Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons

John K. Warren Evaporites : Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons

John K. Warren

Evaporites : Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons With 654 Figures

123

Professor John K. Warren Department Petroleum Geoscience University Brunei Darussalam Brunei

E-mail : [email protected]

ISBN-10 ISBN-13

3-540-26011-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York 978-3-540-26011-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2005932089 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable to prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springer.com © Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2006 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Typesetting: Camera-ready by author Cover design: E. Kirchner, Heidelberg Production: Almas Schimmel Printing and binding: Stürtz AG, Würzburg, Germany Printed on acid-free paper 32/3141/as 5 4 3 2 1 0

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96

CHAPTER 2

topic data also show compositional changes due to periodic influx of continental waters into the depositional basin seen by the clustering of the laminar gypsum values along the SMOW concentration-dilution line with a regression coefficient of 0.98. The massive gypsum signature indicates rehydration by meteoric waters (probably modern). Open-marine-water incursions probably led to the deposition of carbonate layers overlying the laminar gypsum. These contain abundant aragonite with textural features and isotopic compositions suggesting precipitation in shallow and quiet marine waters slightly enriched in 18O by evaporation (Figure 2.24b). Sulphur is largely resistant to isotopic fractionation during burial alteration and transformation (Worden et al., 1997). Primary marine stratigraphic sulphur isotope variation is preserved in anhydrites of the Permian Khuff Formation, despite subsequent dehydration to anhydrite during burial (§1,000m) and initial precipitation as gypsum from Permian and Triassic seawater. Gypsum dehydration to anhydrite did not involve significant isotopic fractionation or diagenetic redistribution of material in the subsurface. At depths greater than 4300 m, the same sulphur isotope variation across the Permian-Triassic boundary is still present in elemental sulphur and H2S, both products of the reaction of anhydrite with hydrocarbons via thermochemical sulphate reduction (Figure 9.44). Clearly, thermochemical sulphate reduction did not lead to isotope fractionation. Worden et al. also argues that significant mass transfer has not occurred in the system, at least in the vicinity of the Permian-Triassic boundary, even though elemental sulphur and H2S are both fluid phases at depths greater than 4300 m. Primary differences in sulphur isotopes have been preserved in the rocks and fluids, despite two major diagenetic overprints

+20 0

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Boron Isotopes Boron isotope determinations on halite, borate salts, and brines are all capable of distinguishing between marine and nonmarine sources (Figures 2.25; Vengosh et al., 1992; Swihart et al., 1986). Marine evaporites are characterised by distinctly higher b11B values (+18.2 to +31.7‰) than non-marine evaporites (-30.1 to +7.0‰; Swihart et al., 1986). The latter span the range typical of the boron isotope signatures of most other rock types (Palmer and Helvaci, 1997). Likewise, there is a clear isotopic separation between marine and nonmarine brines (Figure 2.25a, c). The separation reflects the enrichment of the 11B isotope in seawater compared with both oceanic crust and continental crust. Differences are due to the original isotopic fractionation that occurred when boron was extracted from seawater into detrital clays, weathered basalts and carbonate minerals. Continental evaporite brines are derived from the weathering of these various lithologies, while the boron in seawater comes straight from the concentration of seawater. Much of the boron signature that is measured when whole rock halites and other salts are analysed comes from the fluid inclusions and not from boron in the lattice structure. The low level of fractionation between the brine and its precipitate at the time of halite deposition means boron isotope analysis can reliably distinguish nonmarine and marine brine parents in modern salts, even in complex multisource systems such as Lake Qaidam (Liu et al., 2000).

-4

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that converted the sulphur in the original gypsum into elemental sulphur and H2S by 4300 m burial and the potentially mobile nature of some of the reaction products. That is, all reactions occurred must have occurred in situ; there was no significant sulphur isotope fractionation, and only negligible sulphur was added, subtracted, or moved internally within the system.

B.

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Figure 2.24. Isotope crossplots in Messinian evaporites, Sicily. A) Isotopic associations (carbon and oxygen) in water of crystallisation. B) Deuterium- carbon relationships in carbonate layers in the same units (after Bellanca and Neri, 1986).

Beyond the halite precipitation field b11B values tend to increase with increasing concentration in both brine and the associated bittern precipitates. In all fields the b11B values and boron contents are higher in brine than in its precipitated halite suite (Figure 2.25b; Vengosh et al., 1992). However the boron is not

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CHAPTER 2

tend to be more stable, although a body of freshened surface water comes and goes. Textures in schizohaline salt beds are dominated by ongoing re-equilibration reactions, backreactions, dissolution-reprecipitation and haloturbation, while textures in beds deposited in perennial brine seaways and lakes tend to be more stable and dominated by large growth-oriented crystal beds and brine reflux re-equilibration textures below. As an evaporite basin aggrades toward its hydrological equilibrium level (Figure 2.39c) the depositional surface aggrades into ephemeral brine sheet (pans) and ultimately mudflats (filled accommodation space). The progression brine lake to

ephemeral freshened wedge

dry

saline mudflat

a mudflat induces schizohaline textures in the uppermost parts of each shallowing upward hydrological cycle. If there is no rise in regional watertable, the same textural shoaling occurs across the whole discharge zone.

Indicators of fluctuating water tables Because evaporites form by the evaporation of discharging and ponding waters, any longterm water table fluctuations in an evaporite basin influence sedimentation style and mineralogy on scales coarser than the stacked gypsum and tepee truncation layers and parasequences described in Chapters 1, 3 and

supersaline brine lake or seaway

saline

dry

mudflat

capillary evaporites

brine reflux

A. Perennial saline lake/seaway (bottom precipitates) direc t fluvia l inflo w

freshened brine lake or seaway

subaqueous salts clastics/bioclastics eep/

es marin

flood

fresher denser brine

B. Perennial saline lake/sea (marine influx or flood -pelagics) met eor ic s eep s

mudflat

limit of dense saltsaturated pore waters rine ma

ps see

brine reflux

C. Playa stage: desiccation surface in equilibrium with watertable - minor fresh groundwater wedges Figure 2.39. Cross sections showing hydrological stages in the active phreatic zone in an evaporitic seaway or a continental lake. A) Perennial saline lake accumulating widespread subaqueous evaporites from a nonstratified brine body. Capillary evaporation of fresher water lenses about the lake margin. B) Perennial saline lake or water full stage with subaqueous brine lens isolated from solar evaporation processes by a layer of surface water. This shuts down widespread crystallisation in lower brine body and slows brine reflux. C) Playa stage where ongoing evaporite fill, or lowering of regional water level, means the sediment surface is mostly subaerial and in capillary equilibrium with saline lake water table. This is a classic evaporitic mudflat or sabkha hydrology. No fresh water lens exists until after the next flood event.

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120

CHAPTER 2

NW W

SE Sandsheet/ interdune

Dune

Sabkha surface (Stokes surface) Core Sealevel Accretion Slope

Tertiary dolomite

10m

2km Dune Well-sorted sand, crossbedded (marine/eolian) Quartz sand and mollusks (clean) marine Muddy (carbonate) sand, marine

B. metres Sealevel 0

eolian

High-angle Crossbedding

marine

10

C.

Stokes Surface

Low-angle Crossbedding Fine sand No bedding Bioturbation Shell fragments

20

Muddy carbonate Quartz sand Bioturbation Articulated molluscs

Figure 2.40. Umm Said Sabkhat, Qatar. A) Transverse and barchan dune moving seaward atop sandflat and coastal sabkha (Image courtesy of NASA). B) Cross section and core from an Umm Said sabkha in coastal Qatar showing how the deflation surface that defines sealevel and the top of modern coastal sabkhas is also a Stokes equilibrium surface (indicates the top of the capillary zone). C) Schematic core taken in position shown in B. (B and C after Shinn, 1973).

modern dunes and sandflats these aggrading salt-cemented intervals are sometimes called salcretes, the evaporite equivalent of capillary calcretes. They are made up of passive pore-filling cements (gypsum or halite), not the active displacive nodules and crystals that typify sabkhas. Schenk and Fryberger (1988) noted such massive phreatic-gypsum cemented zones act as a lower limit to any subsequent eolian deflation in the gypsum dunes of the White Sands dune field, New Mexico. They create a cemented near-horizontal base level to erosion, now seen as a widespread Stokes surface in the interdunal corridors. Aggrading salcretes, tied to a rising water table, can help preserve capillary and eolian sedimentary structures. Salcretes were the main reason why dune topography is preserved in some transgressive settings where ancient ergs are overlain by evaporite beds (e.g. Entrada-Todilto and Rotliegende-Zechstein formations).

Megapolygonal desiccation cracks are another expression of the hydrology associated with a Stokes surface and form in deflating mudflat or playa sediments in conjunction with a regionally falling water table (Figure 2.41). Megapolygons can be up to 300 m wide and separated by fissures up to 5 m deep, they characterise the modern surfaces of a number of Basin and Range playas in Oregon, Nevada, California, Arizona and New Mexico (Neal et al., 1968). Fissures are hosted in finegrained playa sediments rich in clays and carbonate minerals. The fissures, which are up to 1 metre wide, are routinely filled or partly filled with wind blown sands (mixture of quartz and gypsum). Individual fissures tend to be discontinuous across the playa surface and often display en-echelon patterns.

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Figure 2.43. A) Outcrop drawing showing preserved dune palaeorelief with onlapping structureless sandstones and overlying limestones of the Todilto Formation. The Entrada Sandstone underlying the preserved relief consists of interbedded dune sets and evaporitic mudflat (sabkha) deposits (after Benan and Kocurek, 2000). B) Approximate Late Callovian-Oxfordian(?) palaeogeography of the Four Corners area after partial marine transgression of the Entrada. Extent of the Todilto Formation shown with concentric limits of limestone and gypsum within the unit, with surrounding eolian units (after Lucas and Anderson, 1994).

sabkha and interdunal successions (Figure 2.42; Havholm and Kocurek, 1994). Sand accumulation in the Page was episodic and punctuated by the formation of supersurfaces tied to substantial lowerings of the regional water table. This created both Stokes surfaces and megapolygonal fissures. Sabkhas and interdunes aggraded as the water table rose until sedimentation surfaces sat above the top of the capillary zone. Then vadose sedimentation, typically eolian crossbedded dunes sands, dominated once more. Thus the Page Sandstone is a collection of desert dune-interdune successions preserved in accommodation space created by an overall rise in the water table (basin subsidence). The smaller scale sequence packaging (dune alternating with wet interdune) reflects periodic rises in the water table, tied to shorter-term variations in climate, tectonics (subsidence) and changes in the strandline positions of nearby seaways or lakes.

The Jurassic Entrada Formation shows a similar water table control with its sea-marginal setting, promoting numerous internal truncation surfaces tied to deflation to the top of the capillary fringe (Crabaugh and Kocurek, 1993). Sediments deposited in the passage of the Entrada Fm. into the overlying evaporitic Todilto Fm. are unusual for an eolian system. The upper part of the Entrada is characterised by mass flow deposits and preserved eolian dune palaeotopographies beneath sandy subaqueous strata, rather than the more typical erosional top with the eolian unit passing up into continental deposits (Figure 2.43a; Benan and Kocurek, 2000). Preserved dune remnants have relief of up to 35 m and are buried by onlapping, subaqueous, largely structureless sandstones. The latter are derived by mass wasting of the upper portions of the dunes as regional water levels rose. Eolian sands were redeposited as sediment-gravity flows, which infilled depressions between the dunes. Preservation of dune palaeotopography beneath mass-flow deposits argues that flooding of the Entrada dune field was geologically rapid and energetically gentle.

Flooding heralded the onset of a restricted density-stratified brine lake/seaway, which deposited the evaporitic Todilto Formation. This seaway was a marine-seepage fed drawdown depression within what was the lowest part of the erg. This type of seepage encroachment converting the erg to a lake meant there was no transgression of a high energy marine coastline across the top of the sand sea (Figure 2.43b). Rather, aggradation of the saline water table was a relatively gentle process, with preservation of dune topography beneath lacustrine laminites perhaps aided by the formation of ephemeral capillary-fed salcretes. Salcretes precipitate where the capillary zone intersects the eolian landscape in any arid zone transition from an erg to a brine lake. A similar preserved dune palaeotopography, also with ephemeral salcretes, formed atop the Permian Rotliegend/Wiessliegend sands of the North Sea and heralded the onset of evaporite deposition in the saline giant that deposited the Zechstein salts (Glennie and Buller, 1983).

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Physiographically, the Abu Dhabi sabkha is characterized by billiard table flatness, a direct reflection of its control by capillary wicking fed from the underlying water table. The sabkha surface is a Stokes surface (Figure 3.4a). In general, the water table control to any sabkha gives them one of the flattest forms of any arid landscape feature. Below this flat surface the Abu Dhabi sabkha preserves an evaporitic mixed-carbonatesiliciclastic stratigraphy (Evans et al., 1969; Kinsman, 1969; Kirkham, 1997). Deposition began some 7,000 years ago when

CHAPTER 3

a rapid transgression flooded interdunal (eolianite) depressions with a veneer of marine-reworked, predominantly quartzose sediments. About 4,000 years ago the Arabian Gulf shoreline reached its maximum Holocene strandline and the edge of this flooding event is defined by a line of well preserved beachridge sediment sometimes called the “Evans line.” This was followed by pulsed progradation of the sabkha sequence to its present configuration.

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164

siliciclastics, not carbonates. The dry windy setting means there is an absence of healthy laminated cyanobacterial mat along much of the intertidal sabkha strandline. It is simply too dry, so laminated cyanobacterial mat is mostly confined to small moister areas on the floor and the immediate vicinity of tidal channels. The mud-size fraction in the Kadmah sabkha (§5% of sediment volume) is dominated by carbonate minerals, but this carbonate is detritus from the north, not diagenetic or marine supplied material from the bay (Saleh et al., 1999; Al-Bakri et al., 1984). Much of it is low-Mg calcite washed in from the surrounding plain where capillary calcretes (gatch) are commonplace. Similarly, almost all of the dolomite in the northern Arabian Gulf, including that on the floor of Kadmah Bay is detrital and derived either from longshore transport from the Shatt el Arab delta or is blown in by the Shamal as it scours the desert plains of Iraq (Al-Bakri et al., 1984). Numerous primary sheet flood and eolian structures are preserved beneath the prograding supratidal flat, with only minor disruption to these structures caused by local growth of intra-sedimentary gypsum. Gypsum and other capillary salts never dominate mineral proportions in the supratidal zone of Kadmah Bay (Figure 3.18).

CHAPTER 3

The windblown and deltaic siliciclastic coastline of Kadmah Bay has been prograding into the bay for 3,000 years at a rate of 1.5 to 2 km per 1000 years. More landward, the preceding “Early Holocene” transgressive coastal sediments are made up of patchily distributed, autochthonous carbonates (aragonitic oolites, pellets and micrite), similar to the early Holocene beach ridge carbonates of the At Taf coastal strip. The Mid-Holocene transition to a siliciclastic matrix along the north coast of Kadmah Bay indicates the time when longshore currents flooded the northern bay with reworked muddy fluviodeltaics from the prograding Budyah channel (see Shatt al Arab sabkha).

Al-Khiran Sabkha To the south, near the Kuwaiti border with Saudi Arabia, Late Pleistocene and Holocene sediments are exposed in and about the sea-margin sabkhas in the Al-Khiran area (Figures 3.2a, 3.19; Gunatilaka et al., 1987; Al-Sarawi et al., 1993). The Al-Khiran sabkha is a carbonate-hosted lagoonal system some 60 km2 in area. It lies behind a chenier belt of four oolitic beach-dune ridges where large parts of the inter-ridge sabkha depressions are no longer subject to marine flooding. The oldest and most landward exposed beach ridge is older than the Flandrian transgression. The four younger, accreted ridges, mapped by Al-Sarawi et al. (1993), were dated at 6,800, 5,800, 3,000 and 2,000 years BP.

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CHAPTER 4

Holocene beach/dune barrier grainstones Salt Creek Salt Creek

Holocene lake sediment Holocene interlake sediment filled corridor Holocene accreted beach/berm grainstone

1.

Pleistocene calcreted beach/dune grainstones

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Type A dolomite is a common precipitate in lake centres in more arid regions. Ocassionally also makes up the laminated unit in lakes filled with up to 4-5 m of dolomite in this region. Uncommon in more humid regions

km

Massive Unit: Indistinctly layered pelleted mudstone/packstone up to 1 m thick. Yoghurt-like texture when freshly deposited. Sedimentary structures indicate periodic subaerial exposure - extrusion tepees, laminar domal stromatolites, desiccation cracks Pelletal laminated Unit: Cm-mm layering. In carbonate lakes it is a mudstone to packstone, while in salt lakes it is a laminated gypsarenite Other than laminae, contains only rare sedimentary structures - thin breccia bands, indistinct ripples

PELLET WACKESTONE- MUDSTONE PELLET MUDSTONE ORGANIC-RICH UNIT MUDSTONE SKELETAL PACKSTONE QUARTZARENITE

0.5-1m

Type B dolomite typically occurs as cement in the basal unit and in the massive unit about the edges of some lakes. Ocassionally occurs in the lake centre. It is also the typical dolomite in smaller lakes and lakes in the more humid portions of the Coorong coastal plain.

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Figure 4.4. Coorong Lakes, South Australia. A) Locality and map of the Coorong region. Geological plan of the Salt Creek region shows how three of the four major lakes are joined by an interdunal corridor and were connected to the Coorong lagoon earlier in the Holocene. Milne Lake, the best dolomite accumulator in the Coorong coastal plain, never had a surface connection with the Coorong Lagoon. Mineralogies: Lake 1 = Milne Lake (dolomite + magnesite), Lake 2 = Halite Lake (gypsum + aragonite overlain by hydromagnesite + aragonite in massive unit and currently covered by ephemeral halite crust), Lake 3 = Pellet Lake (dolomite + hydromagnesite + aragonite), Lake 4 = North Stromatolite Lake (hydromagnesite + aragonite; minor dolomite in basal unit and about lake edge) (after Warren, 1990). B) Typical vertical sequence in Holocene evaporitic lakes of the Coorong coastal plain. (after Warren, 1990; 2000a).

1990). Most work in the region concentrated on salinas that contained dolomite, but there are many salinas, probably the majority, where the fill is dominated by carbonate mineral phases other than dolomite (Warren, 1990). Fills include low and high Mg-calcite, magnesite, hydromagnesite, aragonite, and less commonly gypsum (Figure 4.3). Von der Borch (1976) observed that Holocene dolomite occurs in areas of the coastal plain where rainfall is less than 700 mm, encompassing the area between Kingston and Salt Creek (Figure 4.4a). He suggested that south of the 700 mm isohyet, reduced evaporation rates and higher rainfall prevented the concentration of lake waters to salinities where dolomite could precipitate. Regional sampling of lakes across the area tied to climate confirms his postulate and shows that the more magnesian-rich dolomites tend to occur in the more arid northwestern portion of the Coorong coastal plain, centred on lakes in the vicinity of Salt Creek, while Mg-calcite and calcite filled salinas are increasingly common in the cooler moister parts to the southeast (Warren, 1988, 1990). Textures in carbonate salinas are largely independent of mineralogy and can be related to salinity, brine depth and permanence (Figure 4.4b; Warren, 1990; 1991). If the salina possessed an early Holocene connection to the marine waters of the Coorong Lagoon, then the lowermost Holocene unit is a marine/ estuarine skeletal grainstone/

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SALINAS AND LAKES

in stromatolites (Figure 4.19b; Eardley, 1938; Halley, 1977). Older algal reef mounds are located further out in the lake and are now buried by lake muds; they grew earlier in the Holocene when lake water levels were lower than today (Colman et al., 2002). Oolite shoals today form sand waves that define the lake strandzone (Figure 4.19b). Individual ooids are aragonite with a radial crystal structure. When and how the individual ooids grew is not well understood, but halobacteria and organic matrices are though to play a role (Sandberg, 1975; Pedone and Folk, 1996; Reitner et al., 1997).

241

Laminated mudstones, in large part composed of the faecal pellets of brine shrimp, are currently accumulating further out in the lake (Eardley, 1938). The pellets are a mixture of aragonite and detrital matter, mostly quartz, clays and organics. The brine shrimp Artemia gracilis thrives in the lake, it is a filter feeder that flourishes in spring and summer. It supplies a seasonal rain of faecal pellets to the lake bottom and its droppings represent a sampling of the mineral matter suspended in the water column. This implies aragonite is a seasonal precipitate within the upper part of the meromictic water column (see Chapter 9 for biology and feeding styles of brine shrimp and other halozoa).



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SALINAS AND LAKES

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Concentration (wt%)

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pinnacles of calcium carbonate frequently define linear trends that are the seepage expression of underlying faults and joints (Figure 4.23). Columns are surrounded by soft bottom sediments and many columns are rooted in massive domal buildups of calcite. Dominant growth orientation is vertical and defines the rapid upward rise of less saline CO2-rich waters. Branching of lithoid columns is rare and “pseudo-branches” easily explained by the collapse of one or two adjacent columns imply much of the precipitation mechanism is via inorganic degassing of groundwater on reaching the lake floor. Microbial biofilms coat active tufa surfaces beneath the lake waters and create characteristic knobbly grumous microtextures in the reef mounds and pinnacles as they capture the precipitated carbonate (Figure 4.23b).

