nutrition al value as food for larger anim als .

gaplng: Frequen t opening of the mouth.

gymnoph ona lim bless amphibians. Example would be caecilians.

gang. The na me used to refe r to a

gas r1C: Relat ing to, o r associated with the stomach. . g stnc overload: O ccurring when an

am phibi an is fed a large quantity of prey items in a short amo unt oft ime , also called impa ctio n. g nome: One co mplete copy of the genetic informat ion in a ce ll. giardia : Any of vario us, usually non­

pathogenic protozoa of the genus Giilrdia Lhat may b paras itic in the intestines of vertebra tes includi ng hu mans and most domestic anima ls. gilt Refe rs to adult female pigs , unless t hey produce a litter at whic h ti me lhey become sows.

g zza d· Th e strong, tough muscles of the ventriculus that grind the food befo re it ente rs th e small int estine.

b Id r rnllls A term that refers to the ind iscri minate br eding of suga r gli ders fo r profit The openi ng at lhe upper parl of the la ry nx, between t he vocal cords. g ot

I

gout: Caused by the accumulatio n of excess urates de pos ited in the intesti nal tra ct and [oin ts, it affects many species and is associated with dehyd rati on and poo r nutrition. Signs include swolle n jol nts and painful movement. ~u-

naco: A wild Sou th American

ruminant, Lama g¡-ian icoe, of which the lla ma and alpaca are be lieved to be dom estic ated varieties: related to the camels.

-

253

hoglets: Refers to immature hedgehogs. hopper . Mice and rats that have a full coat of hair and are fully mobile bu t are smalle r than adult mice . Used as fo od fo r sn1lkes and lizards, scorpions and tarantulas, and birds of prey.

huacaya: On e of two speci es of alpa ca differentiate d only by their coats . humminE" Referring t o sounds made by alpacas to com municate with eac h olher.

hutch: A pen or enclosed coop for small an imals. ha" oUlcle A sma ll cavi ty in the epidermis and corium of the skin, from which a hai r deve lops. hallucinogens A min d altering

chemical that produces images and alters perc eptio n. harderian gland: A gLan d found behind

hygr meter: A hum idity ga uge. hyperkaLemlc: Relat ing t o an abnor­

mally high concentralion of potassium in th e blood. hypog(yC'em.a A condition of low

blood sugar.

the eyes of manY ro dents, including hamsters and gerbils, prod uces an irri­ tati n substance when over-stimulated.

hypoglycem,c: Relating to an abnormally low level of glucose in the blood .

heart rm: A paras itic nematode, transmitted by mosquito and invadi ng the heart an d pulmon ary arteries of dogs , wolves, and foxes throughout its range in tropical, subt ropical an d, more recently, te mperate regions llro und the world.

hypsodon ,-. Referring to the teeth of the guinea pig wh ich are open-ro ot ed an d grow contin ually.

heaving: Abdomi nal muscle move­

me nts with each breath. helo erms- Animals li ke tu rtles that active ly seek out sunlight for heat .

h matorna A circumscribed collection of blood , usually clotted, in a ti ssue or organ , cau sed by a break in a blood vessel. maturi : The presence of blood in

the urine. I enlpenes: The rep roductive organs in

male reptiles . hep tic Ltp doSIS Fat inAltration into liver cells , also known as fatty liver disease. herbi 'ore An imals which eat only

incu . Th anvil -shaped small bon e or ossicle in the middLe ear. It connects the malleus to the stapes. Also know n as the anvil.

nduced ula o An imals capa ble of breeding at an y time on ce they rea ch sexual matu rl ty. I

gUI

al: Pertai ning to, or situated in

the gro in. tn~alation

o _The act of inhaling fluid or a fore ign body into the bronchi and lungs . Insectlvor : Those Animals that feed primarily on Insects . ,"vertebra Animals that do not have a spi nal colu mn.

plant material. he petology: The study of reptiles and arn ph ib ian s.

jacobson 5 organ: A highly developed sensory organ located near t he tongue.

hob A male ferre t.

f1lL. A female ferret.

254

GLOSSARY

10f;Y • Any yo ung animal , especially a

kangaroo. erabn A tough, insoluble prote in substance that is the ch ief structural consLi LuenL o r hair, nai ls, horns, and hooves . keto IC : ReLati ng to any of a cLass of organic compound s such as acetone . "indLe. To give birth to young. I A young, often undersized fur o bearíng animal.

I.urLoff odl Cytop lasmlc inclusio ns

in some monocytes .

kushea Referring to the position of

a resLrained alpaca or llama wiLh ils

hind legs gently bound under the m in

a sitting p05ltion .

lagomorp 1 Any oF various pLant-eating

mammals having fully furred feet an d

two pairs of uppe l incisors and belong­

ing to the order Lagomorp hae, wh ich

Ineludes lhe ra bbits , hares, and pi kas.

larval s ag _ In amphib, ans, the stage

between the embryo and ad ult.

Lavage: Wash mg, especiaLly of a ho llow

organ, such as lhe slomach a r lawer

bowel.

br ed rs' Refers to ama teur or non -professiona l breeders of an animal. Lotts: A form of outdoor hous ing ro r doves and pigeons. lymphorytl e orjomening' ~ (LCM) An acute disease characterized by rever, nausea and vomitíng, headache , stiFf neck , an d sLow pulse, ma rked by the presence of numeroUs lymphocytes in the cerebrosp inal Fluid , and transm ítted especially by rodents. yrr ph l;TIij' Any of various usuaLLy malig­ nan t t.umors thcrl: arise in the lymph nodes, spleen and liver, often manlfested by enLargement of one or more lymph nodes .

Mal'gn n Dangerous to health; charo acterized by progressive and uncon­ trolled growth, especially of a tumor.

m Lle 5' t he outermost of a chain of three small bones in Lhe middLe ear of mammals, also kn own as ih e hammer. mandlble: lhe lower jaw of a ve rte­ brate animal.

n bulizer A device used to reduce llq­ uid to an extrem ely Ane doud , esp e· ciaLly for delivering med icatio n to t he deep part of the re spiratory tract. needle teeth lhe baby canines.

marsupiaL An y of vanous non placenta l mammals of the order Marsu pi ala, in dud ing ka ngaroos, opossums , bandi ­ coots, and wombats, fo und prin cipally in Australia an d the Americas.

, opta ia: The for matio n an d growth of new tis$ue.

melanoma; Any o f several iypes of skin t umors characte rized by the malignant growth of melanocytes.

NSAIO: An acronym for Non· Steroidal Anti · lnflammatory Drug, such as as pirin or ibu pro fe n.

m Lena ' lh e discharge of black, tarry, bloody 5toO[S, usua lly resuLting from a hemorrhage in the ali mentary tracto

nuptlaL pads ' A cutaneous secondary sexual characteristi c whic h assists in amplexus.

met morphosls' A profoun d change in form from o ne stage to the next in the Life history of an organism o metathena : Anima ls born in an embry ' on ic state that ma kes their way to either a pouch or teat attachment Lo com plete their develo pmen t. Also known as Marsupials . molted Referring to an arthropod that has shed its exoskeleton . moltlng lhe natural rep laceme nl of feathers, that occurs in br rds once or twice ayear. mor key O ' Cau sed by an orLhopox vi rus and d oseLy relaled lo the hu ma n smallpox vi rus, variola. monog mou . lhe condition of having only one mate during él breed ing season or du ri ng t he breeding liFe of a pai r. monogastnc Single compartment stomach. onotr mes Mammals whi c.h lay eggs consístl ng of only rhe plalypus and the ec hi dna . mosair' Refers to the patterned coats of some chi nchilla . mucold' ReLati ng to or resembli ng rn ucus . mycobacte ja : Rod-shaped bacterIa some saprophytic or causing diseases.

neotony lhe sta te resulti ng when luve ni le cha racteristics are retained by the adults oFa species

omnivore. Those mammals wh ich eat both plants and oth er animals . OOP An acronym fo r " Out O f Po uch" whlch is a rneasu rement of age for some mammals. o hOpoX A gen us of double stranded DNA viruses that preferentially infect e pitheli al cells. In elu des variola an d vaccinia . osmosls; lhe diffu si on of fluids thro ugh mem branes or poro us part itions. OTC: lhat which can be sold legally wi LhouL a doctor' s prescri ption: over­ the -coun ter drugs . otitiS I t rna: A bacteria l infection of t he inner ear. o ... lparou . Producing eggs that ma ture an d hatch afte r be ing expelled Fro m t he bo dy, as birds, rnost r ptiles and nshes, an d the rnonotr-emes . o o... i I rlOUS Refe rri ng to anima ls that give birth to live young born afte r they have hatched internally.

palatablbty: AcceptabLe to t he taste ; suffi ciently agreeable in !lavo r to be l€ a ten. P 1 ontoLogy: lhe scie nce of t he for ms of Life exis ting in for me r geologic pe rio ds, as rep rese nted by thei r fossils.

GLO SS!\RY

pandemlc: A di sease t hal is p revalent

p loeret" on: Piloere ction is often a

throu gh out an e ntire c ount ry, conti­ ne nt, or the whole world ; e pidemic

sign o f pai n, fe ar or aggre ssion in many spe c i s.

ove r a large area.

pinkie5~

parasit An organis m that lives o n or in an organism of anoth e r species, known as t he ho st , fro m the body of which it o bta ins nutrimento

have not yet grown f ur. Used as fo od for sna kes and li zards, scorpions and ta rant ulas, and birds o f prey.

parth nogenes 's: De ve lopment o f an egg witho ut ferti lizatio n. partur tion' The aet or process of givi ng bi rth . passennes: The largest o f the bird gro ups and Inelude s the song bi rd s . pa aglur1: The extens ible fold o f skin of certai n inse cls or of a glidi ng ma m­ ma l or re pt ile , as a flyJn g squi rrel . pa nogpns A d isease causi ng age nt , es pe c iallya li ving microorganism such as a bacte rium o r fu ngus. pectlnes Feat he ry-loo king ap pendages just beh ind e ac h pa ir of legs .

Newborn m ice anel rats that

pIOna: The ou te r proj ct ing portion of t he ea r also called th e auriele. plth. To slaughter. p centa: The organ in most mam mals , fo rmed in th e lini ng o f lhe ute rus by t he un io n of t he uteri ne muc ous me mbra n wit h the me mb ra nes or the fet us, and p rovi des for the nouris hment of the fe tus and th e e limi nab o n of ItS waste prod ucts . pl s ron: Th e ventra l part of t he sh II

of t urUe.

pleural ciI¡lty A na rrow, flui d-fille d

space be ween lhe pleural membranes

o f t he lu ng and the inner chest wall.

pneumonlc: Transmitled by airborne

pedipa ps. A pa ir o f appe ndages nears t he rn oulh of a spid e r or other arac hnid that are modified fo r var io us

d roplets, sprayed by the coughing and

sneezing of infected people .

reproductive, p re datory, or sensory functio ns.

pododerma lbs: A condition (as foot

rot) c haracterized by inFlam rn ation

elters Re fe rring to pe ople who strip t he skin of an anima l with the fu r o r hair still on it. pe I-anal: Relati ng to, occurring In, o r being the tissues surro und ing the ¡mus .

of the d rrn al ti ssue on the fo ot o f

mammals.

poi 'lotherms Animals that are totally

depe nde nt upon their enviro nme nt to

regulate bo dy temperature and m ta­

bolie activlty.

poLydlpsla: Excessive o r abnormal

pe i

um The area in fron t of the anus

thi rst.

ext e ndi ng t o the fo urchette of t h vulva in t he fe male ana to the scrotum in th e male o

polyes rous Having many breedi ng

cyeles t hrougho uL the year.

phylurr Th e primary subd ivision of a

polyphyodon ic' Teeth that are rea b­

sorbed or shed ¡¡nd repla ced at a ra p id

taxono mic kingdom , gro up ing t ogeth er all elasses oF o rga nisms that have the

rate th rou gho ut life.

same body plan .

polfuria Excessive secre t ion of urine .

plg board' A large so li d barrier held fro m behin d the plg, can be used to maneuver a pig in a certaJn d lrecti o n.

porphyn ,: A red d ischarge fro m the

Harder ian gla nd, located behind the

e ye of ma ny ro dents.

pi hoo . A long poi e wit h a hook at

pes -morte

lhe e nd t hat is inte nded lo lead the pig around by t he nose.

postpartum The period fo llo wi ng

pa rtur ition.

Afte r dealh .

255

POTZ: Refers to the "Preferred O ptimum Temperature Zon ,. giving reptiles the ab ility to digest prey, fight off Infeetion, and perform day-t o -day functions . powder down. Feat hers that produce a fine white powder t hat provides wate r-proofr ng. precocli'll: Anima ls tha t are fully develo ped at birth, with the ir eyes open and a full coat of hair and t hey are able to function with a degree of In de pendence. pr eni g To smooth or dean ( feath­ ers) with the beak or bill. rehenslle: Adapted for seizing, grasp­ ing, o r ho ldi ng, especially by wrapping around an obiect. pro blotlc : D ietary supplemenLs con­ taining potentia lly bene Flcial bacteria or yeast .

F ollfen tive Ileit s: An illness that quiekly leads to dehydratio n and death, caused by a bacterial infection in the lower part o f the small inte stine, the ileum . The con d ltion can be bro ught on by stress, overcrowding, shipping, a nd poor hygiene . Also called Wet Tail. proto oa A majar grouping or super­ phylum of the kingdom Protista, comprislng t he protozoans . prot02oan Any o f a diverse group of eukaryotes , of the kingdom Protista , t ha are primari ly uni ce llular, existing singly or aggregating into colonies, are usually non-phot o synthetic, and are often das­ sified further into p hyla according to their capacity for and means of motílity, as by pse udo pods, flagella, or Cllía . p oventrículús: The true slomach In bird s that contains digestive enzymes tha l sLarts to brea k down food . pruritus Severe itchmg, often of undamaged skin . pSlttacin s: Refers to birds with pow­ erfu l ho o ked beaks. Durutent Co n~a ln in g , discharging, o r causing the proJudion of pus

256

GLO SSARY

pyurla The presence of pus in the

scutes' A horny, c hitinous , or bon y

·pítt'"~r Refers to female alpacas eleet­

urine .

external plate or sca le, as on the shell

ingsaliva from the mouth in response to

of a t urtle.

unwanted breeding attempts .

5pa onal feed~r : An ima ls with a diet

squabs Re ~ rs t o youn g pigeons.

r ti n' A flxed al lowan ce of pro visi ons

that varies depe nd ing up o n natura l fo od

stap s The innermost of a chain of

availa bility and abundance.

thre e 5mall bones in the middle ear of

ers of a bird '$ tai l, used to cont ro l the

sebaceous: Char'acterize d by fat.

M amma ls, also known as the stirrup.

direction of flighl.

septic mia: The invasion and p rsis ­

or food . rec rices One of t he stiff ma in feath ­

red l

g

A bacterial infe ctl on cau sed

tence of pathoge nic bad l€ ' ia in the

by Aeromonas , bacteria which thrive

blood -stream.

in moist condltions . Signs inelude

septic m e: Chara cteristic o f t he

utcers on the t oes, ed ern a, and skin

in vasion and pers iste nce of pathoge nic

necrosis .

ba cteria in t he blood-stream .

red sneez

S'

the head tilte cl upwa rd s, a symptom of EEE ( Eastern Eq uine En ceph alitis) in llamas an d alpacas.

Often a sign of stress or

illness in celta in spec ies. red

sta ga~'"g Staring off into space with

se a : A st iff ha ir, brisLle, or bristle l ike process or part on an o rga nism.

:ar. O ften a sign of stress o r

se ually d.morphlc· Refers to bird s

illness in certain species

wil h distin ctly dif fere nt physical

red nose: Used to describe a condi tion

ap pearan ces between males and

in gerbils trauma and hair l05S to the

fema les.

end o f the nose .

sLam feedln b Feedlng a large num ber

remiges. A quill or fligh t feaLher of a

of prey ite ms in a short am ount of ti me

bird's wing .

to increase the grolNth of a snake .

re ortable dlsease A di5ease that

slobbers A ch ronically wet dewlap.

tomatltlS: Inflamm ation of the mouth. studulabon' Pro ducing a shrill gratin g, chirping , or hissi ng sound by ru bbi ng bod y parts t ogether. "'per .nfec

IOOS'

New infect ions

compli cat ing the cou rse of antim i· crobial th erap y o f exi sling infe etions ane! resulting from invasi o ll by bacteria or f ungí re sistan t to t he drug in use. sUr! ' O ne oftwo species of alpaca differentiat ed on ly by the ir co ats. syndactylism: The cond itio n of having

must b e reporte d to publi c health

numes: Infla mmation of the nasal

auth orities at the time it is diagn osed

muco us membra nes. Als o kn own as

beca use it is pote ntially dangerous to

Rhini tis .