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Extended hydrographic Lake Russell Basin

In today's lake waters calcite and aragonite are Mono Lake 1982AD (1942m) the carbonate minerals with long-term stability and they dominate the non-siliciclastic fraction Lake Russell (2180 m) accumulating in the lake (Benson et al., 2003). 3500 bp (1981 m) But during the colder Tioga glacial period of the Late Wisconsian (12 to 9 ka), and during the present day winter season, ikaite (CaCO3.6H2O), Paoha Island Mono Lake North was the dominant carbonate precipitate (Whiticar Hydrographic Basin and Suess, 1998). Ikaite is a metastable cryogenic 0 10 km carbonate and the low temperatures needed for Mono Craters ikaite stability are obvious in winter in Mono Lake. In the winter of 1985 ikaite crystals were Figure 4.22. Mono Lake, California. A) Hydrological conditions for the visible as coatings on the subaqueous surfaces last 4,000 years (after Stine, 1990). B) Map outlining different lake areas of active spring seep tufas about the shallow related to changing water elevations through time (after Rogers and Driese, 1995a, b). lake edge (pers obs.). If these small ikaite nates the western side of the basin is composed of fluviodeltaic crystals were removed from the icy cold winter waters of the lake and held in an ungloved hand, the increase sediment and it controls the modern discharge at many points in ambient temperature caused the ikaite to deliquesce, so that about the current lake shoreline (Figure 4.23a, c). Currently in a few minutes it disappeared leaving behind a pool of milky active diffuse low flow rate seeps are dispersed across the water. Council and Bennett (1993) and Bischoff et al. (1993) strandzone, and extend from § 200m above the present lake argued that during winter, calcite precipitation in Mono Lake is shore to around 1 metre below the present lake water surface inhibited by low temperatures and high concentrations of phos- (Figure 4.20). Diffuse outflows are geologically defined by flat phates and organic carbon. The same factors allow metastable beachrock-like zones of encrusting tufa and tufa flowers, and ikaite to form. Ikaite decomposes into calcite during the spring most active about the present lake strandline. warming, occasionally leaving pseudomorphs of the primary Further offshore, where the aquifer is largely confined by lake precipitate in the calcitic tufa. muds, CO2-saturated groundwaters discharge through fault At a broader scale Council and Bennett (1993) demonstrated and fracture focused conduits. The associated tufa mounds a strong hydrological control on the position of many of the precipitate along linear trends tied to positions where faults larger lithoid tufa mounds. The unconfined aquifer that domi- transect the confining clays to intersect the lake floor. Other



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250

CHAPTER 4

The current condition of Vangolu is a useful analog for the Pleistocene freshwater stages in many of the world's soda lakes that are currently in a hypersaline (trona) stage and for many pre-Quaternary alkaline lakes. It serves as a useful analog for the laminites of High Magadi Beds of the Lake Magadi and Lake Natron and for the oil shales of the Eocene Green River Fm, USA.

A.

Age (yr BP)

B. 0

Dark brown laminite mudstone

Depth (m)

Brown laminite mudstone (2.2-2.7 m lamina indistinct) Grey laminite mudstone (3.2-2.7 m lamina indistinct)

602 1070 1960

3600 4530 5160 6110

Greenish-grey laminite mudstone

6888 7192

Brownish-grey laminite mudstone Lt.-grey lam. mdst.

8240

Grey laminite mudstone

2

2607 2820

10060

4 Age (varve kyr BP)

Brown laminite mudstone

6 8 10

10590 11730 12840

12

Lt.-bwn,. lam. mdst. Grey lam. mdst. lam. indinstinct with depth Top sandy Grey mdst.

14570

14

Water content (wt %) 60 70 80

Salda Lake, Turkey Saldagolu is another highly alkaline (pH >9) saline lake in southern Turkey, located in a collision belt at an elevation of 1139 m asl. It is bowl-shaped and occupies the lowest part of a fluvial and seepage-fed endorheic depression at the foot of the Esler Mountains. Lake waters are up to 184 metres deep and cover an area of 43.7 km2 (Figure 4.29). Lake levels rise about 50-70 cm each spring, but longterm levels are falling and have been doing so for decades exposing widespread beach-rock like terraces and stromatolites of hydromagnesite and aragonite. Inflow waters to Salda Golu are enriched in magnesium and carbonate and when compared to Lake Van are much fresher, they are even capable of supporting the local livestock. The lake drainage is rimmed on three sides by serpentinites (ophiolites) and on the fourth by a downfaulted block of Upper Cretaceous limestone. Hazburgite is the dominant country rock, though in places it has been metamorphosed to lizardite (Mg3Si2O5(OH)4) and subsidiary dunite, all Mg-rich phases. All the rivers draining into the lake follow faults, flow across peridotites, and under the lowered water levels of today are losing streams. Waters typically seeping into fan deltas or into the lake surrounds before ever reaching the strandzone of Salda Golu (Russell et al., 1999).

Accumulation Detrital sediment CH2O (wt%) (mm yr-1) SDR (nonchemical) 0.5 1.0 1.5 (kg m3 yr-1) 30 45 60 Opal (wt%) 5 10 15 CaCO3 (wt%) 0.1 0.3 0.5 12 22 32 24 36 48

0 2 4 6 8

Age (varve kyr BP)

Because present lake waters are supersaturated with respect to alkaline earth carbonates, carbonate precipitation is most obvious in the lake at positions of calcium input where fresher waters mix with more saline lake waters. This can be at the mouths of rivers, where whitings have been documented, or it can occur on the shallow lake floor down to depths of 120 metres, where the degassing of resurging calcium-rich groundwaters escaping into the lake waters creates tufa towers or pinnacles, up to 40m high. These structures constitute some of the largest active microbialite buildups in the world today (Kempe et al., 1991). Lake Van does suffer from severe winters, but these aragonite/calcite tufa samples described by Kempe et al. (1991) were collected in the summer. The possibility of primary ikaite was not considered. So, it not known if some of the initial tufa in Lake Van was once ikaite, which then converted to CaCO3. A textural comparison with similar structures in Mono Lake suggests this may be so, especially in older colder stages in the lake history.

10 12 14

Figure 4.28. Lake Van Core K10 (see figure 4.25 for location. A) Laminite lithology plotted against depth and varve-determined ages. B) Core properties plotted against varve determined time. SDR = rate of sediment deposition. Opal is dominantly from diatom tests and CaCO3 is mostly from aragonite with lesser calcite (after Landmann et al., 1996).

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276

CHAPTER 4

Each delta lobe is made up of several successive fan sequences, with facies changing from dominantly conglomerates at the head of the fan to sands and muds at the foot (Figure 4.50). In the proximal parts of a Dead Sea fan delta lobe, units of crudely stratified conglomerate alternate with coarse to medium sands that show cut and fill textures, along with abundant trough and planar cross beds. In the sand-dominated medial parts, structures range from unstratified or poorly layered sandy beds, through granule and mud-ball layers, into trough and planar crossbedded sands. Many of the finer sands in this zone preserve ripple cross laminae. Further into the basin, the more distal parts of the fan lobes are composed of interlayered sand/mud facies intercalated with carbonate Mudflat Spring Jordan River laminites. Alternations of coarse delta to medium sand with layers of very fine sand characterise North distal fan sediments, as do thin 2-3 cm thick layers of mm-layered aragonitic laminite. Rapid Halite (holomictic) deposition of fan sediments atop water-saturated laminites Aragonite and Sand and creates numerous examples of detrital mud gravel laminite convolute bedding that formed (meromictic) as rapidly deposited sands loaded brine-soaked muds.

in Lake Lisan time when lake waters were fresher and lake levels were up to 200 m higher. Size of the fan deltas vary, with the Nahal Zeelim delta being the largest of the active deltas located along the western margin of the depression (Sneh, 1979). In terms of the morphometry of fan deltas worldwide, Nahal Zeelim is relatively small (§ 6 km2), its slope is steep (2.5°), and its catchment (235 km2) is quite large for the size of the sediment lobe. Its morphometry reflects its arid setting, water supply is low and pulsed with resupply during times of short intense storm floods.

Aragonite and gypsum crusts

N

Basement

Bedrock Alluvial fan

“Gilbert-style” delta (Jordan R.) Deep perennial saline lake Shallow perennial saline lake Fan delta Saline pan Saline mudflat 10 km

Perennial river (Jordan R.)

Figure 4.51. Geology of the Dead Sea basin showing the distribution of the various depositional settings in plan view and as a block diagram of the Northern Dead Sea basin. The River Jordan forms a fluviodeltaic wedge in the northern part of the basin. Active transtension faulting and block rotation has exposed older lake deposits of the Lisan Formation at higher elevations as well as an apron of alluvial fan sediments with a number of “hung” fan deltas tied to older higher water levels in the lake. The saline pan in the southern basin is dominated by halite, artificial pans fed with deep brines have been constructed in this area to produce sylvite and other potash products (see Chapter 11).

In strandzones away from the direct influence of active fan deltas, the grain size of sediments tend to indicate distance of the strandline from the base of the cliffed escarpment that defines the edge of the present Dead Sea basin. Where the present shoreline of the Dead Sea is a long distance from the fan-lined border escarpment, sediments tend to be muddy laminites, deposited during times of relatively higher water (meromictic) during the last few centuries and including blocks derived by reworking of Lisan marls (Figure 4.49c, d). In strandlines closer to the escarpment the shores are moderately steep with beaches and bars of sand and gravel

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Figure 4.56. Holocene sediment distribution in Lake Asal, Republic of Djibouti (surface geology after Stieljes, 1973). Marine inflow is via fractured basalts of the Kodda Soma. A3-6 indicate positions of geothermal test wells - A1 and A2 lie further to the southwest. The inset is an idealised cross section from the ocean to the lake depression (Landsat image courtesy of NASA).



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ANCIENT EVAPORITES

321

Texas

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Figure 5.21. Permian reef comNW SE plex of the Guadalupe Mountains, west Texas. A) Schematic cross Yates Tansill Seven Rivers section of the Permian carbonate Capitan Queen platform based on outcrops in the Grayburg San Andres Guadalupe Mountains of Texas and Bell Canyon New Mexico. Note the initial strongly U. Victorio Peak progradational ramp-like profile in Cherry Canyo the San Andres Formation and its n Cut Off evolution to a reef-rimmed shelf with Brus Canyhy 1km Guadalupe a well defined slope break, along with a on Mountains Northern steep shelf margin that was several Shelf 5km NW Shelf hundred metres high. The platform interior is dominated by saltern evaporites Midland Basin Evaporite-dominated platform (white) that pass seaward through Central Delaware pisolitic island shoal/strandzone Platform margin/upper slope carbonate Basin Basin facies into the deep-rim reef of the Lower slope/basin carbonate Platform Capitan Formation (after Kerans et Apache Basin sandstones (mostly lowstand) Mountains al., 1993; Kerans and Fitchen, 1996). Southern Glass Shelf The basinward slope of the evaporite Mountains sequence is based on the current Shelf crest configuration of the basin margin Inner shelf Outer shelf and probably does not reflect the original slope. It is created by post depositional regional tilting. Map inset shows major physiographic provinces of the Permian Basin in west Texas and New Mexico. B) Detailed facies and Dolomite dolomitisation relationships based on 1 km measured sections in the Yates/Tansill Tepee Limestone (calcite) Formation showing the position of the shelf crest landward of the reefs Pisolite Quartz sand of the Capitan limestone (after Mutti and Simo, 1993). C) Dolomitisation Basin Shelf of the Capitan shelf strata and reef Zone 3 Zone 1 Zone 2 by dense mesohaline fluids that origibasinward flow of dolomitizing capture of basinward flow dolomitization of tepee-pisolite nated in the near back reef evaporitic fluids along aquifers facies - majority of basinward flow of dolomitizing fluids of dolomitizing fluids captured by faults by faults shelf-lagoon (Hunt et al., 2002). T Basinward flow of the dolomitising Y fluids was along aquifer units within SR the shelf—the sandstones resting on sequence boundaries. The basinward outcrop tilting of the back reef strata between window the shelf crest and the Capitan may have helped promote a basinward flow of the dolomitising fluids, but the main hydrological gradient came from natural brine reflux. In areas updip 1 km of the faults (zone 1, the basinward Major flow-paths of density driven dolomitizing fluids flow of the dolomitising fluids would Capitan Reef and its dolomitization (Dark = high, light=low) have primarily been along aquifers Syndepositional faults and downward through the reef Importance of dolomitzation of Capitan foreslope (After Melim, 1991) and forereef (both areas here are Reef crest extensively dolomitised). The flow of fluids through the forereef followed bedding, and dolomitisation decreases downward through these strata (Melim and Scholle, 2002). Further downdip in the crosssection (zone 2), much of the basinward flow of the dolomitising fluids would have been captured by the syndepositional faults and related fracture systems that reach high into the platform stratigraphy. Here, the sandstone-dominated fill of the faults and fractures provided vertical conduits for the dense dolomitising fluids through the platform. Capture of the flow of the dolomitising fluids by the fault zones in updip locations (zone 2) may have acted to inhibit the extensive dolomitisation of the middle and upper Capitan reef further downdip (zone 3). Here, dolomitisation is mostly limited to tepee–pisolite facies. Hunt et al.s model is a logical extension of that developed by Melim (1991) and they argue dolomitisation was likely a discontinuous process typical of TST and HST times, while fracture-controlled dissolution prevailed during lowstands. 30 m

A.

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B.

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360

base of the Zanclean (Early Pliocene) deposits of four main horizons of palaeosols interbedded with carbonates and conglomerates. Palaeosols indicate periods of subaerial exposure in the marginward basins of Cyprus that were long enough to permit pedogenesis during the transition to less evaporitic conditions. Intercalated conglomerates indicate intense erosion of the Troodos Massif and its sedimentary cover. In contrast, shallow oligohaline conditions persisted in the deeper parts of the Mediterranean basin, as indicated at ODP Site 968. Both in the Pissouri Basin of Cyprus and on the flank of the Erathostenes Seamount in the Mediterranean the late Messinian sediments are directly overlain by the lowermost Pliocene sediments deposited in well-oxygenated deep marine conditions. This drastic change of water depth that typifies the basinwide end to the salinity crisis shows that as in the earlier evaporite stages, water levels of the latest Messinian “Lago Mare” were still far below that of the world ocean, by at least more than several hundred metres. Moreover, the study of the Polemi sections shows that oligohaline conditions had already started during the deposition of the upper gypsum sub-unit. Typical brackish and fresh water assemblages are present in the last two gypsum layers and intergypsum beds (Rouchy et al., 2001). This indicates that freshwater dilution, i.e. the Lago-Mare conditions, resulted from a progressive change of the hydrological budget, which had started during deposition of the upper evaporites and climaxed after the deposition of the uppermost gypsum layer (classic Lago-Mare facies). This basinwide evolution is interpreted as

CHAPTER 5

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366

CHAPTER 5

Ooid shoal ooid bar

ZSB4

Intraclast shoal Upper slope (mudstones)

evaporite bed causes its overlying brine level to rise (autocyclic hydrologic feedback).

Energy

Tidal flat Algal tidal flat Lagoon - Algal laminated shoal Grainy shoal

Werra (A1) Anhydrite

A.

Ca2

A2

Salina (pure anhydrite) A2-salina (TST) A2-sabkha (LST)

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Sabkha (dolomite/ pacman anhydrite) Tidal flat Algal tidal flat Lagoon - Algal laminated shoal Grainy shoal Ooid shoal ooid bar

Werra (A1) Anhydrite

B. Figure 5.50. Facies associations in Ca2 carbonate platform, Zechstein Basin, northwest Germany (after Leyrer et al., 2001). A) Slope position (HST of ZS3 to TST of ZS4). B) Platform position (HST of ZS3 to TST of ZS4).

In reality, each of the evaporite cycles is made up of a highly complicated stack of parasequences that sequence stratigraphers argue represent higher order sea-level fluctuations. In my opinion, climate-related intrabasinal autocyclicity is a more likely driving mechanism at the scale of the parasequences. The contradiction underlies the difficulties in sequence stratigraphic analysis of evaporite deposits using models derived from geometries and 3rd order eustatic responses of marine systems. The terms highstand systems tract and lowstand systems tract are largely defined by whether the shelf of the basin that is under consideration is covered by water. There is no concept as yet in the sequence stratigraphic literature that an aggrading

Most Zechstein interpretations assume a surface connection to the ocean at all times and that there were direct marine eustatic responses in brine base level. We have already discussed the likely errors inherent in this assumption. In the marine realm we are talking about eustatic sealevel amplitudes of no more than a hundred or so metres in icehouse periods and less than decametres in greenhouse periods. There is an inherent assumption in classic sequence stratigraphy that in greenhouse and icehouse times the prime locus of sedimentation is near a shoreline, either on the shelf or just basinward of the shelf break (Type 2 and Type 1 boundaries). In an evaporite basin that is undergoing drawdown we are discussing an initial hydrographic isolation (mesohaline carbonates are considered to indicate the mfs by the sequence stratigraphers) quickly followed by a water level fall of more than 500-1,000 metres and the onset of widespread evaporite precipitation. Any strandline in the system will likely have migrated hundreds of kilometres and be situated well out on the old continental slope at the onset of evaporite accumulation. Once again, marine eustatic models do not apply.

At hydrologic equilibrium (inflow=loss) the whole marine highstand shelf and slope, as well as part of the basin floor, is exposed. Water levels even in the deepest parts of the basin are mostly less than a few tens of metres and no more than one or two hundred metres. In this scenario the locus of maximum deposition is not tied to sediment supply from outside the basin (siliciclastics) or to any need for shallow waters atop a carbonate platform. The maximum locus of evaporite deposition is in the lowest part of the isolated depression in many drawdown basins with no surface connection to the ocean. This area is assumed to be deep water by sequence stratigraphers, but textures from the salts accumulating there are typically saltern or salt pan with local deeper water cumulates.

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386

CHAPTER 6

ESE

WNW Riedel Mine

Oil wells Quat Tertiary

Quat Tert. Maes.

Campan.

s m k

Turon. Cenom

Sant.

L. C.

Santon

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0

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younger part of this salt stock is now 250 m (800 ft) higher than the adjacent flat-topped mass, which is also overlain by a cap rock (Figure 6.9c). The boundary separating the spine from the less active portion of the crest is finer-grained and shale rich and it formed a limit to the former salt mining of the pure salt within the spine. Shale-rich shear zones at the edges of active spines are sometimes called “black salt” by the miners and can show a greater propensity to leak water into a mine. The spine and its boundary shear are also seen in the Jefferson landscape, with a solution lake defining the zone of shallower salt created by the active spine. Shear zones within diapirs are potential problem zones if the crestal portions of domes are utilised for any type of fluid storage without an understanding of the significance of “black salt” (Figure 12.26). In a benchmark paper on the internal complexity of salt structures in Europe Richter-Bernburg (1980) made a number of interesting observations:

0

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500

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1000

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Figure 6.9. Internal structures of salt diapirs, A) Reidel diapir, Germany. The stratigraphically older part of the diapir (grey) of the structure sits atop the younger salt (white). Inset is a three dimensional diagram of the folds outlined by potash beds (ore horizon) in younger salt showing how axes of folds pass from a vertical orientation to a subhorizontal with depth. B) Halite bed (black) defines sheath folds and shear planes floating in deformed carnallitic matrix in a potassic ore zone in the Krügershall Mine near Halle/Saale, Germany (after Richter-Bernburg, 1980). C) Cross section through the Jefferson Island Salt dome, Louisiana, showing a wide boundary shear separating an active salt spine from a less active caprock-capped part of the structural crest. North is to the left and the 800, 1000 and 1300 ft working levels of the mine are shown (after Kupfer, 1976).

• Salt deposits are not, or have not always been, in mechanical equilibrium with their ambient environment and deformations caused by salt flow have to be expected in all subsurface situations • Isoclinal and overturned folds can occur in simple salt ridges so that stratigraphically older members of a formation can dip into the local area from above a particular horizon. • By the diapir stage, possibilities are open for building folds of all imaginable - or even unimaginable - features and shapes (including migmatitic and boudinage styles). Axes of curtain folds in a diapir are not simply vertical, they may be inclined in all - mathematically! - possible directions. He concludes that any prognosis about the interior structure of a halokinetic salt body -even if it is scarcely diapiric- is not possible without seeing it from the inside. This mesoscale complexity reflects deformation textures that are occurring on the

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Figure 6.24. Schematic profiles of diapir drag zones (after Alsop et al., 2000). A) Broad drag zone within homogenous competent overburden. B) narrow drag zone with incompetent inhomogeneous overburden. C) Broad segmented drag zone within homogenous incompetent overburden. D) narrow segmented drag zone within heterogenous incompetent overburden with marked internal competency contrasts. C) and D) also illustrate the process of lateral diapiric accretion where fault-bound material moves upward with the flanks of the diapir relative to sediments further out in the rim syncline.

that lie subparallel to the walls of the salt diapir (Schultz-Ela, 2003; Alsop et al., 2000). Rotations can be as steep as 90° and can even overturn beds. Deformation is driven by a variety of processes including downbuilding, differential compaction, grain boundary sliding, microfracturing, larger-scale faulting and pressure solution. The abutment of an inclined drag zone against a near-diapir fault can form a large number of stacked and compartmentalised oil and gas reservoir sands (Figure 10.45a). Drag zones develop sequentially; initial salt pillow uplift creates broad gentle overburden flexure that increases in intensity as the structure evolves into a diapir (Figure 6.23). By the diapir stage the width of a drag zone is approximately equivalent to the width of the diapir at the diapiric base and decreases to 25% of the diapir width toward the diapir crest. Vertical relief of the upturn in a bed also decreases upward (Figure 6.23; Davison et al., 2000b). Vertical relief is some 5% of the diapir

height near the crest and increases to 30% near the diapir base, a consequence of the greater relative movement across the premovement and early syn-movement layers situated near the base of the diapir stem. The width of the drag zone increases proportionally with increasing diapir size and diapir height, while the total amount of bed upturn increases proportionally with the width of the drag zone. In one of the few outcrop studies of the characteristics of diapir drag zones Alsop et al. (2000) relate variation across the zone to overburden competence (Figure 6.24). Their work focused on an outcropping diapiric province in Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, where five Visean-age salt diapirs penetrate Upper Carboniferous (Namurian-Stephanian) conglomerates, sandstones, shales and coal seams. The width of diapiric drag zones varies from 70 metres up to 500 metres. Narrow drag zones are a response to the low mean competence of shales and siltstones, which were probably shallowly buried and poorly



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consists of dominantly siliciclastic Oil and gas fields Continuous salt; sediments, with extension and pillows Volcanics and locally significant volcaniclastics Continuous salt; on salt carbonates. Most extension and diapirs Salt deformation front of these deposits Continuous salt; compression and diapirs Tear fault in detached are located on the salt deformation system Continuous salt; Tea current platform, r Fa compression and anhydrite ult pinching out seaNorth ward into cont 0 150 km densed sections, en m ch indicating a longa et ld alt we td term highstand l s t l s ir sa Sa us it iap uo during the Late d n m i + li nt al on co i n Cretaceous. The f s n io it o ws xte os im o r E l Malembo Group L 25o l i E P ion ss (Oligocene to the e Compression r p ld (sparse data) we om t present day) corl t C Sa fron ion Compression t responds to a large, a n anhydrite form sio rs t de l prograding clastic n a S te pi Ex dia wedge. The salt has + Tea acted as a décolr fa Oceanic crust ult lement allowing Volcanic ridge 45o 40o updip extension Figure 6.37. Map showing relationships between the various salt-detached basins in the Santos and Campos and downdip combasins of offshore Brazil. Oil and gas fields only occur updip of the limit of continuous salt in suprasalt pression. The exturbidite reservoirs that are sourced from sub salt lacustrine sediments (after Meisling et al., 2001). tensional domain is characterised by reflects the high seal integrity of continuous salt sheets, which oceanward-sealed tectonic blocks, rollovers and diapirs, while prevent hydrocarbons generated in the mature subsalt salt source the downdip compressional terrain is characterised by growth from reaching the suprasalt turbidite reservoirs (Meisling et al., folds, squeezed diapirs and thrusts (Figure 6.38). 2001). It is a very positive indicator of the possible presence of large subsalt traps some distance further offshore where The compressional zone is divisible into; 1) an inner more halokinetic salt sheets constitute more continuous layers. upslope subdomain characterised by formation of contractional diapirs by the compression of former extensional diapirs At the broad scale of salt flow in passive margin sediments along (squeezed diapirs) and 2) an outer more downdip subdomain the edge of a widening ocean basin there is also the process of characterised by growth folds and thrusts. The upper subdomain increasing shelf edge to ridge distance to be considered. Over indicates the expansion of the compressional domain in a more time this will create an increasingly broad compressional zone upslope direction as formerly extensional suprasalt sediments in the zone of transitional crust at the foot of the continental slides and piles at the foot of slope. The ductile diapir salt is slope. This is clearly illustrated in the expanding compressional trapped and pinched in anticlinal cores, leading to the formabelt down dip of the zone of raft tectonic in the seaward margin tion of contractional diapirs that typically do not necessarily of the Kwanza Basin, Angola (Figure 6.37; Fort et al., 2004). A extrude at the surface but are stopped and sealed by further thick sequence of Cretaceous (Aptian) salt was laid down atop sedimentation. This type of updip extension and downdip lacustrine sediments in the opening rift, followed by a transicompression indicates an initial salt geometry that wedged or tion into marine sediments the passive margin. Three groups thinned in both seaward and landward directions at the end of the of sediments make up this marine wedge; The Pinda Group margin-rifting stage (Aptian; Figure 6.38a). Postrifting cooling (Albian to Late Cretaceous), consists of a carbonate platform of the lithosphere then induced a seaward tilt in the margin and followed by sedimentation increasingly dominated by marls and the development of gravitational instability, creating a seaward clays. The Iabe-Landana Group (Late Cretaceous to Eocene) spreading-gliding system with an extensional upper end and a Salt weld and windows in continuous salt

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Inverted basins Varying degrees of inversion are common in many intracratonic basins, which tend to evolve into a compressional regime some time after subsidence of the initial extensional rift/sag has ceased (Figures 6.34c, 6.41). Saltfloored inverted basins typically pass laterally into a thin-skinned thrusted terrain. By the time inversion occurs much of the sediment atop the primary salt interval is indurated and the basin is laterally confined. Examples of salt-entraining inverted basins include the relatively mild effects of Tertiary shortening of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sediments in the southern and central North Sea Basins (Hooper et al., 1995; Stewart and Coward, 1995; Eggink et al., 1996) through to more extreme basin overprints as seen in the Cretaceous shortening of Triassic basins in the Atlas fold belt of north Africa (Vially et al., 1994), the Palaeozoic shortening of Neoproterozoic basins in the Flinders Ranges and the Amadeus Basin in central Australia (Stewart et al., 1991), and the EoceneMiocene shortening of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic basins in the Zagros of central Iran (Jackson et al., 1990). Under a regional shortening event that is orthogonal or oblique to preexisting structures, the inversion typically squeezes hanging wall blocks upward, as the original extensional normal faults become compressional (Figure 6.41). Basement, salt and overlying sediments are all shortened with preexisting salt structures (pillows, diapirs and walls) frequently taking up much of the initial compression.

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D/ Figure 6.41. Structural evolution of an inverted basement graben varies according to structures present in preexisting graben (salt is grey). A) Folds and short-cut faults develop in homogeneous strata above inverted basement faults. Fold hinges in the graben are perpendicular to the regional compression. B) Thrusts and folds are localised by preexisting salt structures. C) Thrusts and folds are localised by reactivation of basement faults (after Letouzey et al., 1995).

Where the horizontal compressive stresses are near orthogonal to preexisting extensional structures and where these are bound by high angle normal faults, much of the inversion above the salt layer is accommodated by forced folding rather than slip along the former faults (Letouzey et al., 1990). New low-angle reverse faults are firmly rooted in the décollement salt and typically

originate at the crest of the upthrown basement block, and so passively transport the former high-angle normal fault planes (Figure 6.41). This initiates short-cut thrust geometries. If the horizontal compression is oblique to the former normal fault, a strike-slip component is induced that can reactivate former high angle normal faults. In addition to conventional inversion features, such as forced folds and short cuts over basement faults, strike slip will also form en echelon synthetic faults in

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424

CHAPTER 6

West Dowsing Graben System Sole Pit Trough

5

Dowsing fault zone

4

Dowsing fault zone

East North Dogger fault zone

3

BASEMENT EXTENSION

1

with structural trends following basement grain (Thomas and Coward, 1996).

6

1

1. Thin-skinned extension 2. (Thick-skinned extension) 3. Thin-skinned compression 4. Thick-skinned compression 5. Thin- and thick-skinned extension 6. Thin- and thick-skinned compression

BASEMENT COMPRESSION

Figure 6.43. Driving mechanisms for the evolution of suprasalt features atop the Zechstein salt in the western part of the southern North Sea Basin. All listed mechanisms, except thick-skinned extension, played a role. Salt structures evolved as the basin tectonics evolved from extension (upper diagram) to compression (lower diagram) and there is always an element of detachment tectonics, such as buckle folding, in the current distribution of the salt layer (after Coward and Stewart, 1995).

Central North Sea Graben, the Horn Graben and the Glückstadt Graben, while in onshore Germany this same orientation defines the Ens Low and the Weser Depression. Further south, extension was accommodated by transtensional slip in a northwest direction. Not only are the orientation of salt ridges and fault trends related across the domains, but so is the timing of salt movement and faulting. Salt piercement and basement fault movement is dominantly Triassic in the northern part of North Germany, while in the south a Jurassic age prevails. Piercement is mostly Late Jurassic in the Central North Sea Graben, as is the main tectonic phase. Many diapirs in the southern North Sea Basin were initiated along extensional faults that defined half-graben edges in Triassic to Jurassic times (Figures 6.43, 6.44a). The lack of primary rim synclines indicates that many of the structures became diapiric without going through a pillow phase immediately atop the Zechstein salt. In extension the diapirs grew mainly by asymmetric downbuilding with salt rise focused on the upthrown block adjacent to the fault, probably with sporadic periods of bathymetric relief created at diapir crests (Figure 6.43, 6.44a). The associated hanging wall tilt drove gravity gliding of the post-salt section, with resultant low-angle extensional faulting upslope and salt-cored buckling downslope

Many extensional half-grabens were subsequently tightened or compressed by a phase of thin-skinned inversion, associated with back-steepening of the margin fault system and a resulting reactivation of the extensional detachment system. The effects of this inversion have been noted in many parts of the northern North Sea so that post Early Cretaceous and Tertiary history of the southern North Sea Basin is compressional, not extensional. This is expressed as changes in basin tilt and in reverse slip on individual faults so that parts of the North Sea basin now tilt to the northeast, a reversal of the original Jurassic tilt direction in the UK section of the southern North Sea Basin (Figure 6.43; Steward and Coward, 1995). This is especially obvious in thrust faults and structures that fringe the Broad Forties basin (Hayward and Graham, 1989 but is seen across the North Sea Graben (Thomas and Coward, 1996) and much of the southern North Sea Basin (Remmelts, 1996; Stewart et al., 1997). Within the South Viking Graben, shortening estimates vary between 14 and 18% and are expressed on seismic data by localized hanging wall folds and the back-steepening of faults along the fault complex of the western margin of the graben, together with out-of-graben thrusting up the hanging wall dip-slope. In order to fully explain the elongate salt walls and pillows of the southern North Sea Basin the effects of both extension and inversion must be considered in the final analysis of the salt structure geometry. Recognition of significant inversion can change the interpretation of some elongate salt-cored anticlines from salt pillows/swells to compressional buckle folds and squeezing of earlier extensional structures (Figure 6.47). Clearly, any precontractional salt tectonics strongly influences the location of subsequent thrusts and folds (Figure 6.41; Letouzey et al., 1995). During contraction and inversion, folds and thrusts are initiated where thickness variations in the salt were already present in the overburden (Figure 6.44a; Vendeville and Jackson, 1992a,b; Nalpas and Brun, 1993). Erosional thinning of the overburden over salt ridges or salt walls also localises thrusts and folds, even when they are not related to basement normal faults (Figure 6.44b). Décollement atop the compressed salt also induces normal-fault offsets on the top of salt that then localise thrusting and facilitate subsequent reactive diapirism (Figure 6.44b).

SALT TECTONICS

425

A.

0

5km Triassic

Basement fault block

Can extrusion indicate extreme shortening? With enough time, a sedimentary basin evolves from extensional to compressional or re-activated diapirs (Wilson Cycle), or a gentle salt anticline can evolve from a pillow created by gravity-driven downslope compressional folding (with an upslope extensional regime) into a compressional buckle fold via inversion (Figure 10.47). Salt can breakout out from anticlinal crests in either scenario and if it escapes onto the landsurface or seafloor it can initiate a new phase of passive diapirism.

Cretaceous

Lateral shortening via buckling encourages thickening of salt in the anticlinal core, while the associated folding and crestal erosion can create the structural relief necessary for buoyancy and possible salt emergence, as can pinch-off from the mother salt layer. Such buckled salt-cored anticlines constitute the source to salt in the active namakiers of the Zagros Fold Belt of Iran (Figure 6.45). Once salt is extruded the original salt-cored anticline is subject to collapse and erosion (Figure 7.14).

Triassic

B. 1. Limbs begin to rise above regional elevation regional datum cover salt basement

2. Faults form with gravity gliding, some may sole into intracover detachment horizon

arbitrary erosion surface intracover detachment Shortening

Time

3. Reactive diapirism establishes conduit to surface (can then evolve into passive diapir)

limb collapse into salt pillow

Figure 6.44. Extension and conversion structures, North Sea. A) Evolution of the Step Graben in the North Sea. Triassic extension focused the formation of salt structures atop normal faults in Sub-Zechstein basement. Early block faulting and accompanying rotation causes bedding plane parallel salt flow and pillowing atop the fault plane. This is followed by compression (shortening and inversion), tied to the Cretaceous unconformity and deposition of overlying sealing shales. Shortening drove oversteepening and flow reactivation during the Cretaceous-Tertiary inversion (after Remmelts, 1996). B) Buckle fold evolution with crestal erosion culminating in diapirism (after Coward and Stewart, 1995). See also Figure 6.47.

But physical modelling of salt under compression creates a quandary as to whether the buckling and the thickening of a salt anticline alone can build sufficient pressure to initiate active diapirism, especially if the salt in the buckle-fold core is still connected to the mother salt layer. Physical models of a buckling compressional system using brittle overburden and a viscous salt-analogue silicone gel layer do not show breakout at the thickening anticlinal crests (Vendeville and Jackson, 1992b; Letouzey et al., 1995; Koyi, 1998). The silicone gel initially thickens in the rising anticlinal cores, then is squeezed out back down into the mother salt layer (the squeezed salt/gel takes the path of least resistance compared with breaking through the brittle overburden), or the gel is dragged along thrust planes. In all cases it stays in normal stratigraphic contact with the overlying thrust sheet. Only when there is a pre-existing diapir stem, or there is crestal erosion, or if the salt core is pinched off from the original mother salt level, is salt extruded. Extrusion in physical models with brittle overburden tends to occur whenever the stem is cut off from the mother bed and then the extrusion event is short lived (aka “popping the pimple”). Yet, 300-metre high glaciers of Neoproterozoic salt are flowing today across the landscape in the eastern foldbelt of the Zagros Mountains, Iran. The ubiquity of salt glaciers (namakiers) in this part of the Zagros foldbelt clearly shows salt can breach anticlines within regionally compressed terrains (Figures 6.45a, b, 6.46a). Zagros folds in this area are elongated symmetric whalebacks or box-shaped anticlines trending in a generally NW-SE direction, with the main thrust detachment at the level



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440

CHAPTER 6

Stromatolitic buildups

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Figure 6.57. Palinspastic reconstruction of part of the western Neoproterozoic margin of the Enorama diapir, Flinders Ranges, Australia Lower figure shows detail of contact of reef with diapiric breccia. (after Lemon, 2000).

In summary, the reefs grew during a time of sea level rise and show a close relationship with rises in the Enorama Diapir, with each deepening upward reef succession being a response to a pulse of diapir growth. The diapir provided an area of shallow water around an island at a time when deeper water shale was being deposited in the rest of the basin. The mound to reef transition shows ¶catch up· and ¶keep up· growth habit but the sudden demise of each individual reef appears related to a subsequent pulse of salt movement on the diapir, not to broader eustacy.

Sediments tied to salt basin evolution Suprasalt clastic sedimentation Alexander and Flemings (1995) documented the spatial and temporal distribution of siliciclastic sand within an evolving Pliocene-Pleistocene salt-withdrawal shelf minibasin in the Gulf of Mexico; the Eugene Island Block 330 field. Part of it is a giant oil and gas field in offshore Louisiana and is located immediately landward of the deeper water Green Canyon area. The minibasin evolved through three phases: prodelta, proximal deltaic, and fluvial (Figures 6.58, 8.16). In the prodelta phase, bathyal and outer neritic shales and turbidites loaded and mobi-

lised the underlying salt sheet (Figure 6.58a). During the proximal deltaic phase, salt continued to withdraw from beneath the minibasin, and lowstand shelf margin deltas remained focused at a regional growth fault zone on the northern margin of the minibasin (Figure 6.58b). Sediment accumulation and fault slip rates were high, as thick sequences of deltaic sands were deposited adjacent to the fault system. During the final fluvial phase, salt withdrawal waned; consequently, the creation of accommodation space within the minibasin ceased (Figure 6.58c). The basin filled and, during lowstands, deltaic systems prograded southward. Unconformities developed in the minibasin during these lowstands. During transgressions, thick packages of shallow-water deltaic and fluvial sands (capped by shales) were deposited on top of the unconformities.

On a salt-floored continental margin that is being loaded by fluvio-deltaic wedges, the transition from deep water, when the floor of the minibasin first begins to subside as it is loaded, into a shelf and deltaic system is a natural evolution. The sedimentation model documented by Alexander and Flemings (1995) has a wider application to other salt-floored passive margins. Some authors in the Gulf of Mexico prefer to divide minibasin sedimentation into shelfloaded and slope-load subcategories, but recognise it is all part of a feedback between basinward salt flow of the allochthon sheet and sediment loading (Figures 6.31, 10.52). Once the salt is evacuated from beneath a minibasin the basin can no longer subside and the depositional locus shifts basinward into the next minibasin atop the next tier of the allochthon. In the case of the Eugene Island minibasin this did not occur until the basin was filling with shelf sediments. In other basins this can happen while turbidites are still accumulating in the withdrawal sink. In this case the basin no longer accumulates turbidites, which now bypass the basin on their way downslope to the next active depopod. Turbidite fill in Gulf of Mexico minibasins of the northern Green Canyon and Ewing Bank areas has been modeled by Rowan and Weimer (1998). They found that at the highest

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442

CHAPTER 6

Explanation 100o 45 W

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Figure 6.59. Geologic map of the La Popa Basin, Mexico. Anticlinal fold axes indicate structures attributed to the Hildagoan (Laramide) shortening (after Giles and Lawton, 2002). P-P' and X-X' are the locations of cross sections in Figures 6.60 and 6.61.

the Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary in what was a dominantly fine-grained siliciclastic shelfal environment. The La Popa structure is interpreted as a 25 km long salt weld with parallel flanking synclines, previously it was considered to be a reverse fault (Figure 6.60a, b; Giles and Lawton, 1999). The displacement surface is convex to the southwest and dips south to southwest. Stratigraphic displacement at the surface is zero at either end and increases to § 5 km halfway along the trace of the structure. The structure is the result of hangingwall subsidence during evacuation of Jurassic salt along a former diapiric salt wall. Sedimentation patterns on either side of the weld indicate the La Popa structure experienced

a two-phase history in Late Cretaceous to Eocene time: 1) A diapiric phase marked by rise of an elongate, arcuate salt wall that was symmetrically flanked by withdrawal synclines; 2) a subsequent evacuation phase recorded by substantially increased subsidence of the hanging wall relative to the footwall and the stratigraphic “welding” of footwall and hanging wall along a steep planar discontinuity (salt weld) created as salt withdrew from the former diapir. Superb exposures (over 10km along strike) of the largest reef complexes along the northern side of the La Popa Weld show that during the diapir stage these Paleocene lentils initially accreted as coral, sponge, red algal reef and oyster biostrome

SALT TECTONICS

443

Carbonate strata thin and become siliciclastic away from the La Popa salt wall and are intercalated with siliciclastics in the footwall syncline. The Delgado Sandstone Tongue of the Potrerillos Formation is a shelfal sandstone/siltstone that was deposited during salt wall growth as a complex, wave-

During growth of the salt wall in the Early Tertiary, thick prodeltaic and tidally-influenced shoreface siliciclastics periodically accumulated in the adjacent withdrawal syncline. Flute marks on bases of turbidite beds and channel axis orientations indicate a dominant palaeoflow along synclinal axes, with a component of flow away from the salt wall. Siliciclastic units thin and fine toward the salt wall, near which they are upturned and contain numerous synkinematic angular unconformities. During evacuation the volume of the wall declined, causing the

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complexes atop and immediately adjacent to the La Popa salt wall (Figure 6.60c). Large, steep (200m relief over 0.5km) forereef clinoforms indicate northward (downwind) progradation of the La Popa lentil away from seafloor high created by the La Popa salt wall. With a probable lowering of the local rate of salt induced uplift near this part of the salt wall, this reefal system was subsequently truncated, onlapped and possibly overlapped by a southward prograding grainstone bar complex. This shoal was derived from a separate source to the north, perhaps from another salt-related bathymetric high tied to the La Popa Diapir. To the north and west of the La Popa diapir the two carbonate complexes coalesced through time to generate a continuous carbonate sheet that now defines the La Popa lentil. It extended more than 5 km within what was at edge of a low created by a salt withdrawal/contractional syncline as salt was evacuated into the rising salt wall (Figure 6.60c).