SOftblL

15

In flam mation of lhe nasal

5

A group of birds tha t re quire

di fferent diets ane! ge nera lly do not eat

muco us mem branes. Als o called

syndrome: A gro up o f sym ptoms that

disease , psyc ho logical disorder, or

other ilb normal condition.

seeds, but fee d mainly on insects and a

snuffles .

variety of fruit s.

roo : Re~ rs to d iggi ng wlth the nose

mally in certai n mamma ls and bi rds .

collectively in cl icate or chara derize a

human or an im al health . r Ini

two or more fused e!i gi t s, as occurs no[­

Cl

seen in pigs . ub er la . A ca lcium deplelion of

sows The adult female o f any of

several mammals, includ in g the guinea

pig.

tadpoLes. The l im bless aquatic larva of

a frog o r toad .

tel~o : The last segme nt or an append ­

age o f the last segment, o f certai n

the mandible due to M BD. The jaw

spa ned To produce offspring in large

becomes 50ft and rubbery.

arthropods, as t he middle flipp er of a

nu mbers .

lobster 's tail.

sarcoma' A usually malignant tum or

ta rantu la whe re sperm is stored until

arising from co nnective t issue (bone or

eggs are produced.

mu ele etc. ) ; one of lhe four major

spermatoph re A capsu le surroun ding·

types of cancer.

a mass of spermato zoa, pro duce d by

permatha¡;ae. Po uches in the fernale

SCr oJ


the male of various ani mal species and

neck by whi ch an animal can be grasped

tran ferre d to t he fem ate .

or li hed.

sPlderlu gs Immature tarantulas.

scunr. A disease caused by defi c iency of vitamin

e, characterized by spongy

an d bleed lng gums, bleeding under t he skin, and extreme weakness.

en"

us Pain fu l strain ing wh ile

defecating.

t'

othy. A variety of hay.

to ·co/..(is: An unnatura l conditi on in which

the head leans to one side beca use the

neck museles on that side are contracted .

tOlCOld' A to xin re nd ered nontoxic by

treatment with ch emic al age nts or by

sp,r chete Any of various slene!er,

physical means and use d fo r ad m ini stra­

spiral, motile bacteria of the order

tion into th e body In order t o produc e

Sp irochaet ales , many of which are

specific im munity by stim ulati ng th e

pathogen ic.

produc ti on o f antibodies.

G LOSSA RY

257

trlchobeloar A co mpact mass o Fhair

vector: An insect or othe r organlsm

warren. A place whe re rabbits breed or

abound.

tha t forms in the al1mentary canal

t hat t ransmits a pathogenic Fungus,

( especially in th e stomach of animals

virus, o r bacterium.

as a res ult oF licking Fur).

ventnculus: Commonly called the

the Degu that may continue off and on

gizzard . The strong , tough muscles oF

for several hours.

tus~s

Inciso r teeth th aL are open­

rooted and grow contln ually.

the ven t riculus grind t he food befo re it enters the small in Lesline.

'eeping. A distinctive vocaliz at ion o f

wet hil: Chronic wetness aro und t he

tail that quickly leads to dehydration

vt:rtebrates' An ani mal ch aracte rized

and death, caused by a bacterial

of the abdomen of mam mals whe re

by a segme nted sp inal column and a

infection in t he lowe r part of the smal l

th e umbilica l cord was attached durin g

distinct well·diffe re ntiated head.

intestine, the ileu m. The condition can

gestation. Also called the navel.

vicuna. A llama like rum inant mam mal

U"l'lbllICUS

The mark on th e su rface

ure hral cone: An organ fo und directly

of th e central And es, having fine silky

in fro nt of the anus o Fthe chinchilla

fleece.

on both the ma le and fema le of the

virus An ult ram icroscopic, metaboli­

spec ies.

cally inert, infecti o us age nt that

oli n A hard mass of m in ral sa lts in the urinary t ra cto

u

·oltt~la5¡s.

A di seased conditi o n

replicates only w ith in the cells of living hos ts, mai nly bacteria, plan t s,

be bro ught on by stress, overc rowd,ng, sh ipp ing, and poor hygiene. ....,hlnen effect phenom eno n observed

by W. K. Whitten ( 1956,1966, 1968) whereby male mo use pheromone-laden urine synchronizes the estrus cycle among grouped fem ales.

and anim als: com posed of an RNA

marked by t he fo rmation of ston es in

or DNA core, a protein coat, and,

yerslnla pestts: A bacteria , that is found

th e urinary tracto

in more com plex types, a surrounding

in the gut of fleas and t hrives in the blood

envelope.

of rats . The sour'ce of the bubonic plague.

uropyg,al f,Land. The gland pro­ duces oi ls tha t the bird uses when preen ing.

vlvarium: A place , such as alabo· ratory, where live ani mals or plants are ke pt under conditions sim ulatin g

I.IrtlC

tng Refers to sharp ba rb tipped

hai rs used fo r defen se by the tarantula.

UV li

~t : Varyi ng degrees of ultraviolet

wave lengths.

varioLa A hig'hly co ntagious viral

their natura l envi ronment, as fo r research.

viv'parous: Refers to anirn als that give birth tú l ive young.

volplane: The ability to gti de, foun d in

som e mam mals.

disease characterized by fever and

zooLogist: One who stud ies th e bra nch of biology t hat dea ls with anim ats and ani mall ife .

.ótoonose

An y di sease t hat is co rnmu ­

nícable from anim als to humans .

zoonotJc: Used to describe diseases th at are transmitled directly fro m animals to hu mans. Th e causat ive agent may be

weakness and sk in eruption w ith

vulva' The externa l ge nitals o f female

bacteria, virus, fungus, protozoan, or

pustules th at form scabs that slough

ma mm als.

para site. Common ro utes of t ra nsmission

wallow: A pool of water o r mud.

exposure to urine and fecal material .

off leavi ng scars. Also known as Small Pox.

include inhalation, di re ct contact,

Abscesses

in rats and mice, 103

in repliles, 174, 175f

Acrocendae spec,es. 217

Aculeus (stinger), 209

Adrenal gland dlsease, In ferrets , 23-24

African Clawed Frog, 193. 194

African Pygmy Hedgehogs, 73

Afr ica n rodents, 6

Africa n Spiny mouse . 98- 99 . 98f

AFRMA . See America n Fancy Rat & Mouse

Association (AFRM A)

Agama , 157

Agamidae famlly, 157

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), 114

Alfalfa hay, pellets made from , 34

Alpacas and Llamas

behavior of, 230-231, 231f

clinical procedures for, 235- 237, 235f, 236f

diel or, 231-232 , 232f

fast facts, 238

gastrointestinal disorders In, 234

handlmg and restramt of, 232-234, 233f

hOllsing of, 231, 231f

mtroduction lo, 228-23 0, 229f, 230f

med lcal concerns fo r, 234

nond lgestive dlsorders In, 234-235

parasites lO , 237

ALT. See Alanmeamlnotransferase (ALT)

Altricial , 12, 38, 90

Amazon parrot. l44f

Amencan Bullfrog (Rana) , 194

American Cavy Breeders Association, 49

American Fancy Rol & Mouse Assodation

(AFR MA) , 87, 9 8

American Ferret Association, 16

American Rabblt Breeders Association (ARBA), 30

Amphibians

behavlor or, 198

cuno cal procedures fur, 203-204

diet of, 200

fast facts , 205

ga'itrointestinal disorders in , 201 202

handling and restra.nt of, 201

houslng of, 198-200, 199f

introduction to, 192 198, 194f, 195f, 196f, 197f

life cycle of, 197f

medica l concerns for, 201

parasltes in, 204

Ample xus, 197

Anaphylactic shock, 45

AnaphylaxIs, ferrets and, 21

Anesthes ia. See Clinical procedures

AllImallncubator, 106, 106f

Anomtlng (anting) , in hedgehogs, 70

Anole , 157

Anorectic snakes, 170

Anorexia, 49

Antennae , in hermlt crab, 221

Anthelmintics

fo r alpacas and llamas, 236

for pa raslles in rats and mice. 106

Anthrax, 69

Anthropomorphic, 79

Antibiotics (oral) . for alpacas and llamas. 236, 236f

Anura, 193

Apnea (Breoth holding), 4 3

Aquatic frogs. 200

Aquatic lurtles, 167. See also Repti les

Septi cemic cutcneous ulcerative disease in, 180

shedding of. 162-163

Arachnids, 208 , 213

Arac hnophobia. 20 8

ARBA . See American Rabblt Breeders ASSoclation

(ARBA)