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444

CHAPTER 6

El Papalote diapir is located on a major XOX FTF Z Z fold limb and has 2611 7 experienced approxiUb Tbmu!Gmbsf 2111 5 mately 100 m of net 7 Uqtt Lqt 2 shortening, whereas 2 5 Fm!Qbqbmpuf 611 4 Uqnv Uqm 3 El Gordo is located ejbqjs Lqm2 Lqm2 Uqe Lqnm along the axis of the 1 Lqt Lqnm same fold and has accommodated over Z Z 2 km of shortening 2!ln XOX FTF (Rowan et al., 2001). IBMPLJOFUJD!TFRVFODF!2 3 4 5 6 7 The corresponding Uqm7 Lqm2 Uqm6 Uqm5 Lqm2 Uqm4 Uqe Uqm halo of diapir-related Fm!Qbqbmpuf 3 ejbqjs drape folding, which is at most 800 m Pwfsuvsofe!cfet wide at El Papalote, Kf is up to 2 km wide at El Gordo. Carbonate Hzqtvn Nfub.jhofpvt!dmbtu Cmbdl!tibmf lentils, which formed Mjnftupof!dpohmpnfsbuf over the bathymetric Pztufs!boe!sfe!bmhbm Tjmutupof!boe highs associated with cjptuspnf gjof.hsbjofe!tboetupof both diapirs, are overFigure 6.61. Cross sections X-X' and Y-Y' through the El Papalote diapir (after Giles and Lawton, 2002). all shallower, thicker, Locality of cross section X-X is shown on Figure 6.59. broader and record fewer halokinetic sesynclinal hinge of the hanging wall to migrate laterally toward the developing weld. Hangingwall strata deposited during the quences at El Gordo than at El Papalote. Sandstone units start evacuation phase thicken, rather than thin, toward the weld. thinning within 300-800 m of the edge of El Papalote but within They define the weld syncline where sand-rich fluvial channels 1000-1500 m at El Gordo. Differences in style and distribution of halokinetic strata about the two diapirs imply that the uplift are concentrated directly adjacent to the weld. histories of the two features were different and that the buildup To the south of the La Popa salt weld are the El Papalote and atop the El Gordo structure more closely approached sealevel El Gordo diapirs, they have similar dimensions and are located (Rowan et al., 2003). 5 km apart (Figure 6.59). The at-surface diapiric material in both diapirs and portions of the weld is today a complex Sediments flanking the El Papalote diapir have been studied in mixture of gypsum, anhydrite and salt-transported exotic more detail than the other two structures with a view to definblocks of metamorphosed mafic intermediate igneous rocks ing typical successions in an ancient withdrawal sink and to and Jurassic carbonates (Garrison and McMillan, 1999). The test if such successions are amenable to sequence stratigraphic gypsum is created by rehydration of the anhydrite caprock atop analysis (Figures 6.61, 6.62; Giles and Lawton, 2002). At the Jurassic salt of the diapir core. Petrology and geochemistry the time sediments were accumulating, diapir-flanking strata of the meta-igneous blocks indicate derivation from partial thinned toward the diapir and were characterised by abrupt mantle melting during Jurassic rifting with greenschist facies lateral facies changes and intense local deformation. Strata can metamorphism dated at 146 Ma (40Ar/39Ar dating of biotite be broken out into a series of “halokinetic sequences,” which and potassium in meta-plutonic blocks). This date is younger are defined as unconformity-bounded strata, genetically related than that of the hosting Minas Viejas evaporite beds suggest- to halokinetic processes. ing high heat flow from the basement continued into the latest Jurassic. The various sedimentary and volcanic blocks were Each halokinetic sequence contains a basal debris-flow bed likely intercalated in bedded salt prior to halokinesis, while overlying an unconformity, which is angular directly adjacent the plutonics were intruded into the syn-rift fill and all were to the diapir and becomes disconformable to conformable with increasing distance from the diapir. Debris-flow or mass fragmented by extensional tectonics and salt flow. Fmfwbujpo!)n*

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Figure 6.62. Halokinetic sequence in a marine shelf setting, based on the stratigraphy of the lentil and associated sediments in the vicinity of the El Papalote diapir. Lower figure also shows the interpreted relationships between sediments and angular unconformities tied to diapir rise and to the sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the surrounding shelf and slope sediments. SB = sequence boundary; TST - transgressive system tract; HST = highstand system tract (after Giles and Lawton, 1999).



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Thickness of lower dolomite unit (m)

Pillara Limestone Reef Pillara Limestone Platform

LENS 1

Sadler Limestone

1m Dolomitic siltstone

Rhythmically banded ore

Breccia ore cavity fill

0 Dolomitic wackestones/ packstones

Dolomitic siltstone

Banded ore

Fine rock matrix breccias

Evaporite (anhydrite)

Figure 7.50. Cadjebut evaporites and mineralisation. A) Regional mine geology showing cored wells with and without evaporites. B) Correlation of ore lenses to solution breccias to evaporites in more distal positions from mine. C) Mapped ore face showing the different styles of ore texture in the mine. This ore horizon is laterally equivalent to an evaporite dissolution breccia, which in turn passes into equivalent anhydrite beds (after Warren and Kempton, 1997).

Cadjebut Mine had pre-mining reserves of 3.8 million tonnes of 17% combined zinc and lead. Ore grade mineralization (Zn-Pb) occurs as two stratabound lenses, referred to as “lens 1” and “lens 2” (Figure 7.50b), ranging in thickness from 4 to 6 metres. The width of the orebody varies from 50 to 150 m, as defined by a cut off grade of 7% lead-zinc, and is flanked to the north and south by hypogene alteration haloes of marcasite, calcite and baryte (Tompkins et al., 1994). The contact between ore grade mineralization (>7% Zn+Pb) and the alteration halo is usually abrupt over a distance of a few metres. In section, the ore-bearing lenses are stacked vertically above one another and separated by about 5 to 6m of barren or weakly mineralized dolostone (Figure 7.50b). In plan view, both ore lenses have a broad sinusoidal shape and display the same geometrical congruence. Two dominant ore types are present (Figure 7.50c): (a) stratiform, rhythmically banded zinc-rich ore; and (b) stratiform to stratabound, lead-rich breccia-hosted cavity-fill ore. The rhythmically banded ore occurs as four stratiform horizons,

two throughout lens 2 and two in the northern part of lens 1. Rhythmically banded baryte and/or rhythmically banded marcasite form a halo around the orebody and are associated with the rhythmically banded zinc-rich ore. There is a one-to-one correlation of sulphide-mineralised horizons in the Cadjebut Mine with evaporite dissolution breccia horizons in the immediate area around the mine, and with remnant bedded anhydrite units well away from the mine (Figure 7.50b). Evaporite beds were the precursor lithology to the sulphide ore lenses at Cadjebut. The stratabound linear nature of the Cadjebut deposit reflects a time when upwelling metalliferous basinal fluids interacted with bedded stratiform nodular anhydrite beds and trapped hydrocarbons to precipitate lead and zinc sulphides. Current structure in the mine region still preserves a gentle drape anticline, which Warren and Kempton (1997) interpret as a partial artifact of the mineralisation structure, enhanced by the sequential loss of the surrounding evaporites, after ore had locally replaced a bedded anhydrite precursor. The linear nature of the anticlinal structure



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572

CHAPTER 8

A.

Dev.

Carb.

0

Perm. Tr.

100

Jur.

Cret.

200

Tert.

300

400

Time (m.y.).

Early Burial Lithification White Dolomite (1 and 2) Slave Pt.

Presqu’ile dolomite Dolomite 1 and Dolomite 2

White Dolospar (2) Keg River Bitumen White Vugfilling Calcite

?

Quartz

? ?

Stylolitization Sulphide Mineralization

B. North

?

?

Presqu’le Dolomite - Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous South Muskwa-Fort Simpsom

High Ø, k

Otter Park Shale

Low Ø, k Basinal Slave Pt. Klua shale Low Ø, k

Slave Point

Watt Mt.

High Ø, k

Sulphur Pt.

Dense NaCl CaCl2-MgCl2 -H2O brines

Keg River Brine flowpaths

Cambrian to Chinchaga

?

?

Precambrian

Basement fault control on Cordova embayment

Presqu’ile Dolomite

Figure 8.4. A) Chart of diagenetic events for the Keg River to Slave Point strata. Presquile dolomitization (dolomite 1 and dolomite 2) precedes the thermal maturation of organic material and the emplacement of reservoir bitumen. Calcite cementation coincides approximately with the onset of gas generation followed by minor quartz and sulphide (sphalerite and galena) cementation. B) Schematic reconstruction of time of dominant Presquile dolomitization around the Cordova embayment. Dense residual Elk Point brines flowed downdip and northwestward by gravity displacement of less dense subsurface fluids. This flow was confined beneath the Watt Mountain Formation shale. The absence of this confining layer allowed upward flow of brines into the overlying porous Slave Point Formation, where downdip brine flow may have been deflected upward against the low permeability basin fill of shaly units of the Cordova embayment. Initially, dolomitization occurred at temperatures below 50°C, but an increase in basal heat flow and ongoing burial caused dolomite precipitation to continue at 130°C (after Morrow et al., 2002).

ongoing burial dissolution of evaporites, mixing with less saline thermobaric waters escaping from nearby shale and so precipitating later dolomite cements (type 2). These type 2 dolomites are much less voluminous than type 1 and precipitated at temperatures § 130°C during the Late Devonian-Carboniferous. Later lower salinity brines that precipitated late calcite cements and some latest type 2 dolomite may have interacted with connate fluids of marine origin or, less likely, with meteoric fluids (Morrow et al., 2002). The importance of a buried, slowly dissolving, salt mass in focusing thermobaric fluid flow throughout much of a basin·s burial history was also illustrated by Wolfgramm and Mumm (2000). They used fluid inclusion analyses to reconstruct the spatial and temporal variation of fluid composition and thermal properties within sediments beneath the Zechstein salt in northeast Germany. Precipitates from early thermobaric fluids, migrating in the deeper parts of the basin, were characterised by complex salinities, with sulphur contents that increased toward the contact with the Zechstein. This suggests a partial exchange with the overlying evaporites. Inclusions of coexisting fluids dominated by NaCl, CaCl2 and KCl are largely restricted to authigenic minerals in the Upper Carboniferous sediments and Rotliegende volcanics located in juxtaposition to the overlying evaporites. Younger, secondary fluid inclusions, sometimes containing gas phases, show increasing temperatures related to further burial. Thermal properties of all fluid inclusions indicate steep thermal gradients below the base of the Zechstein and Rotliegende sediments. This documents convective or advective heat and associated focused subsalt fluid flow in the deeper thermobaric parts of the basin. Throughout its burial history the Zechstein salt mass acts as the seal to a widespread convective system until its continuity is broken by salt withdrawal and thinning.

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inherent mechanism in almost all autochthonous and allochthonous salt masses (Chapter 6). It explains unexpected pressure rises when drilling through thick sequences of salt on the way to testing subsalt hydrocarbon traps or creating purpose built salt storage cavities (Chapters 10 and 12 respectively). Porous blocks intersected in drilling halokinetic salt can be isolated or clustered (Figure 8.15). Common practice is to bleed them down, since they usually have limited extent within the salt mass. At the well site the observed rate of depletion should give some idea of how long the process may take. In the worst case scenario one raft will “blow-out” into another leaving the rig operator to wait until equilibrium is established. Generally, no pressure transitions are observed prior to drilling into a raft, reflecting their isolated nature within the salt.

Figure 8.14. Tengiz oil field, Karzakstan. A) East west cross section showing how the evaporite seals the oil in a number of carbonate buildup traps. When the salt is breached at the Karaton structure the oil has escaped and the structure is water filled. B) Measured pressure plotted against depth, clearly shows the base of the evaporite (shaded grey) is the top of the overpressure (after Anissimov et al., 2000).

If hydrofracturing occurs with associated pressure release, growth-pulsed fibrous cements of halite, gypsum and carbonate may precipitate in new fracture nets immediately beneath the evaporite seal. But in systems where the evaporites are subsequently dissolved only carbonate vein fills and their fracture nets will remain as brittle sediment indicators beneath a layer of dissolution breccia or insoluble residues. Salt's impervious nature and its ability to flow, while intrasalt beds fracture, leads to interesting pressure scenarios wherever rafts are caught up in masses of halokinetic salt. Fracturing of intrasalt beds and encasement in flowing salt is an

In the Zechstein, for example, the Z3 bioclastic layer of dolomite, Plattendolomit, is deposited on top of the Z2 Stassfurt halite (Figure 5.48). A CaSO4 layer was precipitated as gypsum, followed by the Z3 evaporites and the Leine halite (Finnie et al., 2001). Water from the gypsum was expelled as the sulphate dewatered and transformed into anhydrite. The overlying halite did not permit the upward movement of this water and so it forced into the adjacent porous platy dolomites. The Plattendolomite, already contained fluid and so excess fluid was accommodated in part by pressure-driven leaching. When the Zechstein's most mobile salt layer, the Z2 Stassfurt halite, begins to move, it carries with it the overlying Platten/



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OIL AND GAS

Nø

Dø

Core ø

B.

Compensated neutron density log

Metres

Gunton Mbr.

Stony Mountain Fm.

Gunn Mbr. Hataven Mbr.

0

20

40

B-burrowed limestone

Fossiliferous

C-anhydrite

Bedded to enterolithic

C-laminated member

Limestone and dolomite, laminated to bedded

C-burrowed member

Limestone and/or dolomite, highly burrowed, common fossils

60

Ød

2650

Øn Argillaceous limestone

Anhydrite Dolomite Dolomitic limestone

Neutron

Top Red River

8600

U4-U6 zone

U2 U3 U4 U5

B cycle

U6-U7 zone

Dolomite as % of carbonate fraction

B zone

8700

8700

C zone U7

D.

10

0

-10

25

C C Neutron Ø

20

Density Ø

C C C C C C CC C J C C CJ J C JJ J J J J JJ JJC JJCJJJJJ JC C J J C J JJ JJC J J C C C C CCJ C C C CC C

15

10

5 D cycle 8800

20

Porosity (%)

8600

A zone top core

U6

8700 C cycle

Shading indicates evaporitic supratidal 8600

A cycle

30

Sandstone with silty shaly interbeds

C. Gamma

80

Shale with silty sandy interbeds

Wireline porosity (%)

Winnipeg Fm.

Mid Ordovician

Bedded to

Upper A-limestone burrowed, local fossils Laminated A-dolomite Bedded to Lower A-limestone burrowed, local fossils B-anhydrite Bedded to enterolithic B-laminated dolo Laminated,ostrocodes

2550

2600

Shaly limestone fossiliferous

Top Red River Fm.

Redvers Mbr. Coronach Mbr. Lake Alma Mbr.

Yeoman Fm.

Herald Fm.

RED RIVER

Upper Ordovician

Stony Mountain Fm.

Gamma PEF

Core

A.

717

D zone 8800

8800

0 0 Base of Core

5

CC CC JJ C C J C C JJ J JJ CJ JJ

10 15 Core Porosity (%)

20

Figure 10.6. Evaporitic mudflat (peritidal) style of deposition in the Ordovician Red River Dolomite, North Americas. A) Red River stratigraphy with wireline data from well 7-3-7-11W2 in Midale area, Saskatchewan (after Pu and Qing, 2003). B) Typical section showing detailed sedimentary character of the main cycles (after Longman et al., 1983). C) Core section in the Cabin Creek Field, shows the close relationship between dolomite occurrence and evaporite beds (after Clement 1985) D) Relationship between core porosity, neutron log and density log porosity in well 14-16-7-11W2 in Midale area Saskatchewan (after Pu and Qing, 2003).

“Burrowed Member,” which is around 9 m thick in the B zone and up to 90 m thick in the C zone; 2) irregularly laminated carbonate mudstones that constitute a 3-12 m-thick “Laminated Member;” and 3) an impure 3-6 m capping anhydrite showing nodular-mosaic, nodular, or enterolithic textures (Figure 10.6c). All members thin toward the edge of the basin where the anhydrites disappear completely.

Subtidal lithologies in each cycle are classic Zone X sediments composed of partially dolomitized burrowed biomicrite wackestones with fragments of echinoids, brachiopods, bryozoans, trilobites, molluscs, ostrocodes, and gastropods, and lesser amounts of solitary corals and stromatoporoids (Figure 5.16). These subtidal dolomitic units are poorly bedded and heavily bioturbated and were laid down in a quiet-water epeiric platform setting.



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with some porosity enhancement of partially dolomitised intervals occurring during later burial by partial dissolution of residual calcite matrix. The initial formation of dolomite may well have been bacterially mediated and focused along organic-rich linings of the burrows (Gingras et al., 2004). The mechanism was perhaps similar to that of the sulphate-reducing bacteria forming modern dolomites in the mesohaline salinas of Brazil (Figure 4.16). Dolomite-lined burrow meshworks acted as a focus for subsequent dolomitisation.

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There is general agreement that sjuf sjuf oize Z D.B oize Y dolomites of the mottled Red D.B River C member are genetically related to Mg-rich brines seeping through restricted marine muddy carbonates. These dense hypersaline basin waters were depleted of their calcium and Ujhiu-!dszqupdsztubmmjof!epmpnjuf sulphate, either through attendant deposition of aragonite and Qpspvt!epmpnjuf gypsum, or perhaps by ongoing Ujhiu!mjnftupof bacterial sulphate reduction. 41!n What is not agreed is whether Pjm the dolomitising brines were de2!ln Gmpx!qbui!pg!epmpnjujtjoh scending or ascending at the time gmvjet!qsjps!up!ujmujoh of widespread dolomitisation. Longman et al. (1983) argued Figure 10.8. Models explaining the occurrence of patchy diagenetic dolomite that characterthat brine migration was local- ises much of the reservoir in the various fields in the Red River Formation. A) The descendised by “holes” in the anhydrite ing hole model of Longman et al., 1983. B) the ascending megapolygon model of Kendall mudflat seal (Figure 10.8a). (1983). See text for discussion. Fracturing, minor faulting, or Perkins (1991) agreed with the brine reflux model for the early expulsion of subsurface waters from the carbonate host widespread mimetic dolomite fabric but went on to argue probably formed the “holes.” When the descending Mg-rich that following further burial, limestones tended to chemically hypersaline brines first entered the underlying carbonate compact through pressure solution, whereas late stage fractures sediments beneath the “holes” they were oversaturated and pre- were localized in the more brittle dolomitised portions of the cipitated cryptocrystalline dolomite (overdolomitisation), but as Red River Formation. These fractures served as conduits for they migrated away from the holes they lost their potency and late stage leaching fluids, possibly associated with hydrocarproduced rhombs floating in a dissolving calcitic matrix. This bon generation, which locally enhanced porosity in dolomite calcite may have been precipitated as an early diagenetic phase intervals adjacent to active fractures through the removal of or left as unreplaced vestiges of original calcite (or aragonite associated calcite. On the scale of individual burrows, latesubsequently altered to calcite) during dolomitization. stage leaching is reflected in “overly porous” dolomite haloes

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D overall. The top of the Arab-D carbonate is characterized by a thinner unit of dolomitised carbonate mudstone (Zone 1), capped by an evaporite seal. By far the most abundant reservoir rock texture in the Arab-D is packstone; likewise, the most abundant reservoir lithofacies is skeletal-oolitic (SO; Tables 10.3, 10.4; Cantrell and Hagerty, 2003). The other significant lithofacies in the Ghawar reservoir are; Cladocoropsis (a characteristic finger-shaped and sized stromatoporoid) lithofacies (CLADO), stromatoporoid-red algae-coral lithofacies (SRAC), bivalve-coated grain-intraclast lithofacies (BCGI), micritic lithofacies (MIC) and dolomite lithofacies (DOLO), all of which are described in detail by Mitchell et al. (1988). Similar, if not identical, lithofacies make up Arab D reservoirs in other fields in Saudi Arabia and the western United Arab Emirates. In a detailed petrographic and petrophysical characterisation of the Ghawar Arab D reservoir Cantrell and Hagerty (2003) defined seven related limestone reservoir rock types based on the values of: (1) the amount of cement, (2) the amount of matrix (lime mud), (3) the grain sorting/grain packing, (4) the dominant pore type, and (5) the size of the largest moulds (Tables 10.4, 10.5; Figure 10.15).