Arborealsnakes, 168

Arboreal (tree liVing), sugar glider as , 118

Argentine Homed frogs , 194, 194f

Arthropods, 20 8

Arthrosclerosis, In short-tailed opossums , 116

Ascites, 75

Ascorbic ilcld , 52- 53

Aspartate ami nolransferase (AST) , 114

Aspirabon , 38

AST. See Aspartate amlnot rans ferase (AST)

Asymmetrical chelipeds , 21

Ataxia, 40

Atrophles, 83

ulesky's Disease, 245

Au tonomy, 164, 214 . 217

Avia n

behavlor of, 140- 141 , 140f

cLinical proced res, 149-157, 150r, 152f

dlet oF, 142- 143

fast fact, 153-154

gastrOi ntestinal disorders in , 146 , 146f

handling and restralnt or, 143-144

hous lng of, 141

in trod uction to , 134-140, 135f, 136f, 137f. 138f,

139f

medical concems for, 144-146 , 144t, 145f

nondigestlVe disord ers in, 146- 14 9 , 148f

parasltes In , 152

Aviaries , 135

AVles, 215

Avicularia, 215

Aviculture , 134

Baboon tarantula, 214f

Bacteria, as causative agent for oonotic disease , 5

Bacterial enteritis, in short·talled opossums, 114

Bacteriallnfections

in amphibian ,202

in chinchillas, 66

in gUinea pigs, 54

in rabblts, 40

in reptiles , 174

Bactrian camels, 228

261

262

INDE X

Barbering, in mice colonies, 104, 104f

Barrow5 (neulered male plg), 241

Basllisk , 157

Bas king lights , for housing reptiles, 167

Bas kong reptiles, 175

Beak deformities, in birds , 146

Behóvior

of alpacas and llamas, 230- 231, 23 1f

of amphlbians, 198

of avian, 140-141 , 140f

of chinchillas, 61-62 , 62f

ofdegus , 79- 80, 79~ SOf

ofFerre s, 16-19 , 17f

of guinea pig>, 49-51. SOf, Slf

ofhedgehogs, 70-71, 70f, 71f, 72f

ofhermit crabs , 22 1

of miniat re pigs , 242- 243

of ra bbits, 31- 33 , 32f

of rats and mice , 99-1 0 0

of reptiles, 163-165, 164f

of seorpions, 210

of5hort-tailed opossums , 109-11 1, IIlf

of sugar glíders , 121- 122

of tarantulas , 215-216

B'rd dropp ing> , 144, l44t

Birds . See Avían

Bldc ~ Death, 7

Blood fealher, 139

Boar (adull male pig) , 241

Boars, 49-50

BOids, 159

Bolt holes, 31

Bonding pouch , 122, 127

Booklungs , 214

Bordate/la bronch,sepuca, in gu inea pigs, 55

Bo ine diseases , in alpacas and llamas, 234

Bo~ turtles, 159 , 180, 180 f, 183 . See also

Turtles Brain worm. See Menlngeal worm Brazllian Short Tailed Opossum . See Short ­ tailed opossums (STOs)

Breeding tarantulas , 215

Brislle fealhers, 138

Bromeliads , 199

Bronchodllalors, 102

Bruce effect, In rats and mice, 100

Brush-tailed rat. See Degus

Bubonlc plague , 7

Buccal , 56

Bucks, 31, 37

Bufo marinus , 20 1

Burmese Python, 172

e c. psinaCl!I , in birds, 147

Caecili ans, 193

Cage Siu Marters: rhe CW7em Indusrry

Starldard Borden 0 /1 A'lim¡¡1 Cruelry (Gllder Universlly) , 123

Camelids. See Alpacas and Llamas

Campylobacrer (Bacteria ) Infection , 92

Canine dlstemper virus , ferrets and , 21

Cannlbalism, 209- 210

Cannl.llation, oFlacrimal duet, 40

Cano py, 118

Carapace, 157

Care

For exotic anomals , 3

routine, for ferrets, 19

Ccomivores, dlet for, 13

Carr iers ofrables , ferrets as, 16, 21

Carroon , hedgehog> and, 73

easeous, 174

Cataracts, on 5ugar glíders, 127

CaudaLly, 50

Caudata, 193, 194

Cavy. See Guinea plgs

CDe. See Center for Disease Control (e De)

Cecotrophs (Night feces), 35

Cecum, 41

Cerlter for Disease Control (C DC), 6 , 7, 147

Cephalothorcox, 21 3

Cere , of male budgerigar, 138

Cerneal ymphadenotis, In guonea pigs, 56

Cham leons, 157, 158F. See auo Reptiles

behavlor of, 165

hous ing- or, 166

water For, 169

Chapman, Mathlas F., 60

rhe Chapman Chinchillas, See

Chelicerae, 211 , 21 3

Chellpeds, 219-220

Chelonlans. See also ReptIles

aneslhesl3 and, 184

beha ior or, 16 ­ gastroIntestInal dlsorders in , 177

housing of, 167

Intramuscular (1M) injeetions fo r, 181 , 181F

introduction to, 157, 158f, 159

medlcations for, 182

nutrotlonal support In , 182

overgrown beaks and nalls in, 180

radlographs for, 185

restrain t and handhng of, 171, l72 f

enipuneture sltes In , 181-182

Chemical restraint, for moniature pig>, 244

Ch,lean rose-halr, 215

Chilea/1 squiJ'rel, 79

ChinchIllas, 12

behavlor of, 61-62, 62f

clinical procedures for, 66

diet of, 63-64

fast facts, 67

gastrointe,tinal d,sorder, in, 65

handling and restrain of, 64, 64f, 65f

housing of, 63 , 63f

inlroducUon to, 60-61, 61f

medical concerns fo r, 6S

nondlgestive dlsorders in, 65-66

para~ite~ in, 66- 67

Chltin , 208

Chlomydophila (ps ittlcosis), In birds, 147

Choona , on birds, 147

Choke,65

Chylrldlomycosis, in amphibians, 202

Clrculcrt:ory syslem, in larantulas, 214

ClInlcal procedures

for alpacas ¡ond llamas , 235-237, 235f, 236f

for amphiblans , 203-204

for aVICln, 149-152, 150f, IS2f

ror degus , 4

for ferrets , 24-26, 25f, 26f

for gerblls, 94

ror guinea pigs , 56-57

fo r hamsters, 94

fo r hedgehogs, 76

for hermit crabs, 224

for miniature pigs , 24 6- 247, 246f, 247f

for rabbi ts , 43- 45, 44f

for rats élnd mice , 104-106, 104f, 105f, 106f

forre ptiles , 181-185 , ISIf,I84f, 185f

for short-lailed opossums , 11 6

for sugar gliders, 127- 129 , 128f

Cloaca, 137

Cloacal papillomas, in birds, 148

Cloacal prola pse , in blrds, 148

Clostridium, in gu inea pig> , 5454

Clostrid,um diseases , 234

Clouridiu m perfringen s, 234

Clostridil4m spirofonne, 39

Coccidia , 129

Coccidia , in piglets, 247

Cognltlon studies , 97

Cognizant, bords as, 140

Color

of chonchillas , 61

of fe rrets coat , 16

Colubrids, 159

Columbiformes, 136

Companion an imals

ferrets as, 16

zoonotlc diseases and , 7

Congenltal deafness, 16

Conjunetl itis

in chInchillas , 6S on rabblts, 40

Conservation Treaty Suppo", Fund, 2

Contour fealhers, 138

Coprophagic

chinchillas as, 62

guinea plgs , 51

rabbits ~s , 35

Coprophagic therapy, 54

Copulation, rabbits and , 37

Cornedllip idoSiS . In amphlbians , 202-203

Corn snakes, 159

Coronary artery disease , in short-tailed

opossums, 115

Crabbltat, ror herm,t cra b, 221

Crepuscular, 31

Crias (young) , 230, 23 4, 237

Crop milk , pigeons and doves productlon of,

136

Crop stasls, 146

Crustaceans, 208

Cud, 232

Curiosity, in degus , 80

Cuterebra, 45

Cuttlebones, 143 , 143f

Cyanosis, 33

D

Decapod erustaceans , 219

Deciduous (baby teeth) , 13

Dedawing, offerrets , 17

Degus

behavior of, 79- 80, 79 f, 80f

clinocal procedures for, 84

d,el of, 83

Ir'-lD EX

ha nd ling and restnunt of, 83

housingof, 80-83, 81 f, 82f, 83

Introduction to , 78-79 , 79f

key facts , 85

medical concems for, 84

Dental problems

In gUinea pigs , 56

In rabbit5, 42

DermatitIs, 115, 186

De rmatophytoSiS, In guinea pigs , 57

Desiccation , 20 1

Detr itus, 123

Dewcla, , 35

Dewlap, 37

Dlel

of alpacas and llamas, 231-232, 232f

of amphibians , 200

ofavian , 142- 143

of chlnchlUos , 63- 64

of degus , 83

offerrets , 20, 23

of ge rbil , 9 1-92

of gu inea plgS , 52-53

ofhamster, 91- 2

ofhedgehogs , 73-74

of herm it crabs , 223

of miniature pigs, 243--244

of rabbits, 34-35

of rats and míee, 101

of reptIles , 168-1 70, 169f, 170f

of seorpions , 211

ofsh ort-talled opossums , 112-113, 113f

of sugar gl ide rs, 123-126, 124t

of tarantu las , 216- 217

Digestl ve system, of avla n, 136- 137, 137f

Disem boweled, 231

Di uretic drug, for goul , 178

Diu rnal rodents , 7878

Do s rab biLs, 31

Domestic ferrets , 15

Doves , 134 , 135, 142

Down feathers , 138

Drago n, 157, 173

Drllli ng, In guinea pigs , 49-50

Dromedaries,228

Dry bite , 215

Dry heaves (nonprodudive vom iting), 65

Dumpy Tree Frogs , 194 , 195f

Duodenal ulcer, 22

Dwarf hamster, 87, 88, 88f

Dysecdys.s, 163, 164f

Dyspnea, 40, 55, 102

Dystocla,54

Dystocia in rabbits , 38

E

Ea r- cleaning, for ferrets , 19

Ea rs, of llamas and alpacas , 230, 23 1

Eastern E'lulOe En cephalitis (EEE), in alpacas

and Llamas, 235

Eastero Hog Nose snake, 164

Ecdysis, 163

ECE. See Epizootlc Catarrhal Enteritis (ECE)

E lectus parrot , 138

Ecosystems , 60

Ectotherms, 165

E ema, 93

EEE See Eastern Equine Encephalitls (EEE)

Eme rald Tree Boa, 168, 172

Emperor scorpion , 208-209 , 209r

Endangered species, 60

End em.c, 92

Endoskeleton, 12

Endot herms (warm-b ooded), 12

En dotoxemia , 54

Enrichment items, for short-tatled opossums,

112

Enteritis, in sugar gtiders, 127

E.nterotoxemia . In r"bblts, 39

Epigastric furrow, in taran lulas, 215

Ep igtotus , 26, 43

Eplsodlcally, breathing, 159

Epizootlc Catarrhal Enteritis (EC E) , 22

Equine herpes virus , in alpacas and llamas , 235

Erysipelas vaccination , for míniature plgS , 24

Erythematosus (red .ond inflamed skín) , ferrets

and , 23

E,tivate, 73

Ethologists , 242

EuLherian mammals , 10 8

Eutherians, 12

Everglades Nat ional Park In FLorida , 3

Exophthalmosis , 9 2

Exoskeleton, 20 8, 219

Exotic , defined , 2

Exotie ani mal,

concerns regarding , 3

Introduct ion to , 2-3

Exudales, 45 , 55

Eyes'ght, of pigs , 242

F Falconry, 134

FDA. See Food lInd Drug Administrabon (FDA)

Federal laws , exotlc anima ls and , 2

Feral pOpuldtlon , 31

Ferreting, 31

Ferret out, rabbits , 31

Ferrets

behavior of, 16- 19 , 17f

cltnical procedures for, 24-26, 25f, 2

diet or, 20

fast fads, 27

gastro intestinal di sorders In, 21- 23

han dling and restrilint or, 20- 21 , 21F

housing of, 19-20

introdudion to , 15-16

medica l concems fo r, 21

nondlgestive diso rders 111, 23 24, 23f,

24f, 25f parosites in, 26

Fervac-D vdccine, for ferrets , 21

Flloplumes fea thers, 138

Finches, 134

Fitch, 15

Fixed Formula dlets , for ferrets , 20

Floatmg tllt , 203

Flock statU5, birds and , 140

Flulds ,
Fluid therapy, fo r birds, 149

FLy Strike , 45

Food and Drug Admlnistrilbon (FDA) , 6

Force feedíng, for sna kes, 170, 170r

Foreign body ingestion, ferrets and , 22

Free chOice rood, for ferrets, 20

Free range, 31

Fnlled Llza rd , 157

Frogs See Amph ibians

Fry offish , 200

Fungus , as causatlve age nt fo r zoonoti c

di sease, 5

Fur barbering , 84

Fur-ranched ch in chillas, 66

Fur slip, 10 chinchillas, 62, 66

Fu wes , 97

G

Gang of mice, 99 , 100f

Gaping , 176

Garter snakes, 159

Gastric overload , 202

Gastric ulcer, 22

CastrointestlOal disorders

In alpacas and llama , 234

n amphlbians , 20 1- 202

in Jvian, 146, 146f

in ch inchI llas, 65-66

.., ferrets 21- 23

in gu inea pigs , 54, 54f

in hamsters, 92-93, 93f

lo hedge hogs , 74-75

in min iature pigs, 245

in robbiLs, 38-39

in rals and mice , 102

in reptiles, 176- 177, l77f

In short t

in sugar gtiders , 127

Cedos lizard, 157

Cenome, human , 97

Cerbils,83

c:Imical procedures for, 94

d.et of, 91-92

fasL tacts, 95

hand ling and restraint or, 92, 92f

hous ing of, 91

introduction to , 90

medica! concerns For, 92

nondigestive dlsorders In, 93

parasites in, 94

Gestation peri od

for alpacas and llamas, 230

FOI chinchi llas , 6 2

fo r degu5 , 80

for Ferrets, 27

for gerbils , 90

fo r guinea pigs , 51 , 55

for hamste rs , 89

for hedgehogs , 71

fo r mln ia ture pigs , 241

for rabbits , 38, 40

ofrats and mice, 100

ofsugar gtíde rs , 120

Giardia, 66- 67, 127

Cilts, In hermil crab , 220- 22 1

Cilts (neutered female pi g) , 241

Gizzard , 137

Glider mllls, 121

Goldeo antella frog, 193

Golden (Syrian) hamster. See Hamsters

Gol.ath b. rd -ea ting tarantuta (Therap hosa

blondl), 213, 214f

263

264

INDEX

Gout, In repules, 178

Gravld, SS

Green Iguana, 156-157, i64, 178

Green SUme D,sease, See Epizootic Catarrhal

Enteritis (ECE)