At the broadest scale of reservoir classification the Arab D reservoirs are either limestone or dolomite (Table 10.5) In terms of porosity and [pof!4C permeability in the limestones, the amount of matrix is the most important of these five parameters and breaks down into three reservoir types (1-III). Cantrell and Hagerty (op cit.) break our two broad families, A and B in each of the Hsbjotupof Xbdlftupof Epmpnjuf three reservoir types (Table 10.5), Family, A, is relatively coarse-grained and poorly sorted Qbdltupof Mjnf!nvetupof Epmpnjujd!mjnftupof rock with relatively large moulds. Family, B, is Figure 10.14. Reservoir zonation, porosity and permeability in the Arab D Formation in Uthmaniyah Field, which is an operational area within the much a generally fine to medium-grained, well-sorted rock with few or small moulds. Together this larger Ghawar Field, Saudi Arabia. (after Saner and Sahin, 1999). constitute 6 families of reservoir rock in the Arab D. Reservoir rock type IV is a seventh in dolomitized portions of the reservoir. Each of the major limestone family in Ghawar. Type IV limestones contains more upward-shoaling cycles that make up the Arab D was initiated than 10 percent cement, this modifies pore size distribution in deeper subtidal water that shoaled to near sea-level. The enough to warrant a separate limestone reservoir family (Figure proportion of skeletal grainstones and packstones, along with 10.15). Each of the seven limestone types are characterized ooid grainstones, increase within each cycle and within the Arab 7811

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(Elliott and Warren, 1989). Shaly carbonate mudstones define the base of each cycle; they are the initial low-energy deeper water deposits formed atop a flooding surface. These laminar mudstones are overlain by more massive biomicritic packstones and wackestones (§ 10m thick) containing brachiopods, bryozoa, crinoids, molluscs, and cephalopods, sometimes forming what may be local low relief bioherms with phylloid algal debris. These various mudstones were deposited on an open marine shelf, initially below wave base and under low-energy conditions.

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Figure 10.22. San Andres Formation in the Levelland-Slaughter trend near Roswell, New Mexico (after Elliott and Warren, 1989; Warren, 1991). A) North-south section through Chaves and Roosevelt counties in the vicinity of Chaveroo Field. B) Map of the LevellandSlaughter trend and its equivalents in the San Andres outcrop belt west of Roswell.

(Figure 10.22a). There the main play is in the Permian San Andres Formation with the occurrence of better quality reservoir defined by the transition from platform carbonates in the south into updip massive anhydrites and halites in the north. The lower member of the San Andres contains two evaporitesealed intervals (P1 and P2) that form the main reservoirs (Figure 10.22b). The producing style is a stratigraphic-diagenetic trap defined by updip pinchout (to the north) from a porous dolomite into nonporous evaporite-plugged dolomite beneath regionally extensive evaporite seals. Production from most dolomite reservoirs in the trend is slow but constant. Cleaning-upward cycles in the lower member can be divided into 5 lithofacies groupings (P1 to P5) stacked into shoaling upward successions, with each cycle being 15 -50 m thick

Next comes the dolomitized intervals (typical matrix porosities 10-12%; permeabilities 2030md), which constitute the main reservoir in the trend (Figure 10.23a). It is by far the most variable carbonate unit and in places retains remnants of primary texture, giving three variably dolomitised subtypes:

1 . Wi s p y l a m i n a t e d t o microstylolitised biomicrites, intramicrites, and peloidal micrites and packstones that entrain poorly preserved open marine faunas. Skeletal material is typically preserved as moulds, which near to the anhydrite cap are filled or partially filled with anhydrite cement. This is the most common reservoir unit in the Slaughter-Levelland trend. 2. Oolitic peloid-foram grainstones, which were deposited as localized shoals (uncommon unit in the Slaughter-Levelland trend). 3. Inter- to supratidal mudstones with fenestra, pisolites, biolaminites, and possible desiccation cracks (uncommon unit in the Slaughter-Levelland trend).

Next comes a massive to laminar anhydrite unit that historically was interpreted as a sabkha deposit (Ward et al., 1986). It is metres-thick in the Slaughter-Levelland trend and is made up of a dm-scale interbedded nodular anhydrite and laminated

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Figure 10.34. Fault-focused late dolomitisation in the Scipio-Albion trend, Michigan (after Hurley and Budros, 1990). A) Structural stratigraphic interpretation of the Albion-Scipio trend. The fault/fracture set that controls dolomitization is pre Devonian. B) Structural cross section of the Scipio-Albion Field. Note that the field is located in a synclinal trend (not usual for a hydrocarbon trap) and there is a rapid lateral transition from a regional nonreservoir limestone into a permeable reservoir dolomite that also hosts late stage anhydrite and other authigenic burial salts. Lost circulation and fracture zones in such fields are common indicators of secondary dolomite-hosted porosity. Note that the seal is a shale not evaporite in this system but the chloride-rich basinal brine responsible for the hydrothermal dolomite has a chemistry strongly influenced by evaporite dissolution deeper in the basin.

pinnacle reefs. During the early drawdown stage the formative hydrology perhaps allowed some pinnacle reefs to remain open, while others further out in the basin were plugged by evaporite cements from brine reflux. Then during later burial the salt bed focused the flow of upwelling basinal waters and the precipitation of later authigenic cements both along its underside and within the salt-sealed pinnacle reefs.

Evaporite-sealed platform and reefs, Devonian, Canada Early Devonian (pre-Keg River time) in the Alberta Basin of Canada was dominated by multiple-cycle platform evaporite deposits ending with deposition of planar anhydrite sheets of the Chinchaga Formation and shales of the Ashern Formation (Tinker and Kirby, 1991). The lower Keg River/Winnipegosis was deposited as a marine carbonate ramp in shallow waters <75 m deep. Contemporaneous faulting and uplift during Middle Devonian time initiated development of a platform margin composed of stacked, porous (15-25%) packstone and grainstone shoals (Figure 10.35a). Pinnacle and bank growth in on or near the platform edge was contemporaneous with epeiric shelf deposition. Keg River/Winnipegosis deposition ended

with restriction of the basin and subsequent deposition of the basinwide evaporites of the Middle Devonian Muskeg/Prairie Formation (Figure 11.19). Since the initial discoveries in the mid-1960·s, the Keg River/ Winnipegosis has produced hydrocarbons from a variety of dolomitic trap types with the largest volumes coming from evaporite-sealed pinnacle reefs. In 1991, Tinker and Kirby listed the following produced volumes; Rainbow/Zama subbasin (>650 MMBO cum.) and in equivalents in southern Saskatchewan (>2 MMBO cum.); shelf-margin carbonates at Temple Field (>3 MMBO cum.); middle shelf carbonates at Senex (>2 MMBO cum.); inner shelf carbonates in northeastern Montana, southern Saskatchewan, and southern Alberta (>10 MMBO cum.); and inner shelf siliciclastics at Utikima Lake (>75 MMBO cum.). Historically, regions of high production in Middle Devonian carbonates lay to the west and northwest of Calgary, where evaporites acted as the seal for most of the higher volume fields with Keg River/Winnipegosis production (Figure 10.35a). Production in the Rainbow-Zama sub-basin has been declining since the late 1980s. More recent discoveries are smaller and lie along the basin edge, mostly in a region

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oil production within the North Ward-Estes Field from 1929 through 1989 was more than 365 million BBL, with oil-in-place estimated at more than 1 billion BBL. Siliciclastic reservoirs in the middle shelf provide most of the hydrocarbon production within the trend, whereas associated interbedded dolomites contributed patchy minor amounts of economic porosity to this play. Porosity distribution in the various Ward-Estes reservoir layers is best modelled using a depositional model based on a continent-coupled eolian to evaporitic mudflat to shelf setting, with superimposed early evaporite dissolution at the strandzone. Hydrocarbon traps form on gentle structural culminations sealed by updip evaporites. Hydrocarbon maturation and migration from the Delaware basin to the shelf reservoirs occurred during the Cretaceous and early Tertiary (Hills, 1984). In his comprehensive analysis of the late Guadalupian (Permian) Yates Formation reservoir sands, Andreason (1992) showed that the siliciclastic facies were part of a broad, evaporative mudflat that extended across a wide area of platform behind the Capitan reef. Cyclic sea level fluctuations produced a succession of dolomites, evaporites, and siliciclastics as the evaporative coastal plain oscillated across the Yates shelf. Moving landward,

the environments were; (1) lagoon, (2) intertidal algal flat, (3) beach ridge, (4) siliciclastic sabkha, and (5) sand sheet/playa mud flat/salina/saltern (Figure 10.39a). Evaporitic cycles, which formed on the inner shelf and landward, grade upward from massive subaqueous-dominant anhydrites into nodular mudflat anhydrites with increasing volumes of siliciclastic mudstone interbeds (playa mudflats). Carbonate-based depositional cycles consist of basal lagoonal peloid and skeletal dolostones, which grade upward into tidal-flat dolostones, beach-ridge sandstones, and finally into siliciclastic sabkhat. The characteristic disrupted (haloturbated) textures of the Yates siliciclastics were created by surficial and interstratal halite growth during seasonal flooding and subsequent desiccation in a sabkha environment (Andreason, 1992). A siliciclastic accretionary complex, composed of stacked beach ridges and detrital sabkhas, formed behind a pisolitic strandzone. Local siliciclastic accumulations also occurred over sinks or depressions produced by the dissolution of underlying bedded sulphates. Such dissolution breccias are defined by stacked horizons, made up of sharp clast-to-clast angular rudstones to floatstones with sharp basal contacts with the underlying

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Figure 10.39. Characterisation of Yates Fm., Ward-Estes Field (after Andreason, 1992). A) Total Yates interval isopach showing Yates shelf is divisible into; 1) an outer shelf that includes the Capitan Reef, the backreef flats and the pisolite shelf crest, 2) a middle shelf composed of stacked beach ridges and siliciclastic sabkhas, and 3) evaporitic mudflats made up of extensive flats, salinas and stabilised sand sheets. Hydrocarbons are concentrated in the middle shelf. B) Isopach of the intra-Yates J-Dolomite unit. Shade unit defines the extent of the evaporite collapse breccias that separates inner shelf lagoon from evaporitic mudflat. Depression defined by collapse was filled with greater thicknesses of overlying siliciclastic sand.

756

CHAPTER 10

cryptalgalaminated dolostones and sharp to gradational crackle upper contacts with the overlying subtidal carbonates (peloidal and fossiliferous dolostones). Because of pervasive soft-sediment deformation atop the dissolving mudflat evaporites, these intervals are easily misidentified in core as storm beds or erosive marine transgressive surfaces. Breccia beds correlate

with anhydrite beds (mostly subaqueous) in the inner shelf and with dolomitic mudstones to the west (middle to outer shelf). That dissolution was early is indicated by the excellent correlations between the zone of collapse and a region of differential thickening within the overlying siliciclastics (Figure 10.39b). What is unclear is whether dissolution was driven by a relative sea level rise or fall.

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Figure 10.40. Evolution of Yates Shelf (after Andreason, 1992). Early highstand (Stage 1) is characterised by shelf submergence, lagoonal carbonate deposition across the middle shelf and massive evaporites precipitating in embayments and isolated ponds on the inner shelf. As the shelf becomes more emergent during late highstand (stage 2), broad tidal flats extend across the middle shelf and the pisolitic shelf crest becomes re-established. Eolian driven siliciclastics bypass the shelf during lowstand (Stage 3) and deposit within the Delaware Basin, As sealevel rises during the transgressive phase (Stage 4), beach-ridge complexes and siliciclastic sabkhas accrete and prograde in response to a rising water table. This is the phase when most of the siliciclastic Yates reservoirs were deposited.

As we saw in Chapter 2, preservation of evaporites into the early burial realm depends on the maintenance of a narrow range of saline conditions. Dissolution occurs if undersaturated fluids contact the bed at any time during the evaporite's deposition or shallow burial, either from an influx of fresh, meteoric water or from “freshened” seawater. Solution breccias of the lower Yates occur only in the middle shelf and develop preferentially along the seaward extent of the region of massive epeiric saltern sulphates, suggesting dissolution was driven by influxes of normal marine water during relative sealevel rises (Andreason, 1992). The boundary between the collapse breccias and the massive sulphates marks the position of a concentration boundary on the submerged shelf where evaporative outflow exceeds marine free inflow and gypsum saturation was reached. Andreason argues this concentration boundary was shifted laterally relative to the magnitude of the sea level rise. When located seaward of this concentration boundary and given

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758

CHAPTER 10

A.

Rotliegende sands of Northern Netherlands and North Sea

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Figure 10.42. Rotliegende of Northern Netherlands (after Amthor and Okkerman, 1998). A) Depositional setting. B) Distribution of porosity and permeability, indicating a relationship between depositional environment, early diagenesis, and reservoir quality. C) b34S and b18O of anhydrite cements relative to geographic well position; oxygen isotopic compositions increase progressively from proximal to distal wells, whereas the sulphur isotopic compositions decrease. Such depletion in b34S and concomitant enrichment in b18O is the result of progressive evaporation in an arid alluvial to marginal desert-sabkha Rotliegende depositional setting. D) Conceptual model of groundwater evolution and its precipitates across an alluvial to sand flat/playa profile with the likely positions of three Rotliegende wells from Figure 10.41a indicated.

Rotliegende Formation sandstones in the southern North Sea are important Lower Permian gas reservoirs, with recoverable reserves of 4.25 x1012 m3 (150 tcf; Figure 10.41a; Glennie, 1990; Sweet, 1999), they also host much of the onshore gas of the Netherlands and NE Germany including the giant Groningen gas field in the Netherlands. Rotliegende reservoirs in the Netherlands are mostly sandstones and conglomerates deposited in an arid alluvial to marginal desert sand/mudflat and fluvial environments. They are intercalated with shales and evaporites deposited in saline lake/playa settings (Figure 10.41, 10.42a). The northward transport of metamorphic, volcanic, and sedimentary rocks shed from Variscan highlands supplied most of the siliciclastics. In the Netherlands, reservoir quality was significantly affected by early diagenetic processes in a marginal desert/ playa lake environment (Figure 10.41b, 10.42a,b; Amthor and Okkerman, 1998). Further offshore in the southern Zechstein Basin, burial-related products and processes are perhaps more significant and have received more attention than early diagenetic processes as controls on reservoir quality (Figures 7.72, 7.73). According to Amthor and Okkerman (op. cit.) these earlier studies of burial anhydrite cements have largely neglected the effects that early diagenesis can have on reservoir quality and well productivity of Rotliegende sandstones. They argue that much of the precipitation of the main porosity-occluding cements (dolomite, anhydrite, and quartz) occurred early, not late, in the diagenetic history of the Rotliegende reservoirs of the Northern Netherlands and was tied to variations in the syndepositional hydrology. Oxygen isotope values of dolomite cements (b18OSMOW = 18.4 to 23.4 ‰ ) suggest that meteoric water played a major role throughout the diagenetic history (Figure

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or so ago, most seismic reflection information in halokinetic provinces was acquired as 2D data; today, most seismic data is acquired as 3D data volumes. The 3D cube provides a dense grid of subsurface information, which can be used to more accurately map salt body contacts and shapes. Older vintage seismic used mathematical models for conventional migration and processing that assumed that the acoustic properties of subsurface sediments did not make abrupt lateral variations. This assumption obviously breaks down near salt structures; a solution required cheap computing power, more sophisticated depth migration techniques and denser data grids. Positioning of contacts in older vintage data can sometimes be improved using more recent processing algorithms and greater computing power, offering a cheaper but less accurate alternative to reshooting a grid. The notion that salt flow was a horizontal as well as a vertical process was increasingly accepted by the late 1980s. It opened up a whole new set of subsalt or more correctly suballochthon plays in the deep waters of the slope and rise in the circum Atlantic salt basins and similar terranes elsewhere in the world. At the same time drilling technology was improving rapidly, along with geosteering capabilities and broader MWD logging tool suites. Each year wells were being spudded in progressively deeper water. For example, ultradeepwater exploration in Gulf of Mexico, in the decade through to the early millennium, has found more than 3-4 billion BOE in nine major discoveries, in a hydrocarbon exploration province previously considered mature (Enger and Logan., 2001).

But before we discuss the sub-allochthon traps we will look at the suprasalt trap, which was the classic exploration association in halokinetic regions prior to the 1980s. Historic limitations in seismic resolution meant that examples of suprasalt-related oil and gas traps were done in the context of subvertical thumb-like appendages of salt fed by a direct connection to a mother salt bed below. Interpretations of the many producing structures in the onshore and shelf waters were biased toward this older notion of strongly vertical salt flows with salt pillows as the precursor to subvertical diapir stems. We now know that many nonpiercing pillow structures can be compressional features created during inversion or foot of slope gravity gliding (Figure 6.34). Other pillows do form in response to depositional loading as a flow stage preceding the diapiric stage (Figure 6.15). This is the classic model of Trusheim (1960) and based on his extensive work in the Zechstein salt structures of northern Germany. More recent work, even in this classic area, shows thumb-like geometries and associated assumptions of a connection to a more deeply buried mother salt bed are not necessarily correct (Mohr et al., 2004). Isolated rising blebs cut off from the source layer are more likely in the mature portions of many salt basins undergoing compression and inversion. This notion perhaps offers some possibilities for future sub-salt flange sealing plays even in very mature regions of onshore and shelf exploration in the Gulf of Mexico and onshore Europe. But, such traps are likely to be small and discontinuous. Currently the possibility of drilling giant structures in the deep waters of the Gulf of Mexico and other circum Atlantic salt basins are more appealing to the exploration economics of large and mid-sized oil companies.

OIL AND GAS

765

Supradiapiric traps Oil and gas reservoirs atop salt structures are as varied as the shapes and timings of the salt structures that caused them. Salt buoyancy means areas above shallow actively flowing salt structures are topographic highs, while the areas between are topographic lows (Table 6.3; Figure 6.51). Fluvio-deltaic, coastal, and submarine slope deposits are usually sand poor over the salt crest (Figure 6.50). Most of the coarser-grained sediments in either setting is deposited in troughs as various types of channel fill and beach deposit, especially in landscape depressions atop zones of active salt withdrawal. In continental settings the pinchout of the high-porosity sand occurs along the flanks of a salt structure, usually well down-dip from the crest. Occasionally, reservoirs can form in the muddy crestal sediments in a continental setting due to diagenesis associated with subaerial exposure and/or unconformities. In arid coastal areas the crest could have been covered by evaporitic mudflats as environments tied to the development of early dolomite in pelleted mudstones with the associated formation of good intercrystalline porosity (Figure 6.56).

Reef rubble zones throughout the Smackover trend tend to have reservoir-quality porosity, but reef boundstones are economic only when extensively leached, dolomitized, and fractured. Such alteration can create commercial production from reef crests with mean porosities of 15% and permeabilities of 20 md. Hatters Pond Field is typical of a field where the reef crest is tight and depositional facies crosscut the reservoir trend. The distribution of the reef was controlled by the position of the Jurassic high above a growing autochthonous salt pillow, while the trap was created during Cretaceous faulting associated with the structure·s diapiric stage (Worrall and Warren, 1986). The level of the reservoir dolomite lies well below the reef crest and above a dolomite unit characterised by post-hydrocarbon saddle dolomite. As in bedded evaporites, the initial porosity controls in carbonate reservoirs atop salt pillows and diapirs are often depositional, but are usually complicated by closures and alteration haloes related to fault welds and subsequent fluid flow. Siliciclastic examples of closure forming high capacity suprasalt reservoirs by sand-shale juxtaposition across clay-smeared extensional faults can be seen atop salt structure crests in the West Bay Field in Louisiana and the Heidelberg Field in Mississippi (Halbouty, 1979). Bay Marchand - Caillou Island Field is a classic example of this style of fault-controlled suprasalt sand reservoir above the crest of salt structure (Figures 8.23a, 10.44). The three diapirs that constitute the field are passive diapirs atop a salt wall feed. Under the new paradigms of flow that have been developed since this structure was documented by Frey and Grimes (1970), it can now be seen to be the remnant of what was an active salt feeder systems with the current fault weld once acting as a salt wall

In nonpiercement structures in shelf settings the high-porosity sediments tend to form atop or immediately adjacent to a suprasalt crestal shoal (Figures 6.57). Boundstones, skeletal and oolitic grainstones, and well-winnowed siliciclastics are found on such highs. For example, studies by Mancini and Benson (1980) and Ahr and Palko (1981) of the Jurassic Smackover Formation reservoirs in southwest Alabama and Louisiana show that reservoirs often occur in oolitic-pisolitic grainstones located over salt pillow crests, while Montgomery et al. (1999a, b) describe hydrocarbon accumulations in numerous inboard Jurassic (Cotton Valley - Bossier) reefs atop salt pillows and diapirs in the East Texas Basin (Figure 10.43). Similar Jurassic stromatolite and coral Dbjmmpv!Jtmboe Cbz!Nbsdiboe Ujncbmjfs!Cbz E stromatoporoid reefs are found V E V 1 6 E V in the Smackover atop other 45 61 E V E V 42 salt pillows, such as the Walker V E Creek Field, Arkansas, in the V E 35 11 Hico Knowles Field, Louisiana V 38 E (Baria et al., 1982), and Hatters 11 E V 32 Pond in southwest Alabama. 11 E There the Smackover buildups E E E E V 4111 are typically 3 - 40 m (10 - 130 E 4411 E Tbmu ft) thick, commonly elongate, 4:1 E 1 21!ln Npcjmf!tibmf 4711 and several square kilometres Dpoupvst!jo!nfusft in plan. Figure 10.44. Structure contours (in metres) on the productive Upper Miocene sand in the

vicinity of the Bay Marchand - Timbalier Bay - Caillou Island diapirs, coastal Louisiana. Diapirs merge at depth into a salt wall and occur along a main extensional fault linking all three domes, each with its own association of radial faults (after Frey and Grimes, 1970).