Green Tree Python , 168

Guanaco, 228

Guined pig", 12

beha"ior or, 49-51 , 50F, 51f

clinlcal procedures for, 56-57

d,et or, 52 ·53

fast racts, 58

gastrointestinal disorders in , 54 , 54f

handling and restraont of, 53

houslng of, 51 52,52f

introduction to , 48-49 , 49f

medical concems for, 53-54

nondigesllve disorders in, 5 -56, 56f

paraslles 10 , 57

Cut-loaded, 126

Gu t m tility, 34

Gu slasis , in r"bbits, 39

Gymnophiona, 193, 194

Haematoponus SUlS, In min iat.ure pigs , 247

Hair, ofllamas, 229

Hair folUde, 61

Hallucll1ogens, 193

Hamsters,6

b havior or, 88-89

clinlcal procedures, 94

diel or, 9 1-92

fast fdets , 95

handlmg and restralnt or, 92, 92f

hOlBlng or, 90

introdue 10 to , 87-88

nondigestive d1sorders on , 93, 93f

parasites in , 94

Hóndlong, of larantulas, 217

Handlong and restraint

oF alpacas and llamas , 232-234, 233f

of amphlbians, 201

of avidn, 143-144

oF chinchillas, 64, 64f, 65f

of degus, 83

of ferrets , 20- 21 , 21f

of gerblls, 92, 92f

of guinea pigs, 53

of hamsters, 92, 921

f hedgehogs , 74, 74f

oF hermll crabs, 223-224

of moniature pigs, 244

of rabbits , 35 38 , 3M, 37f, 38f

of rats and mice, 101- 102, 10lf

of reptiles , 170-172, 171f, l72f

oi scorpions, 211

of ~hort·talled opossums, 113-114

of sugar gliders, 126

Hardenan gla d, 93

Heart

of amphibians, 203

ofreptlles, 183-184, 184f

Heart diseilse , in shorl-tdlled opossums, liS

Heartworm dlsease, In fenets , 26

Heaving, 102

Hedgehogs

behavlor of, 70 71 , 70f, 71f, 72f

rlinical proc:edures for, 76

dlet of, 73- 74­ In Engldnd, 73

fasl facts, 77

gastrointestmal disorders In, 74-75

handling and restrainl or, 74, 74f

housing of, 72-73

introduction to, 69 70

medical concerns for, 74

nondlgestlve dlsorders In, 75, 75f

parasltes In , 76

Helootherrns , f67

Hematoma, 182

Hematuria, 114

Hemipenes, 161

Hepatic IIpldosis , 55

Hepalic neoplasia , 114

Herbivorou!i, 63, 160, 168

Hermll er~bs

behavi er or, 221

clinical procedures for, 224

dlet or, 223

fost fdctS , 225

handling and restraont oi, 223 224

housing or, 221 223, 222f, 223f

Introductlon to , 219-221 , 220f

medical concems for, 224

parasites 111 , 224

Herpetology, 193

Hobs ( males) , of ferrets , 16 , 24

Hoglets,71

Homing pigeon, 136

Hookbllls , f34 , 143

Hoppers (fuvenile mlee), 97

Horned Llzard, 157

House Rabbit Society, 30

Housll1g

of alpacas and llamas , 231 . 231

of amphlblans, 198-200, 199f

of avían , 141

of ch inchillas, 63 , 63f

of degus, 80- 83, 81f, 82f, 83f

of ferrets , 19 20

of gemils, 9 1

of guonea pigs, 51-52, 52i

oFhedgehogs, 72-73

oF hermlt crabs , 221-223 , 222f, 22 3f

of minialure pigs, 242 243

of rabblts, 33-34 , 34f

of rats ~nd mice, 100, loor

of reptiles , 165- 168, 166f, 167f

of seorpíons, 210-211

ofshort.-tillled opossums , 111-112 , Il lr, 11 2f

of sugar gliders , 122-123

oi tarenlulas , 216

How (O Burld A Cage (Dvoak and Svoboda) , 81

Huacaya alpae¡¡, 29

Human influenza , ferrets and, 23

Humldlty

fOr amphlb,ans, 199

for hel mi t crab con tainers , 223

reptJles and , 165, 166

taranlulas and, 216

Humming sounds, of alpaca an d llama, 230

Hunting, ferrets and, 15

Hutch,31

Hygromeler, 111

Hyperkalemic, 55

Hypertermia

in alpacas and llamas , 234

malignant, in míniuture pigs , 247

Hypoglycemia , 20, 24

Hypoglycemie. 55

Hypothermla

In ~lpacils and llamas , 237

In rats and mice , 105- 106

Hypovltamlnosls A, in reptiles , 178

Hypsodontic (open-rooted) teeth, 56

Hystricognathi, 78

IBD. See Incluslon Body Disease (IBD)

ICe administratlon , for reptiles , 183

Igudna, gastrointestinal dlsorders In, 177, l77f

Iguanids, 156, 161

Incisor malocdusion , In rals , 102

Incluslon Body Dlsease (IBD) , In snakes,

176-177

Incubation temperature , reptiles and , 162, 163f

Incus (the anv l) , 1

Induced ovulators, 37, 80

Infectious disedses, In alpacas and llamas , 234

Inflamm tory bowel disease (18D) , in

ferret;, 22

Infl enza, human , on ferrets , 23

Inguinal glands , 31

Inguinal nipples, in guinea pigs, 51

Inhalants, ror use in reptiles , 183

Insectivores, 13, 9 , 168

In ramuscular (1M) onlections, for 1izards and

che lonlans, 181

Intramuscular injeclions

for amphibians, 203

for birds, 149

In ubatlng reptiles , 184

Invertebrate animals , 208

Isofturane , fo r alp cas and llamas, 237

Isotonic fluid" 55

lackson chameleons, 157

lacobs n's O rgan, 159

I,ll (females) , of ferrets, 16, 24 , 31

loeys, f20-f2 1

Keratln, 70

K ,~tonic , 55

Kindle ,3 8

Ki ng snakes, 159

KiÜi', Hog-nosed BaL, 12

Kits (immature ferrets) , 16

Kurloff bodies, 56

Kushed (recumbent) position, alpacas in ,

233 , 233f

L

Lactati on (molk production) , 40

Lagomorph, 30

Land hermlts, 219

Llrva , 21 7

Larval 5tage , 197

INDEX

Lavaged . 180

ldy breeders. 78

LCM. See Lymphocytic chonomeningitls

(LCM )

u;"dbealer, Benjamin, 125

leptospirosis vacclne . for mimatu re pigs, 24 5

life cyc:le. of amph,bians , 197f

life span, ofhamsters, 89

limb problems , in sugar gliders , 127

lipomas , benlgn skin, in short-tailed

opossums. 115

lItte r boxes , for ferrets , 18-19

lizards, 160, 161 f

behavior or, 164

external parasltes In, 186

gastrointesLinal disorders in, 177

herb ,yorous, 168-169

housing or, 165-16 6

humidlty for, 166- 167

Inlernal parasites in, 185

Intramuscular (1M) injectlons fo r, 18 1, 181f

introductlon to, 156-157

locatlon of pre ovulatory eggs, 178,

178r, 179f

reslralnl and handli ng of, 170- 171 , 171f

rostral nose abrasions in , 174. [7Sr

venipunclure sltes in, 181

Llamas. See Alpacos ond llamas

Lo Fts, plgeons and doves and , 135

Lumpy Idw. See Submandibular abscesses

Lymphocytic chorlomeningitls (LCM) , 6- 7

Lymphomas , In hamslers , 93 , 93f

Mad Itch, 245

Maggots, 45

Mal lgnant tumors , 75

Malleu. (lhe hammer), 13

Malocclusion, 84

Mammals, small, 12 13

Man dlble , of mammals, 13

Mange, in pigs, 247

Manlanita wood, in birds cages, 141

Marsupial s, 108, 118. See also Metatheria

(marsup,als)

Mas!. ceU t.umor>, In ferrets, 24

Mastilis, in rabbi ts, 40

MBD. See Metabohc Bone Disease (MB D)

Mc Carthy, Susan , 242

Medical concerns

for alpaca. and llamas, 23 4

for amphiblans , 20 1

for av/an, 144-146, 144l, 145f

for chinchillas, 65

for degus , 84

for ferrets, 71

for gerbils , 9 2

for guinea plgs , 53-54

for hedgehogs, 74

for hermit crabs , 224

for mlnlature plgs, 244, 245f

for rabbits, 38-42 , 39f, 41f, 42 f

for rals and mice , 102

for reptiles, 172-176 , l73 f 174f, 175r, 176 f

~ r scorplons, 2 11

fo r .hort-tailed opossums, 114

fo r sugar gliders, 126

for tarantulas , 217

Medicalions

for chelon ians , 182

for rabbits, 44

Melanoma, in short-taile d opossums , 11 5

Melena, 22

Meningeal orm , m alpacas, 237

Metabolic Bone Disease (MB D) , in reptiles ,

1n-178

Metlmorp hosis , 192

Metatheria (marsupials), 13

Mexican red -knee , 215

MI e . See Rats and mice

Mllk snakes, 159 , 165

Mlmature pigs

behavior of, 242-243

cltn lcal procedures fo r, 246-247, 246f, 247f

diet o f, 243-244

fast facts, 248

gastro intestina l disorders in , 245

housing of, 242 243

'nlroduction to, 240-24 2 , 241F

for medical. concerns, 244 , 245f

nondlgestive disorders In , 245-246 , 246 f

para SI tes 10 , 247

restramt and handling of, 244, 245f

Mite infestallon, In rodent colonles, 106

M iles , in lllards, 186

Molted, 208

Molllng, 140

Molting herm it crab , 221

Mo ltlng lurantulas, 214-215 , 21 5f

MOnitor lizard , 157

Monkey pox , 6

Monogamous, 9 0

Monogaslric, guinea pigs as, 54

Monolremes (mammals) , 13

Mosaic , 61

Moussaleff, leffery, 242

Mu coid skin, 193

Mueller chameleons , 157

Mus muscular (pet mouse) , 6, 98

Mustelídae fam lly, 16

Mycobacteria, in reptiles , 176

abonal Reglstry for Alpacas, 229

Natural Bridges N"tion"l Park (San luan

County, Utah) , 7

Neb ullze r, 102

Necrosis, 55

Needle teeth , in mln lalure pigs, 241

Nematodes , as parasites for alp<Jcas, 237

NeoplJS ia

gastrointestinal, in re ptiles, 177

hepallc and pancreati c , 114

in pet hedgehogs , 75

Neotony, 194

Neurological problems, in sugar gliders , 127

Newspapers, birds and, 141

New World speCles, 156

NondigestiYe dlsorders

in alpacas and llamas, 234-235

in amph ibians, 20 1- 202

In avian , 146- 149 , 148f

In chinchillas, 65-66

In ferrets, 23-24, 23f. 24f, 25F

265

in gerbiLs, 93

in guinea pigs , 5 4-56 , 56f

in hamst.ers, 9 3 , 93f

In hedgehogs , 75 , 75f

in miniature pigs, 245-246, 24M

in robbits, 40-42

in rats and mice , 102-104, 10 3f, 104f

In reptiles, 177-179 , f78f, 179f

In short-tailed o possums, 114-116 , 1l5f

in sugar gliders , 127, 127f

In tarantulas , 21 7

Non-steroidal an ti inflammatory drugs. See

NSAID (n on-stero idal antl-inflammatory

drugs)