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feeding diapiric allochthons higher in the section. Most of the extension driving the faulting was a response to gravity gliding and salt deflation and not the active intrusion visualised in the original interpretation. The faults show radial, peripheral, or tangential patterns relative to the salt stock. Elsewhere in the Gulf of Mexico similar faults have downfaulted, uplifted, or overthrusted sands against impervious shales and multiple stacked reservoirs are stacked up against the fault (e.g. Bryan Salt Mound, Brazoria County, Texas).

Syndepositional suprasalt traps occur in the sand-rich edges to withdrawal synclines, along with associated pinchouts onto the diapir crest (Figure 10.45a). An example of this type of reservoir is the West Saratoga Field, Hardin County, Texas. There, multiple Yegua sand reservoirs shale out as they pass into the Saratoga Salt Dome (Galloway et al., 1983). The secondary peripheral sink continued to subside as the diapir grew (downbuilding), resulting in steep dips in the sand units as they shale out into the diapir stem (Figure 10.45a) Subsequent loss of salt supply and cap rock formation may cause loss of salt volume and local collapse around the salt stem (Figure 10.45b). Steeply dipping suprasalt reservoirs are characterized by stacked thick oil columns, which may approach 300 m (1,000 ft) where they pile one atop the other alongside the salt or a clay-smeared Recent

Many of the numerous radial faults drawn in older interpretations of suprasalt traps (pre-1990), were published prior to the industry's recognition of salt's intrinsic lack of strength under tension. These interpretations tended to visualise faulting (mostly inferred rather than intersected) as a response to buoyancy and active salt intrusion. This is understandable as in most cases much of the salt that fed into an allochthon has long since dissolved or moved on to higher levels in the stratigraphy, via what are now deflated salt welds. In more recent interpretations of the same structures the faults are seen to be a response to salt withdrawal and to downbuilding in the adjacent sediments. High resolution seismic has shown that many of the inferred radial faults of older interpretations do not exist. Such faults were inferred in order to explain discontinuities between sands in adjacent areas. In reality, many of these discontinuities, are more often a response to unconformities and depositional pinchouts rather than fault-outs, especially in flank traps.

For example, a reinterpretation of the Cote Blanche Field in Louisiana in the mid 1990s, based on newly acquired 3D seismic reduced the number of radial faults in the crest of the field to nine, compared to more than thirty in mid 1970s vintage 2D interpretations. But radial faults do exist about salt structures and are largely a response to salt deflation during the passive stage of diapirism or are a response to later basin inversion and diapir squeezing. In halokinetic extensional terranes that have been subject to later compression, such as parts of the North Sea, offshore UK and Norway, many of the earlier radial faults are reactivated and have evolved into inversion structures (Figure 6.42).

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768

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its position in earth space while the flanks subsided so that most flank traps are of two interrelated types (Figure 10.45a; Halbouty, 1979): a) Traps created by sedimentation and erosion contemporaneous with salt movement; b) Traps created by the relative upward movement of the salt (downbuilding). Stacked flank and unconformity traps have yielded greater volumes of hydrocarbons per acre than any other type of trap in the Gulf of Mexico (Halbouty, 1979). The diapir stage is also the time when turtle structure anticlines form in the salt-withdrawal basins between diapirs (Figure 6.17). The region above a turtle is often a topographic high where high-energy shelf sands and reefs accumulate atop an anticlinal drape, creating an excellent trap for the subsequent accumulation of hydrocarbons. A good example is the giant Fairway Field in Lower Cretaceous James Reef Limestones in Henderson and Anderson counties, east Texas (Terriere, 1976, Achauer, 1985). The reservoir is a rudist-reef complex above a shoaling turtle structure and is situated on a saddle between the metres SW 0 salt-withdrawal areas of Boggy Creek, Brushy Creek, and La Rue 5000 Domes (Figure 10.46). 10000

The growth of a turtle structure between the La Rue, Brooks and Boggy Creek diapirs converted what was a muddy area of open shelf limestones into a shoal area of rudist reefs and grainstone shoals. Postdepositional faulting truncated the northwestern and northeastern margins of the trap, which is now a southeastplunging nose (Figure 10.46a). Reservoir porosity is largely secondary and is better quality in the meteorically leached portions of mechanically deposited rudist grainstone belts rather than in the reef proper (Figure 10.46b). Secondary porosity tied to halokinetic activity after the reef growth stopped is also the case in many other rudist grainstone buildups atop or adjacent to salt structures in the Gulf of Mexico and the Middle East (e.g. Mishrif Formation

A.

Zechstein Salt in pillow formed in response to compression (basin inversion)

in Umm al Dalk Field, UAE). The main control on reservoir quality in these Cretaceous oil and gas fields is karstification and exposure, driven by periodic seafloor shoaling near or atop the underlying salt structure. Pervasively dolomitised Albian oolite pisolite sands also form extensive reservoirs atop turtle structures in the offshore of Angola (Eichenseer at al., 1999). Chalk reservoirs above salt structures, such as Danian chalks in Ekofisk, Machar and Medan fields in the North Sea, often had the crestal reservoir properties enhanced by the movement of subadjacent salt during basin inversion (Figure 10.47). Tension was created in the chalk above the growing salt structure and this lead to gravitationally-induced microfracturing (D·Heur, 1990a). Oil migrated up these fractures in the chalk and, when the oil column in the fracture system was 50 to 100 m tall, the buoyancy force was sufficient to overcome the high entry pressures inherent in narrow pore throats. Oil was then stored in the matrix as well as in the various fractures. Hardman and MACHAR

MEDAN

NE

Late Tertiary Early Tertiary Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Permian and older

Zechstein Salt in squeezed diapir

5 km

3000 2400

MACHAR Top Chalk Depth Structure 2000

1800

1600

1400 Salt piercement

2000 2200 2400 2600 2800

B.

3000

2 km Contours in metres TVDSS

Figure 10.47. Machar Field, UK sector North Sea. A) Interpretive cross section showing position of field and a geometry that is a response to compression of a formerly extensional salt structure. B) Contoured top of chalk in metres TVDSS showing zone of piercement of Zechstein salt (after Foster and Rattey, 1993).

2,/$1'*$6

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770

CHAPTER 10

exploration in other circum Atlantic basins. As yet this work is not as extensively documented as the Gulf of Mexico, but is a rapidly expanding dataset (see Figures 6.18, 6.37, 6.38).

of the published exploration paradigm for salt allochthon plays comes from the Gulf of Mexico and the examples and models cited in this section largely come from there. However, similar paradigms of allochthon development are being used to drive

Since 1975 over 21.2 billion barrels of oil equivalent have been discovered in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico, while some 9.2 tcf of gas and 2,200 mmbl were produced between 1979 and the end of 2002. Deepening water depths of the various discoveries reflect this time-related technological development (Figure 10.49a; Table 10.7). There were 232 commercial fields discovered in the Gulf during the period from 1975 to the end of 2003 (Cossey, 2004). The current mean size of these discoveries is 94.3 mmbl oil equivalent. The two largest deepwater fields found to date are Mars (750 mmbl oil equivalent) and Thunder Horse (1,000 mmbl oil equivalent and possibly as high as 3,000 mmbl). Thunder Horse was not discovered until 1999, a quarter century after the 1975 discovery

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772

CHAPTER 10

A.Texas

B.

Louisiana

Louisiana New Orleans

Houston

Subsalt shallower water play Shelf (flex) trend

Monazite Discovery

Gemini Discovery

Mickey Discovery

Deeperwater Subsalt Trend Sigsbee Esc

Tanzanite Mahogany Teak Discovery Discovery Discovery

Shelf margin

0

arpment

miles 100

USA Mexico

Conger Discovery Baldpate Discovery

Enchilada Discovery

Hickory N. Lobster Discovery Discovery 0

Agate Discovery

100

miles

Figure 10.50. Allochthon-related discoveries in the Gulf of Mexico. A) Distribution of shelf and deep water salt plays in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. (in part after Cossey, 2004). B) Selected early discoveries, until the mid 1990s, in the updip slope and rise minibasin province in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (not in as deep water as most of today's targets).

belt and a “primary basin” belt (Figures 6.30; 10.51a; Shinol, 2000 as reported in Shirley, 2000). Large volumes of salt have been lost in this region via allochthon evacuation, dissolution and weld creation. In terms of salt allochthon evolution much of the Flex trend and the Primary Basin region has evolved well past the canopy stage and the area is now a relict thrust fold belt (Figure 10.51b). The minibasin play, as the name implies, encompasses sand deposition associated with the development salt depopods and minibasins (Figure 6.25). It is typically located in somewhat deeper water than the exploitation began in 1983 with the discovery of Bullwinkle. The fold belt trend is located beneath and downdip of the canopy belt and encompasses reservoirs developed by compressional folding at the downslope end of a developing allochthon belt. It constitutes the deepest water region of current areas of exploration activity in the Gulf of Mexico (Figures 6.34; 10.51).

Exploration for minibasin plays typically targets the flanks of intraslope basins where reservoir sands pinch out and form combination structural/stratigraphic traps, or it targets zones of drape over turtle structures. Many minibasins plays are sealed and obscured by allochthonous salt, which can fuse into a salt canopy. Some of the larger mini-basin fields discovered to date are Auger, Mars, Diana, Genesis, Troika and Europa. Ram-Powell was discovered in 1985 and is a very large, stratigraphic trap developed in a more unrestricted mini-basin. Larger minibasins typically have turtle structures developed in their centres. The first mini-basin fields brought on-line (Bullwinkle in 1989, Auger in 1994) produced at much higher than expected rates, had better than expected aquifer support and needed fewer wells to develop them. Much of the early production from these minibasin fields ended up being facilities constrained.

Flex trend exploration began in the early 1970s with the discovery of Cognac Field located just beyond the present-day shelf edge where there is a “flex” in the sea floor profile (Cossey, 2004). Some of the larger flex discoveries were Lena, Zinc, Pompano and Green Canyon 18. Most discoveries in the Flex Trend are fields with small reserves, characterised by discontinuous sands with producing wells showing fairly low flow rates. Exploration wells in this trend generally targeted “bright spots” on 2-D seismic. Gemini, for example, showed up as a very strong event on the seismic. Texaco was so confident of its Gemini prospect that based on a very strong event on the seismic they stopped drilling and set casing just before entering the pay zones. In fact, this hydrocarbon-indicating anomaly could be seen on non-reprocessed, mid-1980s vintage 2D seismic.

Suballochthon exploration for minibasin traps in the deepwater offshore Gulf of Mexico was first successful south of New Orleans in the region known as the “Isolated Salt Tablets” province or Florida slope. It is located in the easternmost Mississippi Canyon area in waters 1,000 to 2,000 metres deep (Figure 10.51a; Shirley, 2000; Hall, 2002). Productive reservoirs are Pliocene to Miocene unconfined turbidites occurring some 3,000-4,500 metre subseafloor. These are usually sealed beneath allochthonous salt and are considered combination structural/stratigraphic traps. Exxon made the first deepwater subsalt discovery of oil and gas in this region with its Mississippi Canyon 211 well. This prospect, nicknamed “Mickey” because of the resemblance of three allochthon sheets in plan view to the head and ears of “Mickey Mouse” has hydrocarbons

OIL AND GAS

773

below salt canopy and lies beneath 1310 m (4,300 ft) of water (Figure 10.50b). Reserve estimates for “Mickey” range between 50 to 150 million barrels of oil equivalent, but the discovery was deemed subeconomic and has yet to be put on production. The “Mickey” discovery indicated the prospectivity of subsalt plays in this region and focused exploration efforts into suballochthons, both on the shelf and in deeper water.

Gemini was the first deepwater subsalt production in the Gulf of Mexico - and showed explorers the potential for prolific production from the deeper water portion of the subsalt play. In June 1999 one of the Gemini wells tested around 76 million cubic feet of gas and 1,370 barrels of condensate a day. Agate Field in Ship Shoal 361 was discovered in 1996 by Anadarko and Phillips and is now producing through a tieback into the neighbouring Mahogany platform. Anadarko, along with partner BHP, also announced a second subsalt discovery in 1996 in Vermilion 375, called Monazite. The discovery well revealed multiple pay zones, but because of problems during testing, the hole was plugged and abandoned. Amerada Hess and Oryx made a major discovery in late 1997 in their Penn State prospect in Garden Banks 216, the field came on stream in 1999 through a tieback to the Baldpate production facilities.

As drilling technology and subsalt imaging improved throughout the later 80s and into the 90s, subsalt exploration moved into progressively deeper water. Drilling now could reliably reach larger potential suballochthon minibasin structures, including turtles located further out in the Gulf (Richardson et al., 2004). Minibasin fields currently contain the largest economic resource base in the deepwater Gulf. The subsalt “Mahogany” Field, operated by Phillips Petroleum, is a minibasin play that was discovered in 1993 by the Ship Shoal 349 well in the Mission Canyon region. Ala This field, which began proMississippi duction in December 1996, Louisiana Texas was the first commercial Isolated New Orleans subsalt oil development in salt tablets the Gulf of Mexico. In 1994, Shell Offshore, Pennzoil, and Amerada Hess announced another significant Toe thrust belt (flex) Plio-Pleistocene minibasin discovery in GarRoho den Banks 128 well, nicknamed “Enchilada” (as in Paleo Sigsbee Primary basins salt canopy the idiomatic “it's the big enchilada”). Enchilada has Eastern Sigsbee Central Sigsbee salt canopy combined reserves estimatsalt canopy ed at 400 bcf of gas and 25 million bbl of oil/condensate (DeLuca, 1999), and was NORTH SOUTH brought online in July of 1998. In 1996 nine subsalt Mission Canyon Style Sigsbee Style Atwater Valley Style Primary basins Salt Canopy Compression wells were drilled and three were discoveries. The largest Low relief High relief Thrusted Turtles Toe thrust pillow discovery (Anadarko and folds folds folds Chevron) was “Gemini” in Plio-Pleistocene Mississippi Canyon Block Miocene 292 with estimated reserves Oligocene (not to scale) Late Jur. of 250-300 Bcf of gas and 3Basement 4 million bbl of condensate Figure 10.51. Distribution of the various salt fairways in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. Also (DeLuca, 1999). It currently shows an idealised south to north cross section illustrating typical subsalt and suprasalt structures produces from a single reser- where the position of the salt defines major play types. Note that the low relief pillow folds in voir using a subsea system. the south are autochthonous and probably define the original southern extent of thick Jurassic

A.

B.

salt in the basin.



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OIL AND GAS

extend a considerable distance landward beneath the Sigsbee Salt Canopy. However, the plays differ in the age of the structures and the targeted reservoir. So, exploration drilling in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico in 2002 and 2003 has found over 2 billion BOE (Richardson et al., 2004). Today (late 2004) the traditional deepwater mini-basin plays are still providing many successful exploration opportunities (e.g. the Thunder Horse and North Thunder Horse discoveries in southern Mississippi Canyon), but recent discoveries in new fold belt deepwater plays continue to expand the exploration potential of the deepwater Gulf of Mexico. Some 99% of total production in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico is from Neogene reservoirs (Pleistocene, Pliocene, and Miocene; Figure 10.49a); however, several recently announced deepwater discoveries encountered large potential reservoirs in sands of Paleogene age (Oligocene, Eocene, and Paleocene). This older portion of the geologic section has been very lightly tested and the discovery of reservoirs of this geologic age may open wide areas of the fold belt in the Gulf of Mexico to further drilling.

How suprasalt becomes subsalt Salt-withdrawal minibasins are characterized by Karlo and Shoup (2000) as either; (1) shelf-loaded, or (2) slope-loaded (Figure 10.52). Salt withdrawal minibasins on the shelf, which mostly host fluvio-deltaic reservoirs of the northern Gulf of Mexico, are rooted in autochthonous salt at depths of 12,000-14,000 m (4045,000 ft). They typically show continuous subsidence in a seaward-migrating belt of sediment loading from the Cretaceous onward, with some basins beginning to fill with sediment even earlier in the Jurassic. The basins are aligned in sub parallel linear trends with salt domes intermittently dispersed along the bounding faults. Updip they tend to be simple minibasins while their downdip extent is defined by stepped counter-regional fault basins, often with a secondary turtle structure on the ¶step,· along with some local Roho development (Figure 6.30; Karlo

775

and Shoup, 2000). Associated salt masses grade from simple diapirs updip into larger volume, overhung salt domes and successively into salt wings and allochthons downdip. Block 330 is one such system (Figure 6.58). Plio-Pleistocene Roho systems are shelf-loaded features (Figures 10.53) with updip zones of extension marked by a series of nested highly listric faults, which display a characteristic horseshoe geometry in map view (Figures 6.30, 10.53b; Karlo and Shoup, 2000). Deltaic sands and shales tend to be stacked in lower parts of the seafloor in a feedback between depositional loading of the rotated wedges associated with these growth faults. The central portion of the same depositional system is typically manifest as a complicated zone of remnant salt, perched diapirs, salt-floored faults, and strike-slip faults. Basinward of this region is the compressional toe, which consists of a melange of salt and deformed sediment. All faults sole into the evacuated remnant of the original salt tablet, which typically overlies a salt-withdrawal minibasin. In map view, the overall geometry of the salt-based detachment system is constrained by the geometry of the salt tablet upon which it is forming. Slope-loaded minibasins (turbidite reservoirs) are similar to shelf minibasins in terms of sand distributions, but involve much more salt than the shelf systems (Figure 10.52). The slope withdrawal basins are flanked by salt walls with little fault rim development. Formation began with ponding of turbidites trig-

776

A.

CHAPTER 10

Horseshoe Faults

Rotated Blocks

Salt-floored and Edge Faults

Compression Toe

Upthrown Fault Closures

Sub-Roho Minibasin Shelf sandstone Prodelta shale Marine shale Turbidite

B. Nested “Horseshoe” Faults

Floored Faults

Counter Regional

Roho

Bur

ied

ridg

e

Transform Fault

Roho

Transform Fault

Edge Ridge

Toe Structures

Figure 10.53. Model of reservoir styles showing distribution of Roho (suprasalt) traps in both shelf and deepwater minibasin (primary basin) settings (after Karlo and Shoup, 2000).

gering loading and the creation of diapirs. Because of the great thicknesses of autochthonous salt involved, turbidite ponding is more or less continuous, so long as there is salt withdrawing from the basin. Should the depocentre shift during the diapiric phase, a salt wing forms during the hiatus and overflows the basin resulting in the formation of a salt canopy. Once the allochthonous salt has been evacuated, subsequent turbidite deposition bypasses the basin.

Intrasalt halokinetic plays Not as yet in full production, but still worthy of consideration, is the intrasalt halokinetic play exemplified by cherty overpressured stringer reservoirs encased in the Precambrian Ara Salt Formation of the Ara Group in Oman. These intrasalt targets of Athel Formation silicilyte represent one of the more complex deep oil exploration plays in onshore Oman and constitute a significant part of Petroleum Development Oman·s undrilled prospect portfolio (Reinhardt, 1999; Peters et al., 2003). During the late 1970s to early 80s Petroleum Development Oman (PDO) drilled several significant oil and

gas shows in intrasalt objectives within the Neoproterozoic Ara Salt of the South Oman Salt Basin (Figure 10.54). These potential reservoirs were in porous (15-25%), overpressured siliceous microlaminated sediments that were stratigraphically trapped and encased in halokinetic salt at depths of 3 to 4 km. Based on these intersections, the size of potential intrasalt pools was thought to be large, with individual slabs or slivers of possibly oil-saturated silicilyte seen in seismic to be up to 2x6 km across and more than 300 metres thick. In 1989 and 1995, respectively, Al Noor and Al Shomou were drilled as two sliver prospects in the Athel Formation (silicilyte). The first two wells in the Al Noor Field encountered over 300 m of pay within low permeability fractured intervals that well tests showed had levels of 8 to 9 md per metre. Reserves of 15.0 x 106 m3 oil were calculated from these early intersections with an expectation of oil-in-place in the fields of up to 2 billion barrels (Wong et al., 2000). Oil recovered from the wells was attractive, although it was largely hosted in an unusual reservoir of microlaminated organic-rich chert (silicilyte is a general term for a fine-grained silica rock). The oil is light (48° API) with a viscosity of 0.3 to 0.36 mPas-1 and a bubble point of 277 bar. The initial solution gas-oil-ratio was 400 to 550 m3/m3, with H2S levels of 1.5 mol% and CO2 levels of 3 mol%. It was recovered from wells with early flow rates of up to 8,800 bbls/day. Average well flow rates varied between 40 to 110 m3/day prior to reservoir stimulation, post-stimulation figures have not been released. The silicilyte slivers define a play type worth pursuing, but a number of dry holes drilled after the initial successful wells defined inherent complexities with respect to reservoir quality prediction, hydrocarbon charge, production behaviour, and seismic imaging. Inherently high variability in the silicilyte permeability both vertically and laterally means successful future exploitation must involve targeted directional drilling and reservoir stimulation. Varying thicknesses created by deep salt pillows atop potential reservoir slivers, and the occurrence of reservoir slivers near the base of the thick halokinetic salt unit, has hampered reliable seismic positioning of these deep (>3000 m) intrasalt reservoir objectives. Likewise, pressure transient tests in the intersected reservoir indicate an effective reservoir permeability that is one-tenth of that measured using cleaned core plugs (O'Dell, 1998). The difference in well and plug determinations is likely caused by a combination of pressure-sealed fractures and the pervasive plugging effect of bitumen in the reservoir (bitumens are removed in standard plug preparation) Uncertainty in these and many other aspects of silicilyte understanding meant that until very recently the Athel Silicilyte was not pursued as a high

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778

CHAPTER 10

tion - i.e. shallow water carbonates at the top of stringers, as well as thin stringers. • Early maturation of organic matter flushed the pore networks in the deeper water siliceous organicrich laminites (silicilytes) with hydrocarbons that then prevented subsequent cementation by later carbonate and evaporite cements. • Early reflux brines tended to flush the larger connected pores of the shallower and higher energy grainier carbonate units (e.g. thrombolite shoals) and so they were more easily filled with evaporite cements than the smaller hydrocarbon-rich pore networks of the basin centre silicilyte laminites. Porosity evolution in the laminites contrasts with that of thrombolite buildups and shallow water packstones where high porosities have been almost completely plugged by dolomite and evaporite cements, so typical of a depositional association with a basinwide evaporite unit. Thus production in Al Noor and Al Shomou fields comes from salt-encased organic rich blocks of chert of the Athel Silicilyte, not from platform dolomite sulphate successions, which are typically to tight and too evaporite-cemented to produce.

E

The Athel Silicilyte is part of the Athel Formation in the Vendian to Figure 10.54. Salt Basins of Oman. A) Map view of three main salt basins. Palaeozoic strata are the main oil and gas producers, not Neoproterozoic platform carbonates or Athel Fm. silicilyte slivers, which occur more toward the centre of the South Oman Salt Basin. B) Cross section through the South Oman Salt Basin, schematically showing position of laminites and slivers in the Ara Salt (after Loosveld et al., 1996 and Schröder et al., 2000a, b).

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The most spectacular example of this is the Dumrea structure, where the mobilised evaporites have a complex shape that evolved from an overthrusted allochthonous sheet, which today subcrops at the modern landsurface (Figure 10.58a). The Dumrea salt allochthon is up to 5.6 km thick, as proved by drilling, and has been displaced laterally by up to 25 km. It has the effective geometry of a giant sheath fold (Figure 10.58b). Untested traps still exist below the allochthonous evaporites and good quality non-biodegraded hydrocarbons are possible at depth, as was the case in the Delvina Field in southern Albania (Figure 10.58c). Shallower oil fields in the Albanides, not sealed by evaporites, typically contain very heavy oil due to ongoing bacterial degradation (e.g., Balshi-Hekali and Patos-Marinza fields).

Figure 10.59. Cross section through the Moreni-Gura Ocnitei oilfield, the largest field in the Carpathian foredeep. Productive sandstones are Pliocene in age. Structure is a sheared anticline where lower Miocene salt (grey) has lubricated the thrust and now forms a lateral seal to multiple reservoir sands. Also note the greater concentration of oil on the right side of the thrust, which is the downthrown side of the principal fault (after Paraschiv and Olteanu, 1970).

Alpine fold belt in Albania and Romania Giant salt-sealed highly deformed salt structures characterise onshore oil fields in the compressional Alpine fold and thrust belt of the Ionian basin in Albania. The Triassic evaporites form a regional detachment layer (e.g. Figure 7.24c), but are also cut by thrust ramps that carry evaporites to the surface in their hanging walls (Figure 10.58; Velaj et al., 1999). Contraction of the Ionian zone reached a peak in the late Oligocene–Miocene Alpine Orogeny during an intense episode of overthrusting and major folding. The oil and gas fields in the region produce mainly from fractured Cretaceous–Eocene carbonates (e.g., BalshiHekal, Visoka, Gorisht-Koculi, Cakrani, Amonica, Finiq-Krane, and Delvina fields). Where a detachment is located at the top of the evaporite section, salts are dragged up in the footwall along thrusts. Faults develop both at the base and the top of the evaporite. Simple shear deformation along the thrusts causes greater than 80% thinning of the evaporite, so that thinned salt sheets of only 40-200 m thickness are now preserved in regions where the original evaporite thickness was in excess of 2000 m. Where thrust ramps cut through the evaporite and cause repetition of the complete evaporite layer, salt is remobilised into salt-filled compressional anticlines or it escapes at the surface to produce smeared-out allochthonous extrusions capable of sealing large volumes of hydrocarbons.

The nearby Romanian section of the Carpathians Mountains of eastern Europe is another collisional thrust-fold Alpine belt where hydrocarbon accumulation is intimately related to the presence of smeared basinwide evaporites, in this case of Lower Miocene age (Figure 10.59; Paraschiv and Olteanu, 1970). Most of the reservoirs are Pliocene lacustrine sands, interbedded with fine-grained marls. The latter may well have been both source and seal. Suitable Pliocene sands with sufficient thicknesses and favourable reservoir facies only occur in the Ploiesti area at the convexity of the Carpathian Bend. Like the Zagros Mountains and the Albanides this hydrocarbon province is another halokinetic province where the original basinwide evaporites have been squeezed into a compressive layer during large scale thrust movement. Where thrust ramps toward the present surface the Miocene salt defines stocks, sills, dyke-like masses and other irregular shapes, whose original injection pathways were perhaps controlled by pre-existing diapirs, faults, folds and fault/fold intersections.

Rocky Mountain fold belt, USA Deformed basinwide salt also plays a role in sealing the Nugget Sandstone reservoir in the Painter and East Painter fields of the Rocky Mountain thrust belt in the USA and the much more gently deformed sequence of Leadville Formation carbonates in the Lisbon Field, Utah. The Mississippian Leadville Limestone reservoir in Lisbon Field in the northern Paradox Basin, Utah, lies below a thick section of halokinetic Paradox salt and has produced some 50 mmbl and 760 bcfg since its discovery in 1959 (Figure 10.60a). The trap is an elongate, asymmetrical,

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Figure 7.5 for location of Hummingbird Trough). Oil in the Hummingbird structure is produced from fractured 15 m-thick algal and bioclastic limestones of the Mississippian Charles Formation and 17m-thick vuggy dolomites of the Devonian Birdbear Limestone. The structure was created by local solution collapse followed by complete regional dissolution during multiple episodes of Prairie Evaporite solution loss during the Late Devonian and Early Mississippian. Synthesis of the various styles of dissolution induced traps in the Alberta Basin of Canada and the Williston Basin in the USA shows the dissolution process is broad ranging, variable in terms of timing and tied to the dissolving edge of the Prairie Evaporite (Figure 7.5) Compactional drapes can create a rollover anticline that is closed over the dissolved edge of a residual salt body (Figure 10.62a; Anderson et al., 1988; Anderson and Knapp, 1993, Parker 1967). Local solution or collapse can form a sediment-filled sink that transforms to an inverted thick with the ongoing solution of the surrounding salt (Figure 10.62b; a “pseudo-reef” - Anderson and Hunt, 1964). Or subsidence can form a focused sand infill within a solution-induced depression on the land surface (Figures 7.7, 10.62c): or it can form as a remnant of a formerly widespread sand unit that was ultimately preserved only in sediment-filled depressions within the salt bed (Figure 10.62d). Seismic is very useful in defining the

A.

overburden collapse

lateral and vertical extent of many collapse anomalies and, if properly acquired and processed, can be used to define internal stratigraphy and reservoir development. Salt collapse structures can lead to focused oil entrapment in fractures in what otherwise may be a “tight” overburden lithology (Figure 7.8). A breach in a dissolving salt bed can also create structural and stratigraphic closure in the overburden. This is especially so if the collapse anomaly occurs “on-salt”, i.e. within a breach surrounded by, or adjacent to, the dissolving salt edge. Ongoing fluid throughflow prior to oil emplacement in intervals above a dissolved salt bed or collapse chimney may have become pervasively cemented and thus rendered impermeable. Even so, the interval may then provide a seal for fractured and leached reservoirs still being created along the downdip side of the adjacent collapse basin. Collapse structures in the carbonate overburden may be multistage structures located “off-salt”, i.e. in areas where all salt has been removed, as in the classic “Hummingbird” oil trap. Hummingbird drape was created by sequential collapse and its pinnacle-like appearance in seismic gave it the name “pseudo-reef” in early exploration programmes in the Alberta Basin (Figure 10.62b). When dissolution is early, sediments often thicken above the areas of dissolution and thin in the areas over the remaining salt outlier. These overlying sediments can develop the same types of porosity patterns that

B.

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C.

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Sequential salt solution creates a compactional drape trap “pseudo-reef” salt dissolution and widespread sand fill

D. limestone

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erosion and planation

Fluvial sandstone deposited in salt dissolution depression and then covered by shale (typical fluvial floodplain)

shale

Stage 4 Stage 3 Porous sediment preferentially accumulates in a surface depression created by salt dissolution Sands preserved in solution low beneath a planation surface Figure 10.62. Styles of structural and diagenetic trap created by localised salt solution (in part after Anderson et al., 1988).



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Figure 10.64. Type log for the Wolf Springs Field area. The Botts, White, and Horton members of the upper Amsden are readily discernible as resistive kicks. The White and Horton members correspond to the zones of solution-collapse breccias. The Botts member is a shaly dolomite breccia. The lithologies shown in the Amsden and Piper formations represent compilations assembled from cores in the area (after Luebking et al., 2001).

interpretation of both geophysical data sets is consistent with available geologic control. For more detailed information on salt solution traps the interested reader is referred to an excellent summary paper by Anderson and Knapp (1993). Occasionally, the solution breccia created by the dissolution of salt can itself act as the reservoir rather than just fracturing and structuring the overburden. This is the case with Wolf Springs Field (north and south pools) and South Wolf Springs Field, located in Yellowstone County, Montana (Luebking et al., 2001). The Wolf Springs fields are unconformity-related combination structural and stratigraphic traps (Luebking et al., 2001). The fields are located on a structural closure on the Custer anticline, where porosity and permeability development exhibits a northeast-southwest orientation perpendicular to structural strike of the anticline. The solution-collapse breccias pinch out laterally into either dense dolomites or anhydrite-plugged collapse breccias. The overlying shaly dolomite breccia of the Botts Member, located just below the Piper unconformity, and the Jurassic Piper Limestone together provide the top seal. The Wolf Springs and South Wolf Springs fields were discovered in 1955 and 1957, respectively, and have produced more than 5.7 million barrels of oil from the Pennsylvanian Amsden Formation. Amsden reservoir rocks in the area are fractured and

brecciated cherts and dolomites that occur in several laterally persistent and mappable zones (Figure 10.64). The Amsden was deposited in a peritidal to sabkha setting, where evaporite minerals, mainly anhydrite, were once common. These evaporites were partly replaced by silica (chalcedony and chert) soon after deposition. Later dissolution of the remaining evaporites not long after the silicification event, or during the preMiddle Jurassic unconformity, produced the solution-collapse chert breccias that now serve as the best reservoir facies in the field. Subtle variations in the diagenetic history of these breccias are a major factor in shaping reservoir quality.

Interestingly, not all hydrocarbon-reservoirs in salt entraining basins typified by stratiform breccias in carbonate platforms are related to earth-bound dissolution processes. The Cantarell oil field in the Campeche Platform of Mexico, with a current daily production of 1.3 million barrels of oil, is probably the most voluminous oil-producing unit with fracturing related to a bolide impact event. The K-T breccia reservoir itself, its ejecta horizon and its sealing muds are related to the same bolide event that wiped out the dinosaurs (Grajales-Nishimura et al., 2001).

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896

CHAPTER 12

Feed solvent (water) Brine Fluid blanket

Brine Feed solvent (water) Fluid blanket

Outer casing

Outer casing

Cavern

Salt

Cavern

Salt

Insolubles

any leakage and contamination of nearby groundwaters. Surface casing does not typically extend all the way down to the cavern roof. The final casing string (or long string casing), which is also cemented in place, is set at some depth below the top of the target salt so that during dissolution a reasonable thickness of salt remains in place as a salt roof to the expanding solution cavity. In modern wells there is another string next to the outer casing string that controls the thickness of the fluid blanket.

Generally, one or more noncemented casing strings, the Reverse circulation Direct circulation tubing strings, are placed infavours upper cavern expansion favours lower cavern expansion Figure 12.3. The solution mining process. A) Direct brine circulation where feed solvent is side the final casing string. In injected through the tubing string and brine is withdrawn through the annular space between modern designed-use caverns, the tubing string and the final casing. Cavern shape tends toward cylindrical with slightly non-cemented casing or tubing expanded lower section. B) Reverse-circulation where the feed solvent enters the cavity through the annulus and brine is withdrawn through the tubing string. Cavern tends to be strings first extend to a depth wider at top than base (“morning glory”). In both cases the outermost casing allows feed near the planned based of the of the blanket solution into the uppermost part of the cavern, so protecting the cavern roof. cavern. Under this design sceVarying the volume of blanket in the cavern can be used to help shape the cavity. nario, strings can be rotated and raised (snubbed or pulled) as the brine wells are consistently drilled to depths of more than 1-2 cavern grows and the bottom fills with debris. Depending on km to extract brine product or to excavate custom-built salt the size of the cavern and the amount of impurities present, caverns for hydrocarbon or waste storage. more than 20 metres of impurities (dolomite-anhydrite residues and fragmented roof blocks) can sit on the bottom of an active solution cavern (Crossley, 1998; Tomasko 1985). Some older Well and cavern design interconnected multi-well brinefields did not have non-cemented The design of a salt solution well consists of two or more strings in each well. columns of steel pipes (casing strings) with the smaller inside the larger. Fresh water or undersaturated brine (feed solvent), Salt subjected to undersaturated crossflow in an expanding needed to drive the solution process in an expanding cavern, solution cavity tends to leach 1.5 to 2 times faster vertically is pumped into the well to create a cavity in the targeted salt. than horizontally (fresher water is less dense than brine and The resulting brine is then returned to the surface for processtends to accumulate in the upper part of a cavity). Vertical ing and recovery. leaching tends to be even faster if there are gas inclusions in the brine giving it even greater buoyancy. An inert low The first step in solution mining salt is to drill an appropridensity fluid blanket is usually pumped into a solution cavern ate-diameter borehole, large enough to accommodate all the to prevent rapid upward stoping and ultimate collapse of the required pipes (casing). This means solution wells are wider than cavern roof, along with its cemented casing string, into the most oil and gas or water wells. Near the surface, the borehole growing cavity. Roof blanketing, sonar imaging and designed is widest to allow for installation of several concentric layers cavern shaping typifies almost all current commercial solution of pipe casing (Figure 12.3). The outermost layer of casing, mining operations. known as the surface casing, is cemented in place to prevent Insolubles

A.

B.

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Figure 12.6. Effect of salt geology on cavern shape in diapiric Zechstein Salt. A) Vertical section through a cavity in Zechstein Salt in Germany showing preferential enlargement into potash-rich Kaliflöz Stassfurt horizon (shaded grey). B) Horizontal slice showing strongly asymmetrical shape formed as cavity develops preferentially into the potash facies of the Kaliflöz Stassfurt. C) Horizontal slice in a cavity in two halite lithologies where differences in crystal size and proportion of insolubles create a slight asymmetry that is maintained during growth (after Wilke et al., 2001).

The best studied and modelled examples of lithology variation effecting cavity shape come from the monitored cavities in the Zechstein salts of onshore Germany (Wilke et al., 2001). Of the four major Zechstein formations in the northwest European Zechstein basin, the Staßfurt formation (Zechstein 2) occurs in sufficient thickness (more than 800 m), to flow in to salt pillows and diapirs and so is the most important target unit for solution-leached caverns in this part of Europe (Figures 5.48). The underlying units of Werra formation, along with older salt units of the Rotliegende, are typically inactive and many beds are still attached to the basement. Salt of the overlying Leine formation (Zechstein 3) contains relatively thick beds of anhydrite and dolomite. It has an original thickness of 200 m, lies above the Staßfurt formation and is typically caught up in the Zechstein flows, but it needs the underlying thick halite of the Zechstein 2 to flow and carry it along. High quality documentation of the internal structures of the German diapirs during potash mining has produced an excel-

lent data set on which to model the likely geological complexity of these Zechstein structures (Figure 6.9a). This work caused the German salt experts, Richter-Bernberg and Horfrichter to conclude that of the Z2 and the Z3 series, the Hauptsalz member of the Staßfurt formation is most suitable for designed-use cavern construction and that the upper part of Staßfurt be avoided where possible due to inherently higher proportions of highly soluble potash and magnesium layers. Likewise the overlying Hauptanhydrit of the Z3 has a propensity to create unstable anhydrite blocks during halite leaching and is not considered suitable for controlled cavity creation. Since their pioneer work, the goal has been to avoid solution mining in this transition zone between Zechstein 2 (Staßfurt Formation) and Zechstein 3 (Leine Formation). Nevertheless several caverns have been leached in these strata, some without any problems, others with intensive preferred leaching directions (Figure 12.6a, b; Wilke et al., 2001).

Structural elements in salt diapirs, largely crystal size and anhydrite distribution patterns in non-potash containing intervals lead to slight changes in cavern development. For this reason a sonar-measured cavern shape can be used to re-interpret a pre-existing geological map. For example, the horizontal section in Figure 12.6c outlines the contact between the Kristallbrockensalz (Z2A-HS3) and the Streifensalz (Z2-HS2), which leaches slightly faster due to its finer halite crystal size and more widely dispersed insolubles. Figure 12.6a, b are examples of preferred leaching along a relatively undisturbed potash seam. It lies several metres above a previously interpreted contact between the Kristallbrockensalz (Z2-HS3) and the Streifensalz (Z2-HS2). This later geological interpretation along the borehole provoked concerns that the potash layer would be intersected as cavern proceeded and led to a modified plan for cavern creation. Experience in this terrain has shown that where potash layers of the Kaliflöz Staßfurt cross the drill axis a number of times it is not possible to perform a controlled leaching in one step. Rather, the leach design has to be planned as a number of mining steps to avoid a premature achievement of the maximum

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908

CHAPTER 12

Country

Light Hydrocarbons

Crude Oil

Natural Gas

Canada

6,620

-

552,720

Denmark

-

-

xxxx

France

xxxx

-

xxxx

Germany

xxxx

xxxx

5,040

Iraq

xxxx

-

-

Mexico

-

1,500

-

Morocco

xxxx

-

-

Poland

-

-

143,000

Russia

465-750

-

60-180

USA

85,220

102,100

3,423,250

Table 12.2. Hydrocarbon storage (1000 m3) in salt caverns, xxxx indicates storage but volumetric data is not available (after Thoms and Gehle, 2000a).

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1. The “container” consists of the access well and the cavern proper. Typically, the height (depth) of such a system is §1 km. The access well(s) is equipped with several casing strings or tubes, one inside the other, containing fluids (brine and hydrocarbons) at different densities. Even small differences in fluid densities result in very different column weights within the concentric annuli that make up the well. At the same depth, the gap between fluid pressures in adjacent annuli can be several MPa (Figure 12.11). If the concentric fluids accidentally come into direct contact it creates unstable situations where accidents and spills are more likely.

Storage facilities for liquids (oil, naphtha, kerosene, gasoline) and liquefied hydrocarbons (LPG, ethylene, propylene) are operated by the “brine compensation” method. As brine is injected through a central tube at the bottom of the cavern, an equivalent volume of product is withdrawn through the annular space between the steel cemented casing and the central brine tube. When the cavern is idle, the brine is at atmospheric pressure at ground level. In the brine tube, however, the pressure is in proportion to the depth and specific density of brine, which is around 1200 kg·m-3 (Figure 12.11). If the interface between the oil and brine is 1000 m below ground level, the pressure in the brine column at this point is approximately 12 MPa. Brine pressure and product pressure are equal at the interface in the cavern between brine and product. Above this point,

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Hydrocarbons in a salt cavern are stored in what is in effect a pressure vessel, where high pressure fluids are contained within a stiff impervious envelope using a system of pipes and valves that allow fluids to be placed, sealed and periodically withdrawn from the cavity. Salt caverns differ from standard surface storage tanks in the following way (Bérest & Brouard, 2003):

Interactions between these two factors explain most industrial accidents involving hydrocarbons in salt caverns (see case histories).