NSAID (non-sterOldal anti- inflammatory

drugs). 22

Nuptial póds , 19 8

o Obesity

as health issue In hedgehogs, 73

as problem in minlalure pigs, 243

Octod ontldae , 78

Odor, of mlniature pigs , 242

Old World lizards , 157

Old World spec.es. 156

O mmvores, 13, 11 2 , 168 , 243

OOP. See Out of pouch (OO P)

Ophyionyssus natricis , 186

Opossums . See Short·talled opossums

(STOs)

Opossums, Brazllia n sho rt-tailed , 13

Oral medicatlon , administenng to repbles, 182

Orange knee . See Mexion red-"nee

Orthopox VIfUS, 6

Osmosis, 200

OTC products 93

OtitiS interna, in rat.s and mice , 103

Outof pouch(OOP) ,1 1, 121f

Oviparous, 159, 178 , 198

p Packed cell volume., In re ptiles , 183

Palatability, 125

Paleonlology. 69

Pdncreatlc Insullnomas, In ferrets, 24

Pancrealic neoplas ia, in short-tl iled

opossum.1I4

Pandemic diseases, 7

Panlher c hameleons, 157, 167

Papilloma, in birds, 148

Parasites

in alpacas and llamas, 237

in avian, 152

as causabve agent for zoonotlc dlsease , 5

In chinchillas , 66-67

In ferrets, 26

in gerblls , 94

in guinea plgs. 57

in hamsters, 94

in hedgehogs , 7 6

in herml crabs, 224

in amph,bians , 204

In minlature pigs , 247

In rabbits , 45

in rats and mlce, 106

266

INDE X

in reptiles, 185-186

in short-t~lled opossums, 116

in lugar gltders , 1 9

in tarantulas, 217

Parrots, 134

Amazon , l44f

Ecleclus, 138

Parthenogenesis, 186

Partunt,on, 38 , 54

Passerines, 135

Pastellrellosis , in rabblts , 40

Palllglum,1I9 Pathogenic Gram-negatlve bacteria , 54

Pathogens, 5-6

Pecllnes, 209

Pedlpalps, 211

Peering, 138

Peliets, 34, 35

Pelters . 64

Pepperberg, Irene, 141

Perches , in blrds cages, 141

Perching birds , 135

Pen-anal sebaceous glands , In guinea plgs, 50

ericloacal prolapse , in reptiles , 180-181, 181f

Perineum,51

Phylum, 208

PhysicClI punisnment, of ferrets , 18

Pigboard , 244

Pigeons

d,et of, 142

homing, 136

housmg or, 135-136

Plg hook , 2/~2 Piloerection , in ra ts and mice sickness , 102

Pmkies (na,rless neonates), 97

Pin k Toes, 215

Pinna , 64

Plnworms, In rodent colonles , 106

Pith of the I'rog, 194

Pituilary adenoma , in short-tailed opossums,

115

Placenta , 12

Plantar, 55

Plastron, 157

Pleural aVlty, 159

Pododenmatitis

in gUinea pigs , 55

in rabblts, 34

Poik i lothe rm~, 198

POlson Dart frogs, 194, 195f Polecat, 15

Polyestrous, SI Polyoma, In blrds, 148

Polyphyodontlc leeth , 160

Polyuna/polydypsia (PUlPD ) , 114

Porphyrln , 102

Positlve press ure venlllaiJon (PPV) , 150

Post mortem . 102

Postpartum, 55

Potbelly pigs, 248

POTZ (preferred optimum temperature lOne) , 165, 166,167,198 Powder down feathers, 138, 147, 148

PPV. See Pos; 'e pressure venti labon (PPV) Protne Dogs . 6

Precocial, 12 . 51

Pregnancy toxemia, in guinea plgs, 55

Prehenslle, 109

Pretaurus breviceps, naturol diel or, 124t

Pro biotics , 54

Proliferative deit is, 92

Protozoan

as ca usative agen t for zoonotic disease, 5

In <:hinchilla, 66- 67

Praventricular dllatalion dlsease (PDD),

in birds, 146

Proventriculus, 137

Prurilus (itching), ferrets and , 23

Ps,ttacine be k and feather dlsease (PBF D) ,

in birds , 146- 147

Psittacines , 134

Psittacosis , In humans, 147

PSS, 180

Pseudo-rabies, af pigs , 245

PU/PD. See Polyurla/polydypSld (PU/PD)

PureVax vaccine, for ferrets, 21

Purulent discha rge , 93

Pyuria , 114

R

Rabbil kI t, 30

Rabb,ts

behavlor or, 31- 33 , 32f

dmlcal proeedures for, 43-45 , 44f

dlet of, 34-35

fBst fdet" 46

handlongand restralnt of, 35-38 , 36f,

37f,38f

housing or, 33-34, 34f

inlroduclion lo, 30, 31f

medical conceros ror, 38-42, 39f, 41f, 42f

parasltes In, 45

Rab ies, rnlnialure plgs rmmumty lo , 245

Rabies vaccine , 6, 21

Radrographs

for amphibians , 204

for rabb,ts, 4 1-42 , 41f, 42f

for leptlles. 185, 185f

Rali on, f rrabbits , 34

Rats and mlC€

behavior of, 99-100

clínical procedures for, \04-106 , 104r, 10Sf,

106f

d,et of, 10 1

fast facts , 107

gastrointestinal disorders m, 102

handling and restralnt of, 101 102, 10lf

housing of, 100

inlroduction lo, 97-99, 98r

medlcal concems fo r, 102

nondigestive d,sorders 10, 102-104,

103f, 104f

paras,tes in , 106

Ral snakes, 159

Rectal prolapse , in pigs, 246

Rectrlces (blrd wong feathers), 138, 139f

Red D,amond Disease, 245

Red Eye Tree Frogs , 195 , 196F

Red leg, il1 amphib ians , 20 2

Red-nose

In degus, 84

in gerblls, 93

Red 5l1eezes , 10 rats and mice, 102

Red tears, in rals and mlce, 10 2

Reguliltions , regarding ferrets, 16

Remlges ( bird lall feathers ), 138 , 139f

Reportable disease, in mmialure pigs, 245

Reproductlon

of reptlle , 162

or scorpion , 209

Reproductlve problems

In iguanas and chameleons, 178

in sugar gliders, 127

Reptiles behavior or, 163-165, 164f clonical procedures for, 181-185, 18 1f, l84f, 185f

dlet or, 168-17 , 169f, 170f

fast facts, 187-189

gastrointestinal disorders in, 176-177, l77f

housing or, 165-168, 166f, 167f

introductoon to , 156-163, 157f, 158f, 160 f,

16 1f, 162f, 163f

medical concerns for, 172-176, l73r, 174f,

175f,176f

non .dlgestive disorders in , 177-179,

178f.179f

parasites in, 185- 186

restralnt and handling o , 170-172, 171f, l72f

shelldlsorders In , 180-181, 180f, 181r

Respiration , in blrds, 136, 136f

Resplratory disease, 10 blrds, 144

Respiratory ¡nfec ions, In rabbits , 40

Respíratory problems , in reptiles, 176, 176f

Rhinitis

in hamslers, 93

in rabblts, 40

Rodents. See RaLs and miee

Rooting, pigs and , 242

Rubber law, 202

Rumrnants, 232

Russian hamsters . See Hamsters

s Safe practices, zoo notic diseases and, 8t

Salamanders, 194, 200, 201

SalmoneUa onrecUon,

In guinea pig , 56

as problem wlth hedgehogs , 74-75

Salmonellosis. 5

Sarcoma . 10 short-tCliled opossums, 115

Scent glands

fferrets, 16

of gumeo pigs, 50

of hamsters, 89

of rClbbits, 31

of sugargliders, 119-120

Scorpions

anatomical drOWlng of, 210f

behavior of, 210

dlet of, 211

Fast facts , 212

handling and restraint or, 211

houslngof, 210-211

introduction lo . 208-209, 208-210 209f

medical conceros for, 21 1

ScruFfing, 18

of chinchill"s, 64

oHerrets , I , 19 , 20-21

of hamsters, 92

INDEX

seUDoSee Septicemic c uta ne ous ulcerative

disease (SCU D)