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The first storage of natural gas in a salt cavern was at Unity Saskatchewan in 1959, followed soon after in 1961 in Marysville, Michigan USA. Gas storage caverns were first purpose engineered in 1963 in Saskatchewan, Canada, in bedded Devonian salt at depths of 1,100 metres. This was followed in 1964 by the first purpose-engineered gas cavern in a salt dome at Eminence, Mississippi, at a depth of 1,740-2,040 metres (Figure 12.1). European gas storage in salt domes began in Tersanne, France in 1970 at depths of 1,400-1,500 metres and near Kiel, Germany in 1971 at depths of more than 1,300 metres. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) for peak electricity generation began in 1978 in the Huntorf dome near Hamburg, while in 1991 a second CAES plant was commissioned in the McIntosh salt dome, near Mobile, Alabama.

2. The volume of a storage cavern is very large (up to 1,000,000 m3). Even a small pressure drop in the cavern results in a significant change in the volume of the stored product. Liquid compressibility, an often negligible consideration in most above-ground storage tanks, plays a significant role in the safe operation of large underground caverns.

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Figure 12.11. Typical pressure regime in a salt cavern used for oil storage. Situation after a blowout is graphed as dashed lines (after Bérest & Brouard, 2002).

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additionally deformed and weakened by ongoing exposure to water crossflows. If the exiting water is recharged indirectly through the Grabowiec sands, the inflow rate to the mine can perhaps be reduced, but only if their basal sections are sealed in the region of the contact with the Chodenice beds. If the water comes from the distant parts of the Chodenice beds, the inflow rate can be reduced by pumping in wells installed at distances sufficient to avoid further rock destabilization in the vicinity of the gallery. Undoubtedly, any such operation would be a very expensive undertaking. When the inflow to the Mina gallery developed to catastrophic dimensions in the early 1990s, the mine management showed a remarkable lack of scientific or engineering sophistication and no understanding of simple hydrological principles. They called on and paid generously for dowsing and witching methods to solve the flooding problem. The dowsers claimed that an underground “river” flows through the mine at the rate of 1.5 m3/s. Following the advice of witches and dowsers, a 100-m-long trail was buried about 1 metre below the ground

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surface, it was supposed to stop the inflow of the underground “river” at a depth of 170 m, and to change the “rivers” flow direction upwards (Zuber et al., 2000). Today, the flooding of the lower mine continues, the tourist region of the mine area is still under constant threat of renewed flooding, but the witches and dowsers are happy and counting their spare zlotys.

Induced collapse in the Gellenoncourt saltworks, France On March 4, 1998, a sinkhole more than 50 m across and 40 m deep formed atop the SG4 and SG5 brinefield caverns in the Gellenoncourt saltworks near Lorraine, France (Figure 12.18; Buffet, 1998). It was an induced collapse designed to prevent a possible uncontrolled future ground collapse. The problem started in 1967 with the beginning of the exploitation of salt layers in the Keuper Fm. In total the Keuper is more than 150 m thick with five salt layers at its base, passing up into variegated and poorly consolidated marls and sandstones and capped by the Dolomite du Beaumont. The top of the

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In a little more than a month, two steep-sided circular collapse features, some 100 metres apart, indented the landscape above the two collapsed mine rooms. The northernmost feature, which was more than 200 metres across, included a central area that was about 60 metres wide and had subsided about 6 to 10 metres. The southernmost feature, which was about 270 metres in diameter, included a central area that was about 200 metres wide and had subsided about 20 metres (Figure 12.19). Fractures extending up from the broken mine back created hydraulic connections between aquifers that previously had been isolated from each and provided new high volume routes for rapid migration of perched groundwaters to the mine level. Water flooded into the mine at rates that eventually exceeded 60,000 litres per minute and could not be controlled by pumping or in-mine grouting. Within weeks the entire mine was flooded. Associated aquifer drawdown caused inadequate water supply to a number of local wells in the months following the collapse; some dried up (Figure 12.19; Tepper et al., 1997). Aside from the loss of the mine and its effect on the local economy, other adverse effects included abandonment of four homes, damage to other homes (some as much as 1.5 kilometres from the sinkholes), the loss of a major highway and bridge, loss of water wells and prohibition of public access to the collapse area. Land subsidence, possibly related to compaction induced by aquifer drainage to the mine, even occurred near the town of Mt. Morris some 3 miles southwest of the collapse area. Post-mortem examination of closure data from the two failed mine panels showed an anomalous buildup of fluid pressure above the panels in the period leading up to their collapse. The initial influx of brine and gas following the first collapse coincided with the relief of this excess pressure. Gowan and Trader (1999) demonstrated the existence of pre-collapse pressurized brine cavities and gas pools above the panels and related them to nineteenth-century solution mining operations. They also documented widespread natural gas and brine pools within Unit D of the Syracuse Formation approximately 160 ft above the mined horizon in the Retsof Mine. Such brine accumulations apparently formed long before solution mining began in the valley, driven by the natural circulation and accumulation of meteoric waters along vertical discontinuities, which connected zones of dissolving salt to overlying fresh water aquifers.

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A number of sinkholes appeared in the 1950s and 1970s around brine wells near Hutchinson, Kansas, an area where numerous wells were extracting brine from bedded Permian salts. For

example, the Cargill collapse sink near Hutchinson, Kansas, started to form on October 21, 1974. Within 4 hours it was 60 metres across, after 3 days it had created a circular depression some 90 metres across and nearly 15 metres deep. The initial collapse left the tracks of the Missouri-Pacific Railroad spectacularly suspended 6 metres above the water that accumulated in the sinkhole. There was no loss of life at the site. The Permian Hutchinson salt at this site is about 105 metres thick and occurs at a depth of some 130 metres (Martinez et al., 1998). The salt is overlain by 110 metres of Permian shales, and these, in turn, are covered by about 20 metres of watersaturated, loose Quaternary sands (Figure 12.20). Locations of some of the earliest brine wells in this property are unknown, and the early dissolution methods were not documented (see Hutchison gas explosion). The sink developed in an area that was part of an active brine field at the time of collapse and would have included both operating and abandoned wells. Embraced within the sinkhole itself was a captive brine well that was drilled in 1908 and plugged and abandoned in 1929. Earlier uncontrolled brine extraction in the region since 1888 certainly contributed to the Cargill collapse. Post-mortem



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caverns as stored product is cycled, can also have unexpected the reef aquifer as early as Salado time (Figure 7.9). Wink Sink and sometimes disastrous results. If a storage cavity becomes lies in an evaporite karst region where water filled sinkholes too large for the roof to be self-supporting, successive roof as large as, and larger than, Wink Sink are a natural part of the failures may cause cavities to migrate upward and reach the subsurface landscape of the Permian Basin (e.g. water-filled land surface. Documented surface collapses and sinks, which sinkholes that make up the various lakes in Bottomless Lakes can be directly related to oil drilling and poor brine disposal State Park, New Mexico). Such structures were collapsing long practices, all involve boreholes drilled long ago, typically before the arrival of man. Sediments in collapse chimneys in in the 1920s to 1950s. This was at a time of different public the vicinity of Wink Sink indicate caving events had occurred at perceptions of development and long before the application various times from the late Permian, to Triassic, to the Cenozoic of modern engineering safeguards pertaining to drilling-mud (Johnson 1987; Baumgardner et al., 1982). design, casing placement and the use of salt-tolerant cements. It can be Ifoesjdl!21B 1 1 more than 30 or 40 years after a well Rvbufsobsz Gsfti!xbufs was plugged and abandoned before Tboub!Sptb foufst!xfmm gspn!pof!ps the problem becomes obvious at the npsf!brvjgfst Ufdpwbt surface. There will be more problems 311 311 Efxfz related to old wells in the future.

Wink Sink, located 3 km north of the town of Wink in Winkler County, Texas, is centred on an abandoned oil well within the giant Hendrick oilfield. Hendrick 10A had produced oil from 1928 to 1951 and was the foci of the sink crater, while a second nearby operational oil well was plugged and abandoned soon after the collapse began (Figure 12.23). Wink sink first formed on June 3, 1980 and within 24 hours had expanded to a maximum width of 110 metres. Two days later, the maximum depth of the sinkhole was 34 metres with a volume estimated at 159,000 m3 (Johnson 1987, 1989). The collapse was the surface expression of an underlying dissolution cavity that had migrated upward by successive roof failures until it breached the land surface. The instigating cavity had first developed in halite beds of the Permian Salado Formation, some 400 metres below (Figure 12.23).

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Figure 12.23. East-West section through Hendrick well 10-A in Wink Sink, west Texas (after Johnson, 1987). Undersaturated meteoric and artesian water circulated along borehole margins to dissolve the salt and create a salt cavern, which migrated to the land surface by successive roof failures (“chimneying”). See Figure 7.9 for location of the Wink Sink.



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Sinkhole at Bayou Choctaw Dome, Louisiana

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Permian Hutchinson Salt

Sea level

Penn. 100 m

Camb. Ord.

Arbuckle Group Precambrian basement

April 24, 1959 Figure 12.24. Schematic cross section through Panning Field, Kansas, showing the situation on April 24, 1959 (after Johnson, 2001; Walters, 1978).

the salt unit. As a result unsaturated water has flowed up and down some of the boreholes, dissolving large volumes of the salt. Subsidence was further aided by disposal of waste oilfield brines that were re-injected when unsaturated with respect to halite. Subsidence of I-70 pavement is occurring at rates that are less than 0.3 metre per year, but cumulative subsidence from the highway's construction through to 1987 was 4 metres in two of the sinks atop the field, and 0.3 metre in a third sink. It meant rebuilding parts of I-70 in 1971 and again in 1986. Even so, incidents of rapid dissolution induced subsidence atop wells drilled through the Wellington Salt and its equivalents are rare events, in Kansas the ratio of wells intersecting salt and being associated with at-surface subsidence is something like 1:10,000 (Walters, 1978).

In 1954 the “No.7 brine well” in the Bayou Choctaw salt dome, Louisiana, collapsed during brine production, probably because of loss of its salt roof atop a growing solution cavern. A sinkhole formed at the site over a period of several days, and was quickly filled with nearby surface water. A rig that was producing brine at the time fell into the collapsing depression and was never seen again. The collapse created a large near-circular lake, about 210 metres in diameter, which today is still a water-filled structure and known locally as “cavern lake” (Stanczuk, et al., 1976).

Grand Saline sinkhole, Texas In 1976 the Grand Saline sink emerged at the surface within the city of Grand Saline, Texas. The sink occurred at the site of a former brine well that penetrated the top of the Grand Saline salt dome at a depth of 60 metres and had produced brine from 1924 through 1949. The sink eventually grew to a diameter in excess of 15 metres, and a total of 8,500 cubic metres of silt and clay was displaced into the underground cavity. A house was endangered by this collapse, and, during the collapse a pipeline broke and sewage flowed into the sinkhole.

Haoud Berkaoui oilfield, Algeria In October 1986 a crater, some 200 metres across and 75 metres deep, formed in the Haoud Berkaoui oilfield, near Ouarlaga, Algeria (Morisseau, 2000). Today it continues to expand and is now some 230 by 600 metres across. Its outward progression is continuing at a rate of 1 metre per year. The collapse is centred on two oil wells drilled in the late 1970s. In 1978 an oil exploration well with a 3200m target was abandoned at a depth of around 600 metres because of well stability problems - 600m is the level of Senonian salt in the region. By this level the well had already passed through 50 metres of anhydrite (220-270m depth), interbedded anhydrite clay and dolomite 270m -450 m depth). These are sediments that, in their undisturbed state, are likely aquicludes to any access by unconfined phreatic groundwaters. Prior to drilling it was thought that the Senonian halite extended continuously to a depth of 600 m in the well and in turn was underlain by 50 m of anhydrite (600-650m depth). Below the halite-anhydrite is a artesian aquifer (Albian) with a hydraulic potential in this area of 2.5 MPa (§ 250 m head) The first well was abandoned without any casing near the bottom of the well, probably facilitating the escape of artesian waters. A second well, drilled in 1979, was located some 80 metres



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The Brenham explosion A disastrous explosion occurred on April 7, 1992, following the outflow of LPG onto the surface from a well atop a storage cavern in the Brenham Salt Dome. The blast occurred some 110 km northwest of Houston. It killed a 6-year old boy and two adults, injured 21 persons, damaged more than 40 homes and snapped trees like matchsticks, while denuding acres of rolling farmland. In all it caused an estimated US$ 9 million in damage to property within a 5 km radius. Seismographs at three Texas universities within 120 km of the scene recorded surface tremors ranging from 3.5 to 4.0 on the Richter scale. Windows were rattled in homes more than 200 km away.

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The Brenham storage facility consisted of a 380,000-bbl (60,000-m3) cavern filled with LPG ( a mixture of propane, ethane, n-butane and other gases). The cavern was linked to ground level by a 13-3/8-in diameter, 2,702-ft long cemented casing (Figure 12.28). A central brine pipe (2,871-ft long) allowed injection and withdrawal of brine. LPG was injected to or withdrawn from three distinct pipelines. Brine was provided by two above-ground brine ponds. The wellhead was equipped with a shutdown valve. The Brenham station was operated remotely by a dispatcher in Tulsa, Oklahoma (Bérest and Brouard, 2003).

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Figure 12.28. Schematic of the situation at the time of the Brenham explosion.

At 5:43 am on April 7, 1992, additional LPG was injected in the cavern. The brine/LPG interface unexpectedly reached the 1-in diameter weep hole located in the lower part of the central tubing, some 1 ft above the tubing base. The weep hole was supposed to provide warning in case of imminent overfilling. LPG flowed into the central brine tubing, leading to lower density in the fluid in the central column, partial vaporization and expansion of the lighter gases, a pressure drop in the cavern and, ultimately, a large flow of gas through the weep hole and the tubing base alike.

at ground level. (Such activation was apparently a relatively frequent event at this station, and alarms were often unrelated to an actual gas leak). The dispatcher in Tulsa was not able to interpret correctly the somewhat confusing information delivered by the telemetric system - a unique signal was sent, whatever had activated a number of detectors. The shutdown valve (or cavern safety valve) was assumed to have immediately reacted to the high pressure level (100 psi) in the brine tubing at the wellhead, but the system failed.

Brine, followed by liquefied gas, daylighted at the brine pond surface. Back-calculation proved that 3,000 to 10,000 bbl (500 to 1,600 m3) of liquefied gases were expelled via the ponds. The release of gas into the atmosphere activated gas detectors

A subsequent National Transport Safety Board (NTSB) investigation confirmed the local operator had overfilled the storage cavern to where LPG had escaped into an adjoining brine storage pit through the brine injection system via an open valve. Product had then evaporated and, being heavier than air,



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hundred metres and about 2000 metres depth (Figure 31 1 31 n 41 1 41 n 12.1). Below that depth there is an elastic-plastic transition zone for salt behaviour Kbo/!81 somewhere below 1000 to 2511 2000 metres. Cavities below 2911 Kvof!83 this zone can be relatively unstable and show large 22/2/91 volume decreases through rock creep with the transi2:11 tion depth depending on the composition of the salt, the 29/3/81 geothermal gradient and the overburden pressure. Effects 3111 2611 of salt cavity creep, due to inUfstboof Fnjofodf n adequate internal pressuring, n were first noted in the 1970s by the operators of some large purpose-built storage Figure 12.30. Creep effects in Tersanne (France) and Eminence (Mississippi) showing shrinkage with time (Dotted shading indicates the distribution of insolubles in the Tersanne cavern). caverns. The Eminence cavern in Mississippi, built at 1700-2000m, lost 40% of remarkably stable, having lost only about 4 percent of it total its volume in just two years post construction, while Tersanne volume since abandonment. in France lost 30% to salt creep (Figure 12.30). Such losses in storage capacity were potentially expensive, but when adjust- Salt creep is accelerated by large differences between natural ments were made to cavern depths and minimum gas storage lithostatic pressure (in the salt) and the pressure in the cavern. pressures, the volume loss stopped. Today both facilities are The rate of creep also depends on variations in the proporstill operational and have recovered much of their volume loss tions and physical properties of the various salt minerals and (Thoms and Gehle, 2000a). Salt creep occurs at slower rates the configuration of nearby nonevaporites (e.g. carbonate, above the transition zone; measured rates are mm - cm per year anhydrite or potash beds in halite). To minimise creep, opin salt mines in Kansas and Texas with depths up to 600 m. erational pressures in a fluid-filled storage cavern should be Like mines, salt cavities built above or within the transition zone can be extremely stable and when properly located, designed and operated may lose only a few percent volume a year. Some cavities in salt above the transition zone can remain remarkably stable even if emptied of product. For example, in the 1950s, a lenticular cavern with a roof span 366 metres was excavated by solution mining in the Bryan Mound salt dome in Texas, which is also the site for the later Strategic Petroleum Reserve programme. The cavern has an unusual shape compared to the “carrot” shape of later purpose-designed caverns in the Mound. It was has an average depth of 550 metres, a cavity height of 55 metres and an unsupported span of more than 360 metres After excavation, it was filled with LPG but subsequently lost wellhead pressure and so was abandoned (emptied). Thirty years later, measurements indicated that this cavern is still

as high as allowed, this is especially true in facilities used to store natural gas. But this may encourage leakage and gas loss in facilities lacking structural integrity (see Hutchison explosion in case histories). When a cavern is active, overburden creep will typically drive ongoing subsidence at the landsurface in the form of a subsidence bowl or depression (Figure 12.29). The length of the delay between creep into a cavern and its expression at the surface depends upon cavern depth, mode of cavern operation, thickness of salt cover and character of overburden materials or roof beams (Neal 1991). Ground effects atop shallow caverns usually show up more quickly than those above deeper caverns, subsidence over some storage caverns has been detected only after a decade or more of operation (Thoms, 2000).



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CHAPTER 12

soils near the surface. Following initial roof span collapse, local conditions determine whether caving or bowl subsidence will dominate. After an initial breach and collapse, Stage 2 caving stopes vertically through indurated strata as an upward migrating cavity atop a growing chimney. The cavity diminishes in height as it rises because of the bulking of caved materials into the stoping chimney. In Stage 3 the caving mechanism transforms into bowl subsidence as more plastic horizons (weathered strata and soils) are encountered nearer the surface. Breached caverns typically manifest at the surface as relatively deep subsidence bowls, sometimes with sinkholes near their centres. Stage 2 caving can be bypassed or be arrested if the breached cavern is overlain only by plastic overburden or the cavern is too small to contain all the bulking debris from the overlying strata. In the latter case, the bulking materials fill the cavity to where they can support the roof once more, so arresting further upward migration. Localized bowls of subsidence will usually be seen at the surface over the arrested cavity. With time, the bulked materials may consolidate and allow some additional upward migration of the cavity, and so drive additional subsidence. Among the various subsidence features, sinkholes are of greatest concern as they are rapidly expressed surface features of typically downdropped plugs of surface material encircled by near vertical sides. They occur when Stage 2 caving dominates all the way to the surface. Concentric fissuring and collapse of the landsurface atop a sinkhole can form within hours of the structure first breaking through to the surface. Overburden

materials rapidly slip and fall into the growing water-saturated core with a huge potential for property damage and even loss of life (see case histories).

Monitoring and minimizing collapse Subsidence effects, and even active sinkholing were once ignored by brinefield operators but changes in rates of subsidence, along with sonar monitoring of cavern shape, are now used as indicators of the state of the cavern. Responsible operators now conduct periodic or continuous subsidence surveys, and if anomalous effects are recognised, preventative action can be taken. Routine monitoring of subsidence over storage cavern fields can be performed with conventional land surveying methods. A network of reference points or monuments is set up that effectively spans a brinefield or storage facility (Figures 12.32a). A tie-in is often made to an established reference point located some distance away from the influence of the field. Differences in elevations of points over time intervals between surveys can then be interpreted as velocities of vertical movement (Figures 12.25b, 12.32). It is important to perform surveys at about the same time each year to minimize effects of natural seasonal factors, e.g., soil temperature and rainfall. For some cavern fields it may be more efficient to make use of the Global Positioning System (GPS) for subsidence monitoring. Regulatory agencies often require that subsidence over storage caverns be routinely monitored and reported. Standard techniques for this purpose are given in Swarts (1993), Watts (1991) and Wong (1982).

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More sophisticated automated methods for monitoring subsidence are justified when there is a significant risk of environmental or property damage, as in an area where there is a high probability of sinkhole development in close proximity to residences or storage pipelines and other infrastructure. Such a system might consist of an array of strategically placed tiltmeters, geophones, and inclinometers, with remote read-out and telemetry components. This system should be capable of collecting and

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