c urvy dlsease, in gUinea plgs , 53

Scutes , 157, IS8 f, 159

Seasonal feeders , sugar gUders dS, 123

Sebaceous gland , 9 0

Septicemia, 180, 202

Septicemic cutaneous ulcerative dlsease

( SC UD), in aq uatic turtles , 180

Setae, In body o f larantulas, 214

Sex determinabon, in guinea p igs , 50-5 1

Sexually dlmorpnic , 138

Shedding

ofampnibian skm , 20 1

offerrets, 16

of reptiles , 162-163 , 163f

ShelF-life, 53

Shell dlsorders, in reptiles, 18 0 - 181 , 180f, ISl r

Short- ldiled opossums (STOs)

about , 10 9, 109f

behdvlor of, 109 11 1, II0f

clinical procedures, 116

dletoF, 1I2 113 , 113f

Fast Faets , 11

gastrointestinal d,sordel s in, 114

handling and restrainl of, 11 3 11 4

housingof, 111-112, IIIF, 112f

mtroductlon lo , 108

med,cal concerns for, 114

nondigeslive disorders in, 114-116 , Ils r

parasites in, 116

Skinks lizard , 157

Sk in l'pomas , benlgn , In short-talled o possums,

115

Slam feeding, fo r snakes, 170 170

Slobbers , 4 2

5mall-hedded fl ies, 217

5mall mammals , 12·-13

5nakes. See also Repti les

anatomy of, 16 0 f

behavior o f, 165

blood collecbon slles in , 182

eyes ight and hearing of, 159

feeding , 169- 170

gastroinlesllnal disorders 'n, 177

housing of, 167- 168, 168f

medlcal concerns for, 173

m,tes In , 186

probing, 161, 161f

restra int and handling of, 172

Snuffles, rabbits and, 40

Soft-bllls , 134 , 135

Sound, vocal

of guinea pig, 49- 50

of sugar gliders , 119

Sour erop , 146

Sows , 49 , 51, 5 5 , 241

Spawned, 1 7

Spermothacae, in taran lulas, 2 15

Sperl11atophore , 209

Spiderlings ( immature tarantulas) , 214­ Spine, o rferret, 17

Spmey lil.ard , 157

Spm y I11lce, 8- 99

Spirochete,41

Spitting, in breeding, 230

SQ fluids, adminislering, 26

Squabbling, degus and, 79-80

Squabs, 136

Stape, (the st,rrup) , 13

Star gazing

alpacas and llamas and , 2 35

reptiles and, 176-177

St o l11i!titis , 173

STOs. See Short-talled opossums (STOs)

Streptococcus pneum onia, In guinea pigs ,

55-56

Stress, In reptiles , 176

Stridulat,on, 22 1

Subcutaneous injections, for amph ibians, 203

Subcuti!neou ( SQ ) fluid s, admlnistering o

reptiles , 183

Submandlbul"r abscesses , In guine pigs, 56

Sugar gliders, 13

be havior of, 121- 122

<:lln,cal procedures fo r, 127-129 , 12 8f

diet of, 123-126, 124t

fast fam , 130

gastrointestma l disorders in, 127

handling and restra in t of, 126

houslngof, 122- 123

Introduetion 10, 118-12 1, 119f, 120 f, 12 1f

medical co ncern s for, 1'26

nondigestive d,sorder, in, 127, 127f

p¡¡rasile.s in, 129

Super infections, 5

Suri alpaca, 2 2 9

Surinam Toad , 193

Syndactyllsm , 118

5yphilis o r Ve nt dlsease, In rabb,ts , 41

T

Tadpoles , frog, 196 , 197,200

Ta,l positions, in alpaca a nd llama , 23 1

Ta ranlulas

behavior of, 215- 216

diet of, 216 - 2 17

fast fam , 21 7

handling of, 2 17

housing of, 216

introduction to , 213- 21 5 , 21 4f, 2 15f

medlcal concerns for, 2 17

nondigestive dlsorders in, 2 17

parasltes In , 217

Taranlula sponges , 21 6

Taronga Zoo diet , 125

Teeth, o f guinea plgs , 5 6

Telson , 2 0 9

Temperature

ror amphlb ians , 199

for tarantulas , 216

Tenesmus, in blrds, 148

Terrestrlalllzards , 16 5-166

Terrestrial salamander, 196

Territorial aggression, In rab bits , 31

Tetracycline , for aquarium treatments, 147

lhe Conventlon on Intemational Tra de in

Enda ngered Species (CITES) o f Wi ld

Fauna and Flora, 2- 3

lhermal burns , in reptiles , 175-1 76

lhieves, ferrets as , 18

Ticks, In llzards, 186

Tiger sal¡¡mander, 195 , 196f

Timothy hay, pellets made from, 34

267

Toes, of rabblts, 35

To rticollis, rabbits and , 40, 40f

Tortoises, 157

dlet o r, 169

housing of, 16 7

Tox1ns, amphibians and , 1 3

Toxold vac cine, for Clostridillm perfringens, 234

Toys

for ferrets, 18

for gerbils, 9 0

Trame, in e xotic anlmals , 2

Transmission , ofzoonotic d lseases , 5

Tree crabs. See Land herm its

Trichobezoars (Hair balls) , 38

Trixaca,'us caviae , 57

Tronoga zo dlet, 125

Tularemia , 5

Tu mors

Tumors, In rats and ml ce , 103- 104 , 10 4f

Turtles

behdvlor of, 165

diet of, 169

housing of, 16 7

Introduction to, 156 , 157

restraint and handling of, 172

Tusks , in mmiatu re p igs , 241

Tyzzer disease

in rabb ,ts , 41

in rats and mice, 102

U Ultravlolet L..ghl, housing re pti les and, 165

UmbiUcus , 71

Unwanled e xo tl c species, concerns rega rdl ng, 3

Urethral cone , 6 2 , 6 2f

Urinary tract dlsorders , in sugar gliders , 127

Urme color, rabbits health and , 4 1

Urollth (bladder 5tone) , 4 1, 41 f, 4 3

Urolithiasis , 41

Urohths, 41-42

Uromaslyx, 157 , 157f, 168

Uropygial gland , 13

Urticallng hairs, In tara nt ulas, 214

UVA , housing reptiles and, 165

UVB llghong, 165, 16 8 , 199

v

Vacclnation

ad min iste ring in ferrets , 24-25

for alpacas and llamas , 235 , 23 5f, 236 f

for birds , 148

for crias , 234

for ferrels, 24-2 5

for miniarure pigs , 244, 245

VBccine

for alpacas and lamas , 234

for miniature pigs , 244

fo r use in fe rre ls , 2 1

agalns! zoon obc di seases , 6

Vano la, 6

Vector, 26

Ve lled chameleons, 157

Ven 'puncture

in alpacas and llamas, 235

in lizards and chelonians, 181

Venom, of tarantulas 215

268

INDE X

Ventrieulus, 137

Vertebrat~,

12

Vicuna , 228

Vietnamese Potbell ie d Pig, 240

Virus , as causative agent f OI" 7.oonotlc dlsease, 5

Vivanum , 198

Vivrparous, 159

Volplane , 118

Volu nteer work, exotie ¡¡l1Imals care and, 3

Vulva, In hedgehogs, 71 , 71 f

Wallov, 242

Warrens, 31

Water Dragon, 157, IS7f

Weepmg, degus and , 79

Wesl ¡le dlsease , in Alpacas and llamas, 235

Wet tarl, m hamsters , 92- 93

Whale , Blue , 12

WH EN ELEPHA NTS WEEp' ¡he fm otiollal Liues

of Animal. (M oussaieff and

Me Carthy) , 242

White Tree Frog, 194

Whitten effect, 99 Whorls , pig with, 49

Wobbly Hedgehog syndrome , 75

World Conservation Unlo n, 2, 193

2 3289

y

Yers inia pestis, 7

Z Zoologist , 87

Zoonotic diseases

defined,S

introdudion to , 5

transmlsslon lo humans from birds , 142

Zoonotic infe ctious agents and source groups,

8-9t

Zoono¡es, from e.olle cnimals , 5, 7